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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a182327 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #62277 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/62277) diff --git a/old/62277-0.txt b/old/62277-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index fb9dd40..0000000 --- a/old/62277-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16776 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Popular History Of England From the -Earliest Times To The Reign Of Queen , by François Guizot and Henriette Guizot de Witt - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A Popular History Of England From the Earliest Times To The Reign Of Queen Victoria - Vol. IV - -Author: François Guizot - Henriette Guizot de Witt - -Release Date: May 29, 2020 [EBook #62277] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POPULAR HISTORY OF ENGLAND, VOL IV *** - - - - -Produced by Don Kostuch - - - - - -[Transcriber's notes: -This work is derviced from - http://www.archive.org/details/popularhistoryeng04guiz - -This quote sums up this last volume: - "The bitter time of revolutions had ended for England."--pg. 16] - - - -[Image] -Napoleon Received On The Bellerophon. - -{1} - - A Popular - - History Of England - - - From the Earliest Times - - - _To The Reign Of Queen Victoria _ - - - by - - M. GUIZOT - - Author OF "The Popular History of France," etc. - - - - _Authorized Edition _ - - - - Illustrated - - Vol. IV - - - -[Image] -Publisher's Logo: ALDI DISCIP ANGLVS - - New York - John W. Lovell Company - - 150 Worth Street, corner Mission Place - -{2} - -{3} - - List Of Illustrations. - - Volume Four. - - -Napoleon Received on the Bellerophon. -- Frontispiece. - -King James at the Battle of Boyne. -- 34 - -The Duke and Duchess of Marlborough. -- 42 - -Visit of Louis XIV to the Death-Bed of James II. -- 86 - -Queen Anne. -- 94 - -Shrewsbury Invested with the White Rod. -- 134 - -George I. -- 136 - -The Mysterious Letter. -- 176 - -George II. -- 178 - -Charles Edward. -- 198 - -Arrest of Charles Edward.-- 222 - -Portrait of Pitt. -- 224 - -Death of Wolfe. -- 242 - -George III. -- 254 - -Franklin -- 286 - -The Last Speech of the Earl of Chatham. -- 290 - -Surrender to Nelson at Cape St. Vincent. -- 374 - -The Battle of Aboukir. -- 382 - -See what a Little Place you Occupy in the World. -- 398 - -Death of Nelson. -- 410 - -Waterloo. -- 438 - -George IV. -- 444 - -Windsor Castle. -- 460 - -Wellington in the Mob. -- 475 - -{4} - -{5} - - Table Of Contents. - - -Chapter XXXII. William and Mary - Establishment of Parliamentary Government - (1688-1702). - 9 - -Chapter XXXIII. Queen Anne - War of the Spanish Succession - (1702-1714) - 93 - -Chapter XXXIV. George I. - and the Protestant Succession - (1714-1727) - 135 - -Chapter XXXV. George II. - (1727-1760) - 178 - -Chapter XXXVI. George III. - The American War - (1760-1783). - 255 - -Chapter XXXVII. George III. - Pitt and the French Revolution - (1783-1801) - 337 - -Chapter XXXVIII. George III. - Addington and Pitt - (1801-1806) - 388 - -Chapter XXXIX. George III. - and the Emperor Napoleon - (1806-1810) - 414 - -Chapter XL. George IV. - Regent and King - (1815-1830). - 442 - -Chapter XLI. William IV. - Parliamentary Reform - (1830-1837). - 462 - -{6} - -{7} - - Guizot's - - History Of England, - - Vol. IV. - - - From the Accession of William and Mary - to the Reign of Queen Victoria, - - 1688-1837. - - -{8} - -{9} - - History Of England. - - - - Chapter XXXII. - - William And Mary. - - Establishment Of Parliamentary Government. - - (1688-1702). - - -King James had abandoned England, fleeing from the storm which he -had raised, obstinate in his ideas and holding persistently to -the hope of a return, which his people was resolved to prevent at -any price. William of Orange had entered London; but he had not -established his quarters at Whitehall, and he refused to take the -crown by right of conquest. Shrewd and far-seeing, he did not -wish to belie the promises of his declaration, or, by parading -its defeat, to irritate the English army, which he hoped soon to -command. He had not conquered England, which had called him to -her aid and had voluntarily submitted to him; and he desired to -keep the supreme power with her free consent. A provisory -assembly was formed of those lords who were in London, as well as -of members of the House of Commons who had sat in Parliament -under the reign of King Charles II.; and the aldermen of London -and a deputation of the City Council were invited to participate -in the proceedings. At his departure, King James had left a -letter: some peers asked to be informed of its contents. "I have -seen the missive," said Godolphin, "and can assure your Lordships -that you would find nothing in it which could give you any -satisfaction." - -{10} - -Aware of the blind obstinacy of the fugitive King, the peers of -the realm presented their address to the prince on the 25th of -December; some days later the Commons followed their example. -"Your Highness, led by the hand of God and called by the voice of -the people, has saved our dearest interests," said the -addresses--"the Protestant religion, which is Christianity in its -primitive purity, our laws, which are the ancient titles on which -rest our lives, liberties and possessions, and without which this -world would be only a desert in our eyes. This divine mission has -been respected by the nobility, the people, and the brave -soldiers of England. They have laid down their arms at your -approach." The same thanks and same requests were presented by -the Scotch lords who happened to be in London; the Earl of Arran -alone, son of the Duke of Hamilton, had proposed to treat with -King James. "All cry, Hosanna! to-day," said the Prince of Orange -to Dykvelt and his Dutch friends, who brought him the -congratulations of his native country, and were delighted at the -enthusiasm shown everywhere in England; "but in a day or two -perhaps they will repeat quite as loudly: 'Crucify him! crucify -him!'" Resolved as he was to govern England, William caught a -glimpse, though he did not foresee their extent, of the -difficulties and obstacles which the great enterprise he was -asked to attempt would meet with in England itself. Nevertheless -he accepted his mission without wavering. - -{11} - -On the 22nd of January, 1689, a Convention, which soon declared -itself Parliament, assembled at Westminster, elected arbitrarily -on circular letters sent forth in the name of the Prince of -Orange. The parties were already beginning to divide; the great -national unanimity which had willed and accomplished the -revolution was yielding to different passions and opinions. In -this supreme crisis of the government of England, the Tories, -numerous in the House of Lords, weak in the House of Commons, -hesitated, according to their political and religious -complexions, between negotiations with King James, the -establishment of a regency, leaving to the fugitive monarch the -vain title of king, or the declaration that the throne was -vacant, and the calling of the Princess Mary to the crown as its -natural heiress. No one dared to assert the legitimacy of the -Prince of Wales. Some of the Whigs, a party which included in its -ranks a number of dissenters, proposed that Parliament should -proclaim the nation's right to depose a prince guilty of bad -government; the others, less involved in revolutionary schemes, -though just as firmly resolved to deliver England from the -misgovernment of King James, sought to cover the national will -with a legal form. "It is said that kings have a divine right of -their own," cried Sir Robert Howard; "nations also have -_their_ divine right." - -On the 26th of January the House of Commons ended by passing a -resolution couched as follows: "King James II., having undertaken -to overthrow the Constitution of the realm by not fulfilling the -original contract of King and people, has broken the fundamental -laws of the Kingdom by the advice of Jesuits and other corrupt -counsellors; by his voluntary retirement he has abdicated the -government, in consequence of which the throne has become -vacant." The form of the resolution was open to criticism; only -its gist was important. The Commons soon added to their -declaration of the vacancy of the throne a second equally grave -resolution: "The reign of a Catholic monarch is incompatible with -the security and welfare of this Protestant nation." The two -resolutions were sent up to the Lords. - -{12} - -The Protestant declaration was unanimously voted. The King of -England, head of the Anglican Church, should naturally belong to -that Church. In regard to the vacancy of the throne, the Tories -insisted on previously debating the question of a regency, -proposed some time before by Bancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury, -and now advocated by Lord Rochester and Lord Nottingham. Divided -between their conviction of the dangers that King James caused -the country to incur, and their sentiments of loyalty, the -members of this fraction of the Tory party hoped to remain -faithful to their oath of allegiance by treating the truant -monarch like an invalid incapable of governing, and hence obliged -to delegate his powers to the Prince of Orange. This course -having been rejected, Lord Danby admitted the throne to be -vacant, and demanded that the Princess Mary be declared queen, -according to the principle that the throne could not remain -unoccupied. The Whigs, with Halifax at their head, loudly -maintained the right of the nation to choose its monarch. King -James was alive, and the princess could not then be his heiress; -the throne became elective, and the Prince of Orange alone was -worthy of being called to it. - -The discussion between the two houses, as well as that inside the -House of Lords, was waxing hot; the crowd was pressing to the -gates of the palace. Lord Lovelace informed the peers that he was -charged with a petition demanding the immediate proclamation of -the Prince and Princess of Orange as King and Queen of England. -"By whom has the petition been signed?" was asked. "No man has -yet put his hand to it," answered the bold nobleman, the first to -meet the Prince of Orange when he landed; "but when I shall bring -it here, there will be signers enough." -{13} -The same threats were made to the House of Commons. The princess -was detained in Holland by the state of the sea, encumbered by -ice. Danby was zealously pleading her cause before the Lords, -without William, who remained faithful to his promise of -committing to the Convention all grave political questions, -interfering in any way in the debate. One of his friends, a -Dutchman, probably Dykvelt, accidentally was present at the -debate; he was pressed to say what he might know of the prince's -sentiments. The Dutchman held out for a long time. "I can only -guess his Highness's state of mind," he said at last; "but since -you want to know what I fancy, I think he would scarcely care to -be his wife's gentleman of the bedchamber; but I actually know -nothing at all." "I know enough, and even a little too much," -retorted Danby. - -Finally Burnet made up his mind to reveal what the princess had -lately confided to him. "I know, for a long time," he said, "that -she had determined, even in case she should have mounted the -throne in the regular order of succession, to hand over her power -to her husband, with the sanction of Parliament." At the same -time Mary wrote to Danby: "I am the prince's wife, and I have no -other desire than to remain subjected to him; the greatest wrong -that could be done me would be to put me forward as his rival; -and I shall never hold as friends those who would follow such a -course." - -In a moment the impetuous Tories maintained the rights of -Princess Anne, threatened by the elevation of William of Orange; -the Churchills were enlisted in her cause, though the princess -was making no objections to the exaltation of her brother-in-law, -when the prince summoned the leaders of both parties to the House -of Lords. He summed up in a few words the various alternatives -agitated in Parliament. -{14} -"I have kept silent hitherto," he added; "I have used neither -solicitation nor threats; I have not even let my views or desires -transpire. I have neither the right nor the inclination to impose -anything on the Convention. I only reserve the privilege of -refusing functions which I could not perform with honor to myself -or advantage to the country. I am resolved never to be regent, -and I shall not accept that fraction of administrative power -which the princess, raised to the throne, could entrust to me. I -esteem her as much as a man can esteem a woman; but I am not so -made that I can be tied to the apron-string of the best of wives. -There is but one rôle which I can honorably fill: if the Houses -offer me the crown for my life, I will accept it; if not, I will -return without regret to my native land." The prince ended by -saying that he thought it just to secure the succession to the -Princess Anne and her children, in preference to the posterity -which he might have by another wife than Princess Mary. - -The question was decided: William and Mary were to reign together -as sovereigns of England, and the government was entrusted to -William. A conference between the two houses soon resulted in a -vote. Lord Nottingham demanded a modification in the oaths of -allegiance "I don't approve the acts of the Convention," he said, -"but I want to be able to promise to obey the new sovereigns -faithfully." The House of Commons had charged Somers with drawing -up the Declaration of Rights. The jurist's name had for the first -time resounded with éclat during the trial of the bishops, and -already his rare abilities, the power and subtilty of his mind, -as well as his masculine eloquence, had placed him in a high -rank, destined soon to be the highest. After a firm and plain -statement of the people's rights, Parliament declared William and -Mary, Prince and Princess of Orange, King and Queen of England, -during their lives. After them the crown devolved upon Princess -Anne and her children; in their default, it reverted to the issue -of William. - -{15} - -Princess Mary had just landed in England; she had hardly arrived -at Whitehall, and already people criticised her attitude and the -first indications of her character. Those who had seen her had -found her in high spirits, determined to enjoy her new grandeur, -forgetful of the catastrophe which hurled her father from the -throne she was about to occupy. Burnet himself was shocked. "I -had always noticed so much good feeling in her whole conduct," -said he, "that my surprise was extreme to see her deficient in it -on this occasion. Some days later I took the liberty of asking -her, how it could be that the misfortunes of a father had made so -little impression on her. She took my frankness in good part, as -usual, and assured me that it was not for want of having felt -them keenly, if she had had the air of not thinking of them; but -because she had been directed in a letter to affect much gayety. -It was possible that she had overdone the rôle they had made for -her, so strange was it to her true disposition." On the 13th of -February, the two houses betook themselves formally to Whitehall, -to offer the crown to the Prince and Princess of Orange. Halifax -was spokesman. "We accept with gratitude what you offer us," said -William. "For my own part, I can assure you that these laws of -England which I have already defended, will be the rule of my -conduct. I shall apply myself constantly to develop the -prosperity of the realm; and, to aid me in the task, I count upon -the counsel of the two Houses, which I am inclined to put before -my own." The public proclamation before the great gate of the -palace was hailed by the acclamations of the crowd. The -revolution was consummated; a new reign was commencing. - -{16} - -With the new reign began a new era. The revolution of 1688 had -been singularly moderate and reasonable; it had not claimed a new -right, it had not added a liberty to the rights and liberties -which England then enjoyed; it had not changed a custom; it did -not renounce one of the forms or ceremonies observed in the old -times, and dear to the veneration of the people; it had simply -proclaimed in principle and established in fact that the nation -regarded its rights and liberties as its most precious treasure, -that it placed them above hereditary titles and the rights of the -throne. Liberal as well as legal, it demanded from the prince a -certain measure of good government and of respect for the -national wishes, at the same time that it unrolled from the mists -of the past those grand principles of the compact of sovereign -and people, which England had known how to keep and guard through -perils and through oppression. The work of liberty was not yet -complete; all its seeds rested in the Declaration of Rights drawn -up by Somers, and solemnly accepted by the new sovereigns. The -bitter time of revolutions had ended for England. - -Yet the day of rest had not come. The reign of William III. was -to remain constantly troublesome, disputed, stormy. The reasons -of this were various and complicated. In the first place stood -his birth; he was a Dutchman in heart as in race, a stranger in -his tastes as in his manners to England, which never forgot the -fact. Both free and Protestant, the two countries were -nevertheless separated by wide divergencies. In England the Whigs -and Tories divided among them the upper classes; the tendencies -toward republicanism existed in the dark among a certain number -of dissenters; the Anglican Church, the Presbyterians, the -Catholics, were royalists by taste as by principle. -{17} -In Holland, on the other hand, the mercantile patriciate remained -nearly everywhere zealously attached to the republican form; the -partisans of the stadtholdership of the house of Orange were -counted in the army and among the great property-holders: and -part of the provinces of Guelders and Friesland was equally -devoted to it. - -Brought up in Holland in the midst of parties which he understood -and whose springs he had moved for a long time, sympathizing with -the very persons there who hereditarily opposed his family and -his policy, William III. found himself in England as much a -stranger as he was generally considered. Cold and reserved, like -a man surrounded by enemies or critics, he only had confidence in -the Dutch; he lavished his personal favors on Dutchmen alone; he -only opened his heart and unbent his countenance for Dutchmen. -This marked preference for his native land and this eagerness to -flee from the soil of his new country so soon as the summer could -bring him back to Holland, were a constant reproach and source of -weakness to the King of England. In Holland alone he breathed at -ease; there, alone he freely spread the wings of his grand -policy, more European than English, difficult to be imported by a -foreign prince into a new kingdom still entirely peopled for him -with secret or open enemies. - -For a long time England had remained isolated from the -combinations of continental politics; lowered in her own eyes and -those of Europe, she had submitted, under Charles III. and James -II., to the yoke of France, against which William III. proudly -stood erect, demanding from England, as from Holland, the last -sacrifices to sustain the cause of European independence. It was -not without disquiet and a certain insular jealousy that the -English saw themselves drawn into all the political complications -on the continent; they had given themselves to William of Orange, -but they preserved towards him a secret distrust, silently nursed -by the persistent distrust of the Church of England. -{18} -William was a Protestant; but, a Calvinist by conviction, -accustomed to the widest toleration in his own country, which had -become the refuge of all persons suffering persecution, he found -himself in England confronted by the Anglican Church, which was -divided in regard to him, and had partially remained faithful to -the fugitive monarch he had dethroned; obliged to struggle at -once against the anti-Catholic spirit which had carried him to -the throne and against the intolerance towards dissenters, which -was contrary to all his principles. Dutchman, European statesman, -tolerant Calvinist, he met throughout England distrust and -impediments which all the success of the revolution of 1688 could -not dispel, and which the personal superiority of the new king -never wholly succeeded in repressing. - -The Church silent and sombre, the army sad and humiliated, -parties keenly exasperated--such was the domestic situation of -William on the morrow of his triumph, when the uprising of -Ireland menaced the peace of the kingdom, and the whole -government still remained to be organized. Responsible and -concordant ministers did not exist then: William called around -him counsellors from different sides--Whigs, Tories, trimmers; -Danby, Nottingham, Halifax, Shrewsbury, Herbert, Mordaunt. -Disagreements were not slow to display themselves. The Tories had -alone exercised power for some years. They were more experienced -and skilful in public affairs than the Whigs; the latter were for -the most part sincerely devoted to the new government, jealous -and suspicious toward their adversaries, who had now become their -colleagues. -{19} -Traps and intrigues, sometimes violent scenes, succeeded one -another without intermission, fettering and retarding the march -of the government, sapping the popularity of the King, to whom -all parties appealed, and who tried in vain to calm them all. An -attack of John Hampden on Halifax appeared so violent that -somebody cried in the House of Commons: "This is called a speech: -it is a libel!" - -William was weary of parliamentary struggles and eager to return -to the camp life, which he always preferred to politics, when he -pronounced, on the 27th of January, 1690, the dissolution of -Parliament. The state of his affairs in Ireland imperatively -demanded his presence. - -Fleeing from England and the dangers which there threatened, as -he thought, his liberty and life, King James had found in France, -at the court of Louis XIV., the most generous and splendid -hospitality. Lodged by the king at the castle of Saint-Germain, -and in every respect treated as a sovereign and equal, James II. -had asked and obtained from his royal host the aid which he -needed not only to exist in France, but to undertake the conquest -of rebellious and Protestant England by means of Ireland, which -remained Catholic and true. Civil war had already broken out in -this little kingdom; the cession by James of all the civil power -to the Catholics and indigenous inhabitants disquieted knots of -Protestants, scattered as colonists over certain districts. The -small town of Kenmore, the cities of Enniskillen and Londonderry, -were filled with refugees of their religion and race, driven by -the tyranny exercised upon them to that refuge which the Scotch -Presbyterians had lately founded in Ulster. Tyrconnel had tried -in vain to maintain an appearance of order; the Irish population, -whose passions had been long aroused, would not yield to his -influence. Ireland was in flames, when James II. landed at -Kinsale on the 12th of March, 1689. -{20} -He had embarked at Brest, accompanied by a small body of French -officers under the orders of the Count de Rosen. With him Louis -XIV. had sent Count d'Avaux, charged with the diplomatic part of -the expedition, and with plans to be tried among the English -malcontents. From the start, this clever politician, familiar -with complicated continental intrigues, foresaw the trouble that -the fallen monarch, whose cause he was to plead, would occasion -him. "It will not be an easy thing to keep any secret with the -King of England," wrote Count d'Avaux to Louis XIV.; "he has told -before the sailors of the St. Michel, what he ought to have -reserved for his most confidential friends. Another thing which -will give us trouble is his irresolution, for he often changes -his mind and does not always settle on the best course. He -frequently dwells upon little things, on which he employs his -whole time, and passes lightly over most essential matters. -Moreover he listens to everybody, and one has to spend as much -time in removing the impressions which bad advice has produced on -him, as in inspiring him with correct ones." "All the troops -Tyrconnel had been able to raise, were occupied with the -Protestant rising in Ulster," says King James in his Memoirs; -"the Catholics of the country had no arms, while the Protestants -had an abundance, and the best horses in the kingdom; there were -only eight small field-pieces in condition to accompany the army; -no provisions or ammunition in the magazine, little powder or -balls, no money in the chest, and all the officers gone to -England." - -To this gloomy picture of the condition of his forces in Ireland, -James might have added the embarrassments about to be caused by -an intractable Parliament, and the pretensions, as immoderate as -they were absurd, of partisans, who thought they had a right to -lay down the law for the sovereign they persisted in serving. -{21} -The indigenous Irish claimed the entire independence of their -country, threatening, if James refused it, to appeal to France, -and place themselves thenceforth under her protection. The -English exiles who accompanied the king, despising Ireland and -the Irish, only aspired to reseat their sovereign on the throne -of England. - -"My Lord Melford is neither a good Frenchman nor a good -Irishman," said Count d'Avaux; "he only thinks of England." -Despite a proclamation of toleration by James, there was a -general understanding to re-establish the absolute supremacy of -Catholicism in Ireland; the act of establishment of Charles II. -was repealed; the lands of Catholics, lately confiscated to the -benefit of Protestants, returned to their original owners; one -law of proscription embraced all the fugitive or refugee -Protestants in the northern counties; the endowments of the -Anglican Church were taken from it. The fanatics triumphed; the -King was anxious and disgusted. He estimated better than his -advisers, the strength of Protestantism, even in Ireland; he -glanced at the effect of his measures in England. After long -hesitation, which still followed him after starting and made him -turn back for a moment, James set out to besiege the town of -Londonderry in person. - -The place was small, badly fortified, and encumbered with -refugees, who had brought no provisions there. Its governor, -Lundy, proved a traitor to the garrison and citizens. Before -flying pusillanimously, he attempted several times to betray them -to the enemy. The religious and patriotic zeal of the inhabitants -triumphed over all obstacles. An Anglican clergyman, George -Walker, and Major Henry Baker, had taken command of the troops in -the town by the natural and legitimate ascendancy of their -characters. -{22} -Determined to accept no capitulation, they were braving the -repeated attacks of the Irish army, as well as the cruel assaults -of famine, when Lord Strabane was instructed to offer the -inhabitants the royal pardon. "The people of Londonderry have -done nothing that requires a pardon," replied Major Murray; "they -recognize no other sovereigns but King William and Queen Mary. -Your lordship might not find yourself safe, if you stayed here -much longer, or if you repeated the same offers; allow me to -accompany you outside our lines." - -King James II. returned to Dublin. The town held out a hundred -and five days, in spite of the cruelties of the Count de Rosen, -who had roused the indignation of James himself, when, on the -30th of July, upon receipt of a formal order from London, Colonel -Kirke, lately dispatched from England to the aid of Londonderry, -made a last effort to force the barricade constructed by the -enemy across the river. "If we don't deliver the brave citizens -of Londonderry, the whole world will rise against us," cried -Birch, in the House of Commons. "A barricade! well, let it be -forced! Shall we let our brothers perish almost before our eyes?" -The barricade was forced, and the population of Derry, decimated, -dying, but still indomitable, at last saw the vessels, which -brought the aid so long expected, advance majestically by the -narrow channel which alone the drought had left navigable. -Thanksgivings and cries of joy were still echoing in the town, -when a line of flames already indicated the retreat of the -Jacobite army. The siege of Londonderry was raised. - -{23} - -The same day the inhabitants of Enniskillen, who had spiritedly -held their town in face of the enemy's troops, pursued the Irish -in retreat to the village of Newtown Butler. There, at the foot -of a hill, in front of a bog, the battle took place. "Advance or -retreat?" their leader Wolseley, detailed by Kirke, had asked his -improvised soldiers. "Advance! advance!" shouted the Protestants. -The rout of King James's partisans was complete, and the massacre -frightful. Nothing could check the violence of religious and -political hatreds among a half civilized population. "The -dragoons, who had fled in the morning, retreated with the rest of -the cavalry without firing a pistol," wrote the Count d'Avaux, -"and they all ran away in such a panic that they threw away -muskets, pistols, and sabres, and most of them having run their -horses to death, took off their clothes, to go quicker on foot." - -While the arms of King James met with these severe checks in -Ireland, he received news from England which for a moment -disquieted his counsellors; but soon reanimated, by the very -imminence of the danger, the natural courage of the Irish race. -The illustrious Marshal Schomberg, who was driven by the -revocation of the Edict of Nantes from the adopted country he had -gloriously served, the lieutenant of William III. when he first -set foot in England, had just embarked for Ireland at the head of -a numerous body of troops. Other alarming intelligence was added -to this: the last efforts of the Scotch insurrection had -miscarried; and all hope of a Jacobite restoration was dying out -in the hereditary kingdom of the Stuarts. - -A tyranny which England had never endured had long been pressing -on Scotland: an oppressive and corrupt government had met little -opposition in a timid or venal Parliament; a religion hateful to -the nation had been imposed on it by law. The Revolution of 1688 -lent to the condition of things and of feelings in Scotland a -wholly different character from that which it had assumed in -England. -{24} -There King James had been dethroned in the name of violated law. -All legal forms had been observed in the election of the -Parliament which proclaimed William and Mary. At Edinburg the -reaction was violent, and passions were destructive; the Anglican -pastors were maltreated and insulted. The first act of the -Convention convoked by the Prince of Orange was the abolition of -episcopacy. Everywhere the Presbyterians recovered power as well -as liberty; everywhere the Covenanters, long kept down with an -iron hand, proudly held up their heads. At the same time, at the -moment when the Parliament of Scotland, after a lively debate, -decided to recognize the legitimacy of the revolution by -proclaiming in its towns the new sovereigns of England, an -insurrection broke out in the Scottish Highlands under the -conduct of Viscount Dundee, lately celebrated under the name of -Graham of Claverhouse. He was sustained in his campaign in favor -of King James by the Earl of Balcarras. Both had visited the -Prince of Orange at London, both had claimed the protection of -the government. "Take care, my lord," William had said to -Balcarras, who was excusing himself for not voting for the -deposition of James. "Remain inside the limits of the law; if you -violate it, expect to be given up to it." Balcarras and Dundee -had received the last orders of James II. "I commit to you my -affairs in Scotland," the monarch had said, as he made ready to -fly; "Balcarras will take care of my civil affairs and Dundee -will command my troops." It was with great difficulty that the -latter had been able to escape from the Convention where he had -had the audacity to present himself. "Where do you purpose -going?" Balcarras had asked him. "Where the shade of Montrose -shall lead me," replied the intrepid partisan; and he disappeared -at the head of fifty dragoons, the remnant of the famous -regiments which had lately cut the Covenanters in pieces. The -latter had not forgotten the fact. - -{25} - -The English Jacobites belonged almost entirely to the Anglican -Church, being passionately and ancestrally devoted to its cause, -as well as to the House of Stuart. The Irish Jacobites were -Catholics and separatists, convinced that the greatness of their -native country, like that of the Roman Church, depended on the -restoration of King James. The Scotch Jacobites actively engaged -in the struggle were Episcopalians, lately triumphant, but now -oppressed in their religion, or Highlanders uniting against the -power of the Clan Campbell and its chief, the Earl of Argyle, -_Mac Callum More_, as he was called in the mountains. It was -Argyle who, standing before the throne at Whitehall, had -pronounced the words of the royal oath, repeated after him by the -new sovereigns. At its last clause William had paused for a -moment: its purport was that he should destroy all heretics and -enemies of God. "I could not engage to become a persecutor," said -the king aloud. "Neither the tenor of the oath nor the laws of -Scotland impose this obligation on your majesty," replied one of -the delegates. "It is on this condition that I swear," returned -William; "and I beg you, my lords and gentlemen, to be witnesses -of this." - -So much moderation and prudence remained without effect upon the -Highlanders. Argyle was employed in the new government. However -unimportant his part in it was to be, from the capacity and -character of the earl, the traditional foes of his clan, the -Camerons, the Macleans, the Macgregors, naturally, went over to -the other camp. When Dundee, threatened with arrest, left the -little castle where he had quartered himself since fleeing from -Edinburg, he found the Highlanders already risen under the -command of Lochiel, chief of the Camerons, and Colin Keppoch, one -of the Macdonalds. -{26} -Bringing in his suite some Lowland gentlemen, capturing some -Whigs, whom he carried with him as prisoners, sending the fiery -cross before him, and accompanied everywhere by the terror of his -name, Dundee soon found himself at the head of an army of five or -six thousand men, all brave, hardy, inured to fatigue, -undisciplined and tumultuous, incapable of fighting according to -the ordinary rules of war, and, consequently, of making a long -resistance to regular troops. "We would not have time to learn -your mode of fighting," said Lochiel, "and we would have time to -forget our own." - -Dundee was uneasy; he asked King James to send him considerable -reinforcements. He waited through the month of June, encamped at -Lochaber, until the forces of General Mackay, tired of pursuing -him without coming up to him, retreated into the Lowlands. The -castle of Edinburg, long held by the Duke of Gordon for King -James, had just capitulated. The numerous dependents of the -Marquis of Athole were waiting for him to declare himself; his -eldest son, Lord Murray, had embraced King William's party; the -confidential agent of the marquis, Stewart of Badenoch, served -King James. Lord Murray had presented himself before Blair -Castle. The garrison which occupied it, in behalf of his father, -refused him admittance to the fortress. He had laid siege to it, -when Dundee and all the Highland chiefs descended impetuously -from the mountains to the relief of the garrison. - -The siege was raised when they arrived. Murray's soldiers had -abandoned it; filling their caps with the water of a spring, they -had drunk to the health of King James, and dispersed. But Mackay -and his troops already occupied the defile of Killiecrankie, -which led to the fortress. Dundee resolved to attack them. -{27} -The aged Lochiel moved to and fro among the ranks of the -Highlanders, whose fierce cries the echoes repeated; while the -tone of the enemy was feeble and faint. "We shall carry the day," -said Lochiel; "that is not the cry of men about to conquer." He -charged the enemy at the head of his clan with sword in hand, and -bare feet, like his soldiers. - -A first discharge had not checked the forward motion of the -Highlanders, and Mackay's soldiers were reloading their pieces, -when the torrent of mountaineers came down upon them. Reeling, -overthrown, deafened by the shouts, dazzled by the sheen of -swords, the men threw away their muskets and began to fly. -Mackay, intrepid in defeat, called to his aid his cavalry, -dreaded by the mountaineers. Only Dundee could have rallied his -troops, carried away by their eagerness to plunder. Dundee was -dead in his glory, struck, it was told afterwards, by a silver -button used as a ball and discharged at him by the superstition -of the soldiers. "He is invulnerable to lead and iron," said the -covenanters, who had not long ago seen him urging on his soldiers -in the middle of a rain of balls. The intrepid soldier, the bold -and skilful leader, the pitiless persecutor, had been mortally -wounded while leading a small body of horse to the front. Falling -from his charger, a soldier had received him in his arms. "How -goes it?" asked Dundee. "Well for King James," answered the -trooper, "but I grieve for your lordship." "Small matter about -me, if things go well for him," murmured Dundee. These were his -last words. His body, wrapped in the plaids of the Highlanders, -was borne to Blair Castle. - -{28} - -The death of Dundee was in truth the end of the Scotch rising. -Irregular and indecisive actions were continued for some time -between the Highlanders and the Cameronian regiments, inflamed -against each other by religious and political passions. Meantime -the mountaineers returned gradually to their flocks. On -separating, their chiefs declared that they remained the faithful -subjects of King James, always ready to serve him. - -They had ceased fighting for him when Marshal Schomberg landed at -Antrim, on the 13th of August. Soon master of Carrick-Fergus, he -had much difficulty in protecting the Irish regiments against the -rage of the Protestant colonists. The courage of the Jacobites -revived a little: twenty thousand men were assembled under the -walls of Drogheda. After one day's march, Schomberg had -entrenched himself in a strong position near Dundalk. - -The inexperienced zeal of the Irish, as well as of the English -recruits brought by Schomberg, led them to desire immediate -battle; but Rosen and Schomberg were old commanders, accustomed -to weigh the chances of war and the valor of armies; and neither -was eager to give battle. In spite of the maladies which ravaged -his army, of the bad quality of the provisions, and of the -injurious rumors circulated against him in England as well as -Ireland, Schomberg remained shut up in his camp at Dundalk -without the enemy's daring to attack him. When he returned to the -north, at the beginning of November, the Irish had taken up their -winter quarters and did not disturb themselves about his retreat. -"I declare," wrote the marshal, from Lisburn to William III., -"that if it were not for the profound obedience I have for your -majesty's orders, I should prefer the honor of being inactive at -your court to the command of an army in Ireland composed as was -that of the past campaign; and if I had hazarded a battle, which -would have been hard to do if the enemy wished to remain in his -camp, I should perhaps have lost all that you possess in this -kingdom, without speaking of the consequences which might have -resulted from it in Scotland, and even in England." - -{29} - -Europe was again in flames when Schomberg wrote thus to King -William; but the true chief of the coalition against Louis XIV. -was not able to leave his kingdom or to place himself at the head -of the forces which he had sent to the assistance of his allies; -the difficulties of parliamentary government and the war in -Ireland kept him in his own dominions. The new Parliament had met -on the 20th of March, 1690. The Tories were numerous, energetic -and confident in it. The king committed the direction of his -affairs to Danby, whom he had just made Marquis of Caermarthen. -He then announced formally to the Houses his intention of -crossing into Ireland. The parties had for a short time thought -of interfering with this resolution. "I find they are beginning -to be much distressed at my journey to Ireland," wrote William to -his friend Bentinck whom he had made Duke of Portland, and who -was then in Holland; "especially the Whigs, who fear to lose me -too soon, before they have made what they want of me; for, as for -their friendship, you know one must not count upon that in this -country. I have said nothing as yet of my design to Parliament, -but I propose to do so next week. Meantime I have begun to make -my preparations, and everybody speaks publicly of them." - -The new Commons voted that they would sustain and maintain the -government of their majesties, King William and Queen Mary, with -all their power, as well by their counsels as by their -assistance. "I thank you for your address, gentlemen," replied -William. "I have already had occasion to expose my life for the -nation; rest assured I shall continue to do so in future." Yet -the two Houses had resolved to subject the royal revenues to the -necessity of a repeated vote. -{30} -William was hurt at this; the civil lists granted to Charles II. -and James II. had been granted for their lives. "The gentry of -England have had confidence in King James, who was the enemy of -their religion and laws," he observed to Burnet; "they distrust -me, who have preserved their religion and laws." The discontent -which he was quick to feel and bitter in expressing, never -disturbed the justice and loftiness natural to the spirit of -William III. When the Whigs proposed a bill of abjuration, -intended to disquiet the consciences of a large number of -moderate and honorable Tories, the king let his friends know that -he had no desire to impose a painful test upon his subjects. The -motion, much modified, was brought before the House of Lords. "I -have taken many oaths," said old Lord Wharton, formerly colonel -in the service of the Long Parliament, "and I have not kept them -all: I ask God not to impute to me this sin; but I should not -like to spread anew a snare into which my own soul or that of my -neighbor might fall." - -The Earl of Macclesfield, who had accompanied William of Orange -at the time of his arrival in England, supported the words of -Lord Wharton. "I am surprised," said Churchill, who had lately -become Earl of Marlborough, "that your Lordship has any objection -to the bill, after the part you have played in the revolution." -"The noble earl exaggerates the part I have had in the -deliverance of my country," retorted Macclesfield: "I have always -been ready to risk my life in defence of her laws and liberties, -but there are things that I should not have liked to do, even in -this cause. I have been a rebel against a bad king; others have -gone further than I." - -{31} - -Marlborough was silent; the King, who was present, became grave. -Some days later, before bidding farewell to the Parliament, he -transmitted to it by Lord Caermarthen an act of pardon, a free -and spontaneous amnesty, to which the practice of preceding -reigns had not accustomed England. The regicides who were still -alive and a certain number of the most guilty satellites of King -James, were alone excepted from the general pardon. These had, -for the most part, sought safety upon the continent; those who -were in England were informed that new crimes alone could expose -them to the vengeance of the laws. The act of pardon was passed -on the 20th of May; on the same date the king prorogued the -Parliament, committing to the queen the cares of government. A -council composed of nine persons was to assist in this important -task. Four Whigs and five Tories sat in this confidential -ministry. William had provided with far-seeing tenderness for all -the wants of his wife. "I put my trust in God," he said to -Burnet, whom he had made Bishop of Salisbury, and to whom he -unveiled the melancholy state of his soul, in presence of so many -troubles and dangers. "I shall complete my task or fall in its -performance. The poor queen alone distresses me. If you love me, -see her often; give her all the aid you can. As for myself, -separated from her, I shall be very glad to find myself on -horseback and under canvas once more; I am fitter to command an -army than to direct your Houses of Parliament. But though I know -I am doing my duty, it is hard for my wife to feel that her -father confronts me on the field of battle. God grant that no -harm may befall him. Pray for me, doctor." - -William embarked at Highlake on the 11th of June; three days -later he landed at Carrick-Fergus. The same evening he reached -Belfast. Schomberg had arrived before him. At the same time James -left Dublin for his camp on the northern frontier of Leicester. -{32} -He was accompanied by Lauzun, who had recently come from France -with four Irish regiments, equipped and drilled at the expense of -Louis XIV. "For the love of God," Louvois had said to Lauzun, of -whom he had a rather poor opinion, "Don't let yourself be carried -away by your desire to come to blows; endeavor to tire the -English, and above all maintain discipline." Careless and -venturous as he was, Lauzun was astonished at the disorder which -he found everywhere in Ireland. "It is a chaos like that -described in Genesis," he wrote to Louvois; "I would not spend -another month here for the whole world." - -William III. urged on his preparations and hurried his advance, -eagerly desiring to attack the enemy. Schomberg wanted to hold -him back. "I have not come here to let the grass grow under my -feet," said the King of England. "This country is worth making -one's own," he added, as he gazed upon the beautiful, though -semi-civilized places he was passing through. The valley of the -Boyne, on the confines of the counties of Lowth and Meath, -reminded him of the rich meadows of England. The tents of the -enemy were pitched beneath Drogheda; the standards of the houses -of Stuart and Bourbon floated over the walls of the town. "I am -very glad to see you at last, gentlemen," said William of Orange, -viewing the motions of the Jacobite army from afar; "if you -escape me now, it will be my fault." One part of the army of King -James was concealed by the undulations of the ground. "Strong or -weak," said William, "I shall soon know which they are." - -{33} - -The two armies were almost equal in numbers: twenty-five or -thirty thousand were mustered on either side. "Although it is -true that the soldiers seem determined to do their best and are -exasperated against the rebels," wrote d'Avaux, who had just -returned to France with Rosen, who was superceded by Lauzun, "yet -that is not the only requisite for fighting a battle. The -subaltern officers are bad; and, excepting a very few, there are -none to take care of the soldiers, the arms and the discipline. -More confidence is placed in the cavalry, the greater part of -which is good enough." William had brought with him his veteran -Dutch and German regiments; representatives of all the Protestant -churches of Europe were there in arms against the enemies of -their liberties. None were more impetuous than the Irish -Protestants, burning to avenge their recent injuries, and the -French Huguenots, who flocked from all quarters against the -monarch whom Louis XIV. sustained. "I am sure," the Baron -d'Avejon, lieutenant colonel in King William's service, had -written to Geneva, "that you will not fail to have published in -all the French churches of Switzerland the obligation which rests -on all refugees to come and help us in this campaign, in which -the glory of God, and, consequently, the reestablishment of his -Church in our country are at stake." Vain hopes! which explain -the zeal of the French Protestants against the Irish and King -James. Two refugees--Marshal Schomberg, and M. de Caillemotte, -younger brother of Ruvigny--led them at the battle of the Boyne, -exclaiming: "Forward, my children, to glory! Forward! behold our -persecutors!" - -On the morning of the first of July, King William, who was -wounded on the shoulder the evening before while making a -reconnaissance, was on horseback from daybreak. The armies joined -battle in the river. At first Schomberg had remained on the bank, -directing the movement of his troops. He rallied around him the -Huguenot regiments, shaken by the death of their leader -Caillemotte. The moment the marshal stepped aground, after -crossing the Boyne, a detachment of Irish cavalry surrounded him; -he was dead when his friends succeeded in rejoining him. -{34} -The native infantry had promptly taken to flight; nevertheless -the regiments from France and the Irish gentlemen fought -furiously. King William had entered the river at the head of the -left wing, with difficulty guiding his horse with his wounded -arm. He drew his sword with his left hand, and, charging at the -head of the Enniskillen Protestants, he dashed upon the enemy. -"You will be my guards today," he had said to the brave settlers; -"I have often heard of you, let us see what you can do." The heat -of battle expanded the heart of the grave and silent prince, -whose unconquerable reserve his best friends frequently deplored: -he moved about in every direction, receiving bullets on his -pistol-butt and the top of his boot, following up the victory -which at every point declared itself for him. King James had -taken no part in the action; he had remained afar, viewing the -combat from the heights of Dunmore. When he was certain that -fortune was against him, he turned bridle, accompanied by some -horsemen. In the evening he reached Dublin, bearing the news of -his own defeat. Irritated and humiliated, he bitterly reproached -his partisans with the cowardice of their countrymen. "I shall -never in my life command an Irish army," said he. "I must now -think of my safety alone; let each man do the same." Next day at -sunrise he left Dublin, and on the 3d of July he took ship at -Waterford. He soon landed at Brest, and related the history of -the battle in detail. "From the account of the battle that I have -heard the king and several of his suite give," wrote one of his -first hearers, "it does not seem to me that he was very well -informed of what took place in the action, and that he only knows -the rout of his troops." "Those who love the King of England -ought to be glad to know of his safety," said the Marshal de -Luxembourg, in Germany; "but those who love his glory have to -deplore the part he has played." - - -[Image] -King James at the Battle of Boyne. - -{35} - -Queen Mary was more pre-occupied about her father's safety than -her own glory. She wrote to her husband on the 5th of July: "I -was uneasy to know what had become of the king, my father; I only -dared to ask Lord Nottingham, and I have had the satisfaction of -learning that he was safe and sound. I know I have no need of -asking you to spare him; but add this to your clemency--let the -world know that for love of me you wish no harm to befall his -person." - -The joy in England was complete when it was known that King -William had entered Dublin on the 6th. The rumor of his death had -been spread for a short time in Paris, where it had given rise to -popular rejoicings. The governor of the Bastile had even had -cannon fired. King James set about undeceiving the court and -city. His royal illusions were not yet dispelled. "My subjects -love me still," he used to say; "they await me impatiently in -England." When he arrived at Versailles, his first care was to -press Louis XIV. to send an army of invasion at once. "All the -forces of England are in Ireland," said he; "my people will rise -in my behalf." Tourville had just attempted a descent on the -coasts of Devonshire, but the peasants had taken arms and the -Cornish miners had emerged from the bowels of the earth to repel -the invasion. The French sailors contented themselves with -burning Teignmouth, and took to sea again more proud of the -triumph they had lately gained (July 10) over the united English -and Dutch fleets at Beachy Head, than humiliated at their check -on the English coast. One cry re-echoed in all the southern -countries: "God bless King William and Queen Mary!" - -{36} - -King William had felt deeply the disaster of his fleet. The news -had reached him a few days after that of the battle of Fleurus, -which had been won by the Marshal de Luxembourg from the Prince -de Waldeck, commanding the allied forces. "I cannot express to -you," wrote William to Heinsius, "how I am distressed at these -two great great disasters which almost simultaneously have fallen -upon the arms of the Republic. That of the fleet affects me the -more deeply, because I have been informed that my vessels have -not properly assisted those of the States, and left them in a -critical position. I have ordered an inquiry to take place; the -queen has given similar orders; no personal consideration shall -prevent my rigorously punishing the guilty." William had a right -to feel in the bottom of his soul a secret pride for his native -country. The Dutch vessels had born the whole weight of the -contest at Beachy Head, while the Marshal de Luxembourg wrote -after the battle of Fleurus: "Prince de Waldeck will never forget -the French cavalry, and I shall remember the Dutch infantry. It -has done still better than the Spaniards at Rocroi." - -The indignation of England was great against Admiral Herbert, -created Lord Torrington, who was wrongfully accused of treason. -An inquiry was held upon his conduct, and many people were found -to be compromised in a Jacobite plot. Lord Clarendon, the queen's -uncle, was of the number. Before his departure to Ireland the -king had already had proof of his intrigues. The queen interceded -for him. William had summoned Lord Rochester. "Your brother has -plotted against me," he had said, "I am assured. I have been -advised to except him from the amnesty, but I have been unwilling -to cause this grief to the queen. It is for her sake that I -forgive the past; but let Lord Clarendon take care in future; he -will perceive that I am not jesting." This kind advice had not -sufficed; Lord Clarendon's name was connected anew with Jacobite -plots. The advisers of the queen hesitated to accuse him in her -presence. -{37} -"I know," said Mary, "and everybody knows as well as I, that Lord -Clarendon is accused of things too grave to suffer him to be -excepted from the precautionary measures." A warrant was signed -for Clarendon's arrest. "I am more grieved for Lord Clarendon -than people will believe," the queen wrote to her husband. - -William returned to England, after meeting with a repulse before -the walls of Limerick, defended by the Irish with the patriotic -and sectarian zeal which had before animated the Protestant -citizens of Londonderry. Lauzun and the auxiliary regiments, -after withdrawing to Galway, had just embarked for France. King -William bid Marlborough to make a descent upon Cork and Kinsale. -The two places fell into the hands of that able general, and five -weeks from his departure from Portsmouth he paid his respects to -the king at Kensington. "There is not in Europe a general, having -so little experience in war, who is worthier of great commands -than the Earl of Marlborough," William said generously, for he -did not like him. The return of the king, and his journey from -Bristol to London, had been greeted with national transports of -joy. He had left in Ireland the Dutch general Ginckel, a resolute -and prudent man, at the head of an army, well disciplined, well -equipped, and well victualled. Before the close of the following -year, Ginckel had completed his task of pacifying Ireland. On the -20th of June, 1691, in spite of the presence and exertions of -Saint-Ruth, who had come with reinforcements from France, he -carried by storm the town of Athlone, the true key of Connaught, -and the strongest place in Ireland. "His master should have him -hanged for attempting to take Athlone," said the French general, -"and my master can do the same to me, if I lose it." On the 12th -of July Saint-Ruth was killed at the battle of Aghrim, and the -Irish signally defeated. On the 26th of August, Ginckel laid -siege to Limerick. - -{38} - -Tyrconnel had just breathed his last, old and prematurely worn -out by fatigue and debauches. King James's troops were commanded -by Lord Sarsfield, the most able and brilliant of the Irish -officers. On the 1st of August a capitulation was signed, and was -soon followed by a treaty. The Irish regiments were permitted to -choose between the service of William and that of Louis XIV. A -large number of soldiers went over spontaneously to France, -forming in the armies of Louis XIV. and Louis XV. that Irish -brigade, whose name has become famous. "Has this last campaign -altered your opinion of our military qualities?" asked Sarsfield -of the English officers. "To tell the truth," answered they, "we -think almost the same of them as we have always thought." "Well," -replied Sarsfield, "whatever bad opinion you may have of us, only -let us change our king and begin again, and you will see." -Ginckel was raised to the dignity of Earl of Athlone and Aghrim. -King William and Parliament had ratified the terms offered by the -general to the Irish; the struggle was over, the conquest -consummated; the Protestant colonists, lately oppressed, became -the masters, and often the oppressors of the indigenous race, -which was dejected and decimated. Scotland was absorbed with the -triumph of the Presbyterians, who had just legally recovered the -religious supremacy in their country, to the great detriment of -Episcopalians and Cameronians. The English Parliament had voted -supplies generously, the Jacobite plots were exploded; the trial -of Lord Torrington had ended in an acquittal, which never -succeeded in erasing from the king's mind a distrust, which was -merited by the dissolute life and known intemperance of the -admiral. -{39} -William had not waited for this first interval of domestic peace -to respond to the needs of his soul, and the imperious call of -political necessity. On the 18th of January, 1691, in spite of -the severity of the season, he had embarked at Gravesend for -Holland. "I yearn for this moment more than I can express to -you," he wrote six months before to Heinsius. - -The English fleet had arrived in sight of the coasts of Holland. -The voyage had been unpleasant; disembarkation seemed impossible: -enormous blocks of ice encumbered the channel, while a thick fog -hid the land. For eighteen hours the four little ships were -obliged to keep to sea. The king was, as usual, weak and -suffering, yet he had wished to put off in an open boat, to gain -his natal soil the quicker. The whole night was spent before he -could step on dry land; the cold was intense, and the danger -serious. Some of the sailors were in despair. "Fie!" said William -to them, "are you afraid to die with me?" Some great British -noblemen, the Dukes of Ormond and Norfolk, the Earls of -Devonshire, Dorset and Monmouth, were with him; Portland and -Zulestein were glad to accompany their beloved sovereign to -Holland. It was only at daybreak, by the feeble light of a -winter's morning, that they were able at last to land on the -island of Goree. The king rested there some hours before taking -the road to the Hague. - -Joy beamed on the face which the English were accustomed to find -stern and haughty. Heart was responding to heart; England had -accepted its deliverance from the hand of William III., without -affinity for him and through necessity. The Dutch loved the heir -of the greatest name in their nation and of their race, the -liberator of their country, the man who had carried to the throne -of England the glory, the name and the manners of his Dutch -fatherland. -{40} -The people pressed upon his steps. "Let them alone," said the -king; "let them come near me and all be my friends." A splendid -reception had been prepared at the Hague: he was opposed to the -pageant and the ceremonies, and murmured against this useless -expenditure. "It is quite enough to have to bear the cost of the -war," he observed. His countrymen spared him neither a speech nor -a salvo of artillery; the joy of the population was at its -height. "It would be quite another thing if Mary had accompanied -me," said the king to those who congratulated him upon his -triumph; "she is more popular than I." - -The States-General were solemnly convened. William was more moved -than he had been formerly on leaving his native country. "When I -took leave of you," he said, "I informed you of my intention to -cross over to England, to save, thanks to your aid, that kingdom -from a deluge of evils present and to come. Providence has -blessed my enterprise, and the nation has offered me the crown of -the three kingdoms. I have accepted it, not from ambition, God is -my witness, but to put the religion, the welfare, the peace of -Great Britain beyond the power of any assault, and to be able to -protect the allies, the republic in particular, against the -supremacy of France. I have loved this country from my earliest -youth, and, if anything could increase this love, it is the -certainty that I have found a reciprocal attachment in the hearts -of my countrymen. If it pleases God that I should become the -instrument which Providence may deign to use in order to restore -repose to Europe and re-establish security in your state, I shall -have lived long enough and shall go down tranquilly to the -grave." - -{41} - -It was at the Hague that the Congress of the Grand Alliance had -met. Having become King of England, and controlling the forces of -a great kingdom, William of Orange remained its chief, -notwithstanding princely jealousies and rivalries, by that -ascendancy of genius which had carried him to the first rank when -he was as yet but the stadtholder of a petty republic. The -assembled princes or their envoys were not used to hear such bold -language employed against the all-powerful king of France as that -of William at the opening of the Diet. "The states of Europe," -said the king, "have been too long given up to a spirit of -division, indolence, or attention to their private interests. We -may rest assured that the interest of each is inseparable from -the general interest of all. The King of France's forces are -great; he will sweep away everything like a torrent. It will be -vain to oppose him with murmurs and protests against injustice. -It is not the resolutions of diets, or hopes founded on fanciful -rumors, but powerful armies, and a firm union among the allies -which can stay the common enemy in his triumphant career and in -the effervescence of his power. It is with the sword that we must -wrest from his hands the liberties of Europe which he aims at -smothering, or we must endure the yoke of slavery forever. For my -part I shall spare neither my credit, my forces nor my person, to -attain this glorious result, and I shall come in the spring at -the head of my troops to conquer or die with my allies." - -The spring had not come yet, and Mons had been already invested -on the 15th of March by a French army. Louis XIV. arrived there -with the Dauphin on the 12th, and, despite the impetuous efforts -of William to relieve the place in time, it capitulated almost in -sight of the allied army. The vigilance of Marshal de Luxembourg -baffled William's maneuvres throughout the campaign. - -{42} - -When he returned to England in October, the advantage was with -France everywhere on the Continent. The Duke of Savoy had adhered -to the Grand Alliance, but Nice had fallen into the power of -Catinat. Opening the session of Parliament, the King spoke -complacently of the successful issue of the war in Ireland; at -the same time he warned the representatives of the nation that a -great effort would be necessary against the King of France, and -in order to support the Grand Alliance. The subsidies had been -voted without opposition, and the House was engaged with the -affairs of the East India Company, when a strange report was -spread abroad: the Earl of Malborough, lately at the head of the -English contingent to the allied army, while the king of England -was absent, had been suddenly stripped of his employment and his -dignities. The Princess Anne, who persisted in keeping her -favorite with her, had to retire with her to the country. The -causes of Malborough's disgrace remained a mystery, which -occasioned the most diverse conjectures, and allowed the enemies -of William and Mary to attribute unworthy or frivolous motives to -them. The cause was grave, and the necessity absolute: the Earl -of Marlborough was hatching a new treason. In the Parliament and -the army all was ready to attempt a Jacobite restoration. - -James II. himself wrote in November, 1692: "Last year my friends -formed the design of recalling me by act of Parliament. The -method was arranged, and Lord Churchill was to propose in -Parliament to expel all foreigners, as well from the army and the -council as from the kingdom. If the Prince of Orange had agreed -to this measure, they would have had him in their hands; if he -had resisted it, they would have made Parliament declare against -him, and at the same time Lord Churchill with the army was to -declare himself for the Parliament; the fleet was to do the same, -and they were to recall me. They had commenced to move in the -matter and had gained a large party, when some indiscreet -subjects, thinking they were serving me, and that what Lord -Churchill was doing was not for me, but for the Princess of -Denmark, had the imprudence to discover the whole thing to -Bentinck, and thus averted the blow." - - -[Image] -Duke And Duchess Of Marlborough. - - -{43} - -The original manuscript of Burnet's Memoirs also contains the -following: "Marlborough busied himself with decrying the conduct -of the king and with depreciating him in all his conversations, -seeking to rouse the dislike of the English for the Dutch, who, -he said, enjoyed a larger share of the king's confidence and -favor than they did. It was a point on which it was easy to -excite the English, too much inclined, as they are, to despise -all other nations and to esteem themselves immoderately. This was -the subject of all the conversations at Marlborough's residence, -where English officers met incessantly. The king had told me that -he had good reasons for believing also that the earl had made his -peace with King James, and had opened a correspondence with -France." - -William III. had learned clemency in his dealings with English -statesmen: the treason of Lord Clarendon and of Lord Dartmouth -had been treated with mildness; when Lord Preston's plot had been -discovered, and Elliot, one of the accomplices, was multiplying -denunciations, the king, who was present, had touched -Caermarthen's shoulder. "There is enough of this, my lord," he -had said; thus imposing silence upon useless revelations about an -impotent discontent against which he did not wish to be severe. -Yet he feared the Earl of Marlborough's perfidy: he knew at once -his rare abilities and his profound baseness, and wished to -secure himself against a treason which threatened his throne and -life. -{44} -Through excessive magnanimity or prudence he persistently -concealed the motives of his determination; but Marlborough's -disgrace was to be long-lived. The silence of William left a -formidable foe to France and a superlatively able head to the -coalition against her, who, had the details of his treason been -generally known, would have been irrecoverably ruined in the -public opinion of England. - -William was about to leave England to take command of the allied -forces on the continent. At his departure he wished to finish the -pacification of Scotland. His late deputy, Lord Melville, had -allowed the Presbyterians to assume a dominating position which -seriously threatened the liberty of the Episcopalians. He was -replaced by Sir John Dalrymple, known in history as the Master of -Stair. Eloquent and able, he had conceived the idea of detaching -a certain number of Highland chiefs from the Jacobite cause by -bribery. A considerable sum had been effectively spent among men -proud and uncultured, but poor and exhausted by their warlike -efforts and their domestic feuds. Numerous chiefs made their -submission, notwithstanding the repugnance inspired by Lord -Breadalbane, who was employed by the Master of Stair in these -negotiations, and whom his connection with the Campbells rendered -suspected by the mountaineers. On the 31st of December, 1691, -Macdonald of Glencoe, or MacLean, as he was called in the -Highlands, found himself almost the only one to refuse the oath -of allegiance. - -He made up his mind, at last, but too late. When he presented -himself at Fort William, the fixed time had expired, and no -magistrate was present. The old chief, alarmed at last, betook -himself to Inverary; they refused for a long time to accept his -submission. McLean returned to his mountains, whither an unjust -and cruel vengeance was about to pursue him. - -{45} - -The Master of Stair had consented to become the instrument of the -hereditary hate of the Campbells; it had been represented to him -that this was the price of the pacification of Scotland. His -orders had been issued in advance for the destruction of all the -clans which should not have made their submission before the 1st -of January, 1692. "Your troops will ravage all the district of -Lochaber, the domains of Lochiel, Keppoch, Glengarry, and -Glencoe. Your powers will be sufficient for the purpose. I hope -your soldiers will not embarrass the government with prisoners." -Lochiel, Keppoch and Glengarry had acted in time. All the hate of -the Campbells and all the administrative zeal of the Master of -Stair were turned upon Glencoe. King William signed his sentence -without reading it, Burnet asserts, and amid the mass of papers -which were presented to him every day. He did not, doubtless, -understand its purport. "It is a charitable duty," wrote the -Master of Stair, "to destroy this nest of robbers." - -On the 1st of February, 1692, a detachment of Argyle's regiment -entered the territory of Glencoe, peacefully, and as if animated -by the most friendly intentions. "It would be better to do -nothing in the matter than to do it unsuccessfully," the Master -of Stair had said. "Since the thing is resolved on, it must be -executed secretly and suddenly." The commander of the small body, -Captain Campbell, commonly called Glenlyon from the name of his -estate, had a niece married to the second son of Glencoe. The -soldiers were well received and housed among the cottages. - -{46} - -They passed twelve days there waiting for the time when -Lieutenant-colonel Hamilton should have occupied the defiles of -the mountains. The 13th of February had been fixed on as the -fatal day; the Highlanders had felt some uneasiness, but their -guests had reassured them, "If there was any danger," Glenlyon -had said to the chiefs eldest son, "should I not have warned your -brother and his wife?" At the appointed hour Hamilton had not yet -arrived; nevertheless the massacre began. Under every roof, -beside every hearth, Glenlyon's soldiers shot down their hosts, -men, women and children; the Master of Stair's orders had allowed -them to spare old men above seventy. In their bloody intoxication -the troops gave no quarter; the aged Glencoe perished among the -first. His wife, assassinated beside him, was stripped of her -jewelry, and did not expire till the next day. At every door was -seen a corpse. When Hamilton appeared at the head of his troops, -they plundered all the houses, and long lines of cattle were -driven down the mountain passes by the light of the flames which -were consuming the villages. - -God does not suffer crime, though cleverly conceived, to gain a -complete triumph. The passes had not been guarded; the murderers -had not all arrived in time, and a large number of the Macdonalds -of Glencoe succeeded in escaping, at the cost of new -sufferings--exposed to hunger, cold, and unceasing dangers. They -repaired to the midst of their mountains, above their ruined -houses and their blood stained hearths. The cry of their calamity -mounted slowly to Heaven. The Jacobites assisted in spreading it -abroad: they had eagerly seized this weapon against King William. -When the latter, far away and imperfectly informed, wished to -open an inquiry into the authors of the crime, so many and so -important persons were compromised in it, that the Master of -Stair alone was removed for a time from public life. The massacre -of Glencoe has remained a dark stain on the reign of William -III., a sad contrast to the leniency and humanity which usually -characterized his government. - -{47} - -Hardly had the king left England before the nation, as well as -Queen Mary, was a prey to serious uneasiness. Louvois had died -suddenly on the 17th of July, 1691, without Louis XIV., with whom -his influence had been decreasing, appearing particularly -distressed at his loss. "Tell the King of England that I have -lost a good minister," was the answer he had made to King James's -condolences, "but that his affairs and mine will fare none the -worse for it." - -Louvois would not have consented to the schemes which James was -urging Louis XIV. to execute. Still convinced of the attachment -of his English subjects, especially of the navy, he was for some -time in correspondence with Admiral Russell, a sincere Whig, and -Protestant, but morose, discontented, unreasonable and easily led -away by his temperament into guilty intrigues. A camp had lately -been formed on the coasts of Normandy; all the Irish regiments -were there, under command of Lord Sarsfield; French forces were -to join them. James called on the English people to pronounce in -his favor by a manifesto so arrogant, so obstinate in the errors -and faults which had caused his downfall, that the ministers of -William III. had it printed and widely circulated in the kingdom. - -Some English Jacobites attempted to combat the disastrous effect -of the manifesto by another paper, drawn up with care and with a -full knowledge of the state of feeling in England; but nobody let -himself be taken in by this maneuvre. A popular movement was -displayed in favor of the government; the militia responded -spiritedly to the call; the coasts were covered with troops; the -fleet of the allies entered the Channel. Those of the British -sailors who had given hopes to King James, recovered their -fidelity in presence of the enemy. -{48} -"I should like to serve King James," said Admiral Russell to the -Bishop of St. Asaph. "It might be done, if he was willing to let -us alone; but he does not know how to act with us. Let him forget -the whole past, and grant a general amnesty, and I will see what -I can do for him." - -The bishop tried some hints about the personal favor reserved for -the admiral. The latter interrupted him: "I am not uneasy about -that, I only think of the public; and don't imagine I should ever -let the French conquer us on our own seas. Be it well known that -I shall fight them if I meet them, were His Majesty himself on -board!" - -This outburst of patriotism, in a malcontent, who had lately been -on the point of becoming a traitor, did not suffice to open King -James's eyes: at his request the formal orders of Louis XIV. -forced the hand of Admiral de Tourville, who was hesitating, to -fight. He had been instructed to protect the disembarkation of -the invading forces upon the English coasts; but the wind -retarded his sailing from Brest. The Dutch fleet had joined the -English, and Tourville wished to await the squadrons of Estrées -and Rochefort. - -Pontchartrain was minister of Marine as well as of Finance since -Seignelay, son of Colbert, had died, in 1690. He sent this answer -from Versailles to the experienced sailor, who was used to -fighting from the age of fourteen: "It is not for you to discuss -the king's orders; it is your business to execute them and enter -the Channel. If you don't wish to do so, the king will appoint in -your place some one more obedient and less cautious than you." -Tourville set out and met the hostile squadrons between the capes -of La Hague and Barfleur. He had forty-four vessels against -ninety-nine which the English and Dutch numbered. Tourville -convened his council of war; all the officers advised him to -retire; but the king's command was peremptory, and the admiral -gave battle. -{49} -After three days' desperate resistance, aided by the most skilful -maneuvering, Tourville was forced to retreat under the forts of -La Hogue in the hope of stranding his vessels. King James and -Marshal de Bellefonds were opposed to this. The vessels were -attacked and burned by the English in sight of the French and -Irish camp. The dethroned king was divided between his desire for -victory and his patriotic instincts. Seeing the sailors who -fought against him gallantly scaling the French vessels, he could -not help exclaiming: "Oh, my brave Englishmen!" Previously, on -the occasion of a trifling advantage that Tourville had gained in -the Bay of Bantry, while James II. was in Ireland, when they came -to announce to the latter that the French had beaten the English, -the king had said, not without bitterness: "Then it is the first -time." Tourville had lost a dozen vessels. The conduct of the -English officers and sailors had been heroic; the admiral had -himself inspected all the vessels and addressed the crews. "If -your commanders betray you," he had said, "throw them overboard, -and me the first!" King James counted wrongly on Rear-Admiral -Carter, who had made him promises, while at the same time he -warned Queen Mary of the fact. Severely wounded, Carter, who was -the first to break the French lines, would not let go his sword. -"Fight, fight," he said, dying, "until the ship sinks!" - -The news of the victory of La Hogue caused great joy in England: -it calmed the minds of the population, distracted by repeated -rumors of conspiracies. The plot denounced by Fuller in February, -and Young's plot in April, both invented, and the creations of -false witnesses, worthy rivals of Titus Oates and Dangerfield, -had disturbed men's spirits. Lord Huntingdon had been arrested; -the Earl of Marlborough had been sent to the Tower for a short -time: the Bishop of Rochester had been tried. Marlborough was -guilty of intrigues more serious, and unknown to the public. -{50} -The Bishop, rich and indolent, had nothing to do with any plot. -He easily proved his innocence; the false witnesses were severely -punished; and Marlborough was set at liberty, with a caution, -after forty-eight hours. His accusers had done him the service of -dispelling the vague suspicions that had brought his disgrace -upon him. - -At the close of the same year, the plot of Grandval, aimed at the -King's life, was to wake again the public disquiet that was -destined to be revived more than once in his reign. In Europe, as -well as England, King William's courage and thoughtfulness stood -in the way of many great designs, and disappointed many hopes. -The sentence which condemned the criminal publicly compromised -the Marquis de Barbezieux, son of Louvois, and secretary of state -for war. Louis' ministers kept silence and did not refute the -charge. - -The fortune of war continued to favor France: Namur had -capitulated on the 20th of June, and its citadel surrendered on -the 30th. "The allies learned it by three salvas from the army of -the Marshal de Luxembourg and that of the Marquis de Boufflers," -wrote Louis XIV. in his Memoirs. "They fell into a consternation -which rendered them immovable for three days; so much so that the -Marshal de Luxembourg having resolved to repass the Sombre, they -thought neither of annoying him on his march nor of attacking him -in his retreat." - -{51} - -When William III. came up with Luxembourg on the 31st of August, -between Enghien and Steinkerque, a new victory, due to the -brilliant gallantry of the French infantry, completed the -uneasiness of the allies. At the end of the year, William, always -clear-sighted and often a pessimist, in spite of his unbending -determination, wrote to Heinsius "I have to tell you frankly -that, if we could obtain peace just now--which certainly would -not be on favorable terms--we should yet have to accept it; for, -to my grief, I don't see that we have anything better to -expect--far from it, for things go from bad to worse. It will -not, for that reason, be less needful for one to do his best; and -for my part, I will do everything in my power." - -The war was to continue several years more, pressing heavily on -England and Holland, which almost alone were in a condition to -furnish pecuniary resources to the allies. The English Houses of -Parliament, sometimes lavish and sometimes penurious, always -extremely touchy about the position of foreigners in the King's -service, often disputed with William the reinforcements of men -and moneys which he demanded for the army; thus arousing the -wrath and distrust with which parliamentary debates and -dissensions inspired him. He had with great difficulty kept in -power Lord Nottingham, who was vigorously attacked by the Whigs, -and in whom he had a just confidence, in spite of the repugnance -which the earl had at first shown to the revolution. On the other -hand, Somers had been entrusted with the seals, and this partial -return of power into the hands of the Whigs had momentarily -calmed the dissensions of the parties. Yet the session had been -much agitated: the land tax and a large loan had been voted on -the motion of Charles Montague. The King was gloomy and -pre-occupied with the campaign which was about to open. "At a -juncture when we ought to be able to make an extraordinary effort -on all sides to resist the enemy," wrote he to Heinsius at the -beginning of 1693, "it tries me not to be able to contribute more -to the general cause. It is distressing to see that this nation -only thinks of indulging its private passions, without reflecting -the least on the general interests. -{52} -The funds which Parliament has allowed me will not cover the -necessary expenses I have to incur, so that I find myself in a -very embarrassing condition. I leave you to imagine how much -this, joined to the critical state of our affairs, and my -inability to supply a remedy therefor, must torment me." - -France was much more exhausted than England; and the losses which -Tourville, Jean Bart or Duguay-Trouin caused English commerce to -endure, did not prevent money flowing to London for the new loan. -Yet the strong will of Louis XIV. and the effective action of a -central power, had sufficed to continue the war during nearly the -whole winter. On the 25th of July, 1693, the battle of Neerwinden -was lost by King William in person to the Marshal de Luxembourg. -Almost invariably unlucky in war, notwithstanding his conspicuous -bravery, he charged sword in hand at the head of two regiments of -English cavalry, which made the enemy give way, till they came to -the household guard of the king. This select corps had remained -motionless for four hours under the fire of the allies. William -believed at one time that his gunners were aiming badly, and -hastened to the batteries; the French squadrons were moving only -to close their ranks as the files were carried off. The King of -England uttered an exclamation of rage and admiration: "Oh, the -insolent nation!" he cried. The admiration was mutual. "The -Prince of Orange was near being taken after having done wonders," -wrote Racine to Boileau. "It is painful for me to tell you," -William informed Heinsius, "that the enemy attacked us yesterday -morning, and that, after an obstinate contest, we have been -defeated. We march to-morrow to encamp between Vilvorde and -Malines, to rally our forces there and impede the plans of the -enemy as far as possible." - -{53} - -Luxembourg was ill and soon afterwards died. The victory of -Neerwinden brought little advantage to France. The same was the -case in Italy with the success of Catinat at Marsala: the Duke of -Schomberg, eldest son of the Marshal, charged there at the head -of the troops paid by England. "Things have come to such a pass -that it is necessary to conquer or to die," he had said, as he -threw himself into the _mêlee_. This was his master's -advice. "The crisis has been terrible," wrote the latter to -Heinsius and to Portland. "God has judged it right to send me -great trials in succession: I try to accept His will without -murmuring and to deserve his anger less. God be praised for the -issue he has granted us, and may we be able by our gratitude -worthily to requite his mercy!" The strife of parties in -Parliament involved, as usual, the grant of the subsidies on -which the military preparations depended. "The increase of the -army meets with violent opposition here," wrote William on the -4th of December; "yet I am led to hope that finally everything -will turn out as I desire. May God will it!" - -Power was passing away from the Tories. Lord Sunderland, who had -lately emerged from his retreat, still able and engaging after -his treason and shame, advised William to recall the Whigs. The -king had been wearied by their arrogance and tyranny; yet he -agreed to place Admiral Russell at the head of the Admiralty and -to make Lord Shrewsbury Secretary of State. The latter hesitated -long before accepting. He began to excuse himself before the -king, pleading his ill-health. "That is not your only reason," -said William; "when have you seen Montgomery?" This clever and -enterprising Scot, formerly leader of the Parliament in -Edinborough, had fallen into disfavor and was serving as agent in -the Jacobite intrigues. Shrewsbury grew pale, and William -repeated to him a part of his conversation with Montgomery. -"Sire," said the earl, "since your Majesty is so well informed, -you ought to know that I have not encouraged the attempts of this -man to detach me from my allegiance." - -{54} - -The king smiled; he knew the strange weakness that weighed like -an enchantment on Lord Shrewsbury's noblest qualities. "The best -way to silence suspicions," he said, "is to take office. That -will put me at my ease: I know that you are a man of honor, and -that if you undertake to serve me, you will do so faithfully." -Shrewsbury was soon made a duke, at the same time with the Earls -of Bedford and Devonshire. Charles Montague, who had lately -conceived the idea of a Bank of England, and helped to establish -it, was named Chancellor of the Exchequer. Measures new, or -renewed with persistency, were violently debated. The bill of -procedure in trials for treason, the bill of disqualifications or -of appointments, which interdicted the House of Commons to -office-holders, and finally the often debated question of the -length of Parliaments, which it was wished to limit to three -years; such were the preliminary movements in parliamentary -reform which delayed William's departure for the Continent. "It -is a dreadful thing to be upon this island, as it were banished -from the world," wrote the King of England. Some days later he -arrived in Holland. - -A great naval expedition was being secretly prepared at -Portsmouth, intended to thwart the designs of Louis XIV. on the -Mediterranean. Marlborough, always well informed, had warned King -James of it. "Twelve regiments of infantry and two of marines are -soon to embark, under command of Talmash, to destroy the port of -Brest and the squadron which is collected there. It would be a -great success for England, but nothing shall ever prevent me from -letting you know what may be useful to you. I have been trying -for a long time to learn this from Russell, but he has always -denied it, though he has been informed of it more than six weeks. -This gives me a bad opinion of the man's intentions." - -{55} - -On the 16th of June, 1694, the English fleet was fifteen leagues -west of Cape Finisterre. Talmash proposed to disembark in the Bay -of Cadsant. Lord Caermarthen, eldest son of the statesman lately -made Duke of Leeds, undertook to explore the bay in his yacht. He -found the approaches well defended. Talmash was resolved to -attack. Caermarthen advanced, first signalling to Admiral -Berkeley the difficulties which he met. Batteries were suddenly -unmasked and swept the decks. Talmash was convinced that the -coast was defended by peasants who would fly at the sight of the -English soldiers: a well sustained fire replied to their attempts -to land. The general was severely wounded in the thigh as he was -being carried to his launch; the troops re-entered their boats -pell-mell. The enterprise was a failure; the fleet had to return -to Portsmouth. Talmash died on his arrival, declaring aloud that -he had been drawn into a trap by traitors. The outwork whence the -fatal bullet came is called, to this day, _The Englishman's -Death_. - -The rage and uneasiness in England were great: people said aloud -that English forces ought to be commanded by Englishmen. Talmash -was dead, and Marlborough ought not to remain longer in disgrace -with the king. All the maneuvres and all the treacheries of the -earl aimed at this. He had the audacity to present himself at -Whitehall to offer his services to the queen. Lord Shrewsbury -exerted himself to have the offer accepted; King William -absolutely refused it. The English squadron was ravaging the -coast of Normandy; Admiral Russell was keeping the fleets of -Louis XIV. in check in the Mediterranean. -{56} -The campaign in the Netherlands was passed in skilful marches and -counter-marches, accompanied by some trifling advantages for King -William, who captured Huy. When he returned to England, on the -9th of November, the queen was waiting for him at Margate, happy -at meeting the man who was the only joy of her life. "Now that -you have the king, don't let him go away again, madame," cried -the assembled women, as the royal couple passed. She was to be -the first to go away, and death was threatening her already. - -Before Queen Mary, Tillotson, archbishop of Canterbury, fell sick -and died, towards the middle of November. He had rendered the -Church of England the great service of throwing the weight of his -character and eloquence on the side of submission to the new -power, by frankly and simply accepting the oaths of allegiance. -He had been strongly urged to do so by Lady Russell. "The time -seems to me to have come," she had written to him, in 1691, "to -put in practice anew that principle of submission which you have -formerly asserted so much yourself and recommended so much to -others. You will be a true public benefactor, I am convinced. -Reflect how few capable and upright men the present time -produces, I beg you, and do not turn your resolution over -endlessly in your mind: when one has considered a question in all -its aspects, one only succeeds, by returning incessantly to it, -in throwing oneself into new difficulties without seeing any the -clearer into the matter." - -Sancroft having obstinately refused the oath, Tillotson had -become Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1691, to the great disgust of -Compton, Bishop of London, who had hoped for the primate's see. -Henceforward, the nonjuring bishops and clergy loaded Tillotson -with their wrath and contempt. -{57} -Gentle, sensitive, used to the admiration aroused by his -eloquence and the esteem for his irreproachable life, the new -archbishop suffered cruelly from the injuries of which he was the -object. When he died there was found among his papers a packet of -pamphlets published against him, with this phrase in his -handwriting: "I pray God to pardon them; I pardon them." "I have -lost the best friend I have ever had, and the best man I have -ever known," wrote William to Heinsius. He loaded the widow with -favors. Such was the popularity of the archbishop as a preacher, -that the publisher of his sermons bought their ownership at the -price of; £2,500, a sum unheard of at that period. Milton had -sold the manuscript of the "Paradise Lost" for five pounds -sterling, and Dryden, at that time the most illustrious of -English poets, had received £1300 for his translation of Virgil's -complete works. - -A more poignant grief was about to strike William. He had come to -Whitehall to give his assent to the bill for Triennial -Parliaments, which he had once objected to. The many members of -the two Houses who pressed into the hall of sessions found the -King's face changed and his mood gloomy. He hastened to return to -Kensington. The report spread that the queen was ill, and it was -soon known that she had the small-pox. - -As soon as Mary had reason to think herself stricken by the -scourge which desolated households every year, she had ordered -that all persons of her retinue who had not yet had the disease -should leave Kensington; then, shutting herself up in her study, -she had put her papers in order, burning a portion of them -herself. "I have not waited for this day to prepare myself for -death," she said, when the disease left her no more hope. The -grief of her husband exceeded all anticipations, astonishing even -those who had been constant witnesses of the absolute devotion of -the queen. -{58} -He did not leave her for a single instant, sleeping beside her -bed and rendering her the tenderest cares. Mary had triumphed -over that stern heart which neither victories nor defeats had -ever been able to disturb. He could not keep in his tears, when -he looked at her. When Tenison, the new Archbishop of Canterbury, -had undertaken to announce her approaching end to the queen, -William drew Burnet into a corner of the room. "There is no more -hope," he said; "I was the happiest of men--I am the most -miserable. She had no faults, not one; you knew her well, but you -do not know, no one can know, her worth." Twice the dying woman -wished to bid good-bye to him whom she had loved alone, and twice -her voice failed her: she now thought only of eternity. Several -times William had been seized with convulsions: when they bore -him from the queen's chamber just before she breathed her last -sigh, he had almost lost consciousness. - -Mary died at thirty-two, lamented by all who had known her. "So -charitable," says Evelyn, "that in the midst of the most violent -political strifes, she never inquired into the views of those who -asked her aid;" gentle and kind to all, often attracting censure -through the fullness of her wifely devotion, which seemed to have -absorbed all other affections in her soul--the only sort of -tenderness that could have satisfied the reserved and proud heart -of the prince her husband. She had welcomed, during her illness, -the advances of her sister. When she had shut her eyes, the -Princess Anne sent to ask her brother-in-law permission to see -him. Somers offered to mediate between the princess and the king. -He found William in his study, his head between his hands, -absorbed in grief; he represented to him the necessity of putting -an end to a family quarrel, of which the political consequences -might become grave. -{59} -"Do what you wish, my lord," replied the king; "I cannot think -about anything." Yet the interview that was asked for took place. -William assigned the palace of St. James to the princess for her -residence. At the same time he sent her her sister's jewels; but -he kept his resolution about the Earl of Marlborough. The -princess's favorites were not admitted to the presence of the -king, and the general remained excluded from every honorable or -lucrative post. Yet Mary's death had changed all the views of -Marlborough: a single life, precarious by nature, shaken by -fatigues and cares, now stood in the way of the greatness of -Princess Anne, and the supreme exaltation of her all-powerful -adherents. The earl and his wife no longer retained their regard -for the fallen monarch; they no longer admitted the legitimacy of -the Prince of Wales. They patiently awaited the day of triumph; -other more guilty hands were going to undertake to hasten it. - -For some days William had seemed incapable of taking part in -public affairs. "I thank you with all my heart for your -kindness," he had replied to the condolences of the houses, "but -still more for your so well appreciating our great loss: it -exceeds everything that I could express, and I am not in a -condition to think of anything else." He had written to Heinsius: -"I tell you in confidence, I feel myself no longer capable of -commanding the troops. Yet I shall try to do my duty, and I hope -God will give me strength for it." The charges of corruption -preferred before the houses against several prominent Tories, -first roused him from his dejection. The great corporations of -the city of London and the East India Company were convicted of -having frequently bought the influence of the ministers. The -Speaker of the House of Commons, Sir John Trevor, was the first -condemned. The charges brought against the Duke of Leeds were -grave. -{60} -The witnesses had disappeared; the charge fell through; but -public rage and indignation pronounced his sentence. He was -forever lost to political life. When William set out for the -Continent, on the 12th of May, 1695, the name of the Duke of -Leeds had been erased from the roll of the Council entrusted -henceforth with the government in the king's absence. The -intelligent, firm and devoted woman, who formerly governed wisely -in his name, and willingly surrendered the power into his hands, -was no more. William rejected all the hints that were given him -to replace her by the Princess Anne. - -The Marshal Luxembourg had died on the 4th of January, 1695, and -Louis XIV. had put at the head of his armies Marshal Villeroi, a -life-long friend of his, a clever courtier, a mediocre officer, -who soon lost the prestige of victory which had been so long and -resolutely maintained for France by so many triumphant hands. - -The results of this change was soon apparent. In vain did Marshal -Boufflers shut himself up in Namur and defend it heroically, till -he finally retired into the citadel, were he held out more than a -month longer; the place was not relieved in time by Villeroi, who -was embarrassed in his movements by the presence and the -cowardice of the Duke of Maine. William III. personally conducted -the siege, and was constantly present at the trenches, giving his -commands in a rain of bullets with a coolness which sometimes -made the bystanders underrate the danger in which he was. Mr. -Godfrey, an envoy from the Bank of England, had come to ask him -for certain instructions. He ventured beneath the walls of Namur -during an assault. "What are you doing here, Mr. Godfrey?" said -the king roughly. "You are running great risk, and you cannot be -of any use to us."--"I am not more in danger than your Majesty," -replied the banker. -{61} -"You are mistaken." answered William; "I am where my duty calls -me; I can therefore, without presumption, put my life in the -hands of God; but you"--As he spoke these words, a ball struck -the unfortunate Godfrey, who fell dead at his feet. William never -willingly permitted civilians in his army. The brave Walker, -formerly the defender of Derry, and whom he had raised to the -rank of bishop, was killed not far from him at the battle of the -Boyne: "What took him there?" growled the king, on learning the -news of his death. It was said among his soldiers that he had -been obliged to use the rod to make curious persons withdraw out -of range of the cannons. - -At last Namur capitulated, the citadel as well as the town. All -the honors of war were granted to Marshal Boufflers, whom Louis -XIV. loaded with his favors. "I am very unfortunate," said King -William, "to have always to envy the lot of a monarch who rewards -the loss of a place more liberally than I can reward my friends -and followers who have conquered one." On the 10th of October he -set sail for England, determined to dissolve Parliament. The new -houses were convoked for the 22nd of November. - -William's return to his kingdom was marked by a genuine triumph: -the elections were favorable to him almost everywhere, and the -difficulties that had been raised by a bill for the reminting of -coins, which were then seriously depreciated, had just been -surmounted. But a disagreement was already springing up between -the king and Parliament in relation to the gifts with which he -had loaded his Dutch friends. Following the example of Charles -II. and James II., William had detached from the possessions of -the crown certain rich domains with which he had recompensed his -faithful servants, notably Bentwick. -{62} -He had just assigned to him a considerable estate in Wales, over -which the crown possessed sovereign rights, which were comprised -in the cession made to Portland. The country and the House of -Commons demanded the retrocession of these rights in a petition -bitterly stamped with the jealousy with which the favors enjoyed -by the Dutch inspired the English nation. William was hurt by it; -but with that moderation and justice which counterbalanced the -reserve of his character and his lack of ductility, he replied to -the petitioners: "I have an affection for Lord Portland, which he -has deserved by his long and faithful services. If I had believed -that the house would have to be consulted in this gift, I should -not have made it; I shall recall my letters patent and shall give -him an equivalent elsewhere." The estates conferred upon Bentinck -were scattered in distant parts of the country. "They shall not -say that I want to create a princedom for Lord Portland," said -the king. - -Domestic quarrels, as well as the jealousies aroused in England -by the formation of a Scotch commercial company, whose rivalry -the English merchants feared, were soon to be stilled in presence -of a great national commotion. Rumors of invasion began to -circulate anew. With the hopes of foreign aid, the intrigues of -the Jacobites had caught a fresh enthusiasm. The Duke of Berwick -had been commissioned to excite the zeal of King James's friends, -who had secretly arrived in England, and was visited mysteriously -by the leaders of the Jacobite party. The Duke was not ignorant -of the more dangerous and less honorable mission that had been -entrusted to Sir George Barclay. The latter had already united at -London a certain number of partisans, ready for any enterprise; -he was bearer of a commission written entirely in King James's -hand, authorizing him to execute, at a proper time, against the -Prince of Orange and his adherents, all acts of hostility which -might be serviceable to his Majesty. -{63} -The act of hostility which Sir George Barclay and his accomplices -were preparing was none other than an attempt to assassinate. The -15th of February, 1696, had been fixed for its execution. Certain -men, ruined by the revolution, recently converted to Catholicism -by personal ambition, Charnock, Porter, Goodman, had long ago -been admitted into the conspiracy; and Sir William Parkyn was not -ignorant of it, though he had taken the oath of allegiance to -William to save the office which he held in the Court of -Chancery. Sir John Fenwick, an insolent Jacobite, who had once -insulted Queen Mary in the park, had, it was said, refused to -take part in the criminal attempt; yet he held the secret of the -conspirators which was soon to cost him his life. A certain -number of King James's guards had arrived successively in London -to reinforce this little band of assassins. The Duke of Berwick -had returned to France, anxious to avoid all appearance of -complicity. The English Jacobites refused to attempt a rising -without the aid of a foreign invasion. King Louis XIV. was -beginning to grow weary of the ineffectual efforts he had so -generously lavished in aid of King James. The latter had met -Berwick at Clermont. "After having learned from him the state of -things in England, and the reasons which had made him return so -hastily, his Majesty sent him to the King of France and continued -his route to Calais. He always hoped that some event would give -him the opportunity of demanding that the troops should be -embarked without further delay, and it was for this reason that -he continued his journey to Calais; but he had no sooner arrived -there than, with his usual luck, he found all his hopes blighted. -He learned that several gentlemen had been arrested for an -attempt against the life of the Prince of Orange, and that this -had raised such an excitement throughout the kingdom that there -was no possibility of the Jacobites thinking of a revolt, still -less of the king's thinking of a landing, even had the French -desired it." - -{64} - -This event, which King James awaited at Calais, and on which he -counted for the success of his projects, had been delayed from -day to day by a series of mischances usual in conspiracies, but -which never opened the eyes of the conspirators. On the 15th, the -king's hunt, during which the forty plotters were to throw -themselves upon him, had been put off, under pretext that the -weather was stormy and cold. On the 21st all the accomplices met -again in a tavern: their posts were assigned, their rôles were -distributed. Eight men were to be armed with fire-arms, the -others had sharpened their swords. "Tomorrow," they cried, "we -shall be masters of the situation." "Don't be afraid to break the -windows of the carriage, Mr. Pendergrass," said King to one of -the other conspirators, to whom a musket had been assigned. -Suddenly a sentinel, who had been sent out to reconnoitre, -appeared at the door, pale and alarmed. "The king does not hunt -to-morrow," he said; "the carriages have been countermanded; the -guards who were sent to Richmond have returned at a gallop--their -horses are covered with foam." The conspirators dispersed, and -the most enthusiastic were already projecting new ambuscades. The -next day before noon almost all of them were arrested; the -population of London, suddenly moved, had lent the police -thousands of eyes and ears, eager to discover the guilty. The -remorse of three conspirators successively had revealed the plot -to the Duke of Portland. - -{65} - -The first of all had been Pendergrass, an honorable and respected -Catholic, but instinctively revolting at the idea of -assassination. "My lord," he had said to Portland, "if you value -the life of King William, don't let him go to the hunt to-morrow. -He is the enemy of my religion, but it is my religion which -obliges me to give you this warning. I am resolved to conceal the -names of the conspirators." The revelations of the others were -more complete. The king was unwilling to put confidence in them; -he had Pendergrass summoned before him. "You are a man of honor," -he said to him, "and I am grateful to you. But the integrity -which has made you speak ought to oblige you to tell me something -more. Your warning has sufficed to poison my existence by making -me suspect all those who approach me; it will not be enough to -protect me. Give me the names of the conspirators." Pendergrass -yielded, on condition that they would make no use of his -revelations against the persons named without his formal consent. -On Sunday morning the guards and militia were under arms; the -lords-lieutenant of the coast had set out for their respective -districts. Orders were given the Lord Mayor to watch over the -safety of the capital. At Calais King James looked in vain in the -direction of England; the flames that were to announce the -success of the enterprise were not kindled. - -The excitement was deep: people realized the danger that had -menaced the state in threatening the life of the prince. The -House suspended the habeas corpus act; they declared that -Parliament would not be dissolved on the death of the king. At -the same time it was proposed to form an association for the -defence of the king and country. The agreement, drawn up by -Montague, was soon laid upon the table of the house; a crowd of -members pressed forward to sign it. A slight modification of the -terms satisfied the scruples of some Tory peers. A great number -of the House of Lords signed it. Throughout the country people -followed their example. William had never been so popular, his -throne had never rested on a more solid basis than on the morrow -of the guilty project formed against his life. -{66} -When Charnock, one of the conspirators, offered to reveal the -names of those who had sent him to Saint Germain, "I want to know -none of them," said the king to the overtures of the miserable -man. The latter, with seven of his accomplices, perished by the -hand of the executioner. - -King William was soon constrained to receive the denunciations he -had at first rejected. During his absence on the continent, while -military operations remained nearly inactive, while the Duke of -Savoy withdrew from the coalition, and while overtures of peace -were coming to the king, he learned that Sir John Fenwick had -been arrested. Some days later the Duke of Devonshire sent him -the confession of the prisoner. Silent about the Jacobite plots -in which he had taken part, Fenwick accused of treason -Marlborough, Godolphin, Russell and Shrewsbury, all engaged in -the service and interests of King James. - -William III. had known this for a long time. Marlborough alone -had gone beyond bounds, and the king had taken away all his -offices, while keeping silent about the causes of his disgrace. -Godolphin, Russell and Shrewsbury were still in power; the last -two counted among the leaders of the Whigs. The stratagem of the -accused was clever: he had purposed to throw confusion into all -camps and suspicion upon all the parties; but the masterly -magnanimity of William upset his projects. William sent Fenwick's -confession to Shrewsbury himself. "I am surprised," he wrote, "at -the wretch's effrontery. You know me too well to suppose that -such stories can affect me. Observe the sincerity of this -honorable man: he has nothing to tell me of the schemes of his -Jacobite friends, he only attacks my own friends." - -{67} - -Fenwick was soon brought before a jury. He was allied to powerful -families: his wife, Lady Mary, was the Earl of Carlisle's sister. -All means were employed to save him: the witnesses who could -testify against him were bought and disappeared. He escaped at -the ordinary trial. The Whigs demanded a bill of attainder -against him. Admiral Russell rose in his place, boldly claiming -justice for Lord Shrewsbury as well as for himself. "If we are -innocent, acquit us; if we are guilty, punish us as we deserve. I -surrender myself to the justice of my country, and am ready to -live or die according to your sentence." - -The discussion was long and violent; the terrible weapon of -attainder was repugnant to many honest consciences, and political -and personal passions were enlisted in the struggle. Fenwick's -guilt was patent to all; the right of his judges to condemn him -was more doubtful. Sentence was nevertheless pronounced, and Sir -John was executed at Tower Hill, on the 28th of January, 1697. - -Godolphin had sent in his verification as First Lord of the -Treasury; all the kindness and the assurances of William had not -availed to make Shrewsbury reappear at court. Sunderland had -quietly resumed power, more despised by the nation than by the -king. With few exceptions, William was wont to distrust all those -who surrounded him, while acting as if they deserved his -confidence. Clear-sighted and severe in his opinions, he was -indulgent in his conduct; his magnanimity was somewhat mingled -with contempt. Henceforth power was in the hands of the Whigs, -strongly organized as a party and forming a firm and homogeneous -ministry. The financial crisis was passing away; England was -issuing triumphant from revolution, plots, and commercial -embarrassments. She was speedily about to enjoy the benefits of a -transient peace, whose preliminaries were already being discussed -at Ryswick. - -{68} - -France offered the restoration of Strasburg, Luxembourg, Mons, -Charleroi and Dinant, and the re-establishment of the House of -Lorraine, on the conditions proposed at Nimeguen and the -recognition of the King of England. "We have no equivalent to -claim," the French plenipotentiaries said, proudly; "your masters -have never taken anything from ours." - -The exhaustion of France drew from Louis XIV. conditions that -were repugnant to his pride; the good sense and great judgment of -William III. had made him desire peace for a long time. Private -conferences took place between Marshal Boufflers and the Duke of -Portland, full of expressions of regard from one plenipotentiary -to the other, and not without mutual good will between the two -sovereigns. The taking of Barcelona by the Duc de Vendôme, led -Spain to think of peace; but the King of France withdrew his -offer of Strasburg, offering in exchange Brisach and Fribourg in -Briesgau. Louis had refused to dismiss King James from France; -the latter was not even named in the treaty. "That would not be -to my honor," the monarch had said; "I will recognize King -William, and engage not to assist his enemies directly or -indirectly." Portland had offered a clause of reciprocity. "All -Europe has confidence enough in the obedience and submission of -my people," proudly replied Louis, "and knows that when it -pleases me to prevent my subjects from aiding King James, there -is no reason to fear that he may find any support in my kingdom. -The reciprocity cannot be; I have to fear neither sedition nor -faction." The peace was signed on the night of the 20th of -September, 1697, between France, England, the States-General, and -Spain. - -{69} - -The Grand Pensioner at once wrote the news to William, who had -retired to his castle of Loo. "May the Almighty bless the peace," -answered the king, "and in his mercy permit us long to enjoy it! -I do not deny that the way in which it has been concluded makes -me uneasy for the future. You cannot be sufficiently thanked for -the care and pains you have freely taken in connection with it." -The work was not completed. The emperor aimed at settling in -advance the question of the Spanish succession, ever ready to be -opened by the feeble health of King Charles II., who had no -children. The Protestant princes refused to accept the -maintenance of Catholic worship in all those places where Louis -XIV. had re-established it "Your letter of yesterday has been -sent me to-day," wrote William to Heinsius, on the 31st of -October, "and I am extremely puzzled to give a positive answer to -it in writing. It would certainly be our duty to continue the war -rather than to make any concessions to the prejudice of the -reformed religion; and if these gentlemen of Amsterdam, and -consequently the republic, wish to remain firm, I should gladly -do so likewise, in the hope that Parliament would aid me in -fulfilling so pious a duty. On the other hand, I must admit that -I do not see, humanly speaking, how the Protestant states and -princes could actually oppose the Catholic powers, seeing that we -would be acting without Sweden, Denmark and the Swiss Cantons, -and that we are now deprived of Saxony. I am extremely uneasy at -the idea that the ministers of the Protestant princes should be -the only ones to refuse to sign; for that might seriously injure -them later, considering that we might not be soon enough in a -condition to assist them or to prevent the injury that France -would certainly do them. I send by this courier orders to my -ambassadors to act in entire unison with those of the republic. -So, if you think you can show firmness, they will do so -likewise." - -{70} - -These same Protestant princes, who did not wish to allow the -practice of Catholic worship in their states, had formerly -inserted in the compacts of the Grand Alliance that peace would -never be concluded with France unless religious liberty should be -restored to French Lutherans. The tolerant wisdom of William III. -and the obstinacy of Louis XIV. finally secured the practice of -their worship to the German Catholics, without assuring the same -tolerance for the persecuted Huguenots. "These are things which -concern me alone, and I cannot discuss them with anybody," said -the absolute monarch. Peace was definitively signed on the 31st -of October, 1697. The King of England had used strong pressure -upon the emperor. "I want to hear," said William, "where any -chance is visible of making France renounce a succession for -which she would sustain, at need, a war of more than twenty -years; and God knows we are not in a position to be able to -pretend to dictate laws to France." William was soon to -experience himself the futility of diplomatic negotiations in -face of a complicated crisis; but he secured some moments' rest -to Europe by using his legitimate influence over the souls of -men, in the interests of peace. "The Prince of Orange is the -arbiter of Europe," Pope Innocent XII. had observed to Lord -Perth, entrusted by King James with a mission to him; "kings and -peoples are his slaves: they will do nothing that may displease -him." And striking with his hand on the table, the Pope -exclaimed: "If God, in His omnipotence, does not come to our aid, -we are lost." - -{71} - -King James considered his cause desperate. "The confederates -remained allied to the usurper they had aided to ascend the -throne," he wrote in his Memoirs, "and his very Christian Majesty -himself so desired peace that he forgot his first resolutions and -recognized him as King of England, like the rest. His Majesty, -then, had no longer aught to do, but to protest publicly and -formally against every compact or agreement made to his -disadvantage or without his participation, in whatever manner it -might be made." James II. had not foreseen into what blunders -royal pride and a mistaken generosity toward his son would lead -King Louis, or what misfortunes this mistake would bring upon -France. - -The joy was great in England. When King William made his entry -into London, on the 16th of November, an immense crowd blocked -the streets, making the air resound with its shouts. "I have -never seen so large a concourse of well-dressed people," wrote -William, next day, to his friend Heinsius; "you cannot imagine -the satisfaction which prevails here on account of the -re-establishment of peace." - -The public rest and prosperity, founded on the liberties of the -nation, the defeat of domestic enemies and the check at last -imposed upon the continual successes of the great foe of European -peace, plots strangled, religious dissensions pacified, and the -king, who had procured all these benefits for his adopted -country, placed, by general consent, at the head of the great -continental coalition--such were the legitimate causes of the -satisfaction of England. William III. rejoiced with it, but not -without fears and forebodings. "I trust to God," he had said, -some months earlier, "that the news they have told you about the -death of the King of Spain and the proclamation of his heir will -not be confirmed; otherwise everything will relapse into the most -inextricable confusion, and every hope of peace will vanish." -Charles II. was still living, but was on the brink of death, and -the question of the succession remained unsettled. - -{72} - -This was not the first time that the King of England painfully -experienced the inconveniences of a free government: the nation -did not share the uneasiness with which the future inspired him, -and the first care of Parliament was to propose the reduction of -the army. The adroitness of the ministers secured the maintenance -of more considerable forces than had been at first desired; but -this was at the price of Lord Sunderland's resignation, whose -courage did not rise to the height of the tempest excited against -him. - -The new elections introduced into Parliament a fluctuating set of -men, numerous, ignorant, free from all party engagements, but -deeply imbued with the popular prejudices against standing armies -and foreigners. Assured of the continuation of peace by the -apportioning treaty which had just been signed at Loo, on the 4th -of September, the Commons replied to the speech from the throne -which recommended the increase of the military forces by a vote -reducing the army to seven thousand men, all of English birth and -race. The motion had been made by Robert Harley, who, though -still young, had already been placed at the head of the -opposition by his Parliamentary talents. "We could have obtained -ten thousand men," the minister had said, "but his Majesty -replied that such a number would amount to disbanding the army." - -"I apprehend trouble." William had written to Heinsius on the 4th -of September, 1698, "for I cannot suffer them to disband the -greater part of the army; and the members of Parliament are -imbued with such mistaken opinions that one can hardly form an -idea of them." - -{73} - -The king's anger and indignation were extreme. His foresight as a -politician, his experience as a general, his pride as a Dutchman, -were equally offended. A disarmament was forced upon him in -presence of the European complications which he presaged; he was -being deprived of countrymen whose faith he had tested, and of -the valor of heroic Huguenot refugees to whom he had given a -country. He was tired of struggling against prejudices which he -had succeeded sometimes in lulling to sleep, never in subduing; -he was wounded in his patriotism and in the deep sense of the -services he had rendered to the ungrateful nation which trampled -upon his counsels and desires. He determined to lay down the -burden that he had carried for so many years. A hope of rest -among his devoted friends, in his native country, diminished in -his eyes the charms of the great power and supreme rank which he -had enjoyed. He wrote to Heinsius on the 30th of December: "I am -so grieved at the conduct of the House of Commons in regard to -the troops, that I cannot attend to anything else. I foresee that -I shall have to come to an extreme resolution, and that I shall -see you in Holland sooner than I had thought." And on the 6th of -January, he wrote: "Affairs in Parliament are in a desperate -state; so much so that I foresee that, in a short time, I shall -be forced to a step which will create a great sensation in the -world." When he was speaking thus confidentially to his most -faithful friend, William III. had already written the draught of -a speech which he purposed delivering before the two houses, -announcing to them his intention of retiring to Holland for the -future: - - "My lords and gentlemen, I have come into this kingdom at the - desire of this nation, to save it from ruin, to preserve your - religion, your laws and liberties. To this end I have been - obliged to undergo a war long and very burdensome to this - kingdom, which war, by the grace of God and the valor of the - nation, is now terminated by a favorable peace, in which you - would be able to live in prosperity and rest if you were - willing to contribute to your own safety, as I had recommended - you at the opening of this session. -{74} - But I see, on the contrary, that you have so little regard for - my advice, and take so little care of your safety, and so - expose yourselves to apparent ruin, depriving yourselves of the - sole and only means which could serve for your defence, that it - would not be fair that I should be a witness of your - destruction, not being able on my part to do aught to avoid it, - being helpless to defend and protect you, which was the only - desire I had in coming to this country. Accordingly I have to - request you to choose and name to me such persons as you may - judge capable, to whom I can leave the administration of the - government in my absence, assuring you that, though I am now - constrained to retire from the kingdom, I shall always retain - the same desire for its honor and prosperity. That, when I may - judge my presence here necessary for your defence, and may - decide that I can undertake it with success, I shall then - perforce return and risk my life for your safety, as I have - done in the past, praying God to bless all your deliberations - and to inspire you with all that is needful for the welfare and - security of the kingdom." - -The king communicated his design to Somers. The abdication, -temporary or permanent, drew from the chancellor a cry of -surprise and anger. "It is folly, sire," he said. "I entreat your -Majesty, for the honor of your name, to repeat to no one what you -have just said to me." - -William listened patiently to the representations of his -ministers, but persisted in his design. Somers soon learned that -the speech was known to Marlborough, recently restored to the -king's favor, thanks to the influence of a young Dutch favorite, -Keppel, created Earl of Albemarle. "We shall not come to an -understanding, my lord; my resolution is taken," said William of -Orange. Somers rose. "Excuse me, your Majesty, if I do not -consent to seal the fatal act that you meditate. I have received -the seals from my king, and I beg him to take them back, while he -still is my king." - -{75} - -The representations of Somers had had the effect of staying the -first movement of the king's wrath. He reflected, and reflection -triumphed, not over the discontent, but over the impetuosity of -an obstinate character and over a proud soul justly irritated. -The bill for the reduction of the army had been voted by the -Lords with regret, and with the sole object of avoiding a -conflict between the two Houses. It was presented for the royal -assent. William went to Parliament on the 1st of February, 1699. -"I am come to give my assent to the bill for the disbanding of -the army," said he, and his aspect had never seemed calmer. -"Although it seems to me very perilous, under existing -circumstances, to disband so large a number of troops, and though -I might find myself unfairly treated by the dismissal of the -guards who accompanied me into this country, and have served me -in all the actions in which I have been engaged, yet it is my -fixed opinion that nothing can be so fatal to us as the -disagreement or distrust that might creep in between me and my -people. I should not have expected as much, after what I have -undertaken, ventured, and accomplished to restore and secure your -liberties to you. I have told you distinctly the only motive that -decided me to accept the bill; but I think myself obliged to earn -the confidence you have shown in me, and for my own justification -in the future, to inform you that I regard the protection which -you leave the nation as very inadequate. It is for you to weigh -this question seriously, and to provide effectively for the -forces requisite to the security of the country and the -preservation of the peace which God has granted to us." - -{76} - -William made another effort, more affecting than clever, to keep -his Dutch guards. "I made a last attempt," he wrote to Heinsius, -"in the hope that out of deference for my person they might have -consented to retain my blue companies; but this step produced an -entirely contrary effect, for they resolved to present to me a -very impertinent address. These regiments, then, will embark in -the course of this week." And some time after he wrote to Lord -Galway, formerly Marquis de Ruvigny, chief of the Protestant -refugees, but henceforth without any command: "I have not written -to you this winter on account of the displeasure I experienced at -what passed in Parliament, and at the incertitude in which I was. -It is not possible to be more poignantly touched than I am at not -being able to do more for the poor refugee officers, who have -served me with so much zeal and fidelity. I fear that God may -punish this nation for its ingratitude." - -The day was already approaching when England was to regret an -inconsiderate haste. The young son of the Elector of Bavaria, -lately adopted by Charles II., King of Spain, had just died -suddenly at Madrid. This death revived the question of the -Spanish succession, formerly settled by a treaty of division -negotiated at Versailles by the Duke of Portland. Bentinck had -been sent to France at the beginning of 1698: he had entered -Paris on the 27th of February, in the most magnificent style. For -ten years England had not been officially represented at the -court of France, and William was of opinion that he ought to -abandon the simplicity of his habits. "Not being conversant with -ceremony, I have supplemented the deficiency by bluster, which is -not without its use here," wrote Portland to his sovereign. "Is -it not the master of this ambassador that we have burnt on this -same bridge, not long ago?" was said in a Parisian crowd, which -was looking at Portland's cortége crossing the Pont-Neuf. -{77} -The shrewd Dutchman, reserved and proud, had made a great success -at the court of Louis XIV. "Portland appeared with a charm of -person, a noble bearing, a politeness, an air of the world and -the court, a gallantry and a grace which were surprising. Add to -that much dignity and even hauteur, but mingled with discernment -and a judgment quick, without being at all rash. The French, who -take to novelty, to a warm welcome, good cheer and magnificence, -were charmed with him. He attracted all, but he selected only the -noble and distinguished as his companions. It became the fashion -to give fêtes in his honor, and to attend his entertainments. The -astonishing fact is that the king, who at heart was more offended -than ever, with William of Orange, treated this ambassador with -more marked distinction than he had ever shown toward any other." - -In 1699 Portland was again charged to negotiate a second Treaty -of Partition. He was then profoundly jealous of the favor shown -by William to Keppel, and in this humor had withdrawn from the -court, to the great regret of the king. "I do not wish to enter -into a discussion regarding your retirement," wrote William III., -"but I cannot refrain from expressing to you my grief. It is -greater than you can possibly imagine. I am sure that if you felt -one half of it you would soon change your resolution. May God in -his mercy inspire for your own good and my tranquillity. I beg to -let me see you as often as possible. That will be a great -mitigation of the distress which you have caused me; for, after -all that has passed, I cannot help loving you tenderly." - -{78} - -Patriotism and loyalty prevailed over rancor and jealousy, and -the king succeeded in obtaining the services of the duke for the -difficult negotiations which were about to be undertaken. "I -ought to say to you that the welfare and repose of Europe depend -upon your negotiations with Tallard," said the king. "You cannot -be ignorant of the fact that there is no one else in England whom -I can employ. Finally, it is impossible and even prejudicial to -my dignity that this negotiation between Tallard and myself -should be delayed. I hope that after reflecting seriously you -will come here prepared to terminate, if possible, this important -business." - -On the 13th and 15th of May, 1700, after long hesitation and -obstinate resistance on the part of the city of Amsterdam, the -second Treaty of Partition was signed at London and at the Hague. -Spain angrily protested against the pretensions of the powers to -regulate a succession which was not yet in abeyance; she recalled -her ambassador from England. The emperor expected to obtain a -will in favor of the Archduke Charles, his second son. King -William regarded the maintenance of the equilibrium between the -two houses of France and Austria, as indispensable to the repose -of Europe. "The King of England acts with good faith in -everything," wrote Tallard to Louis XIV.; "his way of dealing is -upright and sincere. He is proud, one could not be more so; but -he is at the same time modest, although no one could be more -jealous of all that pertains to his rank." - -The Treaty of Partition assured to the Dauphin all the -possessions of Spain in Italy, save the Milanese territory, which -was to indemnify the Duke of Lorraine, whose duchy passed to -France. Spain, the Indies and the Low Countries were to go to the -Archduke Charles. The anger was great at Vienna when the news -arrived that the Treaty had been signed. "Behold our good -friends," said the Count Harrach to Villars, the French -ambassador; "is that the way they distribute other people's -property? England and Holland think only of their own interests. -{79} -What will they do with Flanders, and how will they preserve the -Indies without a navy? The archduke may thank the King for Spain, -but will be dependent upon England and Holland for the -Indies."--"Fortunately," said Kaunitz, "there is one above who -will interfere with these partitions."--"That one," replied -Villars, "will approve of what is just."--"It is something new -for a King of England and Holland to divide the monarchy of -Spain," said the count.--"Permit me, Monsieur le Comte," replied -Villars: "These two powers have recently carried on a war which -has cost them much, but which has cost the emperor nothing; for -in fact you have only borne the expense of the war against the -Turks; you have a few troops in Italy, and in the empire there -are only two regiments of hussars which are not in your service; -England and Holland alone have borne all the burden." - -The anger of the emperor subsided, but that of the German -princes, the Elector of Bavaria at their head, was still to give -much trouble to King William. On the 1st of November, 1700, it -was suddenly announced, in Europe, that Charles II., delicate -from his birth, and for many years on the point of death, had -finally expired at Madrid, and that by a will of the 2nd of -October, he had disposed of the crown in favor of the Duke of -Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. - -This will was the work of the Spanish Council, at the head of -which was the Cardinal of Porto-Carrero. "The National party -detested the Austrians because they had been so long in Spain, -and they loved the French because they were not yet there; the -former had had time to weary them by their domination, while the -latter had been served by their very absence." The integrity of -the Spanish monarchy was the great pre-occupation of the dying -king, as well as of his subjects. -{80} -"We will go to the Dauphin; we will go to the devil, if -necessary; but we will all go together," said the Spanish -politicians. Pope Innocent XII. favored France. Louis XIV. alone, -appeared able to defend himself against combined Europe. On the -16th of November, 1700, he solemnly accepted the will. - -The surprise of William III. was equal to his anger. "I do not -doubt," wrote he to Heinsius, "that this unheard of proceeding on -the part of France, causes you as much surprise as it does -myself. I have never had great confidence in any engagements -contracted with France, but I must confess that I never imagined -that that court would break so solemn a treaty, in the face of -all Europe, even before it was fulfilled. Admit that we have been -duped; but when, in advance, one is resolved not to keep faith, -it is not difficult to deceive the other. I shall probably be -blamed for having trusted France; I, who ought to have known by -the experience of the past, that no treaty is binding upon her. -Please God that I may be acquitted from all blame, but I have too -many reasons for fearing that the fatal consequences will soon be -felt. It grieves me to the heart that almost every one rejoices -that France has preferred the will to the Treaty, and also -because the will is believed to be more advantageous to England -and to Europe. This judgment is founded in part upon the youth of -the Duke of Anjou. He is a child, it is said, and will be -educated in Spain; the principles of that monarchy will be -inculcated in him, and he will be governed by the Council of -Spain; but these are anticipations which it is impossible to -admit, and I fear that soon we will see how erroneous they are. -Does it not seem that the profound indifference with which the -people of this country regard all that which takes place beyond -this island, may be a punishment from heaven? Nevertheless, are -not our interests and our appreciations the same as those of the -people of the continent?" - -{81} - -The Holland merchants, as well as the English statesmen, were -deceived regarding the consequences of the event which had just -been accomplished. "Public credit and stocks have risen in -Amsterdam," wrote Heinsius to the King of England, "and although -there is no valid reason for this, yet your Majesty well knows -the influence of such a fact." - -In this critical situation, with Europe on the eve of a new war, -of which his foresight and prudence divined the duration and -violence, William III. found himself, in England, confronted by -an opposition growing each day more bold, and which during two -years past had systematically obstructed his government. The -Whigs were yet in power, but Russell, now become Duke of Orford, -had retired, offended by a parliamentary inquiry; Montague had -abdicated his offices for a rich sinecure. Assured of his fall by -the implacable enmity of the Tories, and by the visible decline -of his influence in the houses, the eloquent and esteemed Somers, -although Lord Chancellor, was fatigued and sick--worn out by the -constant struggle. A grave conflict threatened the union of the -two houses, as well as the good understanding of Parliament with -the monarch. A commission had been appointed by the Commons, to -examine into the distribution of goods confiscated after the war -in Ireland. "This commission will give us trouble next winter," -said the king. On opening the session of Parliament, his words -were as dignified as conciliatory: "Since, then," said he, "our -aims are only for the general good, let us act with confidence in -one another, which will not fail, by God's blessing, to make me a -happy king, and you a great and flourishing people." - -{82} - -Human passions envenom the best intentions, and corrupt the most -sincere souls. William was accused of feeling intense distrust of -his Parliament; his most intimate counsellors were personally -attacked. Burnet, the preceptor of the little Duke of Gloucester, -only surviving son of the Princess Anne, was insulted, as well as -Somers. When the report concerning the confiscations was finally -presented in Parliament, the gifts accorded to the Dutch -favorites and to the Countess of Orkney (formerly, when Elizabeth -Villiers, devotedly attached to the Prince of Orange), were -violently attacked. "We were sent here to fly in the king's -face," said the partisans of the report. William III. was at the -same time reproached for the indulgence he had shown towards the -Irish. A part of the property confiscated had been restored to -the despoiled families. "All has been given to Dutch favorites, -to French refugees and Irish papists," it was said. Carried away -by leaders as violent as imprudent, the Commons annulled all the -royal grants, and joined to this arbitrary and unjust bill, a law -regulating the land tax for the following year. This move -compelled the House of Lords either to pass both bills or to -reject both, in defiance of the financial needs of the state. -"Affairs are very bad in Parliament," wrote the king to Heinsius; -"I say this to you with a deep feeling of grief, and filled with -apprehension that this will end badly some day. You can have no -idea what these men are; it is necessary to live in the midst of -them and to be acquainted with every circumstance, in order to -judge of them." - -The wisdom of the House of Lords, and the prudence of the king, -prevailed against the violence of party struggles in the Commons. -The peers passed the bill, but not without protest and attempted -amendments, which, however, were rejected; the king gave it his -sanction, but the same day that the lower house voted that his -Majesty be supplicated not to admit foreigners into his councils, -Parliament was prorogued to the second of June. -{83} -For the first time William did not close Parliament with an -address. "Parliament was finally prorogued, yesterday," wrote he, -to Holland: "I have never seen a session more vexatious. After -having committed many blunders and more extravagances, they -separated amidst great confusion; their intrigues are -incomprehensible to any one who is not in the midst of them; a -description of them is quite impossible." The king had likewise -wisely demanded the seals of Lord Somers. The Tories were -triumphant, but they failed to seriously disturb the equilibrium -of the Constitution; they had struck a blow against justice, as -well as against the royal prerogatives, and the privileges of the -House of Lords. "They have entered a dangerous path," says Mr. -Hallam; "they will be arrested by that force which has always -maintained among us the equilibrium of the powers, the reflective -opinion of a free people opposed to flagrant innovations, and -soon shocked by the violence of party passions." - -The death of the little Duke of Gloucester, on the 30th of July, -1700, threw an additional obstacle in the path of King William. -His health was much broken, and for some time past public opinion -in Europe had been seriously concerned regarding him, even -questioning his survival of the King of Spain. The hopes of the -Jacobites began to revive. The question was raised regarding the -advisability of bringing the Prince of Wales to England, in order -to educate him there in the Protestant religion; this sentiment -also weighed upon Parliament, when, at the opening of the session -of 1701, the Houses declared that in order to maintain the -inheritance of the crown of England in a Protestant family, the -throne should descend, in default of issue of William or the -Princess Anne, to the Princess Sophia, Electress of Hanover, -granddaughter of King James I., and her Protestant descendants. -{84} -The great principle of hereditary monarchy was thus protected, -but it was subordinated to the superior principle of religious -faith; a bond of union necessary between the prince and his -people, and the lack of which rendered the succession of the last -heir of the Stuarts impossible. In the midst of the stormy -session of 1701, while the dissatisfaction of Parliament with the -Treaty of Partition was still intense, and while the trials of -Portland, Orford, Somers, and Halifax (formerly Edward Montague), -were in progress. King William had the consolation of seeing -assured for the future those liberties and that religion which he -had defended at the price of so many efforts, often so poorly -recompensed. The upper house boldly declared the innocence of the -accused nobles William had retained upon the list of Privy -Councillors. He was wearied of party strife, exposed as he was to -the anger and the attacks of all factions. "All the difference -between them," said he, "is, that the Tories will cut my throat -in the morning, while the Whigs will wait until afternoon." - -The national sentiment of England, and the fears excited by the -attitude of France, gained for him the strength and the -popularity which the political complications and the unjust -violence of parties had deprived him of. - -Louis XIV. took possession in the name of his grandson of the -seven barrier cities of the Spanish Netherlands, that the Holland -troops had occupied in virtue of the peace of Ryswick. "The -instructions that the Elector of Bavaria, governor of the Low -Countries, had given to the different commandants of the places, -were so well executed," says M. de Vault, in his report of the -campaign of Flanders, "that we entered without opposition." -{85} -The Dutch troops hastened to depart for their own country, and -official relations between the States-General and France were -broken off at once. King William realized the full importance of -this first blow. "For twenty-eight years I have worked without -relaxation, sparing neither trouble nor perils, in order to -preserve this barrier to the republic," wrote he to Heinsius, on -the 8th of February, 1701, "and behold all is lost in a single -day, and without striking even a blow." And on the 31st of May: -"I see that it is necessary to devote my entire attention to the -war; and although, in the eyes of the entire world, I seem to -desire war, yet there is no one perhaps who is more anxious to -avoid it; but to live without security, and to only exist by the -mercy of France, is the worst evil that could befall us." - -The States-General made an appeal to England, and public opinion -communicating its impulse to Parliament, induced the houses to -vote considerable subsidies, increasing the naval forces to -thirty thousand men, and deciding that ten thousand auxiliary -troops should be sent to Holland immediately. William entrusted -the command to the Duke of Marlborough, and he himself went to -the continent in the beginning of July. The Count of Avaux was -recalled from the Hague. "We flattered ourselves," said William -III., "that we should see our States flourishing under the shadow -of a long peace, but the affairs of Europe have changed their -aspect. All nations bordering upon France are menaced: our repose -then would be, at the least, as fatal to our kingdoms as to our -allies." - -On the 7th of September, 1701, the Grand Alliance between -England, the States-General, and the Empire, as signed, for the -second time, at the Hague. The powers engaged not to lay down -their arms until they had reduced the possessions of King Philip -V. to Spain and the Indies, re-established the barrier of -Holland, assured an indemnity to Austria, and accomplished the -definitive separation of the two crowns of France and Spain. - -{86} - -Prince Eugene of Savoy--Carignan, son of the Count of Soissons -and of Olympia Mancini, began hostilities in Italy at the head of -Austrian troops. Catinat met with grave reverses; Marshal -Villeroi was placed in command of the armies of Louis XIV. The -Duke of Savoy bore the title of his Generalissimo. In less than -one year, he in his turn joined the grand alliance, -notwithstanding the union of his daughters with the Duke of -Bourgoyne and the King of Spain. For the second time William -aroused all Europe against the inordinate ambition of France. - -Negotiations were nevertheless being carried on, and the armies -which were silently forming yet awaited the results of diplomatic -efforts. King Louis XIV. destroyed with his own hands the last -hopes of peace. On Good Friday (1701), James II., the deposed -King of England, suffered an attack of paralysis; the waters of -Bourbon, for a time, revived him. On the 13th of September, 1701, -he was attacked for the second time, and immediately demanded the -sacraments. Notwithstanding the irregularities of his private -life, he was sincerely and piously attached to the faith which -had cost him so dear. He exhorted the courtiers who surrounded -his dying bed, and he begged Lord Middleton, the only Protestant -who had remained faithful to him, to become a convert to the -Catholic faith. He bade his son farewell. "I am about to leave -this world, which has been for me a sea of tempests and storms," -said he; "the Almighty has judged well in visiting me with great -afflictions. Serve him with your whole heart, and never put the -crown of England in the balance with your eternal salvation." -Amidst the errors and criminal faults of his life, the only -redeeming trait of his character was that he himself practised, -during his life, the principles which he bequeathed his son. -Philip II. once said: "I would sacrifice all my kingdoms to the -defence of the Catholic faith": James II., more feeble and less -shrewd, had risked and lost all in the struggle with a free -people and an established religion. - - -[Image] -Visit Of Louis XIV. To The Death-bed Of James II. - - -{87} - -James II. was dying at Saint Germain. Louis XIV. visited him -twice, surrounding him, even to the last moment, with the most -delicate attentions. On the 20th of September, the king, -accompanied by a splendid retinue, entered the chamber of the -invalid. James opened his eyes, and immediately closed them -again. "Let no one withdraw," said the monarch. "I have something -to say to your Majesty. Whenever it shall please God to take you -from us, I will be to your son what I have been to you; and will -acknowledge him as King of England, Scotland and Ireland." - -The English exiles, who were standing around the couch, fell on -their knees. Some burst into tears, some poured forth praises and -blessings. "That evening, at Marley, there was only applause and -praise," says St. Simon: "the act was applauded, but the -reflections of some were not less prompt, although less public. -The king still flattered himself that he could prevent Holland -and England, upon whom the former was so absolutely dependent, -from breaking with him in favor of the House of Austria. He -counted upon an early termination of the Italian war, as well as -the settlement of the Spanish succession, which the Emperor was -unable to dispute with his own forces, or even with those of the -empire. Nothing then could be more contradictory to this -position, and to the recognition, which he had solemnly declared -at the peace of Ryswick, of the Prince of Orange as King of -England. It was to wound the Prince of Orange in the tenderest -point; and all England as well as Holland with him, without this -recognition being of any solid advantage to the Prince of Wales." - -{88} - -William III. was at table in his chateau at Dieren, in Holland, -when he learned the news. Always master of himself, he said not a -word, but his pale cheek flushed, and he pulled his hat over his -eyes to conceal his countenance. Accurately informed of the state -of affairs in France, and of the most secret intrigues of that -court, he had foreseen the resolution of Louis XIV. Some days -before he wrote to Heinsius on the subject of a projected mission -to Versailles: "I find myself greatly inconvenienced since the -news has arrived from France, that it is resolved, in case King -James dies, to recognize his pretended son as King of England. -This obliges me to cut short all correspondence with France, and -even to come to extremities with her." Lord Manchester, the -ambassador of William III. in France, immediately received orders -to depart without taking leave. In vain M. de Torcy, the Minister -of Foreign Affairs, strongly opposed to the position Louis XIV. -had assumed, attempted to offer some explanations. He received -from the ambassador the following note: - - "Monsieur: The king my master being informed that his most - Christian Majesty has recognized another king of Great Britain, - does not believe that his glory and service permit him to - retain any longer an ambassador near the king your master; and - he has sent me orders to retire immediately, of which I have - the honor of informing you by this note." - -Some days later the States-General sent the same order to their -envoy M. de Heemskirk. - -{89} - -All England was roused; the Whigs and the Tories shared the same -feeling of anger. "All the English," says Torcy, in his Memoirs, -"unanimously regard it as a mortal offence, that France has -pretended to arrogate to herself the right of giving them a king, -to the prejudice of him whom they have themselves called and -recognized these many years." When William arrived in England, on -the 4th of November, 1701, addresses poured in from all parts of -the country; he was too feeble to endure the fatigues of a -reception, and in consequence went direct to Hampton Court, -without stopping at London. Henceforth, well assured of the great -change that had taken place in public opinion, he published, on -the 11th of November, the order for the dissolution of Parliament -"I pray God that he may bless the resolution which your Majesty -has taken of convoking a new Parliament," wrote Heinsius, on the -15th. - -When the houses re-assembled, on the 30th of December, 1701, the -Tories had lost much ground in the Commons; they succeeded, -however, in electing Robert Harley as speaker. On the 2nd of -January, 1702, the king himself opened the session. The change in -his appearance was very decided; he coughed much: "I have not a -year to live," he said to Portland. The vigor of his mind and of -his soul, however, triumphed over his physical weaknesses. In his -last great speech from the throne, he said that he was assured -that they had assembled there, full of that just sentiment of the -danger which threatened Europe, and of that resentment towards -the King of France for the step that he had taken, which had been -so generally manifested by the loyal addresses of the people. The -recognition of the pretended Prince of Wales as King of England -was not only the highest indignity that could be offered himself -and the nation; but it so nearly concerned every man who had a -regard for the Protestant religion, or the present and future -quiet and happiness of his country, that he earnestly exhorted -them to lay it seriously to heart, and to determine what -effectual means might be employed to assure the Protestant -succession, and to put an end to the hopes of all pretenders, as -well as their secret and declared adherents. -{90} -The king then announced that he had concluded several alliances, -to protect the independence of Europe, the conditions of which -had been communicated to them. "It is fit I should tell you," -continued he, "that the eyes of all Europe are upon this -Parliament; all matters are at a stand till your resolutions are -known, and therefore no time ought to be lost. You have yet an -opportunity, by God's blessing, to secure to you and your -posterity the quiet enjoyment of your religion and liberties, if -you are not wanting to yourselves, but will exert the ancient -vigor of the English nation; but I tell you, plainly, my opinion -is, if you do not lay hold on this occasion, you have no reason -to hope for another." He called upon them to provide a great -strength upon land and sea, that they lend to the allies all the -assistance in their power, and show towards the enemies of -England and the adversaries of her religion, her liberty, her -government, and the king that she had chosen, all the hatred that -they merited. - -This speech, principally the work of Somers, more eloquent and -more impassioned than were ordinarily the simple and grave words -of King William, deeply aroused national sympathy. The addresses -of the two houses no longer reflected the clouds which had so -recently darkened the political horizon. The subsidies and army -levies voted were equal to the public needs. "The courier this -evening will inform you of the good resolutions which were taken -yesterday and the day before in the two houses," wrote the king -to Heinsius; "one could not desire a more satisfactory result. -May the Almighty vouchsafe his blessing to all that follows." - -{91} - -The death of William was sudden and premature. William of Orange -was fifty-one years of age: for thirty years he had borne upon -his shoulders the weight of the destinies of his native country, -and for nearly twenty years he had been the only man in Europe, -who had resisted, obstinately and with success, the encroachments -of France. The supreme moment of the great struggle had arrived; -the fruits of so many efforts and of so much perseverance, fell -from the courageous hands which had so long labored for them. -When the King of England felt himself dying, he, disguised as a -priest, had consulted Fagon. When that celebrated physician of -Louis XIV. bluntly replied to him, that the curé had better -prepare for death, William threw aside his disguise; and the -advice that Fagon then gave him, it is said, prolonged his life. -An accident hastened the progress of his malady. On the 20th of -February, 1702, William was riding in the park of Hampden Court, -when his favorite horse Sorrel stumbled and fell. The king was -thrown, and broke his collar-bone. He was carried to the palace; -and now fully realized that his time was short. He sent to -Parliament a message recommending the union of England and -Scotland. He had thought much of it, he said, and he believed -this measure necessary for the happiness and security of the two -kingdoms, for the European equilibrium, and for the liberty of -all Protestant states. - -The houses received with uncovered heads the last act which -William signed with his own hand. Many laws awaited his approval, -and it became necessary to engrave a stamp to imitate the royal -signature. After some days of convalescence, fatal symptoms -appeared; the king recognized them, and was not deceived for a -single instant. He had said before to Bentinck: "You know that I -never feared death: there have been times when I should have -wished it: but, now that this great new prospect is opening -before me, I do wish to stay here a little longer." -{92} -This indomitable soul had always known how to submit to the hand -of God, and he accepted His will without a murmur. "I know that -you have done all that skill and learning could do for me," said -he to his physicians; "but the case is beyond your art, and I -submit." - -He had sent his favorite, Albemarle, to Holland, charged to -arrange with Heinsius regarding the preparations for the war; and -as though by a prophetic instinct, he had sent by his messenger a -last token of affection to the friend and faithful servant who -had so ably seconded him in his policy. "I am infinitely -concerned to learn that your health is not yet quite -re-established," wrote he to Heinsius; "May God be pleased to -grant you a speedy recovery. I am unalterably your good friend, -William." - -Albemarle returned, bringing from Heinsius the most satisfactory -assurances. When he appeared before his master, who had ordered -him to take some repose after his long and rapid journey, the -king calmly said to him: "I am fast drawing to my end." He -received the exhortations and consolations of the Bishops; -Tennison and Burnet did not leave his pillow; he affirmed his -constant faith in the Christian truths, and demanded the -Communion. After the ceremony was finished, the dying man could -scarcely speak a word. The Duke of Portland, twice summoned by -letters which he had never received, finally entered the chamber. -William took the hand of his friend and pressed it to his heart. -An instant before he had said to his physicians, with a shadow of -impatience: "Can this last long?" They shook their heads. He -closed his eyes and gasped for breath. On the 16th of March, -1702, between the hours of seven and eight in the morning, -William of Orange yielded his soul to God. - -{93} - -When his remains were laid out, it was found that he wore next to -his heart a lock of Queen Mary's hair, and the wedding ring which -he had taken from her dying hand. - -Europe lost her great leader, and England her great king. The -supreme impulse had nevertheless been given in Europe as well as -in England; the alliance against Louis XIV. was formed, and -became each day stronger and more united. Amidst the bitterness -of parliamentary struggles, and notwithstanding the culpable -violence of parties, the parliamentary régime, political liberty, -and the Protestant religion, were henceforth secured to England. - -William of Orange might rest--his work was accomplished. - - - - Chapter XXXIII. - - Queen Anne - War Of The Spanish Succession - (1702-1714). - -"The master workman was dead," says Burke, "but his work had been -conceived according to the true principles of art, and it had -been executed in his mind." William of Orange was dead; after a -reign incessantly contested, unpopular and stormy, scarcely had -he breathed his last, when all he had done, and desired, was -attacked, censured and disputed on every side. The edifice, -however, was too firmly constructed, was founded upon moral -principles too true, and based upon political necessities too -serious, for the storms of party passion to overthrow. The -coalition of Europe was to survive the loss of its chief; the -liberties of England were forever delivered from the yoke of the -Stuarts. - -{94} - -Queen Anne was proclaimed without opposition, and but few even of -the Jacobites affected any astonishment at seeing her ascend the -unoccupied throne. Their prince was still a child, and the last -act to which William III. had put his hand was a bill of -attainder against the Pretender, as King James III. of the Court -of St. Germain began to be called in England. The queen had -successively lost her seventeen children; the hope of the -Jacobites changed its nature, and henceforth they confidently -awaited the future. - -Anne was thirty-seven years old, her health was poor and her -intelligence limited; she was honest, and sincerely attached to -the Church of England. Although naturally good and universally -popular, grand views or great political and moral considerations -were foreign to her; she never comprehended them, and allowed -herself constantly to be controlled by some favorite that she -frequently changed for frivolous reasons or caprices of -management. These favorites were of both parties, but she showed -a marked predilection for the Tories. The Whigs long governed -during her reign, and to them belongs the honor of having -continued the work begun by William III. Queen Anne, however, -always regarded them with aversion and distrust. In the depths of -her soul she had remained attached to the house of her father; -her Protestant faith alone separated her from that brother whose -birth she had stigmatized. She was timid, yet at the same time -obstinate, indolent, and passionately attached to her royal -prerogatives; unable to strike a great blow against public -sentiment, but henceforth the mistress of England by the -preponderant action of the House of Commons. Her favorites, all -powerful while they were around her, had to learn the limit of -their influence; their personal faults, and the grave errors of -their conduct, were not the only reasons that led to the fall of -the Duke and Duchess of Marlborough. Soon constrained to rely -upon the Whigs, as they alone seriously desired the war, -Marlborough, but recently Tory and half Jacobite, was to fall -with them. - - -[Image] -Queen Anne. - - -{95} - -Marlborough was still counted among the Tories, when Anne -ascended the throne; he shared with Lord Godolphin the political -confidence of the queen. The Duchess of Marlborough, haughty, -violent and avaricious, naturally powerful and domineering, as -well over her husband as over the queen, was the intimate friend -of this little council. The influence of the Duke of Marlborough, -as well as public sentiment, induced Anne to favor the war and -fulfil England's engagements. The first speech from the throne -clearly announced her resolution to continue, on this subject, -the policy of King William III. "We cannot encourage our allies -too much in their efforts to destroy the enormous power of -France." Marlborough was sent as envoy extraordinary to the -Hague, to assure the States-General of the intentions of the -queen. As skilful a negotiator as he was great as a general, he -knew from the first how to gain the confidence of Heinsius, and -to give to the European powers a firm assurance of the -maintenance of the Grand Alliance. On the 4th of May, 1702, a -declaration of war was simultaneously promulgated at London, -Vienna, and the Hague. Marlborough was appointed general-in-chief -of the combined English and Dutch forces. After his first -campaign upon the Meuse, although the successes were very -insignificant, Anne raised him to the rank of Duke. She -overwhelmed her favorite with the most lucrative offices. -Finally, to perpetuate the splendor of his house, she demanded -that parliament confer, with the title which she had given to the -illustrious general, a pension of £5,000. -{96} -The houses refused. The queen multiplied her personal favors; -accepted with repugnance, or magnanimously refused at first, and -subsequently reclaimed with avidity. When, in 1712, the Duchess -of Marlborough had forever lost the favor of the queen, she -demanded and obtained all the arrears of a pension of £2,000 that -she had refused from the privy purse of the queen in 1702. - -I have not endeavored to recount in detail the campaigns of the -Duke of Marlborough, and the continual efforts that he made to -obtain the assistance of the allied powers, as well as to control -and harmonize their diverse and contradictory wills. Under an -amiable and seductive exterior, Marlborough possessed by nature a -character calm and impassive. He had not only to struggle against -the obstinacy and patriotic restlessness of the Dutch, which all -the zeal and authority of Heinsius could not control, but also -against the slowness of the emperor and the intestine quarrels of -the empire. The campaign of 1703 was constantly hindered by these -petty jealousies. At the beginning of the year 1704, the general -wrote to Godolphin: "I augur so ill of this campaign that I am -extremely discouraged. May God's will be done, but I have great -reasons for anxiety. In all the other campaigns I saw something -definite for the common cause; this year all that I am able to -hope is that some fortunate accident may permit me to arrive at a -good result." Nevertheless it was in the same year, 1704, that -Marlborough, in the 54th year of his age, laid the foundations of -his glory. - -{97} - -The French commander, Marshal Villars, a braggart and a boaster, -but bold, ingenious and resolute, had gained some successes in -the preceding campaign. In 1704 he was detained in France by the -Camisard insurrection. Marshals Tallard and Marsin commanded the -French armies in Germany, and these were reinforced by the -Elector of Bavaria. The emperor, threatened by a new -insurrection, recalled Prince Eugene from Italy, where the Duke -of Savoy had abandoned Louis XIV. and joined the Grand Alliance; -and Marlborough united his forces with those of the prince by a -rapid march, that Marshal Villeroi endeavored in vain to -intercept. - -On the 13th of August the hostile armies encountered each other -between Blenheim and Hochstardt, near the Danube. The opposing -forces were nearly equal, but on the part of the French the -command was divided, and the corps acted separately. It was to -the honor of both the Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough, -that during this long war they always combined their operations -without jealousy or personal intrigue. "We, the Prince Eugene and -I, will never quarrel about our share of the laurels." The prince -had with great difficulty succeeded in conducting his troops to -their assigned post. While this movement was in progress, public -prayers were begun in the allied army. "The English chaplains," -says Lord Macaulay, "read the service at the head of the English -regiments. The Calvinistic chaplains of the Dutch army, with -heads on which hand of Bishop had never been laid, poured forth -their supplications in front of their countrymen. In the mean -time, the Danes might listen to their Lutheran ministers, and -capuchins might encourage the Austrian squadrons, and pray to the -Virgin for a blessing on the arms of the Holy Roman Empire. The -battle commences. These men, of various religions, all act like -members of one body." - -{98} - -Marshal Tallard had sustained alone the attack of the English and -Dutch under Marlborough; he was made prisoner; his son was killed -at his side; the cavalry, deprived of their leader and driven by -the enemy, fled in the direction of the Danube. Many officers and -soldiers perished in the stream; the massacre was frightful. -Marsin and the Elector repulsed five successive charges of Prince -Eugene, and succeeded in securing their retreat; but the -electorates of Bavaria and Cologne were lost. Landau was -recaptured by the allies after a siege of two months. The French -army recrossed the Rhine. Alsace was gained, and Germany was -evacuated. "If the success of Prince Eugene had equalled his -merit," said Marlborough, "we would have ended the war in this -campaign." - -The return of the Duke of Marlborough to England was a veritable -triumph. Parliament and the queen vied with each other in -generosity towards him. He received as a gift the estate of -Woodstock, which took the name of Blenheim. The foundations of a -magnificent palace were laid. In vain did the Tories, already -envious of the duke, seek to rival his victorious campaign, by -the maritime successes of Sir George Rooke; all eyes were fixed -upon the general, all hope centered on him; his influence in -England was equal to his power upon the continent. "If the duke -gains the same successes in 1705 as he has gained in 1704," said -the Tories, "the constitution of England will be lost." The -discontented were reassured. - -The brilliant results of the campaign of 1705, in Spain, under -the Earl of Peterborough (formerly Lord Mordaunt), were -counteracted, in Germany, by the internal discords of the Grand -Alliance. Masters of Gibraltar since 1704, the English, in 1705, -seized Barcelona. Bold, enterprising and peculiar, but of -brilliant personal valor, Peterborough had taken possession of -Barcelona in spite of his lieutenants and his soldiers. He -rallied and led back to the assault the flying troops. Galloping -to meet them and flourishing a half broken pike in his hand, he -cried, "Return, and follow me, if you do not want the eternal -infamy of having deserted your post and abandoned your general." - -{99} - -"We have been the object of a miracle," wrote he to the Duchess -of Marlborough. "I know what was the temper of our nation, -especially during the month of November. I believe, however, that -one ought not to complain, but we are as poor as church mice, -without money, and miracles are not sufficient." - -In 1706 alternate successes and reverses had successively -delivered Madrid to the princely competitors who disputed the -throne of Spain. Peterborough found at the head of the troops of -King Philip V., his compatriot, the Duke of Berwick. This -nobleman was often engaged, for the service of his party or his -family, in enterprises which did not become his taciturn honesty. -He was faithfully devoted to the service of King Louis XIV., -although never a favorite with his grandson, and still less -pleasing to the young Queen, Marie Gabrielle, second daughter of -the Duke of Savoy. - -Lord Peterborough shared in the same manner the dislike of the -Archduke Charles. "I would not accept my safety from the hands of -my Lord Peterborough," said the Austrian Prince.--"What fools we -are to fight for such imbeciles!" bitterly replied the English -General. - -The defeat at Blenheim, in 1704, was a first and terrible blow to -the power of Louis XIV., as well as to the military prestige of -France. The defeat at Ramillies, on the 23rd of May, 1706, was a -second step towards ruin. The personal attachment of the king had -always blinded him regarding the military talents of Villeroi. -Defeated in Italy by Prince Eugene, Villeroi, as presumptuous as -unskilful, hoped to distinguish himself before Marlborough. -{100} -"All the army long for battle. I know that it is the wish of your -Majesty," wrote the marshal to Louis XIV., after his check. "How -can I prevent exposing myself to an engagement which I believe -expedient?" His lieutenants differed with him; they conjured him -to change his order of battle. The troops engaged without -confidence. The Bavarians fled within an hour; the French, heroic -as at Blenheim, realizing the blunders of their commander, soon -followed their example. The rout was complete, the disorder -indescribable. Villeroi did not stop until he was under the walls -of Brussels. He was soon obliged to evacuate that place. The Duke -of Marlborough entered it in the middle of October, master of -two-thirds of Belgium. The emperor offered to the victorious -general the government of the Low Countries. Marlborough greatly -desired to accept it, but the visible opposition of the -Hollanders prevented him. "Assure the States that I have no -desire to give them any embarrassment," wrote he to Heinsius; -"since they do not think it expedient, I willingly decline to -accept this commission." Marshal Villeroi was recalled. "No more -happiness at our age," said the king with great kindness. The -Duke de Vendôme was charged with the command of the army in -Flanders, "in the hope that he would infuse that spirit of -strength and audacity natural to the French nation," said Louis -XIV. "All the world here is ready to take off its hat when the -name of the Duke of Marlborough is mentioned," wrote Vendôme; "if -the soldiers and the cavaliers are of the same mind, then one -might as well take leave at once; but I hope to find better -material." - -{101} - -All the efforts of Vendôme were not able to prevent the loss of -Ménin, of Ath, and of Dendermonde. Prince Eugene defeated the -Duke of Orleans before Turin on the 7th of September. Marshal -Marsin was killed. "It is impossible to express the joy that I -feel," said Marlborough, in a letter to his wife, "for I more -than esteem, I love the Prince Eugene. This brilliant action -ought to place France low enough to permit us, if our friends -consent to continue the war for another year, to conclude a peace -which will give us repose to the end of our days. But for the -present I do not comprehend the Dutch." - -The States-General had, in fact, received overtures from Louis -XIV., which inclined them towards peace. "It is said publicly at -the Hague," wrote Godolphin, "that France is humbled as much as -is desirable, and that if the war is prolonged, it will end in -making England stronger than she ought to be. All that they have -as yet proposed, is a treaty of partition, dishonorable to the -allies and deplorable for the future." War made the glory, the -fortune and the power of the Duke of Marlborough, as well as of -Prince Eugene; both influenced Heinsius, who had remained -faithful to the policy of William III., but without that grandeur -and breadth of mind which knows how to measure advantages with -justice and moderation. The disputes of the States finally ended -in the republic remaining faithful to the allies, and deciding -not to accept any negotiation without their concurrence. Public -opinion was nevertheless modified in Holland. "The Burgomasters -of Amsterdam have passed two hours at my house this morning, -endeavoring to convince me of the necessity of a prompt peace," -wrote Marlborough, in 1708; "this, on the part of the most -zealous Hollanders, has greatly disturbed me." - -{102} - -For a time the affairs of France, closely allied to those of -Spain, appeared to improve in that kingdom; the victory at -Almanza, won on the 13th of April, 1707, by Marshal Berwick over -the Anglo-Portuguese army, and the taking of Lerida, which -capitulated on the 11th of November, to the Duke of Orleans, -revived the hopes of the partisans of Philip V., and turned -popular sentiment in his favor. Lord Peterborough, dissatisfied -and irritated, returned to England. Lord Galway, son of the old -Marquis of Ruvigny, and like him a refugee in England, took -command of the English troops. The campaigns of the Duke of -Marlborough and Prince Eugene had not been brilliant. The Prince -and the Duke of Savoy had been repulsed before Toulon, and the -uprising of the peasants compelled them to precipitately evacuate -Provence. Marshal Villars had driven back the Margrave of -Bayreuth from the banks of the Rhine, and had advanced into -Swabia; he also ravaged the Palatinate. All the negotiations of -Marlborough in Sweden, at Vienna and at Berlin, had not been able -to bring about, in time, a combined action of the allied forces; -murmurs of dissatisfaction were heard in England as well as in -Holland. The enemies of Marlborough accused him of designedly -prolonging the war, by his insatiable avariciousness. The -popularity of the duchess with the queen was visibly declining; -all the audacity and cleverness of the great general were -scarcely sufficient to turn aside parliamentary attacks. -Godolphin was threatened in his power. "I am discouraged," wrote -Marlborough to his wife, "and I am astonished at the courage of -the Lord Treasurer. If I was treated as he is--and I probably -will be--and was always upon the point of seeing myself abandoned -by the Whigs, I would not remain at my post for all that the -world might offer; I would not be the first to repent. When I say -this I know well that while the war lasts, I ought to retain my -command; but I do not wish to put my hand to another thing." - -{103} - -The campaign of 1708 opened badly. Ghent and Bruges opened their -gates to the young prince, the Duke of Burgundy. "The States have -used this country so ill," said Marlborough, "that all the towns -are disposed to follow the example of Ghent when the opportunity -offers." - -Prince Eugene advanced to support Marlborough, but he set out too -late; the Elector of Bavaria obstructed his march. "I do not wish -to speak ill of Prince Eugene," said Marlborough, "but he will -arrive at the rendezvous on the Moselle ten days too late." The -English were unsupported when they encountered the French army in -front of Kidenarde. The battle commenced without the presence of -the Duke of Burgundy, who received the news too late. Vendôme, -the commanding general, was defeated. Marlborough proposed to -carry the war into France. Prince Eugene, and the deputies of the -States-General, did not approve of the boldness of the project. -The allies besieged Lille. Marshal Boufflers held the city until -the 23rd of October, and the citadel until the 9th of December, -without receiving any succor. When he surrendered. Prince Eugene -permitted him to march out, with all the honors of war. Ghent and -Bruges were delivered into the hands of the imperialists. "We -have committed folly upon folly in this campaign," says Marshal -Berwick, in his Memoirs, "but notwithstanding even this, if we -had not abandoned Ghent and Bruges we would have had easy work -the next year." The Low Countries were lost, and the French -frontiers were encroached upon by the loss of Lille. The Duke of -Orleans, weary of his forced inactivity in Spain, and suspected -at the court of Philip V., resigned his command: he returned to -France. The English Admiral Leake, and General Stanhope, took -possession of Sardinia, the island of Minorca, and Port-Mahon. -The archduke was master of the islands and of the Mediterranean -sea. For a year past Philip V. had not possessed an inch of land -in Italy. The exhaustion and misery of France were extreme, and -Louis XIV. finally decided to negotiate for peace. - -{104} - -He first addressed himself to Holland, where there existed a -general desire for peace; the war could bring the Dutch no other -profit than a guarantee of security. The king offered this. "In -the midst of the sufferings that hostilities had inflicted upon -commerce, there was reason to hope," wrote the Marquis of Torcy, -in his Memoirs, "that the grand pensionary, regarding principally -the interests of his country, would desire the end of a war, the -burden of which fell upon his own country. Authorized by the -republic, he had no reason to fear any secret intrigue, nor any -cabal to displace him from a post which he occupied to the -satisfaction of his masters, and in which he conducted himself -with moderation. Although the united provinces bore the principal -weight of the war, the emperor alone gathered the fruits. It is -said that the Dutch guarded the Temple of Peace and held the keys -in their hands." - -Torcy had counted too much upon the moderation of Heinsius. In -vain President Rouillé, charged with the secret negotiations, -proposed to abandon Spain, provided Naples, Sardinia and Sicily -were assured to Philip V.: Louis XIV. thereby came back to the -second treaty of partition, but recently concluded with the -United Provinces, as well as with England. Heinsius, faithful to -the Grand Alliance, ardent to avenge the past injuries of the -republic, and justly suspicious regarding France, did not -comprehend that he was destroying the work of William III., and -the European equilibrium, if he assured to the house of Austria -the preponderance of which he deprived the house of Bourbon; the -conditions that he exacted, through his delegates, were such that -Rouillé scarcely dared transmit them to Versailles. -{105} -Each of the allies desired a share of the spoils. England claimed -Dunkirk, Germany desired Strasbourg and the re-establishment of -the Peace of Westphalia; Victor Amadeus wanted to recover Nice -and Savoy, and the Dutch demanded that to the barrier stipulated -at Reyswick should be added, Lille, Condé and Tournay. "The king -will break off the negotiations, sooner than accept such -exorbitant conditions," said the deputy of the States-General to -Marlborough.--"So much the worse for France," replied the English -general; "for the campaign once begun, things will go further -than the king thinks. The allies will never relax their first -demands." - -The Duke was assured of the fidelity of his allies--he had made a -trip to England. When he returned to the Hague, the Marquis of -Torcy himself had arrived to pursue the negotiations, and was the -bearer of new concessions. The king offered to recognize Queen -Anne, to cede Strasbourg and Lille, and to content himself with -Naples for his grandson. Marlborough protested his pacific -intentions: "You also ought to desire peace for France," said he -to the minister of Louis XIV.; "it is necessary to conclude it as -soon as possible. But if you seriously desire it, be assured that -it is necessary to renounce absolutely the Spanish monarchy; on -this point my compatriots are unanimous. The English will never -permit Naples and Sicily, or even one of those two kingdoms, to -remain in the hands of a Bourbon. An English minister would not -dare even to propose it." - -{106} - -The Duke insisted that the Pretender should be compelled to leave -France. An attempted descent upon Scotland, assisted by Louis -XIV., although unsuccessful, owing to the bad weather, had -excited the anger of the Whig ministry, and they demanded, in the -negotiations, that France should cease to give her support to the -young prince. "I would like to serve him," said Marlborough to -Torcy--who had not left him in ignorance of the intrigues that -were taking place at the Court of St. Germain; "he is the son of -a king for whom I would have given my life," and he added: "my -colleague Lord Townshend is a Whig: in his presence I am obliged -to speak as the most of the English; but I would like, with all -my heart, to serve the Prince of Wales. I sincerely believe it -would be to his advantage, at this time, to leave France. Is not -the success of the allies a miracle of Providence? When has it -happened before that eight nations have spoken and acted as one -man?" - -Torcy had gone to the last limits of concession; he had renounced -Sicily as well as Naples. The allies claimed Alsace, certain -towns in Dauphiné and Provence, and they exacted that the -conditions of the peace were to be executed during the truce of -two months, that they were about to accord; besides Louis XIV. -was to deliver immediately, to Holland, in case Philip V. refused -to abdicate, three fortified cities. To this dishonorable -proposition, the young king replied: "God has given me the crown -of Spain; and while there remains a drop of blood in my veins, I -will defend it." - -The demands of the allies passed all reasonable bounds; imprudent -even for the interests of Europe as well as for the maintenance -of a durable peace, their propositions deeply wounded royal honor -and patriotic sentiment in France and Spain. The prudent sagacity -of William III. would have preserved the powers from this grave -error, but the political obstinacy of Heinsius, the decided -hatreds of Prince Eugene, and the avidity of the Duke of -Marlborough for glory and fortune, served the cause that they at -heart desired to ruin forever. -{107} -Louis XIV. broke off negotiations and made a final effort. "If I -must continue the war," said he, "I will contend against my -enemies rather than against my own family." He wrote to all the -governors of the provinces and cities: - - "Gentlemen: The hope of an early peace has been so generally - spread abroad in my kingdom, that I believe it due to the - fidelity that my people have testified towards me, during the - entire course of my reign, that I inform them of the reasons - which still prevent their enjoying that repose which I had - designed to procure for them. In order to re-establish peace, I - would have accepted conditions strongly opposed to the safety - of my frontier provinces; but the more readiness I have shown, - and the more desire I have manifested to dissipate the fears of - my power and of my designs that my enemies affect to entertain, - the more they have multiplied their pretensions, refusing to - make any other engagement than to discontinue all acts of - hostility until the first of August, and reserving to - themselves the liberty of then appealing to arms, if the King - of Spain, my grandson, persists in his resolution to defend the - crown which God has given him. Such a resolution is more - dangerous to my people than war, for it assures to the enemy - advantages more considerable than they would be able to gain by - their armies. As I put my confidence in the protection of God, - and as I hope the purity of my intentions will draw his - benediction upon my arms, I wish my people to know that they - would immediately enjoy peace if it depended only upon my will - to procure for them a blessing that they so reasonably desire; - but that it is necessary to acquire it by new efforts, since - the enormous concessions that I would have accorded are useless - for the re-establishment of the public peace. - - Louis." - -{108} - -France might have reproached Louis XIV. for the arrogance which -had drawn her, with him, to the borders of an abyss. Intoxicated -as well as the monarch by an insensate ardor for glory, the -French people had long served the royal passions. They cruelly -expiated their faults, without however allowing themselves to be -overwhelmed by their misfortunes. In France, as well as in Spain, -the people and the army nobly responded to the appeals of the -sovereigns. "It is a miracle that the firmness and the virtue of -the soldier survives the sufferings of hunger," said Marshal -Villars, who took command of the French army in the Low -Countries. He encountered near Malplaquet, on the 11th of -September, 1709, Prince Eugene and Marlborough, who had just -taken possession of Tournay. In vain did Villars, for many days, -implore the king for permission to give battle. When finally, to -his great joy, the orders were given to engage the enemy, his -troops were so eager for the combat that they threw away the -rations which had just been distributed to them. "Vive le Roi! -Vive le marechal!" cried the soldiers. Villars intrenched himself -outside of a woods. "So we have still to fight against moles," -angrily said Prince Eugene. - -During the action Marshal Villars was seriously wounded. "I had -my wound dressed upon the field, and placed myself upon a chair -to give my orders," wrote he in his Memoirs, "but the pain caused -me a swoon, which lasted so long that I was borne unconsciously -to Quesnoy." Prince Eugene, also wounded, while attacking the -centre of the French army, refused all care. "There will be time -enough for that this evening, if I survive," said he calmly. He -remained on his horse. Marshal Boufflers, who had served thus far -as a volunteer, took the command of the French army. Its defeat -was complete, although glorious. The retreat was conducted like a -parade. The allies lost twenty thousand men. "If God vouchsafe -that we should lose such another battle," wrote Villars to Louis -XIV., "your Majesty could count your enemies destroyed." The king -was not deceived; but he sadly renewed the negotiations by -sending Marshal Uxelles, and the Abbé Polignac to Gertruydenberg. - -{109} - -This new victory elated the allies. Heinsius, charged with the -conduct of the conferences, maintained his propositions. "The -States-General were then the arbitors of Europe," wrote Torcy, in -his Memoirs, "but they were so dazzled by the excess of glory to -which the allies had raised them that they would not suffer it to -be said to them that they were working for the aggrandizement of -Austria and England."--"It is evident that you are not accustomed -to conquer," bitterly remarked the Abbé Polignac to the Holland -delegates. The king consented to give guarantees to engage his -grandson to abdicate; he promised, in case of refusal, not only -to sustain him no longer, but to furnish the allies a monthly -subsidy of a million francs, and to grant a passage over French -territory. He accepted the cession of Alsace and Lorraine, and -the return of the three bishoprics to the empire. The abdication -of Philip V. was to be assured, or else Louis XIV. was to aid, by -force of arms, in dethroning him. The just pride of the king and -of the father, revolted against this impudence, and severe -ultimatum. The King of Spain absolutely refused all concessions. -"Whatever may be the misfortunes which await me," wrote he to his -grandfather, "I prefer to submit myself to whatever God may -decide for me in battle, to deciding for myself by consenting to -an accommodation which would force me to abandon a people upon -whom my reverses, up to this time, have produced no other effect -than to augment their zeal and their affection for me." -{110} -Louis XIV. withdrew his propositions; the conferences at -Gertruydenberg were abandoned on the 25th of July, 1710. The king -was no longer able to assist his grandson, but he sent Vendôme. - -On the 10th of December, the French general, constantly defeated -during the first part of the campaign, gained over the Austrian -contingent of the archduke, a disputed victory, at Villa Viciosa. -Count Staremberg, who commanded, spiked his cannon, and retired, -while the young king slept upon the field of battle. The allies -now held only Cattalona. In vain had General Stanhope recently -led the archduke to Madrid. "I was ordered to conduct him there," -said he; "when he is once there, may God, or the devil maintain -him there, or drive him out--that is not my business." - -Stanhope had judged well the sentiments of the Spanish people, -more and more attached to Philip V., and faithful to his cause; -neither was he deceived regarding the position that the military -and political successes--that England owed, above all, to the -Duke of Marlborough--had assured to her in Europe. Long charged -with the burden of the war, England had become, by her close -alliance with the Dutch, as well as by her proper predominance, -the veritable mistress of peace or war in Europe. "Our Henry and -our Edward have left behind them an immortal renown," said -Stanhope to the House of Lords, "because they humiliated and -conquered the power of France. It is the glory of Queen Elizabeth -to have humbled the pride of Spain. Turn by turn these two great -monarchies have aspired to an universal domination in Europe; -both have been upon the point of obtaining it, in spite of their -mutual hostility, but no one had foreseen that an effectual -resistance could be opposed to them in Europe, if the two -monarchies were united. We have lived long enough to see these -two formidable powers threatening, at the same time, all the -liberties of Europe. Your Majesty was destined to struggle -against these united forces. They have been attacked and -compelled to ask for peace." - -{111} - -It was in fact from England that this peace, so desired by France -and Spain, and now become indispensable to both powers, was to -emanate. The great Whig ministry had been, for a long time, -losing favor; the Queen was at length weary of the avidity and -hauteur of the Duke and Duchess of Marlborough. New favorites -cleverly alienated her and led her back to the friends of her -youth. The Tories replaced the Whigs in power. I will soon tell -by what maneuvres this cause was served. I wish here only to -indicate the political modifications which already made peace -foreseen. The Chancellor of the Exchequer, Harley, subsequently -Duke of Oxford, recently become a Tory, with no other passion -than personal ambition; and the Secretary of State, St. John, -known in history under the name of Bolingbroke, Jacobite to the -depth of his soul, by restlessness of mind and taste for -intrigue, equally urged England forward in the road to peace. The -Abbé Gautier, but recently chaplain to Marshal Tallard, and now -residing in England, was charged with a mission to Torcy at -Versailles. "Do you wish for peace?" said the abbé to him. "I -come to bring you the means of obtaining it, and of concluding -it, independently of Holland--unworthy of the kindness of the -king, and of the honor he has shown in addressing her regarding -the pacification of Europe." "To ask a minister of his Majesty, -if he desires peace," replied Torcy, "is to ask a dying man -whether he would wish to be cured." - -Negotiations were secretly opened with the English cabinet, and -were often more confidential on the part of Harley and -Bolingbroke than seemed compatible with the fidelity due to their -sovereign, or with the engagements of England with her allies. - -{112} - -The end was as reasonable as just; but the means employed to -arrive at it were not indisputable. The Emperor Joseph had just -died, leaving only daughters; the elevation of the Archduke -Charles thenceforth threatened Europe with the preponderance of -the house of Austria. England had the honor of first -comprehending the danger, and of playing that part of moderator, -which Holland had so recently exercised, and which had given her -so much grandeur. The natural taste of Harley for secret -intrigues prolonged the mystery for some time; inferior agents -went back and forth between London and Versailles. The poet -Prior, and a deputy from Rouen, named Mesnager, had the honor of -seeing the queen in person. The fatal effects of the war had -oftened saddened her. "It is a good work," said she, to the -modest French plenipotentiary; "I pray God to give you his -assistance; I hold the shedding of blood in horror." - -The war, nevertheless, continued, and Marlborough remained at the -head of the allied forces, notwithstanding the disgrace of his -friends, and the withdrawal of his wife, who had definitively -left the court, not however without efforts, as audacious as -violent, to regain the influence which she so recently exercised -over the queen. The campaign of 1711 had been unimportant; -conferences were opened at Utrecht, and preliminaries were signed -with England: they assured to English commerce immense -advantages, besides the cession of Newfoundland and the remainder -of the French territory in Acadia. When the communication was -made to Holland, the negotiators prudently withheld some -articles. Public feeling at the Hague was nevertheless aroused; -the States-General sent a delegate to officially protest. -{113} -"England has borne the brunt of the war," bluntly replied St. -John; "it is but just that she should be at the head of the -parleys for peace." The Count of Gallas, ambassador of the -emperor at London, was so incensed by the tone of the articles -that he had them published immediately, in one of the daily -journals. Queen Anne forbade his appearance at court. The -preliminaries were unpopular, and the guarantees offered by -France did not appear sufficient. - -"On Friday the peace will be attacked in Parliament," wrote St. -John, on the eve of the opening of the session. "I am very easy. -I detest the remote dangers which threaten me; we will receive -their fire and put them to rout once for all." The speech from -the throne announced the opening of the conferences, "in spite of -the efforts of those who take pleasure in war." - -The queen created twelve new peers, in order to assure, in the -upper house, a pacific majority. - -In less than one year, from the 14th of April, 1711, to the 8th -of March, 1712, the royal house of France was overwhelmed by sad -afflictions of Providence. Louis XIV. lost by violent and rapid -sicknesses his son, the Grand Dauphin; and the Duke of Burgundy, -his grandson. Six days later the Duchess of Burgundy, the -charming Marie Adelaide of Savoy; and finally his great grandson, -the Duke of Brittany, four years of age. The little Duke of -Anjou, only an infant in the cradle, and feeble and sickly, now -represented the eldest branch of the House of Bourbon, and was to -become the King, Louis XV. The allies became troubled, and added -to their diplomatic exactions the renunciation by Philip V. of -the crown of France. The good offices of England were not lacking -to the old king, now overwhelmed by the weight of so many -misfortunes, and who attracted the admiration of even his -enemies, by the courageous firmness of his attitude. -{114} -Louis XIV. wrote to his grandson: "You will be informed of the -proposals of England, that you renounce the rights of your birth -to preserve the crown of Spain and the Indies, or renounce the -monarchy of Spain to preserve your rights to the succession of -France, and receive in exchange for the kingdom of Spain, the -kingdoms of Sicily and Naples, the states of the Duke of Savoy, -Mont Ferrat and Mantua, permitting the Duke of Savoy to succeed -you in Spain. I avow that notwithstanding the disproportion of -the states, I have been sensibly touched by thinking that you -would continue to reign, and that I might always regard you as my -successor; assured if the Dauphin lives, of a regent accustomed -to command, capable of maintaining order in my kingdom, and of -stifling cabals. If this child should die, as his feeble -appearance gives me but too much reason to believe, you will -receive the succession according to the order of your birth, and -I would have this consolation of leaving to my people a virtuous -king, capable of commanding them, and who, on succeeding me, -would unite to the crown of France, states as considerable as -Naples, Savoy, Piedmont and Mont Ferrat. If gratitude and -tenderness for your subjects are powerful motives inducing you to -remain with them, I can say that you owe me the same sentiments. -You owe them to your house, and to your country, before you owe -them to Spain. All that I am able to do is to leave you the -choice; the necessity of concluding the peace becomes each day -more urgent." - -{115} - -The English negotiators were without doubt assured in advance of -the choice of the King of Spain, when they allowed Louis XIV. to -expect such enormous concessions. Philip V. did not hesitate an -instant. He renounced all his rights to the succession of the -throne of France, and the Cortes solemnly ratified his decision. -"I will live and die a Spaniard," said the young king. - -The English required that the Duke of Berry and the Duke of -Orleans abandon their rights to the crown of Spain. The peace was -the object of violent attacks in the English Parliament, above -all in the House of Lords. Marlborough vigorously defended -himself from having been hostile to it. "I can declare with a -safe conscience," said he, "in the presence of her Majesty, of -this illustrious assembly, and of the Supreme Being, who is -infinitely above all the powers upon earth, and before whom, -according to the ordinary course of nature, I must soon appear, -to give an account of my actions, that I was ever desirous of a -safe, honorable and lasting peace; and I was always very far from -any design of prolonging the war for my own private advantage, as -my enemies have most falsely insinuated. But at the same time, I -must take the liberty to declare, that I can by no means give in -to the measures that have lately been taken to enter into a -negotiation of peace with France, upon the foot of the seven -preliminary articles. I am of the same opinion with the rest of -the allies, that the safety and liberties of Europe would be in -imminent danger, if Spain and the West Indies were left to the -House of Bourbon." - -The enemies of Marlborough were powerful around the queen, and -also in the House of Commons. His military successes had given -him a strength that it was necessary to take from him, at all -hazards; his pecuniary avidity and the malversations of which he -was suspected furnished a ready arm against him. He was accused -before Parliament, and was at the same time deprived of all his -offices, "in order," said the official note, "that the inquiry -might be impartial and free." The Duke of Ormond, honest but -feeble, and popular but without great military talents, was given -the command of the army. -{116} -The commotion was great among the allies. Prince Eugene himself -came to England, eager to assist his companion-in-arms. The queen -received him coldly, would accord him no private interview, -excusing herself on the plea of ill-health, and sent him to her -ministers. When the great Austrian general returned to the -continent, recalled by the necessities of the war, which had -recommenced in the spring of 1712, in spite of the negotiations, -he soon learned that the Duke of Ormond had received orders to -take no part in the military operations. St. John wrote to the -duke, on the 10th of May: "Her Majesty has reason to believe that -we shall come to an agreement upon the great article of the union -of the two monarchies, as soon as a courier, sent from Versailles -to Madrid, can return. It is therefore the queen's positive -command to your grace, that you avoid engaging in any siege, or -hazarding a battle, till you have further orders from her -Majesty." - -The duke was informed, at the same time, that these instructions -were to be kept secret from Prince Eugene, but were nevertheless -known to Marshal Villars. - -It was virtually an armistice that England accorded to France, -and this could not long be concealed. Prince Eugene began the -siege of Quesnoy, and urged Ormond to take part; the latter -finally consented. "My Lord Ormond was not authorized to risk a -battle," said the Lord Treasurer Harley to the House of Commons, -"but he could not refuse to sustain a siege." Marlborough arose: -"I ask," said he, "how it is possible to reconcile the declaration -of my Lord Treasurer with the laws of war, for it is impossible -to undertake a siege without risking a battle; in case the enemy -sought to succor the place, there would remain no other -alternative than to shamefully raise the siege." - -{117} - -An armistice was signed with France. Orders were given to the -Duke of Ormond to withdraw from the allied army, and to take -possession of Dunkirk--placed as security in the hands of the -English. The auxiliary regiments, recently in the pay of England, -declared their intention of remaining in the service of the -emperor. A certain discontent manifested itself among the English -troops. The queen solemnly communicated to the two houses the -conditions upon which she hoped to conclude peace. "I will -neglect nothing to bring the negotiations to a happy and prompt -issue," said her Majesty, "and I count upon your entire -confidence and loyal co-operation." - -The clever maneuvres of Harley and St. John, in Parliament, were -crowned with success. Notwithstanding a protest from Marlborough, -Godolphin, and some other peers, addresses favorable to the -peace, were passed in both houses. - -Louis XIV. had confided to Marshal Villars the last army and the -last hopes of the French monarchy. When taking leave at Marley, -the old king said: "You see my state. There are few examples such -as mine, where one has lost in the same week, a grandson, a -grand-daughter, and their child, all of very great promise and -very tenderly loved. God punishes me, and I have well merited it. -But I must suspend my griefs concerning my domestic misfortunes -and see what can be done to prevent those which threaten the -kingdom. If reverses happen to the army which you command, listen -to what I propose; afterwards give me your opinion. I would go to -Peronne or St. Quentin, mass there all my troops, and with you, -make a last effort to save the state, or perish together. I will -never consent to allow the enemy to approach my capital." - -{118} - -Louis XIV. was not deceived regarding the plans of his -adversaries. Although enfeebled by the withdrawal of the English, -Prince Eugene, who had taken Quesnoy on the 3rd of July, proposed -to follow the former plan of the Duke of Marlborough, and to -resolutely advance into the heart of France. Marshal Villars -placed himself before him upon the road from Marchiennes to -Landrecies, "the road to Paris," said the imperialists. He threw -bridges over the Escaut, and on the 23rd of July, 1712, crossed -the stream between Ponchain and Denain. The Duke of Albemarle, at -the head of seventeen battalions of auxiliary troops, commanded -this small town. Prince Eugene advanced by forced marches to -relieve Denain. Villars lost no time in preparation: "We have -only to make fascines," said he; "the first body of our men who -shall fall in the trench, will hold the place for us." - -Prince Eugene was unable to cross the Escaut, guarded by the -French. Denain was taken under his very eyes. "I had not taken -twenty steps in the town, when the Duke of Albemarle, and six or -seven lieutenant-generals of the Emperor, halted my horse," says -the Marshal in his Memoirs. The allies retreated. Marchiennes was -invested by De Broglie, and Prince Eugene was unable to save it. -His troops raised the siege of Landrecies. The Marshal seized -Douai and recaptured Quesnoy and Ponchain. The imperialist, who -had been unable to accomplish anything, retired towards Brussels. -The fortune of war had once again inclined victory to the side of -France; she profited by it to obtain an honorable peace. "The -time to flatter the pride of the Dutch is past," wrote Louis XIV. -to his plenipotentiaries at Utrecht; "but it is necessary, in -treating with them, in good faith, that it be with a becoming -dignity." - -{119} - -The delegates of the States-General themselves comprehended the -necessities of the situation, and henceforth they also desired -peace. "We take the position that the Dutch held at -Gertruydenberg, and they take ours," said Cardinal Polignac: "it -is a complete revenge."--"Gentlemen, we will treat for peace in -your country, for you, and without you," said the French to the -Dutch deputies. Heinsius had not known, in 1709, how to shake off -the influence of Marlborough and of Prince Eugene, in order to -take the initiative in a peace necessary to Europe; and in -consequence of this ignorance he had delivered this power into -the hands of Harley and St. John. Henceforth the history of -Holland, as a great power, was ended. She owed her liberty, her -independence, and her influence in Europe, to the superior men -who had so long directed her destinies. William the Silent, John -De Witt, and William III. were no more; able and faithful as -Heinsius had been, he nevertheless was compelled to arrest the -progress and glory of his country at that threshold of grandeur -which God alone is able to pass. With the development of material -resources, the day of small countries passes forever. - -The peace which was signed at Utrecht on the 11th of April, 1713, -and of which St. John--recently made Viscount -Bolingbroke--determined the final conditions, in a journey which -he made to Paris, has been often and bitterly attacked. It was -concluded by France, England, the United Provinces, Portugal, the -King of Prussia, and the Duke of Savoy. Louis XIV. consented to -recognize the Protestant succession in the House of Hanover, -although the Elector still refused to separate himself from the -Emperor, and the Pretender was to leave France. This was a great -bitterness for the king; the difficulty was aggravated by the -obstinacy of the Chevalier St. George, who desired to live at -Fontainebleau. "Let M. de Torcy recall his journey to the Hague," -said Bolingbroke, "and let him compare the plans of 1709 and -1712." - -{120} - -England kept Gibraltar and Minorca; the fortifications of Dunkirk -were to be razed. Sicily was given to the Duke of Savoy. Louis -XIV. regained Lille and some cities in Flanders, by fortifying -the barriers of the Dutch. The King of Spain protested for some -days, but finally signed. The Emperor and the Empire alone -resisted; the taking of Speyer, of Kaiserlautern, of Laudan and -of Friburg--seized one after the other by Villars, triumphed over -the anger and pretensions of the Germans. Villars and Prince -Eugene negotiated together at Radstadt. On the 6th of March, -1714, peace was finally signed. All Europe was once more at -peace. The terms of the treaty were more favorable to France than -had been expected, and were glorious and profitable for England, -notwithstanding the attacks of the Whigs and their violent -protestations against the Treaty of Commerce. - -The peace assured for a time the equilibrium and liberties of -Europe, as well as the preponderance of England in the councils -of Europe. It had been concluded by a bold decision on the part -of the English ministry, to the detriment and against the will of -their allies. The dangers which were permitted to still remain, -were more apparent than real, but the Treaty of Commerce was -unmistakably favorable to France. French wines threatened to -replace the Portuguese. The city of London was violently -agitated, and the bill for the execution of the treaty was -rejected, on the 18th of June, 1713, by a majority of nine. - -The address of the Queen, on the dissolution of Parliament, -showed great anger. Triumphant in war with the Whigs, and in -politics with the Tories, Queen Anne nevertheless failed on a -commercial question before her Parliament. It was the precursory -symptom of a great disquietude and profound distrust. - -{121} - -The general elections took place in August, 1713. The country -vaguely felt, without fully realizing the serious reasons, the -danger concealed under the indolence of the Earl of Oxford and -the intrigues of Lord Bolingbroke, which threatened one of the -questions which had gravely occupied it for fifteen years. - -I have desired to recount without interruption the events of the -continental war, and that series of successes which carried -England to the summit of power and influence in Europe. I have -shown her powerful enough to sustain the struggle against Louis -XIV., and wise enough to put an end, for a time, to the evils -which her people endured, without exacting the ruin of her -enemies. I have not wished to mix in this recital the -complications of her internal policy: active and powerful -regarding the military affairs of Europe, while the Whigs -remained and Marlborough was at the head of the armies, but -without serious effect upon the fate of Europe. The Tories gave -peace to France; this was their supreme effort and triumph. The -two great internal questions which agitated the reign of Queen -Anne: the Protestant succession and the political union of -Scotland with England, were regulated at the foundation, by a -tacit accord between the moderates of both parties. - -We have seen King William III., in concert with his Parliament, -in 1701, decide the question of the succession to the throne of -England, by an act of foresight and political sagacity worthy of -the monarch who inspired it, and resolutely maintained by the -nation, in spite of great obstacles, and notwithstanding serious -objections. The intrigues of the Jacobites had never entirely -ceased; they had lessened during the first part of Queen Anne's -reign, while the war absorbed all thoughts, and seemed to widen -the gulf between England and that young prince who aspired to -govern her, even though fighting in the ranks of the enemy at -Malplaquet. -{122} -The gradual enfeeblement of the health of the queen, who had lost -her husband on the 28th of October, 1708, the interest which she -manifested regarding her brother, and the indifference that she -felt towards the House of Hanover, all contributed to revive the -hopes of the Jacobites, as well as the anxieties of those who -remained attached to the great work of William III. - -Of the two questions which had occupied the last days of William -of Orange, the one still remaining was noisily disputed, but -without real or serious danger; the other, involving the honor -and happiness of England and Scotland, had been regulated after -long negotiations and alternate difficulties. The union of the -two kingdoms was the object of the last message of the dying king -to parliament, and was the last thought which had pre-occupied -that clear and far-seeing mind, even to the very gates of death. - -Party violence in Scotland, the jealousy of the feebler kingdom -against the predominance of her ancient rival, and the religious -questions, always inflammable, had more than once disturbed the -conferences. The order of the succession to the throne, regulated -by the English parliament, had been contested. The Scotch -commissioners had attempted to assimilate the projected measure -to an act of federation and not of union. The firm resolution of -some wise minds, the prudent and moderate management of Lord -Somers, at the head of the English commissioners, finally -triumphed over all obstacles. The financial questions were -difficult to regulate in regard to a poor country whose products -were not over abundant. A uniform system of taxes was established -upon equitable bases; Scotland was at first exempted from certain -taxes, and a considerable sum was fixed upon as an indemnity for -the new charges which were to be levied upon her. -{123} -The representation of Scotland in the united parliament of Great -Britain was appropriate to her historic dignity as an independent -kingdom, rather than in proportion to her population: forty-five -commoners and sixteen Scotch peers were to sit in parliament. The -national sentiment exacted an Act of Security for the -Presbyterian Church, everywhere troubled and anxious. The -opposing passions of the Jacobites as well as of the Cameronians, -excited popular movements, and many disturbances took place in -Edinburgh. Even to the last moment, the vote on the Act of Union -remained doubtful in the Scotch Parliament. - -On the 16th of January, 1707, its partisans finally triumphed, at -Edinburgh. Early in March the English Parliament, in its turn, -passed the bill. The queen desired to give her assent to this -great measure of national interest in person. She came to -Westminster. - -"I consider this union," said she, "as a matter of the greatest -importance to the wealth, strength, and safety of the whole -island; and, at the same time, as a work of so much difficulty -and nicety in its own nature, that till now all attempts which -have been made towards it in the course of above a hundred years -have proved ineffectual. I therefore make no doubt but it will be -remembered and spoken of hereafter, to the honor of those who -have been instrumental in bringing it to such a happy conclusion. -I desire and expect from all my subjects, of both nations, that -from henceforth they act with all possible respect and kindness -to one another, that so it may appear to all the world they have -hearts disposed to become one people. This will be a great -pleasure to me, and will make us all quickly sensible of the good -effects of this union." - -{124} - -On the 23rd of October, 1707, the Parliament of Great Britain met -for the first time. The work was accomplished: there had been -bitter and continued opposition, not without corruption and -rancor, but finally wise and powerful reasons of patriotic policy -and morality triumphed, to the great and increasing advantage of -both countries. Without losing any of their distinctive and -persistent qualities, the English and the Scotch have equally -served, since then, the honor and prosperity of their common -country, without ever becoming either confounded or separated. -The primitive thought of the union was the last title of glory of -King William III. It was to the honor of the councillors of Queen -Anne, Lord Somers in particular, that they accomplished the work, -and affixed the seal to the undertaking, in spite of all violence -and all obstacles. - -It was during the reign of Queen Anne, and in the full enjoyment -of free institutions, without despotic or revolutionary -interruptions, that the two great parties were formed, which -have, since then, divided and disputed the government of Great -Britain. The Tories, above all, attached to conservative -principles and to the established Church, and the Whigs, on the -other hand, partisans of progress and constant defenders of -tolerant measures, succeeded each other in power, without violent -shocks, under the authority of a queen personally favorable to -the Tories and sincerely devoted to the Anglican Church. The -intrigues of the court and the influence of the Duchess of -Marlborough--long dominant, but finally supplanted in the favor -of the queen, by Lady Masham, played their parts in the -ministerial revolutions. The state of the parties, in the country -and in Parliament, changed more often and more completely than -was generally conceded or believed. Four ministries succeeded to -power during the twelve years of Anne's reign. -{125} -The first cabinet, which remained Whig in principle and in -majority, even when Godolphin became Lord Treasurer, was -overthrown soon after the declaration of war, in 1702. The Duke -of Marlborough, already powerful, inclining sometimes towards the -Tories and sometimes towards the Whigs, and solely occupied with -military interests and his personal grandeur, embarrassed the new -Tory ministry, and the enthusiastic majority that the new -elections had assured it in Parliament, by his demands for the -subsidies necessary for the prolongation of hostilities. The -animosity of the party opposed to the revolution of 1688, -manifested itself in the first address from the House of Commons -to Queen Anne, congratulating her Majesty on having, by the hands -of the Duke of Marlborough, _raised up_ with honor the -ancient reputation and glory of England. At the same time, and in -order to boldly testify their attachment to the Anglican Church, -the Tories presented a bill against _Occasional Conformity_, -ordering prosecutions against all those who habitually frequented -dissenting worship, although _occasionally conforming_ to -the rites of the established Church, as exacted by law from all -public functionaries. The queen was favorable to the bill, -although Prince George of Denmark was among the delinquents. -After having sustained numerous checks, the bill--as dangerous to -the Church as it was unjust--was presented anew by the last Tory -ministry of Queen Anne, and finally passed in 1711. During seven -years it preserved the force of law. The queen, on her part, gave -to the Church a touching testimony of sympathy, by renouncing the -revenues from the "first fruits," recently given to the crown, in -order to donate the same to the poor clergymen. The fund from -which indigent curates are still to-day sustained bears the -significant name of "Queen Anne's Bounty." - -{126} - -The Tories, with Lord Nottingham at their head, returned to their -first principles; they were, in reality, hostile to the war. -Violent and exacting, they wished to exclude from the council the -Dukes of Somerset and Devonshire, the only Whig representatives. -Upon the refusal of the queen, Nottingham retired, and the -influence of Marlborough caused him to be replaced by Harley; the -latter took with him St. John. That moderate ministry soon -underwent a grave transformation by the entrance into power of -Lord Sunderland. - -In 1708, the Whigs having a majority in the new house, and always -the true partisans of the war, firmly seized the power. The five -Lords of the Junta, Somers, Oxford, Wharton, Halifax and -Sunderland, found themselves reunited in the same cabinet with -the Duke of Marlborough and Lord Cowper. Robert Walpole, who had -been a member of the house since 1700, but who had as yet -occupied only insignificant positions, replaced St. John as -secretary of state. This was the beginning of a rivalry which was -to last throughout their lives. - -During two years the Whig ministry governed with a power which -seconded the victories of the Duke of Marlborough. It was -nevertheless constantly threatened by the want of personal liking -of the queen, as well as by the intrigues of the court, which -secretly undermined the influence of the Duchess of Marlborough. -Handsome, imperious and brilliant, as well as arrogant and -ambitious, Sarah Jennings had for a long time maintained over -Queen Anne an authority which increased as her favors multiplied. -That domination which she exercised to the very last over her -illustrious husband, was slowly declining with the queen. -Marlborough had for some time succeeded in maintaining his power -by changing from the Whigs to the Tories, and from the Tories to -the Whigs. He was sustained at first by the Whigs, formerly his -adversaries; a Tory ministry that was to cause his fall was -preparing. - -{127} - -Weary of the violences and inequalities of the temper of her -haughty favorite, the queen had found some consolation in the -affection of a young and adroit woman, a relative of the Duchess -of Marlborough. Abigail Hill was simply a waiting-maid to the -queen, who had married her, at the suggestion of her protectress, -to a Mr. Masham, a poor gentleman of the chamber. At first she -was not even admitted to the royal dressing-room. It was little -by little, and through chance indiscretions, that the Duchess of -Marlborough recognized that she was being supplanted in the -confidence of the queen, who was naturally capricious. -Notwithstanding her long fidelity to the duchess, the queen could -not endure restraint. Mrs. Masham secretly introduced Harley; the -anger of the duchess was to serve the ambition of the former -Secretary of State, and the aspirations of the Tories towards -power. - -An unfortunate trial, begun against an insolent and declamatory -clergyman. Dr. Sacherevel, embittered religious passions. The -High Church and the fashionable world were ardent and pronounced -in favor of the accused. His sermon upon the "_False -Brethren_," had not formally attacked the revolution of 1688, -but had extolled the absolutism of the prerogative in sustaining -the doctrine of non-resistance. His suspension for three years, -by the House of Lords, was equivalent to an acquittal. "This -fatal trial makes me sick," said Godolphin; "the life of a -galley-slave would be a paradise for me." The Tories triumphed. -"The ministers have a curate to roast," ironically said St. John, -"and they have made so great a fire that they have roasted -themselves." - -{128} - -On the 8th of August, 1710, after many significant changes in the -cabinet. Lord Godolphin received by a messenger from the royal -stables, a note from the queen, praying him to break the white -rod--his insignia of office. The queen appeared before Parliament -to dissolve it; the Chancellor, Lord Cowper, endeavored to speak, -but Anne silenced him. The power passed from the powerful junta -of the Whigs, and Harley was named Chancellor of the Exchequer; -Lord Rochester became President of the Council, and St. John -Secretary of State. - -The Duchess of Marlborough, disgraced without being dismissed, no -longer saw the queen. Anne, overwhelmed by reproaches and -insults, left the chamber where the duchess insisted upon -remaining. Some months later the humility and prayers of the -great general were unavailing to maintain the duchess in her -position at court; he was obliged to pick up from the floor the -golden key--the sign of office of the mistress of the robes--that -his wife had flung away in her anger. - -"She has conducted herself strangely," avowed the duke, "but -there is nothing to be done, and it is necessary to endure many -things to obtain peace in the household." - -The day of grandeur of the Duke of Marlborough had passed; his -administration of the funds of the army was condemned by -Parliament. He defended himself ably, with that bold moderation -which habitually characterized him. He was accused of having -taken moneys from the contractors of supplies: he replied, -declaring it was the custom in the Low Countries, and that -although it was true, that no English general had ever before -exercised this right, yet it had been for the simple reason, that -no English general had ever before been commander-in-chief in the -Low Countries. Walpole, unjustly included in the same -condemnation, would not defend himself, and in consequence was -confined in the Tower, as a prisoner, until the end of the -session. - -{129} - -The elections of 1713 were not favorable to the ministry; the -country was uneasy and suspicious; the cabinet was divided. The -perfidious ability and moderation of the Earl of Oxford were -opposed to the bold ambition of Bolingbroke, and that marvellous -eloquence, the memory of which remained so powerful among his -contemporaries and successors, that Pitt, when asked what he -would prefer to recover from the shades of the past, replied: -"One of the lost decades of Titus Livius, and a speech of -Bolingbroke." - -The secret rivalries suspected by public opinion, and the -violence of party struggles, manifested themselves upon all -sides, through the press, now almost absolutely free from -restraint, and directed during the reign of Anne by men of great -talents, nearly all of whom were engaged in the political -contests. Addison and Steele were members of the House of -Commons, and also at the same time, publishers of _The -Spectator_. Addison had even occupied a place in the Whig -ministry. Swift, the intimate friend of Harley and Bolingbroke, -employed in the defence of their policy all his bitter and -sarcastic wit, without, however, being able to obtain--owing to -the legitimate repugnance of the queen--the ecclesiastical -preferments which he desired. - -Defoe arduously defended the principles of the revolution of -1688, in brilliant pamphlets whose renown, for a time, exceeded -the popularity of his Robinson Crusoe. The poet Prior was -actively employed in diplomatic negotiations by Bolingbroke. -Isaac Newton alone withdrew from politics, after having taken an -unimportant part, and thenceforth consecrated his life to the -study of the laws of nature. Pope, however, took no part in the -struggles of the day, but devoted himself purely to literature. - -{130} - -The intrigues increased and multiplied in all directions. The -Earl of Oxford hesitated between the Stuarts and the Protestant -succession, but was disposed to rely upon the Duke of -Marlborough, who courted his favor. Bolingbroke was resolved to -supplant the prime minister, and was at the same time imprudently -engaged in the Jacobite plots. The Queen was ill, and -low-spirited; she may even have felt remorse and doubts. The -ecclesiastical advancements had been of a character favorable to -the fallen house. The Dean of Christ Church, Francis Atterbury, -able, restless, and an enthusiastic Jacobite, was appointed -Bishop of Rochester. It was in accord with him that Bolingbroke, -the notorious sceptic and libertine, presented to Parliament an -act of schism, forbidding the right to teach to all persons who -had not accepted the test and furnished proof that they had -partaken of the communion within a year. "I am agreeably -surprised that some men of pleasure are, on a sudden, become so -religious as to set up for patrons of the Church," said Lord -Wharton. The bill was passed, but was never enforced. - -The Church of England had for some time been urging the Pretender -to return to her bosom, and had even flattered herself that she -would succeed in the illustrious conquest. The illusions and -imprudence of the Jacobites were increasing: they began to speak -openly of a restoration. The majority in Parliament, as well as -in the country, remained firmly attached, nevertheless, to the -Protestant succession. The nation was anxious and disturbed. On -the 12th of April, 1714, the Hanoverian minister, Baron Schutz, -who had come to an understanding with the chief of the Whigs, -called upon the Chancellor, Sir Simon, afterwards Lord Harcourt, -and demanded of him, in the name of the Elcctress Sophia, the -summons for her son, the elector, to the House of Lords, in his -quality as Duke of Cambridge. -{131} -The queen, being at once consulted, peremptorily and angrily -refused. Schutz was obliged to leave London. Anne wrote -personally to the electress absolutely forbidding the prince, her -son, to set foot on English soil. Some days later, on the 28th of -May, 1714, the prince became the heir presumptive to the crown of -England by the death of his mother. "I would die happy if there -could be written upon my coffin: Here lies Sophia, Queen of -England," said the electress. - -Upon the advice of the House of Lords, alarmed at the ardor of -the Jacobites, the queen consented to issue a proclamation -offering a reward of £5,000 to any one who would arrest the -Pretender if he should set foot upon the soil of England. The -peers were preparing to vote an address of thanks, when -Bolingbroke entered the house; he was taken unawares. "The best -measure of defence for the Protestant succession," said he, -"would be to arraign for high treason all who are enrolled in the -service of the Pretender." They took him at his word, and the -house placed him at the head of the committee appointed to draw -up the bill. "Neither the proclamation nor the bill will do us -any harm," said Bolingbroke to the French envoy, D'Iberville. He -had undertaken, with the Duke of Ormond, to reorganize the army -in the interests of Marlborough, with the ultimate view of -delivering it into the hands of the Jacobites. By one of those -deliberate calculations, which often resemble a ruse, the Lord -Treasurer did not furnish the necessary funds in time. Oxford had -lost the confidence of the queen; he had quarrelled with Lady -Masham. "You have never rendered her Majesty a service, and you -are not now in a position to render her one," angrily said the -favorite. Oxford did not reply; he clung tenaciously to the -remnants of his power. "The least indisposition of the queen -causes us great alarm," wrote Swift; "when she recovers, we act -as if she was immortal." - -{132} - -On the 27th of July, after a stormy interview with the queen, and -surrounded by his most desperate enemies, Lord Oxford delivered -the white rod into the hands of her Majesty. It was publicly -rumored, and the Duke of Berwick affirms it in his Memoirs, that -the Court of St. Germain had insisted upon the dismissal of the -minister. "Come and see me," wrote Oxford to Swift, on the day -following; "if I have not, at other times, wearied you, hasten to -one who loves you. I believe that in the mass of souls ours were -made for each other. I send you an imitation of Dryden, which -occurred to me on my way to Kensington: To wear out with love, -and to shed one's blood is approved of on high; but here below -examples prove that to be an honest man, brings misfortune." - -From the doubtful political honesty of Harley, Queen Anne passed, -it was believed, to the imprudent and bold intrigues of -Bolingbroke. From France there was suggested a bold and daring -stroke: "The queen," said the Duke of Berwick, "should go to -Westminster with her brother, and present him to the two houses -as her successor." When dying, James II. had pardoned his -daughter, charging Mary of Modena to say to her that he prayed -God to convert her and to confirm her in the resolution to repair -to his son the wrong which had been done to himself. It was upon -this favor of the queen that the Jacobites counted, -notwithstanding a letter of the Pretender declaring himself -irrevocably attached to the Catholic faith. Bolingbroke had -foreseen the value of the death of the queen. Scarcely had the -power fallen into his hands when he assured the Abbé Gautier that -he should hold the same sentiments regarding the prince, provided -he took measures which were agreeable to the honest people of the -country. - -{133} - -The day following the sudden death of Queen Anne, the French -envoy D'Iberville, wrote to Louis XIV.: "My Lord Bolingbroke is -overwhelmed with grief; he has assured me that all his -precautions were so well taken, that in six weeks' time things -would have been in such a state that we would have had nothing to -fear from that which has just happened." - -The Whigs, as well as Bolingbroke, had also taken their measures; -they awaited the Duke of Marlborough, still in the Low Countries. -On the 14th of July, Bolingbroke wrote to Lord Strafford: "The -friends of Marlborough announce his arrival; I hold it for -certain, without knowing whether it is owing to the bad figure -which he makes abroad, or in the hope of making a good one among -us. I have reason to believe that certain persons who would move -heaven and earth sooner than renounce their power or make a good -use of it, have recently made overtures to him, and are in some -measure in accord with his creatures." Contrary winds detained -the Duke at Ostend, but General Stanhope disembarked at the Tower -of London. - -The queen had been seriously disturbed by the altercation which -had taken place in her presence at the time of the dismissal of -the Earl of Oxford. "I shall never survive it," said she to her -physicians. On the morning of the 30th of July, 1714, she had an -attack of apoplexy. As a strong indication of public opinion, -stocks rose at the news of her illness, and declined when the -physicians announced a gleam of hope. The privy council assembled -at Kensington; the Dukes of Argyle and Somerset had not been -called, but being secretly informed by their friends, they -presented themselves. The Duke of Shrewsbury thanked them for -their readiness and invited them to seats. Prudent, often -hesitating, always reserved, the Duke of Shrewsbury had at last -chosen his side, and had not forgotten the part he took in the -revolution of 1688. -{134} -The great Whig lord proposed to fill the office of lord -treasurer, which remained vacant. In the pressing danger of her -Majesty, they suggested the name of Shrewsbury. Bolingbroke, -concealing his spite and anger, found himself constrained to -enter the royal chamber with the two other secretaries of state, -Bromley and Lord Mar, in order to propose to the dying queen the -choice which was to destroy all his ambitious hopes. "Nothing -could be more agreeable to me," murmured the queen; and extending -to him the white rod, she said, "use this for the good of my -people." Lord Shrewsbury wished to resign the important offices -that he already held. "No, no," replied Anne; then she sank into -a lethargy which prevented her from articulating a word. - -On the 1st of August, 1714, an embargo was put upon all the -ports; the order of embarkation was given to a fleet, and -considerable forces were called to London. The Elector of Hanover -had been requested to pass into Holland, and the entire privy -council was convoked, when Queen Anne expired, without having -regained her consciousness, and without having been able to -receive the sacraments or to sign her will. - -The regency was instantly established, and the fleet put to sea, -to receive the new sovereign. Atterbury alone dared to propose to -Bolingbroke the proclamation of James III. at Charing Cross. He -desired to walk at the head of the heralds in his episcopal -robes. Bolingbroke, as well as all the other ministers, had -signed the measures taken in favor of the Protestant sovereign. -"Behold the best cause in Europe lost for want of boldness," -cried the Bishop. "The Earl of Oxford was dismissed on Tuesday," -wrote Bolingbroke to Swift; "the queen died on Sunday. What a -world this is, and how fortune mocks us!" - - -[Image] -Shrewsbury Invested With The White Rod. - - -{135} - -Other blows were in reserve for this adroit and artful intriguer; -imprudent and chimerical, always ready to attempt new adventures, -and counting upon the resources of his fertile genius. "The -Tories seem resolved not to be crushed," wrote he, on the 3rd of -August, "and this suffices to prevent its being done. I have lost -all by the death of the queen, except my energy of spirit; and I -protest to you that I feel it expanding within me. If you wish, -in a month, all the world shall say that the Whigs are a lot of -Jacobites." - - - - Chapter XXXIV. - - George I. And The Protestant Succession. - (1714-1727.) - - -It pleases God to confound the fears as well as the hopes of -mankind. All moderate Englishmen were passionately attached to -the Protestant succession. The great mass of the nation for some -years looked forward to the death of Queen Anne with great -anxiety, while the Jacobites awaited that event with -ill-disguised confidence, believing it the hour of their triumph. -The forebodings of the one, as well as the hopes of the other, -were equally disappointed. King George I., although away from -England, a foreigner, and unknown to all, was proclaimed without -opposition, and his name was received with public acclamations as -enthusiastic as though he was a well beloved son, ascending -peaceably the throne of his father; a powerful and striking -indication of that grave and firm resolution which caused the -English nation to remain attached to its religious faith, as well -as its political liberties; an indication, however, which was -long unrecognized by the partisans of the fallen house of Stuart; -faithful and blind, not only to the temper of the English people, -but also to the disposition and intentions of the princes for -whom they were to sacrifice from generation to generation, their -estates and their lives. - -{136} - -King George I., although proclaimed, was still absent, remaining -in his electorate, which he was loth to leave. He was naturally -slow and deliberate, just and moderate, without any charm of mind -or manner, and surrounded by favorites more foreign and more -dissatisfactory even than himself to the English nation. A -Council of Regency governed during his absence. It contained all -the illustrious names of the Whig party, with the exception of -the Duke of Marlborough, who was soon placed at the head of the -army, and Lord Somers, who was old and an invalid. Louis XIV. -recognized the new sovereign. One of the first measures voted by -Parliament, was the increase of the reward, from five thousand to -one hundred thousand pounds sterling, to any one who should -arrest the Pretender, if he dared to land upon English soil. - -The prince protested immediately; he wrote from Plombières, where -he had gone to take the waters, proclaiming his rights to the -crown of England, as well as his grief at the death of the queen, -his sister: "whose good intentions we could not doubt," added he. -"And we have therefore remained inactive, awaiting the happy -issue which has been, unfortunately, prevented by her death." -Exiled princes, banished by revolutions, are sometimes ignorant -even of the language of the people they hope to govern: in the -face of popular indignation, the friends of the Pretender, and -those of the last ministry of Queen Anne, were compelled to -affirm that the proclamation of Plombières was an odious -fabrication. - - - -[Image] -George I. - - -{137} - -The king finally arrived, landing at Greenwich, on the 18th of -September, 1714, accompanied by his son the Prince of Wales. A -ministry was formed immediately, conferring all power upon the -Whig party; Lord Nottingham alone belonged, in principle, to the -Tories, but parliamentary intrigues had for some time past -reconciled him to the triumphant party. William III. had -endeavored to unite, in the same government, the chiefs of the -two great political factions; but however powerful might be his -intelligence and personal action, he was not calculated for -internal struggles and jealousies. George I. delivered himself -without reserve into the hands of the party that he believed the -most faithful to his cause. Even before his arrival in England he -ordered the dismissal of Bolingbroke. The seals were immediately -taken from him. "I have been neither surprised nor grieved at my -fall," wrote he to Atterbury. "The mode that they have used -shocked me only for a moment. I am not in any way alarmed by the -malice or the power of the Whigs, but that which distresses me is -this: I see clearly that the Tory party is destroyed." - -The new Parliament was more intensely Whig than the Commons of -1713. Lord Townshend, at the head of the cabinet, was honest and -sincere, but as rude in his temper as in his actions. General -Stanhope, second Secretary of State, shared his sentiments; both -had received from their adversaries an example of violence. -Walpole, although holding no prominent official position, but -having more influence than any other member of the house, had -answered for the Commons, provided the Whigs were allowed full -liberty of action. - -{138} - -The peace of Utrecht was severely censured in the two houses. -Seals had been placed upon the papers of Lord Strafford, the -intimate friend of Bolingbroke, and Prior was recalled from -Paris. The report spread that the poet had promised to reveal the -secrets of the negotiations. The displaced ministers were in -danger of arrest. Bolingbroke appeared at a play at Drury Lane, -on the 25th of March, 1715. He applauded loudly, and, according -to the custom of the time, chose another play for the following -evening. The same night, carefully disguised, he fled to Dover, -and on the evening of the 27th embarked for Calais. Justly -troubled, although his conscience was but rarely scrupulous, he -did not dare to confront either the revelations of his agents, or -the hatred of his enemies. Lord Anglesea, who was not a Whig, but -a Hanoverian Tory, had said to him, the preceding year: "If I -discover that there is perfidy, I will pursue the ministers from -the foot of the throne to the Tower, and from the Tower to the -scaffold." - -On the 9th of June, 1715, Walpole's report upon the conduct of -the deposed ministers was laid before the House of Commons. -Bolingbroke was immediately indicted. Lord Coningsby rose: "The -honorable president of your committee attacks the hand," said he, -"but I accuse the head. He has denounced the clerk. I address -myself to the judge; he has accused the servant; I demand that -justice be done the master. I accuse Robert, Duke of Oxford, as -guilty of high treason." - -The adroit prudence of the duke served him better than the -alarmed remorse of Bolingbroke; he remained at his house, quietly -attending to his affairs, without seeming to avoid the threatened -prosecution. He was taken to the Tower, where he remained two -years before the passions of his accusers were sufficiently -appeased to allow him an acquittal. The Dutchess of Marlborough -vigorously opposed his release. While in prison, he received a -visit from the Duke of Ormond, who was less compromised by the -peace of Utrecht, as he had obeyed the orders of his superiors, -but was more deeply engaged in the Jacobite intrigues. -{139} -Ormond was preparing to fly, although at first he exhibited much -disdain. He urged Oxford to follow his example, but the latter -refused: "Farewell, Oxford without a head," said -Ormond.--"Farewell duke without a duchy," responded Harley. Both -recalled the adieus of the Prince of Orange and Count Egmont. The -Duke of Ormond never saw England again. Like Bolingbroke, he -entered the service of the Stuarts; less fortunate than -Bolingbroke, he was not disgraced by his new master, but followed -him from one attempt to another, and from retreat to retreat, -even to that last gloomy residence at Avignon, where he died in -1745. The storm was preparing; less dangerous than was feared, -but nevertheless severe, and destined to leave deep traces. In -their vengeance, the ministers employed a certain moderation, as -the spirit of their party was more violent than their acts. Young -Lord Stanhope, of Shelford, subsequently Lord Chesterfield, said -in his first speech in the House of Commons: "I have no desire to -shed the blood of my countrymen, still less that of a noble peer; -but I am persuaded that the safety of the country requires that -an example be made of those who have so unworthily betrayed it." - -As soon as Bolingbroke reached Paris, he called upon Lord Stair, -the English ambassador. "I promised him not to engage in any -Jacobite undertaking," wrote he, after the interview, to Sir -William Wyndham; "and I have kept my word. I have written a -letter to Lord Stanhope, the Secretary of State, disclaiming all -intention of offending the government, and I will retire into -Dauphiné, in order to remove any objection that might be made -against my residence near the court of France." - -{140} - -Bolingbroke nevertheless saw the Marshal of Berwick before -departing for his retreat. When he learned that a bill of -attainder had been brought in against him, he received at the -same time an invitation from the Pretender to join him at -Commercy. He departed immediately, wearied already of his -inaction, and urged on by his anger and love of intrigue. He had -scarcely reached Lorraine when he accepted the seals of secretary -of state from King James III., although he fully comprehended the -vanity of all the Pretender's expectations. "My first -conversation with the chevalier," wrote he to Wyndham, "does not -respond to my expectations, and I assure you, in all truth, that -I have already begun to repent of my imprudence; at least, I am -convinced of yours and mine. He spoke like a man who only awaited -the moment of departure for some place in England or Scotland, -without well knowing where." - -The hesitation of the leaders of the Jacobite party was great. -While the Duke of Ormond remained in England, he strenuously -insisted upon the necessity of co-operation from France, -affirming that they could not trust exclusively to a national -uprising. Having arrived in France, leaving the conspirators at -home without a leader, the duke, when urging the Chevalier St. -George to embark with him for England, repeated his assertions -and demands. "I have seen here," wrote Bolingbroke, "a crowd of -people, each one doing whatever seemed best to him, without -subordination, without order, without concert; they no longer -doubt the success of the enterprise; hope and anticipation are -read in the animated eyes of all the Irish. Those who know how to -read and write, are continually interchanging letters, and those -who have not attained that degree of knowledge, whisper their -secrets in the ear. The ministry is in the hands of both sexes." - -{141} - -Louis XIV. died on the 1st of September, 1715. "He was the best -friend of the Chevalier," said Bolingbroke, "and my hopes sunk as -he declined, and died when he expired." The most blind as well as -the most ardent among the Jacobites could not be seriously -deluded regarding the disposition of the regent; he was -indifferent and careless, and naturally inclined to oppose any -policy that the late king had followed, and was also reasonably -sensible of the dangers of a new war with England. The vessels -which, with the connivance of Louis XIV., had been armed at -Havre, under false names, for the service of the projected -expedition, were demanded by Lord Stair; their cargoes of arms -were at once disembarked. Admiral Sir George Byng appeared in the -channel with a squadron. Orders were sent to Lord Mar, who had -charge of the Pretender's affairs in Scotland, not to give the -signal for the rising, but to wait for new instructions. He had -already left London. - -On the 27th of August, a grand re-union of the chief Jacobites -took place at Mar's castle, in the county of Aberdeen. On the 6th -of September, the royal standard of the Stuarts was raised in the -little village of Braemar. Sixty men only then surrounded it, but -soon the contagion spread from village to village, from fortress -to fortress. Some days later the country north of the Tay was -almost entirely in the hands of the insurgents. - -The time for hesitation and prudence on the part of the chevalier -had passed; in fact he had already hesitated too long, in the -opinion of those who generously risked, for him, all that they -possessed. The inclemency of the weather, contradictory advice, -snares and enticements held out to him by Lord Stair, the return -of the Duke of Ormond, who had attempted, without success, to -land upon the coast of Devonshire, all these had retarded his -movements. It was not until the middle of December that the -Pretender, accompanied by six gentlemen, finally landed at -Dunkirk. - -{142} - -The unfortunate fate of his partisans in England had already been -decided. In Scotland it trembled in the balance; and the gloomy -forebodings of the most faithful servants of the house of Stuart -began to be realized. The Earl of Mar, restless and cunning, -clever in court intrigues, but destitute of all military talent, -as of all military knowledge, had lingered in the Highlands, -remaining for some time at Perth, where his forces increased -daily. The Duke of Argyle, placed by the government at the head -of the royal troops, found himself at Stirling menaced on all -sides by the Jacobites, who, however, did not advance. "When at -last Lord Mar drew the sword, he did not know what to do with -it," says the Duke of Berwick; "and thus was lost the most -favorable opportunity which has presented itself since 1688." - -The Scotch had their eyes fixed upon England; the general -uprising in the south, anticipated by the Duke of Ormond, had -failed, as the plot was discovered, and the chief Jacobites--the -Duke of Powis, Lord Lansdowne, and Lord Duplin, were arrested. -The ministry demanded of the House of Commons authority to -impeach six of its members, compromised in the conspiracy. Sir -William Wyndham was defended in vain by his father-in-law, the -Duke of Somerset. After being concealed for several days he -delivered himself up to justice. Sir Thomas Foster succeeded in -escaping, and some days later headed an insurrection in -Northumberland. Lord Derwentwater and Lord Widdington joined him, -and "King James III." was proclaimed, at Warkworth, to the sound -of trumpets. Being a Protestant, Sir Thomas was chosen General of -the English insurgents. -{143} -He counted upon combining his movements with those of Brigadier -Macintosh, of Bordlase, who had just landed at Aberlady. The -alarm extended to Edinburgh. A movement of the Duke of Argyle -decided the Jacobites to throw themselves into the citadel of -Leith. The Duke arrived under the walls of the fortress. "We do -not know the meaning of the word surrender," replied the -Highlanders to the demands of the detested chief of the -Campbells; "and we have no desire to learn it. We are resolved -neither to give nor to receive any quarter. If his grace is -disposed to attempt the assault, we are determined to repulse -him." - -Noble boastings are sometimes the consolation of proud souls when -their cause appears doubtful. The Duke of Argyle did not attempt -the assault, but returned to Edinburgh, from where he soon -advanced to Stirling, now threatened by the Earl of Mar. His -presence destroyed the hope of surprising the capital. Macintosh -marched to the south, and joined the English insurgents at Kelso. -The Northumbrians wished to re-enter England, and endeavored to -compel the Highlanders to follow them; they refused. "If we are -to be sacrificed," said they, "we intend it shall be in our -country." Foster led his troops as far as Preston. A great number -of Catholic gentlemen there joined them, bringing in their train -crowds of peasants without arms and without discipline. Generals -Carpenter and Wills, both experienced officers, who had served -with distinction in Spain, advanced against the rebels from the -north and from the south. When the news of their approach reached -the insurgents, their commander was in bed sleeping off the -effects of a drunken debauch. Lord Kenmure had great difficulty -in arousing him sufficiently to give intelligible orders. - -{144} - -On the 12th of November, 1715, the Jacobites were attacked at -Preston by General Wills. The defence was feeble, although the -insurgents, concealed in the houses, killed many of the soldiers. -The leaders were divided. Foster lost courage and proposed a -capitulation. "If the rebels wish to lay down their arms, and -surrender at discretion," replied the English general, "I will -prevent my soldiers from cutting them in pieces, until I have -received orders from my government." - -The Highlanders were furious; they brandished their weapons, and -threatened to cut their way through the royal troops to gain -their own country. But already Lord Derwentwater and Brigadier -Macintosh had surrendered themselves as hostages, and the -soldiers had no other resource than obedience. Prisoners of note -abounded in the camp of General Wills; many were to pay with -their lives for the part they had taken in an insurrection, -inconsiderately undertaken and shamefully and sadly terminated. -Only seventeen men had been killed when the little army of -Jacobites surrendered at Preston. On the same day, the 12th of -November, the Earl of Mar, who had at last shaken off his -lethargy and left Perth, arrived at Ardoch, four leagues from -Stirling: his forces amounted to about ten thousand men. The -Highland chiefs led their clans. A body of gentlemen, well -mounted and well equipped, formed a striking contrast to a crowd -of peasants badly armed and half naked; but nevertheless resolved -to fight. - -When Lord Mar learned that Argyle was advancing towards him, and -that he occupied Dumblane, he assembled his principal officers, -and offered them the alternative of battle or retreat. "Fight! -Fight!" cried the Highland chiefs. Soon the same cry spread -throughout the army; hats were waved and swords were brandished. -When the troops of Argyle began the contest in the valley of -Sheriffmuir, the line of battle of the insurgents was imposing. -"I have never seen regular troops form a finer line of battle," -subsequently said General Wightman, "and their officers conducted -themselves with all the bravery imaginable." - -{145} - -Personal heroism and undisciplined fury were ineffectual when -directed by a chief incapable and devoid of energy. The -Highlanders forced the left wing of Argyle's army, while that -general was pursuing their right, which he had quickly routed. -The divisions of the army thus became separated, and had no -communication with each other: but Argyle, returning from the -pursuit, reformed his regiments upon the field of battle, while -Mar, triumphant, at the head of his Highlanders, but anxious, -uncertain, and fearing an ambuscade, was slowly uniting his -forces. When the enemy appeared, at the foot of the hill, the -Scotch chiefs were impatiently awaiting his orders to charge. -"Oh, for an hour of Dundee," already cried Gorden of Glenbucket. -The bagpipes sounded the retreat, and Mar withdrew, without -attempting a final effort "The battle is won," said he to his -lieutenants, in the hope of calming their irritation. The Duke of -Argyle retired to Dumblane. On the following day he re-appeared -on the field of battle, but the Earl of Mar had not returned. -"Your Grace has not gained a complete victory," said one of his -officers. Argyle responded by singing two lines of an old Scotch -song: - - "If 'tis not weel wound, weel wound, weel wound, - If 'tis not weel wound, we'll wind it again." - -The same ardor also animated some of the Scotch in the rebel -army. "If we have not yet gained the victory," said General -Hamilton, "we must fight every week until we do gain it." But -uneasiness and lassitude already pervaded the army and extended -even to some of the leaders. Lord Sutherland advanced at the head -of the Whig forces. The Highlanders were urged to conceal their -booty. -{146} -Many detachments had already left the army and returned to Perth, -when the Chevalier St. George finally landed at Peterhead, on the -22nd of December, 1715. The forces of the Duke of Argyle were -increased by the arrival of auxiliary Dutch troops, that had been -demanded from the States-General by the English Government, and -henceforth his army was larger than that of the rebels. - -On the 8th of January, 1716, the Pretender established himself, -without opposition, in the royal palace at Scone. The ceremony of -the coronation was announced for the 23rd of the same month. - -The joy of the insurgents upon learning of the arrival of "_the -King_," was great. "We are now going to live like soldiers, -and to measure ourselves with our enemies," they said, "in place -of remaining here inactive, waiting the vain resolutions of a -frightened council." On his part, James, upon landing, had -written to Bolingbroke: "Behold me, thanks to God, in my ancient -kingdom. I find things in good shape, and I think that all will -go well if the friends of your side do their duty, as I will do -mine. Show this note to the regent." - -The illusions did not last long on either side. The Pretender -found the army of his partisans diminished, disordered, and -divided. He was not personally qualified to act upon such men, -and his virtues were better suited to a monarch peacefully seated -upon his throne than to an exiled prince, obliged to conquer his -crown. "He was tall and thin," wrote one of the adherents, "pale -and grave. He spoke but little; his conversation was vague, and -his manners and character seemed measured. I do not know how he -would have been in his pleasures; it was not the time for such -thoughts. We had no opportunity of gayety, and I never saw him -smile. I will not conceal that at the time when we saw him whom -we called our king, we were not in any way reanimated by his -presence, and that if he was disappointed in us, we were ten -times more so in him. -{147} -We saw nothing in him that looked like spirit. He never showed -either animation or courage, in order to cheer us. Our men began -to despise him and to ask if he could talk. His physiognomy was -dull and heavy. He took no pleasure in mingling with the -soldiers, either to see them drill or exercise. It was said that -our condition discouraged him: I say that the figure he made -among us discouraged us also. If he had sent us five thousand -good troops, instead of coming himself, the result would have -been different." - -James III. had nevertheless done an act of power. He issued -proclamations to the army, and these were spread throughout the -country. Two Presbyterian ministers only substituted his name for -that of King George in their public prayers; the Episcopalians, -_en masse_, rallied around the new monarch, who nevertheless -refused a promise of tolerance to the Anglican Church of Ireland, -and whose assurances were doubtful even in regard to the church -of England. He affected great devotion to his friends and to his -country. "Whatever happens," said he, in his address to his -council, "I will not leave my faithful subjects any reason to -reproach me for not having done all that they might have expected -of me. Those who neglect their duty and their proper interest, -will be responsible for the evil which may happen. Misfortune -will be nothing new to me. From my cradle, all my life has been a -series of misfortunes, and I am ready, if it pleases God, to -endure the threats of your enemies and mine." - -{148} - -On the 31st of January, on the approach of the Duke of Argyle, -urged and constrained to action by General Cadogan, recently -arrived from London, the insurgent army began its retreat. The -soldiers were discouraged, and the leaders uncertain or -irritated. "What has the king come here for?"' asked the -soldiers: "is it to see his subjects killed by the executioner, -without striking a blow in defence? Let us die like men, not as -dogs."--"If his Majesty is disposed to die as a prince, he will -find ten thousand Scotch gentlemen to die with him," said a rich -country gentleman of Aberdeen. But the forces of the Duke of -Argyle were overwhelming. The councillors of the Pretender, -alarmed and trembling for his safety as well as their own, and -hoping for better conditions in the absence of their prince, -urged him to depart. On the evening of the 4th of February, -secretly, and after having taken every precaution necessary to -deceive the army, the Chevalier left the quarters of the Earl of -Mar, whither he had gone on foot. Accompanied by that leader, he -entered a small boat and was taken on board a French ship which -awaited him. General Gordon was now at the head of an army which -was disbanding, in the midst of a country devastated by fire. The -prince had ordered the burning of all villages as far as -Stirling. He and all his adherents were now exposed to the -vengeance of that government which they had so recently menaced. -On departing, and as a compensation for so many evils, the -Pretender wrote to the Duke of Argyle, sending him all the money -he possessed: "I pray you," said he, "have this sum distributed -among the inhabitants of the villages which have been burned, in -order that I may at least have the satisfaction of not having -caused the ruin of any one; I, who would have died for them all." - -{149} - -The honor of saving a people costs more dearly and necessitates -more sacrifices than the Chevalier St. George was inclined to -believe, in his indolent nature; he had failed personally, as -well as in his political and military enterprises. But the -Jacobite party was not destroyed; it was still to nourish long -its hopes and to shed much blood for his cause. The insurrection -of 1715 was at an end. The Highlanders sought refuge in their -mountains, and the great lords and gentlemen either concealed -themselves, or escaped from Scotland and increased the little -exiled court. James arrived at Gravelines, and from there he went -to St. Germain. Bolingbroke joined him immediately. The prince -desired to remain a few days in France, but the regent would not -permit it, and also refused to see him. He desired to find a -refuge with the Duke of Lorraine, before the English government -could interfere. The chevalier separated from his minister with -feigned protestations of friendship. Three days later the Duke of -Ormond presented himself before Bolingbroke, bearer of a letter -from James, which thanked him for his services, of which he had -no longer need, and ordered him to deliver all the state papers -into the hands of Ormond. "The papers were held without -difficulty in an envelope of ordinary size," ironically remarked -Bolingbroke. "I delivered them solemnly to my Lord Ormond, as -well as the seals. There were some letters of the chevalier which -would have been inconvenient to show to the duke, and which he -had without doubt forgotten. I subsequently sent them to him, by -a sure hand, disdaining to play him false by executing his orders -to the letter. I did not wish to appear annoyed, being far from -angry." - -Bolingbroke deceived himself: his anger against the Jacobites -constantly displayed itself during the remainder of his agitated -and restless life. With a disdainful thoughtlessness, many times -too familiar to princes, James measured the devotion of his -secretary of state; but he had judged less justly the services -which he had already rendered him, and which he might still -render. - -{150} - -"It would seem that one must have lost his senses," wrote Marsna -Berwick, "in order not to comprehend the arrant folly which -induced King James to deprive himself of the only Englishman able -to govern his affairs. Bolingbroke was endowed with brilliant -talents, which had advanced him, at an early age, to the highest -offices. He exercised a great influence upon the Tory party, of -which he was the soul. Nothing could be more deplorable than to -separate himself from such a man, at a time when he was most -necessary, and when it was important not to make new enemies. I -have been a witness of the conduct of Bolingbroke: he had done -for King James all that he was able to do." - -The entreaties of the queen mother were unable to appease -Bolingbroke. "I am free," said he, "and may my hand wither if I -ever take the sword or pen in the service of your son." From that -time all the thoughts of the exile turned towards England, while -the prince whom he had served, and who had not appreciated him, -departed for Avignon, thus virtually abandoning his royal party -by this retreat to a Papal country, the most odious and most -suspected of all, by the English. - -Scotland had suffered from the presence of armies, by the -destruction of crops, by the flight or death of a great number of -the gentry, and by the new animosities excited between the clans -engaged on the different sides. The government had taken but few -prisoners, and even those were unimportant. The English -insurrection had delivered to justice, or to the vengeance of the -Whigs, many important hostages. Lord Widdington, Lord Nairn, Lord -Kenmure, the Earls of Nithisdale and of Derwentwater, were -accused of high treason. All were condemned. The entreaties of -their friends obtained the pardon of Lords Nairn, Carnwath and -Widdington. Lord Wintoun, who alone had plead "not guilty," and -in consequence had undergone a trial, succeeded in escaping from -the Tower. -{151} -Lady Nithisdale had the happiness of saving her husband, who -escaped disguised in her clothing. Lord Derwentwater and Lord -Kenmure alone remained. Many members of both houses were inclined -towards clemency. "I am indignant," said Walpole, with a severity -foreign to his character, "to see members of this great body so -unfaithful to their duty that they are able to open their mouths -without blushing in favor of rebels and parricides." Lord -Nottingham boldly declared for the condemned; he was dismissed -from the ministry. On the 24th of February, 1716, the two lords -perished upon the scaffold at Tower Hill, proclaiming to the last -moment their faithful allegiance to King James. Condemnations -were less numerous among the rebels of an inferior order. Justice -had been severe, but it had not become vengeance. "The rebel who -declares himself boldly, justly compromises his life," affirms -Gibbon, with positive equity. New measures, purely repressive, -were voted against the Catholics, among whom were naturally -reckoned many Jacobites. Among the constant partisans of the -fallen house, the devotion, the fidelity, the honest and sincere -attachment, merit the respect of men and the sympathetic -indulgence of history. Indignation and contempt belong to those -who had nourished hopes, encouraged intrigues, even furnished -resources secretly and perfidiously, like the Duke of -Marlborough, the General-in-chief of the armies of King George, -without risking a day of their lives nor an atom of their -grandeur. The splendor of genius and the most brilliant successes -can never efface such a stain. Slowly and noiselessly, -Marlborough had lost in public opinion, and he was soon to fall -into an intellectual and physical decadence: worthy chastisement -of a life, a singular mixture of great power of mind and moral -baseness, of cold calculation and violent passions, of glory and -of ignominy. -{152} -Attacked by paralysis, in May, 1716, Marlborough expired on the -16th of June, 1722, and was interred, with royal honors in -Westminster Abbey. "I was a man then," said the invalid Duke, -when contemplating his portrait in a picture which represented -the battle of Blenheim. He left an immense fortune, the results -of the great offices which both he and the Duchess had held, as -well as the exactions that his extreme avidity for money had led -him into. "I have heard his widow say," said Voltaire, "that -after the division made to four children, there still remained to -her, without thanks to the court, a revenue of £70,000." - -National gratitude had contributed its share to this enormous -accumulation of wealth. It is to the honor of England that she -has always recompensed her great servants magnificently. - -Parliament, on its own authority, and by a legitimate exercise of -its power, now took an important step. The experience of the last -twenty years of triennial legislative elections had convinced -many sound thinkers that an agitation so frequently renewed was -dangerous to the electors, as well as to the liberty of action of -those elected. It was remembered that William III. had once -refused his assent to the bill, which was subsequently imposed -upon him. A new law decided that the duration of the parliaments -should henceforth be seven years. Usage has often abridged this -term by a year, but it has remained, notwithstanding frequent -infractions, the regular limit for legislatures. About the same -time, and in spite of serious obstacles, that clause of the act -of Establishment which formerly forbade the sovereigns to leave -the soil of Great Britain, was repealed by the houses. The desire -of George I. to visit his hereditary states became irresistible; -he had long been detained by the jealousy which he felt regarding -his son. -{153} -It was with regret and upon the formal advice of his ministers, -that he decided to confide the government to the Prince of Wales -during his absence. "This family has always been quarrelsome," -said Lord Carteret, one day, to the full Council, "and it will -quarrel always, from generation to generation." - -The king left England on the 17th of July, 1716, accompanied by -the Secretary of State, Stanhope. The latter profited by his -presence upon the continent, and formed, with the States-General -and the Emperor, a treaty of defensive alliance: the only -guarantee which he was able to obtain from the jealous -susceptibility of the court of Vienna, and the restless -feebleness of the Dutch negotiators. Heinsius was no longer in -power, and soon afterwards died. "Forced to rely upon many heads, -the government no longer has a head," said Horace Walpole, -brother of the leader of the House of Commons and minister to the -Hague; "there are here as many masters as wills." - -An understanding with France, regarding new enterprises of the -Pretender, became necessary to England. The regent was not -personally opposed to it; he was weary of the indolence and -cowardly incapacity of the Chevalier St. George; he was besides -urged by the Abbé Dubois, formerly his tutor, corrupt himself and -a corruptor of others, and already secretly at the head of -foreign affairs, but waiting until he should be officially -appointed, and aspiring to become prime minister. - -Without respect for law, destitute of all religious convictions, -and consequently inaccessible to the motive which led many good -Catholics, in Europe, to desire the re-establishment of the -Stuarts, Dubois was able, often far-seeing, and sometimes even -bold; he had a mind active, clear, and moderately practical. -{154} -The alliance of England seemed to him useful to his master and to -France. He adroitly availed himself of his former relations with -General Stanhope, when commander of the English troops in Spain, -in order to begin secret negotiations, which soon extended to -Holland. "The character of our regent," wrote Dubois, on the 10th -of March, 1716, "leaves no room to fear that he prides himself -upon perpetuating the prejudices and the policy of our ancient -court; and as you can remark for yourself, he has too much spirit -not to recognize his true interests." - -Dubois carried to the Hague the propositions of the regent. King -George was expected there; the clever diplomat concealed the -object of his journey under the pretext of buying rare books. He -went, he said, to redeem from the hands of the Jews the famous -picture of the Seven Sacraments, by Poussin, recently stolen from -Paris. The order of the succession to the crowns of France and -England, conformably to the peace of Utrecht, was guaranteed in -the treaty. It was the only decided advantage to the regent, who -hoped thereby to confirm the renunciation of Philip V. Dubois had -demanded that all the conditions of the treaty of 1713 should be -recognized. Stanhope formally refused. "It has taken me three -days to get out of this with the Abbé Dubois," wrote he to -England: as to the remainder, all the concessions came from -France; her territory was forbidden to the Jacobites, and the -Pretender, who was established at Avignon, was to be invited to -cross the Alps. The English demanded the abandonment of the works -on the canal at Mardyke, destined to replace the port of Dunkirk. -The Dutch claimed commercial advantages. Dubois yielded upon all -these points, but defended to the last, with a vain tenacity, the -title of King of France, that the English still disputed to our -monarchs. Stanhope was urged to terminate the negotiations. -Diplomatic complications that threatened to lead to war in the -north gravely pre-occupied George I., always absorbed in the -interests of his patrimonial States. "The scope of his mind does -not extend beyond the Electorate." said Lord Chesterfield; -"England is too large a morsel for him." - -{155} - -Unfriendly relations had long existed between King George and the -Czar, Peter the Great, that powerful and erratic genius, who by -his personal merit laid the foundations of a great empire. He had -made advances to France. - -The Dutch were slow in deciding, but in October, 1716, the -preliminaries of the treaty were signed by Stanhope and the Abbé -Dubois only. On the 6th of January, 1717, the ratifications were -finally exchanged at the Hague. "I signed at midnight," wrote -Dubois, triumphantly, to the regent; "you are no longer a page, -and I have no more fear." The treaty of the Triple Alliance -gained for Dubois the office of secretary of foreign affairs. It -disturbed the English ministry and disorganized momentarily the -Whig party. Lord Townshend was hostile to the haste shown by -Stanhope in concluding the treaty; his brother-in-law, Horace -Walpole, had refused his signature. Court intrigues aggravated -this discontent; the king, besides, was irritated against Lord -Townshend and Robert Walpole, whom he regarded as favorable to -his son. Always honest, often rude, and with but little tact, -Lord Townshend believed he could obtain from George I. -discretionary powers for the Prince of Wales. This rendered his -fall inevitable. Even before his return to England, the king -dismissed his minister, offering to him in exchange for his -office, the vice-royalty of Ireland; but scarcely had the session -opened, when the animosities became more aggravated, and the -apparent reconciliations were broken off. -{156} -Lord Townshend and Robert Walpole withdrew from public affairs. -Lord Sunderland, as able, although not as corrupt as his father, -became secretary of state; Addison, at the same time, was called -to the ministry, and General Stanhope was appointed First Lord of -the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer. In spite of the -ministerial modifications, the power remained in the hands of the -Whigs. "While there remain Whigs disposed to serve him, the king -is decided to be served by the Whigs," wrote Stanhope, while yet -in Hanover, with George I., "and I will not be the one to turn -his Majesty from this good resolution, by refusing to take some -trouble, or to expose myself to whatever peril may arise." - -The ministry and England were at this epoch greatly disturbed by -a new intrigue, organized in Europe, in favor of the Pretender. -Spain was governed by Cardinal Alberoni, the crafty, ambitious, -and bold Italian who had placed Elizabeth Farnese upon the throne -with Philip V., and through her exercised the power. He had -regulated the finances and industry, he had prepared a fleet and -an army; "meditating," he said, "the peace of the world;" and he -began this great enterprise, by maneuvres which could lead to -nothing less than setting fire to the four corners of Europe, in -the name of a feeble and dull king, and of a queen ambitious, -artful, and unpopular, "whom he had locked up, carrying the key -in his pocket," says St. Simon. He dreamed of establishing the -empire of Spain in Italy, of disturbing the government of the -regent in France, of overthrowing the Protestant king of England -by re-establishing the Stuarts upon the throne, and of raising -himself to the supreme power in Church and State. Already he had -obtained from Pope Clement XI., the cardinal's hat, by -concealing, under the pretext of war against the Turks, the -preparations which he was making against Italy. -{157} -Having remained neutral during the Jacobite insurrection of 1715, -he entered into the projects of Görtz, a passionate intriguer, -animated against King George by an ardent rancor, and using his -influence upon the heroic madman who reigned in Sweden, in order -to engage him also in the Jacobite plots. The alliance with the -Czar, Peter the Great, was to advance the projects of the -Chevalier. A first naval enterprise delivered Sardinia into the -hands of Alberoni. The Spanish troops entered Sicily. The Emperor -and Victor Amadeus were aroused; the Pope, overwhelmed by -reproaches from these two princes, wept, according to his custom, -saying that he had damned himself by raising Alberoni to the -Roman purple. Dubois profited by the agitations created in Europe -by the belligerant attitude of the all-powerful minister, to -finally draw the emperor into the alliance with France and -England. He renounced his pretensions to Spain and the Indies, -and returned Sardinia to Savoy, receiving Sicily in return. The -succession to the Duchies of Parma and of Tuscany was assured to -the children of the Queen of Spain. The Quadruple Alliance seemed -to promise peace to Europe; the Dutch and the Duke of Savoy -reluctantly consented. France and England engaged to gain the -consent of Spain by force of arms, if they were not able to -obtain it peacefully within a certain time. - -King George I. demanded from Parliament an increase of naval -subsidies. A considerable fleet, under the orders of Admiral -Bing, soon appeared in Spanish waters. Lord Stanhope departed for -Madrid in order to support by negotiations the salutary effect of -the presence of the English fleet. Neither the persuasions of the -minister, nor the long line of ships presented by the admiral, -acted upon the spirit of Alberoni. He tore up the paper which the -admiral presented. -{158} -"Execute the orders of the king your master," said he, angrily. -Upon learning of the departure of Lord Stanhope, he had -immediately written: "If my Lord Stanhope comes as a legislator, -he may dispense with his journey. If he comes as a mediator, I -will receive him; but in any case I inform him that at the first -attack of our vessels by an English squadron, Spain has not an -inch of ground where I would be willing to answer for his -person." - -Lord Stanhope had scarcely left Spain, when Admiral Bing, in -conjunction with General Daun, who commanded for the emperor, -attacked the Spanish fleet off Cape Passero. The Spaniards had -recently taken possession of Palermo; Messina opened its gates to -them. The Piedmontese garrison had crowded into the citadel, when -the victory of the English and the destruction of the growing -Spanish fleet suddenly changed the face of affairs. Messina -delivered, and Palermo blockaded, without hope of succor, were to -Cardinal Alberoni a mortal blow. Furious, he seized the persons -and the goods of English residents in Spain, and drove out the -consuls. Trumpeters were sent through the streets of Madrid, with -orders to the people, forbidding any discussion regarding the -affairs of Sicily. - -The hope of a diversion in the north, favorable to the projects -of the Jacobites, as well as those of Alberoni, was destroyed by -the death of the King of Sweden, Charles XII., killed on the 12th -of December, 1718, before Frederickshall. - -Alberoni summoned the Pretender to Madrid. The conspiracy of -Cellamare, absurd and frivolous, organized in Paris against the -power of the regent, by the Spanish ambassador and the Duchess of -Maine, was discovered by Dubois early in December, 1718. -{159} -The declarations of war from France and England succeeded each -other rapidly (Dec. 17, 1718, Jan. 9, 1719). At the same time -King Philip V., by a proclamation, on the 25th of December, 1718, -pronounced all his renunciations null and void, and claimed his -rights to the crown of France upon the death of Louis XV. At the -same time he made an appeal to the States-General against the -tyranny of the Regent, who had allied himself, he said, to the -enemies of both countries. - -In England, as in France, Alberoni counted upon internal -divisions and party animosities. The Pretender occupied the royal -palace of Buen Retiro, at Madrid; the King and Queen of Spain -visited him. A small squadron, secretly armed at Cadiz, put to -sea, under the orders of the Duke of Ormond. Public anxiety in -England was so great, that the government of King George accepted -auxiliary forces sent by the emperor and the States-General. The -regent offered troops, and sent to London all the information -which he received. A reward was offered for the capture of the -Duke of Ormond. Once more the sea protected the coast of England, -and the king whom she had chosen. The Spanish flotilla was -dispersed by a tempest; two frigates only, having on board Lord -Keith, known in Europe under his hereditary title of Earl -Marischal, Lord Seaforth, and the Marquis Tullibardine, landed -upon the coast of Scotland, with three hundred Spanish soldiers. -Some gentlemen joined them. The force of the rebels had increased -to about two thousand men, when General Wightman marched against -them. Some unimportant engagements were favorable to the rebels, -but finally they were defeated. The Highlanders disappeared in -the inaccessible recesses of their mountains; the Spaniards were -taken prisoners and conducted to Edinburgh. The three leaders of -the insurrection withdrew to the western isles, from where they -soon embarked; the one to return some years later to Scotland -(Lord Seaforth), another to die of grief in the Tower, after the -insurrection of 1745 (Tullibardine), and the third to enter the -service of the King of Prussia and to add his name to the -diplomatic intrigues of Europe. Voltaire and Rousseau were in -turn associated with Lord Marischal. - -{160} - -As usual, the humble partisans of the fallen house suffered -bitterly for their blind fidelity. "I made a tour through the -difficult passes of the country of Seaforth," wrote General -Wightman, "and we terrified the rebels by burning the houses of -the guilty, while we spared the peaceful subjects." - -Alberoni, weary of the ill-fortune of the Stuarts, and of the -useless burden that it imposed upon all those who desired to -serve them, informed the Pretender that he should leave Madrid. -His intended bride, the Princess Clementine Sobieski, recently -arrested by order of the emperor, at the instigation of England, -had escaped from her prison; James joined her at Rome, where -their marriage was solemnized. - -The war was brilliant, notwithstanding the deceptions with which -Alberoni incessantly quieted his master. "The regent is able, -whenever he desires, to send a French army," wrote the cardinal, -on the 21st of November, 1718. - -"Assure him publicly that he will not have a shot fired against -him here, and that the king our master will have supplies ready -for him." The army in fact entered Spain in March, 1719. The old -Marshal Villars declined the honor of commanding against the -grandson of Louis XIV. The Prince of Conti bore the title of -general-in-chief. The Duke of Berwick, less scrupulous than -Villars, accepted the effective functions; notwithstanding his -former connection with Spain, the presence of his eldest son the -Duke of Leria, in the Spanish ranks, and the services that Philip -V. had just rendered to the head of the house of Stuart. -{161} -Alberoni conducted the king, the queen, and the prince of -Asturias to the camp. Philip V. expected the defection of the -French army, en masse. No one moved; some refugees made an -attempt with some officers; their messenger was hung. -Fuenterabra, St. Sebastian, and the castle of Urgel soon fell -into the hands of the French. Another division burned six vessels -which were upon the docks. Everywhere the English brought ruin -upon the Spanish navy. Their fleets, separate or united to the -French, destroyed the Spanish vessels at Santona, at Centera, and -in the port of Vigo; everywhere the magazines were delivered to -the flames. This cruel and disastrous war against an enemy whose -best troops were fighting at a distance, usefully served the -passions as well as the interests of England. - -"It is very necessary," wrote Berwick, "that the government be -able to make the next Parliament believe that they have spared -nothing in order to decrease the Spanish navy." During this time -the English fleet, and the troops of the emperor, under the -orders of the Count of Mercy, attacked the Spanish army in -Sicily; it defended itself heroically, but was without resources, -without reinforcements, and diminishing every day. After a -momentary success at Franca Villa, the Marquis of Leyde held only -Palermo and the environs of Etna. - -An attempted insurrection, poorly seconded by some Spanish -vessels, failed in Brittany. Three gentlemen and a priest -perished upon the scaffold. "Never have I seen a plot more poorly -organized," says Duclos, in his Memoirs; "many did not know what -they were fighting for." The attempt of Alberoni to excite a -revolt in England and France, did not succeed any better than the -war in Spain or Sicily. -{162} -The Spaniards were everywhere defeated, and the cardinal was -vigorously attacked at home. He made overtures of peace at London -and at Paris. Dubois wrote to Stanhope, who responded -immediately: "We would commit a great error if we did not -consolidate the peace by the overthrow of the minister who has -caused the war. His insatiable ambition has been the only cause -of hostilities; if he is compelled to accept the peace, he will -yield momentarily to necessity, but with a confirmed resolution -of seizing the first opportunity for vengeance. Thank God he does -not know either what he can do or what he ought to attempt. He -recognizes no other condition for peace than exhaustion and -weakness; let us not leave him time to recover himself. Demand -from the king that he be sent from Spain. No stipulation could be -more advantageous for his Catholic Majesty and for his people. It -is a good thing thus to give to Europe an example which may -intimidate turbulent ministers, unfaithful to treaties, and who -allow themselves to attack impudently the persons of princes." - -Three months later, on the 4th of December, 1718, after a -prolonged audience with Philip V., who had treated him with his -usual kindness, Alberoni suddenly received an order to leave -Madrid within eight days, and Spain within three weeks. No -entreaty would induce the king or queen to see him. The cardinal -retired at first to Genoa, and then to Rome, where he passed the -remainder of his life, in the peaceful enjoyment of an immense -fortune. The country which he had oppressed, but reanimated and -served, soon fell into its former lethargy. "The queen is -possessed with a devil," said he, in his retirement; "if she -finds a soldier who has any resources of mind, and is a good -general, she will cause an uproar in Europe." The queen did not -find a general, and on the 17th of January, 1720, the -preliminaries of peace were signed at the Hague. -{163} -The definitive articles were not agreed upon until the 13th of -June, 1721. In the interval, thanks to the union with France, -England was enabled to put an end to the war with Sweden and -Denmark. King George gained the Duchies of Bremen and of Verden, -for which he had long entertained pretensions. Peter the Great -alone remained in arms. Europe had at last gained the repose -which she was to enjoy for many years. - -The war had not suspended parliamentary struggles. In 1718, upon -a sincerely liberal proposition of Lord Stanhope, the _Acts of -Schism_ and of _Occasional Conformity_ were repealed by -the Houses. The ministers desired to go further and amend the -_Test Act_, in order to place the Dissenters upon a footing -of legitimate religious equality with the members of the Anglican -Church. - -The bishops were divided upon the question. "We have already had -much trouble," said Lord Sunderland; "but if we touch the Test, -all will be lost." Lord Stanhope desired to include the -Catholics; the day of liberty and justice for them had not yet -arrived. - -King George had just returned to London, after a recent voyage -into Germany, when a bold proposition was made in the House of -Lords. The peers had not yet forgotten the numerous creations -hazarded by the Earl of Oxford in order to assure a majority to -the court; the character of the Prince of Wales offered few -guarantees, and the foreign favorites were eager for honors and -distinctions. The thought was conceived of limiting the number of -peers by restraining the royal prerogative. The king made no -objection. "His Majesty has so strong a desire to establish the -peerage of the realm upon a basis which will assure forever the -constitutional liberty of Parliament," said Lord Stanhope, "that -he consents not to hinder this great work by the exercise of his -prerogative." - -{164} - -The discussion was long, animated, and many times resumed; the -good judgment of the nation finally prevailed over the rancors of -the past, and over the jealousies of the future. Adopted by the -Lords, the bill was rejected in the House of Commons by a large -majority. "The road to the temple of fame formerly passed through -the temple of virtue," said Walpole; "this bill makes it -necessary to arrive at honor through the winding sheet of an old -decrepid lord, or the grave of an extinct noble family." It is -the sole happiness of England, and one of the sources of her -grandeur, as well as of her security, to have maintained upon the -ancient bases a force in the state constantly renewed and -liberally recruited by personal merit. - -This check to the ministry was important; but a greater shock, -which was to overthrow it and overwhelm the country in ruin, was -preparing. At the same time that Paris and France were a prey to -the fever for wild speculations, excited by the system of Law, -England, for other reasons and from other pretexts, suffered an -analogous contagion, accompanied by the same fatal results. The -South Sea Company had been founded in 1711, by Harley. In -guarantee for the payment of the national debt, important -privileges had then been accorded to him. In 1719 the directors -of the company proposed to liquidate the public debt in -twenty-six years, upon condition that the different claims were -to be concentrated in their hands, and that they would be -supplied with new privileges as well as great latitude in their -negotiations. The Bank of England disputed with the South Sea -Company the honor and supposed profit of this enterprise, which -was put up at auction. A bill of Parliament assured the monopoly -to the company, which had engaged to pay seven and a half million -sterling. -{165} -In order to sustain this enormous burden, the directors plunged -into the wildest speculations. Walpole had predicted the fatal -effects, but without measuring the criminal folly of the leaders, -and the stupid avidity of the followers. The shares of the -company increased from one hundred and thirty to a thousand -pounds sterling; while new societies were formed for the working -of the most insane industries. Raising the wrecks upon the coast -of Ireland, the freshening of the waters of the sea, the -fabrication of the oil of turnsole, the importation of donkeys -from Spain, the fattening of pork, formed simultaneously the -objects of fictitious speculations, suddenly arrested at the -instigation of the South Sea Company, jealous and anxious to -concentrate upon their enterprise all the energy of the -stock-jobbers. Exchange Alley became the rival of Quincampoix -street; the greatest lords, the most delicate ladies; -ecclesiastics elbowed merchants and servants, all hurrying to -secure for themselves the new stocks put in circulation, and the -fabulous profits which were expected from them. The Prince of -Wales himself consented to become a director of the company for -the working of copper mines in Wales. The intervention of the -ministry was necessary to threaten the company with prosecution, -before his royal highness would consent to withdraw with a profit -of £40,000. - -The edifice of Law, in France, began to totter; the ruin of the -fictitious companies in England soon involved all reasonable and -legitimate speculations. In a few weeks the stock of the South -Sea Company fell below three hundred pounds sterling; the -suddenness of the catastrophe seriously involved the English -speculators. Everywhere families were ruined, fortunes the most -solid were shaken, and character and reputations were lost. "The -very name of the South Sea Company became odious," says a -contemporary. -{166} -In vain was Walpole, who had recently retired to his country -house at Houghton, recalled to London to seek a remedy for the -evils which he had foreseen; but the ruin was beyond his efforts -and power. Public anger and indignation knew no bounds. The king, -who was in Hanover, returned precipitately, and Parliament was -convoked for the 8th of December. "I avow," said Lord Molesworth, -to the House of Commons, "that the ordinary laws do not reach the -directors of the South Sea Company, but extraordinary crimes call -aloud for extraordinary remedies. The Roman lawgivers had not -foreseen the possible existence of a parricide; but as soon as -the first monster appeared, he was sewed in a sack and cast -headlong into the Tiber; and I shall be content to inflict the -same treatment on the authors of our present ruin." - -The calm good sense of Walpole, as well as his prudent foresight, -powerfully advanced his ascendancy in Parliament. He succeeded in -controlling the unchained passions. "If London was on fire, wise -men would endeavor to extinguish the flames before they sought -the incendiaries. We have a matter of still greater urgency: to -save the public credit." Able and wise measures had been -presented to Parliament, but public vengeance was not satisfied; -a thorough inquiry ended in the discovery of grave evidences of -corruption and bribery. The discussions became so violent that -the doors of the House were closed and the keys placed upon the -table. The German favorites of the king, the Duchess of Kendal -and the Countess of Platen, the Lord Treasurer, the Earl of -Sunderland and Mr. Aislabie the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and -many other inferior officers of the government, were found to be -seriously compromised. A parliamentary quarrel between Lords -Wharton and Stanhope agitated the latter so violently that he had -an apoplectic fit and died the next day, to the great regret of -the public who had never doubted his honesty. - -{167} - -The Secretary of State, Craggs, justly accused of having received -a bribe from the directors of the company, died of the small pox; -his father, the Postmaster-General, took poison. Aislabie was -sent to the Tower, and the greater part of his property was -confiscated. All the property of the directors was seized, and -they were declared forever incapable of holding any public office -or of sitting in Parliament. Lord Sunderland had lost -considerable sums: "He is a dupe, but not an accomplice," -scornfully said even his enemies. He was acquitted, but -nevertheless could not preserve his power. Walpole succeeded him -as first Lord of the Treasury. Sunderland died on the 17th of -April, 1721, some weeks after the general elections, and two -months before his illustrious father-in-law, the Duke of -Marlborough. - -Robert Walpole had finally attained the power which he was to -exercise during twenty years, for the repose, if not always for -the honor and moral grandeur of his country. Jealous of his -authority, to the extent of removing from the circle about the -king all those not his friends, and even those of his friends -whom he could not control absolutely, he encountered, at the -outset, the intrigues of the Jacobites, re-awakened by the -general discontent and by the new aspirations which the birth of -a son awakened in the Pretender. - -A new expedition was prepared under the orders of the Duke of -Ormond, and matured and directed from England by a council of -five members who conducted the affairs of "King James III." The -soul of this little clique was the Bishop of Rochester, Francis -Atterbury, indefatigable in his zeal as well as inexhaustible in -his resources; sincerely attached to the Protestant faith, but -sacrificing all to his political passions, and more occupied in -preparing for the landing of the invaders and in fomenting an -insurrection during the absence of the king in Hanover, than in -the care of his diocese. -{168} -When the plot was discovered, the inferior agents were promptly -arrested, and the Duke of Norfolk, Lord Orrery, and Lord North, -at first imprisoned in the Tower, were soon released: the bishop -remained gravely compromised. Walpole resolved to risk a trial. -Among the accomplices a young barrister named Layer alone -suffered the extreme penalty; the property of some others was -confiscated; but public interest concentrated itself upon the -bishop, who was kept in close confinement in the Tower. - -Atterbury was eloquent and convincing; when he appeared before -the House of Lords, all his efforts tended to prove that the -testimony against him was forged. Walpole was compelled to defend -himself: "A finer passage at arms between two such antagonists -was never seen," said Onslow, the speaker of the House of -Commons; "one fighting for his reputation, the other for his -life." The evidence was overwhelming against the bishop; he had -evidently conspired against a sovereign to whom he had sworn -allegiance. His address was as eloquent as able. "I have suffered -so much," said he, "that the little strength which I enjoyed at -the time of my arrest, in the month of August last, has -completely disappeared, and I am not in a state to appear before -your lordships, still less to defend myself in an affair of so -extraordinary a nature. I am accused of having conspired. What -could I gain, my lords, by going thus out of my way? No man in my -order is less urged by ambition for higher dignities of the -Church. I have always scorned money; too much so, perhaps, for I -may now need it. Could I have been drawn by a secret attraction -towards papacy? -{169} -My lords, since I have known what papacy is, I have exposed it; -and the better I have known it, the stronger I have opposed it. -For the last thirty-seven years I have written in favor of Martin -Luther. Whatever may happen to me, I am ready to suffer all, and -by the grace of God to perish at the stake sooner than depart -from the Protestant faith as set forth by the Church of England. -I have awaited my sentence these eight months, my lords, -separated from my children, who have not been able to write me or -even send me a message without express authority. When the -illustrious Earl of Clarendon, accused of treason, was compelled -to retire into exile, he had passed the greater part of his life -abroad, and was well known there; he understood the language, and -he enjoyed a large fortune; all these consolations are wanting to -me. I resemble him only in my innocence and my punishment. It is -not in the power of any man to alter the first resemblance, but -it is in the power of your lordships to profoundly modify the -second; I hope for it and I expect it from you." Atterbury was -condemned; a majority of the prelates voted against him. - -The English Catholics had ardently espoused the cause of the -house of Stuart, and they were to pay once again for their -illusive imprudence and folly. The attempt which had just cost -the Bishop of Rochester his episcopal see and the freedom of his -country, served as a pretext for Walpole to propose a tax of -£100,000, to be collected from the estates of the Catholics. -"Many of them are guilty," said the minister. This contempt for -justice and liberty, which long pursued the Catholics in England, -weighed upon the French Protestants still longer and more -heavily. The bill which passed the Houses included all the gentry -who had refused to take the oath of allegiance. Many who had -resisted, up to this time, in consequence of a sincere -repugnance, now hastened to take the oath to the established -order of things. - -{170} - -"I have observed well," said the Speaker Onslow, who was opposed -to the measure of Walpole, "and it was a strange and ridiculous -spectacle to see the crowd which gathered at the quarterly -Sessions in order to pledge their allegiance to the government, -while, at the same time, cursing it for the trouble which it was -giving them and for the fear which it inspired. I am convinced -that the attachment for the king and his family has received a -severe shock from all that happened at this time." - -As the exiled bishop put his foot upon the soil of France, at -Calais, he learned that Lord Bolingbroke had been pardoned by the -king, and had arrived in that city on his way to England. "I am -exchanged, then," said Atterbury, smiling. "Assuredly," wrote -Pope, the intimate and faithful friend of the bishop, "this -country fears an excess of talent, since it will not regain one -genius without losing another." - -It was to the venal protection of the Duchess of Kendal that -Bolingbroke owed the royal pardon. Walpole had not received -favorably the overtures which had been made to him in favor of -the exile. "The attainder ought never to be abolished, and crimes -ought never to be forgotten," said he, in the Council. The -Marquise de Villette, niece of Madame Maintenon, at first the -friend and subsequently the wife of Bolingbroke, had succeeded in -interesting the favorite in his behalf. Eleven thousand pounds -sterling were paid, it was said, for permission to return to -England. He had as yet recovered neither his title, his rights, -nor his fortune. The offer of his services was refused by -Walpole. It was not until 1725, and even then, through the -intervention of Madame Villette and the Duchess of Kendal, that -Bolingbroke, having returned to France, finally obtained -permission to present to Parliament a petition that Walpole -consented to support. -{171} -More clear-sighted than he had often been during his public life, -Bolingbroke while in France had served continually and to the -utmost, the interests of the English minister, by sustaining his -brother Horace and his brother-in-law Lord Townshend, in their -rivalry against Lord Carteret, the Secretary of State. The -amnesty voted by Parliament restored to Bolingbroke his personal -fortune, and his rights to the heritage of his father, but -without giving him the right of disposing of it. The king had -promised Walpole, it was said, that Bolingbroke should never -again hold any political position. "I am restored to two-thirds," -wrote he to Swift, from his country house at Uxbridge. He -received his friends, occupying or at least pretending to occupy -himself exclusively with his estate and in literary pursuits. -Voltaire was one of his visitors, when driven from France by his -quarrel with the Chevalier Rohan, and passed two years in -England. This event had a powerful effect upon Voltaire's mind, -and many traces of the same may be found in his writings. The -relations of the poet with Bolingbroke were of long standing; -they had often met at the Chateau de la Source, near Orleans, -where the exile lived for some time. "One thing which interests -me," wrote Voltaire, "is the recall of milord Bolingbroke to -England. He will be at Paris to-day, and I shall have the grief -of bidding him farewell, perhaps forever." When Voltaire, in his -turn, again reached his own country, he dedicated to Bolingbroke -his tragedy of _Brutus_: "Permit me to present to you -_Brutus_," wrote he, "although written in another language, -_docte sermonis utriusque linguœ_, to you who have given me -lessons in French as well as in English, to you who have taught -me at least to give to my language that force and that energy -which noble liberty of thought inspires: for vigorous sentiments -of the soul always pass into the language, and he who thinks -forcibly speaks likewise." Voltaire, on asking permission to -visit England, had remarked: "it is a country where they think -freely and nobly without being restrained by servile fear." - -{172} - -Troubles in Ireland, caused by the recoinage of money, and in -Scotland, by a tax upon beer, which had been substituted for the -malt tax, had for some time detained King George in England. -Finally, in 1725, he departed for Hanover, accompanied, as usual, -by Lord Townshend and the Duchess of Kendal. The state of affairs -in Europe had become critical. In France the regent had died on -the 2nd of December, 1723; the Duke of Bourbon, who had succeeded -him, governed ostentatiously and violently, but without either -true force or authority, and abandoned to the influence of his -favorite, the corrupt and avaricious Marquise de Prie. Both -desired to assure the duration of their power by giving to the -young King Louis XV. a wife who would owe to them her elevation, -and who would remain submissive to them. - -The Infanta of Spain had been educated at the French Court, -treated as queen, and was only waiting until her age would permit -her to wed the young King Louis XV., according to a treaty -solemnly negotiated with Philip V. She was sent back to Madrid, -and Marie Leczinska, daughter of Stanislaus, the dethroned and -ruined King of Poland, was chosen in her place for the sad honor -of sharing the throne of Louis XV. "It is necessary that the -Infanta depart immediately, in order that this may be done -sooner," said the Count of Morvilliers, who was charged with the -marriage negotiations. - -{173} - -The anger and indignation of Spain were extreme. "All the -Bourbons are true demons," said the queen; then turning towards -the king, whose origin she had forgotten, in her fury, she added: -"Save your Majesty." The fragile edifice of the Quadruple -Alliance succumbed beneath the imprudent insolence of the French -government. Philip V. gave his daughter to the Prince of Brazil, -the heir to the throne of Portugal. By this alliance, agreeable -to England, the faithful friend of Portugal, the King of Spain -hoped to gain the support of George I. "We will put confidence -only in your master," said the queen to William Stanhope, the -English minister at Madrid, "and we desire no other mediator but -him in our negotiations." The English government nevertheless -refused to break with France. Philip V. formed an alliance with -the Emperor Charles VI., the most ancient, and even then, the -most implacable of his enemies. The Archduke had no son, and -wished to secure the succession to his eldest daughter, the -Archduchess Maria Theresa. The Pragmatic Sanction which declared -this will, awaited the assent of Europe. That of Spain was of -great value. She offered, besides, to open her ports to the -company of Ostend, recently founded by the Emperor to compete -with the Dutch commerce. - -The house of Austria divided the house of Bourbon by opposing to -each other the two branches of France and Spain. The treaty of -Vienna was concluded on the 1st of May, 1725. The two sovereigns -renounced all pretensions to their respective states, and -proclaimed a full amnesty for their partisans. The emperor -recognized the hereditary rights of Don Carlos to the Duchies of -Tuscany, Parma and Plaisance; he promised, at the same time, his -good offices, to obtain from England the restitution of Gibraltar -and Port Mahon. In spite of negotiations already entered into -with the Duke of Lorraine, the hands of the Archduchesses, the -daughters of the emperor, were promised to the two sons of -Elizabeth Farnese, Don Carlos and Don Philip. - -{174} - -King George was in Hanover when the secret articles of the treaty -became known. "On this occasion, it was not the ministers of his -Majesty who instructed him," subsequently said Walpole, "but it -was his Majesty who gave his ministers the information. The -information which the king had received in Hanover was so sure, -that they could not be deceived." The Count de Broglie went to -Germany to join George I. The King of Prussia, Frederick William -I., was called to the conference; the Empress Catherine I., widow -of Peter the Great, made advances to Spain in consequence of her -antipathy towards England. The necessity for strong alliances was -felt; the King of Prussia hesitated, realizing the danger he ran -from his nearness to the emperor; he signed, nevertheless, but -soon afterwards abandoned his allies. The Treaty of Hanover was -concluded on the 8th of September, between England, France, -Prussia, Denmark and Sweden. "Hanover advances itself -triumphantly upon the shoulders of England," said Lord -Chesterfield. George I. was accused of having defended his -electorate at the expense of his kingdom; in Hanover the elector -was reproached for having protected the commercial interests of -England by exposing his native country to great perils. The Count -de Broglie shared the English opinion: "His Majesty regards -England as a temporary possession, by which it is necessary to -profit while at his service, more than as a durable heritage," -wrote he, on the 20th of January, 1724, to Louis XV. The Duke of -Bourbon had just been replaced at the head of the French -government by Cardinal Fleury, moderate and prudent, favorable to -the English alliance and sincerely desirous of preserving peace -in Europe. -{175} -Lord Townshend directed the negotiations of the treaty of -Hanover. Walpole was secretly jealous and censured certain -clauses. The secret articles, concluded at Vienna, greatly -pre-occupied England. "I know, from a source, which cannot be -doubted," said George I., in his address at the opening of -Parliament, in 1727, "that the re-establishment of the Pretender -upon the throne of this kingdom, was one of the secret articles -signed at Vienna. If time proves that by abandoning the commerce -of this nation to one power, and Gibraltar and Port Mahon to -another, a market has been made of this kingdom, in order to -impose upon it a papist Pretender, what will not be the -indignation of all English and Protestant hearts." - -The emperor protested boldly against the address from the throne, -and appealed from the king to the nation. The Pretender, recently -filled with hope, by the alliance of the empire and Spain, -alienated these two powers by his cruel conduct towards his wife. -The princess had left him on the 15th of November, 1725, to -retire into the convent of St. Cecilia, at Rome. War, -nevertheless, seemed inevitable; but the emperor realized his -feebleness, and cared but little for the interests of Spain. On -the 31st of May, 1727, the preliminaries of peace were signed at -Paris, between England, France and Holland, on the one part, and -the empire on the other. English commerce was satisfied by the -suspension of the privileges of the company of Ostend for seven -years. Philip V. voluntarily raised the siege of Gibraltar. The -prudent moderation of Walpole and of Cardinal Fleury, once again -succeeded in maintaining the peace of Europe. - -{176} - -Walpole was threatened, nevertheless; he governed with sagacity -the nation so long and so cruelly agitated, and became rich and -prosperous; but he governed without glory. "Little jealous," says -De Rémussat, "of honoring men, provided he rules them." He was -reserved and haughty, carefully withdrawing from even the shadow -of a rivalry. Bolingbroke had never pardoned his hostility; he -attacked him anonymously in a journal directed by Pulteney, who -was detached from the Whigs by an ancient enmity against Walpole. -He undertook to lower him in the estimation of the king. The -Duchess of Kendal, secretly hostile to the minister, placed in -the king's hands a Memorial drawn up by Bolingbroke, in which the -latter pointed out all the dangers to which the state was exposed -in the hands of Walpole, and demanded an audience. George I. -simply turned over the memorial to Walpole, who promptly divined -from whom the blow came. "Join with me. Duchess, in praying the -king to accord Lord Bolingbroke an audience;" boldly said Sir -Robert. The king hesitated, as he did not speak English. "It is a -great proof of the ability of Walpole that he governed the king -in Latin," it was said. Bolingbroke understood French perfectly, -and it was in that language that the interview was held. The -Viscount claimed the restoration of his political privileges. "It -is sufficient that your Majesty exacts it," said he. "Sir Robert -is here, let him be called, and I will convince him before your -Majesty that the thing can be done."--"No, no," replied the king, -"do not call him." Then, as the Chancellor of the Duchy of -Cornwall, Lechmere, who was at this time antagonistic to both -Walpole and Bolingbroke, entered, the king could scarcely refrain -from laughter. When his minister, somewhat disturbed, came to -learn the result of the conversation with Bolingbroke, -"Bagatelle, bagatelle!" repeated George I. Walpole never learned -more. - - [Transcriber's note: - Bagatelle: Something of little value or significance.] - - -[Image] -The Mysterious Letter. - - -{177} - -The king prepared for another journey to Hanover. Some months -before, on the 12th of November, 1726, his wife, Sophia Dorothea -of Zell, died. She was beautiful and amiable, but arbitrarily -condemned by her husband during thirty-six years. The Count of -Konigsmark, the man who had, it was said, gained her favors, -disappeared mysteriously at the time when the princess was -imprisoned, by the order of her father-in-law as well as her -husband. The place where the Count was struck down is still -shown. Many years later his bones were found under the marble -slab before the chimney of the castle. The prince obtained a -divorce, but never relaxed his severity towards his wife, who, on -her part, never ceased protesting her innocence. - -It is said that at the time when King George I. entered Germany, -in June, 1727, an unknown person threw into his carriage a letter -from the princess, written during her last illness, solemnly -adjuring her husband to repent of the terrible injury which he -had inflicted upon her, and calling upon him to appear within a -year before the tribunal of God. - -It was to this summons from the tomb that was attributed that -unexpected blow which so suddenly fell upon King George. On the -10th of June, 1727, he departed from Delden in good health, but -within a few hours was struck by apoplexy. His servants desired -to stop, but the king repeated, in a stifled voice, "Osnabruch! -Osnabruch!" When they gained that palace of the prince Bishop, -his brother, the King of England was dead. - - - -{178} - - Chapter XXXV. - - George II (1727-1760). - - -It is the honor and the good fortune of free countries to be -often served, and at times gloriously governed, without display -and without the personal grandeur of the sovereign called to the -throne by the law of heredity. Already slowly undermined by the -misdeeds and misfortunes of King Louis XIV.'s last years, -absolute power was enfeebled and dishonored in France, in the -indolent and corrupt hands of Louis XV. In Europe, in Asia, in -America, war was about to deal it a mortal blow, by despoiling -our country of that military glory which had for long been our -appanage, despite the crimes and errors of our home government. -Honest and well disposed toward his counsellors and his people, -without cunning and without breadth of view, constantly -pre-occupied with the German interests of his Electorate, George -II. was about to assure to England a long period of security and -prosperity, sometimes brilliant, always fatal to his enemies at -home and to his rivals abroad, to the house of Stuart as to -France. - -It was to the natural development and to the regular play of -parliamentary government that England owed this repose, often -laborious and difficult, solidly founded on the firmest bases -during the long reign of the second Hanoverian monarch. Four -notable ministries were to succeed each other round the throne of -George II., the first and the last in the hands of men eminent in -various ways, Robert Walpole and Lord Chatham: -1727-1741-1756-1760; directed from 1742 till 1744 by Lord -Carteret, soon afterwards Lord Granville, and from 1744 till 1756 -by the Duke of Newcastle and his brother Henry Pelham. - - - -[Image] -George II. - - -{179} - -All called to face serious difficulties, great internal and -external shocks, the ministers of George II., eloquent or -commonplace, remained faithful to the king whom they served, and -never afforded that example of treason and deplorable weaknesses -which had shamefully marked the life of so many Statesmen during -the last three reigns. There was conspiracy yet, but the -conspirators no longer hid themselves in the royal palaces, at -the head of armies or of public affairs. It was on the field of -battle that the Stuarts were to play and lose their last game. At -the death of George I. the fate of the new dynasty and of the -protestant succession might, to superficial observation, have -appeared uncertain and precarious. At the death of George II. the -work had been accomplished; thenceforth revolutions were to be -for England only a remembrance at once glorious and sad, without -possible recurrence and without bitter traces. National victories -would efface the last remnant of intestine strifes. - -By the side of George II., on the throne still occupied by a -half-foreign monarch, who spoke the language of his people with a -pronounced accent, who was of slender appearance, and more brave -in person than royal in tastes and habits, was seated a clever, -moderate, wise and learned princess, with a semblance of -pedantry, who was skilful, and very soon dominant in the -government, without ever giving evidence of any presumption. -Princess Caroline d'Anspach had often had to lament the -infidelities of her husband; he remained attached to her, -nevertheless, and her influence was constantly first with him. -Robert Walpole had known how to anticipate this influence. He -never omitted, for the benefit of the prince's favorite, the -deference that he had displayed to the Princess of Wales. The -queen did not forget it. - -{180} - -The first moment of the new reign had not been propitious to the -powerful minister of George I. When he presented himself at the -palace, in order to announce to the new monarch the death of the -king his father, George II., scarcely awakened from his customary -siesta, had brusquely replied to the minister's question, "Whom -does your Majesty charge with the communications to the Privy -Council?"--"Compton," said the king. In retiring to convey the -royal command to his rival, thus designated as his successor, -Walpole lost neither his coolness nor his firm resolution to -govern his country for the longest possible period. "I am about -to fall," he had just said to Sir William Young, "but I advise -you not to throw yourself into a violent opposition, for I shall -not be slow to rise again." - -As a matter of fact, Walpole was not to fall. It was only the -breath of royal disfavor that was to pass over him. Sir Spencer -Compton, soon afterwards Lord Wilmington, an honest and capable -man, but of dull wit and without facility of speech, as without -ministerial experience, modestly requested Walpole to compose for -him the communication with which the king had charged him. -Walpole did so. The secret leaked out. At the same time the -minister, momentarily superseded, proposed to the queen an -increase of revenue for the king and a dowry for herself, which -he believed himself sure of having voted by Parliament. Already -well-disposed toward Walpole, Caroline knew how to cleverly prove -to her husband the danger that he would find, at the commencement -of his reign, in losing a powerful and popular minister by -throwing him into opposition. Already the courtiers had abandoned -Walpole, and crowded around Sir Spencer Compton. -{181} -At the ceremony of hand-kissing, Lady Walpole "could scarcely -force a passage between the disdainful backs and elbows of those -who had flattered her the day before," writes her son Horace, in -his Souvenirs. When the queen, perceiving her in the last ranks, -exclaimed, "Ah! I see a friend down there," the crowd opened -right and left. "In coming back," said Lady Walpole, "I might -have walked over their heads, if I had desired." During thirteen -years more Walpole was to exercise that authority of which he was -secretly so jealous. "Sir Robert was moderate in the exercise of -power," said Hume; "he was not just in seizing the whole of it." -Walpole had already alienated Pulteney and Carteret; he was about -to embroil himself with Townshend. The divisions of the Whig -party were the work of his jealous contrivings. It had for long -been draining its strength; its debility and downfall were one -day to follow. - -The attack especially directed against the foreign policy, soon -began, and was hotly sustained in the House of Commons by -Pulteney, for the time being at one with the Tories and with Sir -William Wyndham; in the press and in the depths of parliamentary -intrigues by Lord Bolingbroke, ever the implacable enemy of -Walpole, who was obstinate in refusing him re-entrance into the -House of Lords. The Treaty of Seville had just put an end to the -dissensions with Spain (November, 1729). It was then, on the -accomplishment of the Treaty of Utrecht, that the attacks of the -_patriots_,--a name adopted by the Whigs who had gone into -opposition--were brought to bear. The ministry was reproached -with not having guarded against the demolition of Dunkerque, "I -went the day before yesterday to Parliament," wrote Montesquieu -in his "_Notes on England_," to the lower House. -{182} - "The Dunkerque affair was under discussion there. I have never - seen such a blaze. The sitting lasting from one o'clock in the - afternoon till three o'clock after midnight. There, the French - were well abused. I noticed how far the frightful jealousy goes - which exists between the two nations. M. Walpole attacked - Bolingbroke in the most savage manner, and said that he had - conducted the whole intrigue. Chevalier Wyndham defended him. - M. Walpole related in reference to Bolingbroke, the story of a - farmer, who, passing under a tree with his wife, found that a - man who had been hanged there, still breathed. He cut him down - and took him to his house and he revived. They discovered that - this man had on the day before stolen their forks. So they - said, 'The course of justice must not be opposed; he must be - carried back whence we have taken him.'" - -It was only in 1734, and under the threat which perhaps qualms of -conscience made him fear, that Bolingbroke once again voluntarily -exiled himself. Walpole had conceived a great financial scheme -for the increase of indirect taxation or excise. The opposition -violently pounced upon this unpopular project. The rumor spread -that the excise would be general. "I declare," said Walpole, -"that I never had the thought, and that no man to my knowledge -has ever had the thought of proposing a general application of -the excise. I have never dreamed of any duties except those on -wines and tobacco, and that in consequence of the frequent -complaints I have received from merchants themselves about the -frauds which are daily committed in these two branches of -commerce." - -Public discontent and irritation were too vehement to be calmed -by the moderation of Walpole: the minister prudently let the -discussion drop. The queen had constantly supported Walpole. She -had summoned one of the king's personal friends, Lord -Scarborough, in order to consult him. "I answer for my regiment -against the Pretender," said he, "but not against those who -insist upon the excise." Tears came into the eyes of the -princess. "Then," said she, "it must be renounced." - -{183} - -Emboldened by this negative victory, the chiefs of the opposition -took up the question of septennial Parliaments. The duration of -the legislature was approaching its termination. The attack was -directed by Wyndham, who was covertly backed and instructed by -Bolingbroke. It was against this cloaked and absent foe that -Walpole rose with all the eloquence, temperate in form, -impressive and haughty in effect, with which, on occasion, he so -well knew how to overwhelm his adversaries. "Much has been said -here of ministers arrogantly hurling defiances, of ministers -destitute of all sense of virtue and honor: it appears to me, -gentlemen, that with equal right, and more justly, I think, we -may speak of anti-ministers and mock patriots, who never had -either virtue or honor, and who are actuated only by envy or -resentment. Let me suppose an anti-minister who regards himself -as a man of such consequence, and endowed with such extensive -parts, that he alone in the State is equal to the conduct of -public affairs; and who stigmatizes as blunderers all those who -have the honor to be engaged therein. Suppose that this personage -has been lucky enough to enrol among his party men truly -distinguished, wealthy, and of ancient family, as well as others -of extreme views, arising from disappointed and envenomed hearts. -Suppose all these men to be moved by him solely in respect to -their political behavior, without real attachment for this chief -whom they so blindly follow, and who is detested by the rest of -humanity. We see this anti-minister in a country where he ought -not to be, where he could not be without the exercise of an -excessive clemency, yet employing all his efforts to destroy the -source whence this mercy flowed. -{184} -Let us suppose him in that country, continually occupied in -contracting intimacies with the ambassadors of princes who are -most hostile to his own; and if there should be a secret, the -divulgence of which would be prejudicial to his country, -disclosing it without hesitation to the foreign ministers who -have applied to him to discover it. Finally, let us suppose that -this anti-minister has travelled, and that at every court where -he has been placed as minister, he has betrayed every confidence, -as well as all the secrets of the countries through which he has -passed; destitute as he is of faith and honor, and betraying -every master whom he has served." - -I have desired to give an idea of the violence of parliamentary -discussion under George II., as well as of the deep-rooted -animosity which existed between Walpole and Bolingbroke. The -latter did not dare to face any revelations or more definite -accusations. He soon quitted England, not to return as long as -Walpole was in power. When he came back, in 1742, at the moment -of his father's death, it was to establish himself in the -country, in the house at Battersea, where he was born, and where -he finally died, on the 17th of December, 1751, after the most -stormy life, sadly devoted to unfortunate or disastrous -enterprises, which were unscrupulously pursued with the resources -of a rare and fruitful genius. "God, who has placed me here -below," said he to Lord Chesterfield, in bidding him farewell, -"will make of me what he will, after this; and he knows what is -the best thing to do." All the irregularities of his life and all -the inveterate doubts of his mind had never availed to snatch -from the depths of the dying Bolingbroke's soul the hereditary -faith in God which he had learned as a child at the knees of his -mother, who had been piously attached to the principles of the -old Dissenters. - -{185} - -The prolonged power of Walpole was menaced, and his authority -seriously shaken. Troubles had broken out in Scotland. The escape -of one smuggler and the punishment of another had aroused the -populace of the capital, and caused that riot against Captain -Porteous which forms one of the principal episodes of the Prison -of Edinburgh. - -Discord reigned in the royal family between King George II. and -his eldest son, Frederick, Prince of Wales, as it had previously -reigned between King George I. and his son. The queen shared the -annoyance of her consort, and refused to see the prince, when, in -the month of November, 1737, she was on her death-bed. "I hope -that you will never desert the king," said she to Walpole. "It is -to you that I commend him. Continue to serve with your accustomed -fidelity." Walpole's regrets were bitter and sincere. He was -losing an ally as certain as she was efficacious, at the moment -when the violence of the attacks against him was increasing. - -The Convention of Madrid, which ended with the close of the year -1738, had excited great discontent among the English merchants. -The wise endeavors of the minister for the maintenance of peace -with Spain were regarded as cowardice. Sixty members of the -opposition, with Wyndham at their head, had declared their -resolve of no longer taking part in the deliberations of a -corrupt Parliament. The government majority grew smaller daily. -Walpole, always obstinately attached to power, determined to bend -before the storm and to lend his aid to a war which he deplored, -and the result of which he doubted. On the 19th of October, 1739, -as the city bells were sounding with all their peals in honor of -the declaration of war, "Ring the cords of all your bells -to-day," muttered Walpole; "it will not be long before you are -wringing your hands." - -{186} - -The prudent sagacity and experience of Walpole had not deceived -him. England entered upon a restless and stormy period, the -beginnings of which were not happy. The first expeditions had -been directed against the Spanish colonies of South America. By -dint of courage and address, Commodore Anson, who was charged -with the attack on Peru, opposed by wind and tide, succeeded in -saving only one of his ships, with which he accomplished the tour -of the world, whilst Admiral Vernon, at first victorious before -Porto-Bello, and lauded to the skies by the opposition, to which -party he belonged, failed sadly before Cartagena and Santiago. -The patriots attributed the checks suffered by English armies to -Walpole. "For nearly twenty years he has demonstrated that he -possesses neither wisdom nor prudence," exclaimed Lord Carteret; -"there is still left him a little of the cunning common to -Smithfield cattle-dealers or to French valets under indulgent -masters; but his whole conduct proves that he has no true -sagacity. Our allies know and deplore it; our foes know it and -are glad of it." Yet once again, Walpole triumphed in the Houses; -his strength was being spent in repeated struggles. - -Parliament had just been dissolved; the electoral prospects were -threatening. Europe was agitated by the gravest anxieties. The -Emperor Charles VI. had just died, on the 20th of October, 1740. -All the powers had agreed to the Pragmatic Sanction, which -assured the rights of the Archduchess Maria-Theresa. Scarcely had -her father been laid in the grave, than the majority of the great -sovereigns were already dividing the spoils. The competitors were -numerous and their titles were various. The young Queen of -Hungary found opposed to her a rival and an enemy. -{187} -The elector of Bavaria reclaimed the domains of the House of -Austria by virtue of a will of Ferdinand I., father of Charles V. -He was supported by France, despite the peaceful inclinations of -Cardinal Fleury, grown old, and instigated by the Marshal -Belle-Isle. Spain laid claim to the sovereignty of Hungary and of -Bohemia, which had long been dependants of her crown. She united -her forces with those of France and Bavaria against -Maria-Theresa. The new King of Prussia, Frederick II., on -obsolete or imaginary rights, marched boldly to the conquests of -which he was ambitious. From the time when he came to the throne, -in the month of August, 1740, preceded by the reputation for a -cultivated and liberal mind, and amenable to generous sentiments, -Frederick, who had long been kept away from state affairs by the -brutal jealousy of his father, had been silently preparing his -means of attack. On leaving a masqued ball, he had set out post -haste for the Silesian frontier, where he had collected thirty -thousand troops. Without preliminary notice, without a -declaration of war, he entered the Austrian territory, which was -inadequately or badly defended. Before the end of January, 1741, -he was master of Silesia. At his departure, Frederick had said to -the French ambassador: "I believe I am going to play your game; -if the aces come to me we will divide." - -England was excited by the war. King George II. was more excited -than England. Hanover was menaced; he crossed to Germany to raise -troops. A subsidy was voted in favor of the Queen of Hungary; -certain English envoys arrived at the camp of the belligerents. -Lord Hyndford sought to excite some generous scruples in the mind -of Frederick. "Do not speak to me of magnanimity, my lord," -exclaimed the king; "a prince should consult only his interest. I -have no objection to peace, but I require four duchies, and I -will have them." -{188} -The proposals transmitted by Mr. Robinson in the name of the -Queen of Hungary seemed hard to that princess. "I hope, with all -my heart, that he will reject them," she had said, with tears in -her eyes. "Always subterfuges," exclaimed Frederick; "if you have -nothing to say to me in regard to Silesia, negotiations are -useless. My ancestors would rise out of their tombs to reproach -me with the abandonment of their just rights." - -France had concluded an alliance with the King of Prussia, -assuring him the possession of lower Silesia. Marshal Maillebois -was closely pressing Hanover; King George II. was alarmed, and -signed a treaty of neutrality for one year, engaging not to -furnish any assistance to the Queen of Hungary and to refrain -from voting as elector for her husband, Francis of Lorraine, who -aspired to the imperial dignity. On the 26th of November, 1741, -the Elector of Bavaria was proclaimed King of Bohemia. On the -14th of February, 1742, he was crowned emperor, under the name of -Charles VII. The allied armies had menaced Vienna, and Queen -Maria-Theresa, flying from town to town before her triumphant -enemies, had only found refuge and support in Hungary, amid the -palatines and magnates assembled at Presbourg. _Moriamur pro -rege nostro, Maria-Theresa!_ they had shouted, with a -unanimous voice, drawing their swords. All the horrors of war -were desolating Germany. Everywhere irregular troops scoured the -country, pillaging, massacring, burning. The hereditary domains -of the new emperor were in turn menaced. "He remains at -Frankfort," wrote the lawyer Barbier, in his journal, "and it -would be difficult for him to go elsewhere safely." - -{189} - -The neutrality of Hanover had been received in England with -anger; public feeling had been against the minister since the -opening of the session, and a contested election brought the fact -to light. The most devoted friends of Walpole pressed him to -resign. He still hesitated, being passionately attached, after -twenty years of its exercise, to that power which he had -obstinately defended against so many enemies. He decided, at -last, renouncing together with authority, the thorough dominance -which he had so long maintained in the House of Commons. He -received from the king every pledge of affection and of the most -sincere regret, and the title of Earl of Orford. Some months -later, Pulteney, in his turn, was elevated to the House of Lords, -under the name of Lord Bath. Walpole, still influential with -George II., had contributed with all his power to this -annihilatory elevation. He approached his ancient antagonist with -a smile. "Well, my lord," said he, "behold us become the two most -insignificant personages in England." - -Walpole did not long survive his downfall. In spite of his -withdrawal to Houghton, he never became, because he could not be, -insignificant. He had governed for twenty years with consummate -skill, employing indifferently good and evil means, oratorical -eloquence as well as parliamentary corruption; anxious to serve -his friends rather than to conciliate his enemies, without ever -giving to his country the pleasure of glory or the spectacle of -political and moral greatness; contributing nevertheless to the -happiness and prosperity of England by assuring to her, in the -midst of serious external and internal troubles, long years of -peace. His great rival in the art of governance was already -rising to view; and amid the ranks of the patriot Whigs observing -foresight had distinguished young William Pitt, destined to rule, -as a master, the country and the Parliament that Walpole, like a -skilful pilot, had long guided. "Between Sir Robert Walpole and -Lord Chatham," as Lord Macaulay has wittily remarked, "there was -all the distance between success and glory." - -{190} - -The new cabinet had just been formed, under the direction of Lord -Carteret, soon afterwards, in right of his mother, Lord -Granville. Pulteney had declined all office. "I have too often -protested my disinterestedness to occupy any place," he had said. -When he perceived that influence as well as power had escaped -him, it was too late to retrace his steps. The ministry as formed -was already discussed in Parliament, as well as throughout the -country, and was experiencing an opposition which would ere long -become formidable. Carteret was intelligent, brilliant and -amiable, unequal and uncertain. He allowed himself to be led, at -times, even as far as debauchery: he always remained eloquent and -adroit in diplomatic maneuvres. He had concentrated all his -efforts on the maintenance of the king's favor, often neglecting -his partisans, and relying on corruption to rally his friends. -"What do the judges and bishops matter to me?" said he, -contemptuously; "my concern is to make kings and emperors, and to -preserve the European balance." "Very well," replied the -office-seeker, so cavalierly denied; "those who do care for -judges and bishops will be appealed to." - -Thus began already the power of the Pelhams, who were more -careful than Carteret to use such means of influence as the -exercise of high offices placed in the hands of ministers or -their friends. - -The war was still being waged in Germany. With the fall of -Walpole, England's neutrality had ended. Already a body of troops -had taken the road for Flanders. Women of distinction, with the -Duchess of Marlborough at their head, had collected by -subscription the sum of one hundred thousand pounds sterling, -which they successfully offered to the haughty Maria-Theresa. The -king had taken into his pay six thousand Hessian soldiers. The -cabinet proposed to raise in Hanover a body of sixteen thousand -at England's expense. -{191} -The opposition violently inveighed against this measure. "It is -too evident," said Pitt, "that this great kingdom, which is -powerful and formidable, is regarded as a province of a pitiful -Electorate, and that troops are only raised in pursuance of a -design long matured, in order to swallow up all the resources of -our unhappy country." The proposal passed, however, and the king -put himself at the head of the forces he had collected in -Germany. The States-General of Holland had united their troops -with his. The fortune of war had changed. Charles VII., a -fugitive in his turn, driven from his hereditary States, which -Marshal Broglie had evacuated, had no longer any hope, save in -the aid of France. She alone sustained all the burden of the war, -which she had not yet officially declared. In England they -laughed at the state of matters in Europe. "Our situation is -absurd," said Horace Walpole, the intelligent son of the great -minister, who was constantly dabbling in politics, as in -literature. "We have declared war on Spain without making it, and -we make war on France without having declared it." - -King George II., as well as his second son, the Duke of -Cumberland, gave proof of striking bravery on the 17th of July, -1743, at the battle Dettingen, which was disastrous to France, -despite the able preparations of Marshal Noailles. An imprudence -of his nephew, the Duke de Grammont, decided the fate of the day. -But the jealousy which existed between the English and German -generals hindered the course of operations. A treaty concluded at -Worms, on the 13th of September, between England, Austria and -Sardinia, was badly received by Parliament, which, with good -reason, deemed it more favorable to the interests of Hanover than -to those of England. -{192} -The name Hanoverian began to be used as an insult, and was -applied at times to the king himself. All the influence that -Walpole had preserved in Parliament, and his speech in the House -of Lords, were necessary to obtain the maintenance of the foreign -troops. Lord Wilmington had just died, and at this time it was by -the advice of Walpole that Henry Pelham was called to fill his -place at the head of the Treasury. One year later, in the month -of November, 1744, a division occurred in the cabinet. In spite -of the personal favor of the king, Carteret, then Lord Granville, -yielded to the influence of Henry Pelham and his brother-in-law, -the Duke of Newcastle. War was at length officially declared -between France and England. The new ministers lately raised to -power in the name of English interests, as against the German -proclivities of the king, continued to hire Hanoverian troops. At -the opening of the campaign of 1745, the Duke of Cumberland found -himself at the head of the allies. - -The Emperor Charles VII. had just died, and his son had treated -with the Queen of Hungary. Already for two years Frederick II., -being master of Silesia, had quitted the field of battle, and -observed with curious and cool interest the struggles which were -drenching Europe in blood, and serving to weaken his rivals. -Uneasy at the progress which Maria Theresa was making, he -re-entered the lists, however. King Louis XV. had taken the lead -of his army. He had just arrived before Tournay, with the -dauphin, who had recently been married to the daughter of the -King of Spain. On the 9th of May, 1745, at the break of day, the -hostile forces met near the little village of Fontenoy. The -relation of this victory belongs to the history of France. -Marshal Saxe, a foreigner, and a Protestant, was henceforth to -maintain alone the glory and the high tradition of Louis -Fourteenth's marshals. -{193} -He was sick, and believed to be dying, but he caused himself to -be borne on a litter at the head of the army. "The question is -not to live, but to proceed," he had replied to Voltaire, who was -astonished at sight of his preparations. The Austrians were few -in number. The veteran general Königseck commanded a corps of -eight thousand men. An attack directed by the English on the -forest of Lane, which the French troops occupied, had been -repulsed. General Ingoldsby had fallen back on the main body of -the army, commanded by the Duke of Cumberland. "March straight -before you, your highness," said Königseck to the prince. "The -ravine in front of Fontenoy must be gained." The movements of the -Dutch were slow and undecisive; the English gave way. They formed -a deep and serried column, preceded and flanked by cannons. The -French batteries thundered right and left; entire ranks fell in -their tracks; they were soon replaced; cannons, dragged by hand -opposite Fontenoy, and redoubts answered the French artillery. It -was in vain that the French guards sought to capture the enemy's -cannon. The two armies were at last face to face. - -Frequent mention has been made of the interchange of courtesies, -which took place between French and English officers, on both -sides of the ravine. The English officers had saluted; Count -Chabannes and the Duke de Biron, who were in advance, uncovered -in their turn. "Gentlemen of the French guard, withdraw," cried -Lord Charles Hay. "Withdraw yourselves, gentlemen of England," -retorted Count d'Auteroche; "we are never the first to retreat." -The English fusillade was mortal to the French guard. Their -colonel, the Duke de Grammont, had been slain at the beginning of -the battle. The soldiers yielded. The English crossed the ravine -which protected Fontenoy. -{194} -They advanced as though on parade; the majors each having a small -cane in his hand, rested it lightly on the muskets of the -soldiers, in order to regulate their fire. One after another the -French regiments broke against this immovable column. The Duke of -Cumberland had ceased to advance, but, impassive and victorious, -through the calm bravery of his soldiers, he occupied the field -of battle. Königseck sent him his felicitations. - -Marshal Saxe had begged Louis XV. to retreat. "I know that he -will do what he ought," replied the monarch, "but I stay where I -am." The marshal had just concentrated his troops, in order to -make a final effort. The Irish brigade in the French service, -which was almost entirely composed of Jacobite exiles, headed the -regiments which charged at once on the English. The Dutch had -effected their retreat. The English column found itself -overwhelmed. It finally gave way without disorder, and preserved -to the end its bold front. The Duke of Cumberland, the last to -retreat, as he had been the first to attack, recalled to his -soldiers the glorious memories of Blenheim and Ramillies; he blew -out the brains of an officer who took to flight. The military -skill of the English generals had not equalled their heroism. The -battle of Fontenoy gave the result of the campaign to France, but -Queen Maria Theresa had just accomplished her great aim. Her -husband had been raised to empire on the 13th of September, 1745. -She had made a treaty with the King of Prussia. Louis XV. stood -alone against Germany, which had become neutral, or which rallied -round the reinstated empire. Great internal struggles henceforth -absorbed the thoughts and efforts of England. - -{195} - -An attractive young man, bold and frivolous, Prince Charles -Edward Stuart, the eldest son of the Chevalier St. George, had -for a long time cherished the hope of recovering the throne of -his fathers. Since the beginning of 1744, he had left Rome, where -he was living with his father, attracted to Paris by the rumor of -an invasion of England, which the ministers of Louis XV. desired -to attempt. He was provided with letters patent, declaring him -regent of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, -the _alter ego_ of the king, his father, charged, [in] his -absence, with the exercise of royal authority. The projected -attempt did not eventuate: the ships collected at Dunkirk were -dispersed, as Prince Charles Edward had not been able to obtain -an audience with Louis XV. For some time he maintained the -strictest incognito. "I have taken a house a league from Paris, -and I live there like a hermit," he wrote to his father. "This -becomes however, the secret of the comedy." The repulse of the -English at Fontenoy seemed a favorable opportunity to the young -prince. "I have always had at heart," said he, "the -re-establishment of my father's throne, but only with the aid of -his own subjects." He was encouraged in his project by Cardinal -de Tencin, who had lately obtained his hat by the influence of -the dethroned monarch. "Why do you not try to cross in a ship to -the north of Scotland?" he had said to the prince; "your presence -can form a party and an army for you. France will be compelled to -give you aid." - -Charles Edward had kept his secret from the ministers of Louis -XV. as he had kept it from King James. It was only on the 12th of -June, 1745, that he wrote to his father, from the Chateau de -Navarre, near Ivry: "Your Majesty would not desire me to have -followed his example. You acted in 1715 as I do to-day, under -very different circumstances; those which now present themselves -are more encouraging. This will only transpire after the -embarkation. The lot is cast. I have determined either to conquer -or die, resolved that I am not to yield a foot so long as I shall -have a man with me." - -{196} - -The young prince's jewels had been pledged; he had purchased arms -and supplies. On the 13th of July he set sail, accompanied by a -freight vessel, the Elizabeth, which was soon followed by a -French vessel. The little brig that carried him touched on the -Scotch coast. A large eagle hovered over the Isle of Erisca, when -the ship touched land. "Behold the king of the air come to salute -your royal highness," exclaimed Lord Tullibardine. Gladdened by -this happy augury, the bold exiles disembarked fearlessly. The -prince was disguised, and the crew did not even yet know his -name. - -In Scotland they were better informed. The Jacobites had for some -time been cognizant of the prince's intentions. They were uneasy, -and secretly disturbed. The most eminent had even declared to -Murray, the prince's agent, that it would be impossible for them -to effect a rising without the landing of a body of regular -troops. Charles Edward came alone. When he summoned the -Macdonalds--the chiefs of the small cluster of islands where he -landed--the old Macdonald of Boisdale presented himself in the -name of his absent nephew, and refused to pledge his support to -the undertaking. "A word will be sufficient to bring Sir -Alexander Macdonald and McLeod of McLeod here," exclaimed the -prince. "Your highness is mistaken," replied Boisdale; "I have -seen them both a few days ago, and they have told me of their -determination to risk nothing without external aid." The prince -was silent, being more annoyed than dejected. When he cast his -eyes on a young highlander who had come on board his ship with -Boisdale, and who fixed his gleaming glance on him; "You, at -least, you will come to my assistance," said he, quickly turning -to the young man. "Even to death, if I should be alone to draw -the sword," cried Ranald. -{197} -"I did not know him yet, and I felt my heart in my mouth when I -looked at him in his abbe's habit," said another witness of the -first interview. Enthusiasm is a contagious power; the chiefs of -the Macdonalds were conquered. They promised to sacrifice -everything, life and property, in the cause of their legitimate -sovereign. - -Eight days had not elapsed before the greater part of the -highland gentlemen had followed their example. Vainly had the -chief of the Camerons, young Lochiel, for a time resisted the -contagion. "Do not go to see the prince," his brother had said to -him; "when you are in his presence he will make you do what he -wishes." Lochiel had followed this course. Charles Edward pressed -him in vain. "I am resolved to run the chance of it," at last -exclaimed the adventurous young man. "In a few days I shall -raise the royal standard and proclaim to the people of Great -Britain that Charles Stuart is come to reclaim the crown of his -ancestors, prepared to perish if he should fail. Lochiel can -remain at home. My father had often instanced him as the -staunchest of our friends. He will learn from the papers the fate -of his prince." It was too much. "No," replied the chief, "I -shall share the fate of your highness, whatever it may be, and I -shall involve in my fortune all those whom birth or chance has -placed under my authority." - -The Cameron clan was the first and most numerous at the -rendezvous fixed by Charles Edward at Glennin. About fifteen -hundred men assisted there at the unfurling of the royal banner -of the Stuarts, so often and so cruelly disastrous to Scotland -and the Scotch. Some weeks later, profiting by the uneasiness -which the wild mountain defiles had inspired in Sir John Cope, -who was commanding the troops of King George in Scotland, the -young prince pressed quickly forward. -{198} -Received everywhere with acclamations, he entered Perth on the -4th of September, where he organized his army, which was -constantly enlarged by new recruits. He chose Lord George Murray, -brother of the Duke of Athol, who had served with distinction on -the continent, for lieutenant-general. Sterling, Falkirk, -Linlithgow, either opened their gates to him or were obliged to -surrender. On the 17th, Charles Edward, from the heights of -Certesphine, viewed the noble city of Edinburgh seated like a -queen between the mountains and the sea. Already the young prince -had put a price on the capture of "George, elector of Hanover." -"If any harm happen to him," said the proclamation, "the blame -will recoil on those who have first set this infamous example." - -After having effected a movement in advance, which had eventuated -in a retreat without fighting, General Cope was drawing near the -rebels by sea. The weather was contrary. The guardianship of the -capital was intrusted to a regiment of militia and a volunteer -corps supported by two regiments. The latter had been charged -with the defence of the heights. The terror was extreme, and the -feeling vainly concealed itself beneath a noisy display of -courage. When they learned of the highlanders' approach, and that -the troops were summoned to arms, a handful of volunteers, -speedily diminished still farther by the entreaties of wives and -mothers, appeared on parade. The militia corps was not any -braver. The dragoons took flight, crossed the town at a gallop, -and only paused at the borders of Berwick. The prince sent -summons after summons to the provost. "My proclamation and the -declarations of the king my father are a sufficient protection -for the security of all the towns of the kingdom," said Charles -Edward. "If I enter peaceably within your walls you will suffer -no harm; if you resist, you will be placed under martial law." - - -[Image] -Charles Edward. - - -{199} - -The municipal magistrates still hesitated; the prince refused to -receive their deputies, for the second time. As the carriages -were re-entering the town, and as the gate opened to give them -passage, eight hundred Camerons, commanded by Lochiel, flung -themselves on the guards and easily effected an entrance into the -city. In an instant they had command of every gate. At the break -of day, Charles Edward, who had immediately been informed, set -out with his little army. Avoiding the fusillade from the castle, -which was occupied by Lord Guest, he entered the capital at -midday, without striking a blow. The Scotch heralds, -incontinently brought to the Square were forced to proclaim King -James VIII., and to read in a loud voice the proclamations of the -king and his son. The Jacobite ladies crowded to the windows, -saluting the prince with their applause. James Hepburn, of Keith, -carrying his drawn sword before the young regent, introduced him -into the palace of his ancestors. Holyrood resounded with shouts -of joy. A crowd of noble lords pressed round the young prince. -"To-morrow, gentlemen, we will march to meet General Cope," said -he, as he parted from his guests. Acclamations from all sides -answered him. On leaving the town, at daybreak, Charles Edward -drew his sword and brandished it above his head, exclaiming, -"Gentlemen, I have thrown away the scabbard." - -General Cope, having landed at Dunbar, had rallied his fugitive -dragoons, and was advancing with all speed on Edinburgh. On the -20th of September, the two armies found themselves face to face -on the plain of Prestonpans. It was late: the prince was urged to -make the attack, but marsh separated him from the foe. A council -was held. Charles Edward lay down on a bundle of straw in the -midst of his soldiers. -{200} -In the night he was awakened by one of his aides-de-camp. The -proprietor of the piece of ground occupied by the troops, Mr. -Wilson, of Whitbough, had remembered an indirect passage which -enabled them to avoid the dangerous parts of the marsh. He -communicated his plan to the prince. At sunrise the highlanders -had surmounted the obstacle, and already threatened the royal -troops. A moment of meditation, with uncovered head, on the part -of all the soldiers, preceded the shrill summons of the bagpipes -and the shouts of the mountaineers. Before the English soldiers -could draw, the highlanders had turned aside, with blows of their -daggers, the barrels of the muskets, striking with their -claymores the foremost ranks, who fell back dying. The cannon had -been discarded from the first. - -Like the Vendean peasants, the Scotch mountaineers dreaded -artillery, and their impetuous bravery was constantly bent on -hindering its ravages. Like the former, also, they dragged after -them an old field-piece, which they called 'the mother of -muskets,'--a worthy predecessor of the illustrious _Marie -Jeanne_ of the army of Lescure and under Laroche-jacquelin. - -The dragoons had, as on the day before, taken flight, in spite of -the efforts of the brave and pious Colonel Gardener, slain soon -afterward himself, as he was encouraging the resistance of a -little platoon of troops. The infantry held its ground well, but -every effort of the highlanders was now concentrated against it. -The axes of Lochabar felled heads and lopped limbs. Before this -savage valor the English soldiers at length gave way. James -MacGregor, son of the celebrated Rob Roy, himself pierced with -five wounds, shouted to his companions, "I am not dead, my men; I -look to you to do your duty." Everywhere the chiefs were in the -fray, at the head of their men. -{201} -"Do you think that our men are fit to resist the regular troops?" -the prince had asked of MacDonald of Keppoch, who had served long -in France "I know nothing about it," replied the highlander; "it -is long since our clans have been defeated; but what I know well -is that the chieftains will be in front, and that the soldiers -will not leave them long alone." The attack and the victory only -lasted for some moments. General Cope followed his dragoons and -brought the news of his defeat to Berwick. "You are the first -general who has ever himself announced his own defeat," said Lord -Mark Kerr, ironically to him. The fugitives had not been pursued: -the highlanders were absorbed in the division of spoils. The -prince had carefully protected the wounded. "If I had gained the -victory over foreigners, my joy would be complete," he wrote on -the morrow to the king his father, "but the idea that it is over -the English has mingled in it more bitterness than I thought -possible. I learn that six thousand Dutch troops have arrived, -and that ten battalions of English have been sent. I wish that -they were all Dutch, so that I should not have the sorrow of -shedding English blood. I hope I shall soon oblige the elector to -send the rest, which at all events will be a service done to -England, by making her renounce a foreign war, which is ruinous -to her. Unhappily the victory brings embarrassments. I am charged -with taking care of my friends and of my enemies; those who ought -to bury the dead, as if that did not concern them. My highlanders -consider themselves above doing it, and the peasants have -withdrawn. I am equally much embarrassed on account of my wounded -prisoners. If I make a hospital of a church, people will cry out -against this great profanation, and will repeat what I said in my -proclamation, by which I was pledged not to violate any -propriety. Let come what may, I am resolved not to leave the poor -wounded fellows in the street. If I cannot do better, I shall -convert the palace into a hospital, and give it to them." - -{202} - -King George II. had just returned to England, recalled by the -anxieties of his cabinet. The Marquis of Tweedale, charged with -Scotch affairs, being himself undecided and perplexed, complained -of being neither seconded nor obeyed. The inhabitants of the -Lowlands possessed no arms, the Whig clans of the Highlands -delivered up their muskets after the rebellion of 1715 and 1719. -Public spirit was not yet excited in England. Either the fears -there were shameful, or the indifference excessive. "England will -belong to the one who arrives first," wrote Henry Fox, afterwards -Lord Holland, and himself a member of the government, to one of -his friends. "If you can tell me which will be here most quickly, -the six thousand Dutch and the ten English battalions that we are -receiving from Flanders, or the five thousand French and Spanish -that are announced, you would be made certain of our lot." - -Patriotic sentiment, even when it is tardy of awakening, is more -powerful than politicians are sometimes led to believe. The -prudent indifference of Louis the XV.th's ministers was not -deceived. In spite of the ardor of his warlike zeal, Charles -Edward felt how precarious was success, and how necessary was -external aid. He had several times renewed his representations to -the Court of Versailles. Some convoys of arms and money had been -sent him; it was even proposed to place the young Duke of York at -the head of the Irish brigade; but the ordinary slowness of a -weak government interfered with its operations. The assistance so -often promised by Spain, as by France, was, up till then, -confined to the personal expeditions of some brave adventurers. -{203} -The Duke of Rochelieu ought to place himself at the head, it was -said. "As for the landing at Dunkirk which was spoken of," wrote -the eminent Barbier, at the end of the year 1745, "there is much -anxiety about it, for we are at the end of December and it is not -yet accomplished, which permits every one to invent news -according to his fancy. This uncertainty discourages the French, -who publish that our expedition will not take place, or at least -that it will not assemble." - -The expedition did not sail. The prince was ardently desirous of -marching upon London, being, like his predecessors in the -Scottish insurrection, fatally drawn on to seek, in the very -centre of Great Britain, that support and success which always -failed them. The Scottish chiefs protested, being violently -opposed to the abandonment of Scotland. The prince was -ill-inclined to bear contradiction, and promptly flew into a -passion in the council. "I perceive, gentlemen," he cried, "that -you are determined to remain in Scotland and defend your country. -I am not less determined to try my fortune in England. I will go, -though I should be alone." - -The highlanders yielded with reluctance, and without confidence. -"We have undertaken to re-establish the kingdom as well as the -King of Scotland," they had often said, and Charles Edward had -solemnly announced that his father would never ratify the union. -He had even thought of convoking a parliament at Edinburgh. The -practical difficulties of the project had deterred him from it. -Before turning his steps into England, the prince published an -appeal to his subjects of the three kingdoms, as clever as it was -impassioned. "It has been sought to frighten you concerning the -dangers that your religion and liberty might run. You have been -spoken to of arbitrary power; of the tyranny of France and Spain. -Give ear to the simple truth. I have at my own expense hired a -vessel. -{204} -Provided but ill with money, arms, or friends, I have come to -Scotland with seven persons. I have published the declaration of -the king my father, and I have proclaimed his rights, with pardon -in one hand and liberty of conscience in the other. As for the -reproaches lately addressed to the royal family, the wrongs which -might have called them forth have been sufficiently expiated. -During the fifty-seven years that our house has lived in exile, -has the nation been more happy and more prosperous for it? Are -you right, as fathers of Great Britain and Ireland, to love those -who have governed you? Have you found more humanity among those -whom their birth did not call to the throne than among my royal -ancestors? Do you owe them other benefits than the crushing -burden of an enormous debt? If it be not so, whence come so many -complaints and such continual reproaches in your meetings? I have -come here without the aid of France or Spain. But when I see my -enemies rallying against me--Dutch, Danes, Hessians, Swiss--and -that the Elector of Hanover summons his allies to protect him -against the subjects of the king, it seems to me that the king my -father is also, in his turn, warranted in accepting some -assistance. I am ready, however. If my enemies desire to put it -to the proof, let them send back their foreign mercenaries; let -them trust to the lot of battles. I shall run my chance with the -subjects of my father alone." - -The prince's army amounted at most to six thousand men. Many of -the great lords and Scotch gentlemen had remained neutral. Some, -like Lord Lovat, the chief of the Fraser clan, being scandalously -perfidious and corrupt, had secretly authorized their sons to -join the prince, reserving to themselves the right of -repudiating, if necessary. -{205} -"There is a singular mixture of gray-beards and beardless boys," -wrote a spy who had been sent from England about the middle of -October. "There are old men ready to descend into their graves, -and youngsters who are not much higher than their swords, and who -have not strength to wield them. There are perhaps a good four or -five thousand courageous and determined men. The remnant are -ill-looking bands, more intent on pillage than on their prince, -on a few shillings than on the crown." - -It was with these forces, uncertain and irregular, in despite of -their devotion, that Charles Edward crossed the frontier on the -8th of November, 1745. The soldiers, as well as the highland -chiefs, left their country with regret. A certain number of -desertions had already occurred. At the moment when they put -their foot on English soil, the highlanders, uttering loud cries, -drew their swords. Lochiel wounded himself in the hand with his -weapon, and the sight of blood troubled his followers. It was -under the influence of this vexatious omen that the Scots laid -siege to Carlisle. The direction of operations had been intrusted -to the Duke of Perth. The prince, with Lord George Murray, had -conceived a movement on Kelso which should deceive, and which in -fact did deceive. General Wade, who found himself at Newcastle -with the royal troops. When the English general perceived his -error, Carlisle was in the hands of the Jacobites. Charles Edward -made his entry there solemnly on the 17th of November, being -anxious to appease the germs of discord which the success of the -Duke of Perth had just planted among the chiefs of his little -army. Lord George Murray was maintained in his important -functions. -{206} -From Carlisle to Preston, from Preston to Wigan and Manchester, -the Scotch advanced without striking a blow, but uneasy, and -suspicious of enemies who did not show themselves or give them -occasion to display their valor on the field of battle, and -discontented with the English Jacobites, who remained inert and -did not in any way second their efforts. A little body of -volunteers was formed at Manchester under the orders of Colonel -Townley, who belonged to an old Catholic Lancashire family. On -the banks of the Mersey, among the gentlemen assembled to receive -him, the prince perceived a very old woman who had formerly -assisted at Dover, in 1660, at the landing of King Charles II. -Since the revolution of 1688, Mrs. Skyring had constantly divided -her income into two parts, sending half of it to the royal -exiles. At the news of Charles Edward's arrival, she had -collected her plate and her jewels, in order to lay everything at -the feet of the young prince. Her prayers were heard, she said, -like Simeon of old: "Lord, now lettest thou thy servant depart in -peace, according to thy word, for mine eyes have seen thy -salvation." Tradition relates that the old Jacobite did actually -die some days after the departure of the adventurous young man -whose success she so ardently desired. - -The prince was advancing towards Derby, that fatal limit of -Scotch expeditions into England. Three armies were formed around -and against him. General Wade was at last moving across the -county of York; the Duke of Cumberland, recalled from Germany, -had gathered at Litchfield a body of from seven to eight thousand -men. Considerable forces were assembled at Finchley for the -defence of London. Charles Edward alone was still joyous. The -road to the capital of Great Britain was open to him; a quick -march had left behind him the Duke of Cumberland as well as -General Wade. When he established himself at Derby, on the 4th of -December, his whole preoccupation was to know whether he should -enter London on foot or on horseback; dressed simply as an -English gentlemen, or in the highland costume which he had worn -since his arrival in Scotland. - -{207} - -The views of his adherents were different and their -preoccupations more serious. Scarcely had they arrived at Derby, -when the chiefs repaired in a body to the prince, representing to -him the extreme danger they ran, surrounded as they were by -hostile armies, in a hostile or indifferent country, without -assistance from the Jacobites, and far distant from the forces -which had remained in Scotland under the command of Lord -Strathallan. A victory at the gates of London, the only chance of -glory and success, would leave them still isolated and exposed to -the vengeance and anger of the Elector. The latter had thirty -thousand men at his disposal; their army did not number more than -five thousand fighting men. All counselled retreat, whilst there -was yet time, while the roads were not cut off, and -reinforcements awaited them in Scotland. - -The prince bore himself violently. "I would rather be twenty feet -under the ground than retreat," he exclaimed. He multiplied -reasons, arguments, and hopes, both groundless and chimerical; -promising a landing of French troops in the county of Kent, -expatiating justly on the terror into which their approach had -thrown London, where the day of entrance into Derby long bore the -name of Black Friday. The Scots remained immovable. Their -soldiers were preparing to march into the capital, sharpening -their swords or piously prostrating themselves in the churches; -but the chiefs were resolved not to run any new risk. On the -evening of the 5th of December the prince finally yielded. -{208} -"You desire it," he said to the members of his council; "I -consent to the retreat; but henceforth I will consult no one. I -am responsible for my actions only to God and to my father. I -shall no longer ask nor accept your advice." - -In spite of the liberal protestations of Charles Edward, he had -sucked in with his milk the maxims and haughtiness of absolute -power; but bad fortune had more than once compelled the Stuarts -to bend before the firm resolution of their faithful friends. The -anger of the soldiers equalled that of the prince. "If we had -been beaten, we would not have been more sad," said one of them. -The discontent of the troops displayed itself by a new growth of -irregularity. A long line of stragglers pillaged the cottages; -some set fire to the villages which resisted them. The prince did -not exercise any oversight. He no longer looked on himself as -chief of the army, and he had abandoned his position in the -advance guard. The Duke of Cumberland had raised his camp and was -following the retreating army. Already at Clifton Moor, an -advance detachment had thought to surprise Lord George Murray's -corps. The lieutenant-general was on his guard. In the shade he -perceived the dragoons who had descended from horseback, and who -were gliding under the shelter of the walls. "Claymore!" cried -the Scottish chief, and his soldiers instantly started in pursuit -of the enemy, and soon put them to rout. Lord George had lost his -cap and fought bareheaded. - -The rebel army entered Scotland without another battle. Scarcely -had it left Carlisle when the place was invested by the royal -troops. The Manchester regiment which occupied it for the young -Pretender was forced to capitulate "under the good pleasure of -his Majesty." The good pleasure of George II. was to be, for the -larger part of the officers, condemnation to death. - -{209} - -The royal authority had been re-established at Edinburgh since -the prince had taken the road to England. General Hawley, who -occupied it for George II., advanced towards Stirling. Charles -Edward had just arrived there. He had blockaded the citadel, but -on learning the movement of the English general he immediately -marched to meet him. The prince had rallied all his forces; his -army amounted to about eight or nine thousand men, a figure -nearly equal to that of the royal troops. The English were -encamped on the plain of Falkirk. On the 17th of January, 1746, -when the rumor spread that the highlanders were approaching, the -general was absent, being detained at Cullender House by the -hospitality of the Countess of Kilmarnock, whose husband had -taken part with the rebel army. The soldiers were preparing their -dinner; confusion reigned among all the regiments. Hawley, who -had come hatless in hot haste at a hard gallop, immediately -hurried his dragoons along with him, ordering the infantry to -follow him, so as to cut off the road to the mountaineers. Rain -was driving in the face of the soldiers. The highlanders already -occupied the acclivity when the royal troops arrived to meet -them. Hardly had they formed their lines when the mountaineers -dashed on them, having dispersed the cavalry, who suffered the -disadvantage of the position. Only three regiments of the right -wing stood the impetuous attack of the highlanders. On this -juncture the Scotch brigade that Sir John Drummond had brought -from France belied the reputation that it had achieved at -Fontenoy. According to custom, the mountaineers, certain of -victory, no longer thought of anything but plunder, and did not -pursue the fugitives. -{210} -Hawley and his dragoons, drenched almost to the skin by torrents -of rain, beaten by a furious wind, ashamed and humiliated, -reentered Linlithgow at a gallop, in order to take refuge -immediately after in Edinburgh. The fugitive foot-soldiers joined -them there, and bore all the rage of their terrible chief. The -gibbets that he had prepared for the punishment of the rebels -were loaded with his coward soldiers. The Duke of Cumberland -alone, who was coming by forced marches to measure himself with -the Pretender, put an end to these punishments. On the 30th of -January he slept at Holyrood, in the same room and in the same -bed that his rival had lately occupied. Yet once more the future -of Great Britain seemed destined to be played for on the field of -battle between two princely adversaries, both representing the -most opposite principles, both young and brave, having at command -forces the same to outward view, but in reality very different. -To clear-sighted observers, even though prejudiced, Charles -Edward's cause was lost. - -It was the opinion of his most faithful adherents, absolutely -devoted, as before Derby, to a cause the weakness of which they -appreciated, and which they were resolved to defend to the very -end. After his victory at Falkirk, the prince wished to again -undertake the siege of Stirling Castle, without other counsel -than that of a French engineer, M. de Mirabelle, and some -subordinates. The chiefs were gloomy; they presented a -remonstrance to the prince; desertions were becoming every day -more numerous in the face of foes who were each day more -threatening. "We are humbly of opinion," said the highland -chiefs, "that the only means of snatching the army from an -imminent peril is to withdraw to the highlands, and we can easily -occupy the winter in getting possession of the northern -fortresses. -{211} -We are thus certain of retaining sufficient men to deter the -enemy from following us into the mountains at this season of the -year. In the spring a new army of ten thousand men will be ready -to accompany your Royal Highness where it may seem good to you." -On this occasion again the determined will of the men who had -risked everything in his cause overcame the young prince's -obstinacy. In his rage he dashed his head against the wall. "Good -God! have I lived long enough to see this?" he cried. But the -siege of Stirling Castle was abandoned, and the retreat toward -the mountains began without any order or method. In his bad humor -Charles Edward had neglected to give his orders. The rebels -without difficulty invested Inverness, the castle of which -yielded at the end of some days. The convoys of arms and supplies -coming from France had almost all been intercepted by English -cruisers. The coffers of the army needed money; the troops were -receiving their pay in flour; dissatisfaction was on the -increase; the French and Spanish adventurers were tired of the -war; they ran no danger, and they reaped neither glory nor -profit. The Duke of Cumberland pursued the retreating army. On -the 2nd of February he had entered Stirling; on the 25th he took -up quarters at Aberdeen, being himself irritated and gloomy. "All -the inhabitants of the country are Jacobites," he wrote; -"gentleness would be quite out of place; there would be no end if -I should enumerate the villains and the villainies which abound -here." The hour of vengeance was approaching, rendered more cruel -by the natural harshness of the conqueror, as well as by the -passionate obstinacy of those of the rebels who should become his -victims. -{212} -Already the march of the royal army was marked by gibbets. The -duke's advance was for a time hindered by the departure of the -Dutch troops. Scarcely had Lord John Drummond set foot in -Scotland than he had communicated to the troops of the -States-General his commission from Louis XV. As prisoners of war -who had capitulated at Tournay and at Dendermonde, the Dutch -regiments were pledged not to bear arms against France. They had -just been replaced by Hessians, when the Duke of Cumberland, -crossing the Spey in spite of the highlanders' efforts, advanced -as far as Nairn, where he established his camp. About seven -leagues separated the two armies; plenty reigned among the -English. On the 15th of April, the Duke of Cumberland's birthday, -an extraordinary distribution of provisions was made among the -troops. When the highlanders were called to arms in the night -they had scarcely had a biscuit to appease their hunger. The -prince and Lord George Murray had conceived the hope of effecting -a surprise. The body of troops was inconsiderable, but the night -was dark, the road bad, and the English made drowsy by copious -drinking. The mountaineers set out on the march; they were -enfeebled, and they advanced slowly. Day was beginning to break -when they found themselves in sight of the English camp. Charles -Edward was disposed to push forward. "A little light will be -advantageous to us in wielding the two-edged sword," said -Hepburn; but Lord George, ever prudent, and stationed at the head -of the advance guard, had already ordered the retreat. The men, -fatigued and discouraged, resumed their position in the plain of -Culloden, at the foot of the castle which the prince occupied, -and which belonged to the great Judge Duncan Forbes, one of his -most decided as well as most intelligent and reasonable -adversaries. -{213} -It was there that the Duke of Cumberland came in his turn to -offer battle to the Pretender. The army of the latter was small -in number; several clans, disaffected on different points, did -not respond to the call. Charles Edward refused to hear the wary -counsels which his friends threw away on him, among others the -Marquis d'Equilles, who had lately come from France with a letter -from King Louis XV., and who pompously assumed the title of -ambassador. The die was cast; the two armies drew up for battle -in the plain. It was about eleven o'clock in the morning. On the -18th of April, 1746, before close of day, the Jacobite army had -ceased to exist. - -The courage of Charles Edward and his conduct at the battle of -Culloden have often been questioned. Standing motionless on the -hill at the head of a squadron of cavalry, he took no part in the -action, and when he perceived the disorder of the troops he made -no effort to rally them and to die in their midst. He was -displeased and gloomy, affected perhaps by the fatalistic -superstition that seemed to have impressed several of the clans. -The Macdonalds had been placed at the left wing, whereas they had -occupied the right at Prestonpans and at Falkirk. This change had -seemed to them a bad augury. Lochiel had been severely wounded; -two of his followers had carried him bleeding far from the field -of battle. The courtiers who surrounded the prince took fright -when they saw the fortune of battle declare itself against them, -and withdrew, ignoring the fate reserved for them and what -intellectual and moral degradation should attach to that man who -had started in life by an undertaking so adventurous and -brilliant that it had for a time placed him in the estimation of -Europe among heroes. -{214} -The Duke of Cumberland was constantly borne to the front rank. "I -have just given the orders of the day, that fugitives will be -shot," he had said to his troops at the beginning of the battle. -"I tell you this, that those who do not feel their courage very -certain, should retire. I prefer to fight with one thousand -resolute men behind me than to have ten thousand among whom are -cowards." The regiments had responded by the cry of "Flanders! -Flanders!" a just and noble souvenir of their attitude at -Fontenoy. The battle was finished and the victory complete when -the duke wrote to London, "I thank God for having been the -instrument of this success, the glory of which belongs solely to -the English troops, who have cleansed themselves of the little -check at Falkirk without the help of the Hessians. They would -have been well able to spare us the trouble, and have not been -useless in spite of their inaction." - -The highlanders had for the most part fought valiantly; their -losses were great, and few of the prisoners were to see their -families again. The rigors of triumphant vengeance already were -commencing to spend themselves on them. The Duke of Cumberland -and General Hawley did not feel the sentiments which had formerly -affected Charles Edward after the battle of Prestonpans. The -prisoners and the wounded suffered hunger and thirst. A certain -number of the fugitives were burned in the cottages where they -had concealed themselves. "It is necessary to draw a little of -this country's blood," said the Duke of Cumberland. "We weaken -this folly, but we do not cure it. Even if we have destroyed -them, the soil is so impregnated by this rebellion that it will -crop out again." Already the prince's agents were scouring the -country seeking fugitives of note, searching houses, and leaving -traces of their passage by fire and sword. "I think it will not -be long before I lay my hand on old Lovat," wrote the duke. "I -have several detachments on the way to search for him, and papers -which suffice to convict him of high treason." - -{215} - -It was at the house of Lord Lovat, the most perfidious of all his -secret adherents, that Charles Edward had sought refuge after -leaving the battle-field of Culloden. The cruel old man, grown -hoary in intrigues, had refused to join him personally, whilst -sending him his son. He was henceforward determined to sacrifice -all his possessions in order to save his life. He coldly received -the unfortunate prince, who would not sleep under his roof, and -who pursued his way as far as the abandoned castle of Invergary. -A fisherman of the neighborhood brought two salmon that he had -just caught in the little river. The prince and his companions -were worn out with fatigue, discouraged, and convinced with -reason that the check was definite and the cause lost. Lord -George Murray had rallied twelve hundred men at Ruthven. Prudent -in the moment of success, dauntless in the hour of reverse, he -advised the prince to maintain the struggle at every risk. "We -can hold out in the mountains so long as there is a cow and a -measure of meal in Scotland," said he. A message from the prince -thanked his faithful adherents for their zeal, asking of them, as -a last favor, to think of their personal safety. All were gravely -compromised; danger was imminent; they scattered, and the -rebellion of 1745-1746 was over. - -{216} - -While the Duke of Cumberland established himself in Fort -Augustus, exercising to the full all those cruelties which made -him deserve the name of butcher, while the most fortunate of his -enemies escaped with great difficulty, Prince Charles Edward, as -his grand-uncle, King Charles II., had formerly done after the -battle of Worcester, wandered from hiding-place to hiding-place, -exhausted, dying of hunger, a hundred times recognized, forced to -trust to the poorest people, to the most powerless of his -friends, yet everywhere served, assisted, defended, with a -devotion which was proof against everything. He had taken refuge -in the little archipelago which bears the name of Long Island. -The English vessels cruised along the coasts; houses were -incessantly searched; peasants were arrested; the danger was -increasing every day. A young girl, Miss Flora Macdonald, who was -on a visit in the Isle of Wight succeeded in procuring herself a -passport for the Isle of Skye. She disguised the prince, and, -taking him in her suite as a lady's maid, went for refuge to the -house of her cousin, Sir Alexander Macdonald, who had been -constantly adverse to Charles Edward's attempt, and had ended by -actively opposing it. His wife, Lady Margaret, seconded Flora's -efforts. The castle was filled with militia officers, but she -succeeded in effecting the prince's escape. Some days later he -crossed to the Isle of Rosay, almost at the moment when his -deliverer, Flora Macdonald, was arrested and conducted to London, -where her detention lasted about a year. Some people found fault -with Lady Margaret's conduct, the Princess of Wales being of the -number. "In such a case would you not have done as much?" said -her husband, turning quickly upon her. "I hope so; I am sure of -it." The persevering fidelity of the Jacobites endowed Flora -Macdonald. After five months of perils and sufferings -courageously endured, the fugitive prince at last set foot in -France. He embarked on the 20th of September at Lochmanagh, -almost at the same place where he had formerly landed full of the -most joyous and brilliant hopes. -{217} -"Nothing troubled him, neither fatigues nor privations," said one -of the temporary companions of his flight. "He alone should -suffer," he said; but when he thought of all those who were in -peril for his sake, his heart was strained and on the verge of -losing courage. His name long dwelt in the popular songs of the -highlands, which remained persistently faithful to the -remembrance of common efforts and dangers. - -"I have had sons; I no longer have any. I have brought them up -with difficulty, but I would be willing to bear them all again -and to lose them for love of Charles." - -Whilst the prince, the object of a devotion so passionately -disinterested, was receiving at the court of Louis XV. a welcome -as impressive as it was vain, his illustrious partisans thronged -the prisons and scaffolds, while their lands were laid waste by -the English soldiers. In vain did Duncan Forbes claim the -application of laws. "Laws!" replied the conqueror; "I will make -laws with a brigade." Colonel Townley and his companions had -already endured their horrible sentence at Kennington Common in -sight of an eager and terrified crowd. Lord Cromarty, Lord -Kilmarnock, and Lord Balmerino were confined in the Tower. When -they were brought before the Court of Peers the first two pleaded -guilty. Lord Cromarty implored the compassion of his judges for -his wife and eight children. Lord Balmerino pleaded not guilty. -"I wish to be judged by God and my peers," said he proudly. All -three were condemned to the punishment of traitors; Lord Cromarty -alone obtained pardon. "I do not consider him worthy of life who -is not ready to die," said Lord Balmerino when his sentence was -confirmed. -{218} -As the sheriff pronounced the customary formula, "God save King -George," Kilmarnock uttered an "Amen." Balmerino raised his head. -"So God save King James," exclaimed he; "if I had a thousand -lives I would give them all for this cause." He knelt down on the -scaffold. "My God, reward my friends, forgive my enemies, bless -King James, and receive my soul," he uttered in a loud voice. The -agitated executioner had scarcely strength to cut his head off. - -Last of all, Lord Lovat had suffered the punishment merited by -his entire life rather than by his part in the Jacobite -rebellion. A coward and a suppliant as long as he believed pardon -possible, he recovered on the day before his death the theatrical -pride of his best days, and even on the scaffold he murmured the -line of Horace: "_Dulce et decorum est pro patriâ mori._" -Legal measures had followed these bloody executions; the -highlanders were disarmed; hereditary jurisdictions were -abolished; their national costume was forbidden to the -mountaineers. Along with the power of the Jacobites the feudal -spirit was slowly extinguished in Scotland. Keppoch had -sorrowfully said on the battle-field of Culloden, when he saw the -Macdonalds quietly retire without fighting, "Have I lived long -enough to see myself deserted by the children of my people?" -Death had seconded fatigue and private grudges. "It is to the -Duke of Cumberland that we owe this peace," was what was written -on the monument of Culloden battle-field. - -{219} - -The anger and harshness of the English government in regard to -the Jacobites multiplied the checks that the coalition had -encountered everywhere on the continent, with the exception of -Italy. At the moment when the Duke of Cumberland was defeating -Charles Edward at Culloden, Antwerp surrendered to Louis XV. in -person. Mons, Namur, and Charleroi were not long in yielding. The -victory of Raucoux in 1746, and that of Lawfelt in 1747, had -carried the glory of Marshal Saxe to its height. Originally a -foreigner like him, like him serving France gloriously, the Count -Lowendall hard pressed the Dutch, who were against their -inclination engaged in the struggle. He had already taken Ecluse -and Sas de Gand; Berg-op-Zoom was besieged. As in 1672, the -French invasion had given rise to a political revolution in -Holland. The aristocratic _bourgeoisie_, which had regained -power, yielded to the efforts of the popular party, directed by -the House of Nassau and sustained by England. "The republic needs -a chief to oppose an ambitious and perfidious neighbor who makes -game of the faith of treaties," said a deputy of the -States-General on the day when the stadtholdership was -proclaimed, which was re-established in favor of William IV., -grand-nephew of the great William III. and son-in-law of George -II. King of England. The young prince immediately took command of -the Dutch troops, but a good understanding did not long exist -between him and the Duke of Cumberland. "Our two young heroes -scarcely understand one another," wrote Mr. Pelham on the 14th of -August, 1747. "Ours is open, frank, resolute, and a little -hot-headed; the other is presumptuous, pedantic, argumentative, -and obstinate; in what a situation do we find ourselves? We must -ask God to come to our aid, for we can direct nothing. There is -nothing to be done but appease quarrels and obtain time to -breathe. Perhaps somebody will recover common sense." - -{220} - -Marshal Saxe had said to Louis XV., "Sire, peace is in -Mæstricht." The place was invested on the 9th of April, 1748, -before the thirty-five thousand Russians promised to England by -the Czarina Elizabeth had time to arrive. The Dutch were alarmed, -and vigorously insisted on peace. Philip V. was dead. His -successor, Ferdinand VI., who was less faithful to the House of -Bourbon, made overtures to England. For a long time the prime -minister, Henry Pelham, was disposed to peace. His brother, the -Duke of Newcastle, opposed it out of servile deference to the -king. Lord Chesterfield, lately become a member of the cabinet, -and who was intelligent and sagacious in spite of his worldly -unconcern, being dissatisfied with the conduct of the court -towards him, had just given in his resignation. Notwithstanding -her successes, France was, like her adversaries, weary. Marshal -Saxe himself made pacific proposals. The preliminaries of the -peace were signed on the 30th of April. Austria and Spain were -not slow in giving their adhesion to it. On the 18th of October -the final treaty was concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle. After so much -blood spilt and treasure squandered, France gained from the war -no other advantage than the guarantee of the duchies of Parma and -Plaisance to the infant Don Philip, son-in-law of Louis XV. -England yielded to France Cape Breton and the colony of -Louisburg, the only territory that she had preserved after her -numerous expeditions against our colonies, and the immense injury -she had done our commerce. This clause excited much ill-feeling -among the English people. Hostages had been promised. Prince -Charles Edward was in Paris when they arrived. He was seized with -an access of patriotic anger. "If ever I remount the throne of my -fathers," he exclaimed, "Europe will witness my constant -endeavors to oblige France in turn to send hostages to England." - -{221} - -Prince Charles Edward was himself an inconvenient and -compromising hostage whom France engaged in expelling from her -territory. Vainly, since his return from Scotland, the young -Pretender had obstinately sought to rekindle a flame which was -forever extinguished. "If I had received only half of the money -that your Majesty sent me," he wrote to Louis XV. on the 10th of -November, 1746, "I would have fought the Duke of Cumberland with -equal numbers, and I would have certainly defeated him, since -with four thousand men against twelve thousand I held victory in -the balance for a long time. These disasters can yet be repaired -if your Majesty is willing to intrust me with a body of from -eighteen to twenty thousand men. The number of warlike subjects -has never failed me in Scotland. I have needed at once money, -provisions, and a handful of regular troops. With one of these -three aids alone I would still be to-day master of Scotland, and -probably of all England." Louis XV. had remained deaf to this -appeal, which no longer found an echo in Spain. The Duke of York, -second son of the Chevalier de St. George, had just taken orders. -The Court of Rome had forthwith made him a cardinal, to the -violent indignation of his brother. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle -removed from the unfortunate Stuarts that asylum which France had -with so much pomp lately offered them. Charles Edward refused to -understand the notice which the ministers of Louis XV. had -conveyed to him. "The king is bound to my cause by his honor, -which is worth all treaties," said he. In vain had his father -counselled him to yield to necessity and not to provoke a monarch -who could be useful to him. The prince was determined to remain -in France, and at Paris. -{222} -On the 11th of December, as he arrived at the opera, his carriage -was surrounded by police agents. M. de Vaudreuil, major in the -guards, presented himself before the prince. "I arrest you in the -name of the king, my master," said he. "The manner is a little -cavalier," coolly replied the young man. When the major asked for -his arms, "Let them take them," said he, freeing himself from the -hands of the police officers. They bound his hands with silken -cords, the last sign of respect accorded to the heir of a house -forever fallen, and he was conducted from stage to stage as far -as the frontier. He would never see France again. Twice he -reappeared secretly in England: in 1753, on the occasion of a -projected surprise on the person of George II., which he himself -deemed impossible; and in 1761, amid the festivities at the -coronation of George III. Twice the kings of the House of Hanover -were not ignorant of the presence of their enemy in the capital; -they made no effort to seize him, and wisely allowed him to set -out again for an exile, the long weariness of which had mortally -affected his mind as well as his heart. Deprived by his faults of -the pure joys of family life, he had lowered himself so far as to -seek forgetfulness in drunkenness. He was old and almost -forgotten when he died at Rome in 1788. Only the inscription on a -tomb recalls the name of the last three Stuarts, and it was King -George IV. who caused it to be engraved as a souvenir of extinct -passions: "To James III., son of James II., King of England; to -Charles Edward, and to Henry, Cardinal of York, last scion of the -House of Stuart, 1819." - - -[Image] -Arrest Of Charles Edward. - - -{223} - -The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle had, with good reason, excited more -discontent in France than in England. We alone had gained -brilliant victories and made great conquests. We alone preserved -no increase of territory. The great Frederick kept Silesia, and -the King of Sardinia the domains already ceded by Austria. -Humorous lampoons were sung in the streets of Paris, and "_Bête -comme le paix_," was a customary expression. - -The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle had a graver defect than that of -barrenness; it was not and could not be lasting. England had -proved her power on the sea. She had battled against our ruined -navy, and against enfeebled Spain. Holland, her ally after having -been her rival, could no longer dispute the sovereign empire with -her. She became daily more eager for the conquest of the distant -colonies that we did not know how to defend. The peace had left -in suspense disputed points which would soon serve as a pretext -for new aggressions. In proportion as the ancient influence of -Richelieu and Louis XIV. on European politics grew weaker, -English influence, based on the growing power of a free country -and government, was strengthening. Without any other allies than -Spain, who was herself shaken in her fidelity, we stood exposed -to the enterprises of England, henceforth freed from the phantom -of the Stuarts. "The peace concluded between England and France -in 1748 was only a truce," said Lord Macaulay; "it was not even a -truce on other parts of the globe." It was there that the two -nations were about to measure themselves, and that the burden of -its government's shortcomings would cause France to lose that -empire of the Indies and those Canadian colonies which had been -founded and so long sustained by eminent men, one after another, -victims to their patriotic devotion which was as hopeless as it -was without results. - -{224} - -Frederick, Prince of Wales, died on the 20th of March, 1751. -Having caught a slight cold, without being alarmed at his -illness, he soon felt seriously affected. "I feel death," he had -said. The dispute which reigned in the royal family did not cease -at the grave; the project of the Regency law had occasioned some -bitter passages between the dowager princess, mother of the new -Prince of Wales, and the Duke of Cumberland. The prince was not -popular. "I do not know why," said King George II. "This nation -is capricious. The Scotch and the Jacobites think ill of him; and -the English do not like discipline." On the 6th of March, 1754, -Henry Pelham unexpectedly died. His administration had been just -and intelligent, without vigor, but without disturbance. "I shall -have no more peace," exclaimed the old king when he learned of -his minister's death. As clever in court finesse as he was -incapable of directing with grandeur general policy, the Duke of -Newcastle knew how to seize the high rank that escaped the dying -hands of his brother. William Pitt bided his time. - -It was in the midst of this administrative weakness and -intellectual stagnation that a religious movement had begun, and -was spreading, which was destined to reanimate moral life in -England, to purify manners, and to give it strength to resist the -fatal impulse of the French Revolution. Under the influence of -examples which originated in the court of Charles II., and which -since then had been fostered by numerous scandals, English -society was gradually corrupted in high places, and the contagion -of moral evil was beginning to make itself felt even in the most -remote provinces. Religious faith, enfeebled by the indifference -of the clergy as well as by the theories of philosophers, was -struggling faintly against the depravity of manners. The Anglican -Church had fallen into a respectable languor; the old dissenting -sects, having escaped from the tight bonds of persecution, had -lost their ancient fervor. - - -[Image] -William Pitt--Lord Chatham. - - -{225} - -The religious sentiment yet existed in a latent condition among -the lower and middle classes. Here it was that it awakened with -an unexpected ardor at the eloquent voice of John Wesley and -George Whitefield. Both students of Oxford, both destined to -embrace the holy ministry, both consecrated in the Anglican -Church, they undertook with enthusiasm a sacred crusade for the -salvation of souls and the destruction of moral evil. Whitefield, -who was more ardently eloquent, less contained, and of a less -tolerant spirit than Wesley, now travelled over the country, -preaching to the miners, who came out of their gloomy retreats in -thousands in order to hear his fervent exhortations, and now -assembled at the house of the Countess of Huntington the -_élite_ of the worldly society of London. Strong workingmen -sobbed and groaned under his pathetic appeals; peasants fell to -the earth as though stricken with inward convulsions; -philosophers tranquilly admired an eloquence of which they -recognized the power as well as the sincerity. "All appeared -moved to some extent," said Whitefield in writing of a piously -worldly assembly. "Lord Chesterfield thanked me, saying, 'Sir, I -will not say to you, what I say of you to others, how much I -commend you.' Lord Bolingbroke assisted at the meeting. He was -seated like an archbishop, and did me the honor to say that in my -discourse I had done justice to the divine attributes." Some -years later the eloquence of Whitefield was to draw from the -economical hands of Franklin the whole contents of his purse. But -already the ardor of his zeal had closed to him the pulpits of -the Anglican Church. He had sought sympathy for his cause even in -America. -{226} -On his return to England some difference of opinion had separated -him from Wesley. Henceforth each worked for his reward in the -vast field of unbelief, indifference, and moral corruption. Both, -however, pursued the same work, following the bent of natural -disposition, which was more ardent and dissenting with Whitefield -and the Methodist sects born under his inspiration, more moderate -and conservative with Wesley as with the innumerable adherents -who yet do themselves the honor of bearing his name. - -Never was the author of a great and lasting popular movement -further removed than Wesley from all revolutionary tendency. The -spirit of government and organization, attachment to ancient and -venerated forms, a lofty and calm judgment united to an ascetic -nature, a slight leaning towards mysticism--such were the -characteristic and necessary traits of a reformer and religious -founder in the eighteenth century. Wesley was tenderly attached -to the Anglican Church; he only separated himself from it with -regret, constrained by the ecclesiastical dislike which closed -the pulpits to him, and compelled, little by little, and against -his inclination, to accept the vault of heaven for his temple, -and the laity for his fellow laborers, as Whitefield had done -since the beginning. During his long apostolate, which lasted -from 1729 to 1791, from the prayer-meetings in his room at Oxford -to the complete and strong organization of the sect he had -founded, Wesley exercised an absolute authority over his numerous -subjects. "If you mean by an arbitrary power, a power which I -alone exercise," he said, with a tranquil simplicity, "it is -certainly true; but I see no harm in it." However, in -courageously accomplishing his work, Wesley did more than he -intended; he had founded a religious society; he had not had the -intention of founding a sect. -{227} -A minister of the Anglican Church, and a witness of its -shortcomings, he had felt that in order to awaken the parish -clergy it was necessary to create a kind of regular clergy; that -in order to announce the Gospel to those who did not go to -church, or who only heard these cold exhortations, it was -necessary to organize an army of ardent missionaries; that in -order to touch the heart of the masses it was necessary to seek -them in the fields, the markets, and the byways, and to address -them in their own common language. Wesley was forced to separate -himself from the Anglican Church, but his disciples have -constantly remained respectful to her, and as an intermediate -body between her and dissenters, they have, from without, -rendered her most important services. Wesley and Whitefield have -reawakened religious life in England, and no religious society -has profited by it so much as the Anglican Church herself. -Movements of various kinds, all serious and sincere, have -manifested themselves in her wide bosom. She has sufficed to -foster much warmth, to satisfy minds and hearts widely -dissimilar, but all beset by veritable religious needs; she has -united herself to the most noble attempts of modern philanthropy, -the worthy fruits of awakened and revived Christian faith. It is -to the great religious movement created in the eighteenth century -by Wesley and Whitefield that England has owed the glorious -efforts of Clarkson and Wilberforce for the emancipation of -slaves, and the prison reform of John Howard. - -{228} - -England had need of all her forces, ancient and new, moral, -religious, and patriotic, for she was approaching an era of -blended glory and danger, agitated and tempestuous even in -victory. The war with France, long sustained on distant seas -without preliminary declaration, and with enormous detriment to -French commerce, which was everywhere interrupted and ruined, -became at last patent and officially inevitable. In the Indies as -well as in Canada, it had not ceased for a single day. In the -month of March, 1755, the ministers asked Parliament for an -increase of forces for the defence of the American possessions -threatened by the French. The governor of Canada, the Marquis -Duquesne, had erected a series of forts in the valley of the -Ohio. M. de Contrecœur, who commanded in that region, learned -that a body of English troops was marching upon him under the -orders of young Colonel Washington. He immediately detailed M. de -Jumonville along with thirty men, to call upon the English to -retire and evacuate the French territory. At break of day on the -18th of May, 1754, Washington's corps surprised De Jumonville's -little encampment. The attack was unforeseen; the French envoy -was killed along with nine of his troop. The irritation caused by -this event precipitated the commencement of hostilities. A band -of Canadians, reinforced by some savages, marched against -Washington, who had intrenched himself in the plain. It was -necessary to attack him with cannon shot. In spite of his -bravery, the future conqueror of American independence was forced -to capitulate. The colonies were keenly excited; they formed a -sort of confederation against the French power in America. They -especially raised militia. In January, 1755, General Braddock was -already in Virginia with regular troops. In the early part of -May, Admiral Boscawen, after a desperate combat, captured several -vessels which had been separated by bad weather from the squadron -of Admiral Dubois de la Motte. Three hundred merchant vessels -fell into the hands of the English navy. -{229} -War was finally declared, to the secret uneasiness of the two -governments as well as of the two nations. "What is the use of -having plenty of troops and money," wrote the lawyer Barbier, "if -we only wage war with the English by sea? They will one after -another take all our vessels, get hold of all our American -settlements, and manage all the commerce. Some division in the -English nation itself must be hoped for, because the king -personally does not desire war." - -King George II. was uneasy on account of Hanover--a point of -attack naturally pointed out to the armies of King Louis XV. The -English nation dreaded the landing so often and so vainly -announced. "What I wish," exclaimed Pitt, "is to snatch this -country from a state of enervation which makes it tremble before -twenty thousand Frenchmen." Being a member of the administration, -as well as paymaster-general of the forces, he violently attacked -the treaties of subsidies and alliance, which the king had just -concluded with Prussia and Hesse. For the first time, his -eloquence swayed the House. "He has surpassed himself," wrote -Horace Walpole. "Do I need to tell you that he has surpassed -Demosthenes and Cicero? What figure would their solemn, -elaborate, studied harangues have cut beside this manly vivacity -and this impetuous eloquence which, all at once, at one o'clock -in the morning, after eleven hours' session, pierced the stifling -atmosphere." Legge, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, had, like -Pitt, refused his assent to the treaties. Both were replaced, and -Pitt was thrown into the opposition, which rallied round the -princess dowager and the young Prince of Wales. "This day will, I -hope, give the key-note to my life," he had rightly said in his -great speech. - -{230} - -The weakness of the English government became more apparent every -day. "I say it with regret on account of my friend Fox," wrote -Horace Walpole, "but the year 1756 was, perhaps, that of the -worst government I have ever seen in England: the incapacity of -Newcastle had fair play." In spite of their inadequate resources -the Canadians defended themselves heroically and not -unsuccessfully against the efforts of the American colonies -backed by the mother-country. Acadia, a strip of neutral country -between the English and French territories, the inhabitants of -which had constantly refused to take the oath of allegiance to -England, was invaded by the American troops, the population swept -off, and the houses pillaged. General Braddock encountered more -resistance in the valley of the Ohio. He proposed to surprise -Fort Duquesne, and forced the march of his little corps. "I never -saw a finer sight than that of the English troops on the 9th of -July, 1755," wrote Colonel Washington, who was commanding under -the orders of Braddock. But soon the English advance-guard was -stopped by a heavy discharge of artillery; the enemy did not -appear; the foremost ranks were disordered and recoiled on the -body of the army. The confusion became extreme; the regular -troops, little used to this sort of fighting, refused to rally -round the general, who would have wished them to manœuvre as on -the plains of Flanders. The Virginia militia alone, being -scattered in the woods, answered the fire of the French or Indian -sharpshooters without showing themselves. General Braddock soon -received a mortal wound; Colonel Washington, reserved by God for -other destinies, sought in vain to rally the soldiers. -{231} -"I have been protected by the all-powerful intervention of -Providence," he wrote to his brother after the action; "I -received four bullets in my coat, and I have had two horses -killed under me; however, I have got out of it safe and sound, -while death swept off all our comrades around me. We have been -beaten, shamefully beaten, by a handful of Frenchmen, who only -anticipated hindering our march. A few moments before action we -believed our forces almost equal to all those of Canada, and now, -contrary to all probability, we have been completely defeated, -and have lost everything." The little French corps, sent out from -Fort Duquesne under the command of M. de Beaujeu, numbered but -two hundred Canadians and six hundred Indians. It was only three -years later, when Canada, exhausted and dying, succumbed beneath -the burden of a war which it had sustained almost without aid, -that Fort Duquesne, destroyed by its defenders themselves, fell -into the hands of the English. They gave it the name of -Pittsburg, in honor of the great minister who was in power--a -name which a prosperous city bears even to-day. - -While the Marquis de Montcalm was successfully sustaining the war -against the English in America, Marshal Richelieu, a clever, -prodigal, and corrupt courtier, had the good luck to achieve the -only happy stroke of the Seven Years' War, the remembrance of -which should remain firm in the mind of posterity. On the 17th of -April, 1756; a French squadron under the command of M. de la -Galissonière attacked the Island of Minorca, an important -military point in the Mediterranean to which the English attached -a high Value. Chased from Ciudadela and Port Mahon, the garrisons -had taken refuge in Fort St. Philip. They relied on the help of -the English fleet. The Admiral who commanded it attacked M. de la -Galissonière on the 10th of May. -{232} -The English were repulsed and could not effect a landing. The -ships had suffered a good deal, and the English forces were -inferior to those of France. Byng feared defeat; he consulted his -council of war and fell back on Gibraltar. General Blakeney, shut -up in the fortress, sick, and without hope of aid, defended -himself weakly against the impetuous assault of the French. Fort -St. Philip was taken, and the Duke de Fronsac, eldest son of the -Duke de Richelieu, hastened to Paris to convey the news to King -Louis XV. - -The rage and humiliation, like the joy and pride of France, -exceeded the extent and importance of the success. Admiral Byng, -peremptorily recalled, was with great difficulty brought safe and -sound to London, so strong was the anger of the mob. The -government made no effort to protect him. On the first -representations being made to him against the admiral, who was -honest and brave, but a blind slave of rule and badly provided -alike with ships and sailors, the Duke of Newcastle hastily -replied, "Oh! certainly, certainly; he will be judged -immediately; he will be hanged immediately." In spite of the -efforts made in his favor in the Houses, as well as by Marshal -Richelieu and Voltaire, Byng expiated with his life the check he -had sustained and the wounded pride of his country. The Duke of -Newcastle was at last overcome by his notorious incapacity. -William Pitt seized the reins of power for a short time, of which -the aversion of the king was not long in depriving him. The great -orator had refused to come to an understanding with Mr. Fox, who -bitterly reproached him with afterwards sustaining the treaties -of subsidies and alliances which he had lately attacked so -passionately. -{233} -France had just entered into an alliance with Maria Theresa; the -houses of Bourbon and Austria were making common cause; all the -available forces of England were engaged in the struggle, and -Pitt did not hesitate to recruit in the highlands. "Men are never -wanting to a good cause," he said afterwards. "I have lately -employed the very rebels in the service and defence of the -country. Being thus brought back to us, they have fought for us, -and have gladly shed their blood to protect those liberties which -in the past they wished to destroy." - -It was in vain that George II. still strove against the minister, -who imposed the national will on him as the favor of heaven. In -vain, making use of the royal prerogative against him, did he -force him to yield up the seals of office from the beginning of -April, and involve in his disgrace Lord Temple, his -brother-in-law. In vain did he seek to form a new cabinet, with -the insatiable thirst of the Duke of Newcastle for the nominal -side of power, and the desire which Fox felt to actually govern. -Parliament as well as the people demanded the powerful hand which -could guide them through the bursting storm. On the 29th of June, -1757, Pitt was named secretary of state, and rallied around him -some illustrious names, but he was the sole efficient master of -the government, and was resolved to bear alone the whole burden -of it. The most sagacious observers interchanged gloomy -forebodings. "England has no longer any course but to cut her -cables and set sail towards an unknown ocean," wrote Horace -Walpole. "It matters little who may be in power," said Lord -Chesterfield; "we are lost at home and abroad--at home by our -debts and our growing expenses; abroad by our incapacity and bad -luck. ... We are no longer even a nation." - -{234} - -It is sometimes the good fortune and glory of great men, under -the hand of God, to baffle the doleful prognostications of their -contemporaries. As a constitutional minister, the first William -Pitt should occupy a lower position than the noble career of his -son. He was overbearing, whimsical, personal, and theatrical. -Abroad he could push national pride as far as the most impolitic -insolence. He sacrificed his country's interests for the sake of -humiliating her enemies. He made England feared, but he isolated -her in Europe and in the world by a proud and obdurate policy, -for which he was to pay cruelly later. At home he was unbalanced -and violent, carried away by opposing and always extreme -passions, without limit and without foresight. The greatness of -his mind, ability, and character, however, overcame all his -defects. He governed his country through a long and difficult war -in stormy times which demanded painful sacrifices, making -constant appeals to the most noble passions of the human soul by -the prestige of eloquence, rectitude, patriotism, and glory. It -is his honor to have re-established the fortune of England in the -war; it is no less a service to have lifted hearts to the level -of fortune in order to sustain a great cause. - -Pitt's first warlike efforts were not happy. An expedition -attempted against Rochefort was unsuccessful. The King of -Prussia, lately victorious in Saxony, whence he had driven the -elector, the King of Poland, found himself in turn closely -pressed by the Austrian Marshal Daun, who had conquered him at -Cologne. Marshal d'Estrèes, slowly occupying Westphalia, had -entrapped the Duke of Cumberland on the Weser. On the morning of -the 23d of July, 1757, the marshal summoned his lieutenant-generals. -"Gentlemen," said he, "I do not assemble you to-day to -ask you whether we must fight M. de Cumberland and invest Hameln. -{235} -The honor of the king's arms, his wish, his express orders, the -interest of a common cause, bind us to take the firmest -resolutions. I only seek, therefore, to profit by your light, and -to concoct with you the best means of successful attack." The -Duke of Cumberland's troops were of various races. He had not -under his command any English regiment. His warlike spirit was -not sufficient to compensate for the defects of his military -organization. On the 26th of July Marshal d'Estrèes forced him -into the intrenchment at Hastenbeck. He retreated, without being -pursued, to the marshes at the mouth of the Elbe, under the -protection of English vessels. Marshal d'Estrèes was recalled by -a court intrigue. Marshal Richelieu and the Duke de Soubise -divided the command. Richelieu systematically pillaged Hanover, -Hesse-Cassel, and Brunswick. He threatened the position of the -Duke of Cumberland, and the latter asked to capitulate. On the -8th of September, by the intervention of the Count de Lynar, the -minister of the King of Denmark, who remained neutral between the -belligerents, the Duke of Cumberland and Marshal Richelieu -signed, at the advance posts of the French army, the famous -capitulation of Closter-Severn. The troops of King Louis XV. -occupied all the conquered country; those of Hesse, Brunswick, -and Saxe-Gotha were to return to their quarters. The great -Frederick had already recalled the Prussians; the Hanoverians -were to remain fortified in the neighborhood of Stade. In his -presumptuous levity the marshal had not even thought of exacting -their disarming. - -{236} - -However incomplete as was this convention, which was severely -judged by the Emperor Napoleon I. in his memoirs, it excited -great anger in England as well as in Prussia. When the Duke of -Cumberland presented himself before his father, the old king -greeted him with this startling sentence: "There is my son who -has dishonored himself whilst ruining me." Wounded and -discouraged, the duke officially renounced his command and handed -in his resignation of all his offices, to linger yet some years -in obscurity, and finally die in 1765, at the age of forty-six -years. Pitt alone of the ministers had defended him. When the -king repeated that he had never authorized his son's conduct, the -prince's constant antagonist replied in an honest spirit of -justice: "It is true, Sire; but his powers were extensive, very -extensive!" - -The King of Prussia remained alone opposing the allies. Every day -his force diminished, affected by desertion as much as by death. -The Russian army had invaded the Prussian provinces and beaten -General Schouvaloff near Memel; twenty-five thousand Swedes had -just landed in Pomerania. For a moment Frederick II. thought of -killing himself, but the indomitable strength of his soul, a -strange mingling of corruption and heroism, constantly drew him -back to battle with fresh efforts of ability and resolve. The -favor of Madame de Pompadour had reserved for the Prince Soubise -the honor of crushing the King of Prussia. The two armies met on -the 5th of November, 1757, on the banks of the Saale, near -Rosbach. That evening the French army, utterly defeated, fled to -Erfurt. It left on the field of battle eight thousand prisoners -and three thousand dead. A month later the Austrians were in turn -vanquished at Lissa. The glory of the great Frederick, obscure -for a time, shone forth anew in all its splendor; he became the -national hero of Germany. The Protestant powers, lately engaged -against him, made approaches to the conqueror. -{237} -In England enthusiasm was at its height; Pitt concluded a new -agreement with Prussia. Parliament, without difficulty, voted a -subsidy of sixty-seven thousand pounds sterling. King George II., -as Elector of Hanover, had refused to ratify the capitulation of -Cloister-Severn, and his troops were already renewing the -campaign under the command of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. -Being clever and honest, he had soon gained possession of the -country of Luneberg, of Zell, of a part of Brunswick and of -Bremen. In order to maintain the struggle in Germany, King Louis -XV. and Madame de Pompadour had just put the Count de Clermont at -the head of the French troops. - -The Zaporogue Cossacks inundated Prussia, and Frederick II. had -scarcely beaten the Russians on the bloody day of Zorndorff when -he was himself conquered at Hochkirch by Marshal Daun and forced -to evacuate Saxony. Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick had just won -the important victory of Crevelt over the new French general. The -Count de Clermont had given evidence of the most distressing -incapacity; his army escaped every day more and more from under -the yoke of discipline. It was discontented, humiliated, and -without confidence in the chiefs who successively headed it, -being exalted to the command by court intrigues or manœuvres. The -Marquis de Contades had succeeded M. de Clermont. At Versailles -the Count de Stainville, created Duke de Choiseul, had become -Minister of Foreign Affairs in place of Cardinal de Bernis, who -was always inclined to pacific counsels. The second treaty of -Versailles had united France to Maria Theresa more firmly than -ever. The English had on two occasions unsuccessfully attempted -an attack on the coasts of Normandy and Brittany. -{238} -The Duke d'Aiguillon, governor of that province, had taken to -himself the honor of having repulsed the invasion; a single -unimportant battle had taken place, and this formed the pretext -for a grand project of descent on the English coasts. The Prince -de Soubise was recalled from Germany in order to direct the -invading army. The expedition was ready, and only awaited the -signal to issue from the port, but Admiral Hawke was cruising in -front of Brest, Admiral Rodney had just bombarded Havre, and it -was only in the month of November, 1759, that the Marquis de -Conflaus, who commanded the fleet, was able to put to sea with -twenty-one vessels of the line and four frigates. The English -forces were superior to his, and immediately set out in pursuit. -M. de Conflaus thought he would find refuge in the tortuous -passages at the mouth of the Vilaine. - -The English penetrated there after him. Sir Edward Hawke engaged -the _Soleil Royal_, which was commanded by the French -admiral. His pilot represented to him the danger of navigating. -The brave seaman let him talk. "Very well," he answered; "you -have done your duty, now you have only to obey me; manage so as -to place me alongside the _Soleil Royal_." The battle thus -waged in the various narrow passages became disastrous to the -French vessels. The commander of the rear guard, M. Saint-André -du Verger, let it be raked by the enemy's cannon in order to -cover the retreat. The admiral ran aground in the Bay of Croisic, -and himself burned his vessel. Seven French and two English ships -remained engaged in the Vilaine. M. de Conflaus' day, as the -sailors named the episode, dealt a fatal blow to the unfortunate -remnant of the French navy. The English triumphed everywhere on -the sea, and even in our own waters. - -{239} - -They also triumphed at a distance in our colonies, entirely -abandoned to their forces, which prolonged in a heroic struggle -the throes of their agony. Pitt had determined to achieve the -conquest of Canada. Already the outposts of Louisburg and Cape -Breton had succumbed beneath the attacks of the English. The -Anglo-American forces were increased during the campaign of 1758 -to sixty thousand men. The entire population of Canada was not -more numerous. In 1759, three armies invaded the French territory -at once. On the 29th of June, a considerable fleet carried to the -Island of Orleans, fronting Quebec, General Wolfe, a young -officer of great promise who had distinguished himself at the -siege of Louisburg. Pitt believed that he discerned in him the -elements of superior merit. In spite of the blundering-- -sometimes presuming, and again depressed--of Wolfe, he had -resolved to confide to him the direction of the great expedition -he contemplated. "If the Marquis de Montcalm succeeds again this -year in deceiving our hopes," said the new general, "he can pass -for a clever man: either the colony has resources that are -unknown, or our generals are worse than ordinary." - -Quebec occupied an advantageous position, but the fortifications -were bad; the loss of the place involved that of Canada. "If the -Marquis were shut up there," said Wolfe, "we should soon have -triumphed; our artillery would have made short work of the -walls." An intrenched camp stretched before Quebec. The Indian -tribes, hitherto ardently attached to France by the habitual -kindness of its commerce, were decimated by the war, or had -silently withdrawn, gained over by the money as well as the -success of England. The two great European nations did not -hesitate to wage war by means of the cruel or perfidious -proceedings of their Indian allies. - -{240} - -For more than a month the town had borne the enemy's fire. The -churches and convents were in ruins, and the French had not -stirred from their camp of _l'Ange-Gardien._ Skirmishes were -frequent. "Old men of seventy and children of fifteen years fire -on our detachments," wrote Wolfe. "Our men are wounded at every -border of the forest." The anger of the English soldiers had -little by little reduced to a desert both banks of the St. -Lawrence. In every direction villages and scattered dwellings -were given to the flames. - -Generals Amherst and Johnson, who had been charged with distant -expeditions against Niagara and Ticonderoga, had succeeded in -their enterprises, but had not rejoined Wolfe according to Pitt's -plan. The latter bore on his shoulders all the responsibility of -final success. Being repulsed before the French camp on the 31st -of July, Wolfe fell sick from vexation and spite. "There only -remains to me the choice of difficulties," he wrote to the -English cabinet. "I have regained sufficient health to do my -work, but my constitution is destroyed without my having the -consolation of having rendered, or being able to render, -considerable service to the state." Three days after the date of -this letter. General Wolfe suddenly advanced on the banks of the -St. Lawrence. On the night of the 12th of September he landed on -the creek of the Foulon. The officers had responded in French to -the "_Qui vive?_" of the sentinels, who believed that they -beheld a long expected convoy of provisions passing. Twice did -the boats, which were insufficient in number, silently cross the -stream. Wolfe alone repeated in an undertone the poet Gray's -"Elegy in a Country Churchyard." He was touching land, when he -turned to say to his lieutenants, "I would prefer to be the -author of that poem than to take Quebec." - -{241} - -Day was scarcely breaking when the English army occupied the -Heights of Abraham. A skirmish had sufficed to put to flight the -French detachment charged with guarding them. The Marquis de -Montcalm viewed his enemies from afar. "I see them plainly where -they ought not to be," said he, "but if we fight with them I -shall crush them." The English were already on the march; before -the break of day the French were routed, Montcalm was dying, and -Quebec was lost. - -General Wolfe had murmured the last of Gray's lines--"The path -of glory leads but to the grave." He had received three mortal -wounds as he was encouraging his grenadiers to charge. Already -his eyes were veiled by the eternal shadows, when an officer who -was attending him exclaimed, "See, they fly!" "Who?" asked Wolfe, -raising himself up painfully. "The enemy; they yield at all -points." The hero let himself fall back on his couch. "God be -praised," said he; "I die content." He was not yet thirty-four -years of age. - -Montcalm died also, eager even to the last moment to give his -orders and arouse the courage of his soldiers. "All is not lost," -he repeated. When the surgeons announced to him that he had only -some hours to live, "So much the better," said he; "I shall not -see the surrender of Quebec." He was buried in the hole scooped -by a ball in the middle of the Ursuline church. It is there he -still sleeps. On one of the squares of the town, which became -English without the effacement of the tender memory of France, -Lord Dalhousie had a marble obelisk erected bearing the names of -Wolfe and Montcalm, with this inscription: "_Mortem virtus -communem, famam historia, momumentum posteritas dedit_." Their -courage has given them a common death; history, renown; -posterity, a monument. - -{242} - -Parliament decreed a magnificent tomb in Westminster Abbey to the -great conqueror of Quebec. The whole of England wore mourning. -With Quebec France had lost Canada. The impotent despair of M. de -Vaudreuil and the Duke de Levis, who were incapable of defending -Montreal, led them vainly to attempt to again seize the capital. -For a second time the Heights of Abraham were witnesses of a -bloody combat. The French troops blockaded the place. On both -sides, the arrival of reinforcements asked from Europe was being -awaited. The invincible hopefulness of our nation deluded the -Canadians. The English vessels entered the river. On the night of -the 16th to the 17th of May, the little French army raised the -siege; on the 8th of September, Montreal, in its turn, fell into -the hands of the conquerors. - -At the same period, after long alternations of success and -reverse, England achieved a conquest in India which assured to -her forever the European empire of the East. An entire people, -passionately attached to the mother-country, had struggled in -Canada. In India, some eminent men had dreamed of establishing -the French power on the most solid foundations. They had -prosecuted their aims at the cost of all sacrifices, and one -after another they had fallen victim to their devotion as well as -to their reciprocal jealousy. Mahé de la Bourdonnais, governor of -the Isle of France, a clever, enterprising, honest man, and the -conqueror of Madras in 1746, had unfortunately engaged in a -rivalry with Dupleix, then governor-general of Pondicherry, which -had led both into grave errors. - - -[Image] -Death Of Wolfe. - - -{243} - -The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle gave Madras to the English, but La -Bourdonnais, destitute, suspected, and consigned to the Bastile, -finally died of vexation, having used the last remnants of his -energy to disseminate suspicions against Dupleix, which were soon -to bear fruits fatal to that French greatness in India to which -M. de la Bourdonnais had formerly consecrated his life. - -Joseph Dupleix, born of a Gascon family, the son of the -controller-general of Hainant, had settled in India from his -youth. He had married there, and had learned to know all the -tortuous policy of the Indian princes, whose language his wife, -the princess Jeanne, as she was called, knew, and whose secrets -she divined. Not over-scrupulous, ambitious and daring for his -country's sake even more than his own, he had foreseen and -prosecuted this European empire of India which was soon to fall -into more fortunate if not more clever hands. In 1748 he had -defended Pondicherry against Admiral Boscawen. The peace of -Aix-la-Chapelle, while changing the name of the belligerents, had -not put an end to hostilities. The two commercial companies, the -French and the English, had continued the war hitherto sustained -in the name of their sovereigns. Dupleix entered more and more -into the internal intrigues of India. In the Dekhan he had -supported Murzapha Jung against Nazir Jung, and in the Carnatic, -Tchunda Sahib against Anaverdy Khan. His adroit patronage had -brought good fortune to his proteges. In their solicitous -gratitude they had conceded vast territories to France. A third -of India was already obedient to Dupleix, and the Great Mogul, -the invisible sovereign who silently granted degrees of -investiture, had just recognized his supremacy. Dupleix thought -that he had arrived at the goal of all his dreams. He had taken -no account of the improvident weakness of the French government. - -{244} - -Already Dupleix's success had alarmed King Louis XV. and his -ministers, who were more uneasy in respect of new embarrassments -which might be created for them than solicitous for the greatness -of France in India. England was irritated and perturbed. Her -affairs had been for a long time badly managed in India, but she -remained there vital, active, and sustained by the indomitable -ardor of a free people. At Versailles Dupleix was refused the -help he asked; the confirmation of his conquests was delayed. The -man who was to establish for England the empire of India over the -ruins of Dupleix's work, had just arisen. Robert Clive, born in -1725, of a family of small Shropshire landholders, had been -placed while very young in the offices of the India Company. His -nature was turbulent. The assiduous work of a copying clerk did -not admit of any title for him: he was a born general, and -already his counsels were listened to by the chiefs of the -company. In the peril which menaced it in consequence of -Dupleix's triumphs, young Clive was placed at the head of an -expedition which he had planned against Arcatan, the capital of -the Carnatic. Having become master of the place by a bold stroke -in the month of September, 1751, he was soon attacked there by -Tchunda Sahib. During fifty days he withstood in the fortress the -efforts of the Indians and the French. Provisions gave out, the -rations became more insufficient every day; but Clive knew how to -inspire in those who surrounded him the heroic resolution which -animated himself. "Give the rice to the English," the sepoys came -and said to him; "we will content ourselves with the water in -which it has been boiled." -{245} -A body of Mahrattas, allies of the English, caused the siege to -be raised. Clive pursued the French in their retreat; he twice -defeated Tchunda Sahib and razed the town and the monument that -Dupleix had erected in remembrance of his victories. When he had -effected his junction with Governor-General Lawrence he broke the -blockades of Trichinapolis and delivered Mahomet Ali, the son and -successor of Anaverdy Khan. Tchunda Sahib, for his part, being -confined at Tcheringham, was given up to his rival by a chief of -Tanjore to whom he had trusted himself His throat was cut. The -French commandant, a nephew of Law, gave himself up to the -English. Clive had destroyed two French corps and was pressing -the third army hard. Bussy-Castelnau, the faithful lieutenant of -Dupleix, was fighting on the Dekhan and could not come to its -aid. In vain did the indomitable energy of the governor-general -triumph over all obstacles. Dupleix had found troops and money, -and was resisting Clive, whose health was shaken when the news of -his dismissal arrived from Europe. His temporary reverses of -fortune had achieved the work begun by the suspicions which M. de -la Bourdonnais had sown; the ministers of Louis XV. had taken -fright. M. Godehen, one of the directors of the company, had been -accused of treating with the English. Dupleix re-entered France, -sad and irritated, but filled even yet with dreams and hopes. -Since the time of his landing from the East he was hailed by the -acclamations of the crowd, but the government was opposed to him. -He had embarked his entire personal fortune in the service of his -great patriotic designs; his claims were not listened to; his -wife died of vexation, and he finally, in poverty and despair, -succumbed in 1763. -{246} -"I have sacrificed my youth, my fortune, my life," he exclaimed, -with just bitterness; "I have wished to load my nation with -honors and riches in Asia. Unfortunate friends, too confiding -relatives, virtuous citizens, have consecrated their wealth to -make my projects succeed; they are now in misery. ... I demand -what is due me as the last of the creditors. My services are -fables; my demands are ridiculous; I am treated as the vilest of -men. The little property that remains to me is seized. I have -been obliged to apply for writs of suspension, so as not to be -dragged to prison." History has avenged Dupleix by doing justice -to his services. He was the most illustrious victim of those -mighty French ambitions in India, without being the last or the -most tragical of them. - -After being detained some time in England by the care of his -health. Clive returned to India in 1755, strong in his past glory -and freed henceforth from the indomitable energy and clever -intrigues of Dupleix. He cast his glances at Bengal, the -sovereign of which, Surajah Dowlah, was hostile to the English -rule. The Indian prince had just taken the initiative in -hostilities by attacking Fort William, which formed the defence -of the rising town of Calcutta. The governor took fright, and the -place fell into the hands of Surajah Dowlah, who shut up the -English prisoners in the dungeon of the garrison;--a terrible -"black hole," scarcely sufficient to contain two or three -delinquents. One hundred and forty-six unfortunates were crammed -there in a stifling heat. In the morning when the door was -opened, the cries of suffering, the rending appeals, had ceased. -Twenty-three survivors, panting and dying, had scarcely strength -to drag themselves out of the horrible place, the witness of -their punishment. -{247} -The nabob, indifferent and triumphant, gave Calcutta the name of -Alinagore, or Port of God. He returned to his capital of -Moorshedabad, occupied in torturing men, as in his childhood he -had taken pleasure in torturing birds. - -The anger of the English had placed Clive at the head of a little -army. Surajah Dowlah called to his aid the French established at -Chaudernagore. Dupleix was no longer there, busy to profit by all -military or political complications. The French merchants refused -to take part in the hostilities, although the Seven Years' War -had just broken out in Europe. Everywhere the arms of France were -opposed to those of England. Chaudernagore did not escape the -common lot. The English seized it after Clive had repaired -Calcutta and Fort William. The decadence of France in India was -marching with rapid steps; the treaty concluded by Godehen had -dealt a death-blow to its empire, and all the conquests of -Dupleix had been abandoned. - -Upright and sincere in his relations with Europeans, Clive had -contracted the fatal habit of different morality in regard to the -Hindoos. Treaties concluded and violated, conspiracies encouraged -in all directions, shameful and flagrant perfidies, mark with a -black stain, in the life of the great general, his relations with -the cruel nabob of Bengal. The victory of Plassey, which he -finally gained on the 23d of June, 1757, terminated brilliantly a -campaign of mingled heroism and crimes. Henceforth Bengal -belonged to England. Bussy, summoned too late by Surajah Dowlah, -had not been able to arrest Clive's success. He revenged himself -for it by sweeping off all the English factories on the coast of -Orissa, and closing to them the road between the coast of -Coromandel and Bengal. - -{248} - -On the day after Clive's triumph in India, a bold and improvident -soldier, of indomitable courage and will, passionately attached -to France, which had received him and his cause--M. -Lally-Tollendal, of Irish origin, and already known by his -conduct, first in England and then in Scotland, during the -expedition of Prince Charles Edward--proposed to the ministers of -Louis XV. a new attempt to re-establish France's situation in the -East. The directors of the India Company sustained his proposal. -The king had promised troops. M. d'Argenson knew Lally's -character, and hesitated. The representations of the company won -him. When M. de Lally landed at Pondicherry in 1757, the treasury -was empty, the arsenals unprovided with arms and munitions, and -the English were pressing on the French possessions at all -points. The ardor of the general sufficed to remove all -obstacles. Lally marched on Gondalem, which he razed on the -sixteenth day. Shortly afterward he invested Fort St. David, the -most notable of the English fortresses in India. The first -assault was repulsed. The count had neither cannons nor beasts of -burden to bring them. He hastened to Pondicherry and attached the -Hindoos to the trains of artillery, taking indiscriminately the -men who came to hand, without troubling himself as to rank or -caste, thus imprudently wounding the dearest prejudices of the -country that he came to govern. Fort St. David was taken and -razed. Devicotch, hardly besieged, opened its gates. Lally had -been scarcely a month in India, and already he had chased the -English from the south coast of Coromandel. "My whole policy is -contained in these five words, but they are sacramental: 'No -English in the peninsula,'" wrote the general. He had sent orders -to Bussy to rejoin him at Madras. - -{249} - -The ardent heroism of M. de Lally had for a time troubled the -English by restoring courage to the remnants of the French -colony. The grave defects of his character soon seconded the -efforts of his adversaries by surrounding him with enemies, -secret or declared, among his compatriots themselves. Being badly -backed by M. d'Aché, who was in command of the French fleet, and -who was twice beaten by the English, he attacked Madras in the -month of September, 1758, with an undisciplined army, addicted to -the most frightful debauchery, and commanded by chiefs who were -either angry or discontented. Bussy could not console himself for -having been obliged to abandon the Dekhan to the feeble hands of -the Marquis de Conflaus. The black town had been stormed; the -white town resisted valiantly. On the 18th of February, 1759, -Lally was obliged to raise the siege; Colonel Coote had just -taken possession of the fortress of Wandewash. The general wished -to regain it. The battle which was fought on the 22d of January, -1760, was fatal to the French; M. de Bussy was made prisoner and -immediately sent to Europe. "To him alone did the capacity belong -to have continued the war for ten years," said the Hindoos. -Karikal was in the hands of the English. They were marching on -Pondicherry. - -M. de Lally was shut up there, resolved to hold out to the last -in a place which was badly defended, and where he was generally -hated. The siege commenced in the month of March, 1760; on the -27th of November it was changed to a blockade. It was only on the -16th of January, 1761, that the directors of the French Company -at last forced the hand of the general, indomitable in the midst -of ruins. -{250} -"No person can have a higher opinion of General Lally than I," -wrote Colonel Coote, who had just razed the ramparts and -magazines of Pondicherry. "He has striven against obstacles that -I believed insurmountable, and he has triumphed over them. There -is not in India another man who could have kept on foot so long -an army without pay and without resources on any hand." No aid -had come from France to the last general who still defended her -power and glory in the Indies; the cause was forever lost, and no -one would ever more attempt to revive it. The fate of M. de la -Bourdonnais and that of Dupleix remained as a gloomy proof of the -ingratitude of corrupt and feeble governments; that of M. de -Lally frightened the most courageous hearts and disgusted the -most far-sighted spirits. Shut up in the Bastile of his own will -at the end of the year 1763, he remained there nineteen months -without being examined. When his trial finally began, the -animosities which he had imprudently engendered in India rose up -against him with an irresistible violence. Accused of treason in -regard to the interest of the king and the company, he was -condemned to death on the 6th of May, 1766. Three days later he -expired on the scaffold in the _Placede Greve_, being gagged -like the worst of criminals. At the same moment. Lord Clive, -rich, powerful, and a brilliant member of Parliament, was -returning to the Indies as Governor-General of Bengal, charged -with reforming its entire administration. The contrast is -sorrowful, and explains the frequent checks received by France in -distant enterprises, which, grandly conceived and courageously -pursued by the patriotic devotion of citizens, were yet through -laxity and cowardice abandoned by the government. - -{251} - -Success so great and so sustained beyond the bounds of Europe -lent new force and zeal to the struggles of England on the -continent. In Germany, the Duke de Broglie had successfully -repulsed the attacks of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick on his -intrenchments at Bergher, on the 13th of April, 1759. The united -armies under M. de Coutades had invaded Hesse and advanced on the -Weser. They were occupying Minden when Prince Ferdinand attacked -them on the 1st of August. The action of the two French generals -was badly concerted, and the rout was complete. The English -infantry played a glorious part in the victory. The cavalry was -commanded by Lord George Sackville, son of the Duke, of Dorset. -Prince Ferdinand gave him orders to advance. Some contradiction -in the terms produced a momentary hesitation on the part of the -English commander, and he resisted the representations of his -aides-de-camp. "The orders are positive," said young Fitzroy; -"the French are flying, and the opportunity is glorious." Lord -Granby put himself in motion; the voice of his superior officer -compelled him to stop. When the scruples of Lord George were -finally satisfied, the battle was won, the enemy in retreat, and -the reputation of the English commander so seriously compromised -that he was obliged to resign from his rank and ask to undergo a -court-martial. The sentence was, like public opinion, severe. -Lord George Sackville was declared unworthy to serve in his -Majesty's armies. He already belonged to the court opposition -which was thronging around the heir to the throne, the princess -dowager, and the Marquis of Bute, the acknowledged favorite of -mother and son. King George II. intimated to his grandson that he -had prohibited Lord George from presenting himself before him. -The day was not far from dawning in which the memories of Minden, -despite their abiding bitterness, could not impede the proud -career of Lord George Sackville. - -{252} - -Mr. Pitt was triumphant at home as abroad. In spite of the king's -small predilection for his minister, the latter had obtained the -garter for his brother-in-law, Lord Temple. Enormous subsidies -were voted by the House without demur. "It is the wisest economy -to spare nothing in the expenses of war," he had said, without -circumlocution, when he was presenting the budget to Parliament. -His animosity against France was on the increase. "Formerly I -would have been content to see her on her knees," he said, in -privacy; "to-day I wish to see her overturned in the dust." -Notwithstanding the persistent bravery of the French nobles, who -are always ready to die on the battle-field, the disorder of the -troops and the inferiority of the generals who commanded in -opposition to Frederick II. and Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, -sadly subserved the hatred of the great English minister. - -The victories of England in both worlds and the triumphant -supremacy of Pitt in the Houses were not sufficient to assure the -success of their allies on the continent. At one time the great -Frederick thought he saw all Germany rallied round him. Now, -defeated and fortified in Saxony during the winter of 1760, he -sought alliances everywhere, and everywhere saw himself repelled. -"There remain to me but two allies," said he; "valor and -perseverance." Repeated victories, earned at the sword's point by -dint of boldness and at extreme danger, could not even protect -Berlin. The capital of Prussia saw itself compelled to open its -gates to the foe, on the sole condition that the Cossacks should -not go beyond its precincts. -{253} -When the regular troops withdrew, the generals had not been able -to prevent the pillage of the town. The heroic efforts of the -King of Prussia only ended in his keeping one foot still in -Saxony. On the 10th of March he wrote to Count Algarotti, "It is -certain that we have only experienced disasters during the last -campaign, and that we have found ourselves nearly in the same -situation as the Romans after Cannes. Unfortunately, toward the -end I had an attack of gout. My left hand and my feet were -disabled, and I could only let myself be carried from place to -place, a witness to my own reverses. Happily, the speech of Barca -to Hannibal can be applied to our enemies, 'You know how to -conquer, but you do not know how to profit by victory.'" The -cruel bombardment of Dresden in the month of August, 1760, was -like an overflowing of the long pent-up rage of Frederick II. He -had lately said, "Miserable fools that we are, we have only an -instant to live, and we make that instant as sorrowful as we can. -We take pleasure in destroying the masterpieces of art that time -has spared us; we seemed resolved to leave behind us the odious -memories of our ravages and of the calamities we have caused." -The monuments and the palaces of Dresden fell beneath the fire of -the Prussian cannon in the face of the flames which devoured the -suburbs. - -It is a relief in the midst of the horrors of war and the -ferocious courage there displayed, to recall an act of -disinterested bravery and a devotion which has no other -recompense than glory. Marshall de Broglie, who had become -general-in-chief of the French armies, had detailed M. de -Castries to succor Wesel, which was besieged by the hereditary -Prince of Brunswick. The French corps had just arrived, and was -still in bivouac. -{254} -On the night between the 15th and 16th of October, the Chevalier -d'Assas, captain in the regiment of Auvergne, was sent to -reconnoitre. He was marching in front of his men when he just -fell into the midst of a body of the enemy. The Prince of -Brunswick was preparing to attack. All the guns were levelled on -the young captain. "If you stir, you are a dead man," muttered -threatening voices. Without answering, M. d'Assas collected all -his energies. "_A moi Auvergne; voila les ennemis,_" he -cried. He fell immediately, pierced by twenty bullets; but the -action of Klostercamp, thus begun, was glorious for France. The -hereditary prince was obliged to abandon the siege of Wesel and -to recross the Rhine. The French corps maintained their -positions. - -The war still continued, bloody, monotonous, and fruitless; but a -great event had just taken place, which was speedily to change -the face of Europe. On the morning of the 25th of October, King -George II. had risen as usual, being as regular and methodical at -seventy-six as he had been in his youth. He asked for the foreign -dispatches, when his servants heard the noise of a fall. They -rushed in. The king was on the ground, and already breathing his -last. When his daughter, the Princess Amelia, was summoned, she -being deaf and very near-sighted bent towards her father in order -to catch his last words. In alarm she started back. King George -II. was dead. - - -[Image] -George III. - - -{255} - - Chapter XXXVI. - - George III. - The American War - (1760-1783). - - -The House of Hanover reigned without further contest. The Stuarts -had disappeared, borne forever by their misdeeds and misfortunes -far from the throne of their ancestors, and the young King George -III. peaceably succeeded his grandfather. Europe now, as well as -England, understood the importance of the change which had just -been accomplished. William III., called to the throne by the -English nation, had delivered it from an odious yoke and had -assured to it its religious and political liberties. He had -constantly remained a foreigner in the England which he served -gloriously and effectively without loving it. George I. and -George II. were Germans, elevated to the throne by the national -will, which was strong and wise, without sympathy and without -pleasure. They had remained Germans in manners and in speech. -England had grown under their rule; her institutions were -strengthened and developed. At the death of George II., thanks to -the illustrious man who, as an absolute master, had governed her -in freedom, she had become the arbiter of Europe, predominant in -America as well as in Asia. However, the English people's loyalty -of feeling had never been satisfied since the downfall of the -Stuarts, and the most obstinate of the Whigs, although -passionately opposed to all the attempts of the Jacobite -restoration, yet excused, in the depths of their heart, those who -had sacrificed all to their attachment towards the hereditary -monarch. -{256} -George III. was at last reigning, loved and respected beforehand, -and the painful trials of his life and his long reign never -caused him to lose the confidence and sympathy of his people. It -was the feeling of the whole nation as well as his own that the -young monarch expressed when he spontaneously said, in his first -speech from the throne: "Born and brought up in this country, I -glory in the name of Englishman, and it will be the pleasure of -my life to give happiness to a people whose fidelity and -attachment to myself I regard as the security and lasting honor -of my throne." - -New counsels already began to spread, less violent against France -than those of Mr. Pitt. The young king had cordially received his -grandfather's ministers, asking them to continue in their duties -under him; but he had also admitted Lord Bute to the Privy -Council, and the favorite's intrigues already came in contact -with those of the Duke of Newcastle. Some weeks later, at the -moment of the dissolution of Parliament, Bute succeeded Lord -Holderness as secretary of state. Pitt, it is said, was not -consulted. - -The haughty displeasure of the great minister had its influence -upon the tone of the negotiations then begun with France. The -Duke de Choiseul, burning to serve his country, although active, -restless, and courageous, still felt the necessity of peace. He -had proposed a congress. While Pitt delayed his answer, an -English squadron had blockaded Bellisle. A first assault, made on -the 8th of April by General Hodgson, was repulsed. The governor, -M. de St. Croix, had received no assistance, and, despite an -heroic resistance, he was forced to capitulate on June 7th, 1761. -It was almost at the same time that news was received of the -check of De Broglie and De Soubise at Minden, and of the -disastrous surrender of Pondicherry. -{257} -England's answer to the proposals of peace at last arrived. The -Duke de Choiseul had proposed to evacuate Hesse and Hanover, -demanding the restoration of Guadaloupe and Marie Galante, and of -Bellisle in exchange for Minorca. He accepted the conquest of -Canada and of Cape Breton, but in return he laid claim to all the -captures made at sea of the French merchant ships before the -declaration of war, and required an engagement that the English -troops, under the orders of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, should -not proceed to reinforce the Prussian army. The ultimatum was -modest, and was a bitter trial to the patriotic pride of M. de -Choiseul. Pitt's answer left no hope of peace. All the conquests, -all the captures, full liberty to aid the King of Prussia--such -was the language of the English minister. Dunkerque must be -razed, as a lasting monument of the yoke imposed on France. "So -long as I hold the reins of government," said Pitt, "another -Peace of Utrecht shall never sully the annals of England." - -Pitt had well estimated the exhaustion and the fatigue of France. -He had not foreseen the influence which the accession of a new -monarch to the throne of Spain would exert upon her alliances. -Ferdinand VI. had died childless. His brother, Charles III. King -of Naples, had succeeded him. He brought to his hereditary -kingdom a quicker intelligence than that of the dead king, a -great aversion to England (of which he had lately reason to -complain), and the traditional attachment of his race for the -interests and glory of France. The Duke de Choiseul was adroit -enough to avail himself of these tendencies. In the distress in -which the war had thrown King Louis XV., at the moment when Pitt -rejected his ultimatum, insulting him by inacceptable proposals, -Spain generously entered the list. -{258} -The treaty, known under the name of the Family Compact, was -signed at Paris on the 15th of April, 1761. Pitt immediately -proposed to George III. to make sure of the Isthmus of Panama, -and to attack immediately the Philippine Islands. - -It was the last straw for the tottering empire of the minister -who had been so long absolute in the council as well as in the -Houses. The cabinet had hardly accepted the harshness of the -conditions which he exacted from France. A declaration of war -with Spain was rejected by a large majority. Pitt arose. "I thank -you, gentlemen," said he, "for the support which you have often -given me, but it is the voice of the people which has called me -to public affairs. I have always considered myself as accountable -to it for my conduct. I cannot then remain in a position where I -shall be responsible for measures of which I have no longer the -direction." Several days later Pitt placed in the king's hands -the seals of office. George III. received him kindly. "Sad," he -said, "to part from so illustrious a servant." The haughty -minister burst into tears. "I confess, your Majesty," he said, -"that I expected the signs of your displeasure. Your Majesty's -kindness confounds and overwhelms me." Against the advice of his -friends, Pitt accepted a pension of three thousand pounds -sterling and a peerage for his wife, who became Lady Chatham. His -popularity in consequence suffered a slight blow, yet it remained -so great that at the annual lord mayor's dinner on the 9th of -November, all looks were turned toward the fallen minister, all -the applause was reserved for him, at the expense of the king and -of his young wife, Charlotte de Mecklenberg-Streglitz. This -popular triumph became insulting to the royal personages. "At -each step," said an eye-witness, "the crowd pressed around the -simple carriage where were to be found Pitt and Lord Temple. They -laid hold of the wheels; they embraced the servants, and even the -horses." - -{259} - -"Mr. Pitt will not make peace because he cannot make that which -he has given the nation reason to hope for," an acute observer of -the court, Bubb Doddington, had already said. On succeeding to -power, Lord Bute and the tories found themselves still driven by -public opinion to measures more violent than their tastes or -their intentions. France had made a supreme effort to reorganize -its army. In the month of January, 1762, the English government -declared war on Spain, striking from the first the most -disastrous blows at our faithful ally. The year had not gone by -before Cuba was already in the hands of the English, the -Philippine Islands ravaged, and galleons laden with Spanish gold -captured by British vessels. The campaign undertaken against -Portugal, always friendly to England, was productive of no -result. Martinique had followed the lot of Guadaloupe, which had -already been conquered by the English after an heroic resistance. -The war dragged on slowly in Germany. The death of the Czarina -Elizabeth and the brief occupation of the throne by the young -Czar Peter III., a passionate admirer of Frederick the Great, had -freed the King of Prussia from a dangerous enemy, and promised -him an ally faithful as well as powerful. The hope that the -Family Compact had for a time given to France was deceived. The -negotiations began again. On the 3d of November, 1762, the -preliminaries of peace were signed at Fontainebleau. France -abandoned all her possessions in America. Louisiana, which had -taken no part in the war, was ceded to Spain in exchange for -Florida, which was given over to the English. -{260} -Only the small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon were reserved -for the French fisheries. A special stipulation guaranteed to the -Canadians freedom in Catholic worship. In exchange for engaging -not to introduce troops into Bengal, France recovered -Chaudernagore and the ruins of Pondicherry. Guadaloupe and -Martinique became again French. The English kept Tobago, -Dominique, St. Vincent, and Grenada. In Germany the places and -country occupied by France were to be evacuated. Like his -illustrious rival. Lord Bute insisted upon the demolition of -Dunkerque. - -England's success had been great, and France's humiliation -profound, and yet it was not enough for the persistent hatred of -Pitt, now freed from the shackles of power, and at liberty to -allow full reign to his rancor against Lord Bute as well as to -his animosity toward our nation. He was disabled by gout, the -persistent scourge of his life; he had himself carried, wrapped -in flannel, to the House of Commons. Two of his friends led him -to his seat, and supported him during the first part of his -speech. Exhausted, he ended by sitting down, contrary to all -parliamentary usage. "I have come here at the risk of my life," -he exclaimed, "to raise my voice, my hand, my arm against the -preliminary articles of a peace which tarnishes the glory of the -war, which betrays the dearest interests of the nation, and which -sacrifices public faith while deserting our allies. France is -chiefly, if not entirely, formidable to us as a maritime and -commercial power. What we gain in this respect is doubly precious -from the loss which results to her. America, gentlemen, has been -conquered in Germany; to-day you leave to France the possibility -of re-establishing her navy." - -{261} - -Peace was voted notwithstanding. Lord Bute had felt the need of -support in the House of Commons against the thundering eloquence -of Pitt. He had called Henry Fox, who lacked neither adroit -eloquence nor insidious manipulations. His personal experience -had taught him to judge men severely. The aged Lord Grey was -asked in our time who was the last English minister susceptible -of being corrupted. He unhesitatingly answered, "Lord Holland." - -England had achieved a glorious peace. She was fatigued from her -long efforts, and resolved henceforward to leave to the -continental powers the care of settling their own quarrels. -Austria and Prussia alone were left, the first to enter the -lists, the only nations which retained a serious interest in the -questions in dispute. Frederick the Great had based new hopes on -the young czar, and a caprice of fortune had robbed him of his -support. Catherine II., Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, was on bad -terms with her husband. She took advantage of the indiscretions -of Peter III. to excite a military insurrection against him. He -was deposed, and shortly after died in his prison. Catherine was -proclaimed sovereign in his place. The new sovereign was bold, -ambitious, and as unscrupulous in her greed for power as in her -private life. She remained neutral between Prussia and Austria. -The states were at the end of their resources, the population -decimated. In ten years Berlin had lost a tenth of her -population, and thirty thousand of her inhabitants owed their -subsistence to public charity. The two sovereigns agreed to an -interchange of conquests. -{262} -All this disturbance and all this suffering ended for Germany in -the maintenance of the _statu quo_. France was exhausted, -deprived of her most flourishing colonies, degraded in her own -eyes as well as in those of Europe. She had dragged Spain along -in her misfortune. England alone emerged triumphant and -aggrandized with booty. She had gained forever the Empire of -India, and for some years at least almost the whole of civilized -America obeyed her laws. She had gained what we had lost, not by -the superiority of her arms, nor even of her generals, but by the -natural and innate force of a free people skillfully and nobly -governed. - -The peace had been accepted by the nation as well as by the -Houses, but ill-will existed against Lord Bute, a Scotchman and -favorite, who was attacked on all sides, both in pamphlets and in -Parliament. More jealous of his influence with the royal family -than he was of power, Lord Bute resolved to resign. He had -written to one of his friends: "Isolated in a cabinet which I -have formed, having no one to support me in the House of Lords -but two peers, who are friends of mine, with my two secretaries -of state maintaining silence, and the Lord Chancellor, whom I -placed in his position, voting and speaking against me, I find -myself upon ground which is undermined beneath me, and which -makes me dread not only to fall myself, but to drag my royal -master with me in my fall. It is time that I should retire." -George Grenville succeeded him in power, and Fox passed to the -House of Lords with the title of Lord Holland. - -{263} - -A brother-in-law of Pitt, who had never submitted to his -domination, George Grenville was bold, presumptuous, and -short-sighted, violent in his methods and methodical in his -administration. The defects of his temper and character caused -serious embarrassments to the government which he directed, and -drew down great mishaps upon England. He pursued with obstinacy -John Wilkes, the pamphleteer, and proposed to apply the stamp tax -to the American colonies. - -John Wilkes, born in London in 1727, Member of Parliament for -Aylesbury, blustering, ruined, corrupt, hideous in personal -appearance, and given over to the most unbridled licentiousness -of life, had sought a means of re-establishing his fortunes by -founding a skillfully and audaciously edited journal, which he -called _The North Briton_. Lord Bute had already been -violently attacked by Wilkes, who was secretly encouraged, it is -said, by Lord Temple; but no prosecution had been directed -against him. In proroguing Parliament at the end of April, 1763, -the king congratulated himself on the happy termination of the -war; "so honorable," he said, "for my crown, and so happy for my -people." Wilkes' journal attacked the speech in his forty-fifth -number, dated April 23d. Eight days after, in spite of his -parliamentary privilege, Wilkes was arrested at his own house and -conducted to the Tower, where he remained some days in secret. In -passing under the gloomy gate, Wilkes ironically asked to be -lodged in the room which had formerly been occupied by the father -of Lord Egremont, one of the ministers who had signed the order -for his arrest. As soon as his friends received permission to -visit him, Lord Temple and the Duke of Grafton hastened to see -him. The public feeling overcame the dislike which the character -of the accused generally inspired, and transports of joy broke -out in the crowd when the Chief Justice, Sir Charles Pratt, -firmly pronounced his acquittal. "We are all of the opinion," he -said, "that a libel does not amount to a breach of the public -peace. The most that can be said is that it tends to it, without -being in consequence subject to the penalties of the law. I order -that Mr. Wilkes be released." - -{264} - -For seven years to come, under different phases--sometimes in -France, under pretext of obtaining cure for a wound received in a -duel; sometimes in London as candidate for the House of Commons; -outlawed by the Middlesex magistrates for his indecent pamphlets; -chosen by the city as one of its representatives--John Wilkes was -almost constantly before the public, sustained by the most -diverse partisans, honest or corrupt; absorbed in those public -liberties which they considered outraged in his person, or -sympathetically interested in the audacious impiety which bore -without blushing the banner of moral or political license. It was -the error and the fault of the government to have alienated -public opinion by imprudent prosecutions, thus assuring to Wilkes -a popularity in no way deserved. When at last he died, in 1797, -the venal and debauched pamphleteer had for a long time fallen -into the obscurity and contempt from which he should never have -emerged. - -The Stamp Act has left its date and its ineradicable trace on the -history of England, and of the world. Already for a long time -under the influence of the rapid development of their prosperity -and resources, the American colonies proudly defended their -privileges, resenting the offensive investigations of the revenue -officers, while admitting the right of the mother-country to that -monopoly of commerce which they succeeded in violating by an -active contraband trade. Submitting without trouble to the -external taxes intended to regulate the commerce, the Americans -claimed entire independence as regarded other duties. -{265} -In 1692 the General Court of Massachusetts resolved that no tax -could be imposed upon his Majesty's colonial subjects without the -consent of the governor, the council, and the representatives -assembled in General Court. It was this fundamental principle of -the liberties of Great Britain, as well as of her colonies--that -an English subject could not be taxed without his consent--that -was openly violated in 1765 by the proposition of Mr. George -Grenville. This financial expedient had been previously suggested -to Sir Robert Walpole, but he answered with his usual good sense, -"I have Old England already on my hands; do you suppose I wish to -encumber myself in addition with New England? He will be a bolder -minister than I who will assume that." - -Grenville was naturally bold, as Cardinal de Retz said of Anne of -Austria, because he was neither prudent nor far-sighted. He was -at once absolute and without tact. The extension to the colonies -of the stamp tax had been voted almost without opposition. Mr. -Pitt himself had not protested. Thoughtlessly, and in consequence -of the financial embarrassment brought on by the war, the English -government, without systematic scheme, and without _arrière -pensée_, had committed itself to a fatal line of policy in -which the national pride was to sustain it too long. The taxes -were light and could not entail any suffering on the colonists. -They were the first to recognize this themselves. "What is the -matter, and what are we disputing about?" said Washington in -1766. "Is it about the payment of a tax of threepence a pound on -tea being too burdensome? No, it is the principle alone which we -contest." - -{266} - -A general and speedily riotous protestation was made in 1765, in -New England, in the name of the rights of the colonies, unjustly -violated by the pretensions of the metropolis. At Boston the -people arose and broke into the house of the distributors of -stamped paper. The ships which happened to be in port lowered -their flags to half-mast, in token of mourning, and the church -bells sounded the funeral toll. At Philadelphia the inhabitants -spiked the cannons on the ramparts. At Williamsburg the House of -Burgesses of Virginia resounded with the most violent menaces, -and in the midst of the discussion of the Stamp Act, Patrick -Henry, who was still very young, uttered these words: "Caesar -found his Brutus, Charles I. his Cromwell, and George III. ... !" -"Treason! treason!" cried the royalists. "And George III. will -doubtless profit from their example," retorted the young orator. -The remonstrance which he had proposed was voted. - -The attitude of the American people and the numerous petitions -which revealed it had warned Pitt of the danger. He openly -attacked the cabinet and called for the repeal of the Stamp Act. -"The colonists," said he, "are subjects of this kingdom, entitled -equally with yourselves to the special privileges of Englishmen. -They are bound by English laws, and to the same extent as we. -They have a right to the liberties of this country. The Americans -are the sons, and not the bastards, of England. When we agree in -this House to the subsidies to his Majesty, we dispose of that -which belongs to ourselves; but when we impose a tax on the -Americans, what are we doing? We, the Commons of England, give -what to his Majesty? Our personal property? No. We give the -property of the Commons of America. It is a contradiction of -terms. I demand that the Stamp Act be repealed, absolutely, -completely, immediately; that the reason of the repeal shall be -proclaimed. -{267} -The principle on which the act was based was false. At the same -time let the supreme authority of this country over her colonies -be clearly affirmed in the most decided terms that can be -imagined. We can bind their commerce, restrain their -manufactures, and exercise our power under every form. We cannot, -we should not, take the money in their pockets without their -consent." - -The honor of obtaining from the English Parliament the repeal of -an unjust measure was reserved for a new and more moderate -minister. George Grenville, beaten and overthrown, remained -obstinately attached to the cause on which he had entered. "If -the tax were still to impose, I should impose it," said he; "the -enormous expenses that were caused by the German war have made it -necessary. The eloquence which the author of this proposal brings -to bear to-day against the constitutional authority of Parliament -renders it indispensable. I do not envy him his applause. I take -pride in your hisses. If the thing were still to do, I should -begin again." - -Twice already since George Grenville had taken the reins of -power, the king, soon wearied of his arrogant rule, had asked -Pitt to free him from it. The new reason for disagreement had -just increased the bitterness between George III. and his -minister. The monarch, suffering and ill, had felt the first -attacks of that malady which was at recurrent intervals to cloud -his faculties, and which at last plunged him into an insanity -that only ended with his life. Barely recovered, the young king, -with touching firmness and resignation, himself proposed to his -ministers the question of a regency. The Prince of Wales was not -yet three years old. The act prepared by George Grenville and his -colleagues excluded the princess dowager from the regency on the -ground that she was not of the royal family. -{268} -The hatred and jealousy inspired by Lord Bute, which always -operated strongly upon both mother and son, had suggested the -singular interpretation of the legal text. For a moment the king -agreed with a melancholy sweetness; but the insult offered his -mother soon wounded him, and he resolved to escape at last from -the tyranny which weighed upon him. Formerly he feared the junta -of the great Whig lords. It appeared to him less formidable than -George Grenville and the Duke of Bedford. The Duke of Cumberland, -in the king's name, visited Mr. Pitt, who was sick and detained -in the country. Pitt refused to assume the direction of affairs -without the assistance of Lord Temple. The latter was -particularly hostile to Lord Bute, and personally compromised in -relation to the king. George III. would not submit. Negotiations -resulted finally in the formation of a Whig cabinet, which was -really honest and dull. The Marquis of Rockingham was its chief. -It was in his service and as his private secretary that Edmund -Burke for the first time took part in public affairs and entered -Parliament. - -The only important act of Lord Rockingham's ministry was the -repeal of the Stamp Act, accompanied by a contradictory -declarative clause which proclaimed the right of Parliament to -bind by its decrees the colonies under any circumstances -whatever. This fruitful seed of new dissensions passed -unperceived in the first outburst of American joy and of the -triumph of the friends of liberty in England. Mr. Pitt was -already on the threshold of power. Lord Rockingham, involved with -a new party, which was known under the name of the king's -friends, saw his authority rendered powerless and his honest -intentions feebly fulfilled. -{269} -The king desired to get rid of the Whigs at any price, without -being obliged to submit again to George Grenville. Pitt once more -agreed to become prime minister, but to the great astonishment -and universal regret of his friends he abandoned at the same time -the supreme empire which he had exercised in the House of Commons -and entered the House of Lords with the title of Lord Chatham. - -The cabinet which the new earl had formed was composed of diverse -and contradictory elements. His powerful hand alone could -preserve unity. "Lord Chatham," said Burke, "has composed a -ministry so odd and hybrid, he has put together a checker-board -so curiously divided and combined, he has constructed so strange -a mosaic of patriots and conservatives, of the king's friends and -of republicans, of Whigs and Tories, of perfidious friends and -avowed enemies, that, strange as the sight may be, he is not sure -of where he can put down his foot, and is unable to keep it -there." - -Lord Chatham found this out himself. In spite of the haughtiness -of his character, he felt that the wind of popularity did not -bear him as in the past upon its powerful wings. He was sick, -defiant, and jealous of his colleagues, and ill at ease at the -bottom of his heart in the new atmosphere of the House of Lords. -He had conceived large projects for the reform of the -administration in India. He caused an investigation to be -proposed in the House of Commons, and the proposition came from -Alderman Beckford, who did not form part of the administration. -Soon after he withdrew to the country. Strange rumors spread -abroad as to his state of mind. Lady Chatham refused absolutely -to allow any of his colleagues to have access to him. -{270} -The discords within the cabinet increased, and the feebleness and -the hitches of the government became more striking. Charles -Townshend, a brilliant orator, witty and clever, had just died at -the age of forty-three. Intrigues multiplied in the Houses and at -court. The king renewed his entreaties to Lord Chatham. "I am -ready," said he, "to go find you, if it is impossible for you to -come to see me." Gout had again attacked the prime minister, -replacing, we are assured, a more cruel malady. Lord Chatham -finally consented to receive the Duke of Grafton. "I expected to -find him very sick," writes the duke in his memoirs, "but his -condition exceeded all that I had imagined. The sight of this -great intellect, overwhelmed and weakened by suffering, would -have profoundly affected me, even if I had not been for a long -time sincerely attached to his person and his character." As a -matter of fact and practically, the Duke of Grafton had become -prime minister many months before Lord Chatham finally resolved, -in October, 1768, to send in his resignation. Sir Charles Pratt, -now Lord Camden, and the honor of the bench as well from the -purity of his character as from his oratorical talent, still held -up the tottering ministry. The importance of Lord North, then -Chancellor of the Exchequer, continued to increase from day to -day. - -Melancholy is the spectacle of a great light which is going out, -and of a power once supreme losing its influence over men. Lord -Chatham had the good fortune to cast a final gleam before falling -forever. After two years of a mysterious retreat, he reappeared -in public life in 1769, and the Duke of Grafton's ministry could -not withstand his attacks. Lord North, still young, and without -high political ambition, of an amiable character, and personally -agreeable to the king, had just accepted the heavy burden of -power (January, 1770). -{271} -Lord Chatham pretended to see in this new combination that -persistent influence of Lord Bute which was a favorite theme for -the attacks of the pamphleteers, whether it was a question of -John Wilkes, or of that mysterious writer, still hidden after -more than a hundred years, under the name of Junius. "Who does -not know," he cried, "that Mazarin, though absent from France, -was always there; and do we not know an analogous case? When I -was recently called to public service, I hastened upon the wings -of my zeal. I agreed to preserve a peace which I detested--a -peace which I should not have made, but which I was resolved to -maintain because it had been made. I was credulous, I admit, but -I was taken in; I was deceived; the same mysterious influence -still existed. My cruel experience has at length painfully -convinced me that behind the throne there is hidden something -greater than the throne itself." - -The situation of affairs in America became each day more serious. -On his accession to office. Lord Chatham had consented to extract -a revenue from the colonies. A customs law had established taxes -upon tea, glass, and paper, creating a permanent administration -for collecting external imposts. The distinction which the -colonists had previously established was thus turned against -them, and they abandoned it forever. The time for legal fictions -was past. [Footnote 1] - - [Footnote 1: Cornelis de Witt's History of Washington.] - -{272} - -In truth there was already between the government of George III. -and the colonies something besides a constitutional and financial -question. The Americans were no longer simple subjects of the -metropolis, merely struggling against such an abuse of power or -such a violation of right. It was one people aroused against the -oppression of another people, whatever might be the form or the -name of that oppression. Still attached to the mother country by -the ties of a secular fidelity, and ardently refraining from all -aspirations towards independence, they were still dominated by a -supreme sentiment--love for the American country, for its -grandeur, its liberty, its force. "You are taught to believe that -the people of Massachusetts is a rebel people, uprisen for -independence," wrote Washington as late as the 9th of October, -1774. "Permit me to tell you, my good friend, that you are -deceived, grossly deceived. I can assure you, as a matter of -fact, that independence is neither the desire nor the interest of -that colony, nor of any other on the continent, separately or -collectively. But at the same time you may be sure that not one -of them will ever submit to the loss of those privileges, of -those precious rights which are essential to every free state, -and without which liberty, property, and life are deprived of all -security." - -America did not fall below her destiny. "From 1767 to 1774," says -Cornelis de Witt, in his history of Washington, "there were -formed everywhere patriotic leagues against the consumption of -English merchandise and the exportation of American products. All -exchange between the metropolis and the colonies ceased. In order -to drain the sources of England's riches in America, and to -constrain it to open its eyes to its folly, the colonists -recoiled before no privation and no sacrifice. Luxury had -disappeared. Rich and poor accepted ruin rather than abandon -their political rights." "I expect nothing more from the petitions -to the king," said Washington, already one of the firmest -champions of American liberties, "and I should oppose them if -they were to suspend the non-importation agreement. -{273} -As sure as I live, there is no alleviation to be expected for us -except from the distress of Great Britain. I think, or at least I -hope, that we retain sufficient public virtue to refuse -everything except the necessities of life in order to obtain -justice. That we have the right to do, and no power on earth can -force us to alter our conduct before it has reduced us to the -most abject slavery." ... And he added, with a stern sense of -justice, "As to the non-importation agreement, that is another -thing. I admit that I have my doubts as to its legitimacy. We owe -considerable sums to Great Britain. We can only pay them with our -products. In order to have the right to accuse others of -injustice we must be just ourselves; and how could we be so while -refusing Great Britain to pay our debts? That is beyond my -conception." - -All minds were not so firm, nor all souls so just as -Washington's. Resistance still continued legal, and the national -effort was still retained within the limits of respect. The -excitement became more lively every day, irritation more profound -and more passionate. Order still reigned in almost all the -colonies. Only at some principal places, and especially at -Boston, the popular enthusiasm offered a pretext to the violence -of George III. and his ministers. Jefferson himself, upon the eve -of the drafting of the Declaration of Independence, wrote to Mr. -Randolph, "Believe me, my dear sir, there is not a man in the -whole British Empire who cherishes the union with Great Britain -more heartily than I; but, by the God that made me, I should -cease to exist sooner than accept that union on the terms which -Parliament proposes. We lack neither motives nor power to declare -and sustain our separation. 'Tis the will alone that fails us, -and that increases little by little under the hand of our king." - -{274} - -When he was still Sir Charles Pratt, Lord Camden had once said, -in 1759, to Franklin, who was charged with the management of the -colonies' affairs in London, "In spite of all that you say of -your loyalty, you Americans, I know that one day you will sever -the bonds which unite you to us, and that you will raise the flag -of independence." "No such idea exists, and it will never enter -into the head of Americans," answered Franklin, "unless you -maltreat them very scandalously." "That is true, and it is -precisely one of the causes which I foresee, and which will bring -about the consummation." - -Lord Camden's prediction was sorrowfully fulfilled in England. -Faults succeeded faults. The measures of the metropolitan -government, whether indecisive or violent, increased the -excitement of the colonies. All the new imposts had been -abolished with the exception of the tax on tea, maintained from -pride and for the purpose of sustaining a principle without hope -of receiving from it a serious revenue. American resistance was -immediately concentrated on the importation of tea. At the end of -November, 1773, two vessels arrived from England and appeared -before Boston. They were laden with tea. Their captains received -orders to leave the harbor. They waited for a permit from the -governor. The populace boarded them, pillaged the ships, and -threw the chests of tea into the sea. George III. and his -ministers had not understood the nature of the movement which was -agitating America. They thought that they could chastise a riot -by new rigors. -{275} -The rights of the port of Boston were withdrawn, and the ancient -charter of Massachusetts was rescinded. "I will tell you what the -Americans have done," said Lord North; "they have maltreated the -officers and subjects of Great Britain; they have despoiled our -merchants, burnt our ships, refused all obedience to our laws and -our authority. We have used a long patience in respect to them. -It is time to adopt another line of conduct. Whatever may be the -consequences, we must resign ourselves to running some risks, -without which all is lost." - -It was in the name of the eternal principles of justice and of -liberty that Lord Chatham and his friends of the opposition -protested against the measures adopted with reference to the -colonies. "Liberty," said the great orator, passionately, -employing in the struggle the remnant of his failing strength; -"liberty is arrayed against liberty. They are indissolubly united -in this great cause. It is the alliance of God and nature, -immutable and eternal as the light in the firmament of heaven! -Beware! Foreign war hangs over your heads by a light and fragile -thread. Spain and France are watching your conduct, waiting the -result of your errors. Their eyes are turned upon America, and -they are more occupied with the disposal of your colonies than -with their own affairs, whatever they may be. I repeat to you, my -lords, if his Majesty's ministers persevere in their fatal -designs, I do not say that they can alienate from him the -affections of his subjects, but I affirm that they are destroying -the greatness of the crown. I do not say that the king is -betrayed; I say that the country is lost." - -{276} - -Young Charles Fox, second son of Lord Holland, who held an -inferior office in the administration, had embraced the cause of -the American colonies. Lord North wrote to him, on the 22d of -February, "Sir--His Majesty has judged it wise to revise the -Treasury Commission. I do not see your name there. [Signed] -NORTH." The opposition received him into its ranks with joy. He -had already given proof of the faults of his character and of the -licentiousness of his life, yet at the same time he had secured -the attachment of numerous and faithful friends, by his frank and -open good-nature and by the generosity and sweetness of his soul. -He had inspired in his adversaries a great admiration for his -oratorical ability and the inexhaustible fertility of his wit. -The young rival who was soon to dispute the pre-eminence with him -and to vanquish him had not yet appeared on the horizon, except -to sustain the feeble footsteps of his infirm father. The last -time that Lord Chatham appeared in Parliament he was supported on -the arm of the second William Pitt. Debates followed one another -in the English Houses of Parliament. The opposition and the -government exchanged proposals, which were conciliatory or -perfidious, liberal or arbitrary, sustained in turn by the most -eloquent voices. No measure, no speech, availed or could -henceforth avail, to calm the growing irritation of the colonies. -New England and Virginia, the sons of the Puritans and the -descendants of the Cavaliers, marched at the head of the national -movement, animated by the same spirit, however different were its -manifestations. It was from Virginia that the call to arms came. -Washington had said, with his usual moderation, "I do not pretend -to indicate exactly what line it will be necessary to draw -between Great Britain and the colonies, but I am decidedly of -opinion that it will be necessary to draw one and to secure our -rights definitively." Patrick Henry, less scrupulous and more -ardent, uttered the war-cry. "We must fight," said he loudly, at -the opening of the year 1775, at the session of the Virginia -Convention; "an appeal to the sword and the God of armies is all -that is left us." Already, in 1774, a general congress of all the -provinces had met at Philadelphia, announcing a new session for -the following year. Political resistance had henceforth found its -centre. The day of armed resistance had come. - -{277} - -It was time for action. On the 18th of April, 1775, in the night, -the choicest corps of the garrison of Boston went out of the -town, by order of General Gage, governor of Massachusetts. The -soldiers were as yet ignorant of their destination, but the "Sons -of Liberty" had divined it. The governor had caused the gates of -Boston to be shut. Some of the inhabitants, however, had found -means of escape. They had spread the alarm in the country, and -already the men were repairing to the posts designated -beforehand. As the royal troops, approaching from Lexington, were -confident of laying hands on two of the principal agitators, -Samuel Adams and John Hancock, they stumbled in the night against -a body of militia who guarded the way. The Americans remaining -immovable before the command to withdraw, the English soldiers, -led by their officers, fired. Some men fell. The war between -England and America was entered on. The same evening Colonel -Smith, in seeking to take possession of the supply depot formed -at Concord, saw himself successively attacked by detachments -hastily raised in all the villages. He retired in disorder, even -as far as the shelter of the cannon of Boston. Some days later -the town was besieged by an American army, and Congress, -assembled at Philadelphia, appointed Washington general-in-chief -of all the forces of the united colonies--"of all those which -have been or which shall be raised there, and of all others which -shall volunteer their services or shall join the army in order to -defend American liberty and repulse every attack directed against -her." - -{278} - -"There is a spectacle as fine as, and not less salutary than, -that of a virtuous man struggling with adversity: it is the -spectacle of a virtuous man at the head of a good cause and -assuring its triumph. God reserved this good fortune for George -Washington." [Footnote 2] - - [Footnote 2: M. Guizot, _Etude sur Washington_.] - - [Essay on the Character and Influence of Washington in the - Revolution of the United States of America; page 13; - http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60668] - -Born on the 22nd of February, on the banks of the Potomac, at -Bridge's Creek in Virginia, the new general belonged to a good -family of Virginia planters, descended from those country -gentlemen who had formerly caused the English revolution. He lost -his father at an early age, and was brought up by his mother, a -distinguished woman, for whom he always preserved as much -tenderness as respect. He had undergone in his youth a free and -rough life as a land-surveyor. At the age of nineteen, during -the war in Canada, he had taken his place in the militia of his -country, and we have seen him fighting brilliantly by the side of -General Braddock. When the war ended, his haughty discontent -concerning a question of military rank brought him home again. -His eldest brother was dead, and had left him the Mount Vernon -estate. He settled there, became a great agriculturist and -sportsman, was loved and esteemed of everybody, and was already -the object of the confidence as well as the hopes of his -fellow-citizens. - -{279} - -"Capable of raising himself to the highest destinies, he had been -able to ignore himself without suffering from it, and to find in -the cultivation of his land the satisfaction of those powerful -faculties which were sufficient for the command of armies and the -founding of a government. But when the occasion offered, when the -necessity arrived, without effort on his part, without surprise -on the part of others, the wise planter was a great man. He had -in a high degree the two qualities which, in active life, render -a man capable of great things. He knew how to believe firmly in -his own idea, and to act resolutely -according to what he thought, without fearing the -responsibility of his action." [Footnote 3] - - [Footnote 3: M Guizot, _Etude sur Washington_.] - - [Essay on the Character and Influence of Washington in the - Revolution of the United States of America; page 60; - http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60668] - -He was moved and disquieted, however, at the beginning of the -struggle, the burden of which was going to weigh on his -shoulders. He did not unhesitatingly accept the choice of -Congress. He did not delude himself either in his own regard, or -in relation to his country, and the resources which were at his -disposal. "I know my unfortunate position," wrote he to one of -his friends. "I know that much is expected of me; I know that, -without troops, without arms, without supplies, without anything -that a soldier needs, almost nothing can be done; and what is -very mortifying, I know that I can only justify myself in the -eyes of the world by declaring my needs, by disclosing my -weakness, and by doing wrong to the cause which we serve. I am -determined not to do it!" Washington had resolutely accepted the -bitterness of power in the heart of a revolution. "Among great -men, if there have been those who have shone with more dazzling -splendor," said M. Guizot, "no one has been put to a more -complete proof--that of resisting in war and in government, in -the name of liberty and in the name of authority, king and -people, of commencing a revolution and of finishing it." - -{280} - -When the new general arrived before Boston in order to take -command of the confused and undisciplined masses which crowded -into the American camp, he learned that an engagement had taken -place on the 16th of June, on the height of Bunker's Hill, which -overlooked the town. The Americans had seized the positions, and -had so bravely defended themselves there that the English had -lost more than a thousand men before removing their batteries. -Some months later, Washington was master of all the surroundings, -and General Howe, who had replaced General Gage, was obliged to -evacuate Boston (17th of March, 1776). - -On the day after the battle of Bunker's Hill, and as a last -effort of fidelity towards the metropolis. Congress had voted -(July 1, 1775) a second petition to the king, which was called -the Olive Branch, and which Richard Penn was charged with -conveying to England. A numerous and considerable faction in the -American assemblies were strongly in favor of loyal union with -the mother-country. "Gentlemen," Mr. Dickinson, deputy from -Pennsylvania, had recently said, "in the reading of the project -of a solemn declaration, justifying the taking up of arms, there -is only a single word of which I disapprove, and it is that of -_Congress_." "And for my part, Mr. President," said Mr. -Harrison, rising, "there is in this paper only a single word of -which I approve, and it is the word _Congress_." - -{281} - -The petition of the thirteen united colonies received no answer. -At the opening of the session on the 25th of October, 1775, the -king's speech was clearly menacing. The Duke of Grafton had -tendered his resignation as keeper of the privy seal. "I ventured -to communicate our apprehensions to the king," wrote he in his -_Memoirs_. "I added that the ministers, themselves in error, -were drawing his Majesty into it. The king deigned to expatiate -on his projects, and informed me that a numerous body of German -troops was going to be united to our forces. He appeared -astonished when I replied that his Majesty would perceive too -late that the doubling of these troops would only increase the -humiliation without attaining the proposed end." Lord George -Sackville, who had become Lord George Germaine, had been charged -with the direction of American affairs. He was haughty and -violent. Public sentiment, strongly excited by the taking up of -arms by the Americans, began to express itself in addresses and -loyal declarations. George III., his ministers and his people -marched together against the rebellion of the colonies. Alone and -for various reasons the Whig opposition in Parliament struggled -against the rising tide of national irritation. The Prohibition -bill had just been voted, interdicting all commerce with the -thirteen revolted colonies, and authorizing the capture of -vessels or merchandise which belonged to Americans, and should -become the property of the conquerors. The arguments were as -violent as the measures. The chancellor, Lord Mansfield, -distinguished among all the judges, recalled the sentence of the -great Gustavus to his troops during the German campaign: "My -boys, you see those men down there: if you do not kill them, they -will kill you." - -The resolution was taken in America as well as in England. "If -every one was of my opinion," wrote Washington in the month of -February, 1775, "the English ministers would learn in a few words -to what we wish to come. I would proclaim simply and without -circumlocution our grievances and our resolve to obtain their -redress. -{282} -I would tell them that we have long and ardently desired an -honorable reconciliation, and that it has been refused us. I -would add that we have comported ourselves as faithful subjects, -that the spirit of liberty is too powerful in our hearts to -permit us ever to submit to slavery, and that we are firmly -decided to break every bond with an unjust and unnatural -government, if our serfdom alone can satisfy a tyrant and his -devilish ministry; and I would say all that to them in no covert -terms, but with expressions as clear as the sun's light at full -noon." - -The hour of independence was at last come. Already as a -termination of their proclamations, instead of "God save the -King!" the Virginians had adopted this proudly significant -phrase, "God save the liberties of America!" Congress resolved to -give its true name to the war against the metropolis, sustained -for three years by the colonies. After a discussion which lasted -for three days, the proposition drawn up by Jefferson for the -Declaration of Independence was adopted with -unanimity--"unanimity unfortunately slightly factitious." -[Footnote 4] - - [Footnote 4: Cornelis de Witt, History of Washington.] - -To the solemn preamble affirming the eternal rights of peoples to -liberty as well as justice, followed an enumeration of the -grievances which had forever alienated from the sovereign of -Great Britain the obedience of his American subjects. "We, -therefore, the representatives of the United States of America -assembled in general congress, invoking the Supreme Judge to -witness the rectitude of our intentions, do solemnly publish and -declare in the name of the good people of these colonies that the -united colonies are and have a right to be free and independent -states, that they are disburdened of all allegiance to the crown -of Great Britain, and that every political bond between them and -Great Britain is and ought to be entirely dissolved. ... Full of -a firm confidence in the protection of Divine Providence, we -mutually devote to the maintenance of this Declaration our lives, -our fortunes, and our most sacred possession, our honor." - -{283} - -In America the solemn Declaration of Independence did not cause a -lively emotion; the lot had been cast for the Americans since the -day when they had taken up arms. At the opening of Parliament on -the 31st of October, King George III., while deploring the -decisive act by which the rebels had broken all the bonds which -attached them to the mother-country, and rejected attempts at -conciliation, ended his appeal to the fidelity of the nation with -these words: "A single and great advantage will flow from the -frank declaration of their intentions by the rebels; we shall be -henceforth united at home, and all will understand the justice -and necessity of our measure. I have not, and I cannot have, in -this cruel struggle, any other desire than the true interest of -all my subjects. Never has a people enjoyed a good fortune more -complete or a government more lenient than have the revolted -provinces. Their progress in all the arts of which they are -proud, give them sufficient proof of it; their number, their -wealth, their strength on land and sea, which they deem -sufficient to resist all the power of the mother-country, are the -unexceptionable proof of it. I have no other object than to deal -them the benefits of the law in the liberty which all English -subjects equally enjoy, and which they have fatally exchanged for -the calamities of war and the arbitrary tyranny of their chiefs." - -{284} - -The calamities of war indeed were weighing on the United States -of America. The attempt against Canada directed by Arnold had -completely failed; oftentimes during the rough campaign of 1776 -Washington had believed the cause lost. He had seen himself under -the necessity of abandoning positions of which he was master, in -order to fall back on Philadelphia. "What would you do if -Philadelphia were taken?" he was asked. "We should retreat beyond -the Susquehanna River; then, if necessary, beyond the Alleghany -Mountains," replied the general, without hesitation. By an -unhoped-for good luck for the future destinies of America, -General Howe, in spite of the reinforcements constantly arriving -from Europe, allowed the war to spin out, relying on time and the -rigors of the season to weary the courage of the rebel troops. He -had deceived himself as to the efficacy of the national feeling, -still more as to the hardihood and indomitable perseverance of -the general. At the end of the campaign, Washington, suddenly -assuming the offensive, had in succession beaten the royal troops -at Trenton and at Princeton. This brilliant action had reinstated -the affairs of Americans, and prepared the formation of a new -army. On the 30th of December, 1776, Washington was invested by -Congress with the full powers of a dictator. He had claimed them -for a long time, with that modest and proud authority which -looked simply to the patriotic end without heed of popular -clamors. "If the short time left us in which to prepare and -execute important measures," he had written to the President of -Congress, "is employed in consulting Congress about their -opportunity, so evident to all; if we wait until it has caused -its decisions to reach us at a distance of a hundred and forty -miles, we will lose precious time and we will fail of our end. It -may be objected that I claim powers which it is dangerous to -confer; but for desperate evils extreme remedies are necessary. -No one, I am convinced, has ever encountered so many obstacles in -his way as I." - -{285} - -America began to feel the need of external support in the -terrible struggle she had just engaged in. Already agents had -been sent to France to sound the intentions of the government in -relation to the revolted colonies. M. de Vergennes leaned toward -secret aid. M. Turgot advised the most strict neutrality. "Leave -to the insurgents," said he, "full liberty to make their -purchases in our ports, and to procure by means of commerce the -supplies, even the money of which they have need. To furnish them -secretly with these would be difficult of concealment, and this -step would excite just complaint on the part of the English." The -Minister of Foreign Affairs, under the influence of the Duke de -Choiseul, had for a long time founded great hopes on the -dissensions which should burst forth between England and her -colonies. Faithful to tradition, the first clerk, M. de Ragneval, -presented a remarkable memorandum which precluded hesitation. One -million, speedily followed by other aid, was poured for the -Americans into the hands of Beaumarchais, who was ardently -engaged in the cause of American independence, in the service of -which he had then put forth all the resources of the most fertile -and busy mind. "I would never have been able to fulfill my -mission here without the indefatigable, intelligent, and generous -efforts of M. de Beaumarchais," wrote Silas Deane to the secret -committee, whose agent he was. "The United States are more -indebted to him in every respect than to any other person on this -side of the ocean." - -{286} - -Franklin had come to join Silas Deane. Already well known in -Europe, where he had fulfilled several missions, his great -scientific reputation and his clever and wise devotion to his -country's cause had prepared the way to a worldly success which -the skillful negotiator was well able to make subserve the -success of his enterprise. Soon the French government began to -remit money directly to the agents of the United States. -Everything tended to a recognition of their independence. In -spite of the king's formal prohibition, numerous French -volunteers set out to serve the cause of liberty in America. The -most distinguished of all, M. de la Fayette, arrested by order of -the court, had evaded the surveillance of his guards, leaving his -young wife, who was on the point of her confinement, in order to -embark on a ship which he had secretly purchased. He landed in -America in the month of July, 1777. - -England was irritated and uneasy. Lord Chatham, quite recently -sick and almost dying, more implacable than ever in pursuing -everywhere the influence and intervention of France, exclaimed, -with the customary exaggeration of his powerful and passionate -talent, "Yesterday England could yet resist the world; to-day no -one is insignificant enough to show his respect for her. I borrow -the words of the poet, my lords, but what his lines express is no -fiction. France has insulted you: she has encouraged and -sustained America; and whether America be in the right or not, -the dignity of this nation demands that we repulse with disdain -the officious intervention of France. The ministers and -ambassadors of those whom we call rebels and enemies are received -at Paris; they treat there of the reciprocal interests of France -and America. Their natives are sustained there, and supplied with -military resources, and our ministers allow it and do not -protest. Is this sustaining the honor of a great kingdom, which -formerly imposed law on the House of Bourbon?" - - -[Image] -Franklin. - - -{287} - -The manifest favor of France had forever enrolled Lord Chatham -among the opponents of the recognition of American independence. -He carried to the House a proposal to cease hostilities and enter -upon a negotiation with the revolted colonies, under one sole -condition, that of submission to the mother-country. In the -violent discussion raised on this subject, Lord Suffolk desired -to defend the cruel practices of the Indian savages who were -tolerated in the service of Great Britain. Lord Chatham rose in -his place, forgetting that he had lately accepted the same -auxiliaries during the war against the French in Canada. "My -lords," he exclaimed, "have we heard aright? Men, Christians, -profane the royal majesty at the very side of the throne. God and -nature have placed these arms in our hands, you are told. I do -not know what ideas may be conceived of God and of nature, but I -know that these abominable principles are equally contrary to -religion and to humanity. What! shall the sanction of God and of -nature be attributed to the cruelties of the Indian -scalping-knife, to cannibal savages who torture, massacre, -devour--yes, my lords, who devour the mutilated victims of their -barbarous combats? And on whom have you let loose these infidel -savages? On your brothers in faith, in order to devastate their -country, in order to desolate their dwellings, in order to -extirpate their race and their name!" - -{288} - -The proposals of Lord Chatham were rejected, but the situation -had already changed. Shortly after the arrival of M. de la -Fayette in America, the battle of Brandywine, in which he had -taken part as major-general, had been disastrous to the -Americans; the young volunteer had been wounded. At Germantown -fate had been equally against the colonists, and they had been -forced to evacuate Philadelphia, the aim of General Howe's -operations. They had fallen back on Valley Forge. General -Washington had cleverly established his camp there for the -winter. Nevertheless, successes at other points counterbalanced -and even outweighed the reverses. On the frontiers of Canada the -English general Burgoyne, obstinate and presumptuous, had been -defeated by General Gates. Being deceived in his hope of being -succored by Howe or by Clinton, who was commanding at New York, -he was left to be surrounded by the English troops. Deprived of -provisions and supplies, without resources and without means of -communication, Burgoyne, at the end of his strength, was, after -an heroic resistance, forced to lay down arms and capitulate at -Saratoga, on the 17th of October, 1777. He obtained honorable -conditions, but the soldiers, while free to return to Europe, -were bound not to serve any more against America. Gates was an -Englishman; he did not wish to witness the humiliation of his -countrymen, and he did not assist at the defile of General -Burgoyne's troops. For the first time on American territory, -European arms were given up. The echo was immense in Europe, and -seconded Franklin's efforts at Paris. On the 6th of February, -1778, France officially recognized the independence of the United -States; a treaty of alliance was concluded with the new power, -which thus took rank among nations. Two months later, on the 13th -of April, a French squadron, under the command of Count -d'Estaing, set sail towards America, and soon hostilities were -being carried on in the British Channel between the French and -English ships, without declaration of war, owing to the natural -pressure of circumstances and the state of feeling in the two -countries. - -{289} - -At the very moment when France was according to the American -revolt that support which she had secretly afforded it for more -than two years, Lord North, forcing the hand of King George III., -proposed two bills to Parliament, by which England renounced the -right to levy taxes in the American colonies and recognized the -legal existence of Congress. Three commissioners were to be sent -to the United States to treat concerning the conditions of peace. -"The humiliation and sorrow were great and were legible on all -countenances," said an ocular witness; "no one gave any sign of -approbation, and silence succeeded the minister's speech." The -propositions were, however, voted without serious opposition. -Necessity pressed upon all spirits with sad bitterness. - -Public sentiment in England, as well as in Parliament, blamed the -weakness of the government. Lord North felt it, and on the 14th -of March, 1778, on the receipt of the French letter ironically -assuring King George III. of the continuation of Louis XVI.'s -peaceful intentions, the minister had advised the king to recall -his ambassador from Paris and to form a new cabinet at home. It -was with profound repugnance that the monarch consented to make -advances to Lord Chatham; the demands of the great orator were so -haughty that the negotiations remained suspended. The king made a -last appeal to Lord North. "Will you abandon me in the moment of -danger, like the Duke of Grafton?" he asked. The Duke of Richmond -had just made a proposition for the recall of the troops fighting -on land and sea in America (7th April, 1778). -{290} -He relied on the support of Lord Chatham, but anti-French passion -in this unbalanced and proud soul surmounted all abstract -considerations of right and justice. He had formerly said, "You -will never conquer America. Your efforts will continue vain and -powerless. If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, so long -as foreign forces marched against my country, I would never lay -down my arms--never! never!" The intervention of France in the -struggle had modified the views of the great minister who had so -long followed her with his hatred. He desired her, above all -things, to be humiliated and conquered. The recognition of -American independence became impossible, encouraged as it was by -the House of Bourbon. The Earl had himself carried to -Westminster, supported on one side by his son William, on the -other by his son-in-law, Lord Mahon. He was nothing more than the -shadow of himself--pale, emaciated, and with difficulty drawn -from his bed of suffering. He rose slowly, supported by his -crutch and leaning heavily on his son's shoulder. His voice was -hollow and failing, his words broken. The transient gleams of his -genius alone animated the supreme effort. "I thank God," said he, -"that I have been enabled to come here to-day to accomplish a -duty and to say what has heavily weighed upon my heart. I have -already one foot in the grave: I am going there soon. I have left -my bed to sustain in this House the cause of my country, perhaps -for the last time. I congratulate myself, my lords, that the -grave has not yet closed over me, and that I yet live to raise my -voice against the dismemberment of this ancient and noble -monarchy. My lords, his Majesty has succeeded to an empire as -vast in its extent as it is illustrious in its reputation. Shall -we tarnish its lustre by the shameful abandonment of its rights -and of its finest possessions? Shall the great kingdom which has -survived in its entirety the descents by the Danes, the -incursions of the Scots, the conquest of the Normans, which has -stood firm before the threatened invasion of the Spanish army, -fall to-day before the House of Bourbon? Truly, my lords, we are -greater than we were. If it be absolutely necessary to choose -between peace and war, if peace cannot be preserved with honor, -why not declare war without hesitation? My lords, everything is -better than despair; let us at least make an effort. If we are to -yield, let us yield like men." - - - -[Image] -The Last Speech Of The Earl Of Chatham. - -{291} - -He let himself fall back on his seat exhausted and fainting. Soon -he tried to rise in order to answer the Duke of Richmond; his -strength failed him; for the last time the wavering flame of this -great torch had flung out its brilliancy. A weakness seized him. -The House, silent and anxious, surrounded him. They carried out -the great orator, the illustrious adversary of France who had -lately conquered her, and who was about to succumb while yet -following her "with his sad and inflexible looks." [Footnote 5] - - [Footnote 5: Bossuet, _Sur le Cardinal de Retz_.] - -Some days later he breathed his last in his country house at -Hayes, encompassed by national regret and respect, and soon -afterwards was buried at the expense of the state in Westminster -Abbey. He was to await his son there only twenty-seven -years--that son who was the enthusiastic witness of his glory, -the emulator of his eloquence and political virtues; who was -greater than he in the governance of his country, and who sleeps -at his feet without other monument than a simple name, "William -Pitt," without other epitaph than the funeral oration which his -father, with outstretched arm, seems constantly to pronounce over -his tomb. - -{292} - -The proposals of the Duke of Richmond had been rejected, but Lord -North's bills had excited great uneasiness in Washington's mind. -He knew better than any one else at what price the war had been -hitherto sustained; he dreaded for his country those concessions -which had no effect upon his own soul. He wrote immediately to -his friends, "Accept nothing that is not independence. We can -never forget the outrages which Great Britain has made us suffer; -a peace on other conditions would be a source of perpetual -broils. If Great Britain, impelled by her love of tyranny, sought -anew to bend our foreheads beneath the yoke of iron--and she -would do it, be certain, for her pride and ambition are -indomitable--what nation would hereafter believe in our -professions of faith and lend us her aid? It is now to be feared -that the proposals of England may have great effect in this -country. Men are naturally friendly to peace; and more than one -symptom leads me to believe that the American people are -generally tired of war. If it is so, nothing is more politic than -to inspire confidence in the country by putting the army on an -imposing footing, and giving a greater activity to our -negotiations with the European powers. I believe that at the -present hour France ought to have recognized our independence, -and that she is going to declare war immediately on Great -Britain." - -From natural taste and from English instinct, Washington did not -care for France and had no confidence in her. M. de la Fayette -alone had been able to make conquest of his affection and esteem. -He raised himself, however, above his peculiar inclinations, and -felt the need of an efficient alliance with the great continental -powers which were enemies or rivals of England. -{293} -Congress had just declined all negotiation with Great Britain as -long as an English soldier remained on American soil. On all seas -the English and French fleets obstinately engaged each other. In -the naval combat in sight of Ouessant, on the 27th of July, 1778, -success remained doubtful. The English were accustomed to be the -conquerors, and Admiral Keppel was put on trial. The merchant -shipping of France, however, suffered great loss. On all sides -English vessels covered the sea. - -Franklin had recently said, with penetrating foresight, "It is -not General Howe who has taken Philadelphia; it is Philadelphia -which has taken General Howe." The necessity of guarding this -important place had obstructed the operations of the English. -Upon the news of the alliance of France with the United States -and of the departure of Count d'Estaing's squadron, orders had -been given to evacuate the place and to fall back on New York. -Howe had been actively pursued by Washington, who had gained a -serious advantage over him at Monmouth. The victory would have -been decisive but for a jealous disobedience on the part of -General Lee. Sir Henry Clinton had taken the chief command of the -English army, being more active than his predecessor, while -himself insufficient to struggle against Washington. "I do not -know whether they cause fear to the enemy," said Lord North, -ironically; "what I do know is that they make me tremble whenever -I think of them." Washington established his camp thirty miles -from New York. "After two years of marches and countermarches," -he exclaimed; "after vicissitudes so strange that no war, -perhaps, has ever presented their like since the commencement of -the world, what a subject of satisfaction and astonishment it is -for us to see the two armies returned to their starting-point and -the assailants reduced, in order to their defence, to recur to -shovel and pickaxe." - -{294} - -An expedition contrived by General Sullivan against Rhode Island, -which was still occupied by an English corps, had just failed, by -reason of a clever manœuvre of Admiral Howe. The weather was bad, -and the French admiral put into Boston to repair his damages. The -cry of treason was forthwith raised; a riot greeted the Count -d'Estaing: all the violence of the democratic and revolutionary -spirit seemed let loose against the allies, who had lately been -hailed with such warmth. The efforts of Washington, seconded by -the Marquis de la Fayette, were employed to re-establish harmony. -Borne away by an ill-considered reaction, Congress conceived the -idea of attempting, in conjunction with France, a great -expedition on Canada. Washington, being tardily consulted, -refused his assent; he preserved, in respect of French policy, a -prudent mistrust. "Shall we allow," wrote he to the president of -Congress, "shall we allow a considerable body of French troops to -enter Canada and to take possession of the capital of a province -which is attached to France by all the ties of blood, manners, -and religion? I fear that this would be to expose that power to a -temptation too strong for every government directed by ordinary -political maxims. ... I believe I can read on the faces of some -persons something besides the disinterested zeal of simple -allies: I am willfully deceiving myself; perhaps I am too much -given over to the fear of some misfortune; but above everything, -sir, and putting aside every other consideration, I am averse to -increasing the number of our national obligations." - -{295} - -The project against Canada was tacitly abandoned. The Marquis de -la Fayette set out for France, ever ardently attached to the -American cause, which he was soon to serve efficaciously in -Paris, with the government of Louis XVI. - -The English had just made a descent on Georgia, had taken -possession of Savannah, and were threatening the Carolinas as -well as Virginia. The Count d'Estaing was fighting in the -Antilles, and had seized St. Vincent and Grenada. The Marquis de -Bouillé, Governor of the Windward Islands, had taken Dominique. -The English had deprived us of St. Pierre and Miquelon. The -French admiral, who had just been recalled, wished to venture a -final effort in favor of the Americans. He laid siege to -Savannah, and was repulsed after a desperate struggle. The only -advantage of the expedition was the deliverance of Rhode Island. -Sir Henry Clinton, fearing a surprise on New York, had called -back the garrison. Washington had just gained Stony Point, which -secured the navigation of the Hudson to the Americans. Spain had -at last consented to take part in the war by virtue of the Family -Compact, and in order to lend aid to France. Faithful to the -monarchical traditions of his house and of his nation, Charles -III. had refused to recognize the independence of the United -States, or to ally himself with them. - -England's situation was becoming grave, and she was inwardly and -profoundly uneasy concerning it. The government was weak and -unequal to the burden of a struggle which became each day more -obstinate; formidable petitions, sustained by the most eloquent -voices--by Fox as well as by Burke--demanded an economic reform, -necessitated by the ever-increasing expenses of the war. Sudden -riots excited in the name of the Protestant religion, which was -said to be menaced all at once, stained England and Scotland with -blood. -{296} -In the preceding year a law intended to free the Catholics from -some legal disabilities was passed in the Houses almost without -opposition. That just measure had excited a certain feeling among -the masses. Lord George Gordon, a sincere fanatic whose religious -passions disturbed his judgment, had headed a network of -Protestants which signed petitions against the modifications -effected in the penal laws against Catholics. On the 2d of June, -1780, an immense crowd, assembled at St George's Fields for the -presentation of the petition, was moved to the most violent -outrages against the peers suspected of being favorable to the -Papists. Lord Mansfield entered the House of Lords with his coat -torn and his wig in disorder; the Bishop of Lincoln with -difficulty saved his life. Soon the tumult spread over the entire -town: particular houses were attacked and pillaged; the bank was -assailed; moral terror reigned throughout all England, menaced -from within and from without, trembling at the idea of a French -and Spanish invasion, and incessantly agitated by the howls of a -furious populace--"No Popery!" It was a sad and ominous -spectacle. "Sixty-six allied ships of line plowed the British -Channel; fifty thousand men, assembled in Normandy, were -preparing to pounce upon the midland counties. A simple American -corsair, Paul Jones, was ravaging the Scotch coasts with -impunity. The northern powers, united in Russia and Holland, -threatened, arms in hand, to sustain the rights of the neutrals -disregarded by the English admiralty courts. Ireland was only -waiting a signal to rise; religious strife tore England and -Scotland. The authority of Lord North's cabinet was shaken in -Parliament as well as in the country. Popular passions carried -the day in London, and this great city could be seen for nearly -eight days given over to the populace, whose excesses nothing but -its own weakness and shame was able to oppose." [Footnote 6] - - [Footnote 6: Cornelis de Witt, History of Washington.] - -{297} - -The firmness of the king at length suppressed the riot: -twenty-three culprits expiated their crimes with their lives. -After long delays, the fruit of legal chicanery, Lord George -Gordon was finally acquitted as not having been previously -informed of the seditious projects. He pursued unshackled the -course of his follies, and towards the end of his life embraced -Judaism. The English Parliament had, however, the courage and -honor to proudly maintain the principles of religious toleration, -so brutally assailed by popular violence. Burke as well as Lord -North had defended the bill of 1778. "I am the partisan of -universal toleration," exclaimed Fox, "and the foe of that -narrow-sightedness which brings so many people to Parliament, not -that they may be freed from a burden which overwhelms them, but -to entreat the Houses to chain and throttle their -fellow-countrymen." - -The imposing preparations of the allied powers against England -had not effected other results than the Protestant riots fomented -by Lord George Gordon. The two French and Spanish fleets had, -from the month of August, 1779, effected a junction off the -_Corogne;_ they slowly re-entered the channel on the 31st of -August. When near the Sorlingue Islands the English fleet, only -thirty-seven strong, was caught sight of. The Count de Guichen, -who commanded the advance guard, was already manœuvreing with the -intention of cutting off the enemy's retreat. Admiral Hardy was -too quick for him, and took refuge in the port of Plymouth. Some -partial engagements took place; that of the _Surveillante_ -with the _Quebec_ was glorious for the Chevalier du Couëdic, -who commanded her, but without other result than this honor for -the Breton sailor of having alone signalized his name in the -great array of the maritime forces of France and Spain. -{298} -After a hundred and four days of useless traversing of the -British Channel, the immense fleet sadly returned to Brest and -speedily dispersed. Admiral d'Orvilliers, who had lost his son in -a skirmish, took to a religious life. The Count de Guichen upheld -the honor of the French flag in a frequently successful series of -battles against Admiral Rodney. The latter, crippled with debts, -was detained at Paris, without being able to go back to England. -"If I was free," said he one day before Marshal Biron, "I would -soon have destroyed all the French and Spanish fleets." The -marshal immediately paid his debts: "Go, sir," said he, with a -boastful generosity to which the eighteenth century was a little -subject; "the French wish to gain advantage over their enemies -only by their bravery!" The first exploit of Rodney was to beat -Admiral Zangara, near Cape St. Vincent, and to revictual -Gibraltar, which the allied forces blockaded by land and sea. - -However, the campaign of 1779 had been insignificant in America. -The state of feeling there was humiliating and sad; Congress had -lost its authority while decreasing in public esteem; moral -strength appeared weakened; the great springs of national action -were slackened in the heart of a war always hanging and dubious; -a violent reaction led people's minds to indifference and their -hearts towards light pleasures. Washington himself felt his -influence growing less along with with the heroic resolution of -his fellow-citizens. -{299} -"God alone can know what will result to us from the extravagance -of parties and the general laxity of public virtue," wrote he. -"If I were to paint the time and men from what I see and what I -know, I would say that they are invaded by sloth, dissipation, -and debauchery; that speculation, peculation, and an insatiable -thirst for wealth rule all the thoughts of all classes; that -party disputes and private quarrels are the great matter of the -day, while the interests of an empire, a heavy and ever -increasing debt, the ruin of our finances, the depreciation of -our paper-money, the lack of credit, all vital questions in fine, -scarcely attract attention, and are set aside from day to day as -if our affairs were in the most prosperous condition." - -In a military sense as well as in a political, the affairs of -America were drooping in sorrowful alternations. Sir Henry -Clinton had known how to profit by the internal dissensions of -the Union; he had rallied round him the royalists in Georgia and -the Carolinas; the civil war reigned there in all its horrors, -precursors and pledges of more cruel rancors yet which our days -were to witness. General Lincoln had just been forced to -capitulate at Charleston. Washington, all the time encamped -before New York, beheld his army decimated by hunger and cold, -without pay, without provisions, without shoes, obliged to live -by despoiling the surrounding population. Discouragement was -overtaking the firmest hearts, when, in the month of April, 1780, -the Marquis de la Fayette landed anew in America. He brought the -news that a French army corps was preparing to embark in order to -sustain the failing strength of the Americans. By a prudent -prevision of the disputes which might arise from questions of -rank or nationality, the Count dc Rochambeau, who commanded the -French, was to be placed under the orders of General Washington, -and the auxiliary corps entirely put at his disposal. -{300} -The enthusiasm of M. de la Fayette for the cause of American -liberty had gained over the French court and people. He had borne -upon the government of King Louis XVI., which was as yet -uncertain and naturally preoccupied with the difficulties and -growing expenses which the war was imposing on France. The -national ardor and the rash generosity common to our character -had prevailed. The campaign of 1780 was tardy and without great -results, but the year 1781 was going to be decisive in the annals -of the War of Independence. France was to take a glorious part in -it. Washington had just suffered a serious vexation and a sad -disappointment. In spite of the glaring vices of General Arnold, -and of the faults which were repugnant to the austerity of -character of the general-in-chief, his signal bravery and -military talents had maintained him in the foremost rank among -Washington's lieutenants. Accused of malversations, and lately -condemned by a council of war to suffer a severe reprimand, -Arnold was yet in command of the fort at West Point, the key to -the upper part of the State of New York. He had taken possession -of it in the month of August, 1780, under the pretext of the rest -which his wounds entailed; but he had already made overtures to -Sir Henry Clinton. "I am quite ready to yield myself," he had -said, "in the way which can be most useful to the arms of his -Majesty." The English general charged a young officer of staff to -carry the acceptance of his final instructions to the perfidious -general of the Union. Major André was arrested as a spy. Arnold -learned of it and had time to escape, leaving behind him his -young wife and his new-born infant. Washington was returning from -an interview with Count de Rochambeau and had given a -_rendezvous_ to Arnold. -{301} -The latter was not at the appointed place. He had been, it was -said, called back to West Point. The general repaired thither. -While he was crossing the river, contemplating the majesty of -nature which surrounded him, he turned towards his officers. "At -bottom," he said, "I am not vexed that Arnold should have -preceded us; he will salute me, and the boom of the cannon will -have a fine effect in the mountains." They landed, but the fort -remained silent. Arnold had not appeared there for several days. -Displeased but unsuspicious, Washington was beginning an -inspection of the place when Colonel Hamilton brought him some -important dispatches which had followed him. It was the news of -the arrest of Major André and of the perfidy of Arnold. Always -master of himself, the general did not betray his emotion by a -change of countenance; only, turning to the Marquis de la -Fayette, who was informed of the facts by Hamilton, "On whom can -we depend now?" said he sadly. - -The culprit was beyond reach; his ignorant and innocent wife had -been seized by a despair which resembled madness. Major André was -tried as a spy and condemned to suffer the fate of one. He was -young, honest, and brave, brought up to another career, and -driven into the army by a love disappointment. His tastes were -elegant, his mind cultivated; he had not foreseen to what dangers -his mission and the disguise that he had assumed, against the -advice of Sir Henry Clinton, exposed him. "My mind is perfectly -tranquil," he however wrote to his general when he was arrested, -"and I am ready to suffer all that my faithful devotion to the -king's cause can draw down on my head." - -{302} - -One thing alone troubled Major André's peace of mind. He dreaded -the ignominy of the gibbet, and wished to die as a soldier. -"Sir," wrote he to Washington, "sustained against the fear of -death by the feeling that no unworthy action has sullied a life -consecrated to honor, I am confident that in this supreme hour -your Excellency will not refuse a prayer the granting of which -can sweeten my last moments. In sympathy for a soldier, your -Excellency will consent, I am sure, to adapt the form of my -punishment to the feelings of a man of honor. Permit me to hope, -that if my character has inspired you with some esteem, and if I -am in your eyes the victim of policy and not of vengeance, I -shall prove the empire of those feelings over your heart by -learning that I am not to die on a gibbet." - -With a harshness unexampled in his life, and of which he seemed -always to preserve the silent and painful remembrance, Washington -remained deaf to the noble appeal of his prisoner. He did not -even do Major André the honor of answering him. "Am I then to die -thus?" said the unfortunate man when he perceived the gibbet. -Then immediately recovering himself, "I pray you to bear witness -that I die as a man of honor," said he to the American officer -charged with seeing to his punishment. Washington himself paid -homage to him. "André has suffered his penalty with that strength -of mind which might be expected from a man of that merit and from -so brave an officer," wrote he. "As for Arnold, he lacks pluck. -The world will be surprised if it do not yet see him hanged on a -gibbet." - -{303} - -A monument was erected in Westminster Abbey to the memory of -Major André, "the victim of his devotion to his king and -country." His remains repose there since the year 1821. The -vengeance and anger of the Americans vainly pursued General -Arnold, who was henceforth occupied in the war at the head of the -English troops, with all the passion of a restless hatred. Spite -and wounded vanity, linked with the shameful necessities of an -irregular life, had drawn him into treason. He lived twenty years -after, enriched and despised by the enemies of his country. "What -would you have done to me if you had succeeded in taking me?" he -asked one day of an American prisoner. "We would have separated -from your body that one of your limbs which had been wounded in -the service of the country," answered the militia-man calmly, -"and we would have hanged the rest on a gibbet." - -Fresh perplexities were assailing General Washington, scarcely -recovered from the sad surprise which Arnold's treason had caused -him. He had pursued for almost a year the reorganization of his -army, when the successive mutinies among the Pennsylvania troops -threatened to reach those of New Jersey, and to extend by degrees -into all the corps secretly tampered with by Sir Henry Clinton. -Mr. Laurens, formerly president of Congress, and charged with -negotiating a treaty of alliance and of loan with Holland, had -been captured by an English ship. He was imprisoned in the Tower, -when his son, an aide-de-camp of Washington, set out for France. -"The country's own strength is exhausted," wrote the -general-in-chief. "Alone we cannot raise the public credit and -furnish the funds necessary to continue the war. The patience of -the army is at an end. Without money we can make but a feeble -effort, probably the last one." - -{304} - -As well as money, Colonel Laurens was charged to ask for a -reinforcement of troops. France furnished all that her allies -asked. M. Necker, clever and bold, was equal, by means of -successive loans, to all the charges of the war. In a few months -King Louis XVI. had lent or guaranteed more than sixteen million -pounds for the United States. A French fleet, under the orders of -the Count de Grasse, set out on the 21st of March, 1781. Arrived -at Martinique on the 28th of April, the Count de Grasse, despite -the efforts of Admiral Hood to block his passage, took the island -of Tobago from the English. On the 3rd of September he brought -Washington a reinforcement of three thousand five hundred men and -twelve hundred thousand pounds in specie. The soldiers as well as -the subsidies were intrusted to Washington personally. No -dissension had ever arisen between the general and his foreign -auxiliaries. By that natural authority which God had bestowed on -him, Washington was always and naturally the superior and chief -of all those who came near him. - -After so many and so painful efforts the day of victory at last -arrived for General Washington and for his country. Alternations -of success and reverse had marked the commencement of the -campaign of 1781. Lord Cornwallis, who commanded the English -armies in the South, was occupying Virginia with considerable -forces, when Washington, who had been able to conceal his designs -from Sir Henry Clinton, while deceiving even his own lieutenants, -passed through Philadelphia on the 4th of September, and advanced -against the enemy by forced marches. The latter had been for a -long time harassed by the little army of M. de la Fayette. Lord -Cornwallis hastened to Yorktown. On the 30th of September the -place was invested. - -{305} - -It was insufficiently or badly fortified, and the English troops -were fatigued by a rough campaign. "This place is not in a -condition to defend itself," Lord Cornwallis had said to Sir -Henry Clinton, before the blockade was complete; "if you cannot -come to my aid soon, you must expect the worst news." The -besiegers, on the contrary, were animated by a zeal which even -increased to emulation. The French and the Americans rivaled each -other in ardor; the soldiers refused to take any rest; the trench -was open since the 6th of October. On the 10th the town was -cannonaded; on the 14th an American column, commanded by M. de la -Fayette and Colonel Hamilton, attacked one of the forts which -protected the approaches. It was some time since Hamilton had -ceased to form part of Washington's staff, in consequence of a -momentary ill-temper of the general's which was keenly resented -by his sensitive and fiery lieutenant. The reciprocal attachment -which even to their last day united these two illustrious men had -suffered nothing from their separation. The French attacked the -second fort under the command of Baron de Viomesnil, the Viscount -de Noailles, and the Marquis de St. Simon, who, being sick, was -carried at the head of his regiment. The resistance of the -English was heroic, but almost at the same instant the flag of -the Union floated over the two outposts. When the attacking -columns joined each other beyond the walls, the French had made -five hundred prisoners. All defence became impossible. Lord -Cornwallis vainly attempted to escape; he was reduced, on the -17th of October, to sign a capitulation more humiliating than -that of Burgoyne at Saratoga. Eight thousand men laid down their -arms, and the English vessels which were at Yorktown and -Gloucester were given up to the conquerors. Lord Cornwallis was -ill with regret and fatigue. -{306} -General O'Hara, who took his place, tendered his sword to the -Count de Rochambeau. The latter took a step back. "I am only an -auxiliary," he said, in a loud voice. The hatred which sundered -the ancient compatriots, now become enemies, was profound and -bitter. "I remarked," said M. de Rochambeau's chaplain, "that the -English officers in laying down their arms and in passing by our -lines courteously saluted the lowest French officer, while they -refused that mark of politeness to American officers of the -highest rank." - -"In receiving the sword of the English general, Washington had -secured the pledge of his country's independence. England felt -it. 'Lord North received the news of the capitulation like a -bullet full in the chest,' related Lord George Germaine, colonial -secretary of state. He stretched out his arms without being able -to say anything but 'My God, all is lost!' and he repeated this -several times while striding up and down the room." - -At a quite recent date, and on receipt of a private letter from -M. Necker, who proposed a truce which should leave the two -belligerents on American soil in possession of the territories -which they occupied, King George III. had exclaimed: "The -independence of the colonies is inadmissible, under its true name -or disguised under the appearance of a truce." The catastrophe -which consternated his ministers and his people did not, however, -shake the obstinate constancy and sincere resolve of the king. -"None of the members of the cabinet," he immediately wrote, "will -suppose, I take it for granted, that this event can modify in -anything the principles which have hitherto guided me, and which -shall continue to inspire my conduct in the struggle." Only one -slight indication betrayed the monarch's agitation. Contrary to -his habit, he had omitted to date his letter. - -{307} - -Repeated checks had overtaken the English arms at other points. -Embroiled with Holland, where the Republican party had got the -better of the stadtholder, who was devoted to them, the English -had carried war into the Dutch colonies. Admiral Rodney had taken -St. Eustache, the centre of an immense commerce; he had pillaged -the warehouses and loaded his vessels with an enormous mass of -merchandise. The convoy which was carrying a part of the spoils -to England was captured by Admiral de la Motte-Piquet; M. de -Bouillé surprised the English garrison left at St. Eustache and -restored the island into the hands of the Dutch. The latter had -just sustained, with brilliancy, near Dogger Bank, their ancient -maritime reputation. "Officers and men all have fought like -lions," said Admiral Zouthemann. The firing had not commenced -until the moment that the two fleets found themselves within -gunshot. "It is evident after this," said a contemporary, "that -the nations which fight with the most ardor are those who have an -interest in not fighting at all." The vessels on both sides had -suffered severe damages; they were scarcely in a seaworthy state. -The glory and the losses were equal, but the English Admiral, -Hyde Parker, was annoyed and discontented. King George III. came -to visit on board his ship. "I wish your Majesty had younger -sailors and younger ships," he said; "as for me, I am too old for -the service," and he persisted in giving in his resignation. This -was the only action of the Dutch during the war. [Having] Become -insolent in their prosperity and riches, they justified the -judgment passed on them some years later: "Holland could pay all -the armies of Europe; she could not face any of them." -{308} -They left to Admiral de Kersaint the care of recovering from the -English their colonies of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, on -the coast of Guiana, as to the Bailiff de Suffren the duty of -protecting the Cape of Good Hope. A little Franco-Spanish army at -the same time besieged Minorca. The fleet was considerable. The -English had neglected their preparations, and Colonel Murray was -obliged to shut himself up in Fort St. Philip. In the mean time -operations had miscarried, and the Duke de Crillon, who was in -command of the besieging troops, wearied of the blockade and -proposed to the commandant to deliver the place to him. The -offers were magnificent; the Scotch officer answered indignantly, -"M. le Duc, when the king his master ordered your brave ancestor -to assassinate the Duke de Guise, he replied to Henry III., -'Honor forbids me.' You should have made the same reply to the -King of Spain when he charged you to assassinate the honor of a -man as well-born as the Duke de Guise or as yourself. I do not -wish to have other relations with you than those of arms." -Crillon understood the reproach. "Your letter," wrote he to the -proud Scotchman, "has placed us both in the situation that suits -us; it has increased my esteem for you. I accept your last -proposition with pleasure." He himself directed the assaults, -mounting the breach first. When Murray capitulated, on the 4th of -February, 1782, the fortress contained only a handful of -soldiers, so wasted by fatigues and privations that "the -Spaniards and French shed tears on seeing them file between their -ranks." - -{309} - -This was the last blow to the ministry of Lord North, which had -long been tottering on its base. It had been sought to -consolidate it by adding to it, as chancellor, Lord Thurlow, -distinguished by his eloquence even at this era of great judges; -already, however, less esteemed than several of his illustrious -rivals. So many efforts and sacrifices eventuating in so many -disasters wearied and irritated the nation. "Great God!" -exclaimed Burke, "is it still a time to speak to us of the rights -that we sustain in this war? O excellent rights! Precious they -should be, for they have cost us dear! O precious rights! which -have cost Great Britain thirteen provinces, four islands, a -hundred thousand men, and more than ten millions sterling! O -admirable rights! which have cost Great Britain her empire on the -ocean, and that superiority so vaunted which made all nations bow -before her! O inestimable rights! which have taken away our rank -in the world, our importance abroad, and our happiness at home; -which have destroyed our commerce and our manufactures, which -have reduced us from the most flourishing empire in the world to -a state curtailed and without greatness! Precious rights! which -will doubtless cost us what remains to us!" The discussion became -more and more bitter. Sincerely concerned for the public weal. -Lord North vainly sought to influence the king to change his -ministry. George III., as sincere as his minister, and of a -narrow and obstinate mind, was meditating withdrawing to Hanover -if the concessions which Lord Rockingham exacted were repugnant -to his conscience. Already the negotiation had several times been -broken off. The chancellor poured forth a torrent of curses. -"Lord Rockingham," said he, "carries things to that point that it -would be necessary for the king's head or his own to remain there -in order to decide which of the two shall govern the country." - -{310} - -The majority in the House of Commons had escaped the government. -Nine voices only had rejected a vote of want of confidence. On -the 20th of March, 1782, a new proposal of Fox excited a violent -storm. Lord North entered the hall, and a great tumult arose; -Lord Surrey disputed speech with the minister. "I propose," cried -Fox, "that Surrey should speak first." "I demand to speak on this -motion," said Lord North, eagerly, and as he arose, "I would have -been able to spare the House much agitation and time, if it had -been willing to grant me a moment's hearing. The object of the -present discussion was the overturning of the actual ministry. -This ministry no longer exists; the king has accepted the -resignation of his cabinet." The surprise was extreme. A lengthy -sitting had been expected; the greater part of the members had -sent away their carriages. That of Lord North was waiting at the -door: the fallen minister mounted it, always imperturbable in his -witty good humor. "I assure you, gentlemen," said he, smiling, -"that it is the first time I have taken part in a secret." The -great Whig coalition came into power. Lord Shelburne had refused -to charge himself with it; he consented, however, to become -secretary of state. The Marquis of Rockingham, the Duke of -Richmond, and Mr. Fox occupied the most important posts. Like -William Pitt and Henry Fox previously, Burke had been named -paymaster-general of the forces by land and sea. In spite of -political principles utterly opposed to those of his colleagues, -Lord Thurlow remained chancellor. - -The era of concessions was approaching. The first were granted to -Ireland, which had violently risen up against the restriction -placed upon its commerce, and against the act of George II., -which attributed to the English Parliament, in conjunction with -the king, the right of legislating on the condition of Ireland -without the participation of the Irish Houses. -{311} -The eloquence of Henry Grattan potently served the national -cause; oppressive or arbitrary laws were abrogated. The king at -the same time announced his intention of entering on the path of -economic reforms. Already young and ardent spirits foresaw other -reforms, but Burke, who was a passionate friend of the -retrenchment of expenses and pensions, was beside himself with -anger when parliamentary privileges appeared in question. Fox had -with difficulty restrained him on the subject of a motion of -young Pitt, who had recently entered the House, noticed and -esteemed by all. He soon blazed forth with all the customary -transport of his character and talent. "Burke has at last -unburdened his heart with the most magnificent improvidence," -wrote Sheridan to Fitzpatrick. "He attacked William Pitt with -cries of rage, and swore that Parliament was and had always been -what it ought to be, and that whoever thought to reform it wished -to overturn the constitution." - -In the midst of parliamentary discords and shocks of power, other -preoccupations continued to weigh upon the nation, saddened and -humiliated by the state of affairs in America, and daily more -convinced that peace, however sorrowful, was indispensable. A -brilliant success of Admirals Rodney and Hood against the Count -de Grasse had for an instant reanimated the pride and the hopes -of the English. Although a good sailor, and for a long time -fortunate in war, the French admiral had at various times shown -himself short-sighted and credulous. He let himself be driven -away from St. Christopher, which he was besieging, and of which -the Marquis de Bouillé took possession some days later. He was -embarrassed by his ships, which had suffered heavy damages. -{312} -The two fleets met between St. Lucia and Jamaica; the combat -lasted ten hours without stoppage of cannonading; the French -squadron was cut up; one after another the captains were killed. -"We passed near the _Glorieux_," wrote an eye-witness; "it -was almost completely dismasted; but the white flag was nailed to -one of the shattered masts, and seemed in its ruin to defy us -still. Henceforth incapable of action, the enormous mass -presented a spectacle which struck the imagination of our -admiral. As he spends his life reading Homer, he exclaimed that -he was now working to raise the body of Patrocles." The vessel of -the French Admiral, the _Ville de Paris_, was attacked at -once by seven hostile ships; his own could not succeed in -approaching him. The Count de Grasse, full of sorrow and anger, -still fought when all hope was long since lost. "The admiral is -six feet every day," said the sailors, "but on days of battle he -is six feet one inch." When the admiral's ship at last hauled -down its flag, it had suffered such damage that it sank before -arriving in England. Since Marshal de Taillard, the Count de -Grasse was the first French commander-in-chief made prisoner -during the combat. "In two years," wrote Rodney to his wife, "I -have taken two Spanish admirals, one French, and one Dutch. It is -Providence who has done all; without it would I have been able to -escape the discharges of thirty-three ships of line, who were all -set upon near me? But the _Formidable_ has shown herself -worthy of her name." - -The Bailiff de Suffren was at the same time sustaining in the -Indian seas that honor of the French navy so often heroically -defended against the most formidable obstacles. He succeeded in -landing at the Cape of Good Hope the French garrison promised to -the Dutch, when he received command of the fleet from the dying -hands of Admiral d'Orves. -{313} -A clever and bold adventurer who had become a great prince, the -Mussulman Hyder-Ali, was obstinately combating English power in -the Carnatic. He had rallied around him the remnant of the French -colonists, almost without asylum since the ruined Pondicherry had -been retaken by the English in 1778. A treaty of alliance united -the nabob to the French. On the 4th of July a serious battle was -fought before Negapatam between the French and English fleets. -The victory remained dubious, but Sir Edward Hughes withdrew -under Negapatam without renewing hostilities. The Bailiff had -taken possession of Trincomalee. As had already happened several -times, whether it were cowardice or treason, a part of the French -forces yielded in the middle of the action. A combination was -formed against the admiral; he fought alone against five or six -assailants; the mainmast of the _Heros_, which he commanded, -fell under the enemy's balls. Suffren, standing on the bridge, -shouted, being beside himself, "The flags, let the white flags be -put all round the _Heros_." The vessel, bristling with the -glorious signs of its resistance, responded so valiantly to the -attacks of the English that the squadron had time to form around -it again. The English went to anchor before Madras. M. de Suffren -freed Bussy-Castelnau, who had just arrived in India and who had -let himself be closed up by the English in Gondelore. Hyder-Ali -died on the 7th of December, 1782, leaving to his son, Tippoo -Saib, a confused state of affairs, which was soon to become -tragic. M. de Suffren alone defended the remnants of French power -in India. - -{314} - -England had just gained in Europe a success most important for -her policy as well as for her national pride. Twice revictualled, -by Rodney and by Admiral Darby, Gibraltar had resisted for two or -three years the united efforts of the French and Spaniards. Each -morning, on awaking, King Charles III. asked his servants, "Have -we Gibraltar?" And, at the negative answer, "We shall soon have -it," the monarch would assure them. It was finally resolved to -have satisfaction of the obstinate defenders of the place: the -Duke de Crillon brought on a body of French troops. He was -accompanied by the Count d'Artois, brother of the king, and by -the Duke de Bourbon. Their first care, on arriving, was to send -to General Eliot the letters addressed to him which had been -delayed for some time at Madrid. The Duke de Crillon had added to -the correspondence a present of game, fruit, and vegetables, -asking at the same time the hostile general's permission to renew -this gift. The distress in the besieged town was terrible, but -General Eliot responded to the duke with thanks and a refusal. "I -have made it a point of honor," said he, "in the matter of plenty -and of dearth to make common cause with the last of my brave -soldiers: this will be my excuse for begging your Excellency not -to overwhelm me with favors in the future." - -Some floating batteries, cleverly constructed by a French -engineer, the Chevalier d'Arcon, threatened the ramparts of the -place. On the 13th of September, at nine o'clock in the morning, -the Spaniards opened fire; all the artillery of the fort replied: -the surrounding mountains echoed the cannonade. The entire army, -which covered the coast, anxiously awaited the result of the -enterprise. The fortifications were already beginning to give -way, and the batteries had been firing for five hours. All at -once, the Prince of Nassau, who commanded a detachment, thought -he perceived that the flames were reaching his heavy ship. -{315} -The fire spread rapidly, and one after another the floating -batteries were dismantled. "At seven o'clock we had lost all -hope," said an Italian officer who had taken part in the assault; -"we no longer fired, and our signals of distress remained without -effect. The red balls of the besieged rained on us. The crews -were threatened on all sides. Timidly and in weak detachments, -the boats of the two fleets glided into the shadow of the -batteries, in the hope of saving some of the unfortunates who -were perishing. The flames which blazed over the ships doomed to -perish served to direct the fire of the English as surely as if -it were full day. Captain Curtis, at the head of a little -flotilla of gunboats, barred the passage of the rescuers up to -the moment when, suddenly changing his character, he consecrated -all his strength and the courage of his brave sailors to contend -with the flames and waves for the life of the unfortunate -Spaniards who were on the point of perishing. Four hundred men -owed their existence to his generous efforts. One month after -that day so disastrous for the allies, Lord Howe, favored by -chance winds, revictualled, for the third time and almost without -a fight, the fortress and the town, under the very eyes of the -enemy. Gibraltar remained impregnable. The siege no longer -continued except in form." - -Negotiations were being carried on in Paris, secretly and in -private between America and England by Messrs. Oswald and -Franklin, and officially between Mr. Grenville and M. de -Vergennes. Lord Rockingham had just died, at the age of -fifty-two, and the cabinet was re-formed under the leadership of -Lord Shelburne, deprived of the brilliancy which Charles Fox had -brought to it. The latter seized a pretext to withdraw. -{316} -He had demanded that the independence of the American colonies -should be recognized at once and without relation to a treaty of -peace. Lord Shelburne, while admitting the same basis, wished to -pursue a more complete negotiation. Fox gave in his resignation, -and William Pitt took his place in the cabinet. The first care of -Lord Shelburne was to recall Sir Henry Clinton, who was too much -compromised in the heat of the American war to be in a position -to shape the peace. Party and territorial feuds were grafted on -the fertile trunk of national enmities. Everywhere in Georgia and -Carolina the ambuscades and reprisals of loyalists and patriots -fostered a state of irritation and cruel disorder to which -Washington was resolved to put an end. The loyalists of -Middletown captured a captain in the service of Congress, and he -was hanged. The general-in-chief demanded that the English -officer who commanded the detachment should be given up to him. -On the refusal of Sir Henry Clinton, who had himself caused the -delinquent to be arrested, Washington decided to employ the -system of reprisals. Up till then he had studiously avoided it. -"I know better than to think of the system of reprisals," he -wrote to General Greene; "I am, however, perfectly convinced of -this: when one has not the criminal himself at hand, it is the -most difficult of all laws to execute. It is impossible that -humanity should not intervene in favor of the innocent condemned -for the fault of others." The council of war and Congress had, -however, adopted the principle and condemned to death Captain -Asgill, son of Sir Charles Asgill, an amiable young man of -nineteen. Washington seemed to have made up his mind and to have -hardened his heart against the appeals of pity. "My resolve," -said he, "is based on so long reflection that it will remain -immovable. -{317} -Whatever my feelings of sympathy for the unhappy victim may be, -the satisfactory conduct of the enemy can alone cause a ray of -hope to arise for him." He delayed, nevertheless, to have the -sentence executed. Lady Asgill, in her maternal despair, -addressed herself to Marie Antoinette. The latter charged M. de -Vergennes to transmit to Congress and to Washington her pressing -entreaties in favor of the unfortunate young man. "If I were -called to give my opinion," said the general, "I would be of -opinion that he should be released." On the 7th of November a -vote of Congress pronounced the pardon of Captain Asgill. M. de -Vergennes had provided against fresh acts of vengeance. "In -seeking to deliver the unfortunate young man from the fate which -threatens him," he wrote, "I am far from pledging you to choose -another victim; for the pardon to be satisfactory, it is of -importance that it should be complete." - -Washington did not manifest any confidence in the pacific -advances of Great Britain. In taking command of the English -troops, Sir Guy Carleton had been charged with the most -conciliatory proposals. He had tried to open negotiations with -Congress. The latter voted a new resolution, confirming its first -declarations of never treating without the concurrence of France. -Washington wrote, in the month of May, 1782, "The new -administration has caused overtures of peace to be made to the -various belligerent nations, probably with the design of -detaching some one from the coalition. The old infatuation, the -duplicity, and the perfidious policy of England render me, I -avow, quite suspicious, quite doubtful. Her disposition seems to -me to be perfectly summed up in the laconic saying of Dr. -Franklin--'They are said to be incapable of making war, and too -proud to make peace.' -{318} -Besides, whatever may be the intention of the enemy, our -watchfulness and our efforts, far from languishing, should be -more than ever on the alert. Defiance and prudence cannot harm -us. Too much confidence and yielding will lose everything." He -said at the same time, with a bitter feeling of his impotence in -view of the sufferings of his troops, "You can rely on it, the -patriotism and courage of the army are at their limit; never has -discontent been greater than at this moment; it is time to make -peace." - -Peace was on the point of being concluded at Paris, and without -the French, between England and the United States. By a -diplomatic calculation, or by the insinuations of the English -agents, the American negotiators--Franklin, Jay, John Adams, and -Laurens--pretended to have conceived some suspicions as to the -disinterestedness of France. "Are you afraid of serving as tools -to the European powers?" asked Mr. Oswald of John Adams. "Yes, -truly." "And what powers?" "All." The suspicion, it is true, was -unjust, and Washington felt so without ever expressing it -frankly. The preliminary articles of the treaty, which formally -reserved the rights of France in a general peace, were secretly -signed on the 30th of November, 1782. - -The independence of the United States was fully recognized, and -conditions as equitable as liberal were granted to the subjects -of the two nations. France remained exposed to the dangers of -isolation, whether in negotiation or battle. "I altogether share -your Excellency's feelings," wrote Washington to the French -minister at Philadelphia, the Chevalier de la Luzerne. -{319} -"The articles of treaty between Great Britain and America are so -inconclusive in regard to what touches a general peace that it -behooves us to preserve a hostile attitude, and to remain ready -in any event for peace or for war." M. de Vergennes wrote to the -same diplomatist: "You will assuredly be as satisfied as I am as -to the advantages which our allies the Americans will derive from -peace, but you will not be less astonished than I have been at -the conduct of the commissioners. They have carefully avoided me, -answering me evasively on every occasion when I have inquired as -to the progress of the negotiations, in such a way as to make me -believe that they were not advancing, and that they had no -confidence in the sincerity of the English minister. Judge of my -surprise when, on the 30th of November, Dr. Franklin apprised me -that everything was signed! ... Things are not yet as far -advanced with us as with the United States; however, if the king -had employed as little delicacy as the commissioners, we would -have been able to sign the peace with England a long time before -they did." It was only when the cessation of hostilities and the -preliminaries of a general peace were signed at Paris, on the -20th of January, 1783, that Washington allowed his joy at peace -to break forth freely. He had eagerly desired it. More than any -other, and to a degree rarely granted by God to the personal -action of one man, he had contributed to render it glorious and -happy for his country. "I am greatly rejoiced," wrote he to -Colonel Hamilton, "to see an end put to our state of war, and to -see a career open before us, which, if we follow it wisely, will -lead us to become a great people, equally happy and respectable; -but we must have, in order to advance in this path, other means -than a narrow political place; than jealousies or unreasoning -prejudices. Otherwise one need not be a prophet to foresee that -in the hands of our enemies, and of European powers jealous of -our greatness in union, we will only be the instruments of -dissolving the confederation." - -{320} - -Through many faults, through serious and dangerous errors, and in -spite of shocks, the last and most cruel of which has failed to -dissolve that union so dear to the patriotic thoughts of -Washington, the American people has remained a great people, and -its place among nations has in a century become more considerable -than its founders had foreseen. Washington had not yet ended his -work; he was to guide in the paths of government that generation -of his compatriots which he had so painfully accustomed to the -art of war. Scarcely was peace signed when Congress was disputing -with the army as to the recompense for its sufferings and -efforts. The newborn United States were threatened with a -military insurrection. The influence of the general-in-chief -preserved them from it, while sparing his country the shame of a -cowardly ingratitude. "If this country denies the prayer of the -troops," he exclaimed, at the end of one of his official letters -to the president of Congress, "then I shall have learned what -ingratitude is; I shall have assisted at a spectacle which for -the remainder of my days will fill my soul with bitterness." - -The wishes of the American army were heard, and peace obtained in -America as well as in Europe, although precarious and doubtful in -many respects, and threatened by inward fermentation or by -outside dangers, which were but ill warded off by negotiations -and treaties. - -{321} - -To the exchange of conquests between France and England was added -the cession to France of the Island of Tobago, and of the Senegal -River with its dependencies. The territory of Pondicherry and of -Karikal received some increase. For the first time for more than -a hundred years the English renounced the humiliating -stipulations so often exacted on the subject of the port of -Dunkerque. Spain saw how to confirm her conquest of Florida and -the Island of Minorca. The Dutch recovered all their possessions -with the exception of Negapatam. - -At the opening of Parliament, on the 5th of December, 1782, King -George III. announced in the speech from the throne that he had -at last recognized the independence of the American colonies. The -nation was not unaware of how he had long resisted this cruel -necessity. "In thus accepting their separation from the crown of -these kingdoms," said the monarch, "I have sacrificed all my -personal wishes to the desires and opinions of my people. I -humbly and earnestly ask the All-powerful God that Great Britain -may not experience the evils which may result from so great a -dismemberment of the empire, and that America may be preserved -from the calamities which have lately proved in the -mother-country that monarchy is necessary to the maintenance of -constitutional liberties. Religion, language, interests, -reciprocal affection, will serve, I hope, as a bond of union -between the two countries: I shall spare neither my cares nor my -attention in that direction." "I have been the last in England to -consent to the independence of America," said George III. to John -Adams, the first man charged with representing his country at the -court of London; "I shall, however, be the last to sanction its -violation." In the hot debates against the peace which speedily -arose in Parliament, the king earnestly sustained his ministers. -{322} -Lord North and Mr. Fox, of late so violently opposed, had united -to attack the treaties. "It is not in my nature," said Fox, "to -preserve my rancors long, nor to live on bad terms with any one; -my friendships are eternal, my enmities will never be so. -_Amicitiæ sempiternæ, inimicitiæ placabiles._" Lord -Shelburne was defeated, and retired. During five weeks the young -chancellor of the exchequer, William Pitt, who had borne the -burden of the discussion with Fox in debate, remained charged -with the administration. Then the king asked him to form a -cabinet. Pitt declined, with that mixture of boldness and -sensible moderation which constantly distinguished his political -life; the coalition ministry of North and Fox came to power on -the 2nd of April, 1783. The first act of the new cabinet was to -present an important bill in regard to the government of India. -The affairs of that distant empire, where Great Britain was -slowly coming to establish her power, engrossed all minds, -excited many ambitions, and served to nourish numerous intrigues. -Since the year 1765, after a violent struggle in the India -Company's council, Lord Clive had been charged with remodeling -the internal administration of Bengal. The prince whom he had -placed on the throne was dead. To Meer Jaffier had succeeded a -child, raised to the supreme dignity by the agents of the -company, who had put the throne to auction. Corruption and -violence obtained in all branches of the government. Clive's -feelings had not been delicate, nor his conscience -over-scrupulous. He was humiliated and shocked at the spectacle -which met his eyes. "Alas!" wrote he to one of his friends, "how -low the English name has fallen! I could not help paying the -tribute of a few tears to the glory of the English nation, which -is so irretrievably lost, I fear. However, I swear by the Great -Being who sounds hearts and to whom we are all responsible, if -there is anything after this life, I have come here, with a soul -above all corruptions, determined to exterminate these terrible -and ever-growing evils or to die hard." - -{323} - -It was with a resolute sincerity that Clive undertook and -accomplished the difficult task with which he had been charged. -In eighteen months he reformed all abuses and constructed a new -administration on intelligent and sensible bases. Private -commerce was denied to the agents of the company, whose salaries -were at the same time increased. It was absolutely forbidden to -receive any presents from natives. When the resistance of the -Calcutta employés threatened for a time to nullify his plans, the -inflexible governor announced that he would procure agents -elsewhere, and he brought from Madras those whom he wanted. The -most obstinate were left destitute; the others yielded. A -military plot was discovered and baffled; the ringleaders were -arrested, judged, and cashiered. Clive exhibited in regard to -them a mingled kindness and severity. He was threatened with an -attempt at assassination: he smiled disdainfully. "These -officers," he said, "are Englishmen, not murderers." The sepoys -remained faithful to him. The Hindoo princes who had recently -sought to revolt asked for peace. The English power and the -company's authority in Bengal were forever established when Lord -Clive, exhausted by fatigue and sickness, departed for England in -1767. He had refused all the presents which had been offered to -him, making a gift to the company, in favor of the invalid -officers and soldiers of the army, of a considerable legacy which -Meer Jaffier had left him. - -{324} - -Lord Clive had laid his hand on bleeding wounds; he had dried up -in them the source of much abuse; he had effectually hindered -ambitious and evil projects. His enemies were numerous and -determined, and they pursued him to England with their jealous -hatred. The most honorable part of his life was calumniated. Past -acts were recalled which did honor neither to his heart nor his -conscience. By a very natural mistake of public opinion, Clive -became to the mass of the nation the type of those functionaries -enriched in India who were then called _nabobs_, a great -number of whom had seen their malversations stopped by his firm -government. A horrible famine which desolated Bengal in 1770, the -origin of which was falsely attributed to his measures, cast -trouble into the soul as well as confusion into the affairs of -the company. Many of its agents were fiercely accused. Lord Clive -was involved in their unpopularity. His adversaries presented a -bill on the affairs of India to Parliament. Clive did not want to -be personally attacked. He defended himself in a long and -carefully prepared speech, which had a great and legitimate -success. His enemies then directed their accusations against the -first part of his life, which were more difficult to defend. -Irritated, but not uneasy, Clive boldly maintained the necessity -of the manœuvres he had employed, asserting that he would not -hesitate to have recourse to the same means again, and when the -gifts that he had received from Meer Jaffier were harped upon, -"By God, Mr. President," exclaimed Clive, "when I think of the -offers which have been made to me, of the caves full of ingots -and precious stones which have been opened to me, what astonishes -me at this moment is my moderation." - -{325} - -With wise justice the House of Commons had blamed, in regard to -certain points, Clive's conduct while establishing legitimate -principles of government; it had at the same time the justice to -recognize the great services which the general had rendered his -country. Clive was acquitted by the House and justified in the -eyes of public opinion. He was rich and powerful. The American -war, then commencing, was about to open a new field for his -military genius, and the ministry had already made proposals to -him. On the 22d of November, 1774, Clive died by his own hand in -the magnificent castle which he had built at Claremont. He was -about to enter on his forty-ninth year. On several occasions ere -this, in all the vigor of his youth, he had been attacked by that -gloomy melancholy which was at last to cost him his life. Being -sick and unemployed, he had recourse to the fatal solace of -opium. An energetic spirit of most powerful faculties had -foundered in shipwreck. England had lost the only general capable -of struggling against Washington. - -When Clive died thus sadly and gloomily, wearied of fortune and -of glory, his successor in the Indian Empire, as potent in -administration and policy as the general had been in war, -Governor Warren Hastings was sustaining against his foes and his -rivals that desperate struggle which the maintenance of his -method was to render celebrated in England and in Europe. Born on -the 6th of September, 1732, of an ancient but impoverished -family, and sent to India, while very young in the civil service, -Warren Hastings had already distinguished himself by intelligent -services when he was appointed agent at the court of Meer -Jaffier, at the moment when Clive, during his stay in India, was -establishing the empire of England over Bengal. -{326} -He afterwards became a member of the council at Calcutta, at the -era when disorder and corruption reigned there unchecked, before -the powerful hand of Clive had introduced into administration the -first elements of order and probity. In 1764 he returned to -England. His fortune was modest; he made liberal use of it -towards his family, and heavy losses swallowed what remained. -Hastings returned to India in 1769 as member of the council of -Madras. - -Being capable and sagacious, he was occupied in seeking -advantageous investments for the funds of the company, the -affairs of which prospered in his hands. The directors had at the -same time got sight of the rare political faculties of their -clever agent. They resolved to nominate him as governor of -Bengal. The double government which Clive had founded still -existed. It left the appearance of power to the nabob, but -confided the reality to the hands of the English. The native -ministry Clive had elevated still guided the affairs of the -Hindoo prince. He was a Mussulman, and was called Mohammed Reza -Khan. For ten years a clever and unscrupulous Hindoo rival, the -Brahmin Nuncomar, had pursued him with his jealous animosity. -Shortly after the arrival of Hastings, and contrary to his -advice, on orders come from London, the new governor was obliged -to depose Mohammed Reza Khan. He knew Nuncomar, however, and was -resolved not to satisfy his greedy ambition. When the Mussulman -minister, a prisoner, but kindly treated, had set out for Madras -under a strong guard, Hastings took from the infant _nabob_ -the remnants of his authority. The post of native minister was -abolished. The administration of Bengal passed entirely into the -hands of the English. The little prince, still surrounded by a -court and provided with an ample revenue, was confided to the -care of a woman who had formed part of his father's harem. The -hatred of Nuncomar was transferred from Mohammed Reza Khan to the -governor of Bengal, Warren Hastings. - -{327} - -Having become all-powerful, and being constantly pressed by the -company to send it money, Hastings had used violent and irregular -means to procure the sums demanded of him. He had reduced the -pensions which the English had agreed to pay to the deposed -princes; he had sold towns or territories to native sovereigns; -he had, last of all, engaged the company's troops in a private -war of the nabob vizier of Oude against the Rohillas, and he had -for a sum of money enslaved on the prince's behalf a proud and -independent population, henceforth given over to the most cruel -oppression. The distant rumor of this iniquity reached as far as -England. In 1773, under Lord North's ministry, a new law had -seriously modified the government of India. Henceforth the -presidency of Bengal was to exercise control over the other -possessions of the company: a council composed of four members -was charged with assisting the governor-general; a supreme court -of justice, established at Calcutta, was to be independent of the -governor and of the council. Among the members of this new -administration was Sir Philip Francis, probably the author of the -celebrated letters of Junius, who was endowed with a persistent, -violent, and bitter spirit, and who was soon engaged against -Hastings in a struggle which was to last as long as their lives. - -{328} - -Francis swayed the majority in the council. He took away the -government from Hastings and put his hand on all branches of the -administration. Disorder became extreme. The hate of Nuncomar led -him to believe that he had found a chance of destroying his enemy -forever. He formulated the gravest charges against the -governor-general, and Francis undertook to transmit his -deposition to the council. Hastings treated Francis and Nuncomar -with haughtiness. Public opinion in India was favorable to him, -and he did not at that time consider himself seriously menaced. -In appealing to the higher authority at London, he addressed his -resignation to Colonel Maclean, his agent in England, instructing -him only to hand it in in case the council of the company should -show itself hostile to his interests. - -His precaution being taken so far as England was concerned, -Warren Hastings, bold as he was clever and calm, resolved to -attempt a great stroke. He was master of the supreme court, -which was absolutely independent in its scarcely limited -jurisdiction. The president, Sir E. Impey, had been his -schoolfellow, and willingly became his docile tool. Nuncomar was -accused of forgery in a business letter--the most common and most -venial of crimes in the Hindoo practice and morality. He was -arrested and cast into prison. After a trial in which all the -resources and intrigues of the council failed before the firm -resolve of the judges, Nuncomar was declared guilty and condemned -to death. - -The entire population of Calcutta was in consternation. The -members of the council, being furious, swore that they would save -their _protegé_, were it at the foot of the gallows. Sir E. -Impey refused the reprieve that Nuncomar's friends demanded in -order that they might have time to appeal to justice or the royal -clemency. The Brahmin suffered his fate with the cool courage -peculiar to that Oriental race, so often weak and cowardly in -battle, but impassive in the face of torture and death. The -affrighted crowd which was present at his punishment fled, -covering their faces; a multitude of Hindoos threw themselves -into the sacred waters of the Hooghly, as if to purify themselves -from the crime of which they had been the powerless spectators. - -{329} - -Hastings was triumphant at Calcutta. At London, in spite of the -enmity of Lord North, who was closely leagued with that majority -of the council in conflict with the governor-general, the -shareholders summoned to vote at a general meeting inclined to -the support of Warren Hastings. The finances had never been more -prosperous. If he had committed faults it was in the service of -the company and to its profit. The governor-general's partisans -upheld him with a hundred voices. - -The discontent of the ministry was so great that Colonel Maclean -dreaded a premature convocation of Parliament and the accusation -of his employer. He remitted to the director of the company the -resignation which had been intrusted to him. Delighted to get out -of the embarrassment thus, the London council addressed to -General Clavering, the senior of the Calcutta council, orders to -exercise power until the arrival of Mr. Wheeler, who was charged -with replacing Warren Hastings. - -When the company's decisions reached their distant empire, the -aspect of affairs was changed. The death of one of the members of -the council had overthrown the majority, and the -governor-general's voice prevailed. He had resumed all his legal -authority, annulled the measures of his adversaries, and deposed -their creatures. He boldly denied the instructions transmitted to -Colonel Maclean, and declared his resignation invalid. After a -conflict of some days between General Clavering and the -governor-general, both put it to the decision of the court. -{330} -It was favorable to Hastings. Public opinion sustained him in the -colony; he became again the undisputed master of power, and his -title was confirmed by the company. The English government, -struggling with the American rebellion, and threatened by a -European coalition, felt the need of maintaining in India a -clever, experienced, and resolute governor. - -Without scruples of conscience to hamper him in a policy which -was as far-seeing as it was adroit, Hastings had disarmed the -supreme court. The latter had shamefully abused its power; -judicial extortions and violence had spread terror in Bengal. The -governor-general did not hesitate to audaciously purchase the -assistance of Sir E. Impey. Thanks to new charges added to his -enormous appointments, the chief judge allowed those dangerous -weapons which he had used towards a defenceless population to -fall into the shade. Francis, who detested Impey, rose up, not -without cause, against the means which Hastings had employed to -deliver the country from legal abuses. Recriminations and -quarrels began again between the two adversaries. "I cannot rely -on Mr. Francis's promises of good faith," wrote Hastings to -London. "I am convinced that he will not hold to them. I judge of -his public conduct by his private conduct, which I have always -found destitute of honor and veracity." A duel took place. -Hastings seriously wounded Francis. Scarcely recovered of his -wound, the latter set out for England without his rancor and -hatred of his fortunate rival having lost any of their -bitterness. He bided his day of vengeance. - -{331} - -Meanwhile, Warren Hastings had attempted a futile enterprise -against the Mahrattas. He was threatened in the Carnatic by the -growing power of Hyder-Ali, the founder of the Mohammedan kingdom -of Mysore, imprudently provoked by the English authorities of -Madras, who found themselves defenceless against the most -formidable enemy. - -The regiments of Munro and Baillie had already been destroyed; -the approach of De Suffren was announced; some fortified places -alone were left to the English in the Carnatic. Madras, in -terror, contemplating the flames which were devouring the -villages of the plain, asked aid of the governor-general. Some -weeks later Hastings dispatched Sir Eyre Coote, formerly -conqueror of M. de Lally-Tollendal at Wandewash, against -Hyder-Ali. Using without reserve the full extent of his -authority, he raised troops, collected money, and energetically -sustained the movements of his little army. The progress of -Hyder-Ali was arrested. On the 1st of July, 1781, the victory of -Porto Novo gave splendor and prestige to the English power, soon -triumphant by reason of the death of its clever and intrepid -rival. - -The internal embarrassments of a disputed government had -disappeared as far as Hastings was concerned. He had triumphed in -military attacks, but financial difficulties, aggravated by the -war which was just ended, remained heavy. It is a great proof of -moral worth to resist the pressing need of money when the means -of acquiring it for one's self, or for those whom one wishes to -serve, present themselves at our door on every hand. Formerly, -Warren Hastings had satisfied the needs of the company by -despoiling the Great Mogul and reducing the Rohillas to slavery. -Now he pillaged the rajah of Benares, Chey-ta-Sing, not without -difficulty and at the risk of his life, which he was accustomed -to expose with calm temerity. -{332} -Ruined and conquered, the Hindoo prince fled from his country, of -which the governor-general forthwith took possession; his nephew, -become rajah, was nothing more than a dependent of the India -Company, which assured him an ample pension. More odious -proceedings extorted from the princesses of Oude the immense -fortune which their nabob husbands had left them. Banished to -their palace and deprived of the necessaries of life, the begums -knew that their most trusted servants were abandoned at Lucknow -to the vengeance and cool animosity of the English. In order to -deliver these servants from the hands of their persecutors, they -at last gave up their treasures. Sir E. Impey covered all these -indignities with the cloak of legal justice. An inquiry which had -just taken place in the House of Commons, under the direction of -Dundas and Burke, disclosed some of these culpable actions. Sir -E. Impey was immediately recalled. The shareholders of the India -Company absolutely refused to depose Warren Hastings. It was only -two years later that the governor-general himself resigned his -functions. His wife, whom he had married under circumstances more -romantic than honorable, and to whom he was passionately -attached, had been obliged to return to England on account of her -health. Warren Hastings joined her there in the month of June, -1785. - -India was pacified. Tippoo-Saib had made a treaty with England, -and his troops had evacuated the Carnatic. Alone among English -possessions, the vast Oriental territories had not suffered any -diminution during the war engendered by the American rebellion. -The Hindoo princes had seen their power vanishing; they had -become magnificent subjects while still enjoying the sovereign -title. -{333} -The supreme authority of the English was everywhere established; -a regular administration, however imperfect and rude as yet, had -on all hands succeeded anarchy. Incessantly fettered by -unintelligent or contradictory orders coming to him from Europe, -the governor-general had found in the resources of his fertile -genius the means of government and control which his rivals and -chiefs disputed with him. He had known how to attach the army to -him, and the natives themselves, accustomed to the capricious -exactions of their princes, blessed the prosperity and order -which marked his government. He had unrestrictedly used his power -with an ill-ordered zeal for the public weal. "The rules of -justice, the sentiments of humanity, the sworn faith of treaties, -were nothing in his eyes when they were opposed to the actual -interests of the state." He had enriched himself, and his wife -even more, but he had above all, enriched and served the company -and England without scruple and without remorse. - -It was this delicate scruple and this honest remorse that the -most ardent of Warren Hastings' adversaries, virtuous, -passionate, and embittered by vexatious and severe -disappointments, felt. Among the accusers of Warren Hastings many -were animated by hatred or personal views. Edmund Burke solely -stood up for the cause of the justice and right offended by the -governor-general. His name has remained connected with the trial -of Hastings as that of an avenger of public virtue, disinterested -and sincere even in the violence of his patriotic transport. - -The greeting that awaited Warren Hastings in London did not -prepare him for the fate which threatened him. Treated by the -king with a marked distinction, he was solemnly thanked by the -India Company. "I see myself treated on all sides," wrote he -three months after his arrival in England, "in a way that proves -to me that I possess the good opinion of my country." - -{334} - -The attack was being prepared, however, and Burke had already -announced it. The coalition ministry had fallen, precisely on the -India bill. It had presented a violent address against Hastings; -a vote of the House of Commons had condemned it. - -What would be the attitude of the new cabinet, at the head of -which William Pitt reigned as master, of which Dundas formed -part, he who had lately proclaimed the faults of the -governor-general, no one knew. The entire opposition was in arms -against Warren Hastings. Francis had entered the House of Commons -and pursued his enemy with his persistent hate. The accusation -brought by Burke on the subject of the war against the Rohillas -was rejected by a great majority. When Fox attacked the -governor-general's conduct in the affair of Benares, Mr. Pitt, -who had been deemed favorable to Warren Hastings, declared that -the governor had had a right to impose a fine on the fugitive -prince, but that the penalty had not been proportioned to the -offense. To the general stupefaction he then supported Mr. Fox's -proposition. "The affair is too bad; I cannot sustain him," he -said to his intimate friend Wilberforce. An eloquent speech of -Sheridan ended in deciding the House. The Commons voted twenty -heads of accusation, and the trial was carried before the House -of Lords. - -It began on the 13th of February, 1788, with extreme brilliancy. -The reputation of the accused and that of the lawyers was effaced -by that of his accusers, the most eloquent of their eloquent -epoch. Pitt alone took no part in the discussion. -{335} -Fox, Sheridan, Wyndham, and young Lord Grey had left to Burke the -honor of making the first speech. He spoke at length. Chancellor -Thurlow himself, although favorable to Warren Hastings, could not -withhold a murmur of satisfaction. The impassioned tones of the -great orator stirred all consciences, moved all hearts, when he -cried at last, in a voice of thunder, "This is why the House of -Commons of Great Britain has ordered me, in all assurance, to -impeach Warren Hastings of crimes and grave offenses. I impeach -him in the name of the House of Commons, whose confidence he has -deceived; I impeach him in the name of the English nation, whose -ancient honor he has soiled; I impeach him in the name of the -Hindoo people, whose rights he has trodden under foot and whose -country he has made a desert; finally, in the name of nature -herself, in the name of men and women, in the name of all times, -in the name of all ranks, I impeach the common enemy and -oppressor of all." - -It was with the same violence, excessive and unjust in the -passion of its justice, that Burke pursued the public prosecution -against Warren Hastings. The trial lasted ten years. Proclaimed -from 1785 in the House of Commons, sometimes ardently, sometimes -languidly, sustained before the House of Lords since 1788, it was -only in 1795, and when national attention was directed elsewhere -upon the actual and neighboring dramas of the French revolution, -that Warren Hastings, old and almost ruined, was finally -acquitted by the House of Lords, the greater portion of whose -members had not assisted at the beginning of the trial. "The -impeachment has taken place before one generation," said Hastings -himself, "the sentence has been pronounced by its children." The -accusers, like the judges, were scattered, drawn into various -paths by political passion. -{336} -Burke no longer fought with Fox, nor Wyndham with Lord Grey and -Sheridan. Public opinion, formerly severe on the accused, had -softened. The length of the trial had placed the crimes of -Hastings among the facts belonging to history; it had brought to -light the eminent services which he had rendered to the country. -When he entered the retreat from which he was only to emerge at -rare intervals, Hastings was accompanied there by public favor. -It remained faithful to him even to the end of his long life. -After having struggled, governed and suffered with the same -calmness and the same evenness of mind which he brought towards -the end of his career to the peaceful study of literature, Warren -Hastings died at Daylesford, the ancient manor of his fathers, -which he had formerly bought and embellished, on the 22nd of -August [1818], at the age of eighty-five years. - -Warren Hastings was yet alive, and America had long become an -independent and free nation. India was conquered and henceforth -submissive to English law. Hereafter it was on the European scene -exclusively that great dramas and great actors were to appear. - -{337} - - Chapter XXXVII. - - George III. - Pitt And The French Revolution. - (1783-1801). - - -I have endeavored to analyze the far distant questions, which for -a long time agitated the English nation, and I now return to the -events more directly bearing on its internal life and policy. I -encounter at the outset, with profound satisfaction, that wise, -able, and powerful minister, who has ever remained the type of a -great statesman in a free country. His history is that of his -country, of her glory as well as of her misfortunes; he lived for -her, and died when he believed her vanquished, without carrying -into the tomb any presentiment of final victory and noble reward -of his indefatigable efforts. - -William Pitt was scarcely twenty-four years of age, when he -refused to accept the power offered him by George III. He -determined, upon the formation of the coalition ministry of North -and Fox, that he would not ally himself with either party, but -would hold himself in reserve and act with that party which -appeared to him to be in the right. Before the end of the -session, Pitt found himself at the head of the opposition by his -own judgment, as well as by the spontaneous movement of public -opinion, openly and justly adverse to the alliance of the Whigs -and Tories,--the partisans and the adversaries of American -independence. - -{338} - -The affairs of India were upon a hazardous and uncertain footing; -the ministers of the coalition had nevertheless resolved to -radically change the administration of that country, by the -formation of a Council of seven persons, having authority to -appoint and to dismiss all agents, and to administer the -government at their will, regardless of the charters of the East -India Company and its established rights. It was in consequence -of a necessity that each day became more and more urgent, that -Mr. Fox employed his powerful arguments against the disorders and -abuses which reigned in the administration of India. "What is a -charter?" impudently asked Attorney-General Lee; "it is only a -piece of parchment, with a seal of wax hanging from one of the -corners." All English regard for acquired rights and precedents, -revolted at this cynical remark. "Necessity is the argument of -tyrants, and the law of slaves," said Pitt. - -The members of the new Indian council were all intimate friends -of the coalition. "The bill upon the Indian question which Fox -has presented, will be decisive, one way or the other, for or -against the ministry," wrote Pitt to his friend the Duke of -Rutland. "I thoroughly believe that the measure is the boldest -and most unconstitutional that has ever been attempted; since it -throws, by a single blow, in spite of all charters and contracts, -an immense influence and patronage in the East into the hands of -Charles Fox,--in power or out of power. I believe that this bill -will meet with much opposition. The ministry have risked all on a -venture upon which they will probably be defeated." - -All the efforts of the opposition in the House of Commons failed. -The Indian bill passed by a large majority. Burke, eager already -to pursue those crimes and abuses which he was one day to -overwhelm with the thunders of his eloquence, gave his support to -the bill. He delivered in the house a noble eulogy on that -friend, from whom he was one day to separate himself with so much -applause. Said he, "Fox is traduced and abused for his supposed -motives. -{339} -He will remember that obloquy is a necessary ingredient in the -composition of all true glory: he will remember that it was not -only in the Roman customs, but it is in the nature and -constitution of things, that calumny and abuse are essential -parts of triumph. He is now on a great eminence, where the eyes -of mankind are turned to him. He may live long, he may do much; -but here is the summit: he never can exceed what he does this -day. He has faults, but they are faults that, though they may in -a small degree tarnish the lustre, and sometimes impede the march -of his abilities, have nothing in them to extinguish the fire of -great virtues. In those faults there is no mixture of deceit, of -hypocrisy, of pride, of ferocity, of complexional despotism, or -want of feeling for the distresses of mankind. His are faults, -which might exist in a descendant of Henry IV. of France, as they -did exist, in that Father of his country." - -The House of Lords was less inclined to reject the bill than Pitt -had believed. "As much as I abhor tyranny under any form," said -Lord Thurlow, "I oppose energetically this strange attempt to -destroy the equilibrium of our Constitution. I desire to see the -crown respected and powerful; but if the present bill should -pass, it will be no longer worthy of the support of a man of -honor." The ex-chancellor, boldly facing the Prince of Wales, who -at this time was Mr. Fox's personal friend and admirer, added: -"In fact, the king will take the crown from his own head, and -place it upon that of Mr. Fox." - -George III. was more courageous than prudent, and more occupied -with the rights of the crown than with parliamentary privileges. -He charged Lord Temple to make it known in the house, that he -"regarded all those who voted for the Indian bill, not only as -unfriendly, but also as enemies." The mission had its effect; the -adjournment of the measure was voted. -{340} -The Commons, in their turn, offended by the royal intervention, -censured openly those who had provoked it. The struggle between -the two houses increased. On the night of the 18th of December, -1783, Mr. Fox and Lord North received orders to surrender their -seals of office. The following day, as Parliament sat agitated -and expectant, there entered the House of Commons a young member, -Mr. Pepper Arden, who at once offered a resolution proposing to -convoke the electors of the borough of Appleby, in order to elect -a new representative in place of the very Hon. William Pitt, who -had just accepted the post of First Lord of the Treasury and -Chancellor of the Exchequer. The move was so bold that at first -it excited only incredulity and pleasantry. The opposition -supposed that the young minister, finding himself in a minority -in the House of Commons, would call for a dissolution. "No one -will admit," said Fox, "that such a prerogative ought to be used, -solely to serve the purposes of an ambitious young man. As for -me, I declare in the face of this house, if the dissolution takes -place, and they do not give good and solid reasons for it, I will -pledge myself, if I have the honor to sit in the new Parliament, -to propose a serious inquiry into this affair, and to compel -those who have proposed it to render an account." - -Pitt, however, was wiser and bolder than his adversaries -anticipated; he resolved to allow the country time to gain -confidence in his abilities; to the passions excited by the -contest, time to betray their motives and their consequences. He -had great difficulty in forming his cabinet. Lord Temple, who -accepted the office of Secretary of State, soon resigned, through -spite and personal caprice. The Dukes of Rutland and Richmond, -Lord Gower, Lord Thurlow and Dundas had nevertheless consented to -join the ministry. -{341} -The young chief resolutely faced the struggle. The houses were to -reassemble on the 12th of January, 1784. "Do not quit your house -nor dismiss a single servant before you see the result of the -12th," wrote Fox to Lord Northington. "Mr. Pitt is able to do -whatever he wishes during the recess," said the friends of Fox. - -On the 30th of December, the new Premier wrote to his mother, -that he trusted she believed that it was not from choice that he -had so long kept silence; in general, he said, things were more -satisfactory than they appeared; and when one was uncertain -regarding a result, the conviction that one was not wrong, was -sometimes sufficient, especially when there was nothing better; -there was besides a certain satisfaction in hoping for something -more. - -The first effort of the opposition tended to prevent the -dissolution. Fox boldly contested the right to dissolve, in the -midst of a session. Pitt sustained the attack, with a lofty and -courageous boldness; he had no intention, he said, to counsel the -king to dissolve, but he was not able to pledge himself never to -give an advice that might become necessary. Accused of having -used secret influences, he responded with disdain, that he had -not come there through back-stairs influences, but when sent for -by the king, had simply obeyed orders; he had used no secret -influences, and he trusted that his integrity would be sufficient -to preserve him from this danger: "I have neither meanness -enough," said he, fixing his eyes on the opposition, "to act -under the concealed influence of others, nor hypocrisy to -pretend, where the measures of an administration, in which I had -share, were blamed, that they were measures not of my advising; -and this is the only answer I shall ever deign to make on the -subject." - -{342} - -Pitt was beaten at the outset upon a parliamentary question, and -again when he presented the bill which he had substituted, for -the project planned by his adversaries for the government of -India. The council which he proposed was to have no share of the -patronage. "My intention is," said he, "to institute a council of -political control, in place of a council of political influence." -General Conway accused the cabinet of corrupt practices in the -country. Pitt interrupted him: "I have the right," said he, "to -summon the very honorable General to specify a case where the -agents of the ministers have overrun the country, practising -corruption. These are assertions that ought not to be made unless -one is able to prove them. As for my honor, I intend to remain -the only judge of that; I have at least the same advantage over -the honorable general that the young Scipio had over the veteran -Fabius: _Si mulla allia re, modestia certe et temperando -linguæ adolescens senem vicero._" - -A certain dissatisfaction began already to manifest itself among -the opposing majority. The violence of Fox had surpassed all -bounds; in the opinion of the country, it counterbalanced the -recent violence of the king. The young minister gained ground; a -proof of his rare disinterestedness had impressed the minds of -the people most favorably. Sir Edward Walpole, youngest son of -the great minister, had just died. He held the clerkship of -Pells, a life sinecure, which was worth £3000 per year. Pitt had -no fortune; his friends urged him to appropriate this revenue. -The minister refused, and profited by this conjuncture to provide -for Col. Barré, who previously had from the Rockingham Ministry a -pension of ^3,200. Barré renounced his pension and became clerk -of the Pells. "I avow," said Lord Thurlow, some weeks later, in -the House of Lords, "I had the baseness to counsel Mr. Pitt to -appropriate this office, which had so honorably fallen to him, -and I believe that it will not be to my discredit, since so many -high in authority have done likewise." -{343} -Some independent members made advances to Pitt; they had -conceived vain projects of conciliation: they failed. A struggle -to the death had begun. "The question was," said Dr. Johnson, -"who should govern England: the sceptre of George III. or the -tongue of Charles Fox?" Two addresses, begging him to dismiss his -ministers, were successively sent to the king. - -Fox was vanquished in advance, and by his own fault; he had -attacked that equilibrium of the Constitution, dear to all good -citizens, and to honest men who are not irrevocably bound in the -dangerous bonds of party spirit. He threatened to suspend the -supplies, and proposed to limit to two months the duration of the -mutiny act, usually voted for a year. In vain did he employ, in -order to defend his conduct, all the marvellous resources of his -eloquence. A great remonstrance to the king, that he had prepared -with care, passed by the majority of a single voice. The supply -and the mutiny bills were passed without difficulty. "The enemy -seems to be upon its back," wrote Pitt to the Duke of Rutland, on -the 10th of March, 1784; and to his mother on the 16th, he wrote, -"I regard our actual situation as a triumph in comparison with -what it was. My joy is doubled by the thought that it extends -even to you, and gives you satisfaction." - -The moment to make an appeal to the country had finally come. -After three months of courageous and bold patience, Pitt -counselled the king to dissolve parliament. When the writs of -convocation were about to be issued, the great seal had -disappeared; it has never been known by whom or for what purpose -the theft was committed In twenty-four hours the loss was -repaired, as it had been after the flight of King James II., who -had thrown his great seal into the Thames. -{344} -On the 24th of March, 1784, the king presented himself at the -House of Lords, and said: "After having well considered the -present situation of affairs and the extraordinary circumstances -which have produced it, I have decided to put an end to this -session of Parliament. I feel that it is my duty towards the -Constitution and the country, to make an appeal to the good sense -of my people, as soon as possible, by convoking a new -Parliament." - -Never were elections more enthusiastic, never was success more -complete than that of the cabinet. One hundred and sixty friends -of Fox lost their seats. His own election at Westminster was for -a long time uncertain. Neither his resolution nor his presence of -mind deserted him. "The bad news spreads on all sides," wrote he -to one of his friends; "but it seems to me that misfortunes, when -they crowd in upon us, should have the effect of increasing our -courage instead of intimidating it." - -The electoral contest was prolonged at Westminster for forty -days. The Prince of Wales appeared on the hustings as a partisan -of Fox, and the first ladies of the Whig party, the beautiful -Duchess of Devonshire at their head, lavished their smiles upon -the electors, for their votes. The majority for the great orator -was left a matter of doubt; fraudulent practises had, it was -charged, been employed, and the High Sheriff Corbet refused to -make an official proclamation of the result, without a -Parliamentary investigation. Fox was nevertheless assured of a -seat. Sir Thomas Dundas had already named him for the borough of -Kirkwell, of which he had the disposal. - -Before the dissolution, the king had strengthened in the House of -Lords the number of the partisans of Mr. Pitt, by three -elevations to the peerage; following the elections, he manifested -anew his firm resolution to support his minister by creating -seven new peers. Henceforth the sovereign and the country were in -accord; the opening of the session proved clearly the ascendancy -of the minister. - -{345} - -The great financial measures which Pitt had prepared were voted -by large majorities: they were new as well as daring. The imposts -upon tea and alcohol were lowered, in the hope of destroying -contraband trade. New imposts and a new loan, largely offered to -the public, re-established the equilibrium of the budget. -"However painful may be my task to-day," said the minister, "the -necessity of the country forbidding all hesitation, I confide in -the good sense and patriotism of the English people. As minister -of the finances, I have adopted this motto: To conceal nothing -from the public." The bill upon the administration in India -passed without great effort, as well as the measure of Dundas for -the restitution to the legitimate owners, of all the property -confiscated during the rebellion of 1745. The proposition of -Alderman Sawbridge for parliamentary reform was rejected. Pitt -remained faithful to his convictions: he voted on that occasion -with the minority, promising to renew the question himself during -the next session. - -Parliament met on the 25th of January, 1785. Its first business -was to consider the alleged frauds in the election of Fox at -Westminster. The constitutional authority was insufficient, and -the two parties employed every resource of chicanery. The -illustrious adversaries freely made use of reproaches and -insults. Fox at this time was large and robust; his black hair -always in disorder, yet profusely powdered; cordial and frank -with his friends, greatly enjoying life, ever ready for all -material or intellectual pleasures, brilliantly and powerfully -eloquent, without care or preparation; attacking each adversary -in his turn, and solely occupying himself in demolishing him. -{346} -Pitt's health was delicate; he was tall and slim, a little lofty -in his manners as well as in his mind; confiding with his -intimate friends, but reserved and cold with most of his -partisans. He had from infancy studied the art of eloquence; not -that sweeping and impassioned eloquence that distinguished Lord -Chatham, and that the illustrious father sought to impart to his -young son, as when placing him before him on a table, he cried: -"Do you see the scoundrels who are there before you, and who wish -to hang you? Defend thyself, William, defend thyself!" The -eloquence of Pitt was naturally powerful. Lucid, forcible, -convincing, perfect in expression as well as in arrangement, it -left in the minds of his contemporaries the impression of an -incontestable superiority over the most brilliant orators of his -time, over Burke himself as well as over Sheridan. - -Pitt was beaten upon the question of the election at Westminster. -Lord North and his friends gained an equal victory on the -question of parliamentary reform. Moderate and restrained in its -application, it attacked nevertheless the principle of close -boroughs, and intended to increase the representation of the -cities. Fox voted for the measure, although it did not meet his -entire approval. The day had not yet arrived when the force of -public opinion would compel the members of the House of Commons -to vote against their own rights and titles. Pitt felt this, and -did not pursue his project. After a brilliant and obstinate -discussion, and in consequence of the national and parliamentary -jealousies of Ireland, he was also compelled to withdraw the bill -regarding commercial intercourse between the two countries. - -Fox declared himself the irreconcilable enemy of free exchange. -The Irish Parliament was unnecessarily alarmed regarding its -legislative independence. "I do not wish to barter English -commerce against the slavery of Ireland," said Mr. Grattan, "that -is not the price I wish to pay; that is not the merchandise I -wish to buy." - -{347} - -The defeat of his liberal measures in favor of Ireland, was a -great disappointment to Mr. Pitt: he had just carried, with great -success, his bill for the establishment of a sinking fund placed -under control of Parliament. At the end of the session of 1786, -which is memorable for the opening of the great and celebrated -trial of Warren Hastings, the minister was engaged in negotiating -a commercial treaty with France. Scarcely had Parliament -re-assembled, when the measure was violently attacked. "I do not -contend," said Fox, "that France is, and ought to remain, the -irreconcilable enemy of England, and that it is impossible to -experience a secret desire of living amicably with that kingdom. -It is possible, but scarcely probable. I not only doubt her good -intentions toward us, at this time, but I do not believe in them. -France is naturally the political enemy of Great Britain; in -concluding with us a commercial treaty, she wishes to tie our -hands, and so prevent us from forming an alliance with any other -power." - -Pitt judged better and more accurately those international -questions which were destined so soon to disturb the peace of the -world. In advance, and protesting in the name of eternal justice -against the violent struggle that the unloosing of human passions -would compel him to sustain against revolutionary France, whether -anarchical or absolute, he declared, with indignation, that his -mind revolted against the idea that any nation could be the -unalterable foe of another; it had no foundation in experience or -history; it was a libel on the constitution of political society; -and situated as England was, opposite France, it was highly -important for the good of the two countries to put an end to that -constant enmity that has falsely been said to be the foundation -of the true sentiments of the two nations. -{348} -The treaty, he insisted, tended to improve the facilities for -prosecuting war and at the same time also retarded its approach. -The treaty was signed, notwithstanding the bitter reproaches of -Sir Philip Francis, who accused Pitt of destroying with his hands -the work of his illustrious father. "The glory of Lord Chatham is -founded on the resistance he made to the united power of the -House of Bourbon. The present minister has taken the opposite -road to fame, and France, the object of every hostile principle -in the policy Lord Chatham's, is the _gens amicissima_ of -his son." - -To the difficulties which Mr. Pitt's financial measures -encountered, were added the internal embarrassments of the -country. The prince was passionately attached to the opposition. -He had sustained Fox in his contest against the royal -prerogative; with much more reason all his influence had been -exerted against the cabinet of Mr. Pitt. The prince, -nevertheless, needed the co-operation of the king as well as of -the minister. Besides the serious annoyances which his debts cost -him, he had aggravated his situation by his secret marriage -(December 21st, 1783), with Mrs. Fitzherbert, a young Catholic -widow, contrary to the law, which interdicted to princes any -union not having the royal assent. The religion of Mrs. -Fitzherbert added another difficulty to the situation. - -Fox had sincerely and honestly disapproved of the conduct of the -prince, and had also warned him that it would be impossible to -keep the secret. When his apprehensions were realized, and when -pamphlets as well parliamentary allusions, compelled the friends -of the prince to speak out. Fox accepted the disagreeable duty of -denying a fact of which he had grave doubts. -{349} -"I deny absolutely that there is any truth in this marriage," -said he. "It not only would be illegal, but it has never taken -place. It is a monstrous calumny, a miserable calumny, a low, -malicious falsehood." Do you speak with authority, [he] was -asked? "Yes," responded Fox, "with direct authority." The -pecuniary affairs of the prince were regulated by the House of -Commons; his debts were paid, without discussion. Pitt had -obtained, with great difficulty, a message from the king, -recommending to the house the request of his son. - -Everywhere the same firm and elevated principles, governmental as -well as liberal, inspired the conduct of Mr. Pitt. He had voted -against the abolition of the test act, demanded by the -Dissenters, because he believed the time was not propitious; -asserting, however, that he was favorable to the principles of -the measure. Pre-occupied by the disgraceful state of the English -prisons, he sent to New South Wales an expedition which laid the -foundation of the penal colony of Botany Bay. Finally, and above -all, he joined his friend, Wilberforce, in his noble efforts for -the abolition of the slave trade. Upon this question of humanity -and justice, Burke and Fox joined with their illustrious -adversary. "I have no scruple in declaring that the slave trade -ought to be, not regulated, but abolished," said Mr. Fox. "I have -thoroughly studied the question, and I had the intention of -presenting some remarks thereupon, but I rejoice to see the -matter in the hands of the honorable representative from the -county of York, rather than in my own. I sincerely believe it -will there have more weight, authority, and, chances of success." -Mr. Fox was right in rendering this homage to the pure and -disinterested virtue of Wilberforce. In the midst of the -brilliant excitements of his life, Fox had neither the leisure -nor the ardor of conviction, necessary to undertake and -accomplish the charitable and holy work to which Wilberforce and -his Christian friends had consecrated their lives. - -{350} - -External troubles for a moment threatened the uncertain peace; -the grave dissatisfaction existing between the stadtholder -William V., cousin of King George III., and the Dutch patricians, -had come to an open rupture, and the Princess of Orange was -publicly insulted. Her brother Frederick William II. of Prussia, -marched troops upon the territory of the republic. The feeble -government of Louis XVI. limited itself to a manifesto in favor -of the States-General. England prepared to sustain the -stadtholder, but the Prussian soldiers proved sufficient to -intimidate the patriots in Holland. The Prince of Orange made a -triumphant entry to the Hague; an offensive and defensive -alliance was concluded by England with Holland and Prussia. The -Czar and the Sultan had taken up arms. The King of Sweden, -Gustavus III., invaded Russia. The internal embarrassments and -troubles of France prevented her from interfering in any -quarrels. England was strong and powerful; she had firmly -established her alliances in Europe, and at home the power of -Pitt seemed founded upon the strongest basis. Mr. Fox, -discouraged, and awaiting better chances of success, departed for -Italy. A sad and unexpected event suddenly overturned all hopes -and all expectations. After a brief but severe illness, King -George III. totally lost his reason. - -Already, in his youth, a feeble attack of mental trouble had -excited grave fears, and necessitated a project of a regency; the -king himself comprehended the import of the symptoms that he -felt. On the 3d of November, 1788, during a ride on horseback, he -encountered his son the Duke of York, and said to him, sadly: -"Would to God that I might die, for I am going to be mad!" - -{351} - -Physicians attributed the malady of the king to an excess of work -and royal pre-occupations; his habits had always been regular, -his life had been almost patriarchial in its simplicity; his -health, nevertheless, was profoundly shattered. Consternation -reigned at Windsor. "That which is most to be feared," wrote Pitt -to Dr. Tomline, his intimate friend, the Bishop of Lincoln, "is -the effect upon his reason. If this lasts long it will lead to a -crisis the most difficult and delicate that one can imagine, when -it shall be necessary to provide for continuing the government. -Some weeks will pass, nevertheless, before it becomes necessary -to come to a decision, but the interval will be full of -uneasiness." The direction of the royal house had already fallen -into the hands of the Prince of Wales. The physicians could give -no opinion upon the duration of the king's malady. - -Parliament assembled on the 20th of November. Pitt, solely -occupied with the interests of the country, desired to restrain -the regency by legislative authority. Chancellor Thurlow, -however, was intriguing secretly with the Prince of Wales and the -opposition, to retain his position, recently promised by Fox to -Lord Loughborough, who had suggested to the Prince the bold -project of seizing the regency. Fox's return from Italy was -anxiously awaited. When he arrived at London, on the 24th of -November, the houses were prorogued to the 14th of December. -Proudly silent upon the perfidious maneuvres of his colleague, -Pitt addressed no reproaches to Lord Thurlow, but he confided the -direction of the House of Lords to the venerable Lord Camden. Fox -energetically opposed the suggestions of Lord Loughborough, -regretting that he was constrained to break his word. "I have -swallowed the pill," wrote he to Sheridan; "it was very bitter, -and I have written to Lord Loughborough, who will not naturally -respond by consenting. What remains to be done? Is it the prince -in person, or you, or I, who shall speak to the chancellor? I do -not remember ever in all my life of having felt so ill at ease -regarding a political affair." - -{352} - -The king had been taken to Kew, very much against his will. The -chancellor and Mr. Pitt went there to see him. Miss Burney, the -author, and one of the ladies of honor of the queen, reports -that: "the chancellor came into the king's presence, with the -same trepidation that he inspired in others; and when he quitted -the king he was so overcome by the state of his royal master and -patron, that tears ran down his cheeks, and he had great -difficulty in supporting himself. Mr. Pitt was more calm, but -expressed his grief with so much respect and affection that the -universal admiration here felt towards him was increased." - -When the houses re-assembled, Mr. Pitt presented the report of -the physicians; a new doctor, Mr. Willis, gave more hope of a -speedy cure than his associates; parliamentary maneuvres extended -even to the faculty, and the parties disputed with the doctors. -Mr. Fox proposed, from the first, to place the reins of power, -without contest, in the hands of the Prince of Wales. Without -regard to the supreme authority of parliament in such a matter, -he sustained the theory of hereditary right, with an energy so -far removed from his ordinary habit, that Mr. Pitt jocosely -remarked: "Now I'll _unwhig_ this gentleman for the rest of -his days." - -"Imagine the lack of judgment Fox has shown by putting himself -and his friends in such an embarrassing position," wrote -Wilberforce; "he perceived that what he had said had offended so -many people that he was obliged to seize the first favorable -occasion to explain and extenuate his words. -{353} -After this retraction, Sheriden terminated the day by a worse -blunder than I have ever seen committed by a man of any -intelligence. Since I have been in Parliament the battles have -been warm enough, but I do not remember of ever having heard such -a tumult as he raised by threatening us with the danger of -exciting the Prince of Wales, and urging him to vindicate his -rights: these are exactly the expressions used. You comprehend -what an advantage all this gives us; above all, when there is -joined thereto our great hope of the king's recovery." - -The favorable progress in the malady of the King, decided the -chancellor to renounce his treachery. When the Duke of York -declared in the House of Lords that his eldest brother claimed no -rights, but desired to place his authority entirely in the hands -of Parliament, Lord Thurlow, quitting the wool-sack, followed -him, protesting his inviolable attachment and fidelity to the -sovereign who had governed England for twenty-seven years with -the most religious respect for its Constitution. He was moved by -his own words, troubled perhaps, by the recollection of his -secret perfidy, and finally concluded: "If ever I forget my king, -may God forget me!" A murmur of disgust followed: the intrigues -of the chancellor were well known. Pitt rushed precipitately from -the hall, his heart bursting with contempt. "Oh the wretch! the -wretch!" repeated he loudly. - -The resolutions proposed by Pitt recognized the exclusive right -of Parliament to confer the regency. In an ardent and eloquent -address, Fox sustained the pretensions of the Prince of Wales, -declaring that Pitt would never have thought of limiting his -power if he had not felt that he did not merit the prince's -confidence, and that he would never be minister. -{354} -"With regard to my feeling myself unworthy of the confidence of -the Prince," said Pitt, "all that I am able to say is that there -is only one way for me, or any other, to merit it; that is to do -what I have done by seeking constantly in the public service to -do my duty towards the king, his father, and towards the entire -country. If by seeking to merit thus the confidence of the -prince, he finds that I have lost it, in fact; however painful -and disagreeable this circumstance may be for me, I should regret -it; but I say boldly that it would be impossible to repent of -it." - -The Regency Bill contained grave restrictions to the power of the -Prince of Wales. The queen had charge of the person of the king, -and the prince had no authority to dispose of the royal property. -He was not permitted to grant the reversion of any office, nor -any pension or place without the consent of his majesty. The -prince was passionately irritated, and responded to the -communication of the minister, by a letter, that Burke had -dictated, as firm and clever as it was eloquent. Mr. Pitt -remained firm. The public were aware of the animosity that -existed between the minister, still powerful, the foolish king, -and that parliamentary and princely opposition which appeared -upon the point of seizing the power. The friends of Pitt, -realizing the sad condition of his financial affairs, preoccupied -themselves to relieve the same. A meeting of bankers and -merchants offered to Mr. Pitt a gift of £100,000, raised by -subscription, in the city London, within twenty-four hours. He -refused, without hesitation. The situation was prolonged. The -minister sought occasion for delay; for each day the king's -health improved. The five propositions of the Regency Bill had -been voted by the House of Commons, and the third reading was -announced in the House of Lords. Dr. Willis informed Mr. Pitt and -the chancellor that the convalescence of the king might be -announced. -{355} -On the 17th of February 1789, the minister wrote to his mother: -"You have seen that for several days the news from Kew improves; -the public bulletin this morning says the king continues to -improve in his convalescence. The particular news is that -according to all appearances he looks perfectly well, and that if -he continues to act sanely, they will at once declare him cured. -It remains for us to wait and see how he will support the state -in which he will find public affairs. But considering these -circumstances, the Bill will probably be adjourned, in the House -of Commons, until Monday; and if our hopes are then realized, the -project of the regency will probably be modified so as to apply -to an extremely short interval, or perhaps be entirely set aside. -This news will afford you sufficient pleasure to pardon the -brevity of my letter." - -Four days later, the king renewed with Mr. Pitt that -correspondence, somewhat formal, but nevertheless, cordial and -kindly, which reflects so much honor on both the sovereign and -the minister. - -On the 23rd of February, 1789, George III. wrote to Mr. Pitt: - - "It is with infinite satisfaction that I renew my - correspondence with Mr. Pitt, by acquainting him with my having - seen the Prince of Wales and my second son. Care was taken that - the conversation should be general and cordial. They seemed - perfectly satisfied. I chose the meeting should be in the - queen's apartment, that all parties might have that caution, - which, at the present hour, could but be judicious. I desire - Mr. Pitt will confer with the Lord Chancellor, that any steps - which may be necessary for raising the annual supplies, or any - measures that the interests of the nation may require, should - not be unnecessarily delayed; for I feel the warmest gratitude - for the support and anxiety shown by the nation at large during - my tedious illness, which I should ill requite if I did not - wish to prevent any further delay in those public measures - which it may be necessary to bring forward this year; though I - must decline entering into a pressure of business, and, indeed, - for the rest of my life, shall expect others to fulfil the - duties of their employments, and only keep that superintending - eye which can be effected without labor or fatigue. -{356} - "I am anxious to see Mr. Pitt any hour that may suit him - to-morrow morning, as his constant attachment to my interest - and that of the public, which are inseparable, must ever place - him in the most advantageous light. - - G. R." - -The power now fell into the eager hands of the Prince of Wales -and his friends. The people were as demonstrative in their joy as -they had been in their anxiety for the king. The popularity and -authority of Pitt were at their height: he was master of the -entire country, as well as of the House of Commons; the elections -of 1790 clearly proved this. - -Only prudent and far-seeing statesmen turned their attention to -the internal state of France. The mass of the English nation had -not, as yet, felt that electric influence that our country has -always exercised over her neighbors, for the happiness or -misfortune of Europe. Already the diverging tendencies manifested -themselves among minds which had up to this time felt powerfully -the same impressions and followed the same direction. After the -taking of the Bastile, Fox wrote with transport: "How much the -greatest event it is that ever happened in the world, and how -much the best!" Burke, on the contrary, wrote to one of his -friends: "You hope that I hold the French worthy of liberty; -assuredly, I believe that all men who desire it, merit it. It is -not the recompense of our virtues nor the result of our labor. It -is our heritage. We have a right to it from our birth; but when -liberty is separated from justice, neither one nor the other -appear to be safe." - -{357} - -Some weeks later, at the opening of Parliament, Burke allowed -himself to be carried away by his prejudices to a gloomy and -severe review of the beginning of the French Revolution. "Since -the house has been prorogued," said he, "there has been much work -done in France. The French have shown themselves the ablest -architects of ruin that have appeared in the world: in one short -summer they have completely pulled down their monarchy, their -church, their nobility, their law, their army and their revenue. -They have done their business for us as rivals in a way in which -twenty Ramillies and Blenheims could never have done. Were we -absolute conquerors, with France prostrate at our feet, we should -blush to impose on them terms so destructive to their national -consequence as the durance they have imposed on themselves." - -Pitt did not join in the joyous enthusiasm of Fox, regarding the -first and tumultuous efforts of the National Assembly and the -French people; still less did he abandon himself to the gloomy -forebodings of Burke. "The convulsions which now agitate France," -said he, "will lead one day or another to general harmony and -regular order; and although this situation will render France -more formidable, it will perhaps render her less dangerous as a -neighbor. I desire the re-establishment of tranquillity in that -country, although it seems to me as yet far removed. When her -system shall be re-established, and that system proclaims -liberty, well defined, the liberty proceeding from order and good -government, France will become one of the most brilliant powers -of the world. I am unable to regard with distrust, those -tendencies in neighboring states that so closely resemble the -sentiments which characterize the English people." - -{358} - -The excesses and disorders of revolutionary passions, which were -soon to threaten Europe with a vast conflagration, turned Mr. -Pitt from his benevolent views. He was reproached, when -subsequently he was compelled to struggle against the revolution, -both at home and abroad, for not being inclined to the violences -of Burke. It was his glory always to choose that difficult path, -alone worthy of men called by God to govern their fellow -creatures, that path which remains equally distant from either -extreme, and which resists the excesses of liberty as well as the -arbitrary tendencies of absolutism. In England, Mr. Pitt -repressed both the revolutionary passions and the tendencies to -despotism; upon the Continent, in his efforts against the -contagious violence of France, he branded as infamous the frenzy -of the Reign of Terror, and he protected the threatened European -governments, as he subsequently defended the national liberties, -against the encroachments and ambitions of absolute power. - -The disagreement existing between the two chiefs of the -opposition first publicly manifested itself upon the -presentation, by Mr. Pitt, of a bill regarding the internal -administration of Canada. The state of France occupied all minds; -allusions to France entered into all discussions. Some -expressions used by Fox had wounded Burke: he resolved to -publicly define his position. Fox was informed of this intention; -he went to the house of Burke, praying him to delay, at least, -before commencing hostilities. Burke, for the last time, entered -the House of Commons arm in arm with Fox. The entire opposition -were uneasy and excited; they attempted to prevent the discussion -by recalling the orators to the affairs of Canada. -{359} -Burke would not permit himself to be turned aside: he immediately -attacked Mr. Fox for the fatal counsels he had given to England; -and suppressing the title of friend that he was accustomed to -give "that very honorable member," he said: "Certainly, it is -indiscreet at any period, but especially at my time of life, to -provoke enemies or give my friends occasion to desert me; yet if -my firm and steady adherence to the British Constitution place me -in such a dilemma, I am ready to risk all, and with my last words -to exclaim--'Fly from the French Constitution!'" Fox here -whispered that there was "no loss of friendship." "Yes," solemnly -exclaimed Burke, "I regret to say there is. I know the value of -my line of conduct. I have indeed made a great sacrifice. I have -done my duty, though I have lost my friend. There is something in -the accursed French Revolution, which envenoms everything it -touches." - -Burke seated himself. When Fox rose to respond, he remained, for -some moments, standing, unable to speak. The tears ran down his -cheeks. The whole house was moved like himself. When he found -words to reply, it was with touching tenderness, that he spoke of -"the very honorable member, but lately his most intimate friend." -He declared that he had ever felt the highest veneration for the -judgment of his honorable friend, by whom he had been instructed -more than by all other men and books together; by whom he had -been taught to love our Constitution; from whom he had acquired -nearly all his political knowledge, certainly all that he most -valued; and that the separation would be most grievous to him to -the end of his life. He was nevertheless firm in his belief that -"the new Constitution of France, considered altogether, was the -most stupendous and glorious edifice of liberty which had been -erected on the foundation of human integrity in any time or -country." The ancient despotism had disappeared, and the new -system had for its object the happiness of the people. Upon this -ground he would continue to stand. - -{360} - -Some hasty words of Burke confirmed the rupture. Fox did not -continue the discussion; but a friendship of twenty-five years, -cemented by their united efforts in behalf of American liberty, -sank beneath the waves of the French Revolution, to the grief and -amazement of the representatives of the English nation. Separated -from his former friends, Burke formed no new ties: sometimes -passionate and exalted, always loyal and sincere, he had -sacrificed all to his conscience. With the progress of events in -France, a certain number of Whigs embraced the opinions that -Burke had proclaimed at the outset; when the phalanx formed -behind him, he continued to march with a firm step at the head of -the resistance. "We have made many enemies here, and no friends, -by the part we have taken," wrote Burke, regarding himself and -his son, to the agent of the French emigrants; "in order to serve -you we have associated with those with whom we have no natural -affiliations. We have left our business, we have broken our -engagements. For one mortification that you have suffered, we -have endured twenty. But the cause of humanity demands it." - -The disturbances in Europe began to have some effect in England, -and even in Parliament; a momentary disagreement with Spain was -terminated in a satisfactory manner, but the persistent -hostilities between Russia and the Porte appeared to necessitate -an increase of the naval forces. Mr. Pitt presented a bill to -this effect, which was coldly received by the house. He withdrew -it in time to avoid a defeat, not however without a decrease of -his renown at home and abroad. -{361} -Notwithstanding the growing apprehensions of the friends of -France, and the anxiety that the situation of King Louis XVI. -inspired, Pitt resolutely maintained the neutrality of England. -When the declaration of Pilnitz, signed by the Emperor of Austria -and the King of Prussia, appealed to all the sovereigns of Europe -to aid the King of France, by arms, if necessary, England -remained deaf to the appeal. Pitt refused to lend to the emigre -princes the funds necessary for their military operations. - -In the address from the throne, on the 31st of January, 1792, -George III. expressed the firm hope of seeing peace maintained; -he even counselled a diminution of the land and naval forces. -With an assurance more bold than prudent, Pitt announced in his -Budget, a progressive reduction of the taxes. He said, that -though he was aware of the many contingencies which, by -disturbing the public tranquillity, might prevent such a design, -yet there never was a time, in the history of this country, when, -from the situation of Europe, fifteen years of peace might more -reasonably be expected, than at the present moment. Still -occupied exclusively with internal questions, Pitt sustained, -energetically, the bill for the abolition of the slave trade, -proposed anew by Wilberforce and his friends; he regulated the -legislation regarding the press, henceforth relegated to the -jurisdiction of a jury; finally, he presented a bill regarding -loans. - -Since the illness of the king, and the treachery he had -meditated, Lord Thurlow had remained secretly hostile to Pitt. On -the 15th of May, 1792, he vehemently and unexpectedly attacked -the financial bill, declaring that it was absurd to pretend to -dictate to future parliaments and to proscribe to future -ministers a line of action. - -{362} - -"None," said his lordship, "but a novice, a sycophant, a mere -reptile of a minister, would allow this act to prevent him doing -what, in his own judgment, circumstances might require at the -time; and a change in the situation of the country might render -that which is proper at one time, inapplicable at another: in -short, the scheme is nugatory and impracticable; the inaptness of -the project is only equalled by the vanity of the attempt." Pitt -finally lost all patience: he declared to the king that it was -impossible for him to continue to sit in the same cabinet with -Lord Thurlow. George III. did not hesitate; the chancellor was -ordered to deliver up the great seal to his majesty. Some months -later Lord Loughborough, who had become ardently favorable to the -minister, since the fall of Thurlow, was made chancellor -(January, 1793). - -Mr. Pitt was appointed Warden of the Cinque Ports, a rich -sinecure long held by Lord North, and now, upon the death of that -nobleman, conferred upon the minister by the king. "I will not -receive any recommendations for this office," wrote the king, -"having resolved to confer it only upon Mr. Pitt;" and when he -sent his letter to Mr. Dundas, charged to forward it to Pitt, -then absent, George III. added: "Mr. Dundas is to forward my -letter to the West, and to accompany it with a few lines, -expressing that I will not admit of this favor being denied. I -desire Lord Chatham may also write, and that Mr. Dundas will take -the first opportunity of acquainting Lord Grenville of the step I -have taken." The office was worth £3,000 per year. For the first -time Pitt consented to accept the favor which was thus imposed -upon him by his sovereign. - -Pitt was now seriously occupied with the state of Europe. The -King of Sweden, Gustavus III., had been assassinated at a masked -ball; the Emperor Leopold was dead; his son, the Emperor Francis, -in concert with the King of Prussia, declared war against France. -The position of Louis XVI. became each day more precarious. -{363} -Tossed about without hope, at one time contemplating impossible -resistance, at another, useless concessions, he had, on the 20th -of June, 1792, endured the insults and outrages of the Parisian -populace. The allied troops, under the Duke of Brunswick, had -already entered French territory. The princes of the House of -Bourbon, at the head of the emigré's, prepared themselves to -sustain the operations of the foreigners; an ill-timed manifesto -excited still further the passions of the French. On the 10th of -August, 1792, the palace of the Tuilleries was attacked, and the -Swiss guards massacred. The king, suspended from his royal -functions, was confined in the Temple, with his family; the -convention was convoked, and the prisoners in the dungeons of -Paris were murdered. - -Amidst the chaos which reigned in Paris, La Fayette, who -commanded a French army upon the frontier, could not resolve to -defend a state of things each day more contrary to his -presumptuous expectations; he secretly quitted his command, -intending to fly to America. He was arrested by the allies and -put in prison at Olmutz. General Dumouriez fought the allied army -at Jemappes, on the 6th of November, 1792. Kellerman had defeated -them at Valmy on the 20th of September; the allied troops -evacuated French territory, and the French army entered Belgium. -Savoy was already in the hands of the French troops, and General -Custine advanced into Germany. By its decree of the 19th of -November, the Convention declared, in the name of the French -nation, that they would grant succor and fraternity to every -people who desire to obtain liberty. - -{364} - -Before this supreme disregard of ancient rights and international -conventions, Mr. Pitt, still favorable to preserving neutrality, -was nevertheless alarmed at the threatened fate of Holland. He -wrote to his colleague, the Marquis of Stafford, that the strange -and unfortunate events which have succeeded each other so rapidly -upon the continent, give us ample material for serious -reflection. That which is most urgent is the situation of -Holland. However painful it may be to see this country engaged, -it seemed impossible to him, to hesitate upon the question of -sustaining our ally in case of necessity; and the explicit -declaration of our sentiments is the best way to avoid this -situation at present. Perhaps some opening would present itself -which would allow us to contribute to the termination of the war -between the different powers of Europe, by leaving France to -arrange her internal affairs as well as she could; which was, he -thought, the best plan. The trial of Louis XVI. had already -commenced. - -Pitt yet clung to the hope of an impossible peace; already Lord -Gower, the English Ambassador at Paris, had been recalled; -Chauvelin and his clever secretary Talleyrand, were in London, -but not as yet in any official capacity. Chauvelin was about to -present his credentials in the name of the French Republic, when -the condemnation and death of Louis XVI. abruptly terminated the -relations which still existed between revolutionary France and -monarchical countries. - -On the day following (January 21st, 1793), almost all England -went into mourning, and Chauvelin received his passports. An -order of recall had already been sent him from Paris. On the 1st -of February the Convention declared war against Holland. The -terrible burden of the defence of Europe against the advance of -the arms and doctrines of the French Revolution was to fall -principally upon England, and the sagacious minister who directed -her policy. The reverses which his country was to experience, and -the obstacles which she was to overcome, saddened the latter part -of the life of Mr. Pitt, and partly obscured his glory. -{365} -The principles which he advocated were nevertheless true and -eternal, and the services that he rendered to preserve the peace -and equilibrium of Europe were incomparable. He succumbed beneath -the weight of a struggle, the obstinacy of which was not foreseen -by Lord Chatham during his triumphs in 1760; by his courageous -persistence he prepared the way for the victories of Wellington. -His name, but recently reviled by so many tongues upon the -continent, and even in his own country, has remained the foremost -among those who have sustained the cause of independence and of -the liberty of nations in Europe. He has alone had the signal -honor to maintain England within the bounds of constitutional -order during the midst of revolutionary tempests, and the still -greater glory of leaving her free. - -It was not without much effort and severe internal struggles, -that the English government succeeded in preserving order and -repressing the dangerous tendencies which manifested themselves -upon divers occasions. During many years past, societies -favorable to the principles of the French revolution, destined to -spread its doctrines and create sympathies for its enthusiasts, -had been formed. Two foreigners. Dr. Joseph Priestley, the chief -of the English Unitarians, and Thomas Paine, the celebrated -author of "The Rights of Man," had been elected members of the -National Convention. The latter had taken his seat there. The -license of the revolutionary press surpassed all bounds; the -declarations and anarchical appeals engendered conspiracies as -culpable as powerless. Mr. Pitt used severe measures to repress -these. He was urged on by the chancellor, Lord Loughborough, -himself a recent and zealous convert. The charges and trials -against the press were numerous, and were more violent in -Scotland than in England, where the revolutionary maneuvres were -less bold. -{366} -The trials of Muir, and of Palmer, in 1793, and that of Hamilton -Rowan in Ireland, in 1794, preceded that of Walker at Manchester, -in April, 1794, and of Thomas Hardy, of Daniel Adams, and of John -Horne-Tooke at London, in the month of May of the same year. The -accused were at the head of the two principal revolutionary -societies: "The Society for Constitutional Information" and "The -London Corresponding Society." Mr. Pitt proposed to Parliament -the suspension of the habeas corpus; in spite of the vigorous -opposition of Fox and Sheridan, the bill was passed by a large -majority. Public opinion was powerfully aroused against the -excesses and crimes which deluged France with blood. The -exaggerated fright which the intrigues of the English -revolutionists caused, increased the agitation, and in -consequence the rigors of the government were approved by public -opinion. In Parliament the Whigs were divided. The Duke of -Portland and his friends openly sustained the minister. - -General Dumouriez had vainly endeavored to resist the power of -the Convention. He had formed culpable relations with the enemies -of France. Obliged to quit his army, he had taken refuge in -England at the moment when his friends the Girondins were -overthrown and destroyed by the Jacobins, in Paris. The Committee -of Public Safety reigned in France, and the Reign of Terror -extended its sombre veil throughout that unhappy country. The -allied forces took possession of Belgium; the French garrison at -Mayence had just surrendered, after a brave resistance; the -Austrians had seized Valenciennes and Condé, not in the name of -the young captive king, but as personal conquests of the Emperor -Francis. The national enthusiasm of France, violently excited by -these reverses, sent to the frontiers troops barely disciplined, -generals of various origin, servants of the ancient régime or new -geniuses which rose suddenly from the ranks, but all equally -animated by an ardent patriotism. -{367} -The Duke of York was repulsed before Dunkirk by General Hoche, as -the Prince of Orange at Hondschoote. The Prince of Coburg, whose -name is always found united with that of Pitt, in revolutionary -execrations, found himself constrained to raise the siege of -Maubeuge, and to recross the Sambre. In the interior, civil war -desolated Vendée; it ravished the city of Lyons. Toulon, held in -the name of Louis XVII., had called to its aid the English fleet -under Admiral Howe. The siege was eagerly pushed by the -republican troops. The artillery was commanded by a young -Corsican officer, who was soon to become General Bonaparte, and -ten years later the Emperor Napoleon. On the 18th of December, -1793, the redoubts were taken, and the allied forces were -compelled to put to sea. The English and Spanish vessels were -crowded with provincial royalists who fled the vengeance of their -compatriots. Toulon was delivered to fire and sword. - -The National Convention voted, at the instigation of Barère, a -decree ordaining that henceforth no quarter should be given to -either English or Hanoverian soldiers. The Duke of York -immediately published an order of the day--dignified and noble: -"His Royal Highness foresees the indignation which will naturally -be aroused in the minds of the brave troops whom he addresses. He -desires to remind them that mercy to the vanquished is the -brightest gem in the soldier's character; and to exhort them not -to suffer their resentment to lead them to any precipitate act of -cruelty, which may sully the reputation they have acquired in the -world. The English and Hanoverian armies are not willing to -believe that the French nation, even in its present blindness, -can so far forget its military instincts as to pay the least -attention to a decree as injurious to the troops, as disgraceful -to those who voted it." -{368} -The French army justified this noble confidence. "Kill our -prisoners!" said a sergeant, "no, no, not that! Send them all to -the Convention, that the representatives may shoot them if they -wish; the savages might also eat them, if they chose." Everywhere -in Flanders the success of the French arms was brilliant; -Brussels was retaken. Nevertheless Corsica revolted and was -annexed to Great Britain. - -Admiral Howe, on the 1st of June, 1794, gained a great victory -over the French fleet off the harbor of Brest. The bloody fall of -Robespierre and his friends, raised, for a moment, pacific hopes -in Europe; but the "war spirit" of France was not yet appeased. -General Jourdan drove back the Austrians beyond the Rhine. -Pichegru threatened Holland. Mr. Pitt advised placing the entire -military force of that country under a single commander; this -position was offered to the Duke of Brunswick, who refused it. -Upon the entreaties of Mr. Pitt, and much to his regret, George -III. recalled the young and inexperienced Duke of York. Before -the end of January, 1795, Holland was entirely in the hands of -the French, who proclaimed the Republic. The stadtholder had fled -to England. - -The disquietude and agitation were great. Upon the question of -war, Wilberforce and his friends had separated themselves from -the Cabinet. The general distress in Europe was extreme. The -public cry in London, as in Paris, was for Bread, Bread, Bread! -Riots took place in many localities; the windows of Mr. Pitt, in -Downing street, were broken, and the revolutionary intrigues -redoubled their ardor. The Society for Constitutional Information -raised its head, and claimed universal suffrage and annual -parliaments. Mr. Pitt was troubled; his gloomy forebodings, at -times, knew no bounds. "If I resign," said he, one day to Lord -Mornington, "in less than six months I will not have a head upon -my shoulders." - -{369} - -A congress assembled at Basle; the French Republic treated there -with Tuscany, Prussia, and Sweden. England secretly prepared a -descent upon the coast of Brittany, to second the royalist -uprisings of the French noblemen and peasants designated by the -name of _Chouans_. M. de Puisaye, who had negotiated this -measure with Mr. Pitt, had charge of the Emigré's. The English -fleet was successful at first. Lord Bridport captured two vessels -from Admiral Villaret-Joyeuse. The French refugees disembarked in -the Bay of Quiberon; but the command was divided, and the orders -contradictory. Disorder caused inaction. The arrival of the Count -d'Artois was anxiously awaited, but he did not appear. General -Hoche successfully attacked the little body of Emigré's. The -roughness of the sea rendered the succor of the English -ineffectual. The massacre was horrible. A certain number of -noblemen capitulated; the conditions of the surrender were not -respected; the prisoners were executed. The last military hope of -the royalists disappeared in this bloody and unfortunate -enterprise. The war of the Vendéeans and that of the Choans -terminated at the same time. - -The Constitution of the third year of the republic had just been -proclaimed in France, and the Directory had been constituted. An -attempt of the ancient Jacobins had been crushed, on the 13th -Vendémaire (October 5th, 1795), by the prompt and energetic -intervention of General Bonaparte. - -{370} - -Mr. Pitt now began to show a desire for peace. The opening of -Parliament (October 29th, 1795), was signalized by unusual -violence. Seditious cries were heard in the streets during the -passage of the king; a window of the royal carriage was broken by -a stone. Severe measures, like the Treason and Sedition Bills, -were soon presented to the houses: all insults to the royal -person, and all seditious assemblages, became liable to the -gravest penalties. Notwithstanding the eloquent and persistent -opposition of Mr. Fox and his friends in the House of Commons, -and of Lord Lansdowne in the House of Lords, the two bills passed -by a large majority. In the presence of the national and popular -dangers, the minister remained master of parliament: his measures -for the relief of public misery were received with the same -eagerness, as his bold and courageous efforts for the protection -of the public morals and the public peace. - -While these great and important events were transpiring, at home -and abroad, the Prince of Wales broke with Mrs. Fitzherbert, to -the great joy of the king and queen, who had always refused to -admit the legitimacy of the marriage. On the 8th of April, 1795, -he espoused the Princess Caroline of Brunswick; a sad and -dolorous union, the fatal consequences of which were not slow in -developing themselves. On the 7th of January, 1796, the Princess -Charlotte was born; some weeks later the prince left his wife, -who then established herself, with her child, in a house at -Blackheath. George III., justly wounded at the conduct of his -son, promptly sustained the cause of the princess. The -misunderstanding which had so long existed in the royal family -was still further increased by this unfortunate incident. - -Some indirect overtures for peace were made by Mr. Wickham, the -English minister in Switzerland, to M. Barthélemy, who -represented France at Basle. The disposition which had dictated -them, excited the anger as well as the fears of the avowed -enemies of the French Revolution. Burke, old and disheartened, -published his last work: "Letters on a Regicide Peace." "The -simple desire to treat," said he, "displays an internal weakness. -For a people who have been great and proud, such a change of -national sentiment is more terrible than any revolution." - -{371} - -Burke directed his last philippic against the powerful and -pacific Pitt, as well as against Fox and the friends of the -French Revolution. He had, nevertheless, conceived for Mr. Pitt a -sincere admiration and a just gratitude. Since 1794, a pension of -£1200 had been assigned upon the Civil List for the use of Mr. -Burke and his family. In 1795, after his irremedial misfortune in -the loss of his son, the solicitude of the king and his minister -added a new pension of £2500 to the just tribute of the national -estimate of a worthy man and great orator. Burke then wrote to -Mr. Pitt that he had provided for the repose of a life that was -now nearly extinguished. He (Burke) had only to wish him all the -blessings that he might expect at the flower of his age, and in -the great position that he occupied, a position full of severe -labor, but having great glory as the reward of his efforts; he -had the prospect of a long and laborious career; all was -difficult and formidable, but he was called to this position, and -his talents would render him successful. He (Burke) hoped that by -the grace of God he would never doubt those talents, nor his -cause, nor his country. There was one thing that he prayed for, -that the minister--England's last hope--would not fall into that -great error from which there was no relief. He hoped that the -Divine Mercy would convince both him and the nation that this -war, in principle, and in all its bearings, was unlike any other -war; and he also hoped that Pitt would not believe that what was -called peace with these brigands of France, would be able, in the -name of any policy whatever, to reconcile itself with the -internal repose, the external peace, the power or the influence -of this kingdom; this, to him, was as evident as the sun at -mid-day; and this conviction had cost him, during the last five -years, in the midst of many other profound griefs, many hours of -anxiety, both night and day. - -{372} - -Influenced by the events which had taken place upon the -continent, Mr. Pitt had gradually been led to the adoption of -those very ideas, and that line of policy that Mr. Burke so much -deprecated. The confederation of the great powers was broken up -in 1795, by the Congress of Basle. On the 9th of February, 1795, -the grand Duke of Tuscany signed articles of peace at Paris. -Prussia consented to leave the French in undisturbed possession -of their conquest upon the left bank of the Rhine. Sweden and -Northern Germany acceded to the same conditions; the treaty of -peace, concluded at Basle, with Spain (July 22nd, 1795), became, -on the 19th of August, 1796, a compact of alliance. The King -Charles III., exclusively controlled by the Queen, Louisa of -Parma, and her favorite Manuel Godoy, Prince de la Paix, declared -war with England on the 6th of October. The Bourbons of Naples -joined Spain. The maritime attempts of England against distant -French colonies were successful. The Antilles fell into the hands -of Sir Ralph Abercromby and Col. John Moore. These victories gave -a new life to the hopes of a happy issue to the pacific -negotiations which Lord Malmsbury was about to undertake. At the -opening of Parliament, on the 6th of October, 1796, the address -from the throne announced the departure of the ambassador to -Paris. - -{373} - -Negotiations were begun. At the same time, the Directory made -great preparations for an invasion of England. Twenty times like -enterprises had been projected and attempted; twenty times they -miscarried or failed. Nevertheless, they still had the power of -arousing and alarming the English people. When Pitt proposed his -plans of defence, Fox had, as usual, recourse to an insulting -incredulity. "I do not believe," said he, "that the French have -the least intention of making a descent upon us. Their government -is too much under the control of the people, and the situation of -the country, to hope for any success from such an enterprise. -Supposing they make this desperate attempt, I have no fears for -the result; but, in the interval, what are we to do? What is for -the moment the duty of this house? To cultivate among the people -the spirit of liberty, to render to them that which their fathers -have acquired at the price of their blood; to render the -ministers seriously responsible; not to intrust ourselves to the -servants of the crown, but to maintain a vigilant jealousy over -the exercise of their power. Then you will have no need to -increase your military forces at home, for in that case, even an -invasion would not be formidable." - -To these persistent hatreds and partisan animosities, public -opinion proclaimed a determined and serious opposition. "I do not -wish to accuse these gentlemen of desiring an invasion," said Mr. -Wilberforce, "but I cannot help believing that they would rejoice -to see their country suffer just enough to lead them into power." - -When Pitt opened his great loan to public subscription, the sum -required, amounting to £18,000,000, was taken within fifteen -hours. When that figure was reached, the list was closed. Before -it was opened to the general public, the Dukes of Bedford and -Bridgewater subscribed, at sight, for £100,100. The method of -subscription was new, and the conditions of the loan were not -especially advantageous. The patriotic zeal of the nation -responded to the confident appeal of the government. We have -since seen a still greater example. The minister, Mr. Pitt, had -the courage to attempt it; he had at the same time the courage to -propose new taxes. - -{374} - -The devotion of Parliament was equal to any sacrifice. -Considerable subsidies were also voted for the Emperor of -Austria, notwithstanding the dissatisfaction that Mr. Pitt had -caused, by giving assistance to that monarch, in the interval of -the session, without the authority of the houses. Lord Malmesbury -was dissatisfied and uneasy; the Directory insisted upon the -annexation of the Low Countries to France; the refusal of England -was peremptory. On the 19th of December, 1796, Delacroix, the -Minister of Foreign Affairs, requested the English Ambassador to -quit Paris within forty-eight hours, with all his suite. The -French government admitted of no proposition which tended to -modify the limits of her territory, as they had been fixed by the -decrees of the Convention. "If the English minister truly desires -peace," added Delacroix, "France is ready to conclude it upon -this basis: an exchange of couriers is all that is necessary." - -It was impossible for the king and his government to hesitate: -the documents relative to the negotiations were immediately -communicated to Parliament. "In fact," said Mr. Pitt to the House -of Commons, "the question is, not how much you will give for -peace, but how much disgrace you will suffer at the outset; how -much degradation you will submit to as a preliminary. Shall we -then persevere in a war, with a spirit and energy worthy of the -British name and character; or shall we, by sending couriers to -Paris, prostrate ourselves at the feet of a stubborn, -supercilious government?" - - -[Image] -Surrender To Nelson At Cape St. Vincent. - - -{375} - -The war, more than ever burdensome and perilous, continued. The -Empress Catherine II. had just died of an attack of apoplexy; her -son, the Emperor Paul, feeble and impetuous, with a mind -uneven--tending to insanity, was ill disposed towards England. -The brilliant successes of General Bonaparte in Italy, had worn -out the energy of the Austrians; the French had invaded the -hereditary states of the Emperor, heroically defended by the -Archduke Charles. The preliminaries of peace, signed at Leoben, -on the 18th of April, 1797, were ratified at Campo Formio on the -17th of October, 1797. Henceforth, in this great struggle, -England found herself alone; she was confronted by the passionate -ardor and success of the young French Republic, as well as the -incomparable genius of her military chief. - -The attempt of General Hoche upon Ireland, was a complete -failure; a severe storm scattered the fleet, destroyed some of -the vessels, and prevented any landing. On the 14th of February, -1797, near Cape St. Vincent, Sir John Jervis gained a signal -victory over the Spanish squadron, commanded by Don Joseph de -Cordova. Commodore Nelson and Captain Collingwood bore the brunt -of the conflict. "_Westminster Abbey or Victory_," cried -Nelson, as he boarded a Spanish ship of twenty-four guns. "He was -standing upon the bridge," wrote Collingwood, "receiving the -submission and the swords of the officers of the two ships that -he had captured. One of his sailors, named William Fearney, tied -the swords together as tranquilly as if they had been fagots, in -spite of the fact that they were within the range of the cannon -of the enemy's twenty-four ships of the line." - -For a moment the maritime power of England seemed threatened by a -greater danger, from the failure of supplies, owing to financial -crises at home, than from any attacks of the enemy. The state of -the finances became each day more grave; orders were given to the -Bank of England to make no payment of more than twenty shillings, -in cash. -{376} -The substitution of paper money, for a limited time, was voted by -Parliament. Merchants and men of business courageously faced the -necessity; others, ordinarily accustomed to brave all dangers, -but for some time discontented and irritated, threatened the -country, at this time, with a fatal blow. In the middle of April, -1797, a military insurrection broke out on board the ships of -Lord Bridport, who commanded the channel fleet. The precautions -of the conspirators were so well taken, that the officers were -deposed, sent on shore, or guarded as hostages, without a drop of -blood being spilled. The sailors demanded an increase of pay, -equivalent to that which the army and militia had received. They -complained of the unjust distribution of prizes, and of the -harshness of certain officers. - -The first demand had exaggerated nothing; it was not insolent, -either in fact or in form. Admirals Gardner, Colpoys and Pole, -were appointed to confer with delegates from the mutineers. They -refused to act without the sanction of Parliament. Admiral -Gardner, giving way to passion, seized, by the collar one of the -negotiators, and swore that he would hang them all. - -Some days later the fire which was smouldering under the ashes, -broke forth anew; the officers were again deposed. As Admiral -Colpoys, who had remained with two ships at Portsmouth, had -refused to receive the delegates, the mutiny became more violent; -The _Marlborough_ and The _London_ got under way for -St. Helena, without orders. The intervention of the aged Lord -Howe, always popular among the sailors, was necessary to finally -suppress the revolt; and even then it was at the price of -concessions so important that the contagion soon spread to other -squadrons. A proclamation of the king, yielding in substance to -the demands of the sailors, was read on board of all the ships. -They returned to their duty, and the fleet at once set sail for -St. Helena. - -{377} - -At Sheerness, under the inspiration of Richard Parker, an -enlisted volunteer, intelligent, educated, ambitious, and -corrupt, the insurgent sailors concentrated their forces and -withdrew prudently from the coast; they sailed for the Nore. They -soon attacked the vessels which had remained faithful to the -king, among others the _San Fiorenzo_, a noble frigate, -which was intended to take the Princess Royal and her husband the -Duke of Wurtemburg to Germany. - -A greater part of the fleet of Lord Duncan joined the mutiny, -thus abandoning the blockade of Holland. Two ships only remained -faithful to the admiral. He continued his signals, as if the main -part of his fleet was still in view; but his patriotism was -profoundly wounded. "It has often been my pride to look with you -into the Texel, and see a foe which dreaded coming out to meet -us; my pride is now humbled indeed," said he. - -The government also trembled for the army, now a prey to a -fermentation that was augmented by seditious placards. -Indications of a revolt manifested themselves at Woolwich. - -The mutinous ships raised the red flag--that terrible pirates' -signal; they blockaded the mouth of the Thames. The first Lord of -the Admiralty, Lord Spencer, failed in his attempts at -conciliation. Parliament passed two bills, inflicting the most -severe penalties against any attempt to excite a mutiny, and -interdicting all communication with the rebellious fleet. -England, in fact, exiled the sailors who had revolted against -her. This was a most serious blow to the mutineers. The sailors, -still faithful to their duty, made an appeal to their comrades. -The delegates, however, were hard and tyrannical. -{378} -On the 4th of June, the king's birthday, all but one of the -revolted ships hoisted the royal flag, and that one was the -_Sandwich_, on board of which was Richard Parker; he himself -sent to London new propositions. Lord Northesk, one of the -imprisoned captains, charged with this message, was received by -the king in person. Henceforward the monarch refused all -negotiations with his rebellious subjects, and exacted from them -submission without conditions. One by one, the crews cut their -cables, and took refuge under the batteries of Sheerness; the -ships of Lord Duncan sailed out to join them; only the delegates, -who held the _Sandwich_, still resisted. Their crew deserted -them, and Admiral Buchner sent a detachment to arrest Parker and -his accomplices. Some weeks later Parker was hung at the yard arm -of the Admiral's vessel, while the English sailors, repentant and -confused, swore they would make their faults forgotten by new -efforts of valor. - -During this serious crisis, Mr. Fox and Lord Grey declared their -intention of taking no further part in parliamentary discussions, -as they could neither influence nor approve the policy of the -government. Burke had died on the 9th of July, 1797. As the -illustrious rivals of Pitt were withdrawn from the field, the -leadership of the opposition fell into younger hands; Sir Francis -Burdett and Mr. Tierney were among the first. Mr. Erskine, more -celebrated at the bar than in the house, also became prominent. -New negotiations with France were begun: "I believe it is my -duty," said Mr. Pitt, "both as English Minister and as a -Christian, to do all that I can to put an end to this bloody and -ruinous war." Lord Malmesbury was sent to Lisle to treat with the -French plenipotentiaries. The _coup d'état_ of the 18th -Fructidor (September 4th, 1799), placed all power in the hands of -Barras and the Jacobins, who were hostile to all pacific -concessions. -{379} -Lord Malmesbury was dismissed. Some secret and venal propositions -of Barras miscarried. The war continued, but England was -uniformly successful at sea. On the 11th of October, a battle -took place at Camperdown, in view of the Texel, between Admiral -Duncan and the Dutch Admiral De Winter. The action was desperate, -but a brilliant victory remained to the English. The Dutch -Admiral was made prisoner. The evening after the battle he played -whist in the cabin of Admiral Duncan: he lost. "It is too much," -said Winter, throwing down his cards, "to be beaten twice the -same day, and by the same adversary." - -On his return from St. Paul's, where a service of public -thanksgiving had been held, Mr. Pitt was hooted at by the -populace; and on his return to his home in the evening, he was -escorted by a squadron of the Horse Guards. - -The affairs of Ireland had for a long time been the subject of -serious consideration on the part of Mr. Pitt. He had used every -possible means of conciliation; seeking to satisfy the Catholics -by the founding of the College of Maynooth, for the education of -the clergy, and at the same time loyally faithful to the liberal -principles which had constantly inspired his conduct, in regard -to that portion of the United Kingdom; but Ireland was the point -of attack of all the French and revolutionary invasions. The -Irish and democratic sentiments prevailed over their religious -principles. Secret societies, everywhere existing, only awaited -orders and assistance from France. The struggles which took place -in the Irish Parliament were transformed into conspiracies. Lord -Edward Fitzgerald, fifth son of the Duke of Leinster, put himself -at the head of the United Irishmen. Acts of violence broke out in -all sections. The Orangemen, as the Irish Protestants were -called, were animated by passions no less violent. The habeas -corpus was suspended. - -{380} - -Lord Camden, the Lord Lieutenant, ordered that all arms in the -hands of private persons should be immediately delivered up. In -reply to an address of Lord Moira, in the English Parliament, -Lord Clare, the Irish Chancellor, said that a revolutionary -government was completely organized, in opposition to the legal -power. "What," said he, "has been the result of all our -concessions during the past twenty years? The formation of -seditious associations, a system of violence, and midnight -robbery. Orders given by the Jacobin clubs of Dublin and Belfast -to raise regiments of national guards with French uniforms and -French tactics; the league of the United Irishmen; the -resolution, frankly avowed, of accepting no overtures from -Parliament; and the desire, scarcely dissimulated, of separation -from England." - -A dangerous outbreak was imminent; many of the leaders were -arrested. Arthur O'Connor, with the Irish priest Coigley, on -their way to Paris to hasten the promised supplies, were of the -number. Lord Edward Fitzgerald was captured. He resisted, and was -so seriously wounded that he died shortly afterwards. - -The most severe measures against the conspirators followed the -arrest of their chiefs. Stores of arms were found in many places, -and it was necessary to take them by force; this naturally led to -cruel reprisals. With the exception of Connaught, all Ireland was -roused, and shortly became the theatre of the most frightful -scenes of disorder, cruelty and desolation. The county of -Wexford, above all, was delivered over to pillage and flames. -Lord Cornwallis was appointed Lord Lieutenant, much against his -will. "It is my idea of torture," wrote he to one of his friends. -He nevertheless accepted the position. -{381} -Sagacious to employ, in turn, severity and clemency, he was -actively seconded by the Chancellor, Lord Clare, and young Lord -Castlereagh. The rebellion was crushed. A French invasion, under -the order of General Humbert, gained a momentary success, in -consequence of the weakness, or treachery, of the Irish militia; -it was soon repulsed, and the ships of the Republic were captured -by Commodore Warren. The famous Irish leader, Wolfe Tone, the -instigator of all the intrigues in France, was taken with arms in -his hands; and while in prison, committed suicide. Byrne, -Coigley, and many others were tried, convicted, and sentenced to -capital punishment; a certain number, however, were subsequently -pardoned. The alien bill, authorizing the government to interdict -English soil to foreigners, and the suspension of the habeas -corpus act, were accorded by Parliament without difficulty. - -Pitt now prepared an important measure, that he had been -considering for many years. The growing disorders in Ireland -convinced him of the necessity of a legislative and parliamentary -union between the two countries. On the 31st of January, 1799, he -proposed his bill; already badly received by the Irish -Parliament. The royal prerogative for the creation of Irish peers -was not limited, as it became in the definitive bill. - -By a clever rotation of elections in the boroughs, none of them -completely lost their franchise. The number of the Irish -representatives in the House of Commons was fixed at one hundred. -The speech of the prime minister was one of the most eloquent -ever made. Three times only, in the course of his life, did he -consent to revise his addresses; the speech on the union with -Ireland, was one that had that honor. In it he declared that -England was engaged in a struggle the most important and solemn -that had ever been seen in the history of the world; in a -struggle where Great Britain alone ought to resist resolutely and -with success, the common enemy of civilized society. -{382} -They saw, he said, the point upon which the enemy believed them -assailable; and should not prudence compel them to fortify that -vulnerable point, engaged, as they were, in the struggle of -liberty against despotism, of property against rapine and -pillage, of religion and order against impiety and anarchy? And, -on the other hand, if a country should be unable to defend itself -against the greatest of all dangers which might threaten its -peace and security, without the assistance of another nation, and -that nation should be a neighbor and an ally, if she spoke the -same language, if her laws, her customs, and her habits were the -same in principle; if the commerce of that nation was more -extended, and its means of acquiring and spreading abroad riches -were more numerous; if that nation possessed a government, whose -stability and admirable constitution excited more than ever the -admiration of Europe, while the country in question possessed -only an incomplete and imperfect imitation of that constitution; -what, in such a case, would be the conduct demanded by all -motives of equity, interest, and honor? "I ask you," said he, in -conclusion, "if this is not a faithful exposition of the motives -which ought to lead Ireland to desire union? I ask you, if Great -Britain is not precisely the nation to which a country in the -situation of Ireland, ought to desire to unite itself? Could a -union contracted under such circumstances, with a free consent, -and under equitable conditions, merit to be stigmatized as the -submission of Ireland to a foreign yoke?" - - -[Image] -The Battle Of Aboukir. - - -{383} - -The bill passed in the English Parliament by a large majority; -but all the eloquence of its defenders, together with the clever -maneuvres of Lords Cornwallis and Castlereagh, were not able to -induce the Irish Parliament to pass similar resolutions, before -the opening of the year 1800. Henry Grattan, long absent from the -house, returned in order to oppose the union: "In all that he -advances, the minister does not discuss--he predicts," said the -Irish orator; "one cannot answer a prophet; all that one can do -is not to believe. That which he wishes to buy of you, cannot be -sold: it is liberty; in exchange he has nothing to offer you. All -that possesses any value you have obtained under a free -constitution; if you renounce it you are not only slaves, but -madmen." - -On the 10th of February, 1800, the bill presented by Lord -Castlereagh and discussed with the most extreme violence, was -finally passed by both houses of the Irish Parliament. On the 2nd -of July it received the royal signature. Henceforth the union of -Ireland and England was definitive, and useful and efficacious -for both countries, notwithstanding the difficulties that it was -still to encounter, and the bitterness that it left behind. This -union was of the highest importance to the repose of Great -Britain. Foreign invasions now ceased. - -The expedition of General Bonaparte into Egypt diverted his -attention from the projected invasion of England. It had led to -the great naval battle of _Aboukir_ (August 1st, 1799), -where the French Admiral Brueys was killed and the English -Admiral Nelson was severely wounded. The French fleet, after a -heroic resistance, was conquered, and almost entirely destroyed. -Bonaparte found himself shut up in Egypt, while war became again -general in Europe. The Congress of Radstadt, intended to regulate -the relations of France with the Germanic States, had not been -successful, and was officially dissolved in August, 1799: a new -coalition against the French Republic was formed, and henceforth -England was supported by Austria, Russia, Naples, Portugal and -Turkey. Hostilities broke out simultaneously in Switzerland, -Italy, and Germany. - -{384} - -In this great struggle, sustained by France alone, against the -European world, England took, from the commencement, an active -and glorious part. An attempt upon Holland, under the direction -of the Duke of York and Sir Ralph Abercromby, was unsuccessful. -The finances and determined public opinion of Great Britain -everywhere sustained the courage of her allies. - -Bonaparte landed at Fréjus, leaving in Egypt his army under the -command of General Kleber. Some days later he accomplished at -Paris the Revolution of the 18th Brumaire (November 9th, 1799); -the feeble government of the Directory was overturned, and -General Bonaparte seized the power in his triumphant hands, -inspiring in those rivals who were soon to become his -lieutenants, the same ardor which animated himself. Before the -end of the year the victories of Marengo (June 14th, 1800), of -Hochstett (June 19th), and Hohenlinden (Dec. 3), changed the -aspect of affairs. Conferences were opened at Luneville, between -France, the Empire of Austria and the Germanic Confederation. On -the 9th of February, 1801, peace was signed. The Rhine became the -frontier of republican France, and the Adige that of the -Cisalpine republic. At the same time the Emperor Paul I. was won -over by the French, and at his instigation the armed neutrality -against Great Britain was renewed by Russia, Sweden and Denmark. -Once again England found herself alone against France, now -governed by Bonaparte. - -Almost immediately master of the situation in Paris, Bonaparte, -at the beginning of his power, personally made overtures of peace -to England, by a letter addressed directly to King George III. -The ministry would not recognize this unusual proceeding, and -Lord Grenville, the minister of Foreign Affairs, replied in the -name of the king, refusing to treat alone without the -co-operation of their allies. - -{385} - -When the question was brought before parliament, Mr. Pitt rose. -"I am," said he, "too sincere a friend of peace, to content -myself with possessing it only in name; I desire to follow that -course that promises to assure definitively to this country and -to Europe all its benefits. I am too sincere a friend of peace to -lose it by seizing the shadow when the substance is really within -my grasp: 'Cur igitur pacem nolo? quia infida est, quia -periculosa, quia esse non potest.'" The minister was all powerful -upon foreign questions in both houses. Notwithstanding the -weariness of the nation, national pride and the confidence in Mr. -Pitt inspired yet greater efforts. Never were the friends of the -ministry more encouraged. In vain did Mr. Fox re-appear in the -house, ardently and cleverly sustained by Lord Grey. "The proud -and monumental architecture" of his eloquence crushed by its -weight the powerful charm of his adversaries. In his hands -England resisted, with an audacious calmness, coalesced Europe. -So much power and so many victorious efforts were to fall before -a double question of conscience. Sincerely and honestly liberal, -Mr. Pitt was favorable to the political emancipation of the -Catholics, and he also held himself pledged to further their -cause, in consequence of the assistance they had given to his -measures for the union with Ireland. Perhaps he mistook the -resolution of the king regarding this question, and judged -incorrectly of the effect that a great moral agony would be able -to exercise over an intelligence as limited, and a soul as -sincerely conscientious as that of George III. - -{386} - -The project for the emancipation of the Catholics had during -several months been discussed, in the Council, without the -knowledge of the king; but political treachery or honest scruples -finally made it known to his Majesty. When Lord Castlereagh came -to London, in the month of January, 1801, desirous of assuring -himself that the intentions of Mr. Pitt remained the same, George -III. suddenly addressed Mr. Dundas, an intimate friend of Pitt's, -and who shared his opinions on this subject: "What!" he -exclaimed, in a loud voice, "what is _this_, that this young -lord has brought over which they are going to throw at my head? I -shall reckon any man my personal enemy who proposes any such -measure--the most Jacobinical thing I ever heard of!" - -"You'll find," replied Dundas, "among those who are friendly to -that measure, some you never supposed your enemies." - -The king was greatly troubled. He wrote to the speaker, Mr. -Addington, a friend of Pitt's, but still more a personal friend -of the sovereign: "I know we think alike on this great subject. I -wish that he would, front himself, open Mr. Pitt's eyes on the -danger arising from the agitating this improper question, which -may prevent his ever speaking to me on a subject on which I can -scarcely keep my temper." - -George III. believed himself solemnly bound by his coronation -oath to refuse all liberal alterations of the Constitution, in -favor of the Dissenters as well as of the Catholics. When he was -questioned in regard to the abolition of the Test Act, he -consulted Lord Kenyon and Sir John Scott upon that subject. Both -were favorable to the maintenance of the measure; they -nevertheless replied that it might be abrogated or modified, -without violating his coronation oath or the act of union with -Scotland. Less sincere, and less convinced, Lord Loughborough, -with the complaisance of a courtier, and influenced by political -ambition, had given his opinion to the contrary. -{387} -His arguments strengthened the scruples of the king, who remained -obstinately faithful. To the objections, addressed to him, in -writing, by Mr. Pitt, he replied that he hoped the sentiment of -duty would prevent Mr. Pitt from quitting, while he lived, the -position which he occupied; he pledged himself to keep henceforth -an absolute silence upon the great question on which they -differed, on the condition that Mr. Pitt would absolutely refrain -from presenting it--he could do no more. - -The conscience of the minister was more enlightened and more firm -than that of the monarch, and he also considered it engaged in -the question. Political promises and parliamentary embarrassments -prevailed in the mind of Pitt, over the grave danger of a -ministerial crisis in the midst of a terrible war, and in the -presence of financial difficulties, steadily increasing: he -persisted in his resolution to retire. On the 5th of February, -1801. King George III. accepted sadly the resignation of his -great minister. "I do not know how I could have acted otherwise," -said Mr. Pitt to his friend Rose. "I have nothing to reproach -myself for, unless it is not having sought sooner to reconcile -the king with the idea of the measure in favor of the Catholics, -or at least to persuade his Majesty not to take an active part in -the question." "He was evidently painfully affected," added Rose; -"tears were in his eyes, and he appeared much agitated." - -In the presence of the pious and worthy scruples that troubled -the conscience of his sovereign, it was without doubt a noble -error on the part of Mr. Pitt to throw into the balance his own -scruples and praiseworthy engagements; a grave error, moreover, -and which was to greatly imperil England, to disturb anew a -tottering reason, and to retard, more than it served, the cause -of religious and political liberty for which Mr. Pitt had -sacrificed all. - -{388} - - - Chapter XXXVIII. - - George III. - Addington And Pitt. - (1801-1806). - - -Mr. Pitt, on retiring, urged Mr. Addington to accept the control -of the government. "Addington," said he, "I see nothing but ruin, -if you hesitate." He at the same time urged his friends to retain -their places; he even consented to present the Budget which had -been prepared, and which was unanimously passed. His support of -the new cabinet was assured; nevertheless, Dundas, who had -followed his friend into retirement, wrote to him from Wimbledon, -on the 7th of February, at the time when Mr. Addington was still -endeavoring to form his ministry, that he did not know what the -speaker would attempt, but he was convinced that any -administration of which Addington was chief, could not fail to -break, up almost as soon as formed. The devoted friends of Mr. -Pitt, who had remained in office at his solicitation, saw this -with regret and chagrin; and among their mortifications was the -feeling that they had joined a ministry under a chief absolutely -incapable of directing them. This was the general sentiment. -Discouraged and sad, even before the cabinet was formed, the king -remained pre-occupied and deeply agitated. He read over his -coronation oath, and exclaimed: "Where is that power on earth to -absolve me from the due observance of every sentence of that -oath, particularly the one requiring me to maintain the -Protestant reformed religion? Was not my family seated on the -throne for that express purpose, and shall I be the first to -suffer it to be undermined, perhaps overturned? No! I had rather -beg my bread from door to door throughout Europe, than consent to -any such measure. If I violate it, I am no longer legal sovereign -of this country, but it falls to the House of Savoy." - -{389} - -So much emotion and foreboding anxiety, shattered the tottering -reason of the monarch; he had lost that faithful support, that -sure guide on whom he had relied for more than seventeen years -past. The conscience of the king was agitated and troubled. Upon -recovering from a swoon, the old king repeated this verse from -the Psalms: "Forty years long was I grieved with this generation, -and said, it is a people that do err in their hearts, for they -have not known my ways." He murmured afterwards, "I am better, I -am better now, but I will remain true to the Church." - -The malady had declared itself, and public prayers were ordered. -The Prince of Wales sent for Mr. Pitt--still minister, in fact. -"I will not hesitate," said Mr. Pitt, "to give to your Highness -the best counsel that I am able; but with all the respect that I -owe you, there is one thing that I demand of you permission to -establish. It is this condition: that your Highness will -interdict yourself from deliberating with those who have agitated -so long in direct opposition to the government of his Majesty." -The prince consented; not, however, without some show of temper. - -Fox had quitted his pleasant retreat at St. Ann's Hill. He -counselled the prince to accept the limited regency, that Mr. -Pitt intended to propose. Already steps had been taken to form a -Whig cabinet, when the rapid improvement of the king's health -gave the hope of avoiding yet, for a time, that dreaded regency. -On Friday, the 6th of March, George III. passed the day in the -apartments of the Queen. He charged his physician to inform Mr. -Pitt of it. "Tell him that I am now quite well, quite recovered -from my illness; but what has he not to answer for, who is the -cause of my having been ill at all." - -{390} - -The sentiments of loyalty and personal attachment for the old -king were profound in the reserved and proud soul of Mr. Pitt. -The reproach of the sovereign deeply affected him. "Say to his -Majesty," replied he to Dr. Willis, "that I have authorized you -to assure him, that during his reign, whether _in_ or -_out_ of office, I will never again agitate the question of -Catholic Emancipation." The king drew a deep sigh. "Now my mind -will be at ease," he exclaimed; and upon the queen's coming in, -he repeated the message, and made the same observation upon it. - -A moment after the question of conscience was decided, Mr. Pitt -had some desire of yielding to the wishes of the king, and -returning to power. Mr. Addington turned a deaf ear to the -insinuations which were made to him upon the subject. Mr. Pitt -did not insist; he had seen the king and reconciled him to his -resignation. The Catholics, fully informed regarding all affairs, -rendered their homage to Mr. Pitt for his fidelity to his -engagements with them; they awaited their day. Pitt had just -established himself in a small furnished house in Park Place. -Poor, and without leisure to look after household matters, he was -overwhelmed with debts. He had refused the patriotic gifts, as -well as the liberalities of the king. He was now, however, -compelled to accept, with great regret, the offers of his -friends, and he borrowed from them the money necessary to pay his -creditors. He sold his small estate at Holwood, and now lived -very modestly. "Each day," writes Lord Stanhope, "when he came to -the House of Commons, he took his place at the right of the -speaker's chair, in the third row of benches, near one of the -iron columns. -{391} -Many years later I saw old members point out that place, in the -old house, with a sentiment of veneration." His friends remained -steadily faithful to him. They either followed him into -retirement, as Dundas and the young Canning--perhaps his favorite -disciple, assuredly the most celebrated; or they occupied, at his -request, posts of confidence. "I have taken the great seal, only -upon the advice and pressing solicitation of Mr. Pitt," said Lord -Eldon, "and I will only keep it as long as I shall be able to -live in perfect concord with him." - -Wellington, at this time the Marquis of Wellesly and -Governor-General of India, wrote to the fallen minister, that he -counted sufficiently upon the testimony of his own heart, not to -doubt that Mr. Pitt had full confidence in his fidelity to his -cause, whatever the circumstances might be; when that cause -should cease to prevail in the councils of the nation, he would -hasten to free himself from the disgrace of office, in order to -join Mr. Pitt in the fortress which it should please him to -defend, wherever it might be. His political relations with Mr. -Pitt, confirmed by so many ties of friendship, and by intimate -testimonies of affection and private consideration, were not only -the pride, but also the joy of his life; and that he could not -support the idea of seeing Mr. Pitt other than the guide of his -political conduct, the guardian of all that is dear and precious -in the constitution and in the country; and the first object of -his esteem, respect, and personal attachment. - -That noble statesman, who had inspired such emotional and -faithful respect in so many eminent men, was not insensible to -the evidences of esteem and attachment lavished upon him; and, -upon the other hand, the failure of many expectations, the forced -abandonment of many cherished projects, caused him heartfelt -regrets which he did not endeavor to conceal. -{392} -The cabinet of Mr. Addington was being made up. Lord Grey -attacked the conduct of the last government. Mr. Pitt arose, and -avowed frankly the regret that he felt in quitting the power -before concluding peace. He did not pretend, he said, to that -indifference to the opinions of others, that certain persons -affect; he was not indifferent to the situation of his country. -He was not indifferent to the opinion that the public might have -concerning the part, the too great part, that he had taken in it. -He avowed, on the contrary, that those questions occupied him -much. Events had happened which had deceived his most cherished -desires, and baffled the favorite expectations of his heart. He -would have desired to pursue, even to the end of the struggle, -the object of these expectations and desires for the success of -which he had labored with so much care and anxiety. He had not -recoiled before obstacles. He had lived during the past seventeen -years with very little effect, if it was necessary now to explain -that he had not quitted his post because he feared the -difficulties; he had always acted--good or evil; it did not -pertain to him to decide which, but assuredly as a man who had -not the air of fearing difficulties. He was able to say at least -this: if he could efface from the record these seventeen years, -and speak only of that which has taken place during the past two -months, he would dare to affirm, that enough facts have been -presented, in that interval, to efface the idea that he was -disposed to recoil before any difficulty whatsoever, or that he -desired to clear himself from any responsibility. That which had -happened since that epoch, had given him the opportunity to -prove, very positively, that he was ready to accept all the -responsibility that the situation might be able to thrust upon -him. - -{393} - -Even in his retirement, Pitt never avoided a responsibility, but -was always ready to accept the weight of his past acts, and of -his present counsels. An expedition, that he had planned, had -just entered the Baltic. Sir Hyde Parker, who commanded it, had -been appointed commander-in-chief. He was old and feeble; the -dangers of the expedition affected his courage; the weather was -bad. "We must brace up," said Nelson, second in command, to -Parker; "these are no times for nervous systems." - -On the 2nd of April, 1801, a decisive naval battle was fought. -Nelson attacked the batteries and the enemy's squadron before -Copenhagen. The old admiral, who had not taken an active part in -the battle, seeing Nelson in danger, ordered signal No. 39--the -signal for discontinuing the action, to be hoisted. The signal -lieutenant asked if he should repeat it. "No," replied Nelson, -"acknowledge it." He then continued walking about in great -emotion, and meeting Captain Foley, said: "What think you, Foley, -the admiral has hung out No. 39. You know I have only one eye; I -have a right to be blind sometimes." And then putting the glass -to his blind eye, he exclaimed, "I really don't see the signal. -Keep mine for closer battle still flying. That's the way I answer -such signals. _Nail mine to the mast._" - -The victory was glorious. On landing, three days later, Nelson -concluded an armistice with the crown Prince, by which Denmark -abandoned the alliance of armed neutrality and the confederation -against Great Britain. Some weeks later the Emperor Paul was -assassinated, and the coalition of the powers of the north -vanished. The first care of the new Russian Emperor was to -restore liberty to English sailors. - -{394} - -To the joy which the success before Copenhagen aroused, was added -the satisfaction inspired by the news from Egypt. Kleber was -assassinated, by a fanatic; on the 14th of June, 1800, General -Menou, who succeeded him, preserved the positions gained by the -victory of Heliopolis. At the beginning of the year 1801, and -during the ministerial crisis, a body of English troops landed in -Egypt; a desperate engagement took place near Aboukir. Sir Ralph -Abercromby was seriously wounded, and died some days later. The -French were hemmed in near Alexandria: Cairo was invested, and -General Belliard, who defended it, was obliged to surrender -before the end of June. The English received reinforcements from -India, and General Menou was obliged to capitulate on the 27th of -August. The French obtained all the honors of war, and were -permitted to withdraw, with their arms and baggage, -unconditionally, and were to be transported free, to their own -coasts. - -At London, negotiations were in progress. Mr. Pitt took an active -part in them. Lord Hawksbury, who had charge of them, was one of -his most intimate friends. On the 1st of October, 1801, Mr. Pitt -personally announced the signature of preliminaries to Mr. Long, -but recently a member of his cabinet: "I have only a moment to -say to you, that the die is cast, and that the preliminaries have -been signed. The conditions, without being precisely and in all -respects, as one might desire, are certainly very honorable; and -taken all in all, very advantageous. I do not expect that our -friends will be entirely satisfied, but the great mass of the -public will be, I believe, extremely satisfied, and I regard the -event as very fortunate for the government and the country." - -{395} - -On the 25th of March, 1802, peace was signed at Amiens, between -France, England and Spain. All the colonial conquests were -restored to France and Holland, with the exception of the Island -of Trinidad and the Dutch possessions in Ceylon. Malta was given -back to its Knight Templars, and Egypt to the Sublime Porte. The -French evacuated the kingdom of Naples and the States of the -Church. "It is a peace," said Sir Philip Francis, "which -everybody is glad of, though nobody is proud of." The outbursts -of popular enthusiasm forced the opposition to accept the peace -without a contest. Fox alone was partisan enough to boldly -rejoice over the brilliant successes of France. "Some persons -complain that we have not attained the end of the war," said he; -"assuredly we have not attained it, but this fact only pleases me -better than the peace itself." In a letter to Lord Grey, who had -reproached him for his imprudence, he wrote: "For the truth is, I -am gone something further in hate to the English government than -perhaps you and the rest of my friends are, and certainly further -than can with prudence be avowed. For the triumph of the French -government over the English, does, in fact, afford me a degree of -pleasure which it is very difficult to disguise." - -The peace which had but just been concluded was already -tottering. Bonaparte's ambition for conquest, encouraged by the -weariness of Europe, increased each day the pretensions of the -French government. English travellers crowded to the continent, -curious to visit that new France, so long closed to them. Fox was -in Paris, and often saw the First Consul, for whom he had -conceived the liveliest admiration. Bonaparte one day conducted -his illustrious visitor to the Louvre; both stopped in front of a -large globe. The General, putting his finger upon the spot -occupied by England, sneeringly remarked: "See what a little -place you occupy in the world."--Fox's English pride was -awakened: "Yes," said he, approaching the globe and attempting to -encircle it in his extended arms: "England is a small island, but -with her power she girdles the world." The First Consul did not -continue the conversation. - -{396} - -Some dissatisfaction had arisen between Pitt and Addington: the -protégé had many times failed to defend his protector when -violently attacked in the Houses; the counsels asked and given, -were not always followed. Efforts had been made, more than once, -to restore Pitt to power, but he felt that he could neither -direct nor overthrow the cabinet that he had so long sustained, -and for some time past he had absented himself from the House of -Commons. "I am more and more persuaded," wrote he to his friend -Mr. Rose, "after all that I see of affairs and of parties, that -the role that I would play at present, if I were in town, would -do more harm than good; it is therefore better, upon all -accounts, that I remain, for the present, in the country." Pitt -prolonged his stay at Walmer Castle some three months -(February-May, 1803). - -The general state of affairs was in fact disquieting and serious, -and the execution of the treaty of Amiens seemed doubtful. New -revolutionary movements agitated Holland; the Cis-alpine republic -was recognized, under French influence. The mediation of -Bonaparte in the affairs of Switzerland, assured to him a weighty -and firm ascendancy. Piedmont was annexed to the French republic. -An expedition of Col. Sebastiani into Egypt disturbed the -English. The cabinets in London and in Paris exchanged complaints -and recriminations regarding the delays in consummating the -treaty. "We claim the treaty of Amiens, all of the treaty of -Amiens, and nothing but the treaty of Amiens," said the French. -England still retained Malta, under the pretext that the Knights -had not yet re-established themselves there, and that Malta was -for them the only guarantee of good faith on the part of the -French. -{397} -General Bonaparte made complaints regarding this subject, to Lord -Whitworth, the English Ambassador at Paris. "I would rather see -you in possession of the Heights of Montmartre, than of Malta," -said the First Consul. He subsequently complained of the libels -which were circulated against him in England, and of the delays -in the trial of Peltin, the French pamphleteer and refugee. At -the same time the consul himself wounded the legitimate pride of -England by the arrogant language of his message to the Corps -Legislatif. "The government declares with just pride that Great -Britain cannot contend alone against France." - -Considerable armaments were in progress at various points on the -French coast, provoking similar measures on the part of the -British government. A message from the king to Parliament -announced the same. - -The anger of the First Consul regarding these events was natural -and insolent, as well as premeditated. Lord Whitworth assisted at -a court reception at the Tuilleries. Bonaparte advanced quickly -towards him. "So you are determined to go to war," said he, -roughly. "No," calmly replied the noble ambassador, "we are too -sensible of the advantages of peace--we have already fought for -fifteen years." After waiting a moment for a reply he continued, -"And that is quite enough."--"But you will have to fight for -fifteen years longer," replied Bonaparte; "you force me to it." -He insisted upon the infractions of the treaty of which he had -accused England. Turning abruptly, and intimidating, by his angry -frown, the members of the diplomatic corps, already disquieted -and troubled, he exclaimed: "Woe to those who do not respect -treaties." - -{398} - -In the presence of this menacing attitude of France, and the -alarmed state of Europe, England regarded with regret the loss of -Pitt, and felt an ardent desire for his return to power. "It is a -strange and sad fact," said Sir Philip Francis, in Parliament, -"that at such a moment as this, all the eminent men of England -are excluded from the councils and from the government of the -country. When the sky is clear, an ordinary amount of ability is -sufficient; but for the storm which is arising we need other -pilots. If the vessel founders we shall all perish with her." - -Addington felt this as well as the public. He made propositions -to Pitt, through Mr. Dundas, recently become Lord Melville. This -gentleman at first believed that he could induce Mr. Pitt to -consent to a division of the power, but he was soon convinced of -his mistake. "Really," said Pitt, with ironical disdain, "I had -not the curiosity to ask what I was to be." Addington was both -sincere and disquieted. He went further, and proposed to renounce -his functions as Prime Minister. Some of the friends of Pitt -urged him to accept, but the haughtiness of Lord Grenville, which -had more than once badly served the minister when in power, now -interfered with the negotiations. - -Pitt refused the concessions that Addington demanded, and on the -other hand, Addington would not consent to the admission of Lord -Grenville and Mr. Wyndham to the new cabinet. The negotiations -were broken off, to the grave displeasure of the king, who had -been but imperfectly and tardily informed of the situation. "It -is a foolish business, from one end to the other," said George -III. to Lord Pelham; "it was begun ill, conducted ill, and -terminated ill."--"Both parties were in the wrong," said the Duke -of York to Lord Malmesbury; "so ill managed has been the recent -negotiation, as to put Mr. Pitt's return to office, though more -necessary than ever, at a greater distance than ever." - - -[Image] -"See What A Little Place You Occupy In The World." - - -{399} - -The renewal of hostilities became imminent. The First Consul -rejected the ultimatum of England; the declaration of war could -not be deferred. The English ministers had committed some faults -of detail in the negotiations, but already the dangers of a proud -and insatiable ambition began to dawn. The repose and -independence of Europe would be compromised if Bonaparte became, -without resistance, master of the military and political -situation. On the 18th of May, 1803, war was officially declared. -Some days later, all English subjects travelling in France were -violently seized and thrown into prisons, and were retained there -until peace was declared. - -Mr. Pitt left Walmer Castle, and re-appeared in the House of -Commons. Although sad and melancholy at the recent loss of his -mother, who died on the 3rd of April, 1803, he was, nevertheless, -animated by an ardent patriotism, and decided to defend the -declaration of war. When he arose to speak, the whole House -cried--"Mr. Pitt! Mr. Pitt!" and the applause drowned the first -accents of his voice. Fox himself was loud in praise of the -brilliant success of his great rival, who had just re-appeared -upon the scene. "It was a speech," he told the House, "which, if -Demosthenes had been present, he must have admired, and might -have envied." - -Pitt ardently approved of the war measures. He sustained, -nevertheless, against the advice of the government, a proposition -from Fox, tending to accept the mediation of Russia. "Whether we -are in peace or in war," said he, "whether we desire to give -force to our arms or security to our repose, whether we wish to -prevent war by negotiations, or to re-establish peace after the -war shall have broken out, it is the duty of the ministers of -this country to profit by the good offices of the powers with -whom it is to our interest to become allied." - -{400} - -War became inevitable. The mediation of Russia was useless and -ineffectual; no one abroad realized the energy or sagacity of the -English cabinet. "If that ministry lasts, Great Britain will not -last," said Count Woronzow, the Russian Ambassador in England. -Parliament rejected the resolutions of censure, indirectly -sustained by Mr. Pitt; nevertheless the support of the great -orator was necessary to the cabinet in order to carry its -financial measures, and Mr. Addington accepted without resistance -the modifications demanded by Mr. Pitt. - -The First Consul had eagerly renewed his former project of a -descent upon England. He established at Boulogne a camp and -workshops for naval service; he personally superintended the -same, inspecting the works and animating the men by his -inexhaustible ardor. Thousands of flat-bottomed boats were to -transport to England a hundred thousand soldiers, veterans of the -great revolutionary struggles. - -Bonaparte exacted from Spain a monthly tribute; he disposed of -the resources of the Cisalpine Republic as well as those of -Holland and Belgium. "By the end of autumn," he said, "I will -march upon London." - -Patriotic enthusiasm in England responded to the gravity of the -peril. Thiers writes that "a shudder of terror ran through all -classes of English society." The alarm, however, did not arrest -the zeal. Three hundred thousand volunteers enrolled themselves -at once. As lord warden of the Cinque Ports, Mr. Pitt powerfully -contributed to the activity of preparation. He personally took -command of a brigade, which occupied the most exposed position -upon the coast. His health, always tottering, was at this time -seriously influenced by so much fatigue. His niece, Lady Hester -Stanhope, had charge of his house; she was young and beautiful, -but capricious; without family or fortune. She was received by -her uncle, towards whom she always manifested a sincere devotion. -After his death, she was unable to content herself in England. -She established herself in the East, where she long led the life -of a queen of the desert. Strange destiny, and very contrary to -the regular habits of the mind and life of Mr. Pitt. With the -exception of a single journey to France, he had never quitted -England. - -{401} - -At the opening of Parliament, on the 22nd of November, Pitt -censured some of the measures adopted by the government for the -national defence, but he refused to join in the systematic attack -that Lord Grenville had prepared, and for which he had allied -himself with Mr. Fox. "In all simple and clear questions," said -he, "I have decided to sustain the government; if it should omit -anything that I believed the state of the country required, or -when it shall show feebleness or want of efficiency, I will -boldly announce my views; but even then not in a spirit of -opposition, for I will only speak after being assured that the -government persists in what I disapprove, and does not consent to -what I believe necessary." - -The king at this time passed through another crisis of his -malady. Successive checks had disturbed the ministry decidedly, -by the consent of all, unequal to the task before it. Mr. -Addington resolved to send in his resignation. The king accepted -it with regret; he felt himself, to a certain point, master of -the situation, while the power was in the hands of Mr. Addington, -and he often spoke of him as: "My Chancellor of the Exchequer." -He was nevertheless compelled to consult Mr. Pitt immediately, -concerning the formation of a cabinet. The sovereign was -convalescent. Mr. Pitt, who had for some time been in -correspondence with the Chancellor, Lord Eldon, proposed at once -an alliance with Fox. "My opinion is founded," wrote he, "upon -the profound conviction that the critical state of our country, -at this moment, joined to that of Europe in general, and of -political parties abroad, render it more essential, than at any -other epoch, to give to the government of his Majesty the -greatest possible energy and force, by seeking to unite in his -service the talents and influences accounted eminent, without -exception, from parties of all names, without care for divisions -or past differences." -{402} -The refusal of the king was peremptory. He sent for Mr. Pitt. -"Your Majesty is looking much better than after your former -illness," said he, upon entering.--"It is not to be wondered at," -cordially replied George III. "I was then on the point of -_parting_ with an old friend, and I am now about to -_regain_ one." - -Fox manifested neither astonishment nor anger upon learning of -his exclusion by the king. "I am too old to care for office," -said he to Lord Grenville Leveson; "but I have many friends who -have been my followers for years. I shall counsel them to unite -themselves to the government, and I hope that Mr. Pitt will be -able to find places for them." Obstinately faithful to their -chief, the friends of Fox refused all proposals of the minister. -Lord Grenville, piqued at not having succeeded in his efforts at -coalition, declared that he would take no part in the cabinet. -The long friendship which had united him to Mr. Pitt, and their -family ties, rendered this refusal doubly painful, and deeply -wounded the minister. "I will teach that proud man," said Pitt, -"that in the service of, and with the confidence of the -sovereign, I can do without him;" but he added, with a sad -presentiment, "even though the effort may cost me my life." - -Lord Harrowby replaced Lord Grenville as Minister of Foreign -Affairs. The new cabinet was strengthened by the admission of Mr. -Canning and Lord Castlereagh. The opposition was stronger than -ever, but the state of affairs on the continent had changed. The -execution of the Duke d'Enghien had irritated and exasperated the -most decided partisans of the First Consul. He had also taken -from his admirers all right of regarding him as the protector of -liberty in Europe. On the 16th of May, 1804, General Bonaparte -was proclaimed Emperor of the French, under the title of Napoleon -I. - -{403} - -The secret discontent of the sovereigns of Europe lent some moral -support to the resistance of England. Mr. Pitt did not, however, -trust himself to this movement of public opinion. Notwithstanding -the opposition of his adversaries, among whom Mr. Addington had -ranged himself, he demanded an increase of the regular forces. -The Emperor Napoleon was now ready to consummate his great -project of landing in England. He had confided its direction to -Admiral La Touche-Treville. "If we are masters of the Channel for -six hours," said he, in a secret letter, "we will be masters of -the world." Some days later. La Touche-Treville died, and the -great plan of Napoleon, thus baffled by a hand more powerful than -his own, terminated in a few insignificant combats between -English and French sailors. The Emperor had departed for Paris, -where he was crowned on the 2nd of December, 1804. Pope Pius VII. -had come from Rome for the purpose of crowning the new -Charlemagne. In the notes of Mr. Pitt, upon the means of defence -and attack that England then had at her disposal, we find this -passage regarding the Emperor Napoleon, inspired by patriotic -bitterness, natural and pardonable, but which alters, in some -measure, that equity of judgment which the great minister always -preserved at home, even regarding his most violent adversaries: - -{404} - - "Napoleon.--I see various and contrary qualities, all the great - and little passions fatal to public tranquillity, united in the - bosom of a single man, and unfortunately of a man whose - personal caprice is unable to change for a single hour without - influencing the destinies of Europe. I see internal indications - of fear struggling against pride in a mind, ardent, bold, and - tumultuous. I see all the gloomy mistrust of a consecrated - usurpation which is feared, detested and obeyed; the madness - and intoxication of a marvellous but unmerited success; - arrogance, presumption, the obstinacy of an unlimited and - idolatrous power; and that which is more to be feared in the - plenitude of authority, the incessant and indefatigable - activity of a culpable but unsatiated ambition." - -The Emperor Napoleon judged more liberally of his implacable -adversary. When, during the Hundred Days, he accorded to France a -parliamentary constitution, he said to his ministers: "We do not -know how Parliaments are conducted. M. Fouché believes that by -bribing some old corrupt members, and by flattering a few young -enthusiasts, assemblies are ruled. He is mistaken; that is -intrigue, and intrigue does not lead far. In England, without -absolutely neglecting these means, they have others greater and -more serious. Recall Mr. Pitt, and behold to-day Lord -Castlereagh! By the same means Pitt directed the House of -Commons, and Lord Castlereagh controls it still to-day. Ah! if I -had such instruments, I would not fear; but have I anything like -it?" - -The ministry lost the support of Lord Harrowby, who was ill from -a fall, and obliged to resign; but a reconciliation between Pitt -and Addington was brought about. The anger of certain of Pitt's -friends was very great. Canning spoke of quitting his office: "It -is a little hard upon us in finding fault with our making it up -again," said Mr. Pitt, "when we have been friends from our -childhood, and our fathers were so before us; while they say -nothing to Grenville for uniting with Fox, though they have been -fighting all their lives." - -{405} - -Addington passed into the House of Lords with the title of Lord -Sidmouth, and was sworn in as President of the Council. The Duke -of Portland, who exercised that function, remained in the cabinet -as minister, but without the portfolio. The new alliance, as well -as the growing sentiment of public confidence, had increased the -majority for the ministry. After a most animated debate between -Pitt, Fox and Sheridan, upon the subject of the war recently -declared by Spain, the conduct of the government was approved by -a majority of one hundred and forty. Mr. Pitt, however, did not -think it prudent to risk at the same time the question of the -abolition of the slave trade, to which he had constantly remained -faithful. Wilberforce persisted in presenting his motion. Pitt -and Fox gave him their support, but a majority of their adherents -abstained from voting. "I have never attempted anything during my -whole parliamentary career which has cost me so much trouble," -wrote Wilberforce, in his journal. - -A bitter mortification awaited Mr. Pitt. As faithful in his -friendships as in his political engagements, he had remained -sincerely attached to Lord Melville, notwithstanding the coldness -which had arisen between them during the Addington ministry. Upon -returning to power, he had called his friend to the Ministry of -the Marine, of which he had recently been treasurer. Naval -construction had been much neglected by Lord St. Vincent. -Melville pushed it forward with much zeal. The order and -superintendence, however, were not equal to the activity. A -paymaster appointed by Lord Melville was convicted of having -appropriated public funds. Soon after his patron was accused of -being implicated in these malversations. It was impossible, he -said, to render an account of the sums which had passed through -his hands, and of which a part had been used for secret service. - -{406} - -Justly convinced of the honesty of Lord Melville, but equally -disturbed by his mismanagement and the bad intentions of the -opposition towards him, Pitt resolved to defend his colleague at -all hazards. Among his partisans, and even in the cabinet, the -dissatisfaction was profound, and opinions were much divided. -When it came to a vote, the independent members awaited the -decision of Mr. Wilberforce; he rose slowly, avoiding the glance -of Mr. Pitt, which still entreated him. "I am forced," said he, -"to vote for Mr. Whitbread's resolution of censure. I am -profoundly shocked at the guilty conduct of Lord Melville, and I -am unable to refuse to satisfy the moral sense of England." The -house was equally divided, and the speaker cast the deciding -vote. - -Abbott, the speaker, much troubled, voted for the resolution. "I -sat wedged close to Pitt himself, the night we were left 216 to -216," writes Lord Fitzharris, son of Lord Malmesbury, "and the -speaker, Abbot, after looking as white as a sheet, and pausing -for ten minutes, gave the casting vote _against_ us. Pitt -immediately put on the little cocked hat that he was in the habit -of wearing when dressed for the evening, and jammed it deeply -over his forehead; and _I distinctly saw the tears trickling -down his cheeks_. We had overheard one or two, such as Colonel -Wardle (of notorious memory), say, they would see how Billy -looked after it. A few young ardent followers of Pitt, with -myself, locked their arms together, and formed a circle, in which -he moved, I believe, unconsciously, out of the House; and neither -the Colonel nor his friends could approach him." - -{407} - -Lord Melville had tendered his resignation as First Lord of the -Admiralty. His enemies, however, were not satisfied, but demanded -the erasure of his name from the list of privy councillors. The -first impulse of Pitt was to haughtily refuse. Melville, as -generous and disinterested toward others as he was imprudent and -negligent in the administration of public affairs, as well as -with his personal fortune, interposed. The majority was -threatening. Melville prayed Pitt to yield to the storm. A sad -allusion to the grief of his family alone betrayed the bitterness -of his soul. "I will not conceal from you," wrote he, "that my -opinion in this matter is not entirely free from all personal -consideration. I hope that I have firmness enough to support all -the trouble that they may cause me; but you know me well enough -to comprehend how my domestic affections suffer from the grief -and constant agitation that these debates, mingled with so much -personal bitterness, naturally cause to those who are nearest to -me." - -When Pitt announced to the House that he had already requested -the king to erase the name of Lord Melville from the list of -privy councillors; he added, with great emotion, "I confess, and -I am not ashamed to confess it, that whatever may be my deference -to the House of Commons, and however anxious I may be to accede -to their wishes, I certainly felt a deep and bitter _pang_ -in being compelled to be the instrument of rendering still more -severe the punishment of the noble lord."--"As he uttered the -word _pang,_" says Lord Macaulay, "his lip quivered, his -voice shook, he paused, and his hearers thought that he was about -to burst into tears. He suppressed his emotion, however, and -proceeded with his usual majestic self-possession." - -{408} - -When Lord Melville appeared before the House of Lords, at that -bar of the illustrious accused, that the friendship of Pitt had -provided--in place of a criminal prosecution demanded by the -opposition--the great minister was no longer there to sustain him -by his faithful attachment and generous confidence. At the time -of the acquittal of Lord Melville, Mr. Pitt was dead (1806). - -In the cabinet Lord Sidmouth showed much animosity towards -Melville. His enmity was increased by the nomination of his -successor, Sir Charles Middleton. For a moment the -dissatisfaction was calmed by the intervention of some mutual -friends; but finally terminated in the withdrawal of Lord -Sidmouth, and his faithful partisan Lord Buckinghamshire, from -the cabinet. The king had frankly declared to Mr. Pitt that "he -was much hurt by the virulence against Lord Melville, which is -unbecoming the character of Englishmen, who naturally, when a man -is fallen, are too noble to pursue their blows; besides," he -added, "if any disunion should manifest itself, he would -decidedly take the part of Mr. Pitt, having every reason to be -satisfied with his conduct since the first hour of his entrance -into his service." - -When the old king, but lately insane, wrote these lines, he was -on the point of becoming blind. At the end of the session of -Parliament, July 12th, 1805, one of his eyes was already entirely -useless, and the other was growing weaker and weaker. At the same -time, to the profound grief of his friends and family, the health -of Mr. Pitt was visibly declining; and notwithstanding the -wonderful energy of his mind, it was no longer possible-- -according to the striking expression of Lord Harrowby--to appear -before his adversaries "as a giant in repose." - -{409} - -The giant who governed France, and terrified Europe, however, -seemed to have no need of repose. Crowned at Milan on the 26th of -May, 1805, he had assumed there the title of King of Italy. This -name grated harshly on Austrian ears. The new sovereign had -annexed to France the republic of Genoa, and now began that -system of aggrandizement of his own family by ceding the -territory of Eliza Lucca, as an independent principality, to his -eldest sister. These acts of insolent domination served the -designs of Mr. Pitt, then ardently occupied in forming a new -coalition against absolute and revolutionary France. Russia, -Austria and Sweden, acceded to his propositions. Scarcely was the -European alliance concluded against him, when Napoleon arrived at -Boulogne, resolved to strike the coalition to the heart, by -attacking England. He was confident of the success of his -expedition. "The English do not know what is impending. Let -France be mistress of the passage for twelve hours, and England -has lived," said he. The plan of the emperor was to distract the -attention of the British government and scatter its fleets by -dispatching his own squadrons, some to the West Indies and others -to Spanish ports, then suddenly to return, and with all his -forces occupy the channel. Admiral Villeneuve, charged with the -supreme command, was sagacious and brave; nevertheless, sad and -discouraged in advance, by the weight of the responsibility. He -had cleared the Straits of Gibraltar when Nelson followed him. -From Spain to the Antilles, and from the Antilles to the Channel, -the two squadrons followed. - -Villeneuve was ordered to break the blockade at Brest, to rally -the fleet of Admiral Gantheaume, and to open a passage towards -England. He hesitated, doubted, and disobeyed; and returned -towards Cadiz, where he expected to find the allies. Nelson, -apprised of this plan, started in pursuit. When Napoleon heard of -the disobedience of Villeneuve, he flew into a terrible passion. -He was at Boulogne, watching the horizon at all hours, for a -glimpse of the sails of his coming fleet. -{410} -Daru entered his cabinet one morning, and found Napoleon -intensely agitated, talking to himself, and unconscious of his -approach. Daru stood before him, silently awaiting orders. The -emperor, on recognizing him, addressed him as if he knew all. "Do -you know where Villeneuve is now?" cried he, vehemently. "He is -at Cadiz,--at Cadiz!" His fury burst forth, and he declared -himself betrayed. Some hours later, he conceived the plan of his -German campaign. At the end of September, he was upon the Rhine, -at the head of his troops, repulsing and driving back General -Mack and the Austrian army at Ulm. That place was strongly -fortified, and commanded the Danube; but the approaches were cut -off. Communication was impossible, and Mack, abandoned by certain -divisions of his army, was compelled to surrender -unconditionally. On the 20th of October, 1805, he evacuated the -city, and 30,000 men laid down their arms. - -When this news reached London, carried by one of those vague -rumors which precede all couriers, Pitt refused to believe it. He -was ill and suffering, and the weight of public perils -overwhelmed, for the first time, that gigantic brain. He had made -new attempts to enlarge the basis of his ministry. The king was -at Weymouth; his minister went there to see him, and urge him to -consent to the admission of Mr. Fox into the cabinet. George III. -remained inflexible. The depression, which had seized Mr. Pitt, -insensibly communicated itself to his friends. "He came to me, -begging me to translate a Dutch newspaper which contained in -full, the capitulation of Ulm," writes Lord Malmesbury in his -Diaries. "I observed, but too clearly, the effect it had on him, -though he did his utmost to conceal it. This was the last time I -saw him. This visit left an indelible impression on my mind, as -his manner and look were not his own, and gave me, in spite of -myself, a foreboding of the loss with which we were threatened." - - -[Image] -Death of Nelson. - - -{411} - -The light of a great joy was once more to cross the obscure -heaven of the last days of Mr. Pitt. The day following the -surrender at Ulm, the 21st of October, 1805, the English and -French fleets encountered each other before Trafalgar. Nelson and -Collingwood commanded the two lines of English vessels. -Villeneuve and Admiral Gravine had reunited thirty-three ships of -the line and seven frigates. After prodigies of valor on the part -of the French, the victory remained with the English. Standing -upon the deck of the Victory,--his flagship, Nelson signalled to -the entire fleet, those noble words, emblematic of austere -Brittanic virtue: - - "England Expects Every Man To Do His Duty." - -Nelson wore all his decorations. "In honor I gained them, and in -honor I will die with them," said he. He was shot and fatally -wounded. He was carried below, where he died some three hours -later. A moment before breathing his last, he murmured: "Thank -God, I have done my duty." - -The sublimest eulogy for such heroes is the public consternation -caused by their death. The victory of Trafalgar was hailed in -England with cries of joy and with tears. "Mr. Pitt observed to -me," writes Lord Fitzharris, "that he had been called up at -various hours in his eventful life by the arrival of news of -various hues; but that, whether good or bad, he could always lay -his head on his pillow, and sink into sound sleep. On this -occasion, however, the great event announced, brought with it so -much to weep over, as well as to rejoice at, that he could not -calm his thoughts, but at length got up, though it was three -o'clock in the morning." - -{412} - -England overwhelmed with honors and gifts the family of her hero. -She gave him the most magnificent obsequies, and placed in one of -the halls of the palace at Windsor, the mast against which he had -leaned and the ball which had struck him. National gratitude did -not stop at the illustrious hero fallen in the very summit of his -glory; it extended with the same generous ardor to the great -minister who alone opposed the irresistible invader of empires -and destroyer of European rights. - -At the annual banquet of the city of London, on the 9th of March, -1805, after the crowd had detached the horses, in order to draw -his carriage, the Lord Mayor proposed the health of Mr. Pitt, as -already the savior of England, and soon to be the savior of -Europe. Sir Arthur Wellesley, already celebrated by his victories -in India, was present. Subsequently, under the title of the Duke -of Wellington, he was placed at the head of the armed European -coalition, and carried on the interrupted but henceforth -victorious work of Mr. Pitt. "The minister arose," related the -Duke in his old age, and waived the compliment, remarking: -"England is saved by her own efforts, and the rest of Europe will -be saved by her example." - -The safety of Europe seemed more than ever distant and doubtful. -On the 2nd of December, 1805, the battle of Austerlitz struck the -last blow to the hopes of the allies in Germany. The peace of -Presburg, signed by Austria, on the 26th of December, abandoned -the Tyrol to the Elector of Bavaria, and Venice to the kingdom of -Italy. Russia soon gave up the struggle. The third European -coalition was destroyed. - -{413} - -Mr. Pitt was at Bath, seriously ill with an attack of gout, but -full of hope, in consequence of false news of a victory in -Moravia. When he learned of the battle at Austerlitz, the -bitterness of the contrast surpassed the measure of his physical -strength. He called for a map, and desired to be left alone. He -weighed sadly the future chances of his country. The malady -slowly exhausted his enfeebled body. He was taken back to his -country house at Putney, emaciated and exhausted; grown old in a -few days. A map of Europe hung upon the wall: pointing his finger -towards it, he said to his niece, Lady Hester Stanhope: "Roll up -that map--it will not be wanted these ten years." - -For some time past, the native vigor of his mind had struggled -against feeble bodily health, as well as excessive fatigues; and -finally patriotic grief broke down the last rampart of his -declining strength. Each day he became feebler. His countenance -betrayed the intensity of his mental sufferings. "He has his -Austerlitz look," said Wilberforce. - -In defeating the Austrians on the 2nd of December, Napoleon had -conquered a more formidable enemy than the Empire. Mr. Pitt had -only a few days to live. He preserved to the last moment, his -affectionate interest for his friends, and a serene pleasure in -their society. The Marquis of Wellesley had just returned from -India; he hastened to Putney. "I found him in his usual good -spirits," writes he, "and his understanding appeared to be as -vigorous and clear as ever. Amongst other topics, he told me, -with great kindness and feeling, that since he had seen me he had -been happy to become acquainted with my brother Arthur, of whom -he spoke in the warmest terms of commendation. He said,--'I never -met any military officer with whom it was so satisfactory to -converse. He states every difficulty before he undertakes any -service; but none after he has undertaken it.' Notwithstanding -Mr. Pitt's kindness and cheerfulness, I saw that the hand of -death was fixed upon him. This melancholy truth was not known nor -believed by either his friends or opponents. I informed Lord -Grenville that the death of Mr. Pitt was near, and he received -this sad intelligence with the greatest emotion and an agony of -tears; and he resolved immediately to suspend all hostilities in -Parliament." - -{414} - -Mr. Pitt fainted away before Lord Wellesley left the room. After -this he saw his friends only at rare intervals, and contrary to -the advice of his physicians. The Bishop of Lincoln, his former -preceptor, apprised him of his danger. "How long do you think I -have to live?" asked Pitt, turning toward his friend and -physician, Sir Walter Farquhar. Sir Walter answered that he was -unable to say; that possibly he might yet recover. An incredulous -smile passed over the face of the dying man. Then turning to the -Bishop, he said, "I fear, I have, like too many other men, -neglected prayer too much to allow me to hope that it can be very -efficacious now; but," rising in his bed as he spoke, and -clasping his hands with the utmost fervor and devotion, he added, -emphatically: "I throw myself _entirely_ upon the mercy of -God, through the merits of Christ!" Some hours later he breathed -his last. - -Pitt lived and died poor. Parliament paid his debts, which -amounted to £40,000; it provided for the support of his three -nieces and defrayed the expenses of his funeral. Great -consternation seized the entire nation upon hearing of his death. -Within three months England had lost both Nelson and Pitt, the -hero of heroes, and the great pilot of her political government. -In the presence of a growing peril and of an implacable enemy, by -the premature death of two men, England found herself weakened -and disarmed: she was not, however, to abandon all hope. Mr. Pitt -had said, with great modesty, that it did not appertain to any -single man to save Europe. Between the day of the death of the -great minister and the definitive conclusion of peace, there were -yet to be long years of resistance, as persevering and as -desperate as the aggression. - - -{415} - - Chapter XXXIX. - - George III. And The Emperor Napoleon. - (1806-1810.) - - -Lord Grenville succeeded Pitt, as Prime Minister. His alliance -with Fox had brought forth fruits; the Cabinet now had the good -fortune to contain only eminent men: Fox, Grey, Windham, Lord -Sidmouth, Lord Henry Petty, second son of Lord Landsdowne, whose -title he was one day to wear, and whose renown he was to sustain. -Canning alone was excluded. - -Fox had charge of foreign affairs. His physical strength already -failing, had nevertheless triumphed over the health of his great -rival. Years before, Lady Holland, in comparing the two in their -early youth, had said to her husband that she had seen at the -house of Lady Hester Pitt, the little William who was only eight -years old, but was the most extraordinary child that she had ever -seen: "he is so well educated," said she, "and has such good -manners, that he will be all his life a thorn in the flesh, for -Charles. Remember well what I say to you." - -{416} - -The thorn had fallen: after seventeen years of exclusion from -power, amidst the alternatives of passionate struggles and of -midly indolent discouragements, Fox seized the rudder in an hour -of dolorous and patriotic agony. His admiration for the Emperor -Napoleon, and the sympathy which he had constantly shown for -France, inclined him naturally towards peace. He immediately made -overtures; his envoys were moderate in their demands as in their -tendencies. A happy chance furnished the minister with the -opportunity of rendering a signal service to the emperor. An -adventurer had offered to assassinate the enemy of England. Mr. -Fox at once notified Talleyrand. However they might differ in -their methods, the emperor and his minister were equal adepts at -flattery. "Thank Mr. Fox," replied Napoleon, "and say to him, -whether the policy of his sovereign causes us to continue much -longer at war, or whether as speedy an end as the two nations can -desire, is put to a quarrel useless for humanity, I rejoice at -the new character which, from this proceeding, the war has -already taken, and which is an omen of what may be expected from -a cabinet, of the principles of which I am delighted to judge -from those of Mr. Fox, who is one of the men most fitted to feel, -in everything, what is excellent, what is truly great." - -The conditions of peace proposed by England were moderate; for -the first time, those of France indicated seriously the desire -for peace. Only one stumbling-block hindered the success of the -negotiations: England would not treat without Russia. Napoleon -refused absolutely to admit Russia among the number of the -contracting powers. "The obstacle is for us, insurmountable," -wrote Fox to Talleyrand; "if the emperor could see, with the same -eye that I behold it, the true glory which he would have a right -to acquire, by a just and moderate peace, what happiness would -not result from it for France and for all Europe!" - -{417} - -Nevertheless, negotiations continued. The emperor proposed to -George III. to restore Hanover, but recently assigned to Prussia, -and to cede to him, at the same time, the Hanseatic cities. He -had just taken possession of the kingdom of Naples, and placed -his brother Joseph upon the throne. He intended to join to it, -Sicily, still in the hands of the Bourbons, and under the -protection of the English. The Russian envoy, M. d'Oubril, who -had arrived at Paris, complicated the negotiations. The long -deferred hope of Fox began to fail. "The first wish of my heart," -said he to the House of Commons, "is peace; but such a peace only -as shall preserve our connections and influence on the continent, -and not abate one jot of the national honor. That peace only, and -no other." The pretensions of Napoleon were of a contrary nature. -The treaty concluded by M. d'Oubril, at Paris, was not confirmed -by the Emperor Alexander. Almost at the same moment, Prussia, -offended by the arrogance and premeditated insults of Napoleon, -officially declared war; too late, however, to be of any -effectual service to England. On the 13th of October, 1806, the -battle of Jena delivered that kingdom into the hands of the -Conqueror, who devastated it. Napoleon entered Berlin in triumph. -It was there that he signed his decree of a continental blockade, -interdicting throughout the whole extent of his dominions the -importation of English merchandise. - -The French armies were everywhere charged to enforce this decree. -They began by the seizure of all English commodities in the port -of Hamburg. Some months before, the invaders had arbitrarily -arrested, at Nuremburg, a bookseller named Palm, accused of -having written a libel against the emperor and king. Judged and -condemned by a court-martial, the unfortunate man was shot on the -26th of August, 1806. - -{418} - -This flagrant violation of the rights of nations, as well as of -common justice, powerfully contributed to convince Mr. Fox of the -futility of his efforts to obtain for England and Europe a -durable peace. He rendered his name honorable, however, by -accomplishing finally the work which he had so long pursued in -concert with Mr. Pitt, and at the instigation of Wilberforce and -his Christian friends. A bill passed by the two Houses -interdicted the slave trade to English vessels from the 1st of -January, 1807. One of the bas-reliefs on the tomb of Fox, recalls -this noble remembrance of his life. "If God spares the health of -Fox, and his union with Grenville is preserved," said -Wilberforce, "the next year we may end our labors." The health of -Fox was failing. Before the battle of Jena came to break down the -last rampart which opposed the irresistible waves of French -conquest in Germany, Fox had died at Chiswick, September 13th, -1806. He had never admired the philosophy of the eighteenth -century, and the disorders of his life had not destroyed in his -soul certain noble aspirations towards a higher life. "Since God -exists, the spirit exists," said he; "why should not the soul -live in another life?" "I am happy;" said he to his wife, as -death approached. "I am full of confidence, I might say of -certainty." Born ten years earlier than his illustrious rival, he -had survived him only eight months. Pitt died at the age of -forty-seven, Fox was scarcely fifty-seven. - -{419} - -Exceedingly popular during the greater part of his life, and -admired even by those who did not share his opinions, Mr. Fox's -reputation has nevertheless declined, as the magic of his words -and the supreme influence of his eloquence have ceased to act -upon succeeding generations. History has judged him eminent in -parliament and master of political eloquence. An ardent and -sincere patriot when not blinded by the hatreds or the -enthusiasms of party, generous and charming in his private -relations and personal intercourse, mediocre in his views of -government; in turn feeble and violent, and imperfect as a -writer, notwithstanding his pronounced taste for letters and the -favor he showed toward literary men. His death deprived the -ministry of great prestige; it enfeebled it in Parliament, and -even in the eyes of Europe, long dazzled by the parliamentary -glory of the great orator. It modified neither the direction nor -the attitude of the government, already weak, in hands that were -incapable of struggling against the overwhelming success of the -Emperor Napoleon abroad, as well as against the attacks of its -adversaries, and the growing difficulties of the situation at -home. - -Negotiations with France were broken off. Russia came to the -assistance of Prussia. Both reckoned upon subsidies from England. -The finances of that country were gravely embarrassed, and the -courageous expedients of Mr. Pitt, to fill the treasury, were -wanting. Canning forcibly attacked in parliament both the -parsimonious subsidies accorded to the allies, and the feeble -position assumed by the government, even after important -victories. Sir John Stuart had defeated at Maida, in Calabria, a -superior force of the enemy. Admiral Popham had retaken the Cape -of Good Hope. "He who adds to the glory of his country," said the -eloquent orator, "renders her a greater service than if he gained -for her vast possessions. Time and subsequent events do not alter -glory. The territory that England acquired in the glorious days -of Crecy and Poictiers has long since passed from us, but the -renown they added to the English name lives, and will ever remain -immortal." A fatal torpor had affected all military operations -since the death of Mr. Pitt. - -{420} - -"All the talents," united, were not sufficient to replace a chief -naturally called to govern men, either in Parliament, or at the -head of armies, in peace or in war. The cabinet tottered to its -very foundation; the question of Catholic emancipation struck the -final blow. The increase of the allowance accorded to the college -at Maynooth, had already excited great resistance. Lord Howick -proposed to substitute for the Test Act, an oath which would -permit Irish Catholics to enter the service either in the army or -navy. The opinions of the king had not changed. In the House of -Commons a considerable majority held the views of the king. - -After the dissolution in the preceding year, the ministry made an -appeal to the electors, and were beaten. They were dismissed and -replaced by the Tories, who in their turn again appealed to the -country. The new Parliament, ardently conservative, united itself -with the friends and disciples of Mr. Pitt. Mr. Canning was -placed at the head of Foreign Affairs, Lord Castlereagh became -Minister of War, and the Duke of Portland First Lord of the -Treasury. Lord Eldon was Chancellor, and Lord Hawkesbury was made -Minister of the Interior. - -Moderate in its political principles, and more pronounced in its -ecclesiastical and protestant convictions, the new cabinet was in -sympathy with the sovereign, and from the first Lord Harrowby -indicated to Parliament the confidence the king felt in the -counsellors that he had chosen. The maritime expeditions planned -by the Grenville ministry had not succeeded either in South -America or against Turkey. The victories of Eylan, of Dantzic, -and of Friedland, had just terminated in the peace of Tilsit, -concluded on the 7th and 9th of July, 1807, between France, -Russia and Prussia. England remained alone, delivered from the -prospect of invasion, but virtually isolated in consequence of -the continental blockade, confirmed by the articles sighed at -Tilset. The Emperor Alexander, young, ardent, and credulous, -allowed himself to be seduced by the flattering advances and -apparent generosity of Napoleon. -{421} -He engaged to serve as mediator between France and England, and -in case the latter refused to accept the conditions offered by -the French Emperor, Russia was to join her forces to those of -France, and immediately declare war against Great Britain. Louis -Bonaparte was recognized as king of Holland. The kingdom of -Westphalia, detached from the Prussian provinces, became the -appenage of Prince Jerome. - -England meanwhile did not remain idle, but prepared herself to -strike an effective blow. Denmark had remained neutral, but was -believed, in London, to be hostile to British interests; her -feebleness, likewise, placed her at the mercy of her powerful -neighbors, Holland, France or Russia. Lord Cathcart and Sir -Arthur Wellesley were charged to prepare an expedition against -Copenhagen. Some negotiations preceded the armed demonstration. -The Crown Prince smiled bitterly at the offers of assistance from -Mr. Jackson, the English envoy: "You offer us your alliance," -said he; "we know what it is worth. A year ago, when your allies -waited in vain for your assistance, we learned to estimate at its -just value the friendship of England." - -The British fleet appeared before Copenhagen on the 17th of -August, 1807. A proclamation invited the Danes to place -themselves under the protection of England. Neutrality was no -longer possible, and their arms were in danger of being turned -against their natural allies. The Danish government responded by -seizing the merchant vessels belonging to the English. - -{422} - -The bombardment of the capital began on the 2nd of September, -1807. All the advanced positions were occupied by the English -troops, and on the 7th a capitulation was signed. The entire -Danish navy fell into the hands of the English. It was the -purpose of one of the secret articles of the treaty of Tilsit to -place it at the service of Napoleon. The anger of the French was -great, and the news of commercial reprisals, decreed at London, -by order of the Council (November 11th, 1807), increased it. -France, and the countries subject to her, were declared in a -state of blockade, and all ships engaged in commerce with them, -were subject to the right of seizure. A new decree of Napoleon, -dated at Milan, the 17th of December, 1807, extended this -imprudent and violent measure to all the English possessions upon -the surface of the globe. The United States of America, the only -maritime power remaining neutral, had the embargo also laid on -her, and henceforward the commerce of the world was suddenly -destroyed or condemned to the perilous condition of piracy. All -rights and all interests were for a time disregarded. - -It is sometimes the glory of a feeble and courageous people, to -accept tyranny for a time. Charles IV., King of Spain, had bowed -to the yoke of revolutionary and absolute France. The Spanish -nation, however, was weary of bearing the burdens and fighting -the battles of a foreign master, under the name of its legitimate -sovereign. On the 17th of March, 1808, a popular insurrection -dethroned the feeble monarch and his servile favorite, Godoy, as -they were preparing to flee to America. Prince Ferdinand, drawn -to the opposition by his hatred of the Prince of Peace (Godoy), -was proclaimed king, after the abdication of his father. The army -of General Junot already occupied Portugal, and Murat had -established himself at Burgos, as lieutenant of the emperor; he -marched upon Madrid, of which he soon became master, deceiving -and abusing, in turn, both the father and the son, the dethroned -sovereign and the new monarch. -{423} -General Savary came to second Murat in his diplomatic mission. -His address and his promises drew Ferdinand to Bayonne. The -emperor was already there. The Prince expected to be recognized -as King of Spain, but instead found himself a prisoner, carefully -guarded. The demands of Napoleon were peremptory: it was -necessary, he said, to be assured of the co-operation of Spain, -and in consequence he had decided to place upon the throne a -prince of his own blood. Ferdinand's renunciation of the throne -was the price of his liberty. He resisted. The intrigues of the -Prince of Peace, who had been delivered from prison by order of -Napoleon, brought to Bayonne the old King Charles IV. who -protested against his own abdication and the coronation of his -son; at the same time he ceded the crown of Spain and the Indies -to his faithful ally, the emperor of the French, to be disposed -of at his convenience, with the only conditions, that the same -monarch should not reign at one time at both Paris and Madrid, -and also that the Catholic religion should remain sovereign and -supreme in Spain. The compensations offered by Napoleon to the -princes that he had betrayed, were: the estates of Navarre and -Chambord, the use of the palace at Compiègne, a civil list, the -preservation of their personal treasures, and the society of the -Prince Talleyrand at Valencay. "That which I have done here, is -not politic from a certain point of view," said Napoleon himself, -"but necessity demands that I do not leave in my rear, so near -Paris, a dynasty hostile to me." - -Riots and bloodshed took place at Madrid. A Spanish insurrection -resisted the authority of Murat, whom Charles IV. had designated -as his lieutenant. The Council of Spain hesitated, troubled by -the prospect of war, and ashamed to proclaim the overthrow of the -House of Bourbon. On the 6th of June, nevertheless, Joseph -Bonaparte was declared King of Spain, to the great discontent of -Murat, who had counted upon receiving the kingdom which he had -secured for Napoleon. The crown of Naples was soon to soften his -regrets, without, however, removing all bitterness. On the 20th -of July, the new sovereign entered Madrid. - -{424} - -A national Junta organized itself at Seville, renewing the oath -of allegiance to Ferdinand VII. General Castanos, who commanded -an army of 20,000 men in Andalusia, announced his resolution of -remaining faithful to the exiled dynasty. He entered into -negotiations with Sir Hugh Dalrymple, the English Governor of -Gibraltar, and a subscription from English merchants furnished -the first funds necessary. A tardy dispatch from Lord Castlereagh -announced a succor of ten thousand English troops. Lord -Collingwood took the command of the fleet that was to proceed to -Cadiz. Some days after the proclamation of Joseph Bonaparte, even -before he had placed a foot upon Spanish soil, the peninsula -became the theatre of a war which was to become as sanguinary as -desperate. Ninety-two thousand Spaniards, of whom one-third were -militia, sustained the rights of the House of Bourbon, and the -national independence. A French army of eighty thousand soldiers -overran the kingdom. Junot occupied Portugal with thirty thousand -men. At Bayonne, Druot, with a reserve of twenty thousand troops, -was ready to march. On the 14th of June, 1808, the first serious -engagement took place near Valladolid, between Marshal Bessières -and the old General Cuesta. The Spaniards were defeated. The same -day they avenged themselves at Cadiz, by seizing the French fleet -in that port. - -{425} - -On the 19th of July, General Dumont, blockaded in Andalusia by -the Spanish forces, was defeated at Baylen. On the 22nd he signed -a disastrous capitulation, in the hope of saving his troops, who -were to be sent back to France. The Spaniards, however, -unscrupulously violated the conditions and retained the army as -prisoners. The universal joy and the national hopes were excited, -and alarmed Joseph Bonaparte, who hastened to leave Madrid. The -siege of Saragossa was raised. - -Notwithstanding the presence of Junot, a movement hostile to -France manifested itself in Portugal. Sir Arthur Wellesley landed -at Oporto, with ten thousand men. Junot advanced to meet him, but -his forces were insufficient, and he was defeated at Vimeiro. The -Convention of Cintra, on the 30th of August, 1808, decided the -evacuation of Portugal by the French. - -The unjust invasion of the peninsula already brought forth its -fruits. King Joseph, in desperation, wrote to his brother, on the -9th of August: "I have an entire nation against me. The nobility -themselves, at first uncertain, have ended by following the -movement of the lower classes. I have not a single Spaniard left -who is attached to my cause. As general, my part would be -endurable, nay easy, for with a detachment of your veteran -troops, I would conquer the Spaniards; but as king my part is -insupportable, since I must slaughter one part of my subjects to -make the other submit. I decline therefore to reign over a people -who will not have me. If you wish it, I will restore Ferdinand -VII. to them, in your name. I shall demand back from you the -throne of Naples." - -{426} - -The will of Napoleon was more tenacious and his passions stronger -than those of his brother. Joseph was obliged to remain King of -Spain. The Convention of Cintra, definitively adjourned, after -the surrender of Torres Vedras to the English, was not approved -either by Sir Arthur Wellesley nor by the English Cabinet. The -French armies had obtained in Spain numerous partial successes. -Saragossa was again besieged. After a long campaign Sir John -Moore was defeated and killed, at the battle of Corunna. His -troops hastened to embark for England. They scarcely took time to -bury him. "We left him alone with his glory," says Wolfe the -poet. Marshal Soult took possession of the city. The negotiations -between France and England, through the intervention of Russia, -had failed. An interview between the two emperors, at Erfurt, had -strengthened their alliance. Napoleon evacuated Prussia, and -concentrated his efforts upon Spain. He reached there on the 29th -of October, 1808. On the 4th of December he was at Madrid, -ordering upon every side and in all directions, the movements of -his lieutenants. When he returned to Paris, January 22nd, 1809, -King Joseph was firmly established in his capital. Napoleon -accorded to his troops a month of repose before completing the -conquest of Spain. The threatening attitude of Europe, encouraged -by the resistance of the Spaniards, compelled the emperor to -leave to others the task of conquering enemies constantly -defeated, but never subdued. - -The heroic defence of Saragossa was the type and example of the -war in Spain. General Palafox commanded there. To the demand to -surrender, he replied with this laconic message: "War to the -knife:" and this finally became the watchword. The ramparts were -taken only after a desperate resistance, in which even the women -took part. Then began, perhaps, the most heroic contest the world -ever saw. Street by street was obstinately defended; every house -became a fortress, and every church and convent a citadel. -"Never," wrote Marshal Lannes to the emperor, "have I seen so -much desperation as our enemies have shown in the defence of this -place. -{427} -I have seen women bravely confronting death in the breach. This -siege resembles nothing that we have had in war heretofore. It is -a position where great prudence and great vigor is necessary. We -are obliged to take with the mine or by assault, every house. -Finally, sire, it is a horrible war." After twenty-nine days of -siege and twenty-one days passed in conquering the streets, one -by one, Saragossa finally capitulated, on the 21st of February, -1809. Of the one hundred thousand inhabitants enclosed in the -city, fifty-four thousand had perished. Henceforth the name of -Saragossa is added on the roll of those cities which have been -made forever famous and glorious by their heroic defences, to -that of Numantia and Jerusalem, of Leyden and Londonderry. - -Parliament opened on the 19th of January, 1809. The Whigs at once -attacked the ministry on the conduct of the war and predicted its -fatal termination. The campaign had added nothing to the glory of -the arms of the great belligerant powers; only the patriotic -perseverance of the Spaniards encouraged their defenders. Mr. -Canning concluded with the Junta of Seville a close treaty of -alliance. The military and financial preparations necessitated -great efforts. The command of the troops was given to Sir Arthur -Wellesley. Marshal Soult again invaded Portugal. It was against -this country that the English General at first directed attacks. -Landing at Lisbon, on the 22nd of April, 1809, he left the -capital on the 28th, to proceed to Coimbra. All his forces -concentrated there, and on the 11th of May, he found himself on -the banks of the rapid Douro. The river was crossed at midday, in -the face of the French army. On the 12th, Oporto was taken. While -Marshal Soult was retreating towards Spain, the English general -published a proclamation in favor of the French wounded and -prisoners left in the city. The Spaniards had often treated their -conquered enemies with great barbarity. "I appeal to the mercy of -the people of Oporto, in regard to the wounded and prisoners," -said Sir Arthur Wellesley. "By the laws of war they are under my -protection, and I am resolved to give it to them." - -{428} - -On the 2nd of July the English entered Spain, at Placencia. On -the 27th the victory of Talavera delivered to Wellesley a strong -military position, but without the provisions or munitions of war -that he much needed. "They have no magazines," wrote Sir Arthur. -"We have none, and are unable to form any. It is a positive fact -that during the last eight days the English troops have not -received a third of their rations, although they fought during -forty-eight hours, and defeated an army twice their number. There -are at this moment in the hospitals of this city nearly four -thousand wounded soldiers, who are dying for the want of the -commonest necessaries of life, that any other European nation -would provide for its enemies. Here I can obtain nothing, they -will not even bury my dead." Without aid from the Spaniards, who -were in fact secretly hostile to the English, the latter were -compelled to fall back upon Portugal. - -After the victory of Talavera, Sir Arthur was raised to the -peerage, under the title of Baron Duro of Wellesley, and Viscount -Wellington of Talavera. "We have at this time the entire cohort -of French marshals in Estramadura," wrote Wellington: "Soult, -Ney, Mortier, Kellerman, Victor and Sebastiani, without counting -King Joseph and the five thousand men of Suchet." Wellington -fixed his headquarters at Badajoz. Everywhere the Spanish -generals were defeated by the French. "It is deplorable," said -Wellington, "that affairs which were in such good condition a few -weeks ago, have been ruined by the ignorance and presumption of -those who have the charge of directing them. -{429} -I declare that if they had preserved their two armies, or even -one of them, the cause was safe. The French could have no -reinforcements which could have been of any use; time would have -been gained; the state of affairs would have improved daily: all -the chances were in our favor. The French armies must have been -driven out of Spain. But no, they must fight great battles on the -plains, where the defeat of the Spanish troops was assured from -the first. They have never been willing to believe what I have -told them regarding the French forces. Up to the present time, -when upon the field of battle, they have found them superior to -themselves under all circumstances." - -Austria re-opened hostilities. A great English expedition was -directed, against the naval preparations of Napoleon in the -Scheldt. The fleet invested and took Flushing. The troops -occupied the Isle of Walcheren, the possession of which, however, -was of no practical utility, and led to no important results, but -was attended with great suffering and frightful mortality. -Another English expedition, directed against the south of Italy, -was equally unsuccessful, although Sir John Stuart took -possession of the Ionian Islands. - -Napoleon pursued his triumphant way in Germany, but his victories -were more severely contested and more dearly bought. At Paris -Prince Talleyrand had been disgraced, and the most violent -councils prevailed. "It appears," said Napoleon to Prince -Metternich, the Austrian ambassador, "that the waters of Lethe, -and not those of the Danube flow by Vienna. New lessons are -necessary, and they will be terrible, I promise you. Austria -saved the English in 1805, when I was about to cross the Straits -of Calais, and has just saved them once more, by hindering me -from pursuing them at Corunna: she will pay dear for this new -diversion. I have no desire to draw the sword except against -Spain and England, but if Austria persists, the struggle will be -immediate and decisive, and will be such, that in the future, -England will find no allies upon the continent." - -{430} - -In this great struggle for the independence of European nations, -against an insatiable conqueror, and a heroic people which he had -intoxicated by his glory, the successive reverses of the -Austrians finally delivered Vienna to the Emperor Napoleon. The -battle of Essling lasted two days, and was more desperate and -more bloody than all the battles which had preceded it. Fortified -on the Island of Loban, in the middle of the Danube, General -Mouton, with an army of forty thousand men, firmly withstood for -six hours, the fire of the batteries of the Archduke Charles; -always on horseback among the guns and the troops, with no other -word of command as the files of soldiers fell under the fire, -than these sinister words: "Close the ranks." - -When Napoleon demanded of Massena if he was able to defend the -heights of Aspern: "Say to the Emperor," replied he, "that I will -hold it two--six--twenty-four hours, if he wishes; as many as may -be necessary for the safety of the army." In the council of war -held on the evening of the first day at Loban, when Napoleon, now -upon the borders of an abyss, developed the plan which was to -lead to the victory of Wagram, the same Massena, often jealous, -and always morose, exclaimed, with a passionate admiration for -that superior genius that he recognized in spite of his envy: -"Sire, you are a great man, and worthy to command such as me." -The battle of Wagram led to the peace of Vienna, signed on the -14th of October, 1809. - -{431} - -When Pope Pius VII. protested against the occupation of his -states by French troops, he was shut up in the Quirinal. The -Emperor decided the question, in his usual manner, by uniting the -Roman States to the Empire. The successor of Charlemagne withdrew -the gift which that great conqueror had bestowed upon the Holy -See. This violence was followed by the papal excommunication. The -Pope was rudely taken from Rome and transported to Savona. The -superior judgment of Napoleon was not long deceived regarding the -fatal effects of this insult to the religious sentiments of -Catholic Europe. He wrote from Schonbrunn on July 18th, 1809, -that he regretted that the Pope had been arrested; that the -arrest was a great piece of folly; that although it was necessary -to arrest Cardinal Pacca, the Pope should have been left in peace -at Rome; but nevertheless there was now no remedy for what was -done. He did not, however, want the Pope in France, and if he -would cease his mad opposition, his return to Rome would not be -opposed. - -Some days later new projects developed themselves in that brain -constantly excited by the intoxication of absolute power. The -Pope, who had been taken to Grenoble, was carried back to Savona -by orders from the Emperor himself. Indomitable and patient, he -was detained there for three years. "You have not grasped my -intentions," wrote Napoleon, on the 15th of September, to the -Minister of Police; "the movement from Grenoble to Savona, like -all retrograde steps, has been fatal; it is that which has given -hopes to this fanatic. You see that he wishes to make us reform -the Napoleonic Code; to deprive us of our liberties, etc. Could -anything be more insane? I have already given orders that all the -Generals of the Order, and the Cardinals who have no Episcopal -see, or do not reside at one, whether Italians, Tuscans, or -Piedmontese, should report at Paris; and probably I will end by -summoning the Pope himself, whom I will place in the suburbs. It -is just that he should be at the head of Christianity. This of -course will create a sensation the first months, but will soon -subside." - -{432} - -Napoleon desired to have heirs to the throne. He dissolved his -marriage with the Empress Josephine by a decree of divorce. After -an abortive negotiation with the Emperor Alexander on the subject -of a union with the grand Duchess Anne, the peace of Vienna was -confirmed by a contract of marriage, signed on the 7th of -February, 1810, between the Emperor Napoleon and the Archduchess -Marie Louise of Austria. The triumphant conqueror took by assault -the sovereign families as well as their states; but he was not -able to subdue either the conscience of the Pope nor the -passionate resistance of the Spaniards, sustained by the policy -and determined resolution of England. - -Important changes took place in the government of Great Britain; -a disagreement upon the subject of the conduct of the war, led to -a duel between Lord Castlereagh and Mr. Canning. The latter was -wounded, and immediately retired from the Cabinet, taking Mr. -Huskisson with him. Mr. Perceval and Lord Liverpool, but lately -Lord Hawkesbury, called to their aid the Marquis of Wellesley. -Lord Palmerston took part, for the first time, in public affairs, -as Under Secretary of War. The Spanish possession of San Domingo -was delivered to the English, who also seized the French -settlements in Senegal and Guadaloupe. Overwhelmed by his -fatigues and patriotic efforts. Admiral Collingwood died at sea, -on the 7th of March, 1810. He had asked to be retired: "I have -deferred making this request until I am entirely unfitted for -service," said he. "As long as I am good for anything, my life -belongs to my country." - -{433} - -Some weeks after the dispersal of the French fleet at Toulon, -Collingwood was lying very ill on board his flagship, the City of -Paris, when the signal officer expressed fears of a coming -tempest, which would be exhausting to the invalid: "Nothing in -this world will now trouble me," said the veteran; "I am dying." -He was not yet sixty years of age, but since his childhood he had -constantly given to the English navy the noblest example of -courage and virtue. - -In England all eyes and all thoughts were directed towards Spain. -The old king, George III., had finally become hopelessly insane. -The grief caused by the death of his daughter, the Princess -Amelia, had brought about that final relapse that the physicians -declared incurable. The Prince of Wales accepted the Regency, -with the conditions prescribed in 1788 by Mr. Pitt. -Notwithstanding the constant opposition of Mr. Perceval and his -friends, the Regent decided to retain the Tory Cabinet, without -providing any places for his friends or Whig partisans. The -haughty tone of Lord Grenville and of Lord Grey towards him, had, -it was said, decided the Prince to this generally popular -measure. Resolved, in common with the rest of the royal family, -to obstinately pursue the war, but without military ardor or -personal incentive, the Regent gave no direction to the national -movement which sustained in England the terrible burden of that -great European struggle, which became each day more violent -against England. A decree of the Emperor, on the 27th of August, -1810, ordered that all English merchandise in any port, wherever -smuggled since the declaration of the continental blockade, -should be burned. Sweden, the last maritime power in Europe -remaining neutral, after a revolution which had dethroned the -foolish and incompetent King Gustavus IV., had formed an alliance -with France and Russia. Swedish ports were henceforth closed to -the English. - -{434} - -The King of Holland, Louis Bonaparte, soon wearied of that throne -which he had accepted with regret, abdicated without consulting -the Emperor, and immediately took refuge in Germany. Napoleon -responded by a decree uniting the Low Countries to France. The -Hanseatic cities had met the same fate. The Emperor confided to -Massena the command of the French armies in Spain. The old -Marshal accepted the task with dissatisfaction, and his -lieutenants were still more displeased. Wellington had chosen for -his base in Portugal, the fortified lines of Torres Védras, -without allowing himself to be turned from his plan by the -insults of the enemy or the inconsiderate ardor of his officers, -who wished to march at once against the French. The first -encounter took place at Alcola, on the 27th of September, 1810, -but without brilliant results to either army. Massena saw the -impossibility of forcing the English entrenchments, and demanded -reinforcements. Napoleon was preparing for the fatal Russian -campaign: he was unable to detach even a single army corps; his -forces were recruiting, but with difficulty and slowly. Soult -refused to aid Massena, who was now reduced to the most extreme -distress. "They have but few resources other than pillage," wrote -Wellington; "they receive scarcely any money from France, and -very few contributions are raised in Spain." - -On the 4th of March, 1811, Massena began slowly to retreat. On -the 10th of May the French had once again evacuated Portugal, and -Marmont was ordered to replace Massena at the head of the armies -in Spain. The campaigns of 1810 and 1811 had this sad result for -the French: their victories were scarcely sufficient to preserve -past conquests, while the national resistance lost none of its -desperation; and at the same time Wellington had not been -compelled to yield a single foot of ground in the Peninsula. In -the West Indies the Isle of France had fallen into the hands of -the English. - -{435} - -The campaign of 1812 was to be still more active and more fatal -to France. Before Napoleon entered Russia, during the month of -January, Wellington quitted his intrenchments and boldly took the -offensive. On the 19th he recaptured Ciudad-Rodrigo, but recently -taken under his very eyes, by the troops of Massena. On the 7th -of April, he wrested from Marshal Soult his conquest of Badajoz, -and on the 22nd of July, he defeated Marmont at the battle of -Arapiles before Salamanca, where the Marshal was so grievously -wounded that he was believed to be dying. On the 14th of August -the English entered Madrid, without, however being able to remain -there long. After having failed before Burgos, the English forces -concentrated themselves near Salamanca. When the three French -armies united themselves to pursue and crush him, Wellington was -out of reach, and secured his retreat upon Ciudad-Rodrigo without -difficulty. - -While the prudent and sagacious English general slowly continued -his work in Spain, the Emperor Napoleon had ventured, played, and -lost his great stake against Russia. Moscow was set on fire -through individual resolution, as patriotic as cruel. From -victory to victory, the French army, destroyed by the climate, by -the distances, by fatigue, and sufferings of all kinds, -disappeared, little by little, in the snows; abandoned by the -Emperor, who had secretly taken his departure for Paris on the -5th of December. Some lines inserted in the Moniteur had alone -preceded him. These announced that he had assembled his generals -at Smorgoni, transmitted the command to King Murat for the time -being, as the cold paralyzed military operations, and that he was -coming to Paris to personally direct the affairs of the empire. -{436} -Some months later he entered Germany, where a national movement, -encouraged by the disasters of the Russian campaign, was becoming -each day more determined against him. The King of Prussia finally -took up arms. Everywhere the Emperor Alexander was hailed as the -liberator of Germany. Only the terrible battles of Lützen and -Bantzen slackened the zeal of the allies. The mediation of -Austria obtained an armistice; more useful, however, to the -allies than to Napoleon. He rejected all the conditions proposed -by the Emperor Joseph. The terrible battles of Dresden and of -Leipsic were the final struggles of the dying lion. - -Mr. Perceval, the Prime Minister of England, a prudent, moderate, -and determined statesman, was assassinated by a personal enemy, -in the vestibule of the House of Commons. Lord Liverpool at once -assumed the entire responsibility of affairs, recently -complicated by a declaration of war from the United States. The -English government had not revoked, in time, those decrees of the -Council which were opposed to, and abused, the rights of nations, -and which were particularly unfortunate in the present instance, -as Napoleon had raised the continental blockade in their favor. -When the English finally withdrew their prohibitions, it was too -late, as hostilities had already begun on sea and land. An -American army invaded Canada, and the English and American fleets -fought with desperation. There, however, England did not expend -her warlike efforts; for in 1813 the progress of Wellington in -Spain absorbed all her thoughts and all her hopes. - -{437} - -For a time Marshal Jourdan took command of the French army that -supported King Joseph, in Spain. On the 21st of June he was -defeated by the English at Vittoria. Joseph narrowly escaped -being captured. Marshal Soult succeeded Jourdan. In a -proclamation to his army, he attributed the defeats to the -cowardice and incapacity of those who had preceded him in the -command: a sad presumption which was soon to receive its -chastisement. The conflicts of Roncesvalles, on the 28th and 31st -of July, 1813, forced the Marshal to fall back upon the Bidassoa, -without being able to make even an effort for the relief of the -besieged city of San Sebastian, which fell into the hands of the -English, on the 8th of September. On the 7th of October -Wellington, in his turn, crossed the Bidassoa, and while -Pampeluna surrendered to the Anglo-Spanish forces, on the 31st of -October, Marshal Soult was forced within his lines at St. Jean de -Luz. French territory was invaded. Delivered in advance to the -anger of its enemies, it was to suffer cruel reprisals of which -France has not even yet ceased to bear the weight or pay the -price. - -Napoleon defended Champagne and Lorraine; calling to his aid the -troops from Spain, as well as the remnants of the German army, -and blaming Marshal Augereau, who was slow in joining him. More -than ever master, and more than ever imperious, he continued -indomitable and inexhaustible in the fecundity of his genius. -"The Minister of War has shown me your letter of the 16th," wrote -Napoleon to Augereau, his old comrade of the revolution: "that -letter has grieved me deeply. What! six hours after receiving the -first troops from Spain, and you are not already on the march! -Were six hours of repose necessary? I gained the battle of Nangis -with a brigade of dragoons from Spain, who had not been off their -horses since they left Bayonne. The six battalions of Nîmes lack, -you say, clothing and equipments, and are inexperienced. What an -excuse to make me, Augereau! I have destroyed 80,000 of the -enemy, with battalions composed of conscripts, having no -cartridge boxes, and but half clothed. -{438} -There is no money, you say; and where do you expect to find -money? We will have that, only when we have torn our receipts -from the hands of the enemy. You lack horses? Take them -everywhere. You have no magazines? That is too ridiculous! I -order you to take up your line of march within twelve hours, -after you receive this letter. If you are still the Augereau of -Castiglione, obey this order; but if your sixty years weigh too -heavily upon you, turn over your command to the oldest of your -general officers. The country is threatened, and in danger. It -can only be saved by audacity and good-will, and not by vain -temporizations. You ought to have a nucleus of more than six -thousand veteran troops; I have not as many, and I have moreover -destroyed three armies, made 40,000 prisoners, taken two hundred -cannons, and three times saved the capital. The enemy fly in all -directions toward Troyes; be the first at the ball. It is no -longer a question of acting, as in the last days, but it is -necessary to act with the spirit and resolution of '93. When the -French soldiers see your plume in the advance, and when they see -you the first to expose yourself to the fire of the enemy, you -will be able to do with them whatever you wish." - -The blows of despair, although heroic, were not sufficient to -destroy the consequences of a long series of faults and fatal -errors. The empire succumbed beneath the efforts of combined -Europe, driven to extremities, and finally resolved to shake off -a yoke which England alone had never submitted to. During the -month of February, 1814, the forces of Marshal Soult and those of -Wellington were nearly equal. A series of minor conflicts -compelled the marshal to leave his intrenched camp, under the -walls of Bayonne. On the 27th of February, the battle of Orthez -was lost by the French army, and General Foy was wounded. Soult -was obliged to fight while retreating. - - -[Image] -Waterloo. - - -{439} - -Bordeaux already proclaimed the Bourbons. The army of Soult -covered Toulouse, and there was fought, on the 10th of April, the -last battle of that war, which had already lasted more than -twenty years. The glory of the marshal was increased, although -the disaster which menaced France was not lessened. Before the -army of Wellington had again met their old adversaries of Spain -before Toulouse, the Emperor Napoleon had abdicated at -Fontainbleau (April 11th, 1814). - -The Duke of Wellington returned to Spain, to bid adieu to his -faithful army. He returned to France in the month of August, as -the English ambassador to King Louis XVIII. Some months passed, -and the throne of the Bourbons, scarcely raised again, was once -more overthrown. - -All Europe arose, for Napoleon had secretly quitted the Island of -Elba, and had reappeared in France. At sight of him, the army -forgot its oath. A breath of delirium passed over their souls. -Napoleon himself was not deceived regarding the serious and -definitive results of his enterprise. In descending from his -carriage at the door of the Tuilleries, he said to the young -Count Molé, but recently strong in his good graces: "Ah, well! -This is a fine prank!" - -Meanwhile the allies united their forces; all nations marched -together against the insatiable ambition of that conqueror, who -placed for a second time the fate of the world at the hazard of -his destiny. Wellington was at Brussels, collecting his forces -and awaiting those of the allies. Placed by public consent at the -head of all the allied armies, he was prudent and moderate; -careful to avoid violent sentiments and exaggerated resolutions; -friendly to the Bourbons, but without ill-will either towards -France or the Emperor Napoleon. The wise attitude which he -imposed upon the English, by the ascendancy of his authority and -character, was not imitated by all the powers, Prussia, -especially, having grievous injuries to avenge, acted with -intense bitterness. - -{440} - -Napoleon entered Belgium. On the night of the 15th of June, 1814, -the English officers were at a ball at the house of the Duchess -of Richmond in Brussels. During the festivities they were -informed, one after the other, of the approach of the French -army; they quietly withdrew, and at once placed themselves at the -head of their troops. On the 16th the two battles of Ligny and -Quatre Bras were fought by the Prussian General Blücher and the -Duke of Wellington, and cost the allies more than 15,000 men. On -the 18th, at Waterloo, the English army alone left 15,000 dead -upon the field of battle. The Emperor Napoleon there lost his -crown, and France lost all the conquests she had so unjustly and -imprudently acquired, and which had caused her so many tears and -so much blood. - -Yet once more, after a hundred days of agitation and of anguish, -the French people, tossed from one master to the other, -vacillating and thoughtless, wounded nevertheless by their -reverses, to the depths of their souls, and sad notwithstanding -their deliverance, saw returning to his palace their fugitive -king; while Napoleon rendered to England, his persevering enemy, -the involuntary homage of demanding an asylum upon her territory. -Accompanied by General Becker to Rochefort, he entered into -negotiations with Captain Maitland, commander of the Bellerophon. -Maitland received him on board, refusing to make any engagement -in the name of the English government, but resolved not to allow -his illustrious guest to escape. That government promptly decided -that the Emperor Napoleon, who was so dangerous to the repose of -Europe, should be detained during the remainder of his life on -the island of St. Helena. - -{441} - -He departed, while England, through the intervention of the Duke -of Wellington, lent to the monarchical restoration, as well as to -the French nation, the support of her wise counsels and prudent -moderation, without any one, at that time, being able to divine -the role that his name and the prestige of his glory was yet to -play in the history of the French nation and in the history of -Europe. - - -{442} - - Chapter XL. - - George IV. - Regent And King. - (1815-1830). - - -Peace was established in Europe. It had cost France great anguish -and great grief. The Duke Richelieu, who had concluded it, and -whose personal influence over the Emperor Alexander had -powerfully contributed to soften its conditions, expressed the -sentiment of all France when he wrote to his sister, Madame -Montcalm, "All is consummated. More dead than alive, I have -affixed my name to that fatal treaty. I had sworn not to do it, -and I had said it to the king. The unhappy prince conjured me, -breaking into tears, not to abandon him. I no longer hesitated. I -have the confidence to believe that no one else could have -obtained as much. France, expiring under the weight of the -calamities which overwhelm her, claims imperiously a prompt -deliverance." - -England again breathed: triumphant, but weighed down by her long -efforts. The state of the public finances and the monetary -situation occupied all minds, and served as a theme for the -attacks of the opposition against Lord Liverpool and Lord -Castlereagh. A certain inquietude manifested itself also upon the -subject of the secret conditions of the peace. Henry Brougham, a -young advocate of great talent, in a speech upon this question, -demanded the publication of the Treaty, half mystical, half -absolute, known under the name of the Holy Alliance, and signed -at Paris on the 20th of November, 1815, by the Emperors of Russia -and Austria, as well as by the King of Prussia. - -{443} - -"In his capacity as constitutional sovereign, the Prince Regent -was not competent to affix his signature to this treaty, -concluded by the sovereigns themselves," said Lord Castlereagh; -"England has therefore no right to call for its publication." The -Houses gave themselves the noble pleasure of rewarding the valor -of their generals and their armies. Monuments were erected to the -memory of those who had fallen in the war. The pensions formerly -accorded to the Duke of Wellington were doubled; he received from -the just gratitude of his country five hundred thousand pounds -sterling. It is to the honor of the English nation that no -absolute monarch was ever more liberal toward his favorites than -it has shown itself in regard to its great servants. - -England, as well as all Europe, had founded great expectations -upon the re-establishment of peace. She had assured security to -the commerce of the Mediterranean, by an expedition against the -Dey of Algiers, nominal sovereign of the hordes of pirates -constantly infesting that sea, to the great peril of merchant -vessels. Lord Exmouth had bombarded Algiers, destroyed the -vessels of the pirates, and obtained the liberation of all the -Christian slaves. But this new achievement was not sufficient to -re-awaken commerce, overwhelmed by numerous and repeated losses. -The harvest had been bad; to the actual and pressing evils was -added the bitterness of ignorant hopes cruelly deceived. Popular -movements manifested themselves in many places; the Regent was -insulted as he came from Westminster, after having opened -Parliament (January 28th, 1817). The government was informed of a -vast conspiracy that threatened "to fire the four corners," of -Great Britain. Energetic measures were adopted; the suspension of -the habeas corpus act was prolonged; a new law imposed the most -severe penalties upon seditious re-unions. The forces intended -for the maintenance of order in the interior, were increased to -ten thousand men. The nation was still agitated and suffering, -after the long trial of a war energetically carried on during -twenty years, and was weary and overburdened, in spite of the -victory. - -{444} - -Before the delights of peace had calmed the spirits and -re-assured all minds, before all hearts had lost the habit of -suffering and resisting suffering, it required an effort on the -part of the nation, as of the individual, to enjoy the charms of -repose. - -An unforseen event deeply moved public feeling. Princess -Charlotte, heiress to the throne, loved and esteemed by all, and -upon whom reposed those loyal sympathies (of which her father was -justly deprived), had just died at Claremont, on the 6th of -November, 1816, in giving birth to her first child. - -All England shared in the grief of her young husband, Prince -Leopold of Saxe-Cobourg. He was destined subsequently to be the -first to ascend the throne of Belgium, assisted thereto by new -family ties that he contracted in France, as well as by the -affection still cherished for him in England. He was sagacious -enough to make use of both these influences for the good of his -adopted country, as well as a beneficial influence in the -counsels of European politics. On the 29th of May, 1819, less -than two years after the death of Princess Charlotte, the -Princess Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent, was born at -London. Some months later the old King George III. died (January -28th 1820); blind and insane during the last ten years of his -life. Patient and quiet in his madness, he preserved in the -hearts of his people a respectful and melancholy popularity which -showed itself at the time of his death. Honest and obstinate, -seriously and sincerely religious, observant of his duties both -as man and as king, as he understood them, he had often served -and often hindered the policy and the government of his country; -he had always loved it, and had always believed himself obligated -to consecrate to it his life and his strength, to the prejudice -of his tastes or personal desires. During these ten years, in the -long silence of his sad isolation, he had exhausted all anger and -extinguished all hatred. The nation remembered only his simple -and honest virtues, his immovable courage and his patriotic -disinterestedness. No illusion regarding the abilities and faults -of his successor was possible. - - -[Image] -George IV. - - -{445} - -For ten years already George IV. had satisfactorily occupied the -throne, when he was officially proclaimed king on the 31st of -January, 1820. - -The fruits of evil are bitter even for those who plant them. -Unhappily married, as he deserved to be, after the disorderly -life he had led, the new monarch had for a long time cherished -towards his wife an aversion amounting to hatred. He addressed to -her the gravest reproaches. Upon his accession to the throne, the -princess was upon the continent. Orders were given to erase her -name from the liturgy of the established church, and to omit the -public prayers for the Queen, as her husband had decided never to -recognize her. The natural courage of the princess and the -indignation of the woman, wounded in her honor, brought Queen -Caroline immediately back to England, proudly resolved to submit -her cause to public opinion. - -"I wrote to Lord Liverpool and Lord Castlereagh, to demand the -insertion of my name in the liturgy of the Church of England," -declared the queen, "at the same time that the order was given to -all the ambassadors, ministers and English consuls to recognize -me and to treat me as Queen of England. After the address of Lord -Castlereagh in reply to that of Mr. Brougham, I have no other -insult to fear. I demand that a palace be prepared for my -reception. I fly toward England, which is my true country." - -{446} - -All the generous sentiments of the English nation, as well as its -contempt for the character and habits of its sovereign, were -shown in the ardent and sympathetic reception which greeted the -arrival of Queen Caroline on the sixth of June, 1820. - -"They have erased her name from the liturgy," said her faithful -and honest counsellor, Mr. Denham, "but all England prays for her -in praying for those who are desolate and oppressed." - -In the midst of her popular triumph, all attempts at compromise -were rejected by the queen, notwithstanding the advice of her -eminent advisors, Brougham and Denham. The king demanded a -divorce, which his ministers refused to second; public excitement -was increasing; for a moment some regiments of infantry seemed to -waver in their fidelity. Political maneuvres increased the -agitation; the leaders of the radical opposition espoused the -cause of the queen; she addressed a petition to the House of -Lords, demanding the authority to defend herself. The government -finally took the initiative, with regret, and constrained by the -violence of royal and popular passions, Lord Liverpool presented -to Parliament his Bill of Pains and Penalties, formally accusing -Queen Caroline of conjugal infidelity, and demanding a divorce, -in the name of King George IV. - -The venerable Lord Eldon remarked with judicious sagacity, before -the arrival of Caroline: "Our queen threatens to come to England; -if she ventures here, she is the most courageous woman I have -ever heard of. The evil she will do by coming will be -incalculable. At the outset she will be immensely popular with -the multitude; I give her only a few weeks, or at the most, a few -months, to lose the opinion of the entire world." - -{447} - -It was a sad and unheard of spectacle to see a sovereign publicly -arraigning his wife before the supreme tribunal. A great -multitude besieged the environs of Westminster, insulting those -ministers and peers that they knew were opposed to the accused -queen, and saluting her defenders with acclamations. Popular -passion had judged well the doubts and uncertainties which -enveloped the principal facts and the formal accusations; it -closed its eyes, however, to the license of life and language -which the corrupt and contradictory testimony of foreigners -reluctantly revealed. - -The burning eloquence and the wonderful management of Brougham -carried the enthusiasm of the multitude to the highest pitch. In -summing up the evidence, he said: "Such, my Lords, is the case -now before you, and such is the evidence by which it is attempted -to be upheld. It is evidence--inadequate, to prove any -proposition; impotent, to deprive the lowest subject of any civil -right; ridiculous, to establish the least offence; scandalous, to -support a charge of the highest nature; monstrous, to ruin the -honor of the Queen of England. My Lords, I call upon you to -pause. You stand on the brink of a precipice. If your judgment -shall go out against your queen, it will be the only act that -ever went out without effecting its purpose; it will return to -you upon your own heads. Save the country--save yourselves. -Rescue the country; save the people of whom you are the -ornaments; but severed from whom, you can no more live than the -blossom that is severed from the root and tree on which it grows. -Save the country, therefore, that you may continue to adorn -it--save the crown, which is threatened with irreparable -injury--save the aristocracy, which is surrounded with -danger--save the altar, which is no longer safe when its kindred -throne is shaken. -{448} -You see that when the Church and the throne would allow of no -church solemnity in behalf of the queen, the heartfelt prayers of -the people rose to Heaven for her protection. I pray Heaven for -her; and I here pour forth my fervent supplications to the throne -of mercy, that mercies may descend on the people of this country, -richer than their rulers have deserved, and that your hearts may -be turned to justice." - -So much eloquence and oratorical passion, together with the -intense earnestness of public opinion, had, as might be expected, -a great effect upon the House of Lords. The majority in favor of -the bill, which at first was quite considerable, diminished day -by day. On the third reading, it was but nine. Lord Liverpool -rose and said, that, in the presence of a majority so small, he -did not think it advisable to continue the discussion. On the -10th of November, 1820, the bill was withdrawn, to the intense -delight of the people. Catherine of Brunswick had gained her -cause; she remained the wife of George IV. and Queen of England. - -It was one of those triumphs, which cost so dear to the victors, -and which accelerates their fall. In passing through the crowded -streets about Westminster, Lord Mulgrave was threatened by the -multitude, who demanded that he should join in the cry: "Long -live the queen!" He turned towards the populace and said, "Very -well, long live the queen, and all you women that resemble her." -Something of this bitter sarcasm began to penetrate slowly into -the minds of the people, but lately carried away, without -reflection, in the defence of a wife outraged by him who had set -her so fatal an example. The resolution shown by the ministers in -the conduct of their painful task, and the perils they had -braved, led to a sincere reaction in their favor. -{449} -A diabolical plot that has been called "the Cato street -conspiracy"--after the name of the street where its principal -author, Arthur Thistlewood, resided, had threatened the lives of -all the members of the cabinet; they were to be assassinated -_en masse_, in the dining-room of Lord Harrowby, in -Grosvenor Square. The plot was discovered, and the conspirators -suffered the penalty of their crime on the 1st of May, 1820. - -Almost at the same moment grave disorders broke out in Scotland -and the north of England. The energy of their repression equalled -the violence of the attempts. The honest mass of the nation rose -as one man against those misguided wretches that threatened to -annihilate social order. "Among those who are here," said Sir -Walter Scott, in a public meeting at Edinburgh, "there are -persons who are able, by uniting their forces, to raise an army -of fifty thousand men." - -Notwithstanding that the government of George IV. had shared in -the great unpopularity of the sovereign, it finally regained the -favor of the nation. The majority which sustained it in -Parliament became each day more decided and more united. "In six -months the king will be the most popular man in the realm," said -Lord Castlereagh, with a just and disdainful appreciation of the -violence of popular reaction. - -When on the 19th of July, 1821, Queen Caroline appeared at the -doors of Westminster Abbey, in an open carriage drawn by six -horses, claiming her right to witness the coronation of the king, -admission into the church was peremptorily refused. Fearing an -outbreak of the passions so recently excited in her favor, the -display of military force was great; but few of the populace -saluted her. She withdrew, wounded to the death in her pride and -in her resentment. -{450} -Fifteen days later she expired. She had directed that her body -should be taken back to her native country and deposited in the -tomb of her ancestors, with this inscription: "Here lies Caroline -of Brunswick, the injured Queen of England." For a moment only -public sentiment was re-awakened in favor of the queen. The -funeral escort, which accompanied the remains to the port of -embarkation, had been ordered to avoid the streets of London; a -mob, however, compelled the procession to proceed through the -city. Two men were killed. A distinguished officer, Sir Robert -Wilson, severely reprimanded the soldiers for having fired upon -the people. He was cashiered, and the magistrate who had yielded -to the demands of the mob, in changing the route, was dismissed. - -Queen Caroline was forgotten, and her royal spouse was in Ireland -receiving the enthusiastic homage of a people who had not for -long years enjoyed the honor of a royal visit. "My heart has -always been Irish," said George IV., addressing the multitude -which crowded around the Viceroy's palace; "from the day it first -beat, I have loved Ireland. Rank, station, honors are nothing; -but to feel that I live in the hearts of my Irish subjects is to -me the most exalted happiness." A similar reception awaited -George IV. in his Electorate of Hanover. - -In the midst of this triumph of their party, the ministers, more -sincerely and more rigidly Tory than Pitt had ever been, yet -realized the need of energetic and effectual support. Since his -accession to office. Lord Sidmouth had cleverly and sagaciously -directed internal affairs, but he now was old and worn out. Mr. -Peel, Secretary for Ireland since 1812, brilliantly replaced him. -A certain number of moderate Whigs allied themselves to the -government, without however changing either its attitude or its -complexion. -{451} -Superficial minds are astonished at this long continued power of -the Tories. Peace and pacific governments were established in -Europe; the perils within and without which had threatened -England no longer existed. The causes which had permitted them to -hold the reins of power so firmly, were removed or greatly -diminished: it seemed that that power ought to be relaxed; but -the effects long survived the causes; if the Tory government was -not indispensable at this time, the Tory party at least was the -victorious and dominant party, everywhere possessing the -preponderance, and powerfully organized to preserve it. The -relations of England with the absolute monarchies of the -continent, were of the most cordial character. Her counsellors -had contracted during the severe trials of the coalition those -lines of thought, of interest, and of habit which create common -interests and common success; her external policy weighed upon -her internal policy; and Lord Castlereagh was more inclined to -assimilate with the Prince Metternich than to distinguish -himself. Unhappily for the new-born spirit of liberty, the -revolutionary spirit also reappeared, spreading its virus in -public institutions as well as in individual hearts, alarming -everywhere the governments. During the first twelve years of the -peace, England found her government more alarmed, more immovable, -more inaccessible to all reform and all liberal innovation, than -it had been in the midst of the war, during her greatest -struggles and greatest dangers. - -The contest between the government and the opposition had begun. -The Whigs were ardent partisans of reform, in principle as well -as from political ambition, always shrewd and sagacious to -advance or to serve popular needs and desires. A famine in -Ireland and the deplorable scenes which accompanied the -sufferings of the people, drew universal attention to the violent -relations which existed between the Catholics and the -Protestants. In vain had the Marquis of Wellesly as Lord -Lieutenant of Ireland, exercised a prudent and energetic -impartiality; he only succeeded in alienating the Orangemen -without conciliating the Patriots. - -{452} - -Mr. Canning presented to the House a proposition for the -admission of the Catholic Peers to Parliament; "but yesterday," -said he, "at the august ceremony of the coronation, after being -exhibited to the peers and people of England, to the -representatives of princes and nations of the world, the Duke of -Norfolk, highest in rank among the peers--the Lord Clifford, and -others like him, representing a long line of illustrious and -heroic ancestors,--appeared as if they had been called forth and -furnished for the occasion, like the lustres and banners that -flamed and glittered in the scene; and were to be, like them, -thrown by as useless and temporary formalities; they might indeed -bend the knee, and kiss the hand; they might bear the train, or -rear the canopy; they might perform the offices assigned by Roman -pride to their barbarian forefathers,--_Purpurea tollant aulœa -Brittanni_: but with the pageantry of the hour their -importance faded away: as their distinction vanished, their -humiliation returned; and he who headed the procession of peers -to-day, could not sit among them, as their equal, on the morrow." - -For some time past Mr. Peel had assumed the leadership of the -opposition on the question of Catholic emancipation; he had -conducted the same with a moderation for which Mr. Plunkett, one -of the most eloquent and ardent partisans of the measure, thanked -him in flattering terms: "I know no man in the state that will -probably have more influence upon this question; and there is no -man whose adhesion to what I would call prejudices without -foundation, would be able to do more evil to my country," said -he. - -{453} - -Notwithstanding the lively opposition of Peel, the proposition of -Mr. Canning was adopted by the House of Commons. The cabinet was -divided. Lord Castlereagh, become Marquis of Londonderry since -the death of his father, remained favorable to the liberal -measures in favor of the Catholics; the House of Lords rejected -the motion, not however without leaving to its partisans the -legitimate hope of the approaching success of their just cause. - -A first effort of Lord John Russell, in favor of Parliamentary -reform, vigorously opposed by Mr. Canning, was rejected by the -House of Commons, but by a smaller majority; and after a -discussion more favorable than the ardent promoters of the -measure had perhaps expected. The last words of the address of -Mr. Canning already predicted that success that he so greatly -feared. "I conjure the noble Lord," he said, "to pause, before he -again presses his plan on the country: if, however, he shall -persevere, and if his perseverance shall be successful, and if -the results of that success be such as I cannot help -apprehending;--his be the triumph to have precipitated those -results; mine be the consolation that to the utmost and to the -latest of my power, I have opposed them." - -King George IV. returned to Edinburgh; he had journeyed through -Scotland from castle to castle, charming all he met, by the grace -of his manner and the agreeableness of his conversation, even -those who had not attributed to him either political courage or -private virtue. He was suddenly recalled to London by a tragic -event; as Sir Samuel Romilly and Mr. Whitbread, some years -before. Lord Londonderry had just succumbed under the weight of a -burden too heavy for the equilibrium of his mind; he had cut his -throat on the 12th of August, coldly resolved, even to the last -day, as firmly to sustain peace as he had been to sustain war; -too feeble nevertheless to resist the new embarrassments that he -apprehended from the state of agitation in Europe, and -precipitated by his patriotic agonies into a fit of insanity. - -{454} - -The battle of Austerlitz broke the heart of Mr. Pitt. After -having victoriously concluded peace, and maintained order in -England while all the thrones of the continent were shaken. Lord -Londonderry had become a madman. - -Mr. Canning replaced him in power, not without intrigue nor -without internal difficulty. He associated with himself Mr. -Huskinson, an able and honest minister of the finances, liberal -like himself, and disposed likewise to favor the popular -movement, that they had neither the power nor the desire to -repress. The first intimation of this new attitude of the -government, was the recognition by England of the South American -republics: ancient Spanish colonies revolted against the yoke of -the mother country. Successive shocks had agitated Spain; the -Bourbons had been overthrown and replaced by a provisory -government. Recalled to the throne by a royalist insurrection, -Ferdinand VII. had been seconded by France; the Duke of -Angoulême, eldest son of King Louis XVIII., at the head of an -army had re-established the monarchy in Spain, while Austria, in -her turn, interfered in the affairs of the kingdom of Naples, as -confused and troubled as those of Spain. Under Mr. Canning, -England remained faithful to the principle of non-intervention; -nevertheless without sympathy for the sovereigns attacked, -without good will to their defenders. "We have exerted all our -efforts to prevent the French from entering Spain," said Mr. -Canning. "We have exhausted every means but war. I admit that the -entrance of a French army into Spain was a measure of -disparagement to Great Britain. -{455} -Do you think that for this disparagement we have not been -compensated? Do you think that for the blockade of Cadiz, England -has not received a full recompense? I looked at Spain by another -name than Spain; I looked on that power as Spain and the Indies; -and so looking at the Indies, I have there called a new world -into existence and regulated the balance of power." - -While Mr. Canning pursued a foreign policy, boldly independent in -regard to the powers and common interests of Europe, he remained -preoccupied and sad. He had reached the summit of grandeur; -admired and respected by all, still young and powerful, by reason -of his personal merit, he nevertheless stood alone, having parted -from all the friends who had fought at his side at the outset of -his career, separated from them by the attitude he had taken at -the head of the liberals; and also separated from the liberals, -that he commanded by the resistance that he opposed to -parliamentary reform. His health was good, but the nervous state -into which the trials and vexations of political life had thrown -him, slowly undermined the forces that he sought in vain to -repair by the pleasures and charms of society. He died on the 8th -of August, 1827, at Chiswick, in the beautiful villa of the Duke -of Devonshire, and in the same chamber where Mr. Fox breathed his -last. - -One after the other, young and old, death gathered the great -actors of the long struggle sustained by England against the -anarchical passions and absolute ambition from without and the -contagion of fatal evils within. But few months after the death -of Mr. Canning, Lord Liverpool, in his turn, old and worn out, -already withdrawn from the world by an attack of paralysis, also -died. It was necessary to provide for the needs of government. A -cabinet of coalition slipped through the hands of Lord Goderich. -{456} -The Duke of Wellington had directed victoriously the affairs of -England in war, and the king now demanded of the great general -that he should take charge of the political affairs of the -government. The Duke, accustomed to obey the call of duty -wherever it led, did not hesitate, confiding simply in the power -of good sense and honest authority. The Whigs retired; the -liberal Tories, Mr. Peel at their head, closed their ranks around -the new chief whom fortune had sent them. - -The young Lord Aberdeen, already distinguished, with Lord -Castlereagh, in the most important diplomatic negotiations, now, -for the first time, took part in the internal government of his -country. He had the good fortune to be loved and honored by all, -both at home and abroad, during his entire career. The ministry -had, from the beginning, to confront a difficult and long -contested question. It found itself constrained to support and -defend a measure that it had previously ardently combatted. The -situation in Ireland occupied all minds; the emancipation of the -Catholics became, more than ever, in the eyes of some, the -evident remedy for all evils; but to others, the object of lively -inquietude and profound repugnance. - -Commerce had developed in Ireland; industry had increased her -exportations; the ministers hostile to the measures that were -demanded to relieve the miseries of a neighboring and dependent -kingdom, cited with pride the figures of the statistics: but the -wealth was concentrated in a small number of hands; the -proprietors of the soil were, for the most part, strangers to -Ireland; absent or indifferent to her sufferings. The common -people were engaged in agricultural pursuits of the most -primitive character, without other care than to draw from the -earth, with the least possible effort, the subsistence necessary -from day to day. -{457} -The introduction of the potato, by giving the peasants a food -more economical than wheat, had increased their idleness, their -improvidence, and their misery. Without money, without resources, -without education, habitually separated from the higher classes, -the Irish peasantry lived in a state bordering on barbarism. "The -last of the animals, does not support its kind," said, in 1822, -the most illustrious of their advocates, Daniel O'Connell, often -most useful but many times dangerous to their cause: "Their homes -should not be called houses--they have no right to that title: -they are huts, built in the earth, partly thatched over, partly -exposed to the elements. No furniture garnishes the interior; it -is a luxury to possess a trunk; and a table is rarely to be -found. All the family live in one room; they have no beds, and -sleep upon straw; in the mountainous districts they scarcely have -sufficient covering. Their wages are not above eight cents per -day, and even at that rate, farm hands cannot find work. Their -land, therefore, is their only means of support, and this land is -leased to them at a price far above its real value, owing to the -numerous middlemen who come between the proprietors and the -peasants." - -So much suffering, so long endured without effectual relief, in a -situation seemingly without issue, at last brought about a -violent agitation, which was used to foment religious and -political passions. The Test Act was repealed, and a simple oath -of allegiance was substituted for the compulsory communion with -the established Church. This was the first step leading to the -emancipation of the Catholics; all felt it, even the protestant -dissenters, who supported the measure, although it was of more -benefit to their traditional enemies, the Catholics, than to -themselves. - -{458} - -Public opinion was at the time violent but brilliantly directed. -Under Mr. Canning the Irish Catholics were careful not to obtrude -their claims, as they feared to embarrass, by public alarm, the -good will of the government. When they saw the power fall into -the hands of the Tories, they at once engaged passionately in the -contest: the Catholic associations commenced their popular -assemblies, their harangues, their addresses, their pamphlets, -their subscriptions, all their ardent and adroit work, as much to -excite and to discipline the people in England as to encourage -and recruit their partisans in Ireland. O'Connell and Moore, two -men of very unequal powers, but both powerful at this time, by -diverse means, marched at the head of this crusade for the -emancipation of their faith and race. O'Connell, that robust and -audacious wrestler, that inventive and strategic legislator, -indefatigable in his eloquence, brilliant or vulgar, captivating -or diverting, devoted with unscrupulous passion to the cause -which made at the same time his glory and his fortune; Moore, -patriotic and worldly poet, pathetic and satirical, as popular in -the salons of London as O'Connell in the meetings of Ireland; -singing his melodies while O'Connell breathed forth his -invectives, both constant in their efforts, rallying to the -service of the same cause the mass of the people and the elegant -world, the impetuous passions and the elevated thoughts, the -ambition of men, and the sympathy of women, the Celtic peasants -and the Saxon nobles, the Catholic priests and the philosophic -Whigs. - -The grandeur of the purpose responded to the ardor of the effort. -O'Connell was elected from the county of Clare, to that House of -Commons from which he was excluded by law. Ireland was completely -under his control; sometimes precipitating itself to the last -limits of legal order, then again docile and prudent. In England, -among the different classes of the laity, as well as in the bosom -of the Anglican Church, public sentiment favorable to the -Catholic Church gained ground day by day. - -{459} - -As obstinate in its alarms, as sincere in its faith, Protestant -Toryism struggled against the tide, but that struggle became more -and more feeble; the Orange societies of Ireland weakly opposed -the meetings of the Catholic associations, and in the House of -Lords, Lord Eldon himself lost confidence: "We will combat," said -he, "but we will be in a miserable minority. That which is most -disastrous is that many bishops will be against us." - -Without being more sincere than Lord Eldon, the bishops favorable -to the emancipation of the Catholics had judged better than he of -their duty as Christian prelates, and the true interests of their -religious faith; the government also realized that the measure -had become necessary. The Duke of Wellington, always ready to -confront the truth, however disagreeable it might be, now became -convinced that the present state of affairs in Ireland ought not -to be prolonged, and that it was necessary to remove all cause -and all legitimate pretext for the intrigues and maneuvres of the -agitators. Religious liberty was not in question; thanks to the -progress of public opinion in the midst of Christian -civilization, the practical freedom of religious beliefs, and -different worship, either Protestant or Catholic, was not -affected: it was the equality of political rights, the separation -of civil from religious society that they demanded; and it was -from a government whose entire political establishment, royalty, -parliament and legislation, was exclusively protestant, that this -declaration was to emanate and become law. It was in consequence -of the pressing necessity, and not from any general principles of -truth and justice, that the Duke of Wellington and Mr. Peel -decided to present to Parliament, a measure that they were unable -any longer to resist, and for which they had with great -difficulty obtained the consent of the king. - -{460} - -It was not from principle that George IV. resisted the demands of -his ministers. Protestantism was a tradition of his house; he -regarded it as the foundation of his throne; he wished besides to -shows his authority. He feigned an endeavor to form a new cabinet -but did not succeed. "What am I to do?" said he to Lord Eldon, -"my situation is miserable. If I give my consent I shall go to -Hanover. I shall return no more to England." In order to guard -against treachery or weakness, the ministers exacted a written -authorization from him. On the 5th of March, 1829, Mr. Peel -proposed to the House of Commons the abolition of the civil and -political disabilities which weighed upon the Catholics. -Violently attacked, and censured for his cowardice in renouncing -his life-long opinion before servile terrors, the great minister -replied: "I know of no motive of conduct more ignominious than -fear; but there is a disposition more dangerous perhaps yet, -although less base; it is the fear of being suspected of having -feared. However vile a coward may be, the man who abandons -himself to the fear of being treated as a coward, shows but -little more courage. The ministers of his majesty have not been -alarmed by the Catholic associations; they had stifled all -attempts at intimidation; but there are fears which are not -repugnant to the character of the firmest man, _constantis -viri_. There are things which cannot be seen without fear. One -_ought_ not to see without fear the disorganization and the -disaffection which exists in Ireland, and that one that affects -not to fear them, would show himself insensible to the happiness -or misfortune of his country." - - -[Image] -Windsor Castle. - - -{461} - -It was in the same spirit of patriotic uneasiness that the Duke -of Wellington said to the House of Lords: "It has been my fortune -to have seen much of war, more than most men; I have been -constantly engaged in the active duties of the military -profession. From boyhood until I have grown gray my life has been -passed in familiarity with scenes of death and human suffering. -Circumstances have placed me in countries where the war was -internal, between parties of the same nation; and rather than a -country I loved should be visited with the calamities which I -have seen, with the unutterable horrors of a civil war, I would -run any risk; I would make any sacrifice; I would freely lay down -my life." - -The emancipation of the Catholics had not borne all the fruits of -pacification and of conciliation that was expected; it left alive -many germs of bitterness, destined more than once to produce -cruel agitations. It was nevertheless legitimate, necessary and -honorable to the government which proposed it, and the Parliament -which passed it. Truth and justice are powerful in the souls of -men, whatever be the passions which animate them or the -prejudices which blind them. It was with the serene sentiment of -a great task nobly accomplished that Mr. Peel said to the House -of Commons, some months later, "I say without any feeling of -hostility or bitterness, I fully knew, from the first day, the -dolorous results that the emancipation of the Catholics would -have for me, both personally and in my public character; but if -the same circumstances should occur again, if I had to take my -resolution anew on this subject, and with still more knowledge of -the sacrifice, I would announce this evening to the House, a -motion to propose that measure." - -{462} - -Some months after the ratification of the emancipation bill. King -George IV. died at Windsor (June 26th, 1830). Great events, both -at home and abroad took place under his regency or during his -reign. Peace was concluded in Europe after the last efforts of a -supreme struggle; the great injustice so long endured by the -English Catholics, was removed by the free action of the -Protestants. This glory belonged to others rather than to him: he -left the Duke of Wellington to conquer at Waterloo--he had so -many times recounted the part he had taken in the combat that he -finally forgot that he had not left England during that epoch. He -left the Duke of Wellington and Mr. Peel to bear alone the burden -of a measure to which he was opposed from habit of mind, as well -as from personal repugnance, without any conscientious scruples. -Brilliant, highly educated and refined, he spread about him, in -the intimacy of his court, a baneful influence; corrupt himself -and a corrupter of others. The burdens of the foreign wars and -the great Parliamentary struggles, left only as their results, -demoralization and lasting evil to the country. - - - - Chapter. XLI. - - William IV. - Parliamentary Reform. - (1830-1837). - - -A grand and consoling spectacle to contemplate, is that -throughout the whole course of English history, the great lords -and the landed gentry, the masters of the soil and of the -national wealth, are always to be found in the front rank in -political contests as well as in the army; in Parliament as well -as on the field of battle. The English barons had wrested Magna -Charta from John Lackland; in the government which was to -accomplish a parliamentary reform, useful and legitimate in some -respects, doubtful and bold in others, thirteen members of the -House of Lords headed the popular movement, resolved to raise -high the standard of a reform fatal to their influence and their -natural domination. -{463} -Courageously faithful in its task of moderating the outbursts of -the inconsiderate passions of the nation, the English aristocracy -has never yielded its right to be the first to brave all dangers, -and the first to advance all progress: it has lessened the -encroachments of the rising wave of democracy; it has opened its -ranks to all signal merit; it has given up its children to common -life and common labor, prompt to bear the burden of the national -destiny, in all its directions, and ardent to maintain England in -that glorious position in the vanguard of liberty, that she has -occupied with honor in Europe for many centuries. - -Following the emancipation of the Catholics, the parliamentary -reform proposed and sustained by Lord John Russell and Lord Grey, -was a new and shining example. Confusedly, and without fully -comprehending the import of their acts and of their hopes, the -Whigs began to see that a new spirit was now animating the world, -and that the breath of the French Revolution had not passed in -vain over a generation that was slowly disappearing, leaving to -its success, a work begun. It was again that the agitation and -excitement of the popular passions came from France. The -revolution of July, 1830, had substituted upon the throne the -younger branch of the House of Bourbon, in place of the elder, -which had been induced by fatal counsels to violate its -engagements with the nation. - -{464} - -At the first report of the cannon of King Charles X., some one -asked the Duke of Wellington what he thought of the result? "It -is a new dynasty," answered the Duke. "And what course shall you -take?" "First, a long silence, and then we will concert with our -allies what we shall say." The national sympathy of England did -not permit so much prudence and reserve. From the month of August -it solemnly recognized Louis Philippe--"in the name of the new -King of England." William IV. but recently Duke of Clarence, had -succeeded his brother George IV. Educated for the navy, he had -never shown much talent in his profession: he was an honest -prince, of moderate intelligence, without any children living. -His wife Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, was a virtuous and agreeable -person, who exercised over the king her husband an influence, -often exaggerated by public rumor. - -The new Parliament which assembled on the 2nd of November, 1830, -had been elected amidst extreme agitation. Disturbances and riots -had succeeded the electoral ferment, at many places; the ministry -were disturbed during the first day of the session. The day -following the address from the throne, the Reformers threw the -gauntlet to the cabinet. Lord Grey solemnly announced his views -and the end he desired; clever and sensible even in his boldness, -and placing in advance the limits which he had resolved not to -pass. "That which takes place under our own eyes ought to teach -us sagacity; when the spirit of liberty shines around us, it is -our first duty to guarantee our institutions by introducing -moderate reforms. I have been all my life favorable to reform, -but never have I been disposed to go further than to-day, if the -occasion should present itself. But I do not rest upon abstract -right, my reasons for claiming them. Some say that all men who -pay taxes, that all men who have attained their majority, have -the right to the electoral suffrage. I deny absolutely this -right. The right of the people is to be well governed, in a way -to assure its repose and its privileges; if this is incompatible -with universal suffrage, or even with an extension of the -suffrage, then the restriction, and not the extension of the -suffrage becomes the true duty of the people." - -{465} - -Wise maxims, ignored or unrecognized by the popular passions and -the absolute egotism of France, too often forgotten even in -England, by reformers more adventurous and less enlightened than -Lord Grey. The door that he wished to open, the way that he -traced for the future destinies of his country, excited -immediately a lively opposition on the part of the Duke of -Wellington. He responded without hesitation to Lord Grey: "As for -me, I recognize no system of representation to be better and more -satisfactory than that which England enjoys; this system -possesses and merits the full confidence of the country. I will -go further: if, at this moment, the duty were imposed upon me to -form a legislature for any country whatever, above all for a -country like ours, with great interests of all kinds, I do not -think that I would ever be able to form a legislature comparable -to this; for human sagacity does not attain at once so excellent -an institution. I am not prepared to propose the measure alluded -to by the noble lord. Not only am I not prepared to bring forward -any measure of this nature, but I will at once declare, that as -far as I am concerned, as long as I hold any station in the -government of the country, I shall always feel it my duty to -resist such measures when proposed by others." - -The refusal was more peremptory than the public and even members -of the cabinet themselves expected; the external agitation became -so great that the king declined to visit London to attend the -Lord Mayor's banquet. Seditious movements were feared. On the -15th of November, a motion by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, -regarding the Civil List, was voted down; on the 16th the Cabinet -resigned: Sir Robert Peel as well as the Duke of Wellington. Lord -Grey and his friends, Lord John Russell, Lord Brougham, Lord -Palmerston, Lord Melbourne and Lord Althorpe, arrived at power. -{466} -From the first day they boldly raised the flag of Reform. "That -which I proposed when against the government, I have now the -power to accomplish," said Lord Grey; "and I engage myself to -present immediately to Parliament, a proposition for the reform -of our system of representation." Popular agitation was extreme; -the counties surrounding London were in a state of open -insurrection. After the declaration of Lord Grey, the situation -in Ireland became more alarming; the crops had failed, and the -sufferings of the people were excessive. O'Connell and his -friends, deprived of their weapons by the emancipation of the -Catholics, raised anew the question of the union of the two -kingdoms: they boldly demanded its repeal. O'Connell overran the -counties, haranguing the people and exciting their religious and -political passions; careful, however, to recommend that order -which he was constantly seeking to disturb, and violating -frequently the laws, feeling safe from all prosecution, inasmuch -as the government needed his support for the success of its great -enterprise. One measure alone occupied the thoughts of the -ministers: defeated in Parliament on the Budget, they called to -their aid all shades of liberals, modifying the first tenor of -their intentions, in order to assure themselves of victory. "My -first intention," said Lord Grey to the House of Lords, on the -28th of March, 1831, "was to reduce the reform to limits much -more circumscribed. After mature reflection, I am nevertheless -convinced that the measure, as actually presented, would alone be -able to satisfy the views of all classes, and assure to the -government security and respect." - -{467} - -Two questions occupied the reformers: the suppression of existing -abuses and the lawful extension of the political suffrage. I -borrow from May's Constitutional History the resumé of the bold -measures proposed by Lord John Russell in order to reach this -double result: - - "The main evil had been the number of nominations, or rotten - boroughs enjoying the franchise. Fifty-six of these, having - less than two thousand inhabitants, and returning one hundred - and eleven members, were swept away. Thirty boroughs, having - less than four thousand inhabitants, lost each a member. - Weymouth and Welcome Regis lost two. This disfranchisement - extended to one hundred and forty-three members. The next evil - had been, that large populations were unrepresented; and this - was now redressed. Twenty-two large towns, including - metropolitan districts, received the privilege of returning two - members; and twenty more of returning one. The large county - populations were also regarded in the distribution of seats, - the number of county members being increased from ninety-four - to one hundred and fifty-nine. The larger counties were - divided; and the number of members adjusted with reference to - the importance of the constituencies. By this distribution of - the franchise, the House of Commons was reduced in number from - six hundred and fifty-eight to five hundred and ninety-six, or - by sixty-two members. The number of electors was more than - doubled: it attained in the united kingdom to the number of - nine hundred thousand. All narrow rights of election were set - aside in boroughs, and a ten pound household franchise was - established." - -The secret resolutions of the government had been strictly kept; -the joyous astonishment of the Reformers equalled the anger of -the Conservatives, a new name which the Tories had adopted, in -consequence of the attacks of their adversaries upon the -Constitution. - -{468} - -Astonishment and anger were followed by anxiety. Determined -resolution on the part of the Conservatives would be able, at the -outset, to defeat the bill and overthrow the cabinet. The -ministers were not ignorant of this fact. "We often sought to -divine the probable conduct of the opposition," subsequently -remarked Lord Brougham, then chancellor; "I said; If I was in -Peel's place I would not attempt to discuss the question; as soon -as Lord John Russell should sit down, I would declare that I was -decided not to discuss a measure so revolutionary, so insane, and -I would demand an immediate vote. If he does that we are lost." -The members of the cabinet who were not in the House of Commons -were at table at the house of the chancellor, anxiously waiting -for news of the discussion, when the last bulletin finally -arrived: "Peel has been speaking for twenty minutes," Lord -Brougham shouted for joy. "Hurrah!" cried he, "they discuss--we -are saved." - -The shrewd instinct of the Reformers had not been deceived; no -matter however powerful and reasonable was the discussion, -however forcible the arguments against a reform more radical in -principle than in its practical application, time and debate were -necessarily favorable to a cause growing more and more popular, -notwithstanding the commotion and uneasiness of a great part of -the nation. Sir Robert Peel had not correctly judged the passions -which secretly agitated the masses. "Our judgment is troubled," -said he, "by what has just taken place in France. I admit that -the resistance of our neighbors to an illegal exercise of -authority has been legitimate; but consider what effects popular -resistance, even when legitimate, have upon national property, -upon industry, and upon the happiness of families. All that I ask -of you is that you take time to deliberate upon so grave a -question. When the people of England shall recover their strong -good sense, they will reproach you for having sacrificed the -Constitution of the country in your desire to take advantage of -an outburst of popular sentiment." - -{469} - -"I shall combat this bill to the end, because I believe it fatal -to our favored form of mixed government, fatal to the authority -of the House of Lords, fatal to that spirit of rest and prudence -which has gained for England the confidence of the world, fatal -to those habits and to those practices of government which, in -protecting efficaciously the property and the liberty of the -individual, have given to the executive power of this state, a -vigor unknown in any other time and in any other country. If the -bill proposed by the ministry is passed, it will introduce -amongst us the worst, and the vilest sort of despotism, the -despotism of demagogues, the despotism of the press; that -despotism which has driven neighboring countries, but recently -happy and flourishing, to the very borders of the abyss." - -The good sense of the English nation, its wise respect for its -traditions, and that political instinct which has always warned -it on the eve of extreme peril, protected England again in this -instance from those grievous and terrible consequences, predicted -in 1831 by Sir Robert Peel, as the inevitable result of the -Reform bill. He had, nevertheless, put his finger upon the wound, -and justly indicated its effect: the equilibrium of the powers -was altered, and henceforth the will of the House of Commons -weighed in the balance to regulate the affairs and dispose of the -destinies of England, both at home and abroad. - -At the second reading of the bill, it passed by a single vote. An -amendment by General Gascoigne against the reduction of the total -number of the House of Commons passed by a majority of eight. The -cabinet felt its measure threatened, and resolved to dissolve -Parliament and appeal to the electors. The chancellor undertook -to obtain the consent of the king. -{470} -He went with Lord Grey to the palace. William IV. resisted. "How -can I," said he, "after such a fashion, repay the kindness of -Parliament; in granting me a most liberal civil list, and giving -to the queen a splendid annuity in case she survives me?" And as -Lord Brougham explained the political reasons for an immediate -dissolution, the King objected: "The great officers of State are -not summoned."--"Pardon me, sire," and the Chancellor bowed -humbly: "we have taken the great liberty of informing them that -your Majesty would have need of their services."--"But the crown, -and the royal robes, and the other insignia of ceremony are not -prepared."--"I beg your Majesty to pardon my audacity--all is -ready."--"But, my Lords, it is impossible; my guards--the troops -have not received their orders; they cannot be ready -to-day."--"Pardon me, sir; I know how great my presumption has -been, but we have counted upon the goodness of your Majesty, upon -your desire to save the kingdom and to assure the happiness of -your people. I have given the orders--the troops are under -arms."--The King, flushed with anger, demanded, "How dare you go -so far, my Lord; you know well it is an act of treason--high -treason!"--"Yes sir, I know it," replied the chancellor, humbly, -though firmly looking the monarch in the face. "I am ready to -submit personally to all the punishments that it may please your -Majesty to inflict upon me, but I conjure your Majesty anew to -hear us and to follow our counsel." - -Some hours later, after a violent agitation in the two Houses, -that preceded his coming, William IV. read to the assembled -Parliament the address which Lord Brougham had previously -prepared. The murmurs of surprise and disaffection rendered the -voice of the king scarcely audible; they listened only to the -first words: "My Lords and Gentlemen, I have come to meet you for -the purpose of proroguing this Parliament, with a view to its -immediate dissolution." - -{471} - -Thus prepared and ordered, the elections led, as might have been -expected, to scenes of sad disorder. The Reformers, intoxicated -with triumph and expectation, indulged in excesses that their -more prudent friends were not able to repress. The city of London -was illuminated on the night following the dissolution of -Parliament. At Edinburgh, the windows not illuminated were -broken. The Tory candidates were injured, at many places, and -sometimes were in great danger. The populace of Jedburgh insulted -the dying Sir Walter Scott. "_Troja fuit,_" wrote he, the -same day, in his journal. The popular illusions and ignorances -alarmed the more enlightened supporters of the measure. - -"In the months of March and April," writes the celebrated Miss -Harriet Martineau, passionately engaged all her life in the -radical cause, "the great middle class, upon the intelligence of -which they counted to pass the bill, expected to see the time -come, when it would be necessary to refuse to pay their taxes, -and to march upon London to sustain the king, the ministry and -the mass of the nation, against a little group of selfish and -obstinate demagogues." - -The political associations took an account of the number of their -disposable adherents; the president of the "Union of Birmingham" -declared that he would be able to furnish two armies each of -which was as good as the victors of Waterloo. Upon the coast of -Sussex ten thousand men declared themselves ready to march at the -first signal. Northumberland was ready, Yorkshire was aroused; it -might be said that the nation believed itself called upon to -march upon London. The opponents of reform trembled at the -thought that the cities would be at the mercy of the multitude. -"This measure," they said, "will owe its success only to -intimidation." - -{472} - -The Reformers, as well as their opponents, were anxious; after -the opening of the new Parliament on the 21st of June, 1831, the -king called the attention of the Houses to the disorders which -had taken place, as well as to the distress which existed in -Ireland, and begged of the legislature energetic remedies for -these evils. - -On the 21st of September the reform bill passed the House of -Commons, by one hundred and nine majority. It was immediately -carried by Lord Grey to the House of Lords. - -The debate lasted twenty-five days, and was powerful and grave; -sustained by men who knew their influence in the state was -menaced. They were, nevertheless, more occupied with the safety -of the country than with their personal authority. "I know the -courage of your Lordships," said Lord Grey, "and your proud -susceptibility to anything that looks like a menace; and I -repudiate all thought of intimidation, but I conjure you, if you -attach any value to your rights and privileges, if you hope to -transmit them intact to your posterity, to lend an ear to the -wishes of the people. Do not assume an attitude which would show -you deaf to the voice of nine-tenths of the nation, which appeals -to your wisdom in an accent too clear not to be heard, too -decisive not to be comprehended. I do not say, as was said on a -previous occasion by a noble Duke (Wellington), that the -rejection of this measure would lead to civil war: I have -confidence that such would not be the effect; but I foresee -consequences which cause me to tremble for the security of this -House, and for this nation. It is in the name of the tranquillity -and prosperity of your country that I conjure your Lordships to -reflect well, before rejecting this measure." - -{473} - -For a moment events seemed to justify the dolorous predictions of -the Duke of Wellington. During the discussion upon Catholic -emancipation and after the rejection of the reform bill in the -House of Lords (by forty-five majority), civil war seemed -imminent. At Derby, at Nottingham, and above all at Bristol, -violent disturbances took place, but were immediately repressed, -without great effort on the part of the government. Riots and -tumults were constantly fomented by political associations; these -however were definitely suppressed by that reaction which always -follows great disorders, as well as by the severe chastisement of -the leaders, three of whom suffered capital punishment during the -month of December, 1831. - -A new reform bill was now presented to the House of Commons, by -Lord John Russell. Some reasonable modifications had been -introduced. One important change was to leave intact the total -number of members of the House. - -This bill, like the first, passed the House by a large majority, -notwithstanding the efforts of Sir Robert Peel. Lord John Russell -indicated the importance of the measure, with the same anxious -solicitude which had recently characterized the efforts of Lord -Grey in the House of Lords. He claimed that the government had -weighty and serious reasons for proposing this measure. It had -been convinced, for some time past, that a law was necessary to -obviate abuses that it desires to correct, and to escape -convulsions that it wishes to avoid. If Parliament refused to -sanction this measure, it would lead to an inevitable collision -between that party which opposes all parliamentary reform, and -that other party which is only satisfied with universal suffrage. -"In consequence, torrents of blood would flow," said he, "and I -am perfectly convinced that the English Constitution would perish -in the conflict." - -{474} - -Secret negotiations were carried on in the House of Lords. The -ministry demanded the creation of new peers, destined to modify -the majority; the king hesitated for a long time, convinced of -the necessity of reform, but seriously opposed to the means -suggested. When he finally consented to make use of his -prerogative, the cabinet had resolved to attempt one more -venture. The second reading was voted by a majority of nine. Some -hostile peers were absent; most of the bishops voted for the -bill. But an amendment by Lord Lyndhurst made trouble for the -Reformers. He proposed, and the House of Lords voted by a -majority of thirty-five, that the new privileges accorded to the -towns and counties should be put in force before the abrogation -of the old rights of the boroughs. Upon this decision, which -gravely modified the law, and upon the refusal of the king to -create immediately sixty new peers, the whole ministry resigned. - -It is in vain that timid prudence and sagacity attempt to stem -the irresistible tide of popular passions; those who have excited -them invariably fail to restrain them. The king called upon the -Duke of Wellington--always ready to brave danger. "I would not -dare to show myself in the street," said he, "if I refused to aid -my sovereign in the difficult position in which he is now -placed." All the efforts of the illustrious hero failed, -nevertheless, before the impossibility of forming a cabinet. Sir -Robert Peel refused a place in it. William IV. demanded that his -new councillors should themselves present a bill, more in -conformity with the desires and opinions of a great number of -conservatives, than that of Lord John Russell. - - -[Image] -Wellington In The Mob. - - -{475} - -"I have obstinately opposed the bill on principle," said Peel, -"and I do not know how I could rise and recommend, as minister, -the adoption of a similar measure. No authority, the example of -no man, nor any union of men, would tempt me to accept power -under such circumstances and with such conditions." - -An address of the House of Commons called the attention of the -king to the critical state of affairs. William IV., wounded and -irritated, yielded with bitter regret. He recalled the Whig -cabinet and authorized it, in writing, to create the number of -peers necessary to assure the triumph of the reform bill. It was -unnecessary to have recourse to this extreme measure. The Duke of -Wellington, as well as the king, comprehended that the time had -come for the House of Lords to yield to the external pressure. -William IV. wrote to his friends to absent themselves. Upon the -renewal of the discussion, the duke arose, and followed by one -hundred peers, left the House and did not return until after the -passage of the reform bill. "If the lords of the opposition had -remained firm," subsequently said Lord Grey, as well as Lord -Brougham, "we would probably have been beaten, and the bill would -have failed, for we would not have exacted the fullfilment of the -kings promise." When William IV. and his intimate advisers bowed -their heads before the violence of public opinion, they judged -more accurately the irresistible force of the current let loose -by the Reformers; the time for resistance, as well as the time -for moderation, was past. - -The new elections soon demonstrated this, as everywhere -throughout the country, the populace manifested great violence -toward the adversaries of the triumphant Reform. In London, on -the 18th of June, 1832, the anniversary of the battle of -Waterloo, while riding through the streets, the Duke of -Wellington was assailed by an indignant mob that literally -covered him with dirt and insults. -{476} -He pursued tranquilly his route, walking his horse. A furious -rioter seized the bridle and attempted to drag him from his -saddle; he was obliged to take refuge in the house of a friend, -protected by a number of young lawyers of Lincoln's Inn, who came -to his assistance. The next day the king, while in attendance at -the races at Ascot, was grievously wounded by a stone. His -self-possession and courage equalled the composure of the -duke--as imperturbable among the rioters, as indifferent to the -applause of the populace. All the windows of Apsley House were -broken in a moment of public frenzy. Wellington forbade the -replacing of those of the second story. At the return of popular -favor, as the people followed the duke with acclamations, he -advanced without turning his head, without giving a sign, to the -very door of his house; there dismounting from his horse, he -pointed with his hand toward the broken windows, shrugged his -shoulders and entered the house without uttering a single word. - -The condition of the finances was serious; the monetary crises -had long weighed upon commerce, and political agitation had -alarmed and diminished the same. In order to meet the deficit in -the public revenue, the ministry proposed important retrenchments -in the war and navy departments--measures always favorably -received by the people, who see in them a guarantee of peace, -without realizing that they may become fatal to peace, as well as -to the national power. Ireland was aroused more violently than -ever; the Catholics, re-established in their political and civil -rights, demanded, by the voice of their agitators, the abolition -of the tithes with which they were burdened for the benefit of -the Church of England. - -{477} - -The first care of the Irish leaders, was to counsel the peasants -to refuse to pay these tithes. Scenes of disorder recommenced; -everywhere crimes against individuals increased tenfold. Scarcely -had the Reform Parliament reassembled, when it was called upon to -consider a bill of repression, energetically practical, which -would moderate for a time at least these outrages. At the same -time, and in order to appease the Catholic Irish party, who were -everywhere allied to the radicals, Lord Althorpe presented a bill -for the reduction of the Protestant ecclesiastical establishment -in Ireland: feeble precursor of the work that we have seen -accomplished in our day, and already at that time so vigorously -attacked by the conservatives, that the ministry was obliged to -mitigate its tenor before obtaining a majority in the House of -Lords. - -Parliament, at this time, was also obliged to sanction an issue -of bills of exchequer in favor of the clergy in Ireland, -impoverished by the loss of the tithes. The tithes were imposed -upon the protestant landholders, who, however, added them to -their rents. - -The excitement and irritation in Ireland appeared for a moment -subdued; but already, from all parts of the kingdom, arose a cry -of anger and of disappointment: reform ought to have a remedy for -all evils; parliamentary reform ought to relieve all misery. - -"Of what use is the new parliament," asked Ashwood, on the 21st -of March, 1833, "if actual distress is not relieved? What will -the people say of a reform parliament which has already sat so -many weeks without having undertaken a single measure in favor of -those who are suffering? A general, an extreme, an extraordinary -distress weighs upon the whole country. Large numbers of the -agricultural laborers are worn out by excessive toil; many others -have nothing to do and die of hunger; labor is poorly -remunerated; manufacturers realize scarcely any profit; many work -at a loss; commerce declines in the same proportion, and a -hundred thousand men wander about the streets of London, seeking -work but finding none." - -{478} - -At this time, and in this agitated and difficult situation, it is -to the credit of the Whig cabinet that it did not allow itself to -be carried away by the uneasiness and discontent of its -partisans, nor by the ardor that animated its own members; it was -also to the credit of the Tories, a small number of whom were -returned to the new House, that they maintained a firm attitude, -resolved and candid, never descending to a fatal alliance with -the radicals. - -Sir Robert Peel, at the opening of the session, said, with honest -pride: "As long as I shall see the government disposed to defend, -against all rash innovation, the rights of property, the -authority of law, the order of things established and regular, I -shall believe it my duty, without taking account of the -sentiments of party, to range myself on its side. I avow frankly -that my fears regarding this House are not that it will be too -ready to believe that all is evil which is established and old; I -do not doubt the good intentions of the majority, but I fear that -the greater part of its members have come here with the -impression that the institutions under which they live are full -of abuses that should be reformed, and that they have too great -confidence in our means of providing a remedy. Three months will -not have passed, I am convinced, before they will find themselves -disappointed in their expectations; it is absolutely impossible -that they should be satisfied. I have learned with satisfaction -that the ministers of his Majesty, although disposed to reform -all real abuses, are at the same time resolved to stand by the -Constitution as it now is, and to reject all experiments that -might cause anxiety in the public mind; I am decided to sustain -them in that resolution." - -{479} - -It was not only questions actual and pressing that the Reform -Parliament had to deal with, such as the financial measures, the -re-chartering of the Bank of England, and the modification of the -system of government in both the East and West Indies, but also -greater questions of humanity and policy; the abolition of -slavery, and the repeal of the Union with Ireland, equally -importunate and urgent, and ardently sustained or opposed by -their respective partisans. - -The resistance of the colonies to the projected measures in favor -of the blacks, had become violent; a natural alarm had taken -possession of the slaveholders, disgusted by the disposition to -revolt that they saw day by day developing itself among the -negroes, and threatened by a ruin that they feared would be -complete. Already the local legislatures had refused to accede to -the orders of the Council, relative to the treatment of the -slaves; but Parliamentary reform had given a new impetus to the -generous zeal of the abolitionists. The government took the -question boldly in hand, justly weighing in the balance the -interests of the colonists, and the legitimate impatience of the -faithful partisans of the blacks. It was an effort requiring -courage and equity, at a time of such great financial -embarrassment, to present to a Parliament ardently favorable to -the abolition of slavery, a measure tending to the purchase of -the blacks, and requiring an indemnity to the planters of twenty -million pounds sterling. - -{480} - -The commerce of the West Indies had suffered severely; the value -of property had diminished, and the colonists accepted this new -and considerable reduction of their fortunes, not without -profound sadness, but without violence and without revolt. The -abolitionists protested against the liberality of the government; -national equity, however, recognized the good will and sagacity -which had inspired the report presented by Mr. Stanley; the bill -was finally passed by a large majority. Slavery was thus -abolished practically, as well as in principle; and England -obtained the honor of having first, without political obligation, -without revolutionary shock, in the name of the most elevated -sentiments of Christian philanthropy, given liberty to eight -hundred thousand slaves, thereby affording a noble example of -justice and virtue to all Christian nations. - -The struggle for the abolition of slavery had been long and -difficult; persistently sustained in the face of frequent -disappointments and serious obstacles, it was finally brought to -a successful termination, to the great joy of its promoters. The -sincere and prudent friends of Ireland, were met by a problem -more grave still; a problem which seemed insoluble; that of the -repose and prosperity of that unhappy country, rent asunder anew -by insane agitators. The first motion for the "Repeal of the -Union" was presented to Parliament on the 22nd of April, 1834, by -the celebrated Daniel O'Connell. It was seriously opposed by Mr. -Spring Rice, and when put to vote, was defeated by a majority of -five hundred and twenty-three against thirty-eight in the House -of Commons, and unanimously by the Lords. But immediately the -ecclesiastical question was raised. Mr. Ward proposed another -reduction in the legal establishment of the Anglican Church in -Ireland. The Cabinet was divided upon the question; the most -conservative members of the ministry, "the leaven" of Mr. -Canning, Mr. Stanley, Sir John Graham, and the Duke of Richmond, -gave in their resignations. The Bishops of Ireland addressed an -appeal to the king: they were ready, they said, to co-operate for -the redress of all serious abuses, but they begged that the -government would not imprudently disturb the discipline and the -services of the Church. -{481} -The response of William was thoroughly Protestant and English; it -betrayed the widening of the breach that already existed between -the monarch and his Cabinet. The ministry had lost much ground in -public confidence; a difference which arose between Lords Grey -and Althorp, upon the subject of the renewal of the Irish -coercion bill, soon deprived the Cabinet of its chief. Lord Grey -tendered his resignation, and announced it himself in the House -of Lords with an emotion that twice overpowered him. Finally, for -the third time, he began: "My lords, I feel quite ashamed of the -sort of weakness I show on this occasion, a weakness which arises -from my deep sense of the personal kindness which, during my -having been in his service, I have received from my sovereign. -However, my lords, I have a duty to perform, which, painful as it -may be, I must discharge: I no longer address you as a minister -of the crown, but as an individual member of Parliament. In -retiring during the course of the administration of which I was -chief, I feel confident of having acted in the spirit of the -time, without having ever preceded or retarded its march." - -The efforts of the ministry thus mutilated and lessened, to -govern powerfully were vain. The bill regarding the Irish Church, -proposed by Lord Melbourne, was rejected by the House of Lords. -The violence of the attacks of the press redoubled; disorder in -Ireland increased: the king declared frankly to Lord Melbourne -that he had no confidence in his cabinet, and that he intended to -recall the Duke of Wellington (November, 1834). - -{482} - -It was under the weight of its own efforts, and of the movement -that it had itself inaugurated, that the great Whig ministry, so -wisely and ably directed by Lord Grey, succumbed. It had opened -the way to wild hopes and infinite illusions, without the power -to satisfy the one, or moderate the other; it was swept away by a -rising wave which it vainly endeavored to resist. It is to its -honor and lasting glory, that it used prudently and courageously -the immense power, still new and confused, that parliamentary -reform had placed in its hand, without exceeding the limits which -it had itself imposed. Its measures were moderate and wise, its -resistance to the desires and insensate passions of the masses -were honest and firm. Lord Grey remained popular, even after the -fall of his ministry. The internal affairs of the nation had been -so important, and the interests involved so pressing, that the -foreign policy of the cabinet had received but little attention -in either house, and was almost lost sight of by the general -public. It had nevertheless touched upon weighty matters, -essential to the repose of Europe; the relations of England with -the French government after the revolution of 1830, the formation -of the kingdom of Belgium, and the Spanish question. These last -two European complications had put to the test the good feeling -which existed between the French and English governments: they -had definitively served to confirm and strengthen the alliance of -the two nations. The recognition of Louis Philippe by England had -been cordial and prompt; very different from the ill-humor and -repugnance manifested by Prussia and Russia. It had its origin in -a spontaneous and sincere national sentiment, the adhesion of the -country to the liberal and conservative policy which had -succeeded the revolutionary movement in France. The new union and -the good understanding which naturally resulted from this -attitude of England, contributed powerfully to the happy issue of -the Belgium question. -{483} -The smouldering dissatisfaction which had existed throughout -several centuries, between the Flemish Low Countries and Holland, -had finally burst forth; the union was abruptly broken. -Immediately following the separation, the new state demanded of -the King Louis Philippe, one of his sons for the throne of -Belgium. He refused. "The Low Countries have always been a -stumbling block to the peace of Europe," said he to Guizot. "None -of the great powers can see them in the hands of another, without -great inquietude and jealousy. Let them become by general consent -an independent and neutral state, and that state will become the -keystone of the arch of European order." These wise and prudent -views were approved by both the English and French cabinets. The -King Louis Philippe had sent Talleyrand to London, and Lord -Granville was the English ambassador at Paris. Both were well -qualified for the work they had undertaken; the efficacious union -of France and England for the maintenance of the peace of Europe. - -The first result of their efforts was the accession of the Prince -Leopold of Saxe-Coburg to the throne of Belgium. But lately the -adored husband of the Princess Charlotte of England, and still -popular in his adopted country, the new sovereign bound himself -to France by espousing the Princess Louise, eldest daughter of -Louis Philippe. - -The two powers testified their satisfaction and good-will by -delivering his country from the presence of the Holland forces. -After an agreement signed at London on the 22nd of October, 1832, -not without a certain distrust on the part of Lord Palmerston, -charged with the administration of foreign affairs in the cabinet -of Lord Grey, the Belgian fortresses still occupied by the -Holland troops were evacuated. A French army under Marshal -Gérard, accompanied by the young Duke of Orleans, laid siege to -Anvers. This place, already the scene of so many bloody -conflicts, and so many diplomatic negotiations, during centuries -past, was obliged to capitulate, on the 23rd of December, 1832. -{484} -The kingdom of Belgium was now definitively constituted, and -destined to prosper rapidly under its wise and prudent sovereign, -who constantly endeavored to maintain around him that equilibrium -so essential to the preservation of peace in Europe, and so -indispensable to the development as well as the security of his -little state. - -Spain had been for a long time the object of profound anxiety to -the astute statesmen of Europe. King Ferdinand VII. had just died -(September, 1833), leaving the succession to the throne -contested, notwithstanding the definitive act, sanctioned by the -Cortes, which had assured the crown to his eldest daughter -Isabella. Hesitating for a long time between family affection and -those absolute tendencies which had exiled into France all the -intelligent liberals of Spain, the monarch who had just breathed -his last, had scattered the seeds of the Carlist insurrection, -which broke out immediately after his death. A numerous and -obstinate party sustained the right of the infant Don Carlos to -the throne, in the name of the Salic law established in Spain by -the pragmatic sanction of Philip V., and recognized for some time -by Ferdinand VII. himself. The English and French cabinets did -not hesitate; by common consent they recognized the titles of the -young Queen Isabella II., as conformable to the ancient Spanish -law accepted by the nation. Civil war broke out in Spain. It had -already begun in Portugal, where the usurper Don Miguel, -contended in the name of the same principles for the exclusion of -the young Queen Donna Maria. Already the new governments of the -two kingdoms were compelled to ask assistance of the great -constitutional and liberal powers. - -{485} - -On the 15th of April, 1834, the triple alliance was concluded at -London between England, Spain and Portugal. A month later, and -upon the objection of the French government to the presumptions, -exclusively English, of Lord Palmerston, France in her turn -joined the alliance already known and powerful in Europe, -although no armed intervention had seconded the popular movement. -Civil war did not cease in Spain; it lasted for a long time, -breaking out anew at irregular intervals, yet always ardent and -obstinate. Meanwhile Don Carlos had embarked for England, and Don -Miguel had finally quitted Portugal, and retired into Italy. -Everywhere French and English diplomacy had been moderately but -firmly exerted in the service of the public welfare, and had -everywhere brought forth good fruit. - -Wearied by the yoke that the Whigs had imposed upon him, and by -the violence he had done to his own views and inclinations, the -king called upon the Duke of Wellington. For the first time that -noble hero refused to serve his sovereign. "No sir," said he, "in -the new order of things the difficulties lie in the House of -Commons; and as that House now has the preponderance, its chief -ought to direct the government. Address yourself to Sir Robert -Peel; I will serve under him in any position that it shall please -your majesty to place me." Sir Robert Peel was in Italy--so also -was Fox, when called upon to succeed Pitt. While awaiting his -return, the Duke of Wellington, in concert with Lord Lyndhurst, -appointed chancellor, conducted alone the affairs of the -government, and taking charge of three ministerial departments, -without other solicitude than the prompt expedition of the work, -he cared but little for the objections which were raised against -this irregular administration. Sir Robert Peel accepted the -burden which was imposed upon him and upon his friends, without -either co-operation or support from without. Lord Stanley and Sir -James Graham refused to enter the cabinet. The Tories found -themselves alone in the face of a House of Commons profoundly -hostile. Parliament was immediately dissolved. - -{486} - -Sir Robert Peel, in expounding his principles in a long address -to his constituents at Tamworth, said: "I will repeat the -declaration which I made when I entered the House of Commons as a -member of the Reformed Parliament;--I consider the reform bill -as a final and irrevocable settlement of a great constitutional -question--a settlement which no friend to the peace and welfare -of his country would attempt to disturb, either by direct or -indirect means. If by the adoption of the spirit of the reform -bill, it becomes necessary to live in a perpetual vortex of -agitation, that public men can only sustain themselves in public -opinion by yielding to popular demands of each day, by promising -to redress immediately all abuses that may be pointed out, by -abandoning that great support of the government, more efficacious -than law or reason itself--the respect for ancient rights and -authorities consecrated by time; if that is the spirit of the -reform bill, I will not support it. If the spirit of the bill -implies merely a careful review of institutions, civil and -ecclesiastical, undertaken in a friendly temper; combining, with -the firm maintenance of established rights, the correction of -proved abuses and the redress of real grievances;--in that case I -can for myself and my colleagues undertake to act with such a -spirit and with such intentions." - -And some weeks later, after his first check in the new -Parliament, upon the election of speaker, he continued: "I make -you great offers, which ought not to be inconsiderately rejected. -I offer you the prospect of a durable peace, the return of the -confidence of powerful states who are disposed to seize this -occasion to reduce their armies and remove the danger of hostile -collisions. -{487} -I offer you reduced estimates, improvements in civil -jurisprudence, reform of ecclesiastical laws, the settlement of -the tithe question in Ireland, the commutation of tithes in -England, the removal of any real abuse in the Church, and the -redress of those grievances of which the dissenters have any just -ground to complain. I offer also the best chance that these -things can be effected, in willing concert with the other -authorities of the state--thus restoring harmony, insuring the -maintenance, but not excluding the reform, where reform is really -requisite, of ancient institutions. You may reject my offers, you -may refuse to hear them, but if you do so, the time is -approaching when you will perceive that the popular sentiment -upon which you have relied has abandoned you." - -Party passion was at this time too violent and party animosity -too intense, for the newly elected house to lend an ear to this -wise and patriotic language. O'Connell had sold the support of -the Irish Catholics to the Whigs, and his price was the "Repeal -of the Union." "I belong to the Repeal," said he to the electors, -"dead or alive, saved or lost, I belong to the Repeal; and I make -a solemn engagement with those who are the most opposed to me, to -serve them in all things, in a way to render the transition not -only without danger, but perfectly easy." - -The deputies of the counties were for the most part -Conservatives, but the towns and boroughs gave a majority for the -Whigs. Sir Robert Peel accepted many checks without recoiling -before the danger, presenting day after day to Parliament the -measures which he believed to be useful to the public service; -determined to defy the opposition as long as it did not touch -upon points that he regarded as vital questions. Lord John -Russell was not tardy in responding to this defiance. -{488} -On the 30th of March, 1835, he renewed the attack but lately -directed against the Irish Church: "Missionary Church," he said, -"instituted with a view of leading the Irish population to the -Protestant faith, adapted to future wants that had been foreseen -but had never yet manifested themselves." He proposed then to -revise the ecclesiastical establishment by applying to public -instruction the sums and endowments which were now found -necessary for the religious maintenance of the curates and their -flocks. With Sir Robert Peel it was now a question of conscience -as well as of absolute conviction. Seconded by Lord Stanley, he -maintained that the ecclesiastical property proceeded from -endowments made to the Church, and properly belonged to it, and -that no one had the right to divert the same from its primitive -and religious destination. The motion of Lord John Russell was -carried, however, by a vote of three hundred and twenty-two -against two hundred and eighty-nine. The majority was in the -hands of the Irish Catholics. - -Sir Robert Peel and his friends resolved to retire. They had -risen in the contest which they had so courageously sustained for -four months; their adversaries, as well as the entire country, -felt this, and they hastened to seize again the reins of power. - -"No indifference for public life, no distaste for the fatigues -and weariness that it imposes, no consideration of personal -comfort, no grief of private life, would authorize a public man, -in my estimation, to desert without imperative reason the post to -which his sovereign has called him," said Sir Robert Peel, in the -House of Commons, on the 8th of April, 1835. "But at the same -time, it is a great misfortune to present to the country the -spectacle of a government which does not find in the House of -Commons the support necessary to safely conduct the affairs of -the country, nor exercise upon the acts of that House an -influence which confidence alone can give; to such a spectacle of -feebleness there are limits, which one ought not to pass." - -{489} - -During six years of alternate languor and energy, the cabinet of -Lord Melbourne governed England; master of the House of Commons, -and for a long time powerful in the country, losing however -little by little its popularity as well as its resources, and -slowly conquered by that adversary which had but recently -predicted its fall. "You will have no other alternative than to -invoke our aid and replace the government in the hands from which -you wish to wrest it to-day," said Sir Robert Peel, in the month -of December, 1834, "or have recourse to that pressure from -without, to those methods of compulsion and of violence which -will render your reforms vain, and will seal the death warrant of -the British Constitution." - -Lord Grey had never renounced power; "susceptible and proud, with -a mind more elevated than discerning, he was unskilful in -defending himself from small intrigues that he was incapable of -plotting." Worn out by a long life devoted to politics, he was -sad in his noble retirement, notwithstanding the affection of his -wife and numerous children, and the profound respect always shown -him by those who had served under his banners. Lord Althorpe, now -become Earl Spencer, as well as Lord Brougham, took no part in -the new cabinet. Lord Melbourne, Lord John Russell and Lord -Palmerston, sagacious in different degrees, undertook to continue -the work of reform, but lately victoriously begun, and more -difficult to accomplish, with prudent moderation, than its ardent -defenders had at first foreseen. Many changes, but recently -loudly demanded, were silently abandoned; they compromised upon -the Irish Church question, agreeing to the conditions proposed by -Sir Robert Peel; only the reform of the municipal corporations -was accomplished slowly and with difficulty in Ireland, useful -nevertheless and everywhere accepted. -{490} -The struggle was severe, and bold hands were raised against the -foundations of the English Constitution, and against the -hereditary rights of the House of Lords. But at the same time -that the audacity of the Reformers increased and developed a -spirit of resistance, a reaction, sober and moderate, firmly -resolved to defend those ancient institutions which have been the -grandeur as well as the security of England. It was in support of -these principles that Sir Robert Peel, on the 11th of January, -1836, addressed his friends and adherents assembled at Glasgow to -elect a rector for the university. A great number of the persons -present had but recently been warm supporters of the reform -movement. "If you adhere to the principles which you professed in -1830, it is here you ought to come," said Sir Robert Peel. "You -consented to a reform, invited by a speech from the throne, -expressly on the condition that it should be according to the -acknowledged principles of the Constitution. I see the necessity -of widening the foundations on which the defence of our -Constitution and religious establishment must rest, but I do not -wish to conciliate your confidence by hoisting false colors. My -object is to support our national establishments which connect -Protestantism with the State, in the three realms. I avow to you -that I mean to support in its full integrity the House of Lords, -as an essential, indispensable condition for maintaining the -Constitution under which we live. If you assent to this opinion, -the hour is arrived when we must all be prepared to act on the -declaration of it. The disturbing force of foreign example has -diminished; the dazzling illusions of the glorious days have -passed away, and the affections of the people are visibly -gravitating again to their old centre, full of a respect for -property, a love for national freedom, and an attachment to long -established institutions." - -{491} - -"From these walls I trust a spirit will go forth to animate the -desponding and encourage the timid. I look to the moral influence -of that opinion, which constitutes the chief defence of nations. -I look to it for the maintenance of that system of government -which protects the rich from spoliation, and the poor from -oppression. I look to that spirit which will range itself under -no tawdry banner of revolution, but will unfurl and rally round -the flag which has braved for a thousand years the battle and the -breeze. I do not doubt that it will continue to float -triumphantly, and that our Constitution, tried as it has been in -the storms of adversity, will come forth purified and fortified -in the rooted convictions, feelings and affections of a -religious, moral and patriotic people." - -It was against his personal inclinations, but in conformity to -constitutional principles sincerely accepted and practised, that -King William IV. had successively sanctioned the important -reforms which were accomplished under his reign. His royal task -was soon to terminate; from day to day his health became more -feeble, and on the 20th of June, 1837, he expired at Windsor. The -supreme power fell into the hands of his young niece, the -Princess Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent, who, on the same -day, was proclaimed Queen, at Kensington. The new sovereign of -the three kingdoms, England, Scotland, and Ireland, whose laws -extend over so many distant colonies and diverse peoples, was -only eighteen years of age. - -We have momentarily closed the History of France with the death -of the ancient Régime, at the confused and menacing beginning of -a terrible revolution, continued through many years, the memory -of which still profoundly agitates that country; we will close -the History of England at the death of King William IV., at the -beginning of a new reign, tenderly greeted by the nation, -destined to a long prosperity, rarely interrupted by wars--always -gloriously terminated. - -{492} - -Reforms have continued: bold and moderate, wise and prudent, -without ever altering the fundamental character of the -Constitution, yet profound enough to maintain England in the -first rank among liberal and free countries. The first to march -to battle for the great political rights of humanity; she has -gained them not without errors, not without crimes; she has -preserved and protected them after having definitively closed the -fatal era of revolutions. A noble spectacle and fortifying -example, which fills us with admiration and with a generous envy, -without however discouraging us, nor disturbing us in our fond -hope for our well beloved country; she has long sought repose in -order, and security in liberty; she has often caught sight of -these, and she will assuredly find them one day. - -While awaiting that supreme hour, the constant aim of our -efforts, it is our duty and our honor to seek everywhere in the -experience of history, as in the lessons of the present, the -power of sustaining without wavering the flag of noble hopes, -that flag which has been bequeathed to us by dying hands, with -the watchword of the old Roman Emperor: "Laboremus--Laboremus." - - - - - - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Popular History Of England From the -Earliest Times To The Reign Of Queen , by François Guizot and Henriette Guizot de Witt - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POPULAR HISTORY OF ENGLAND, VOL IV *** - -***** This file should be named 62277-0.txt or 62277-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/2/7/62277/ - -Produced by Don Kostuch -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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Guizot -</title> - -<style type="text/css"> - -body -{ - /* margin-left: 10%; */ - margin-right: 10%; - word-spacing: .05em; -} - -h1 {font-size:160%; text-align:center;} - -h2 {font-size:130%; text-align:center;} - -h3 {font-size:110%; text-align:center; - margin-top:10%;} - -h4 {font-size:100%; text-align:center; - font-style: italic; margin-top:8%;} - -i { font-weight:bold; } - -pre { font-family: serif;} - -hr { height:2px; background-color:black ; - margin-left:15%; margin-right:15%;} - -img { display: block; - max-width: 85% ; - max-height:85% ; - margin-left:auto; - margin-right:auto; - margin-bottom: -.7em; - } - -.image { text-align: center; - font-size:120%; - } - -table { border-collapse:collapse; - margin-left:auto; - margin-right:auto; - } - -table, th, td -{ - border:0px solid black; - border-collapse:collapse; - text-align:left; -} - -td -{ - padding:5px ; - vertical-align:top; -} -.cite { margin-left:5%; } - -.cite2 { margin-left:10%; } - -p.center { text-align: center;} - -p.right { text-align: right;} - -.footnote { margin-left:8%; - margin-right:8%;} - -.footnote2 { margin-left:12%; - margin-right:8%;} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; -} /* page numbers */ - -</style> - -</head> - -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Popular History Of England From the -Earliest Times To The Reign Of Queen , by François Guizot and Henriette Guizot de Witt - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A Popular History Of England From the Earliest Times To The Reign Of Queen Victoria - Vol. IV - -Author: François Guizot - Henriette Guizot de Witt - -Release Date: May 29, 2020 [EBook #62277] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POPULAR HISTORY OF ENGLAND, VOL IV *** - - - - -Produced by Don Kostuch - - - - - -</pre> - - -<p> -[Transcriber's notes:<br> -This work is derviced from<br> - http://www.archive.org/details/popularhistoryeng04guiz -<br><br> -This quote sums up this last volume:<br> - "The bitter time of revolutions had ended for England."—pg. 16] -</p> - - -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/frontispiece.jpg" border=1><br> -Napoleon Received On The Bellerophon. -</p> -<br> - - -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1">{1}</a></span> - - <h1>A Popular -<br> - History Of England -<br> - From the Earliest Times -<br> - <i>To The Reign Of Queen Victoria </i></h1> - - - <h2>by -<br> - M. Guizot -<br> - Author OF "The Popular History of France," etc. -<br> -<br> - - - <i>Authorized Edition </i> -<br> -<br> - - - Illustrated -<br><br> - Vol. IV</h2> - - - -<p class="image"> -<img alt="Publisher's Logo: ALDI DISCIP ANGLVS]" -src="images/logo.jpg" border=1><br> -</p> -<br> - - - - <h3>New York -<br> - John W. Lovell Company -<br> - 150 Worth Street, corner Mission Place</h3> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2">{2}</a></span> -<br><br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3">{3}</a></span> -<br> -<br> - <h2>List Of Illustrations. -<br><br> - Volume Four.</h2> - -<table> -<tr> - <td>Napoleon Received on the Bellerophon.</td> - <td>Frontispiece</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>King James at the Battle of Boyne.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>The Duke and Duchess of Marlborough.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>Visit of Louis XIV to the Death-Bed of James II.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>Queen Anne.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>Shrewsbury Invested with the White Rod.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>George I.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>The Mysterious Letter.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>George II.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>Charles Edward.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>Arrest of Charles Edward.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>Portrait of Pitt.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>Death of Wolfe.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>George III.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>Franklin.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_286">286</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>The Last Speech of the Earl of Chatham.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>Surrender to Nelson at Cape St. Vincent.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_374">374</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>The Battle of Aboukir.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_382">382</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>See what a Little Place you Occupy in the World.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_398">398</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>Death of Nelson.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_410">410</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>Waterloo.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_438">438</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>George IV.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_444">444</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>Windsor Castle.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_460">460</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>Wellington in the Mob.</td> - <td><a href="#Page_475">475</a></td> -</tr> -</table> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4">{4}</a></span> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5">{5}</a></span> -<br> - <h2>Table Of Contents.</h2> -<br> -<table> -<tr> - <td>Chapter</td> - <td>Events</td> - <td>Years</td> - <td>Page</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td>XXXII</td> - <td>William and Mary<br> - Establishment of Parliamentary Government</td> - <td>(1688-1702).</td> - <td><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td> - <td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XXXIII</td> - <td>Queen Anne<br> - War of the Spanish Succession</td> - <td>(1702-1714)</td> - <td><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XXXIV</td> - <td>George I. - and the Protestant Succession</td> - <td>(1714-1727)</td> - <td><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XXXV</td> - <td>George II.</td> - <td>(1727-1760)</td> - <td><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XXXVI</td> - <td>George III.<br> - The American War</td> - <td>(1760-1783)</td> - <td><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XXXVII</td> - <td>George III.<br> - Pitt and the French Revolution</td> - <td>(1783-1801)</td> - <td><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XXXVIII</td> - <td>George III.<br> - Addington and Pitt</td> - <td>(1801-1806)</td> - <td><a href="#Page_388">388</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XXXIX</td> - <td>George III.<br> - and the Emperor Napoleon</td> - <td>(1806-1810)</td> - <td><a href="#Page_414">414</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XL</td> - <td>George IV.<br> - Regent and King</td> - <td>(1815-1830)</td> - <td><a href="#Page_442">442</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XLI</td> - <td>William IV.<br> - Parliamentary Reform</td> - <td>(1830-1837)</td> - <td><a href="#Page_462">462</a></td> -</tr> -</table> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6">{6}</a></span> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7">{7}</a></span> -<br> - <h1>Guizot's -<br><br> - History Of England, -<br><br> - Vol. IV.</h1> - - - <h2>From the Accession of William and Mary<br> - to the Reign of Queen Victoria, -<br><br> - 1688-1837.</h2> -<br> - -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8">{8}</a></span> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9">{9}</a></span> -<br> - <h1>History Of England.</h1> - - - - <h2>Chapter XXXII. -<br><br> - William And Mary. -<br><br> - Establishment Of Parliamentary Government. -<br><br> - (1688-1702).</h2> -<br> -<p> -King James had abandoned England, fleeing from the storm which he -had raised, obstinate in his ideas and holding persistently to -the hope of a return, which his people was resolved to prevent at -any price. William of Orange had entered London; but he had not -established his quarters at Whitehall, and he refused to take the -crown by right of conquest. Shrewd and far-seeing, he did not -wish to belie the promises of his declaration, or, by parading -its defeat, to irritate the English army, which he hoped soon to -command. He had not conquered England, which had called him to -her aid and had voluntarily submitted to him; and he desired to -keep the supreme power with her free consent. A provisory -assembly was formed of those lords who were in London, as well as -of members of the House of Commons who had sat in Parliament -under the reign of King Charles II.; and the aldermen of London -and a deputation of the City Council were invited to participate -in the proceedings. At his departure, King James had left a -letter: some peers asked to be informed of its contents. "I have -seen the missive," said Godolphin, "and can assure your Lordships -that you would find nothing in it which could give you any -satisfaction." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10">{10}</a></span> -<p> -Aware of the blind obstinacy of the fugitive King, the peers of -the realm presented their address to the prince on the 25th of -December; some days later the Commons followed their example. -"Your Highness, led by the hand of God and called by the voice of -the people, has saved our dearest interests," said the -addresses—"the Protestant religion, which is Christianity in its -primitive purity, our laws, which are the ancient titles on which -rest our lives, liberties and possessions, and without which this -world would be only a desert in our eyes. This divine mission has -been respected by the nobility, the people, and the brave -soldiers of England. They have laid down their arms at your -approach." The same thanks and same requests were presented by -the Scotch lords who happened to be in London; the Earl of Arran -alone, son of the Duke of Hamilton, had proposed to treat with -King James. "All cry, Hosanna! to-day," said the Prince of Orange -to Dykvelt and his Dutch friends, who brought him the -congratulations of his native country, and were delighted at the -enthusiasm shown everywhere in England; "but in a day or two -perhaps they will repeat quite as loudly: 'Crucify him! crucify -him!'" Resolved as he was to govern England, William caught a -glimpse, though he did not foresee their extent, of the -difficulties and obstacles which the great enterprise he was -asked to attempt would meet with in England itself. Nevertheless -he accepted his mission without wavering. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11">{11}</a></span> -<p> -On the 22nd of January, 1689, a Convention, which soon declared -itself Parliament, assembled at Westminster, elected arbitrarily -on circular letters sent forth in the name of the Prince of -Orange. The parties were already beginning to divide; the great -national unanimity which had willed and accomplished the -revolution was yielding to different passions and opinions. In -this supreme crisis of the government of England, the Tories, -numerous in the House of Lords, weak in the House of Commons, -hesitated, according to their political and religious -complexions, between negotiations with King James, the -establishment of a regency, leaving to the fugitive monarch the -vain title of king, or the declaration that the throne was -vacant, and the calling of the Princess Mary to the crown as its -natural heiress. No one dared to assert the legitimacy of the -Prince of Wales. Some of the Whigs, a party which included in its -ranks a number of dissenters, proposed that Parliament should -proclaim the nation's right to depose a prince guilty of bad -government; the others, less involved in revolutionary schemes, -though just as firmly resolved to deliver England from the -misgovernment of King James, sought to cover the national will -with a legal form. "It is said that kings have a divine right of -their own," cried Sir Robert Howard; "nations also have -<i>their</i> divine right." -</p><p> -On the 26th of January the House of Commons ended by passing a -resolution couched as follows: "King James II., having undertaken -to overthrow the Constitution of the realm by not fulfilling the -original contract of King and people, has broken the fundamental -laws of the Kingdom by the advice of Jesuits and other corrupt -counsellors; by his voluntary retirement he has abdicated the -government, in consequence of which the throne has become -vacant." The form of the resolution was open to criticism; only -its gist was important. The Commons soon added to their -declaration of the vacancy of the throne a second equally grave -resolution: "The reign of a Catholic monarch is incompatible with -the security and welfare of this Protestant nation." The two -resolutions were sent up to the Lords. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12">{12}</a></span> -<p> -The Protestant declaration was unanimously voted. The King of -England, head of the Anglican Church, should naturally belong to -that Church. In regard to the vacancy of the throne, the Tories -insisted on previously debating the question of a regency, -proposed some time before by Bancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury, -and now advocated by Lord Rochester and Lord Nottingham. Divided -between their conviction of the dangers that King James caused -the country to incur, and their sentiments of loyalty, the -members of this fraction of the Tory party hoped to remain -faithful to their oath of allegiance by treating the truant -monarch like an invalid incapable of governing, and hence obliged -to delegate his powers to the Prince of Orange. This course -having been rejected, Lord Danby admitted the throne to be -vacant, and demanded that the Princess Mary be declared queen, -according to the principle that the throne could not remain -unoccupied. The Whigs, with Halifax at their head, loudly -maintained the right of the nation to choose its monarch. King -James was alive, and the princess could not then be his heiress; -the throne became elective, and the Prince of Orange alone was -worthy of being called to it. -</p><p> -The discussion between the two houses, as well as that inside the -House of Lords, was waxing hot; the crowd was pressing to the -gates of the palace. Lord Lovelace informed the peers that he was -charged with a petition demanding the immediate proclamation of -the Prince and Princess of Orange as King and Queen of England. -"By whom has the petition been signed?" was asked. "No man has -yet put his hand to it," answered the bold nobleman, the first to -meet the Prince of Orange when he landed; "but when I shall bring -it here, there will be signers enough." -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13">{13}</a></span> -The same threats were made to the House of Commons. The princess -was detained in Holland by the state of the sea, encumbered by -ice. Danby was zealously pleading her cause before the Lords, -without William, who remained faithful to his promise of -committing to the Convention all grave political questions, -interfering in any way in the debate. One of his friends, a -Dutchman, probably Dykvelt, accidentally was present at the -debate; he was pressed to say what he might know of the prince's -sentiments. The Dutchman held out for a long time. "I can only -guess his Highness's state of mind," he said at last; "but since -you want to know what I fancy, I think he would scarcely care to -be his wife's gentleman of the bedchamber; but I actually know -nothing at all." "I know enough, and even a little too much," -retorted Danby. -</p><p> -Finally Burnet made up his mind to reveal what the princess had -lately confided to him. "I know, for a long time," he said, "that -she had determined, even in case she should have mounted the -throne in the regular order of succession, to hand over her power -to her husband, with the sanction of Parliament." At the same -time Mary wrote to Danby: "I am the prince's wife, and I have no -other desire than to remain subjected to him; the greatest wrong -that could be done me would be to put me forward as his rival; -and I shall never hold as friends those who would follow such a -course." -</p><p> -In a moment the impetuous Tories maintained the rights of -Princess Anne, threatened by the elevation of William of Orange; -the Churchills were enlisted in her cause, though the princess -was making no objections to the exaltation of her brother-in-law, -when the prince summoned the leaders of both parties to the House -of Lords. He summed up in a few words the various alternatives -agitated in Parliament. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14">{14}</a></span> -"I have kept silent hitherto," he added; "I have used neither -solicitation nor threats; I have not even let my views or desires -transpire. I have neither the right nor the inclination to impose -anything on the Convention. I only reserve the privilege of -refusing functions which I could not perform with honor to myself -or advantage to the country. I am resolved never to be regent, -and I shall not accept that fraction of administrative power -which the princess, raised to the throne, could entrust to me. I -esteem her as much as a man can esteem a woman; but I am not so -made that I can be tied to the apron-string of the best of wives. -There is but one rôle which I can honorably fill: if the Houses -offer me the crown for my life, I will accept it; if not, I will -return without regret to my native land." The prince ended by -saying that he thought it just to secure the succession to the -Princess Anne and her children, in preference to the posterity -which he might have by another wife than Princess Mary. -</p><p> -The question was decided: William and Mary were to reign together -as sovereigns of England, and the government was entrusted to -William. A conference between the two houses soon resulted in a -vote. Lord Nottingham demanded a modification in the oaths of -allegiance "I don't approve the acts of the Convention," he said, -"but I want to be able to promise to obey the new sovereigns -faithfully." The House of Commons had charged Somers with drawing -up the Declaration of Rights. The jurist's name had for the first -time resounded with éclat during the trial of the bishops, and -already his rare abilities, the power and subtilty of his mind, -as well as his masculine eloquence, had placed him in a high -rank, destined soon to be the highest. After a firm and plain -statement of the people's rights, Parliament declared William and -Mary, Prince and Princess of Orange, King and Queen of England, -during their lives. After them the crown devolved upon Princess -Anne and her children; in their default, it reverted to the issue -of William. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15">{15}</a></span> -<p> -Princess Mary had just landed in England; she had hardly arrived -at Whitehall, and already people criticised her attitude and the -first indications of her character. Those who had seen her had -found her in high spirits, determined to enjoy her new grandeur, -forgetful of the catastrophe which hurled her father from the -throne she was about to occupy. Burnet himself was shocked. "I -had always noticed so much good feeling in her whole conduct," -said he, "that my surprise was extreme to see her deficient in it -on this occasion. Some days later I took the liberty of asking -her, how it could be that the misfortunes of a father had made so -little impression on her. She took my frankness in good part, as -usual, and assured me that it was not for want of having felt -them keenly, if she had had the air of not thinking of them; but -because she had been directed in a letter to affect much gayety. -It was possible that she had overdone the rôle they had made for -her, so strange was it to her true disposition." On the 13th of -February, the two houses betook themselves formally to Whitehall, -to offer the crown to the Prince and Princess of Orange. Halifax -was spokesman. "We accept with gratitude what you offer us," said -William. "For my own part, I can assure you that these laws of -England which I have already defended, will be the rule of my -conduct. I shall apply myself constantly to develop the -prosperity of the realm; and, to aid me in the task, I count upon -the counsel of the two Houses, which I am inclined to put before -my own." The public proclamation before the great gate of the -palace was hailed by the acclamations of the crowd. The -revolution was consummated; a new reign was commencing. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16">{16}</a></span> -<p> -With the new reign began a new era. The revolution of 1688 had -been singularly moderate and reasonable; it had not claimed a new -right, it had not added a liberty to the rights and liberties -which England then enjoyed; it had not changed a custom; it did -not renounce one of the forms or ceremonies observed in the old -times, and dear to the veneration of the people; it had simply -proclaimed in principle and established in fact that the nation -regarded its rights and liberties as its most precious treasure, -that it placed them above hereditary titles and the rights of the -throne. Liberal as well as legal, it demanded from the prince a -certain measure of good government and of respect for the -national wishes, at the same time that it unrolled from the mists -of the past those grand principles of the compact of sovereign -and people, which England had known how to keep and guard through -perils and through oppression. The work of liberty was not yet -complete; all its seeds rested in the Declaration of Rights drawn -up by Somers, and solemnly accepted by the new sovereigns. The -bitter time of revolutions had ended for England. -</p><p> -Yet the day of rest had not come. The reign of William III. was -to remain constantly troublesome, disputed, stormy. The reasons -of this were various and complicated. In the first place stood -his birth; he was a Dutchman in heart as in race, a stranger in -his tastes as in his manners to England, which never forgot the -fact. Both free and Protestant, the two countries were -nevertheless separated by wide divergencies. In England the Whigs -and Tories divided among them the upper classes; the tendencies -toward republicanism existed in the dark among a certain number -of dissenters; the Anglican Church, the Presbyterians, the -Catholics, were royalists by taste as by principle. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17">{17}</a></span> -In Holland, on the other hand, the mercantile patriciate remained -nearly everywhere zealously attached to the republican form; the -partisans of the stadtholdership of the house of Orange were -counted in the army and among the great property-holders: and -part of the provinces of Guelders and Friesland was equally -devoted to it. -</p><p> -Brought up in Holland in the midst of parties which he understood -and whose springs he had moved for a long time, sympathizing with -the very persons there who hereditarily opposed his family and -his policy, William III. found himself in England as much a -stranger as he was generally considered. Cold and reserved, like -a man surrounded by enemies or critics, he only had confidence in -the Dutch; he lavished his personal favors on Dutchmen alone; he -only opened his heart and unbent his countenance for Dutchmen. -This marked preference for his native land and this eagerness to -flee from the soil of his new country so soon as the summer could -bring him back to Holland, were a constant reproach and source of -weakness to the King of England. In Holland alone he breathed at -ease; there, alone he freely spread the wings of his grand -policy, more European than English, difficult to be imported by a -foreign prince into a new kingdom still entirely peopled for him -with secret or open enemies. -</p><p> -For a long time England had remained isolated from the -combinations of continental politics; lowered in her own eyes and -those of Europe, she had submitted, under Charles III. and James -II., to the yoke of France, against which William III. proudly -stood erect, demanding from England, as from Holland, the last -sacrifices to sustain the cause of European independence. It was -not without disquiet and a certain insular jealousy that the -English saw themselves drawn into all the political complications -on the continent; they had given themselves to William of Orange, -but they preserved towards him a secret distrust, silently nursed -by the persistent distrust of the Church of England. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18">{18}</a></span> -William was a Protestant; but, a Calvinist by conviction, -accustomed to the widest toleration in his own country, which had -become the refuge of all persons suffering persecution, he found -himself in England confronted by the Anglican Church, which was -divided in regard to him, and had partially remained faithful to -the fugitive monarch he had dethroned; obliged to struggle at -once against the anti-Catholic spirit which had carried him to -the throne and against the intolerance towards dissenters, which -was contrary to all his principles. Dutchman, European statesman, -tolerant Calvinist, he met throughout England distrust and -impediments which all the success of the revolution of 1688 could -not dispel, and which the personal superiority of the new king -never wholly succeeded in repressing. -</p><p> -The Church silent and sombre, the army sad and humiliated, -parties keenly exasperated—such was the domestic situation of -William on the morrow of his triumph, when the uprising of -Ireland menaced the peace of the kingdom, and the whole -government still remained to be organized. Responsible and -concordant ministers did not exist then: William called around -him counsellors from different sides—Whigs, Tories, trimmers; -Danby, Nottingham, Halifax, Shrewsbury, Herbert, Mordaunt. -Disagreements were not slow to display themselves. The Tories had -alone exercised power for some years. They were more experienced -and skilful in public affairs than the Whigs; the latter were for -the most part sincerely devoted to the new government, jealous -and suspicious toward their adversaries, who had now become their -colleagues. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19">{19}</a></span> -Traps and intrigues, sometimes violent scenes, succeeded one -another without intermission, fettering and retarding the march -of the government, sapping the popularity of the King, to whom -all parties appealed, and who tried in vain to calm them all. An -attack of John Hampden on Halifax appeared so violent that -somebody cried in the House of Commons: "This is called a speech: -it is a libel!" -</p><p> -William was weary of parliamentary struggles and eager to return -to the camp life, which he always preferred to politics, when he -pronounced, on the 27th of January, 1690, the dissolution of -Parliament. The state of his affairs in Ireland imperatively -demanded his presence. -</p><p> -Fleeing from England and the dangers which there threatened, as -he thought, his liberty and life, King James had found in France, -at the court of Louis XIV., the most generous and splendid -hospitality. Lodged by the king at the castle of Saint-Germain, -and in every respect treated as a sovereign and equal, James II. -had asked and obtained from his royal host the aid which he -needed not only to exist in France, but to undertake the conquest -of rebellious and Protestant England by means of Ireland, which -remained Catholic and true. Civil war had already broken out in -this little kingdom; the cession by James of all the civil power -to the Catholics and indigenous inhabitants disquieted knots of -Protestants, scattered as colonists over certain districts. The -small town of Kenmore, the cities of Enniskillen and Londonderry, -were filled with refugees of their religion and race, driven by -the tyranny exercised upon them to that refuge which the Scotch -Presbyterians had lately founded in Ulster. Tyrconnel had tried -in vain to maintain an appearance of order; the Irish population, -whose passions had been long aroused, would not yield to his -influence. Ireland was in flames, when James II. landed at -Kinsale on the 12th of March, 1689. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20">{20}</a></span> -He had embarked at Brest, accompanied by a small body of French -officers under the orders of the Count de Rosen. With him Louis -XIV. had sent Count d'Avaux, charged with the diplomatic part of -the expedition, and with plans to be tried among the English -malcontents. From the start, this clever politician, familiar -with complicated continental intrigues, foresaw the trouble that -the fallen monarch, whose cause he was to plead, would occasion -him. "It will not be an easy thing to keep any secret with the -King of England," wrote Count d'Avaux to Louis XIV.; "he has told -before the sailors of the St. Michel, what he ought to have -reserved for his most confidential friends. Another thing which -will give us trouble is his irresolution, for he often changes -his mind and does not always settle on the best course. He -frequently dwells upon little things, on which he employs his -whole time, and passes lightly over most essential matters. -Moreover he listens to everybody, and one has to spend as much -time in removing the impressions which bad advice has produced on -him, as in inspiring him with correct ones." "All the troops -Tyrconnel had been able to raise, were occupied with the -Protestant rising in Ulster," says King James in his Memoirs; -"the Catholics of the country had no arms, while the Protestants -had an abundance, and the best horses in the kingdom; there were -only eight small field-pieces in condition to accompany the army; -no provisions or ammunition in the magazine, little powder or -balls, no money in the chest, and all the officers gone to -England." -</p><p> -To this gloomy picture of the condition of his forces in Ireland, -James might have added the embarrassments about to be caused by -an intractable Parliament, and the pretensions, as immoderate as -they were absurd, of partisans, who thought they had a right to -lay down the law for the sovereign they persisted in serving. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21">{21}</a></span> -The indigenous Irish claimed the entire independence of their -country, threatening, if James refused it, to appeal to France, -and place themselves thenceforth under her protection. The -English exiles who accompanied the king, despising Ireland and -the Irish, only aspired to reseat their sovereign on the throne -of England. -</p><p> -"My Lord Melford is neither a good Frenchman nor a good -Irishman," said Count d'Avaux; "he only thinks of England." -Despite a proclamation of toleration by James, there was a -general understanding to re-establish the absolute supremacy of -Catholicism in Ireland; the act of establishment of Charles II. -was repealed; the lands of Catholics, lately confiscated to the -benefit of Protestants, returned to their original owners; one -law of proscription embraced all the fugitive or refugee -Protestants in the northern counties; the endowments of the -Anglican Church were taken from it. The fanatics triumphed; the -King was anxious and disgusted. He estimated better than his -advisers, the strength of Protestantism, even in Ireland; he -glanced at the effect of his measures in England. After long -hesitation, which still followed him after starting and made him -turn back for a moment, James set out to besiege the town of -Londonderry in person. -</p><p> -The place was small, badly fortified, and encumbered with -refugees, who had brought no provisions there. Its governor, -Lundy, proved a traitor to the garrison and citizens. Before -flying pusillanimously, he attempted several times to betray them -to the enemy. The religious and patriotic zeal of the inhabitants -triumphed over all obstacles. An Anglican clergyman, George -Walker, and Major Henry Baker, had taken command of the troops in -the town by the natural and legitimate ascendancy of their -characters. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22">{22}</a></span> -Determined to accept no capitulation, they were braving the -repeated attacks of the Irish army, as well as the cruel assaults -of famine, when Lord Strabane was instructed to offer the -inhabitants the royal pardon. "The people of Londonderry have -done nothing that requires a pardon," replied Major Murray; "they -recognize no other sovereigns but King William and Queen Mary. -Your lordship might not find yourself safe, if you stayed here -much longer, or if you repeated the same offers; allow me to -accompany you outside our lines." -</p><p> -King James II. returned to Dublin. The town held out a hundred -and five days, in spite of the cruelties of the Count de Rosen, -who had roused the indignation of James himself, when, on the -30th of July, upon receipt of a formal order from London, Colonel -Kirke, lately dispatched from England to the aid of Londonderry, -made a last effort to force the barricade constructed by the -enemy across the river. "If we don't deliver the brave citizens -of Londonderry, the whole world will rise against us," cried -Birch, in the House of Commons. "A barricade! well, let it be -forced! Shall we let our brothers perish almost before our eyes?" -The barricade was forced, and the population of Derry, decimated, -dying, but still indomitable, at last saw the vessels, which -brought the aid so long expected, advance majestically by the -narrow channel which alone the drought had left navigable. -Thanksgivings and cries of joy were still echoing in the town, -when a line of flames already indicated the retreat of the -Jacobite army. The siege of Londonderry was raised. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23">{23}</a></span> -<p> -The same day the inhabitants of Enniskillen, who had spiritedly -held their town in face of the enemy's troops, pursued the Irish -in retreat to the village of Newtown Butler. There, at the foot -of a hill, in front of a bog, the battle took place. "Advance or -retreat?" their leader Wolseley, detailed by Kirke, had asked his -improvised soldiers. "Advance! advance!" shouted the Protestants. -The rout of King James's partisans was complete, and the massacre -frightful. Nothing could check the violence of religious and -political hatreds among a half civilized population. "The -dragoons, who had fled in the morning, retreated with the rest of -the cavalry without firing a pistol," wrote the Count d'Avaux, -"and they all ran away in such a panic that they threw away -muskets, pistols, and sabres, and most of them having run their -horses to death, took off their clothes, to go quicker on foot." -</p><p> -While the arms of King James met with these severe checks in -Ireland, he received news from England which for a moment -disquieted his counsellors; but soon reanimated, by the very -imminence of the danger, the natural courage of the Irish race. -The illustrious Marshal Schomberg, who was driven by the -revocation of the Edict of Nantes from the adopted country he had -gloriously served, the lieutenant of William III. when he first -set foot in England, had just embarked for Ireland at the head of -a numerous body of troops. Other alarming intelligence was added -to this: the last efforts of the Scotch insurrection had -miscarried; and all hope of a Jacobite restoration was dying out -in the hereditary kingdom of the Stuarts. -</p><p> -A tyranny which England had never endured had long been pressing -on Scotland: an oppressive and corrupt government had met little -opposition in a timid or venal Parliament; a religion hateful to -the nation had been imposed on it by law. The Revolution of 1688 -lent to the condition of things and of feelings in Scotland a -wholly different character from that which it had assumed in -England. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24">{24}</a></span> -There King James had been dethroned in the name of violated law. -All legal forms had been observed in the election of the -Parliament which proclaimed William and Mary. At Edinburg the -reaction was violent, and passions were destructive; the Anglican -pastors were maltreated and insulted. The first act of the -Convention convoked by the Prince of Orange was the abolition of -episcopacy. Everywhere the Presbyterians recovered power as well -as liberty; everywhere the Covenanters, long kept down with an -iron hand, proudly held up their heads. At the same time, at the -moment when the Parliament of Scotland, after a lively debate, -decided to recognize the legitimacy of the revolution by -proclaiming in its towns the new sovereigns of England, an -insurrection broke out in the Scottish Highlands under the -conduct of Viscount Dundee, lately celebrated under the name of -Graham of Claverhouse. He was sustained in his campaign in favor -of King James by the Earl of Balcarras. Both had visited the -Prince of Orange at London, both had claimed the protection of -the government. "Take care, my lord," William had said to -Balcarras, who was excusing himself for not voting for the -deposition of James. "Remain inside the limits of the law; if you -violate it, expect to be given up to it." Balcarras and Dundee -had received the last orders of James II. "I commit to you my -affairs in Scotland," the monarch had said, as he made ready to -fly; "Balcarras will take care of my civil affairs and Dundee -will command my troops." It was with great difficulty that the -latter had been able to escape from the Convention where he had -had the audacity to present himself. "Where do you purpose -going?" Balcarras had asked him. "Where the shade of Montrose -shall lead me," replied the intrepid partisan; and he disappeared -at the head of fifty dragoons, the remnant of the famous -regiments which had lately cut the Covenanters in pieces. The -latter had not forgotten the fact. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25">{25}</a></span> -<p> -The English Jacobites belonged almost entirely to the Anglican -Church, being passionately and ancestrally devoted to its cause, -as well as to the House of Stuart. The Irish Jacobites were -Catholics and separatists, convinced that the greatness of their -native country, like that of the Roman Church, depended on the -restoration of King James. The Scotch Jacobites actively engaged -in the struggle were Episcopalians, lately triumphant, but now -oppressed in their religion, or Highlanders uniting against the -power of the Clan Campbell and its chief, the Earl of Argyle, -<i>Mac Callum More</i>, as he was called in the mountains. It was -Argyle who, standing before the throne at Whitehall, had -pronounced the words of the royal oath, repeated after him by the -new sovereigns. At its last clause William had paused for a -moment: its purport was that he should destroy all heretics and -enemies of God. "I could not engage to become a persecutor," said -the king aloud. "Neither the tenor of the oath nor the laws of -Scotland impose this obligation on your majesty," replied one of -the delegates. "It is on this condition that I swear," returned -William; "and I beg you, my lords and gentlemen, to be witnesses -of this." -</p><p> -So much moderation and prudence remained without effect upon the -Highlanders. Argyle was employed in the new government. However -unimportant his part in it was to be, from the capacity and -character of the earl, the traditional foes of his clan, the -Camerons, the Macleans, the Macgregors, naturally, went over to -the other camp. When Dundee, threatened with arrest, left the -little castle where he had quartered himself since fleeing from -Edinburg, he found the Highlanders already risen under the -command of Lochiel, chief of the Camerons, and Colin Keppoch, one -of the Macdonalds. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26">{26}</a></span> -Bringing in his suite some Lowland gentlemen, capturing some -Whigs, whom he carried with him as prisoners, sending the fiery -cross before him, and accompanied everywhere by the terror of his -name, Dundee soon found himself at the head of an army of five or -six thousand men, all brave, hardy, inured to fatigue, -undisciplined and tumultuous, incapable of fighting according to -the ordinary rules of war, and, consequently, of making a long -resistance to regular troops. "We would not have time to learn -your mode of fighting," said Lochiel, "and we would have time to -forget our own." -</p><p> -Dundee was uneasy; he asked King James to send him considerable -reinforcements. He waited through the month of June, encamped at -Lochaber, until the forces of General Mackay, tired of pursuing -him without coming up to him, retreated into the Lowlands. The -castle of Edinburg, long held by the Duke of Gordon for King -James, had just capitulated. The numerous dependents of the -Marquis of Athole were waiting for him to declare himself; his -eldest son, Lord Murray, had embraced King William's party; the -confidential agent of the marquis, Stewart of Badenoch, served -King James. Lord Murray had presented himself before Blair -Castle. The garrison which occupied it, in behalf of his father, -refused him admittance to the fortress. He had laid siege to it, -when Dundee and all the Highland chiefs descended impetuously -from the mountains to the relief of the garrison. -</p><p> -The siege was raised when they arrived. Murray's soldiers had -abandoned it; filling their caps with the water of a spring, they -had drunk to the health of King James, and dispersed. But Mackay -and his troops already occupied the defile of Killiecrankie, -which led to the fortress. Dundee resolved to attack them. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27">{27}</a></span> -The aged Lochiel moved to and fro among the ranks of the -Highlanders, whose fierce cries the echoes repeated; while the -tone of the enemy was feeble and faint. "We shall carry the day," -said Lochiel; "that is not the cry of men about to conquer." He -charged the enemy at the head of his clan with sword in hand, and -bare feet, like his soldiers. -</p><p> -A first discharge had not checked the forward motion of the -Highlanders, and Mackay's soldiers were reloading their pieces, -when the torrent of mountaineers came down upon them. Reeling, -overthrown, deafened by the shouts, dazzled by the sheen of -swords, the men threw away their muskets and began to fly. -Mackay, intrepid in defeat, called to his aid his cavalry, -dreaded by the mountaineers. Only Dundee could have rallied his -troops, carried away by their eagerness to plunder. Dundee was -dead in his glory, struck, it was told afterwards, by a silver -button used as a ball and discharged at him by the superstition -of the soldiers. "He is invulnerable to lead and iron," said the -covenanters, who had not long ago seen him urging on his soldiers -in the middle of a rain of balls. The intrepid soldier, the bold -and skilful leader, the pitiless persecutor, had been mortally -wounded while leading a small body of horse to the front. Falling -from his charger, a soldier had received him in his arms. "How -goes it?" asked Dundee. "Well for King James," answered the -trooper, "but I grieve for your lordship." "Small matter about -me, if things go well for him," murmured Dundee. These were his -last words. His body, wrapped in the plaids of the Highlanders, -was borne to Blair Castle. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28">{28}</a></span> -<p> -The death of Dundee was in truth the end of the Scotch rising. -Irregular and indecisive actions were continued for some time -between the Highlanders and the Cameronian regiments, inflamed -against each other by religious and political passions. Meantime -the mountaineers returned gradually to their flocks. On -separating, their chiefs declared that they remained the faithful -subjects of King James, always ready to serve him. -</p><p> -They had ceased fighting for him when Marshal Schomberg landed at -Antrim, on the 13th of August. Soon master of Carrick-Fergus, he -had much difficulty in protecting the Irish regiments against the -rage of the Protestant colonists. The courage of the Jacobites -revived a little: twenty thousand men were assembled under the -walls of Drogheda. After one day's march, Schomberg had -entrenched himself in a strong position near Dundalk. -</p><p> -The inexperienced zeal of the Irish, as well as of the English -recruits brought by Schomberg, led them to desire immediate -battle; but Rosen and Schomberg were old commanders, accustomed -to weigh the chances of war and the valor of armies; and neither -was eager to give battle. In spite of the maladies which ravaged -his army, of the bad quality of the provisions, and of the -injurious rumors circulated against him in England as well as -Ireland, Schomberg remained shut up in his camp at Dundalk -without the enemy's daring to attack him. When he returned to the -north, at the beginning of November, the Irish had taken up their -winter quarters and did not disturb themselves about his retreat. -"I declare," wrote the marshal, from Lisburn to William III., -"that if it were not for the profound obedience I have for your -majesty's orders, I should prefer the honor of being inactive at -your court to the command of an army in Ireland composed as was -that of the past campaign; and if I had hazarded a battle, which -would have been hard to do if the enemy wished to remain in his -camp, I should perhaps have lost all that you possess in this -kingdom, without speaking of the consequences which might have -resulted from it in Scotland, and even in England." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29">{29}</a></span> -<p> -Europe was again in flames when Schomberg wrote thus to King -William; but the true chief of the coalition against Louis XIV. -was not able to leave his kingdom or to place himself at the head -of the forces which he had sent to the assistance of his allies; -the difficulties of parliamentary government and the war in -Ireland kept him in his own dominions. The new Parliament had met -on the 20th of March, 1690. The Tories were numerous, energetic -and confident in it. The king committed the direction of his -affairs to Danby, whom he had just made Marquis of Caermarthen. -He then announced formally to the Houses his intention of -crossing into Ireland. The parties had for a short time thought -of interfering with this resolution. "I find they are beginning -to be much distressed at my journey to Ireland," wrote William to -his friend Bentinck whom he had made Duke of Portland, and who -was then in Holland; "especially the Whigs, who fear to lose me -too soon, before they have made what they want of me; for, as for -their friendship, you know one must not count upon that in this -country. I have said nothing as yet of my design to Parliament, -but I propose to do so next week. Meantime I have begun to make -my preparations, and everybody speaks publicly of them." -</p><p> -The new Commons voted that they would sustain and maintain the -government of their majesties, King William and Queen Mary, with -all their power, as well by their counsels as by their -assistance. "I thank you for your address, gentlemen," replied -William. "I have already had occasion to expose my life for the -nation; rest assured I shall continue to do so in future." Yet -the two Houses had resolved to subject the royal revenues to the -necessity of a repeated vote. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30">{30}</a></span> -William was hurt at this; the civil lists granted to Charles II. -and James II. had been granted for their lives. "The gentry of -England have had confidence in King James, who was the enemy of -their religion and laws," he observed to Burnet; "they distrust -me, who have preserved their religion and laws." The discontent -which he was quick to feel and bitter in expressing, never -disturbed the justice and loftiness natural to the spirit of -William III. When the Whigs proposed a bill of abjuration, -intended to disquiet the consciences of a large number of -moderate and honorable Tories, the king let his friends know that -he had no desire to impose a painful test upon his subjects. The -motion, much modified, was brought before the House of Lords. "I -have taken many oaths," said old Lord Wharton, formerly colonel -in the service of the Long Parliament, "and I have not kept them -all: I ask God not to impute to me this sin; but I should not -like to spread anew a snare into which my own soul or that of my -neighbor might fall." -</p><p> -The Earl of Macclesfield, who had accompanied William of Orange -at the time of his arrival in England, supported the words of -Lord Wharton. "I am surprised," said Churchill, who had lately -become Earl of Marlborough, "that your Lordship has any objection -to the bill, after the part you have played in the revolution." -"The noble earl exaggerates the part I have had in the -deliverance of my country," retorted Macclesfield: "I have always -been ready to risk my life in defence of her laws and liberties, -but there are things that I should not have liked to do, even in -this cause. I have been a rebel against a bad king; others have -gone further than I." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31">{31}</a></span> -<p> -Marlborough was silent; the King, who was present, became grave. -Some days later, before bidding farewell to the Parliament, he -transmitted to it by Lord Caermarthen an act of pardon, a free -and spontaneous amnesty, to which the practice of preceding -reigns had not accustomed England. The regicides who were still -alive and a certain number of the most guilty satellites of King -James, were alone excepted from the general pardon. These had, -for the most part, sought safety upon the continent; those who -were in England were informed that new crimes alone could expose -them to the vengeance of the laws. The act of pardon was passed -on the 20th of May; on the same date the king prorogued the -Parliament, committing to the queen the cares of government. A -council composed of nine persons was to assist in this important -task. Four Whigs and five Tories sat in this confidential -ministry. William had provided with far-seeing tenderness for all -the wants of his wife. "I put my trust in God," he said to -Burnet, whom he had made Bishop of Salisbury, and to whom he -unveiled the melancholy state of his soul, in presence of so many -troubles and dangers. "I shall complete my task or fall in its -performance. The poor queen alone distresses me. If you love me, -see her often; give her all the aid you can. As for myself, -separated from her, I shall be very glad to find myself on -horseback and under canvas once more; I am fitter to command an -army than to direct your Houses of Parliament. But though I know -I am doing my duty, it is hard for my wife to feel that her -father confronts me on the field of battle. God grant that no -harm may befall him. Pray for me, doctor." -</p><p> -William embarked at Highlake on the 11th of June; three days -later he landed at Carrick-Fergus. The same evening he reached -Belfast. Schomberg had arrived before him. At the same time James -left Dublin for his camp on the northern frontier of Leicester. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32">{32}</a></span> -He was accompanied by Lauzun, who had recently come from France -with four Irish regiments, equipped and drilled at the expense of -Louis XIV. "For the love of God," Louvois had said to Lauzun, of -whom he had a rather poor opinion, "Don't let yourself be carried -away by your desire to come to blows; endeavor to tire the -English, and above all maintain discipline." Careless and -venturous as he was, Lauzun was astonished at the disorder which -he found everywhere in Ireland. "It is a chaos like that -described in Genesis," he wrote to Louvois; "I would not spend -another month here for the whole world." -</p><p> -William III. urged on his preparations and hurried his advance, -eagerly desiring to attack the enemy. Schomberg wanted to hold -him back. "I have not come here to let the grass grow under my -feet," said the King of England. "This country is worth making -one's own," he added, as he gazed upon the beautiful, though -semi-civilized places he was passing through. The valley of the -Boyne, on the confines of the counties of Lowth and Meath, -reminded him of the rich meadows of England. The tents of the -enemy were pitched beneath Drogheda; the standards of the houses -of Stuart and Bourbon floated over the walls of the town. "I am -very glad to see you at last, gentlemen," said William of Orange, -viewing the motions of the Jacobite army from afar; "if you -escape me now, it will be my fault." One part of the army of King -James was concealed by the undulations of the ground. "Strong or -weak," said William, "I shall soon know which they are." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33">{33}</a></span> -<p> -The two armies were almost equal in numbers: twenty-five or -thirty thousand were mustered on either side. "Although it is -true that the soldiers seem determined to do their best and are -exasperated against the rebels," wrote d'Avaux, who had just -returned to France with Rosen, who was superceded by Lauzun, "yet -that is not the only requisite for fighting a battle. The -subaltern officers are bad; and, excepting a very few, there are -none to take care of the soldiers, the arms and the discipline. -More confidence is placed in the cavalry, the greater part of -which is good enough." William had brought with him his veteran -Dutch and German regiments; representatives of all the Protestant -churches of Europe were there in arms against the enemies of -their liberties. None were more impetuous than the Irish -Protestants, burning to avenge their recent injuries, and the -French Huguenots, who flocked from all quarters against the -monarch whom Louis XIV. sustained. "I am sure," the Baron -d'Avejon, lieutenant colonel in King William's service, had -written to Geneva, "that you will not fail to have published in -all the French churches of Switzerland the obligation which rests -on all refugees to come and help us in this campaign, in which -the glory of God, and, consequently, the reestablishment of his -Church in our country are at stake." Vain hopes! which explain -the zeal of the French Protestants against the Irish and King -James. Two refugees—Marshal Schomberg, and M. de Caillemotte, -younger brother of Ruvigny—led them at the battle of the Boyne, -exclaiming: "Forward, my children, to glory! Forward! behold our -persecutors!" -</p><p> -On the morning of the first of July, King William, who was -wounded on the shoulder the evening before while making a -reconnaissance, was on horseback from daybreak. The armies joined -battle in the river. At first Schomberg had remained on the bank, -directing the movement of his troops. He rallied around him the -Huguenot regiments, shaken by the death of their leader -Caillemotte. The moment the marshal stepped aground, after -crossing the Boyne, a detachment of Irish cavalry surrounded him; -he was dead when his friends succeeded in rejoining him. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34">{34}</a></span> -The native infantry had promptly taken to flight; nevertheless -the regiments from France and the Irish gentlemen fought -furiously. King William had entered the river at the head of the -left wing, with difficulty guiding his horse with his wounded -arm. He drew his sword with his left hand, and, charging at the -head of the Enniskillen Protestants, he dashed upon the enemy. -"You will be my guards today," he had said to the brave settlers; -"I have often heard of you, let us see what you can do." The heat -of battle expanded the heart of the grave and silent prince, -whose unconquerable reserve his best friends frequently deplored: -he moved about in every direction, receiving bullets on his -pistol-butt and the top of his boot, following up the victory -which at every point declared itself for him. King James had -taken no part in the action; he had remained afar, viewing the -combat from the heights of Dunmore. When he was certain that -fortune was against him, he turned bridle, accompanied by some -horsemen. In the evening he reached Dublin, bearing the news of -his own defeat. Irritated and humiliated, he bitterly reproached -his partisans with the cowardice of their countrymen. "I shall -never in my life command an Irish army," said he. "I must now -think of my safety alone; let each man do the same." Next day at -sunrise he left Dublin, and on the 3d of July he took ship at -Waterford. He soon landed at Brest, and related the history of -the battle in detail. "From the account of the battle that I have -heard the king and several of his suite give," wrote one of his -first hearers, "it does not seem to me that he was very well -informed of what took place in the action, and that he only knows -the rout of his troops." "Those who love the King of England -ought to be glad to know of his safety," said the Marshal de -Luxembourg, in Germany; "but those who love his glory have to -deplore the part he has played." -</p> -<br> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/034.jpg" border=1><br> -King James at the Battle of Boyne. -</p> -<br> - -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35">{35}</a></span> -<p> -Queen Mary was more pre-occupied about her father's safety than -her own glory. She wrote to her husband on the 5th of July: "I -was uneasy to know what had become of the king, my father; I only -dared to ask Lord Nottingham, and I have had the satisfaction of -learning that he was safe and sound. I know I have no need of -asking you to spare him; but add this to your clemency—let the -world know that for love of me you wish no harm to befall his -person." -</p><p> -The joy in England was complete when it was known that King -William had entered Dublin on the 6th. The rumor of his death had -been spread for a short time in Paris, where it had given rise to -popular rejoicings. The governor of the Bastile had even had -cannon fired. King James set about undeceiving the court and -city. His royal illusions were not yet dispelled. "My subjects -love me still," he used to say; "they await me impatiently in -England." When he arrived at Versailles, his first care was to -press Louis XIV. to send an army of invasion at once. "All the -forces of England are in Ireland," said he; "my people will rise -in my behalf." Tourville had just attempted a descent on the -coasts of Devonshire, but the peasants had taken arms and the -Cornish miners had emerged from the bowels of the earth to repel -the invasion. The French sailors contented themselves with -burning Teignmouth, and took to sea again more proud of the -triumph they had lately gained (July 10) over the united English -and Dutch fleets at Beachy Head, than humiliated at their check -on the English coast. One cry re-echoed in all the southern -countries: "God bless King William and Queen Mary!" -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36">{36}</a></span> -<p> -King William had felt deeply the disaster of his fleet. The news -had reached him a few days after that of the battle of Fleurus, -which had been won by the Marshal de Luxembourg from the Prince -de Waldeck, commanding the allied forces. "I cannot express to -you," wrote William to Heinsius, "how I am distressed at these -two great great disasters which almost simultaneously have fallen -upon the arms of the Republic. That of the fleet affects me the -more deeply, because I have been informed that my vessels have -not properly assisted those of the States, and left them in a -critical position. I have ordered an inquiry to take place; the -queen has given similar orders; no personal consideration shall -prevent my rigorously punishing the guilty." William had a right -to feel in the bottom of his soul a secret pride for his native -country. The Dutch vessels had born the whole weight of the -contest at Beachy Head, while the Marshal de Luxembourg wrote -after the battle of Fleurus: "Prince de Waldeck will never forget -the French cavalry, and I shall remember the Dutch infantry. It -has done still better than the Spaniards at Rocroi." -</p><p> -The indignation of England was great against Admiral Herbert, -created Lord Torrington, who was wrongfully accused of treason. -An inquiry was held upon his conduct, and many people were found -to be compromised in a Jacobite plot. Lord Clarendon, the queen's -uncle, was of the number. Before his departure to Ireland the -king had already had proof of his intrigues. The queen interceded -for him. William had summoned Lord Rochester. "Your brother has -plotted against me," he had said, "I am assured. I have been -advised to except him from the amnesty, but I have been unwilling -to cause this grief to the queen. It is for her sake that I -forgive the past; but let Lord Clarendon take care in future; he -will perceive that I am not jesting." This kind advice had not -sufficed; Lord Clarendon's name was connected anew with Jacobite -plots. The advisers of the queen hesitated to accuse him in her -presence. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37">{37}</a></span> -"I know," said Mary, "and everybody knows as well as I, that Lord -Clarendon is accused of things too grave to suffer him to be -excepted from the precautionary measures." A warrant was signed -for Clarendon's arrest. "I am more grieved for Lord Clarendon -than people will believe," the queen wrote to her husband. -</p><p> -William returned to England, after meeting with a repulse before -the walls of Limerick, defended by the Irish with the patriotic -and sectarian zeal which had before animated the Protestant -citizens of Londonderry. Lauzun and the auxiliary regiments, -after withdrawing to Galway, had just embarked for France. King -William bid Marlborough to make a descent upon Cork and Kinsale. -The two places fell into the hands of that able general, and five -weeks from his departure from Portsmouth he paid his respects to -the king at Kensington. "There is not in Europe a general, having -so little experience in war, who is worthier of great commands -than the Earl of Marlborough," William said generously, for he -did not like him. The return of the king, and his journey from -Bristol to London, had been greeted with national transports of -joy. He had left in Ireland the Dutch general Ginckel, a resolute -and prudent man, at the head of an army, well disciplined, well -equipped, and well victualled. Before the close of the following -year, Ginckel had completed his task of pacifying Ireland. On the -20th of June, 1691, in spite of the presence and exertions of -Saint-Ruth, who had come with reinforcements from France, he -carried by storm the town of Athlone, the true key of Connaught, -and the strongest place in Ireland. "His master should have him -hanged for attempting to take Athlone," said the French general, -"and my master can do the same to me, if I lose it." On the 12th -of July Saint-Ruth was killed at the battle of Aghrim, and the -Irish signally defeated. On the 26th of August, Ginckel laid -siege to Limerick. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38">{38}</a></span> -<p> -Tyrconnel had just breathed his last, old and prematurely worn -out by fatigue and debauches. King James's troops were commanded -by Lord Sarsfield, the most able and brilliant of the Irish -officers. On the 1st of August a capitulation was signed, and was -soon followed by a treaty. The Irish regiments were permitted to -choose between the service of William and that of Louis XIV. A -large number of soldiers went over spontaneously to France, -forming in the armies of Louis XIV. and Louis XV. that Irish -brigade, whose name has become famous. "Has this last campaign -altered your opinion of our military qualities?" asked Sarsfield -of the English officers. "To tell the truth," answered they, "we -think almost the same of them as we have always thought." "Well," -replied Sarsfield, "whatever bad opinion you may have of us, only -let us change our king and begin again, and you will see." -Ginckel was raised to the dignity of Earl of Athlone and Aghrim. -King William and Parliament had ratified the terms offered by the -general to the Irish; the struggle was over, the conquest -consummated; the Protestant colonists, lately oppressed, became -the masters, and often the oppressors of the indigenous race, -which was dejected and decimated. Scotland was absorbed with the -triumph of the Presbyterians, who had just legally recovered the -religious supremacy in their country, to the great detriment of -Episcopalians and Cameronians. The English Parliament had voted -supplies generously, the Jacobite plots were exploded; the trial -of Lord Torrington had ended in an acquittal, which never -succeeded in erasing from the king's mind a distrust, which was -merited by the dissolute life and known intemperance of the -admiral. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39">{39}</a></span> -William had not waited for this first interval of domestic peace -to respond to the needs of his soul, and the imperious call of -political necessity. On the 18th of January, 1691, in spite of -the severity of the season, he had embarked at Gravesend for -Holland. "I yearn for this moment more than I can express to -you," he wrote six months before to Heinsius. -</p><p> -The English fleet had arrived in sight of the coasts of Holland. -The voyage had been unpleasant; disembarkation seemed impossible: -enormous blocks of ice encumbered the channel, while a thick fog -hid the land. For eighteen hours the four little ships were -obliged to keep to sea. The king was, as usual, weak and -suffering, yet he had wished to put off in an open boat, to gain -his natal soil the quicker. The whole night was spent before he -could step on dry land; the cold was intense, and the danger -serious. Some of the sailors were in despair. "Fie!" said William -to them, "are you afraid to die with me?" Some great British -noblemen, the Dukes of Ormond and Norfolk, the Earls of -Devonshire, Dorset and Monmouth, were with him; Portland and -Zulestein were glad to accompany their beloved sovereign to -Holland. It was only at daybreak, by the feeble light of a -winter's morning, that they were able at last to land on the -island of Goree. The king rested there some hours before taking -the road to the Hague. -</p><p> -Joy beamed on the face which the English were accustomed to find -stern and haughty. Heart was responding to heart; England had -accepted its deliverance from the hand of William III., without -affinity for him and through necessity. The Dutch loved the heir -of the greatest name in their nation and of their race, the -liberator of their country, the man who had carried to the throne -of England the glory, the name and the manners of his Dutch -fatherland. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40">{40}</a></span> -The people pressed upon his steps. "Let them alone," said the -king; "let them come near me and all be my friends." A splendid -reception had been prepared at the Hague: he was opposed to the -pageant and the ceremonies, and murmured against this useless -expenditure. "It is quite enough to have to bear the cost of the -war," he observed. His countrymen spared him neither a speech nor -a salvo of artillery; the joy of the population was at its -height. "It would be quite another thing if Mary had accompanied -me," said the king to those who congratulated him upon his -triumph; "she is more popular than I." -</p><p> -The States-General were solemnly convened. William was more moved -than he had been formerly on leaving his native country. "When I -took leave of you," he said, "I informed you of my intention to -cross over to England, to save, thanks to your aid, that kingdom -from a deluge of evils present and to come. Providence has -blessed my enterprise, and the nation has offered me the crown of -the three kingdoms. I have accepted it, not from ambition, God is -my witness, but to put the religion, the welfare, the peace of -Great Britain beyond the power of any assault, and to be able to -protect the allies, the republic in particular, against the -supremacy of France. I have loved this country from my earliest -youth, and, if anything could increase this love, it is the -certainty that I have found a reciprocal attachment in the hearts -of my countrymen. If it pleases God that I should become the -instrument which Providence may deign to use in order to restore -repose to Europe and re-establish security in your state, I shall -have lived long enough and shall go down tranquilly to the -grave." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41">{41}</a></span> -<p> -It was at the Hague that the Congress of the Grand Alliance had -met. Having become King of England, and controlling the forces of -a great kingdom, William of Orange remained its chief, -notwithstanding princely jealousies and rivalries, by that -ascendancy of genius which had carried him to the first rank when -he was as yet but the stadtholder of a petty republic. The -assembled princes or their envoys were not used to hear such bold -language employed against the all-powerful king of France as that -of William at the opening of the Diet. "The states of Europe," -said the king, "have been too long given up to a spirit of -division, indolence, or attention to their private interests. We -may rest assured that the interest of each is inseparable from -the general interest of all. The King of France's forces are -great; he will sweep away everything like a torrent. It will be -vain to oppose him with murmurs and protests against injustice. -It is not the resolutions of diets, or hopes founded on fanciful -rumors, but powerful armies, and a firm union among the allies -which can stay the common enemy in his triumphant career and in -the effervescence of his power. It is with the sword that we must -wrest from his hands the liberties of Europe which he aims at -smothering, or we must endure the yoke of slavery forever. For my -part I shall spare neither my credit, my forces nor my person, to -attain this glorious result, and I shall come in the spring at -the head of my troops to conquer or die with my allies." -</p><p> -The spring had not come yet, and Mons had been already invested -on the 15th of March by a French army. Louis XIV. arrived there -with the Dauphin on the 12th, and, despite the impetuous efforts -of William to relieve the place in time, it capitulated almost in -sight of the allied army. The vigilance of Marshal de Luxembourg -baffled William's maneuvres throughout the campaign. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42">{42}</a></span> -<p> -When he returned to England in October, the advantage was with -France everywhere on the Continent. The Duke of Savoy had adhered -to the Grand Alliance, but Nice had fallen into the power of -Catinat. Opening the session of Parliament, the King spoke -complacently of the successful issue of the war in Ireland; at -the same time he warned the representatives of the nation that a -great effort would be necessary against the King of France, and -in order to support the Grand Alliance. The subsidies had been -voted without opposition, and the House was engaged with the -affairs of the East India Company, when a strange report was -spread abroad: the Earl of Malborough, lately at the head of the -English contingent to the allied army, while the king of England -was absent, had been suddenly stripped of his employment and his -dignities. The Princess Anne, who persisted in keeping her -favorite with her, had to retire with her to the country. The -causes of Malborough's disgrace remained a mystery, which -occasioned the most diverse conjectures, and allowed the enemies -of William and Mary to attribute unworthy or frivolous motives to -them. The cause was grave, and the necessity absolute: the Earl -of Marlborough was hatching a new treason. In the Parliament and -the army all was ready to attempt a Jacobite restoration. -</p><p> -James II. himself wrote in November, 1692: "Last year my friends -formed the design of recalling me by act of Parliament. The -method was arranged, and Lord Churchill was to propose in -Parliament to expel all foreigners, as well from the army and the -council as from the kingdom. If the Prince of Orange had agreed -to this measure, they would have had him in their hands; if he -had resisted it, they would have made Parliament declare against -him, and at the same time Lord Churchill with the army was to -declare himself for the Parliament; the fleet was to do the same, -and they were to recall me. They had commenced to move in the -matter and had gained a large party, when some indiscreet -subjects, thinking they were serving me, and that what Lord -Churchill was doing was not for me, but for the Princess of -Denmark, had the imprudence to discover the whole thing to -Bentinck, and thus averted the blow." -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/042.jpg" border=1><br> -Duke And Duchess Of Marlborough. -</p> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43">{43}</a></span> -<p> -The original manuscript of Burnet's Memoirs also contains the -following: "Marlborough busied himself with decrying the conduct -of the king and with depreciating him in all his conversations, -seeking to rouse the dislike of the English for the Dutch, who, -he said, enjoyed a larger share of the king's confidence and -favor than they did. It was a point on which it was easy to -excite the English, too much inclined, as they are, to despise -all other nations and to esteem themselves immoderately. This was -the subject of all the conversations at Marlborough's residence, -where English officers met incessantly. The king had told me that -he had good reasons for believing also that the earl had made his -peace with King James, and had opened a correspondence with -France." -</p><p> -William III. had learned clemency in his dealings with English -statesmen: the treason of Lord Clarendon and of Lord Dartmouth -had been treated with mildness; when Lord Preston's plot had been -discovered, and Elliot, one of the accomplices, was multiplying -denunciations, the king, who was present, had touched -Caermarthen's shoulder. "There is enough of this, my lord," he -had said; thus imposing silence upon useless revelations about an -impotent discontent against which he did not wish to be severe. -Yet he feared the Earl of Marlborough's perfidy: he knew at once -his rare abilities and his profound baseness, and wished to -secure himself against a treason which threatened his throne and -life. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44">{44}</a></span> -Through excessive magnanimity or prudence he persistently -concealed the motives of his determination; but Marlborough's -disgrace was to be long-lived. The silence of William left a -formidable foe to France and a superlatively able head to the -coalition against her, who, had the details of his treason been -generally known, would have been irrecoverably ruined in the -public opinion of England. -</p><p> -William was about to leave England to take command of the allied -forces on the continent. At his departure he wished to finish the -pacification of Scotland. His late deputy, Lord Melville, had -allowed the Presbyterians to assume a dominating position which -seriously threatened the liberty of the Episcopalians. He was -replaced by Sir John Dalrymple, known in history as the Master of -Stair. Eloquent and able, he had conceived the idea of detaching -a certain number of Highland chiefs from the Jacobite cause by -bribery. A considerable sum had been effectively spent among men -proud and uncultured, but poor and exhausted by their warlike -efforts and their domestic feuds. Numerous chiefs made their -submission, notwithstanding the repugnance inspired by Lord -Breadalbane, who was employed by the Master of Stair in these -negotiations, and whom his connection with the Campbells rendered -suspected by the mountaineers. On the 31st of December, 1691, -Macdonald of Glencoe, or MacLean, as he was called in the -Highlands, found himself almost the only one to refuse the oath -of allegiance. -</p><p> -He made up his mind, at last, but too late. When he presented -himself at Fort William, the fixed time had expired, and no -magistrate was present. The old chief, alarmed at last, betook -himself to Inverary; they refused for a long time to accept his -submission. McLean returned to his mountains, whither an unjust -and cruel vengeance was about to pursue him. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45">{45}</a></span> -<p> -The Master of Stair had consented to become the instrument of the -hereditary hate of the Campbells; it had been represented to him -that this was the price of the pacification of Scotland. His -orders had been issued in advance for the destruction of all the -clans which should not have made their submission before the 1st -of January, 1692. "Your troops will ravage all the district of -Lochaber, the domains of Lochiel, Keppoch, Glengarry, and -Glencoe. Your powers will be sufficient for the purpose. I hope -your soldiers will not embarrass the government with prisoners." -Lochiel, Keppoch and Glengarry had acted in time. All the hate of -the Campbells and all the administrative zeal of the Master of -Stair were turned upon Glencoe. King William signed his sentence -without reading it, Burnet asserts, and amid the mass of papers -which were presented to him every day. He did not, doubtless, -understand its purport. "It is a charitable duty," wrote the -Master of Stair, "to destroy this nest of robbers." -</p><p> -On the 1st of February, 1692, a detachment of Argyle's regiment -entered the territory of Glencoe, peacefully, and as if animated -by the most friendly intentions. "It would be better to do -nothing in the matter than to do it unsuccessfully," the Master -of Stair had said. "Since the thing is resolved on, it must be -executed secretly and suddenly." The commander of the small body, -Captain Campbell, commonly called Glenlyon from the name of his -estate, had a niece married to the second son of Glencoe. The -soldiers were well received and housed among the cottages. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46">{46}</a></span> -<p> -They passed twelve days there waiting for the time when -Lieutenant-colonel Hamilton should have occupied the defiles of -the mountains. The 13th of February had been fixed on as the -fatal day; the Highlanders had felt some uneasiness, but their -guests had reassured them, "If there was any danger," Glenlyon -had said to the chiefs eldest son, "should I not have warned your -brother and his wife?" At the appointed hour Hamilton had not yet -arrived; nevertheless the massacre began. Under every roof, -beside every hearth, Glenlyon's soldiers shot down their hosts, -men, women and children; the Master of Stair's orders had allowed -them to spare old men above seventy. In their bloody intoxication -the troops gave no quarter; the aged Glencoe perished among the -first. His wife, assassinated beside him, was stripped of her -jewelry, and did not expire till the next day. At every door was -seen a corpse. When Hamilton appeared at the head of his troops, -they plundered all the houses, and long lines of cattle were -driven down the mountain passes by the light of the flames which -were consuming the villages. -</p><p> -God does not suffer crime, though cleverly conceived, to gain a -complete triumph. The passes had not been guarded; the murderers -had not all arrived in time, and a large number of the Macdonalds -of Glencoe succeeded in escaping, at the cost of new -sufferings—exposed to hunger, cold, and unceasing dangers. They -repaired to the midst of their mountains, above their ruined -houses and their blood stained hearths. The cry of their calamity -mounted slowly to Heaven. The Jacobites assisted in spreading it -abroad: they had eagerly seized this weapon against King William. -When the latter, far away and imperfectly informed, wished to -open an inquiry into the authors of the crime, so many and so -important persons were compromised in it, that the Master of -Stair alone was removed for a time from public life. The massacre -of Glencoe has remained a dark stain on the reign of William -III., a sad contrast to the leniency and humanity which usually -characterized his government. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47">{47}</a></span> -<p> -Hardly had the king left England before the nation, as well as -Queen Mary, was a prey to serious uneasiness. Louvois had died -suddenly on the 17th of July, 1691, without Louis XIV., with whom -his influence had been decreasing, appearing particularly -distressed at his loss. "Tell the King of England that I have -lost a good minister," was the answer he had made to King James's -condolences, "but that his affairs and mine will fare none the -worse for it." -</p><p> -Louvois would not have consented to the schemes which James was -urging Louis XIV. to execute. Still convinced of the attachment -of his English subjects, especially of the navy, he was for some -time in correspondence with Admiral Russell, a sincere Whig, and -Protestant, but morose, discontented, unreasonable and easily led -away by his temperament into guilty intrigues. A camp had lately -been formed on the coasts of Normandy; all the Irish regiments -were there, under command of Lord Sarsfield; French forces were -to join them. James called on the English people to pronounce in -his favor by a manifesto so arrogant, so obstinate in the errors -and faults which had caused his downfall, that the ministers of -William III. had it printed and widely circulated in the kingdom. -</p><p> -Some English Jacobites attempted to combat the disastrous effect -of the manifesto by another paper, drawn up with care and with a -full knowledge of the state of feeling in England; but nobody let -himself be taken in by this maneuvre. A popular movement was -displayed in favor of the government; the militia responded -spiritedly to the call; the coasts were covered with troops; the -fleet of the allies entered the Channel. Those of the British -sailors who had given hopes to King James, recovered their -fidelity in presence of the enemy. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48">{48}</a></span> -"I should like to serve King James," said Admiral Russell to the -Bishop of St. Asaph. "It might be done, if he was willing to let -us alone; but he does not know how to act with us. Let him forget -the whole past, and grant a general amnesty, and I will see what -I can do for him." -</p><p> -The bishop tried some hints about the personal favor reserved for -the admiral. The latter interrupted him: "I am not uneasy about -that, I only think of the public; and don't imagine I should ever -let the French conquer us on our own seas. Be it well known that -I shall fight them if I meet them, were His Majesty himself on -board!" -</p><p> -This outburst of patriotism, in a malcontent, who had lately been -on the point of becoming a traitor, did not suffice to open King -James's eyes: at his request the formal orders of Louis XIV. -forced the hand of Admiral de Tourville, who was hesitating, to -fight. He had been instructed to protect the disembarkation of -the invading forces upon the English coasts; but the wind -retarded his sailing from Brest. The Dutch fleet had joined the -English, and Tourville wished to await the squadrons of Estrées -and Rochefort. -</p><p> -Pontchartrain was minister of Marine as well as of Finance since -Seignelay, son of Colbert, had died, in 1690. He sent this answer -from Versailles to the experienced sailor, who was used to -fighting from the age of fourteen: "It is not for you to discuss -the king's orders; it is your business to execute them and enter -the Channel. If you don't wish to do so, the king will appoint in -your place some one more obedient and less cautious than you." -Tourville set out and met the hostile squadrons between the capes -of La Hague and Barfleur. He had forty-four vessels against -ninety-nine which the English and Dutch numbered. Tourville -convened his council of war; all the officers advised him to -retire; but the king's command was peremptory, and the admiral -gave battle. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49">{49}</a></span> -After three days' desperate resistance, aided by the most skilful -maneuvering, Tourville was forced to retreat under the forts of -La Hogue in the hope of stranding his vessels. King James and -Marshal de Bellefonds were opposed to this. The vessels were -attacked and burned by the English in sight of the French and -Irish camp. The dethroned king was divided between his desire for -victory and his patriotic instincts. Seeing the sailors who -fought against him gallantly scaling the French vessels, he could -not help exclaiming: "Oh, my brave Englishmen!" Previously, on -the occasion of a trifling advantage that Tourville had gained in -the Bay of Bantry, while James II. was in Ireland, when they came -to announce to the latter that the French had beaten the English, -the king had said, not without bitterness: "Then it is the first -time." Tourville had lost a dozen vessels. The conduct of the -English officers and sailors had been heroic; the admiral had -himself inspected all the vessels and addressed the crews. "If -your commanders betray you," he had said, "throw them overboard, -and me the first!" King James counted wrongly on Rear-Admiral -Carter, who had made him promises, while at the same time he -warned Queen Mary of the fact. Severely wounded, Carter, who was -the first to break the French lines, would not let go his sword. -"Fight, fight," he said, dying, "until the ship sinks!" -</p><p> -The news of the victory of La Hogue caused great joy in England: -it calmed the minds of the population, distracted by repeated -rumors of conspiracies. The plot denounced by Fuller in February, -and Young's plot in April, both invented, and the creations of -false witnesses, worthy rivals of Titus Oates and Dangerfield, -had disturbed men's spirits. Lord Huntingdon had been arrested; -the Earl of Marlborough had been sent to the Tower for a short -time: the Bishop of Rochester had been tried. Marlborough was -guilty of intrigues more serious, and unknown to the public. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50">{50}</a></span> -The Bishop, rich and indolent, had nothing to do with any plot. -He easily proved his innocence; the false witnesses were severely -punished; and Marlborough was set at liberty, with a caution, -after forty-eight hours. His accusers had done him the service of -dispelling the vague suspicions that had brought his disgrace -upon him. -</p><p> -At the close of the same year, the plot of Grandval, aimed at the -King's life, was to wake again the public disquiet that was -destined to be revived more than once in his reign. In Europe, as -well as England, King William's courage and thoughtfulness stood -in the way of many great designs, and disappointed many hopes. -The sentence which condemned the criminal publicly compromised -the Marquis de Barbezieux, son of Louvois, and secretary of state -for war. Louis' ministers kept silence and did not refute the -charge. -</p><p> -The fortune of war continued to favor France: Namur had -capitulated on the 20th of June, and its citadel surrendered on -the 30th. "The allies learned it by three salvas from the army of -the Marshal de Luxembourg and that of the Marquis de Boufflers," -wrote Louis XIV. in his Memoirs. "They fell into a consternation -which rendered them immovable for three days; so much so that the -Marshal de Luxembourg having resolved to repass the Sombre, they -thought neither of annoying him on his march nor of attacking him -in his retreat." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51">{51}</a></span> -<p> -When William III. came up with Luxembourg on the 31st of August, -between Enghien and Steinkerque, a new victory, due to the -brilliant gallantry of the French infantry, completed the -uneasiness of the allies. At the end of the year, William, always -clear-sighted and often a pessimist, in spite of his unbending -determination, wrote to Heinsius "I have to tell you frankly -that, if we could obtain peace just now—which certainly would -not be on favorable terms—we should yet have to accept it; for, -to my grief, I don't see that we have anything better to -expect—far from it, for things go from bad to worse. It will -not, for that reason, be less needful for one to do his best; and -for my part, I will do everything in my power." -</p><p> -The war was to continue several years more, pressing heavily on -England and Holland, which almost alone were in a condition to -furnish pecuniary resources to the allies. The English Houses of -Parliament, sometimes lavish and sometimes penurious, always -extremely touchy about the position of foreigners in the King's -service, often disputed with William the reinforcements of men -and moneys which he demanded for the army; thus arousing the -wrath and distrust with which parliamentary debates and -dissensions inspired him. He had with great difficulty kept in -power Lord Nottingham, who was vigorously attacked by the Whigs, -and in whom he had a just confidence, in spite of the repugnance -which the earl had at first shown to the revolution. On the other -hand, Somers had been entrusted with the seals, and this partial -return of power into the hands of the Whigs had momentarily -calmed the dissensions of the parties. Yet the session had been -much agitated: the land tax and a large loan had been voted on -the motion of Charles Montague. The King was gloomy and -pre-occupied with the campaign which was about to open. "At a -juncture when we ought to be able to make an extraordinary effort -on all sides to resist the enemy," wrote he to Heinsius at the -beginning of 1693, "it tries me not to be able to contribute more -to the general cause. It is distressing to see that this nation -only thinks of indulging its private passions, without reflecting -the least on the general interests. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52">{52}</a></span> -The funds which Parliament has allowed me will not cover the -necessary expenses I have to incur, so that I find myself in a -very embarrassing condition. I leave you to imagine how much -this, joined to the critical state of our affairs, and my -inability to supply a remedy therefor, must torment me." -</p><p> -France was much more exhausted than England; and the losses which -Tourville, Jean Bart or Duguay-Trouin caused English commerce to -endure, did not prevent money flowing to London for the new loan. -Yet the strong will of Louis XIV. and the effective action of a -central power, had sufficed to continue the war during nearly the -whole winter. On the 25th of July, 1693, the battle of Neerwinden -was lost by King William in person to the Marshal de Luxembourg. -Almost invariably unlucky in war, notwithstanding his conspicuous -bravery, he charged sword in hand at the head of two regiments of -English cavalry, which made the enemy give way, till they came to -the household guard of the king. This select corps had remained -motionless for four hours under the fire of the allies. William -believed at one time that his gunners were aiming badly, and -hastened to the batteries; the French squadrons were moving only -to close their ranks as the files were carried off. The King of -England uttered an exclamation of rage and admiration: "Oh, the -insolent nation!" he cried. The admiration was mutual. "The -Prince of Orange was near being taken after having done wonders," -wrote Racine to Boileau. "It is painful for me to tell you," -William informed Heinsius, "that the enemy attacked us yesterday -morning, and that, after an obstinate contest, we have been -defeated. We march to-morrow to encamp between Vilvorde and -Malines, to rally our forces there and impede the plans of the -enemy as far as possible." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53">{53}</a></span> -<p> -Luxembourg was ill and soon afterwards died. The victory of -Neerwinden brought little advantage to France. The same was the -case in Italy with the success of Catinat at Marsala: the Duke of -Schomberg, eldest son of the Marshal, charged there at the head -of the troops paid by England. "Things have come to such a pass -that it is necessary to conquer or to die," he had said, as he -threw himself into the <i>mêlee</i>. This was his master's -advice. "The crisis has been terrible," wrote the latter to -Heinsius and to Portland. "God has judged it right to send me -great trials in succession: I try to accept His will without -murmuring and to deserve his anger less. God be praised for the -issue he has granted us, and may we be able by our gratitude -worthily to requite his mercy!" The strife of parties in -Parliament involved, as usual, the grant of the subsidies on -which the military preparations depended. "The increase of the -army meets with violent opposition here," wrote William on the -4th of December; "yet I am led to hope that finally everything -will turn out as I desire. May God will it!" -</p><p> -Power was passing away from the Tories. Lord Sunderland, who had -lately emerged from his retreat, still able and engaging after -his treason and shame, advised William to recall the Whigs. The -king had been wearied by their arrogance and tyranny; yet he -agreed to place Admiral Russell at the head of the Admiralty and -to make Lord Shrewsbury Secretary of State. The latter hesitated -long before accepting. He began to excuse himself before the -king, pleading his ill-health. "That is not your only reason," -said William; "when have you seen Montgomery?" This clever and -enterprising Scot, formerly leader of the Parliament in -Edinborough, had fallen into disfavor and was serving as agent in -the Jacobite intrigues. Shrewsbury grew pale, and William -repeated to him a part of his conversation with Montgomery. -"Sire," said the earl, "since your Majesty is so well informed, -you ought to know that I have not encouraged the attempts of this -man to detach me from my allegiance." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54">{54}</a></span> -<p> -The king smiled; he knew the strange weakness that weighed like -an enchantment on Lord Shrewsbury's noblest qualities. "The best -way to silence suspicions," he said, "is to take office. That -will put me at my ease: I know that you are a man of honor, and -that if you undertake to serve me, you will do so faithfully." -Shrewsbury was soon made a duke, at the same time with the Earls -of Bedford and Devonshire. Charles Montague, who had lately -conceived the idea of a Bank of England, and helped to establish -it, was named Chancellor of the Exchequer. Measures new, or -renewed with persistency, were violently debated. The bill of -procedure in trials for treason, the bill of disqualifications or -of appointments, which interdicted the House of Commons to -office-holders, and finally the often debated question of the -length of Parliaments, which it was wished to limit to three -years; such were the preliminary movements in parliamentary -reform which delayed William's departure for the Continent. "It -is a dreadful thing to be upon this island, as it were banished -from the world," wrote the King of England. Some days later he -arrived in Holland. -</p><p> -A great naval expedition was being secretly prepared at -Portsmouth, intended to thwart the designs of Louis XIV. on the -Mediterranean. Marlborough, always well informed, had warned King -James of it. "Twelve regiments of infantry and two of marines are -soon to embark, under command of Talmash, to destroy the port of -Brest and the squadron which is collected there. It would be a -great success for England, but nothing shall ever prevent me from -letting you know what may be useful to you. I have been trying -for a long time to learn this from Russell, but he has always -denied it, though he has been informed of it more than six weeks. -This gives me a bad opinion of the man's intentions." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55">{55}</a></span> -<p> -On the 16th of June, 1694, the English fleet was fifteen leagues -west of Cape Finisterre. Talmash proposed to disembark in the Bay -of Cadsant. Lord Caermarthen, eldest son of the statesman lately -made Duke of Leeds, undertook to explore the bay in his yacht. He -found the approaches well defended. Talmash was resolved to -attack. Caermarthen advanced, first signalling to Admiral -Berkeley the difficulties which he met. Batteries were suddenly -unmasked and swept the decks. Talmash was convinced that the -coast was defended by peasants who would fly at the sight of the -English soldiers: a well sustained fire replied to their attempts -to land. The general was severely wounded in the thigh as he was -being carried to his launch; the troops re-entered their boats -pell-mell. The enterprise was a failure; the fleet had to return -to Portsmouth. Talmash died on his arrival, declaring aloud that -he had been drawn into a trap by traitors. The outwork whence the -fatal bullet came is called, to this day, <i>The Englishman's -Death</i>. -</p><p> -The rage and uneasiness in England were great: people said aloud -that English forces ought to be commanded by Englishmen. Talmash -was dead, and Marlborough ought not to remain longer in disgrace -with the king. All the maneuvres and all the treacheries of the -earl aimed at this. He had the audacity to present himself at -Whitehall to offer his services to the queen. Lord Shrewsbury -exerted himself to have the offer accepted; King William -absolutely refused it. The English squadron was ravaging the -coast of Normandy; Admiral Russell was keeping the fleets of -Louis XIV. in check in the Mediterranean. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56">{56}</a></span> -The campaign in the Netherlands was passed in skilful marches and -counter-marches, accompanied by some trifling advantages for King -William, who captured Huy. When he returned to England, on the -9th of November, the queen was waiting for him at Margate, happy -at meeting the man who was the only joy of her life. "Now that -you have the king, don't let him go away again, madame," cried -the assembled women, as the royal couple passed. She was to be -the first to go away, and death was threatening her already. -</p><p> -Before Queen Mary, Tillotson, archbishop of Canterbury, fell sick -and died, towards the middle of November. He had rendered the -Church of England the great service of throwing the weight of his -character and eloquence on the side of submission to the new -power, by frankly and simply accepting the oaths of allegiance. -He had been strongly urged to do so by Lady Russell. "The time -seems to me to have come," she had written to him, in 1691, "to -put in practice anew that principle of submission which you have -formerly asserted so much yourself and recommended so much to -others. You will be a true public benefactor, I am convinced. -Reflect how few capable and upright men the present time -produces, I beg you, and do not turn your resolution over -endlessly in your mind: when one has considered a question in all -its aspects, one only succeeds, by returning incessantly to it, -in throwing oneself into new difficulties without seeing any the -clearer into the matter." -</p><p> -Sancroft having obstinately refused the oath, Tillotson had -become Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1691, to the great disgust of -Compton, Bishop of London, who had hoped for the primate's see. -Henceforward, the nonjuring bishops and clergy loaded Tillotson -with their wrath and contempt. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57">{57}</a></span> -Gentle, sensitive, used to the admiration aroused by his -eloquence and the esteem for his irreproachable life, the new -archbishop suffered cruelly from the injuries of which he was the -object. When he died there was found among his papers a packet of -pamphlets published against him, with this phrase in his -handwriting: "I pray God to pardon them; I pardon them." "I have -lost the best friend I have ever had, and the best man I have -ever known," wrote William to Heinsius. He loaded the widow with -favors. Such was the popularity of the archbishop as a preacher, -that the publisher of his sermons bought their ownership at the -price of; £2,500, a sum unheard of at that period. Milton had -sold the manuscript of the "Paradise Lost" for five pounds -sterling, and Dryden, at that time the most illustrious of -English poets, had received £1300 for his translation of Virgil's -complete works. -</p><p> -A more poignant grief was about to strike William. He had come to -Whitehall to give his assent to the bill for Triennial -Parliaments, which he had once objected to. The many members of -the two Houses who pressed into the hall of sessions found the -King's face changed and his mood gloomy. He hastened to return to -Kensington. The report spread that the queen was ill, and it was -soon known that she had the small-pox. -</p><p> -As soon as Mary had reason to think herself stricken by the -scourge which desolated households every year, she had ordered -that all persons of her retinue who had not yet had the disease -should leave Kensington; then, shutting herself up in her study, -she had put her papers in order, burning a portion of them -herself. "I have not waited for this day to prepare myself for -death," she said, when the disease left her no more hope. The -grief of her husband exceeded all anticipations, astonishing even -those who had been constant witnesses of the absolute devotion of -the queen. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58">{58}</a></span> -He did not leave her for a single instant, sleeping beside her -bed and rendering her the tenderest cares. Mary had triumphed -over that stern heart which neither victories nor defeats had -ever been able to disturb. He could not keep in his tears, when -he looked at her. When Tenison, the new Archbishop of Canterbury, -had undertaken to announce her approaching end to the queen, -William drew Burnet into a corner of the room. "There is no more -hope," he said; "I was the happiest of men—I am the most -miserable. She had no faults, not one; you knew her well, but you -do not know, no one can know, her worth." Twice the dying woman -wished to bid good-bye to him whom she had loved alone, and twice -her voice failed her: she now thought only of eternity. Several -times William had been seized with convulsions: when they bore -him from the queen's chamber just before she breathed her last -sigh, he had almost lost consciousness. -</p><p> -Mary died at thirty-two, lamented by all who had known her. "So -charitable," says Evelyn, "that in the midst of the most violent -political strifes, she never inquired into the views of those who -asked her aid;" gentle and kind to all, often attracting censure -through the fullness of her wifely devotion, which seemed to have -absorbed all other affections in her soul—the only sort of -tenderness that could have satisfied the reserved and proud heart -of the prince her husband. She had welcomed, during her illness, -the advances of her sister. When she had shut her eyes, the -Princess Anne sent to ask her brother-in-law permission to see -him. Somers offered to mediate between the princess and the king. -He found William in his study, his head between his hands, -absorbed in grief; he represented to him the necessity of putting -an end to a family quarrel, of which the political consequences -might become grave. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59">{59}</a></span> -"Do what you wish, my lord," replied the king; "I cannot think -about anything." Yet the interview that was asked for took place. -William assigned the palace of St. James to the princess for her -residence. At the same time he sent her her sister's jewels; but -he kept his resolution about the Earl of Marlborough. The -princess's favorites were not admitted to the presence of the -king, and the general remained excluded from every honorable or -lucrative post. Yet Mary's death had changed all the views of -Marlborough: a single life, precarious by nature, shaken by -fatigues and cares, now stood in the way of the greatness of -Princess Anne, and the supreme exaltation of her all-powerful -adherents. The earl and his wife no longer retained their regard -for the fallen monarch; they no longer admitted the legitimacy of -the Prince of Wales. They patiently awaited the day of triumph; -other more guilty hands were going to undertake to hasten it. -</p><p> -For some days William had seemed incapable of taking part in -public affairs. "I thank you with all my heart for your -kindness," he had replied to the condolences of the houses, "but -still more for your so well appreciating our great loss: it -exceeds everything that I could express, and I am not in a -condition to think of anything else." He had written to Heinsius: -"I tell you in confidence, I feel myself no longer capable of -commanding the troops. Yet I shall try to do my duty, and I hope -God will give me strength for it." The charges of corruption -preferred before the houses against several prominent Tories, -first roused him from his dejection. The great corporations of -the city of London and the East India Company were convicted of -having frequently bought the influence of the ministers. The -Speaker of the House of Commons, Sir John Trevor, was the first -condemned. The charges brought against the Duke of Leeds were -grave. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60">{60}</a></span> -The witnesses had disappeared; the charge fell through; but -public rage and indignation pronounced his sentence. He was -forever lost to political life. When William set out for the -Continent, on the 12th of May, 1695, the name of the Duke of -Leeds had been erased from the roll of the Council entrusted -henceforth with the government in the king's absence. The -intelligent, firm and devoted woman, who formerly governed wisely -in his name, and willingly surrendered the power into his hands, -was no more. William rejected all the hints that were given him -to replace her by the Princess Anne. -</p><p> -The Marshal Luxembourg had died on the 4th of January, 1695, and -Louis XIV. had put at the head of his armies Marshal Villeroi, a -life-long friend of his, a clever courtier, a mediocre officer, -who soon lost the prestige of victory which had been so long and -resolutely maintained for France by so many triumphant hands. -</p><p> -The results of this change was soon apparent. In vain did Marshal -Boufflers shut himself up in Namur and defend it heroically, till -he finally retired into the citadel, were he held out more than a -month longer; the place was not relieved in time by Villeroi, who -was embarrassed in his movements by the presence and the -cowardice of the Duke of Maine. William III. personally conducted -the siege, and was constantly present at the trenches, giving his -commands in a rain of bullets with a coolness which sometimes -made the bystanders underrate the danger in which he was. Mr. -Godfrey, an envoy from the Bank of England, had come to ask him -for certain instructions. He ventured beneath the walls of Namur -during an assault. "What are you doing here, Mr. Godfrey?" said -the king roughly. "You are running great risk, and you cannot be -of any use to us."—"I am not more in danger than your Majesty," -replied the banker. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61">{61}</a></span> -"You are mistaken." answered William; "I am where my duty calls -me; I can therefore, without presumption, put my life in the -hands of God; but you"—As he spoke these words, a ball struck -the unfortunate Godfrey, who fell dead at his feet. William never -willingly permitted civilians in his army. The brave Walker, -formerly the defender of Derry, and whom he had raised to the -rank of bishop, was killed not far from him at the battle of the -Boyne: "What took him there?" growled the king, on learning the -news of his death. It was said among his soldiers that he had -been obliged to use the rod to make curious persons withdraw out -of range of the cannons. -</p><p> -At last Namur capitulated, the citadel as well as the town. All -the honors of war were granted to Marshal Boufflers, whom Louis -XIV. loaded with his favors. "I am very unfortunate," said King -William, "to have always to envy the lot of a monarch who rewards -the loss of a place more liberally than I can reward my friends -and followers who have conquered one." On the 10th of October he -set sail for England, determined to dissolve Parliament. The new -houses were convoked for the 22nd of November. -</p><p> -William's return to his kingdom was marked by a genuine triumph: -the elections were favorable to him almost everywhere, and the -difficulties that had been raised by a bill for the reminting of -coins, which were then seriously depreciated, had just been -surmounted. But a disagreement was already springing up between -the king and Parliament in relation to the gifts with which he -had loaded his Dutch friends. Following the example of Charles -II. and James II., William had detached from the possessions of -the crown certain rich domains with which he had recompensed his -faithful servants, notably Bentwick. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62">{62}</a></span> -He had just assigned to him a considerable estate in Wales, over -which the crown possessed sovereign rights, which were comprised -in the cession made to Portland. The country and the House of -Commons demanded the retrocession of these rights in a petition -bitterly stamped with the jealousy with which the favors enjoyed -by the Dutch inspired the English nation. William was hurt by it; -but with that moderation and justice which counterbalanced the -reserve of his character and his lack of ductility, he replied to -the petitioners: "I have an affection for Lord Portland, which he -has deserved by his long and faithful services. If I had believed -that the house would have to be consulted in this gift, I should -not have made it; I shall recall my letters patent and shall give -him an equivalent elsewhere." The estates conferred upon Bentinck -were scattered in distant parts of the country. "They shall not -say that I want to create a princedom for Lord Portland," said -the king. -</p><p> -Domestic quarrels, as well as the jealousies aroused in England -by the formation of a Scotch commercial company, whose rivalry -the English merchants feared, were soon to be stilled in presence -of a great national commotion. Rumors of invasion began to -circulate anew. With the hopes of foreign aid, the intrigues of -the Jacobites had caught a fresh enthusiasm. The Duke of Berwick -had been commissioned to excite the zeal of King James's friends, -who had secretly arrived in England, and was visited mysteriously -by the leaders of the Jacobite party. The Duke was not ignorant -of the more dangerous and less honorable mission that had been -entrusted to Sir George Barclay. The latter had already united at -London a certain number of partisans, ready for any enterprise; -he was bearer of a commission written entirely in King James's -hand, authorizing him to execute, at a proper time, against the -Prince of Orange and his adherents, all acts of hostility which -might be serviceable to his Majesty. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63">{63}</a></span> -The act of hostility which Sir George Barclay and his accomplices -were preparing was none other than an attempt to assassinate. The -15th of February, 1696, had been fixed for its execution. Certain -men, ruined by the revolution, recently converted to Catholicism -by personal ambition, Charnock, Porter, Goodman, had long ago -been admitted into the conspiracy; and Sir William Parkyn was not -ignorant of it, though he had taken the oath of allegiance to -William to save the office which he held in the Court of -Chancery. Sir John Fenwick, an insolent Jacobite, who had once -insulted Queen Mary in the park, had, it was said, refused to -take part in the criminal attempt; yet he held the secret of the -conspirators which was soon to cost him his life. A certain -number of King James's guards had arrived successively in London -to reinforce this little band of assassins. The Duke of Berwick -had returned to France, anxious to avoid all appearance of -complicity. The English Jacobites refused to attempt a rising -without the aid of a foreign invasion. King Louis XIV. was -beginning to grow weary of the ineffectual efforts he had so -generously lavished in aid of King James. The latter had met -Berwick at Clermont. "After having learned from him the state of -things in England, and the reasons which had made him return so -hastily, his Majesty sent him to the King of France and continued -his route to Calais. He always hoped that some event would give -him the opportunity of demanding that the troops should be -embarked without further delay, and it was for this reason that -he continued his journey to Calais; but he had no sooner arrived -there than, with his usual luck, he found all his hopes blighted. -He learned that several gentlemen had been arrested for an -attempt against the life of the Prince of Orange, and that this -had raised such an excitement throughout the kingdom that there -was no possibility of the Jacobites thinking of a revolt, still -less of the king's thinking of a landing, even had the French -desired it." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64">{64}</a></span> -<p> -This event, which King James awaited at Calais, and on which he -counted for the success of his projects, had been delayed from -day to day by a series of mischances usual in conspiracies, but -which never opened the eyes of the conspirators. On the 15th, the -king's hunt, during which the forty plotters were to throw -themselves upon him, had been put off, under pretext that the -weather was stormy and cold. On the 21st all the accomplices met -again in a tavern: their posts were assigned, their rôles were -distributed. Eight men were to be armed with fire-arms, the -others had sharpened their swords. "Tomorrow," they cried, "we -shall be masters of the situation." "Don't be afraid to break the -windows of the carriage, Mr. Pendergrass," said King to one of -the other conspirators, to whom a musket had been assigned. -Suddenly a sentinel, who had been sent out to reconnoitre, -appeared at the door, pale and alarmed. "The king does not hunt -to-morrow," he said; "the carriages have been countermanded; the -guards who were sent to Richmond have returned at a gallop—their -horses are covered with foam." The conspirators dispersed, and -the most enthusiastic were already projecting new ambuscades. The -next day before noon almost all of them were arrested; the -population of London, suddenly moved, had lent the police -thousands of eyes and ears, eager to discover the guilty. The -remorse of three conspirators successively had revealed the plot -to the Duke of Portland. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65">{65}</a></span> -<p> -The first of all had been Pendergrass, an honorable and respected -Catholic, but instinctively revolting at the idea of -assassination. "My lord," he had said to Portland, "if you value -the life of King William, don't let him go to the hunt to-morrow. -He is the enemy of my religion, but it is my religion which -obliges me to give you this warning. I am resolved to conceal the -names of the conspirators." The revelations of the others were -more complete. The king was unwilling to put confidence in them; -he had Pendergrass summoned before him. "You are a man of honor," -he said to him, "and I am grateful to you. But the integrity -which has made you speak ought to oblige you to tell me something -more. Your warning has sufficed to poison my existence by making -me suspect all those who approach me; it will not be enough to -protect me. Give me the names of the conspirators." Pendergrass -yielded, on condition that they would make no use of his -revelations against the persons named without his formal consent. -On Sunday morning the guards and militia were under arms; the -lords-lieutenant of the coast had set out for their respective -districts. Orders were given the Lord Mayor to watch over the -safety of the capital. At Calais King James looked in vain in the -direction of England; the flames that were to announce the -success of the enterprise were not kindled. -</p><p> -The excitement was deep: people realized the danger that had -menaced the state in threatening the life of the prince. The -House suspended the habeas corpus act; they declared that -Parliament would not be dissolved on the death of the king. At -the same time it was proposed to form an association for the -defence of the king and country. The agreement, drawn up by -Montague, was soon laid upon the table of the house; a crowd of -members pressed forward to sign it. A slight modification of the -terms satisfied the scruples of some Tory peers. A great number -of the House of Lords signed it. Throughout the country people -followed their example. William had never been so popular, his -throne had never rested on a more solid basis than on the morrow -of the guilty project formed against his life. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66">{66}</a></span> -When Charnock, one of the conspirators, offered to reveal the -names of those who had sent him to Saint Germain, "I want to know -none of them," said the king to the overtures of the miserable -man. The latter, with seven of his accomplices, perished by the -hand of the executioner. -</p><p> -King William was soon constrained to receive the denunciations he -had at first rejected. During his absence on the continent, while -military operations remained nearly inactive, while the Duke of -Savoy withdrew from the coalition, and while overtures of peace -were coming to the king, he learned that Sir John Fenwick had -been arrested. Some days later the Duke of Devonshire sent him -the confession of the prisoner. Silent about the Jacobite plots -in which he had taken part, Fenwick accused of treason -Marlborough, Godolphin, Russell and Shrewsbury, all engaged in -the service and interests of King James. -</p><p> -William III. had known this for a long time. Marlborough alone -had gone beyond bounds, and the king had taken away all his -offices, while keeping silent about the causes of his disgrace. -Godolphin, Russell and Shrewsbury were still in power; the last -two counted among the leaders of the Whigs. The stratagem of the -accused was clever: he had purposed to throw confusion into all -camps and suspicion upon all the parties; but the masterly -magnanimity of William upset his projects. William sent Fenwick's -confession to Shrewsbury himself. "I am surprised," he wrote, "at -the wretch's effrontery. You know me too well to suppose that -such stories can affect me. Observe the sincerity of this -honorable man: he has nothing to tell me of the schemes of his -Jacobite friends, he only attacks my own friends." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67">{67}</a></span> -<p> -Fenwick was soon brought before a jury. He was allied to powerful -families: his wife, Lady Mary, was the Earl of Carlisle's sister. -All means were employed to save him: the witnesses who could -testify against him were bought and disappeared. He escaped at -the ordinary trial. The Whigs demanded a bill of attainder -against him. Admiral Russell rose in his place, boldly claiming -justice for Lord Shrewsbury as well as for himself. "If we are -innocent, acquit us; if we are guilty, punish us as we deserve. I -surrender myself to the justice of my country, and am ready to -live or die according to your sentence." -</p><p> -The discussion was long and violent; the terrible weapon of -attainder was repugnant to many honest consciences, and political -and personal passions were enlisted in the struggle. Fenwick's -guilt was patent to all; the right of his judges to condemn him -was more doubtful. Sentence was nevertheless pronounced, and Sir -John was executed at Tower Hill, on the 28th of January, 1697. -</p><p> -Godolphin had sent in his verification as First Lord of the -Treasury; all the kindness and the assurances of William had not -availed to make Shrewsbury reappear at court. Sunderland had -quietly resumed power, more despised by the nation than by the -king. With few exceptions, William was wont to distrust all those -who surrounded him, while acting as if they deserved his -confidence. Clear-sighted and severe in his opinions, he was -indulgent in his conduct; his magnanimity was somewhat mingled -with contempt. Henceforth power was in the hands of the Whigs, -strongly organized as a party and forming a firm and homogeneous -ministry. The financial crisis was passing away; England was -issuing triumphant from revolution, plots, and commercial -embarrassments. She was speedily about to enjoy the benefits of a -transient peace, whose preliminaries were already being discussed -at Ryswick. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68">{68}</a></span> -<p> -France offered the restoration of Strasburg, Luxembourg, Mons, -Charleroi and Dinant, and the re-establishment of the House of -Lorraine, on the conditions proposed at Nimeguen and the -recognition of the King of England. "We have no equivalent to -claim," the French plenipotentiaries said, proudly; "your masters -have never taken anything from ours." -</p><p> -The exhaustion of France drew from Louis XIV. conditions that -were repugnant to his pride; the good sense and great judgment of -William III. had made him desire peace for a long time. Private -conferences took place between Marshal Boufflers and the Duke of -Portland, full of expressions of regard from one plenipotentiary -to the other, and not without mutual good will between the two -sovereigns. The taking of Barcelona by the Duc de Vendôme, led -Spain to think of peace; but the King of France withdrew his -offer of Strasburg, offering in exchange Brisach and Fribourg in -Briesgau. Louis had refused to dismiss King James from France; -the latter was not even named in the treaty. "That would not be -to my honor," the monarch had said; "I will recognize King -William, and engage not to assist his enemies directly or -indirectly." Portland had offered a clause of reciprocity. "All -Europe has confidence enough in the obedience and submission of -my people," proudly replied Louis, "and knows that when it -pleases me to prevent my subjects from aiding King James, there -is no reason to fear that he may find any support in my kingdom. -The reciprocity cannot be; I have to fear neither sedition nor -faction." The peace was signed on the night of the 20th of -September, 1697, between France, England, the States-General, and -Spain. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69">{69}</a></span> -<p> -The Grand Pensioner at once wrote the news to William, who had -retired to his castle of Loo. "May the Almighty bless the peace," -answered the king, "and in his mercy permit us long to enjoy it! -I do not deny that the way in which it has been concluded makes -me uneasy for the future. You cannot be sufficiently thanked for -the care and pains you have freely taken in connection with it." -The work was not completed. The emperor aimed at settling in -advance the question of the Spanish succession, ever ready to be -opened by the feeble health of King Charles II., who had no -children. The Protestant princes refused to accept the -maintenance of Catholic worship in all those places where Louis -XIV. had re-established it "Your letter of yesterday has been -sent me to-day," wrote William to Heinsius, on the 31st of -October, "and I am extremely puzzled to give a positive answer to -it in writing. It would certainly be our duty to continue the war -rather than to make any concessions to the prejudice of the -reformed religion; and if these gentlemen of Amsterdam, and -consequently the republic, wish to remain firm, I should gladly -do so likewise, in the hope that Parliament would aid me in -fulfilling so pious a duty. On the other hand, I must admit that -I do not see, humanly speaking, how the Protestant states and -princes could actually oppose the Catholic powers, seeing that we -would be acting without Sweden, Denmark and the Swiss Cantons, -and that we are now deprived of Saxony. I am extremely uneasy at -the idea that the ministers of the Protestant princes should be -the only ones to refuse to sign; for that might seriously injure -them later, considering that we might not be soon enough in a -condition to assist them or to prevent the injury that France -would certainly do them. I send by this courier orders to my -ambassadors to act in entire unison with those of the republic. -So, if you think you can show firmness, they will do so -likewise." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70">{70}</a></span> -<p> -These same Protestant princes, who did not wish to allow the -practice of Catholic worship in their states, had formerly -inserted in the compacts of the Grand Alliance that peace would -never be concluded with France unless religious liberty should be -restored to French Lutherans. The tolerant wisdom of William III. -and the obstinacy of Louis XIV. finally secured the practice of -their worship to the German Catholics, without assuring the same -tolerance for the persecuted Huguenots. "These are things which -concern me alone, and I cannot discuss them with anybody," said -the absolute monarch. Peace was definitively signed on the 31st -of October, 1697. The King of England had used strong pressure -upon the emperor. "I want to hear," said William, "where any -chance is visible of making France renounce a succession for -which she would sustain, at need, a war of more than twenty -years; and God knows we are not in a position to be able to -pretend to dictate laws to France." William was soon to -experience himself the futility of diplomatic negotiations in -face of a complicated crisis; but he secured some moments' rest -to Europe by using his legitimate influence over the souls of -men, in the interests of peace. "The Prince of Orange is the -arbiter of Europe," Pope Innocent XII. had observed to Lord -Perth, entrusted by King James with a mission to him; "kings and -peoples are his slaves: they will do nothing that may displease -him." And striking with his hand on the table, the Pope -exclaimed: "If God, in His omnipotence, does not come to our aid, -we are lost." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71">{71}</a></span> -<p> -King James considered his cause desperate. "The confederates -remained allied to the usurper they had aided to ascend the -throne," he wrote in his Memoirs, "and his very Christian Majesty -himself so desired peace that he forgot his first resolutions and -recognized him as King of England, like the rest. His Majesty, -then, had no longer aught to do, but to protest publicly and -formally against every compact or agreement made to his -disadvantage or without his participation, in whatever manner it -might be made." James II. had not foreseen into what blunders -royal pride and a mistaken generosity toward his son would lead -King Louis, or what misfortunes this mistake would bring upon -France. -</p><p> -The joy was great in England. When King William made his entry -into London, on the 16th of November, an immense crowd blocked -the streets, making the air resound with its shouts. "I have -never seen so large a concourse of well-dressed people," wrote -William, next day, to his friend Heinsius; "you cannot imagine -the satisfaction which prevails here on account of the -re-establishment of peace." -</p><p> -The public rest and prosperity, founded on the liberties of the -nation, the defeat of domestic enemies and the check at last -imposed upon the continual successes of the great foe of European -peace, plots strangled, religious dissensions pacified, and the -king, who had procured all these benefits for his adopted -country, placed, by general consent, at the head of the great -continental coalition—such were the legitimate causes of the -satisfaction of England. William III. rejoiced with it, but not -without fears and forebodings. "I trust to God," he had said, -some months earlier, "that the news they have told you about the -death of the King of Spain and the proclamation of his heir will -not be confirmed; otherwise everything will relapse into the most -inextricable confusion, and every hope of peace will vanish." -Charles II. was still living, but was on the brink of death, and -the question of the succession remained unsettled. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72">{72}</a></span> -<p> -This was not the first time that the King of England painfully -experienced the inconveniences of a free government: the nation -did not share the uneasiness with which the future inspired him, -and the first care of Parliament was to propose the reduction of -the army. The adroitness of the ministers secured the maintenance -of more considerable forces than had been at first desired; but -this was at the price of Lord Sunderland's resignation, whose -courage did not rise to the height of the tempest excited against -him. -</p><p> -The new elections introduced into Parliament a fluctuating set of -men, numerous, ignorant, free from all party engagements, but -deeply imbued with the popular prejudices against standing armies -and foreigners. Assured of the continuation of peace by the -apportioning treaty which had just been signed at Loo, on the 4th -of September, the Commons replied to the speech from the throne -which recommended the increase of the military forces by a vote -reducing the army to seven thousand men, all of English birth and -race. The motion had been made by Robert Harley, who, though -still young, had already been placed at the head of the -opposition by his Parliamentary talents. "We could have obtained -ten thousand men," the minister had said, "but his Majesty -replied that such a number would amount to disbanding the army." -</p><p> -"I apprehend trouble." William had written to Heinsius on the 4th -of September, 1698, "for I cannot suffer them to disband the -greater part of the army; and the members of Parliament are -imbued with such mistaken opinions that one can hardly form an -idea of them." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73">{73}</a></span> -<p> -The king's anger and indignation were extreme. His foresight as a -politician, his experience as a general, his pride as a Dutchman, -were equally offended. A disarmament was forced upon him in -presence of the European complications which he presaged; he was -being deprived of countrymen whose faith he had tested, and of -the valor of heroic Huguenot refugees to whom he had given a -country. He was tired of struggling against prejudices which he -had succeeded sometimes in lulling to sleep, never in subduing; -he was wounded in his patriotism and in the deep sense of the -services he had rendered to the ungrateful nation which trampled -upon his counsels and desires. He determined to lay down the -burden that he had carried for so many years. A hope of rest -among his devoted friends, in his native country, diminished in -his eyes the charms of the great power and supreme rank which he -had enjoyed. He wrote to Heinsius on the 30th of December: "I am -so grieved at the conduct of the House of Commons in regard to -the troops, that I cannot attend to anything else. I foresee that -I shall have to come to an extreme resolution, and that I shall -see you in Holland sooner than I had thought." And on the 6th of -January, he wrote: "Affairs in Parliament are in a desperate -state; so much so that I foresee that, in a short time, I shall -be forced to a step which will create a great sensation in the -world." When he was speaking thus confidentially to his most -faithful friend, William III. had already written the draught of -a speech which he purposed delivering before the two houses, -announcing to them his intention of retiring to Holland for the -future: -</p> -<p class="cite"> - "My lords and gentlemen, I have come into this kingdom at the - desire of this nation, to save it from ruin, to preserve your - religion, your laws and liberties. To this end I have been - obliged to undergo a war long and very burdensome to this - kingdom, which war, by the grace of God and the valor of the - nation, is now terminated by a favorable peace, in which you - would be able to live in prosperity and rest if you were - willing to contribute to your own safety, as I had recommended - you at the opening of this session. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74">{74}</a></span> - But I see, on the contrary, that you have so little regard for - my advice, and take so little care of your safety, and so - expose yourselves to apparent ruin, depriving yourselves of the - sole and only means which could serve for your defence, that it - would not be fair that I should be a witness of your - destruction, not being able on my part to do aught to avoid it, - being helpless to defend and protect you, which was the only - desire I had in coming to this country. Accordingly I have to - request you to choose and name to me such persons as you may - judge capable, to whom I can leave the administration of the - government in my absence, assuring you that, though I am now - constrained to retire from the kingdom, I shall always retain - the same desire for its honor and prosperity. That, when I may - judge my presence here necessary for your defence, and may - decide that I can undertake it with success, I shall then - perforce return and risk my life for your safety, as I have - done in the past, praying God to bless all your deliberations - and to inspire you with all that is needful for the welfare and - security of the kingdom." -</p><p> -The king communicated his design to Somers. The abdication, -temporary or permanent, drew from the chancellor a cry of -surprise and anger. "It is folly, sire," he said. "I entreat your -Majesty, for the honor of your name, to repeat to no one what you -have just said to me." -</p><p> -William listened patiently to the representations of his -ministers, but persisted in his design. Somers soon learned that -the speech was known to Marlborough, recently restored to the -king's favor, thanks to the influence of a young Dutch favorite, -Keppel, created Earl of Albemarle. "We shall not come to an -understanding, my lord; my resolution is taken," said William of -Orange. Somers rose. "Excuse me, your Majesty, if I do not -consent to seal the fatal act that you meditate. I have received -the seals from my king, and I beg him to take them back, while he -still is my king." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75">{75}</a></span> -<p> -The representations of Somers had had the effect of staying the -first movement of the king's wrath. He reflected, and reflection -triumphed, not over the discontent, but over the impetuosity of -an obstinate character and over a proud soul justly irritated. -The bill for the reduction of the army had been voted by the -Lords with regret, and with the sole object of avoiding a -conflict between the two Houses. It was presented for the royal -assent. William went to Parliament on the 1st of February, 1699. -"I am come to give my assent to the bill for the disbanding of -the army," said he, and his aspect had never seemed calmer. -"Although it seems to me very perilous, under existing -circumstances, to disband so large a number of troops, and though -I might find myself unfairly treated by the dismissal of the -guards who accompanied me into this country, and have served me -in all the actions in which I have been engaged, yet it is my -fixed opinion that nothing can be so fatal to us as the -disagreement or distrust that might creep in between me and my -people. I should not have expected as much, after what I have -undertaken, ventured, and accomplished to restore and secure your -liberties to you. I have told you distinctly the only motive that -decided me to accept the bill; but I think myself obliged to earn -the confidence you have shown in me, and for my own justification -in the future, to inform you that I regard the protection which -you leave the nation as very inadequate. It is for you to weigh -this question seriously, and to provide effectively for the -forces requisite to the security of the country and the -preservation of the peace which God has granted to us." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76">{76}</a></span> -<p> -William made another effort, more affecting than clever, to keep -his Dutch guards. "I made a last attempt," he wrote to Heinsius, -"in the hope that out of deference for my person they might have -consented to retain my blue companies; but this step produced an -entirely contrary effect, for they resolved to present to me a -very impertinent address. These regiments, then, will embark in -the course of this week." And some time after he wrote to Lord -Galway, formerly Marquis de Ruvigny, chief of the Protestant -refugees, but henceforth without any command: "I have not written -to you this winter on account of the displeasure I experienced at -what passed in Parliament, and at the incertitude in which I was. -It is not possible to be more poignantly touched than I am at not -being able to do more for the poor refugee officers, who have -served me with so much zeal and fidelity. I fear that God may -punish this nation for its ingratitude." -</p><p> -The day was already approaching when England was to regret an -inconsiderate haste. The young son of the Elector of Bavaria, -lately adopted by Charles II., King of Spain, had just died -suddenly at Madrid. This death revived the question of the -Spanish succession, formerly settled by a treaty of division -negotiated at Versailles by the Duke of Portland. Bentinck had -been sent to France at the beginning of 1698: he had entered -Paris on the 27th of February, in the most magnificent style. For -ten years England had not been officially represented at the -court of France, and William was of opinion that he ought to -abandon the simplicity of his habits. "Not being conversant with -ceremony, I have supplemented the deficiency by bluster, which is -not without its use here," wrote Portland to his sovereign. "Is -it not the master of this ambassador that we have burnt on this -same bridge, not long ago?" was said in a Parisian crowd, which -was looking at Portland's cortége crossing the Pont-Neuf. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77">{77}</a></span> -The shrewd Dutchman, reserved and proud, had made a great success -at the court of Louis XIV. "Portland appeared with a charm of -person, a noble bearing, a politeness, an air of the world and -the court, a gallantry and a grace which were surprising. Add to -that much dignity and even hauteur, but mingled with discernment -and a judgment quick, without being at all rash. The French, who -take to novelty, to a warm welcome, good cheer and magnificence, -were charmed with him. He attracted all, but he selected only the -noble and distinguished as his companions. It became the fashion -to give fêtes in his honor, and to attend his entertainments. The -astonishing fact is that the king, who at heart was more offended -than ever, with William of Orange, treated this ambassador with -more marked distinction than he had ever shown toward any other." -</p><p> -In 1699 Portland was again charged to negotiate a second Treaty -of Partition. He was then profoundly jealous of the favor shown -by William to Keppel, and in this humor had withdrawn from the -court, to the great regret of the king. "I do not wish to enter -into a discussion regarding your retirement," wrote William III., -"but I cannot refrain from expressing to you my grief. It is -greater than you can possibly imagine. I am sure that if you felt -one half of it you would soon change your resolution. May God in -his mercy inspire for your own good and my tranquillity. I beg to -let me see you as often as possible. That will be a great -mitigation of the distress which you have caused me; for, after -all that has passed, I cannot help loving you tenderly." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78">{78}</a></span> -<p> -Patriotism and loyalty prevailed over rancor and jealousy, and -the king succeeded in obtaining the services of the duke for the -difficult negotiations which were about to be undertaken. "I -ought to say to you that the welfare and repose of Europe depend -upon your negotiations with Tallard," said the king. "You cannot -be ignorant of the fact that there is no one else in England whom -I can employ. Finally, it is impossible and even prejudicial to -my dignity that this negotiation between Tallard and myself -should be delayed. I hope that after reflecting seriously you -will come here prepared to terminate, if possible, this important -business." -</p><p> -On the 13th and 15th of May, 1700, after long hesitation and -obstinate resistance on the part of the city of Amsterdam, the -second Treaty of Partition was signed at London and at the Hague. -Spain angrily protested against the pretensions of the powers to -regulate a succession which was not yet in abeyance; she recalled -her ambassador from England. The emperor expected to obtain a -will in favor of the Archduke Charles, his second son. King -William regarded the maintenance of the equilibrium between the -two houses of France and Austria, as indispensable to the repose -of Europe. "The King of England acts with good faith in -everything," wrote Tallard to Louis XIV.; "his way of dealing is -upright and sincere. He is proud, one could not be more so; but -he is at the same time modest, although no one could be more -jealous of all that pertains to his rank." -</p><p> -The Treaty of Partition assured to the Dauphin all the -possessions of Spain in Italy, save the Milanese territory, which -was to indemnify the Duke of Lorraine, whose duchy passed to -France. Spain, the Indies and the Low Countries were to go to the -Archduke Charles. The anger was great at Vienna when the news -arrived that the Treaty had been signed. "Behold our good -friends," said the Count Harrach to Villars, the French -ambassador; "is that the way they distribute other people's -property? England and Holland think only of their own interests. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79">{79}</a></span> -What will they do with Flanders, and how will they preserve the -Indies without a navy? The archduke may thank the King for Spain, -but will be dependent upon England and Holland for the -Indies."—"Fortunately," said Kaunitz, "there is one above who -will interfere with these partitions."—"That one," replied -Villars, "will approve of what is just."—"It is something new -for a King of England and Holland to divide the monarchy of -Spain," said the count.—"Permit me, Monsieur le Comte," replied -Villars: "These two powers have recently carried on a war which -has cost them much, but which has cost the emperor nothing; for -in fact you have only borne the expense of the war against the -Turks; you have a few troops in Italy, and in the empire there -are only two regiments of hussars which are not in your service; -England and Holland alone have borne all the burden." -</p><p> -The anger of the emperor subsided, but that of the German -princes, the Elector of Bavaria at their head, was still to give -much trouble to King William. On the 1st of November, 1700, it -was suddenly announced, in Europe, that Charles II., delicate -from his birth, and for many years on the point of death, had -finally expired at Madrid, and that by a will of the 2nd of -October, he had disposed of the crown in favor of the Duke of -Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. -</p><p> -This will was the work of the Spanish Council, at the head of -which was the Cardinal of Porto-Carrero. "The National party -detested the Austrians because they had been so long in Spain, -and they loved the French because they were not yet there; the -former had had time to weary them by their domination, while the -latter had been served by their very absence." The integrity of -the Spanish monarchy was the great pre-occupation of the dying -king, as well as of his subjects. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80">{80}</a></span> -"We will go to the Dauphin; we will go to the devil, if -necessary; but we will all go together," said the Spanish -politicians. Pope Innocent XII. favored France. Louis XIV. alone, -appeared able to defend himself against combined Europe. On the -16th of November, 1700, he solemnly accepted the will. -</p><p> -The surprise of William III. was equal to his anger. "I do not -doubt," wrote he to Heinsius, "that this unheard of proceeding on -the part of France, causes you as much surprise as it does -myself. I have never had great confidence in any engagements -contracted with France, but I must confess that I never imagined -that that court would break so solemn a treaty, in the face of -all Europe, even before it was fulfilled. Admit that we have been -duped; but when, in advance, one is resolved not to keep faith, -it is not difficult to deceive the other. I shall probably be -blamed for having trusted France; I, who ought to have known by -the experience of the past, that no treaty is binding upon her. -Please God that I may be acquitted from all blame, but I have too -many reasons for fearing that the fatal consequences will soon be -felt. It grieves me to the heart that almost every one rejoices -that France has preferred the will to the Treaty, and also -because the will is believed to be more advantageous to England -and to Europe. This judgment is founded in part upon the youth of -the Duke of Anjou. He is a child, it is said, and will be -educated in Spain; the principles of that monarchy will be -inculcated in him, and he will be governed by the Council of -Spain; but these are anticipations which it is impossible to -admit, and I fear that soon we will see how erroneous they are. -Does it not seem that the profound indifference with which the -people of this country regard all that which takes place beyond -this island, may be a punishment from heaven? Nevertheless, are -not our interests and our appreciations the same as those of the -people of the continent?" -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81">{81}</a></span> -<p> -The Holland merchants, as well as the English statesmen, were -deceived regarding the consequences of the event which had just -been accomplished. "Public credit and stocks have risen in -Amsterdam," wrote Heinsius to the King of England, "and although -there is no valid reason for this, yet your Majesty well knows -the influence of such a fact." -</p><p> -In this critical situation, with Europe on the eve of a new war, -of which his foresight and prudence divined the duration and -violence, William III. found himself, in England, confronted by -an opposition growing each day more bold, and which during two -years past had systematically obstructed his government. The -Whigs were yet in power, but Russell, now become Duke of Orford, -had retired, offended by a parliamentary inquiry; Montague had -abdicated his offices for a rich sinecure. Assured of his fall by -the implacable enmity of the Tories, and by the visible decline -of his influence in the houses, the eloquent and esteemed Somers, -although Lord Chancellor, was fatigued and sick—worn out by the -constant struggle. A grave conflict threatened the union of the -two houses, as well as the good understanding of Parliament with -the monarch. A commission had been appointed by the Commons, to -examine into the distribution of goods confiscated after the war -in Ireland. "This commission will give us trouble next winter," -said the king. On opening the session of Parliament, his words -were as dignified as conciliatory: "Since, then," said he, "our -aims are only for the general good, let us act with confidence in -one another, which will not fail, by God's blessing, to make me a -happy king, and you a great and flourishing people." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82">{82}</a></span> -<p> -Human passions envenom the best intentions, and corrupt the most -sincere souls. William was accused of feeling intense distrust of -his Parliament; his most intimate counsellors were personally -attacked. Burnet, the preceptor of the little Duke of Gloucester, -only surviving son of the Princess Anne, was insulted, as well as -Somers. When the report concerning the confiscations was finally -presented in Parliament, the gifts accorded to the Dutch -favorites and to the Countess of Orkney (formerly, when Elizabeth -Villiers, devotedly attached to the Prince of Orange), were -violently attacked. "We were sent here to fly in the king's -face," said the partisans of the report. William III. was at the -same time reproached for the indulgence he had shown towards the -Irish. A part of the property confiscated had been restored to -the despoiled families. "All has been given to Dutch favorites, -to French refugees and Irish papists," it was said. Carried away -by leaders as violent as imprudent, the Commons annulled all the -royal grants, and joined to this arbitrary and unjust bill, a law -regulating the land tax for the following year. This move -compelled the House of Lords either to pass both bills or to -reject both, in defiance of the financial needs of the state. -"Affairs are very bad in Parliament," wrote the king to Heinsius; -"I say this to you with a deep feeling of grief, and filled with -apprehension that this will end badly some day. You can have no -idea what these men are; it is necessary to live in the midst of -them and to be acquainted with every circumstance, in order to -judge of them." -</p><p> -The wisdom of the House of Lords, and the prudence of the king, -prevailed against the violence of party struggles in the Commons. -The peers passed the bill, but not without protest and attempted -amendments, which, however, were rejected; the king gave it his -sanction, but the same day that the lower house voted that his -Majesty be supplicated not to admit foreigners into his councils, -Parliament was prorogued to the second of June. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83">{83}</a></span> -For the first time William did not close Parliament with an -address. "Parliament was finally prorogued, yesterday," wrote he, -to Holland: "I have never seen a session more vexatious. After -having committed many blunders and more extravagances, they -separated amidst great confusion; their intrigues are -incomprehensible to any one who is not in the midst of them; a -description of them is quite impossible." The king had likewise -wisely demanded the seals of Lord Somers. The Tories were -triumphant, but they failed to seriously disturb the equilibrium -of the Constitution; they had struck a blow against justice, as -well as against the royal prerogatives, and the privileges of the -House of Lords. "They have entered a dangerous path," says Mr. -Hallam; "they will be arrested by that force which has always -maintained among us the equilibrium of the powers, the reflective -opinion of a free people opposed to flagrant innovations, and -soon shocked by the violence of party passions." -</p><p> -The death of the little Duke of Gloucester, on the 30th of July, -1700, threw an additional obstacle in the path of King William. -His health was much broken, and for some time past public opinion -in Europe had been seriously concerned regarding him, even -questioning his survival of the King of Spain. The hopes of the -Jacobites began to revive. The question was raised regarding the -advisability of bringing the Prince of Wales to England, in order -to educate him there in the Protestant religion; this sentiment -also weighed upon Parliament, when, at the opening of the session -of 1701, the Houses declared that in order to maintain the -inheritance of the crown of England in a Protestant family, the -throne should descend, in default of issue of William or the -Princess Anne, to the Princess Sophia, Electress of Hanover, -granddaughter of King James I., and her Protestant descendants. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84">{84}</a></span> -The great principle of hereditary monarchy was thus protected, -but it was subordinated to the superior principle of religious -faith; a bond of union necessary between the prince and his -people, and the lack of which rendered the succession of the last -heir of the Stuarts impossible. In the midst of the stormy -session of 1701, while the dissatisfaction of Parliament with the -Treaty of Partition was still intense, and while the trials of -Portland, Orford, Somers, and Halifax (formerly Edward Montague), -were in progress. King William had the consolation of seeing -assured for the future those liberties and that religion which he -had defended at the price of so many efforts, often so poorly -recompensed. The upper house boldly declared the innocence of the -accused nobles William had retained upon the list of Privy -Councillors. He was wearied of party strife, exposed as he was to -the anger and the attacks of all factions. "All the difference -between them," said he, "is, that the Tories will cut my throat -in the morning, while the Whigs will wait until afternoon." -</p><p> -The national sentiment of England, and the fears excited by the -attitude of France, gained for him the strength and the -popularity which the political complications and the unjust -violence of parties had deprived him of. -</p><p> -Louis XIV. took possession in the name of his grandson of the -seven barrier cities of the Spanish Netherlands, that the Holland -troops had occupied in virtue of the peace of Ryswick. "The -instructions that the Elector of Bavaria, governor of the Low -Countries, had given to the different commandants of the places, -were so well executed," says M. de Vault, in his report of the -campaign of Flanders, "that we entered without opposition." -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85">{85}</a></span> -The Dutch troops hastened to depart for their own country, and -official relations between the States-General and France were -broken off at once. King William realized the full importance of -this first blow. "For twenty-eight years I have worked without -relaxation, sparing neither trouble nor perils, in order to -preserve this barrier to the republic," wrote he to Heinsius, on -the 8th of February, 1701, "and behold all is lost in a single -day, and without striking even a blow." And on the 31st of May: -"I see that it is necessary to devote my entire attention to the -war; and although, in the eyes of the entire world, I seem to -desire war, yet there is no one perhaps who is more anxious to -avoid it; but to live without security, and to only exist by the -mercy of France, is the worst evil that could befall us." -</p><p> -The States-General made an appeal to England, and public opinion -communicating its impulse to Parliament, induced the houses to -vote considerable subsidies, increasing the naval forces to -thirty thousand men, and deciding that ten thousand auxiliary -troops should be sent to Holland immediately. William entrusted -the command to the Duke of Marlborough, and he himself went to -the continent in the beginning of July. The Count of Avaux was -recalled from the Hague. "We flattered ourselves," said William -III., "that we should see our States flourishing under the shadow -of a long peace, but the affairs of Europe have changed their -aspect. All nations bordering upon France are menaced: our repose -then would be, at the least, as fatal to our kingdoms as to our -allies." -</p><p> -On the 7th of September, 1701, the Grand Alliance between -England, the States-General, and the Empire, as signed, for the -second time, at the Hague. The powers engaged not to lay down -their arms until they had reduced the possessions of King Philip -V. to Spain and the Indies, re-established the barrier of -Holland, assured an indemnity to Austria, and accomplished the -definitive separation of the two crowns of France and Spain. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86">{86}</a></span> -<p> -Prince Eugene of Savoy—Carignan, son of the Count of Soissons -and of Olympia Mancini, began hostilities in Italy at the head of -Austrian troops. Catinat met with grave reverses; Marshal -Villeroi was placed in command of the armies of Louis XIV. The -Duke of Savoy bore the title of his Generalissimo. In less than -one year, he in his turn joined the grand alliance, -notwithstanding the union of his daughters with the Duke of -Bourgoyne and the King of Spain. For the second time William -aroused all Europe against the inordinate ambition of France. -</p><p> -Negotiations were nevertheless being carried on, and the armies -which were silently forming yet awaited the results of diplomatic -efforts. King Louis XIV. destroyed with his own hands the last -hopes of peace. On Good Friday (1701), James II., the deposed -King of England, suffered an attack of paralysis; the waters of -Bourbon, for a time, revived him. On the 13th of September, 1701, -he was attacked for the second time, and immediately demanded the -sacraments. Notwithstanding the irregularities of his private -life, he was sincerely and piously attached to the faith which -had cost him so dear. He exhorted the courtiers who surrounded -his dying bed, and he begged Lord Middleton, the only Protestant -who had remained faithful to him, to become a convert to the -Catholic faith. He bade his son farewell. "I am about to leave -this world, which has been for me a sea of tempests and storms," -said he; "the Almighty has judged well in visiting me with great -afflictions. Serve him with your whole heart, and never put the -crown of England in the balance with your eternal salvation." -Amidst the errors and criminal faults of his life, the only -redeeming trait of his character was that he himself practised, -during his life, the principles which he bequeathed his son. -Philip II. once said: "I would sacrifice all my kingdoms to the -defence of the Catholic faith": James II., more feeble and less -shrewd, had risked and lost all in the struggle with a free -people and an established religion. -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/086.jpg" border=1><br> -Visit Of Louis XIV. To The Death-bed Of James II. -</p> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87">{87}</a></span> -<p> -James II. was dying at Saint Germain. Louis XIV. visited him -twice, surrounding him, even to the last moment, with the most -delicate attentions. On the 20th of September, the king, -accompanied by a splendid retinue, entered the chamber of the -invalid. James opened his eyes, and immediately closed them -again. "Let no one withdraw," said the monarch. "I have something -to say to your Majesty. Whenever it shall please God to take you -from us, I will be to your son what I have been to you; and will -acknowledge him as King of England, Scotland and Ireland." -</p><p> -The English exiles, who were standing around the couch, fell on -their knees. Some burst into tears, some poured forth praises and -blessings. "That evening, at Marley, there was only applause and -praise," says St. Simon: "the act was applauded, but the -reflections of some were not less prompt, although less public. -The king still flattered himself that he could prevent Holland -and England, upon whom the former was so absolutely dependent, -from breaking with him in favor of the House of Austria. He -counted upon an early termination of the Italian war, as well as -the settlement of the Spanish succession, which the Emperor was -unable to dispute with his own forces, or even with those of the -empire. Nothing then could be more contradictory to this -position, and to the recognition, which he had solemnly declared -at the peace of Ryswick, of the Prince of Orange as King of -England. It was to wound the Prince of Orange in the tenderest -point; and all England as well as Holland with him, without this -recognition being of any solid advantage to the Prince of Wales." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88">{88}</a></span> -<p> -William III. was at table in his chateau at Dieren, in Holland, -when he learned the news. Always master of himself, he said not a -word, but his pale cheek flushed, and he pulled his hat over his -eyes to conceal his countenance. Accurately informed of the state -of affairs in France, and of the most secret intrigues of that -court, he had foreseen the resolution of Louis XIV. Some days -before he wrote to Heinsius on the subject of a projected mission -to Versailles: "I find myself greatly inconvenienced since the -news has arrived from France, that it is resolved, in case King -James dies, to recognize his pretended son as King of England. -This obliges me to cut short all correspondence with France, and -even to come to extremities with her." Lord Manchester, the -ambassador of William III. in France, immediately received orders -to depart without taking leave. In vain M. de Torcy, the Minister -of Foreign Affairs, strongly opposed to the position Louis XIV. -had assumed, attempted to offer some explanations. He received -from the ambassador the following note: -</p> -<p class="cite"> - "Monsieur: The king my master being informed that his most - Christian Majesty has recognized another king of Great Britain, - does not believe that his glory and service permit him to - retain any longer an ambassador near the king your master; and - he has sent me orders to retire immediately, of which I have - the honor of informing you by this note." -</p><p> -Some days later the States-General sent the same order to their -envoy M. de Heemskirk. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89">{89}</a></span> -<p> -All England was roused; the Whigs and the Tories shared the same -feeling of anger. "All the English," says Torcy, in his Memoirs, -"unanimously regard it as a mortal offence, that France has -pretended to arrogate to herself the right of giving them a king, -to the prejudice of him whom they have themselves called and -recognized these many years." When William arrived in England, on -the 4th of November, 1701, addresses poured in from all parts of -the country; he was too feeble to endure the fatigues of a -reception, and in consequence went direct to Hampton Court, -without stopping at London. Henceforth, well assured of the great -change that had taken place in public opinion, he published, on -the 11th of November, the order for the dissolution of Parliament -"I pray God that he may bless the resolution which your Majesty -has taken of convoking a new Parliament," wrote Heinsius, on the -15th. -</p><p> -When the houses re-assembled, on the 30th of December, 1701, the -Tories had lost much ground in the Commons; they succeeded, -however, in electing Robert Harley as speaker. On the 2nd of -January, 1702, the king himself opened the session. The change in -his appearance was very decided; he coughed much: "I have not a -year to live," he said to Portland. The vigor of his mind and of -his soul, however, triumphed over his physical weaknesses. In his -last great speech from the throne, he said that he was assured -that they had assembled there, full of that just sentiment of the -danger which threatened Europe, and of that resentment towards -the King of France for the step that he had taken, which had been -so generally manifested by the loyal addresses of the people. The -recognition of the pretended Prince of Wales as King of England -was not only the highest indignity that could be offered himself -and the nation; but it so nearly concerned every man who had a -regard for the Protestant religion, or the present and future -quiet and happiness of his country, that he earnestly exhorted -them to lay it seriously to heart, and to determine what -effectual means might be employed to assure the Protestant -succession, and to put an end to the hopes of all pretenders, as -well as their secret and declared adherents. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90">{90}</a></span> -The king then announced that he had concluded several alliances, -to protect the independence of Europe, the conditions of which -had been communicated to them. "It is fit I should tell you," -continued he, "that the eyes of all Europe are upon this -Parliament; all matters are at a stand till your resolutions are -known, and therefore no time ought to be lost. You have yet an -opportunity, by God's blessing, to secure to you and your -posterity the quiet enjoyment of your religion and liberties, if -you are not wanting to yourselves, but will exert the ancient -vigor of the English nation; but I tell you, plainly, my opinion -is, if you do not lay hold on this occasion, you have no reason -to hope for another." He called upon them to provide a great -strength upon land and sea, that they lend to the allies all the -assistance in their power, and show towards the enemies of -England and the adversaries of her religion, her liberty, her -government, and the king that she had chosen, all the hatred that -they merited. -</p><p> -This speech, principally the work of Somers, more eloquent and -more impassioned than were ordinarily the simple and grave words -of King William, deeply aroused national sympathy. The addresses -of the two houses no longer reflected the clouds which had so -recently darkened the political horizon. The subsidies and army -levies voted were equal to the public needs. "The courier this -evening will inform you of the good resolutions which were taken -yesterday and the day before in the two houses," wrote the king -to Heinsius; "one could not desire a more satisfactory result. -May the Almighty vouchsafe his blessing to all that follows." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91">{91}</a></span> -<p> -The death of William was sudden and premature. William of Orange -was fifty-one years of age: for thirty years he had borne upon -his shoulders the weight of the destinies of his native country, -and for nearly twenty years he had been the only man in Europe, -who had resisted, obstinately and with success, the encroachments -of France. The supreme moment of the great struggle had arrived; -the fruits of so many efforts and of so much perseverance, fell -from the courageous hands which had so long labored for them. -When the King of England felt himself dying, he, disguised as a -priest, had consulted Fagon. When that celebrated physician of -Louis XIV. bluntly replied to him, that the curé had better -prepare for death, William threw aside his disguise; and the -advice that Fagon then gave him, it is said, prolonged his life. -An accident hastened the progress of his malady. On the 20th of -February, 1702, William was riding in the park of Hampden Court, -when his favorite horse Sorrel stumbled and fell. The king was -thrown, and broke his collar-bone. He was carried to the palace; -and now fully realized that his time was short. He sent to -Parliament a message recommending the union of England and -Scotland. He had thought much of it, he said, and he believed -this measure necessary for the happiness and security of the two -kingdoms, for the European equilibrium, and for the liberty of -all Protestant states. -</p><p> -The houses received with uncovered heads the last act which -William signed with his own hand. Many laws awaited his approval, -and it became necessary to engrave a stamp to imitate the royal -signature. After some days of convalescence, fatal symptoms -appeared; the king recognized them, and was not deceived for a -single instant. He had said before to Bentinck: "You know that I -never feared death: there have been times when I should have -wished it: but, now that this great new prospect is opening -before me, I do wish to stay here a little longer." -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92">{92}</a></span> -This indomitable soul had always known how to submit to the hand -of God, and he accepted His will without a murmur. "I know that -you have done all that skill and learning could do for me," said -he to his physicians; "but the case is beyond your art, and I -submit." -</p><p> -He had sent his favorite, Albemarle, to Holland, charged to -arrange with Heinsius regarding the preparations for the war; and -as though by a prophetic instinct, he had sent by his messenger a -last token of affection to the friend and faithful servant who -had so ably seconded him in his policy. "I am infinitely -concerned to learn that your health is not yet quite -re-established," wrote he to Heinsius; "May God be pleased to -grant you a speedy recovery. I am unalterably your good friend, -William." -</p><p> -Albemarle returned, bringing from Heinsius the most satisfactory -assurances. When he appeared before his master, who had ordered -him to take some repose after his long and rapid journey, the -king calmly said to him: "I am fast drawing to my end." He -received the exhortations and consolations of the Bishops; -Tennison and Burnet did not leave his pillow; he affirmed his -constant faith in the Christian truths, and demanded the -Communion. After the ceremony was finished, the dying man could -scarcely speak a word. The Duke of Portland, twice summoned by -letters which he had never received, finally entered the chamber. -William took the hand of his friend and pressed it to his heart. -An instant before he had said to his physicians, with a shadow of -impatience: "Can this last long?" They shook their heads. He -closed his eyes and gasped for breath. On the 16th of March, -1702, between the hours of seven and eight in the morning, -William of Orange yielded his soul to God. -</p><p></p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93">{93}</a></span> -<p> -When his remains were laid out, it was found that he wore next to -his heart a lock of Queen Mary's hair, and the wedding ring which -he had taken from her dying hand. - -Europe lost her great leader, and England her great king. The -supreme impulse had nevertheless been given in Europe as well as -in England; the alliance against Louis XIV. was formed, and -became each day stronger and more united. Amidst the bitterness -of parliamentary struggles, and notwithstanding the culpable -violence of parties, the parliamentary régime, political liberty, -and the Protestant religion, were henceforth secured to England. -</p><p> -William of Orange might rest—his work was accomplished. -</p> -<br> - - <h2>Chapter XXXIII. -<br><br> - Queen Anne<br> - War Of The Spanish Succession<br> - (1702-1714).</h2> -<br> -<p> -"The master workman was dead," says Burke, "but his work had been -conceived according to the true principles of art, and it had -been executed in his mind." William of Orange was dead; after a -reign incessantly contested, unpopular and stormy, scarcely had -he breathed his last, when all he had done, and desired, was -attacked, censured and disputed on every side. The edifice, -however, was too firmly constructed, was founded upon moral -principles too true, and based upon political necessities too -serious, for the storms of party passion to overthrow. The -coalition of Europe was to survive the loss of its chief; the -liberties of England were forever delivered from the yoke of the -Stuarts. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94">{94}</a></span> -<p> -Queen Anne was proclaimed without opposition, and but few even of -the Jacobites affected any astonishment at seeing her ascend the -unoccupied throne. Their prince was still a child, and the last -act to which William III. had put his hand was a bill of -attainder against the Pretender, as King James III. of the Court -of St. Germain began to be called in England. The queen had -successively lost her seventeen children; the hope of the -Jacobites changed its nature, and henceforth they confidently -awaited the future. -</p><p> -Anne was thirty-seven years old, her health was poor and her -intelligence limited; she was honest, and sincerely attached to -the Church of England. Although naturally good and universally -popular, grand views or great political and moral considerations -were foreign to her; she never comprehended them, and allowed -herself constantly to be controlled by some favorite that she -frequently changed for frivolous reasons or caprices of -management. These favorites were of both parties, but she showed -a marked predilection for the Tories. The Whigs long governed -during her reign, and to them belongs the honor of having -continued the work begun by William III. Queen Anne, however, -always regarded them with aversion and distrust. In the depths of -her soul she had remained attached to the house of her father; -her Protestant faith alone separated her from that brother whose -birth she had stigmatized. She was timid, yet at the same time -obstinate, indolent, and passionately attached to her royal -prerogatives; unable to strike a great blow against public -sentiment, but henceforth the mistress of England by the -preponderant action of the House of Commons. Her favorites, all -powerful while they were around her, had to learn the limit of -their influence; their personal faults, and the grave errors of -their conduct, were not the only reasons that led to the fall of -the Duke and Duchess of Marlborough. Soon constrained to rely -upon the Whigs, as they alone seriously desired the war, -Marlborough, but recently Tory and half Jacobite, was to fall -with them. -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/094.jpg" border=1><br> -Queen Anne. -</p> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95">{95}</a></span> -<br> -<p> -Marlborough was still counted among the Tories, when Anne -ascended the throne; he shared with Lord Godolphin the political -confidence of the queen. The Duchess of Marlborough, haughty, -violent and avaricious, naturally powerful and domineering, as -well over her husband as over the queen, was the intimate friend -of this little council. The influence of the Duke of Marlborough, -as well as public sentiment, induced Anne to favor the war and -fulfil England's engagements. The first speech from the throne -clearly announced her resolution to continue, on this subject, -the policy of King William III. "We cannot encourage our allies -too much in their efforts to destroy the enormous power of -France." Marlborough was sent as envoy extraordinary to the -Hague, to assure the States-General of the intentions of the -queen. As skilful a negotiator as he was great as a general, he -knew from the first how to gain the confidence of Heinsius, and -to give to the European powers a firm assurance of the -maintenance of the Grand Alliance. On the 4th of May, 1702, a -declaration of war was simultaneously promulgated at London, -Vienna, and the Hague. Marlborough was appointed general-in-chief -of the combined English and Dutch forces. After his first -campaign upon the Meuse, although the successes were very -insignificant, Anne raised him to the rank of Duke. She -overwhelmed her favorite with the most lucrative offices. -Finally, to perpetuate the splendor of his house, she demanded -that parliament confer, with the title which she had given to the -illustrious general, a pension of £5,000. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96">{96}</a></span> -The houses refused. The queen multiplied her personal favors; -accepted with repugnance, or magnanimously refused at first, and -subsequently reclaimed with avidity. When, in 1712, the Duchess -of Marlborough had forever lost the favor of the queen, she -demanded and obtained all the arrears of a pension of £2,000 that -she had refused from the privy purse of the queen in 1702. -</p><p> -I have not endeavored to recount in detail the campaigns of the -Duke of Marlborough, and the continual efforts that he made to -obtain the assistance of the allied powers, as well as to control -and harmonize their diverse and contradictory wills. Under an -amiable and seductive exterior, Marlborough possessed by nature a -character calm and impassive. He had not only to struggle against -the obstinacy and patriotic restlessness of the Dutch, which all -the zeal and authority of Heinsius could not control, but also -against the slowness of the emperor and the intestine quarrels of -the empire. The campaign of 1703 was constantly hindered by these -petty jealousies. At the beginning of the year 1704, the general -wrote to Godolphin: "I augur so ill of this campaign that I am -extremely discouraged. May God's will be done, but I have great -reasons for anxiety. In all the other campaigns I saw something -definite for the common cause; this year all that I am able to -hope is that some fortunate accident may permit me to arrive at a -good result." Nevertheless it was in the same year, 1704, that -Marlborough, in the 54th year of his age, laid the foundations of -his glory. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97">{97}</a></span> -<p> -The French commander, Marshal Villars, a braggart and a boaster, -but bold, ingenious and resolute, had gained some successes in -the preceding campaign. In 1704 he was detained in France by the -Camisard insurrection. Marshals Tallard and Marsin commanded the -French armies in Germany, and these were reinforced by the -Elector of Bavaria. The emperor, threatened by a new -insurrection, recalled Prince Eugene from Italy, where the Duke -of Savoy had abandoned Louis XIV. and joined the Grand Alliance; -and Marlborough united his forces with those of the prince by a -rapid march, that Marshal Villeroi endeavored in vain to -intercept. -</p><p> -On the 13th of August the hostile armies encountered each other -between Blenheim and Hochstardt, near the Danube. The opposing -forces were nearly equal, but on the part of the French the -command was divided, and the corps acted separately. It was to -the honor of both the Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough, -that during this long war they always combined their operations -without jealousy or personal intrigue. "We, the Prince Eugene and -I, will never quarrel about our share of the laurels." The prince -had with great difficulty succeeded in conducting his troops to -their assigned post. While this movement was in progress, public -prayers were begun in the allied army. "The English chaplains," -says Lord Macaulay, "read the service at the head of the English -regiments. The Calvinistic chaplains of the Dutch army, with -heads on which hand of Bishop had never been laid, poured forth -their supplications in front of their countrymen. In the mean -time, the Danes might listen to their Lutheran ministers, and -capuchins might encourage the Austrian squadrons, and pray to the -Virgin for a blessing on the arms of the Holy Roman Empire. The -battle commences. These men, of various religions, all act like -members of one body." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98">{98}</a></span> -<p> -Marshal Tallard had sustained alone the attack of the English and -Dutch under Marlborough; he was made prisoner; his son was killed -at his side; the cavalry, deprived of their leader and driven by -the enemy, fled in the direction of the Danube. Many officers and -soldiers perished in the stream; the massacre was frightful. -Marsin and the Elector repulsed five successive charges of Prince -Eugene, and succeeded in securing their retreat; but the -electorates of Bavaria and Cologne were lost. Landau was -recaptured by the allies after a siege of two months. The French -army recrossed the Rhine. Alsace was gained, and Germany was -evacuated. "If the success of Prince Eugene had equalled his -merit," said Marlborough, "we would have ended the war in this -campaign." -</p><p> -The return of the Duke of Marlborough to England was a veritable -triumph. Parliament and the queen vied with each other in -generosity towards him. He received as a gift the estate of -Woodstock, which took the name of Blenheim. The foundations of a -magnificent palace were laid. In vain did the Tories, already -envious of the duke, seek to rival his victorious campaign, by -the maritime successes of Sir George Rooke; all eyes were fixed -upon the general, all hope centered on him; his influence in -England was equal to his power upon the continent. "If the duke -gains the same successes in 1705 as he has gained in 1704," said -the Tories, "the constitution of England will be lost." The -discontented were reassured. -</p><p> -The brilliant results of the campaign of 1705, in Spain, under -the Earl of Peterborough (formerly Lord Mordaunt), were -counteracted, in Germany, by the internal discords of the Grand -Alliance. Masters of Gibraltar since 1704, the English, in 1705, -seized Barcelona. Bold, enterprising and peculiar, but of -brilliant personal valor, Peterborough had taken possession of -Barcelona in spite of his lieutenants and his soldiers. He -rallied and led back to the assault the flying troops. Galloping -to meet them and flourishing a half broken pike in his hand, he -cried, "Return, and follow me, if you do not want the eternal -infamy of having deserted your post and abandoned your general." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99">{99}</a></span> -<p> -"We have been the object of a miracle," wrote he to the Duchess -of Marlborough. "I know what was the temper of our nation, -especially during the month of November. I believe, however, that -one ought not to complain, but we are as poor as church mice, -without money, and miracles are not sufficient." -</p><p> -In 1706 alternate successes and reverses had successively -delivered Madrid to the princely competitors who disputed the -throne of Spain. Peterborough found at the head of the troops of -King Philip V., his compatriot, the Duke of Berwick. This -nobleman was often engaged, for the service of his party or his -family, in enterprises which did not become his taciturn honesty. -He was faithfully devoted to the service of King Louis XIV., -although never a favorite with his grandson, and still less -pleasing to the young Queen, Marie Gabrielle, second daughter of -the Duke of Savoy. -</p><p> -Lord Peterborough shared in the same manner the dislike of the -Archduke Charles. "I would not accept my safety from the hands of -my Lord Peterborough," said the Austrian Prince.—"What fools we -are to fight for such imbeciles!" bitterly replied the English -General. -</p><p> -The defeat at Blenheim, in 1704, was a first and terrible blow to -the power of Louis XIV., as well as to the military prestige of -France. The defeat at Ramillies, on the 23rd of May, 1706, was a -second step towards ruin. The personal attachment of the king had -always blinded him regarding the military talents of Villeroi. -Defeated in Italy by Prince Eugene, Villeroi, as presumptuous as -unskilful, hoped to distinguish himself before Marlborough. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100">{100}</a></span> -"All the army long for battle. I know that it is the wish of your -Majesty," wrote the marshal to Louis XIV., after his check. "How -can I prevent exposing myself to an engagement which I believe -expedient?" His lieutenants differed with him; they conjured him -to change his order of battle. The troops engaged without -confidence. The Bavarians fled within an hour; the French, heroic -as at Blenheim, realizing the blunders of their commander, soon -followed their example. The rout was complete, the disorder -indescribable. Villeroi did not stop until he was under the walls -of Brussels. He was soon obliged to evacuate that place. The Duke -of Marlborough entered it in the middle of October, master of -two-thirds of Belgium. The emperor offered to the victorious -general the government of the Low Countries. Marlborough greatly -desired to accept it, but the visible opposition of the -Hollanders prevented him. "Assure the States that I have no -desire to give them any embarrassment," wrote he to Heinsius; -"since they do not think it expedient, I willingly decline to -accept this commission." Marshal Villeroi was recalled. "No more -happiness at our age," said the king with great kindness. The -Duke de Vendôme was charged with the command of the army in -Flanders, "in the hope that he would infuse that spirit of -strength and audacity natural to the French nation," said Louis -XIV. "All the world here is ready to take off its hat when the -name of the Duke of Marlborough is mentioned," wrote Vendôme; "if -the soldiers and the cavaliers are of the same mind, then one -might as well take leave at once; but I hope to find better -material." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101">{101}</a></span> -<p> -All the efforts of Vendôme were not able to prevent the loss of -Ménin, of Ath, and of Dendermonde. Prince Eugene defeated the -Duke of Orleans before Turin on the 7th of September. Marshal -Marsin was killed. "It is impossible to express the joy that I -feel," said Marlborough, in a letter to his wife, "for I more -than esteem, I love the Prince Eugene. This brilliant action -ought to place France low enough to permit us, if our friends -consent to continue the war for another year, to conclude a peace -which will give us repose to the end of our days. But for the -present I do not comprehend the Dutch." -</p><p> -The States-General had, in fact, received overtures from Louis -XIV., which inclined them towards peace. "It is said publicly at -the Hague," wrote Godolphin, "that France is humbled as much as -is desirable, and that if the war is prolonged, it will end in -making England stronger than she ought to be. All that they have -as yet proposed, is a treaty of partition, dishonorable to the -allies and deplorable for the future." War made the glory, the -fortune and the power of the Duke of Marlborough, as well as of -Prince Eugene; both influenced Heinsius, who had remained -faithful to the policy of William III., but without that grandeur -and breadth of mind which knows how to measure advantages with -justice and moderation. The disputes of the States finally ended -in the republic remaining faithful to the allies, and deciding -not to accept any negotiation without their concurrence. Public -opinion was nevertheless modified in Holland. "The Burgomasters -of Amsterdam have passed two hours at my house this morning, -endeavoring to convince me of the necessity of a prompt peace," -wrote Marlborough, in 1708; "this, on the part of the most -zealous Hollanders, has greatly disturbed me." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102">{102}</a></span> -<p> -For a time the affairs of France, closely allied to those of -Spain, appeared to improve in that kingdom; the victory at -Almanza, won on the 13th of April, 1707, by Marshal Berwick over -the Anglo-Portuguese army, and the taking of Lerida, which -capitulated on the 11th of November, to the Duke of Orleans, -revived the hopes of the partisans of Philip V., and turned -popular sentiment in his favor. Lord Peterborough, dissatisfied -and irritated, returned to England. Lord Galway, son of the old -Marquis of Ruvigny, and like him a refugee in England, took -command of the English troops. The campaigns of the Duke of -Marlborough and Prince Eugene had not been brilliant. The Prince -and the Duke of Savoy had been repulsed before Toulon, and the -uprising of the peasants compelled them to precipitately evacuate -Provence. Marshal Villars had driven back the Margrave of -Bayreuth from the banks of the Rhine, and had advanced into -Swabia; he also ravaged the Palatinate. All the negotiations of -Marlborough in Sweden, at Vienna and at Berlin, had not been able -to bring about, in time, a combined action of the allied forces; -murmurs of dissatisfaction were heard in England as well as in -Holland. The enemies of Marlborough accused him of designedly -prolonging the war, by his insatiable avariciousness. The -popularity of the duchess with the queen was visibly declining; -all the audacity and cleverness of the great general were -scarcely sufficient to turn aside parliamentary attacks. -Godolphin was threatened in his power. "I am discouraged," wrote -Marlborough to his wife, "and I am astonished at the courage of -the Lord Treasurer. If I was treated as he is—and I probably -will be—and was always upon the point of seeing myself abandoned -by the Whigs, I would not remain at my post for all that the -world might offer; I would not be the first to repent. When I say -this I know well that while the war lasts, I ought to retain my -command; but I do not wish to put my hand to another thing." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103">{103}</a></span> -<p> -The campaign of 1708 opened badly. Ghent and Bruges opened their -gates to the young prince, the Duke of Burgundy. "The States have -used this country so ill," said Marlborough, "that all the towns -are disposed to follow the example of Ghent when the opportunity -offers." -</p><p> -Prince Eugene advanced to support Marlborough, but he set out too -late; the Elector of Bavaria obstructed his march. "I do not wish -to speak ill of Prince Eugene," said Marlborough, "but he will -arrive at the rendezvous on the Moselle ten days too late." The -English were unsupported when they encountered the French army in -front of Kidenarde. The battle commenced without the presence of -the Duke of Burgundy, who received the news too late. Vendôme, -the commanding general, was defeated. Marlborough proposed to -carry the war into France. Prince Eugene, and the deputies of the -States-General, did not approve of the boldness of the project. -The allies besieged Lille. Marshal Boufflers held the city until -the 23rd of October, and the citadel until the 9th of December, -without receiving any succor. When he surrendered. Prince Eugene -permitted him to march out, with all the honors of war. Ghent and -Bruges were delivered into the hands of the imperialists. "We -have committed folly upon folly in this campaign," says Marshal -Berwick, in his Memoirs, "but notwithstanding even this, if we -had not abandoned Ghent and Bruges we would have had easy work -the next year." The Low Countries were lost, and the French -frontiers were encroached upon by the loss of Lille. The Duke of -Orleans, weary of his forced inactivity in Spain, and suspected -at the court of Philip V., resigned his command: he returned to -France. The English Admiral Leake, and General Stanhope, took -possession of Sardinia, the island of Minorca, and Port-Mahon. -The archduke was master of the islands and of the Mediterranean -sea. For a year past Philip V. had not possessed an inch of land -in Italy. The exhaustion and misery of France were extreme, and -Louis XIV. finally decided to negotiate for peace. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104">{104}</a></span> -<p> -He first addressed himself to Holland, where there existed a -general desire for peace; the war could bring the Dutch no other -profit than a guarantee of security. The king offered this. "In -the midst of the sufferings that hostilities had inflicted upon -commerce, there was reason to hope," wrote the Marquis of Torcy, -in his Memoirs, "that the grand pensionary, regarding principally -the interests of his country, would desire the end of a war, the -burden of which fell upon his own country. Authorized by the -republic, he had no reason to fear any secret intrigue, nor any -cabal to displace him from a post which he occupied to the -satisfaction of his masters, and in which he conducted himself -with moderation. Although the united provinces bore the principal -weight of the war, the emperor alone gathered the fruits. It is -said that the Dutch guarded the Temple of Peace and held the keys -in their hands." -</p><p> -Torcy had counted too much upon the moderation of Heinsius. In -vain President Rouillé, charged with the secret negotiations, -proposed to abandon Spain, provided Naples, Sardinia and Sicily -were assured to Philip V.: Louis XIV. thereby came back to the -second treaty of partition, but recently concluded with the -United Provinces, as well as with England. Heinsius, faithful to -the Grand Alliance, ardent to avenge the past injuries of the -republic, and justly suspicious regarding France, did not -comprehend that he was destroying the work of William III., and -the European equilibrium, if he assured to the house of Austria -the preponderance of which he deprived the house of Bourbon; the -conditions that he exacted, through his delegates, were such that -Rouillé scarcely dared transmit them to Versailles. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105">{105}</a></span> -Each of the allies desired a share of the spoils. England claimed -Dunkirk, Germany desired Strasbourg and the re-establishment of -the Peace of Westphalia; Victor Amadeus wanted to recover Nice -and Savoy, and the Dutch demanded that to the barrier stipulated -at Reyswick should be added, Lille, Condé and Tournay. "The king -will break off the negotiations, sooner than accept such -exorbitant conditions," said the deputy of the States-General to -Marlborough.—"So much the worse for France," replied the English -general; "for the campaign once begun, things will go further -than the king thinks. The allies will never relax their first -demands." -</p><p> -The Duke was assured of the fidelity of his allies—he had made a -trip to England. When he returned to the Hague, the Marquis of -Torcy himself had arrived to pursue the negotiations, and was the -bearer of new concessions. The king offered to recognize Queen -Anne, to cede Strasbourg and Lille, and to content himself with -Naples for his grandson. Marlborough protested his pacific -intentions: "You also ought to desire peace for France," said he -to the minister of Louis XIV.; "it is necessary to conclude it as -soon as possible. But if you seriously desire it, be assured that -it is necessary to renounce absolutely the Spanish monarchy; on -this point my compatriots are unanimous. The English will never -permit Naples and Sicily, or even one of those two kingdoms, to -remain in the hands of a Bourbon. An English minister would not -dare even to propose it." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106">{106}</a></span> -<p> -The Duke insisted that the Pretender should be compelled to leave -France. An attempted descent upon Scotland, assisted by Louis -XIV., although unsuccessful, owing to the bad weather, had -excited the anger of the Whig ministry, and they demanded, in the -negotiations, that France should cease to give her support to the -young prince. "I would like to serve him," said Marlborough to -Torcy—who had not left him in ignorance of the intrigues that -were taking place at the Court of St. Germain; "he is the son of -a king for whom I would have given my life," and he added: "my -colleague Lord Townshend is a Whig: in his presence I am obliged -to speak as the most of the English; but I would like, with all -my heart, to serve the Prince of Wales. I sincerely believe it -would be to his advantage, at this time, to leave France. Is not -the success of the allies a miracle of Providence? When has it -happened before that eight nations have spoken and acted as one -man?" -</p><p> -Torcy had gone to the last limits of concession; he had renounced -Sicily as well as Naples. The allies claimed Alsace, certain -towns in Dauphiné and Provence, and they exacted that the -conditions of the peace were to be executed during the truce of -two months, that they were about to accord; besides Louis XIV. -was to deliver immediately, to Holland, in case Philip V. refused -to abdicate, three fortified cities. To this dishonorable -proposition, the young king replied: "God has given me the crown -of Spain; and while there remains a drop of blood in my veins, I -will defend it." -</p><p> -The demands of the allies passed all reasonable bounds; imprudent -even for the interests of Europe as well as for the maintenance -of a durable peace, their propositions deeply wounded royal honor -and patriotic sentiment in France and Spain. The prudent sagacity -of William III. would have preserved the powers from this grave -error, but the political obstinacy of Heinsius, the decided -hatreds of Prince Eugene, and the avidity of the Duke of -Marlborough for glory and fortune, served the cause that they at -heart desired to ruin forever. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107">{107}</a></span> -Louis XIV. broke off negotiations and made a final effort. "If I -must continue the war," said he, "I will contend against my -enemies rather than against my own family." He wrote to all the -governors of the provinces and cities: -</p> -<p class="cite"> - "Gentlemen: The hope of an early peace has been so generally - spread abroad in my kingdom, that I believe it due to the - fidelity that my people have testified towards me, during the - entire course of my reign, that I inform them of the reasons - which still prevent their enjoying that repose which I had - designed to procure for them. In order to re-establish peace, I - would have accepted conditions strongly opposed to the safety - of my frontier provinces; but the more readiness I have shown, - and the more desire I have manifested to dissipate the fears of - my power and of my designs that my enemies affect to entertain, - the more they have multiplied their pretensions, refusing to - make any other engagement than to discontinue all acts of - hostility until the first of August, and reserving to - themselves the liberty of then appealing to arms, if the King - of Spain, my grandson, persists in his resolution to defend the - crown which God has given him. Such a resolution is more - dangerous to my people than war, for it assures to the enemy - advantages more considerable than they would be able to gain by - their armies. As I put my confidence in the protection of God, - and as I hope the purity of my intentions will draw his - benediction upon my arms, I wish my people to know that they - would immediately enjoy peace if it depended only upon my will - to procure for them a blessing that they so reasonably desire; - but that it is necessary to acquire it by new efforts, since - the enormous concessions that I would have accorded are useless - for the re-establishment of the public peace. -</p> -<p class="cite2"> - Louis." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108">{108}</a></span> -<p> -France might have reproached Louis XIV. for the arrogance which -had drawn her, with him, to the borders of an abyss. Intoxicated -as well as the monarch by an insensate ardor for glory, the -French people had long served the royal passions. They cruelly -expiated their faults, without however allowing themselves to be -overwhelmed by their misfortunes. In France, as well as in Spain, -the people and the army nobly responded to the appeals of the -sovereigns. "It is a miracle that the firmness and the virtue of -the soldier survives the sufferings of hunger," said Marshal -Villars, who took command of the French army in the Low -Countries. He encountered near Malplaquet, on the 11th of -September, 1709, Prince Eugene and Marlborough, who had just -taken possession of Tournay. In vain did Villars, for many days, -implore the king for permission to give battle. When finally, to -his great joy, the orders were given to engage the enemy, his -troops were so eager for the combat that they threw away the -rations which had just been distributed to them. "Vive le Roi! -Vive le marechal!" cried the soldiers. Villars intrenched himself -outside of a woods. "So we have still to fight against moles," -angrily said Prince Eugene. -</p><p> -During the action Marshal Villars was seriously wounded. "I had -my wound dressed upon the field, and placed myself upon a chair -to give my orders," wrote he in his Memoirs, "but the pain caused -me a swoon, which lasted so long that I was borne unconsciously -to Quesnoy." Prince Eugene, also wounded, while attacking the -centre of the French army, refused all care. "There will be time -enough for that this evening, if I survive," said he calmly. He -remained on his horse. Marshal Boufflers, who had served thus far -as a volunteer, took the command of the French army. Its defeat -was complete, although glorious. The retreat was conducted like a -parade. The allies lost twenty thousand men. "If God vouchsafe -that we should lose such another battle," wrote Villars to Louis -XIV., "your Majesty could count your enemies destroyed." The king -was not deceived; but he sadly renewed the negotiations by -sending Marshal Uxelles, and the Abbé Polignac to Gertruydenberg. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109">{109}</a></span> -<p> -This new victory elated the allies. Heinsius, charged with the -conduct of the conferences, maintained his propositions. "The -States-General were then the arbitors of Europe," wrote Torcy, in -his Memoirs, "but they were so dazzled by the excess of glory to -which the allies had raised them that they would not suffer it to -be said to them that they were working for the aggrandizement of -Austria and England."—"It is evident that you are not accustomed -to conquer," bitterly remarked the Abbé Polignac to the Holland -delegates. The king consented to give guarantees to engage his -grandson to abdicate; he promised, in case of refusal, not only -to sustain him no longer, but to furnish the allies a monthly -subsidy of a million francs, and to grant a passage over French -territory. He accepted the cession of Alsace and Lorraine, and -the return of the three bishoprics to the empire. The abdication -of Philip V. was to be assured, or else Louis XIV. was to aid, by -force of arms, in dethroning him. The just pride of the king and -of the father, revolted against this impudence, and severe -ultimatum. The King of Spain absolutely refused all concessions. -"Whatever may be the misfortunes which await me," wrote he to his -grandfather, "I prefer to submit myself to whatever God may -decide for me in battle, to deciding for myself by consenting to -an accommodation which would force me to abandon a people upon -whom my reverses, up to this time, have produced no other effect -than to augment their zeal and their affection for me." -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110">{110}</a></span> -Louis XIV. withdrew his propositions; the conferences at -Gertruydenberg were abandoned on the 25th of July, 1710. The king -was no longer able to assist his grandson, but he sent Vendôme. -</p><p> -On the 10th of December, the French general, constantly defeated -during the first part of the campaign, gained over the Austrian -contingent of the archduke, a disputed victory, at Villa Viciosa. -Count Staremberg, who commanded, spiked his cannon, and retired, -while the young king slept upon the field of battle. The allies -now held only Cattalona. In vain had General Stanhope recently -led the archduke to Madrid. "I was ordered to conduct him there," -said he; "when he is once there, may God, or the devil maintain -him there, or drive him out—that is not my business." -</p><p> -Stanhope had judged well the sentiments of the Spanish people, -more and more attached to Philip V., and faithful to his cause; -neither was he deceived regarding the position that the military -and political successes—that England owed, above all, to the -Duke of Marlborough—had assured to her in Europe. Long charged -with the burden of the war, England had become, by her close -alliance with the Dutch, as well as by her proper predominance, -the veritable mistress of peace or war in Europe. "Our Henry and -our Edward have left behind them an immortal renown," said -Stanhope to the House of Lords, "because they humiliated and -conquered the power of France. It is the glory of Queen Elizabeth -to have humbled the pride of Spain. Turn by turn these two great -monarchies have aspired to an universal domination in Europe; -both have been upon the point of obtaining it, in spite of their -mutual hostility, but no one had foreseen that an effectual -resistance could be opposed to them in Europe, if the two -monarchies were united. We have lived long enough to see these -two formidable powers threatening, at the same time, all the -liberties of Europe. Your Majesty was destined to struggle -against these united forces. They have been attacked and -compelled to ask for peace." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111">{111}</a></span> -<p> -It was in fact from England that this peace, so desired by France -and Spain, and now become indispensable to both powers, was to -emanate. The great Whig ministry had been, for a long time, -losing favor; the Queen was at length weary of the avidity and -hauteur of the Duke and Duchess of Marlborough. New favorites -cleverly alienated her and led her back to the friends of her -youth. The Tories replaced the Whigs in power. I will soon tell -by what maneuvres this cause was served. I wish here only to -indicate the political modifications which already made peace -foreseen. The Chancellor of the Exchequer, Harley, subsequently -Duke of Oxford, recently become a Tory, with no other passion -than personal ambition; and the Secretary of State, St. John, -known in history under the name of Bolingbroke, Jacobite to the -depth of his soul, by restlessness of mind and taste for -intrigue, equally urged England forward in the road to peace. The -Abbé Gautier, but recently chaplain to Marshal Tallard, and now -residing in England, was charged with a mission to Torcy at -Versailles. "Do you wish for peace?" said the abbé to him. "I -come to bring you the means of obtaining it, and of concluding -it, independently of Holland—unworthy of the kindness of the -king, and of the honor he has shown in addressing her regarding -the pacification of Europe." "To ask a minister of his Majesty, -if he desires peace," replied Torcy, "is to ask a dying man -whether he would wish to be cured." -</p><p> -Negotiations were secretly opened with the English cabinet, and -were often more confidential on the part of Harley and -Bolingbroke than seemed compatible with the fidelity due to their -sovereign, or with the engagements of England with her allies. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112">{112}</a></span> -<p> -The end was as reasonable as just; but the means employed to -arrive at it were not indisputable. The Emperor Joseph had just -died, leaving only daughters; the elevation of the Archduke -Charles thenceforth threatened Europe with the preponderance of -the house of Austria. England had the honor of first -comprehending the danger, and of playing that part of moderator, -which Holland had so recently exercised, and which had given her -so much grandeur. The natural taste of Harley for secret -intrigues prolonged the mystery for some time; inferior agents -went back and forth between London and Versailles. The poet -Prior, and a deputy from Rouen, named Mesnager, had the honor of -seeing the queen in person. The fatal effects of the war had -oftened saddened her. "It is a good work," said she, to the -modest French plenipotentiary; "I pray God to give you his -assistance; I hold the shedding of blood in horror." -</p><p> -The war, nevertheless, continued, and Marlborough remained at the -head of the allied forces, notwithstanding the disgrace of his -friends, and the withdrawal of his wife, who had definitively -left the court, not however without efforts, as audacious as -violent, to regain the influence which she so recently exercised -over the queen. The campaign of 1711 had been unimportant; -conferences were opened at Utrecht, and preliminaries were signed -with England: they assured to English commerce immense -advantages, besides the cession of Newfoundland and the remainder -of the French territory in Acadia. When the communication was -made to Holland, the negotiators prudently withheld some -articles. Public feeling at the Hague was nevertheless aroused; -the States-General sent a delegate to officially protest. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113">{113}</a></span> -"England has borne the brunt of the war," bluntly replied St. -John; "it is but just that she should be at the head of the -parleys for peace." The Count of Gallas, ambassador of the -emperor at London, was so incensed by the tone of the articles -that he had them published immediately, in one of the daily -journals. Queen Anne forbade his appearance at court. The -preliminaries were unpopular, and the guarantees offered by -France did not appear sufficient. -</p><p> -"On Friday the peace will be attacked in Parliament," wrote St. -John, on the eve of the opening of the session. "I am very easy. -I detest the remote dangers which threaten me; we will receive -their fire and put them to rout once for all." The speech from -the throne announced the opening of the conferences, "in spite of -the efforts of those who take pleasure in war." -</p><p> -The queen created twelve new peers, in order to assure, in the -upper house, a pacific majority. -</p><p> -In less than one year, from the 14th of April, 1711, to the 8th -of March, 1712, the royal house of France was overwhelmed by sad -afflictions of Providence. Louis XIV. lost by violent and rapid -sicknesses his son, the Grand Dauphin; and the Duke of Burgundy, -his grandson. Six days later the Duchess of Burgundy, the -charming Marie Adelaide of Savoy; and finally his great grandson, -the Duke of Brittany, four years of age. The little Duke of -Anjou, only an infant in the cradle, and feeble and sickly, now -represented the eldest branch of the House of Bourbon, and was to -become the King, Louis XV. The allies became troubled, and added -to their diplomatic exactions the renunciation by Philip V. of -the crown of France. The good offices of England were not lacking -to the old king, now overwhelmed by the weight of so many -misfortunes, and who attracted the admiration of even his -enemies, by the courageous firmness of his attitude. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114">{114}</a></span> -Louis XIV. wrote to his grandson: "You will be informed of the -proposals of England, that you renounce the rights of your birth -to preserve the crown of Spain and the Indies, or renounce the -monarchy of Spain to preserve your rights to the succession of -France, and receive in exchange for the kingdom of Spain, the -kingdoms of Sicily and Naples, the states of the Duke of Savoy, -Mont Ferrat and Mantua, permitting the Duke of Savoy to succeed -you in Spain. I avow that notwithstanding the disproportion of -the states, I have been sensibly touched by thinking that you -would continue to reign, and that I might always regard you as my -successor; assured if the Dauphin lives, of a regent accustomed -to command, capable of maintaining order in my kingdom, and of -stifling cabals. If this child should die, as his feeble -appearance gives me but too much reason to believe, you will -receive the succession according to the order of your birth, and -I would have this consolation of leaving to my people a virtuous -king, capable of commanding them, and who, on succeeding me, -would unite to the crown of France, states as considerable as -Naples, Savoy, Piedmont and Mont Ferrat. If gratitude and -tenderness for your subjects are powerful motives inducing you to -remain with them, I can say that you owe me the same sentiments. -You owe them to your house, and to your country, before you owe -them to Spain. All that I am able to do is to leave you the -choice; the necessity of concluding the peace becomes each day -more urgent." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115">{115}</a></span> -<p> -The English negotiators were without doubt assured in advance of -the choice of the King of Spain, when they allowed Louis XIV. to -expect such enormous concessions. Philip V. did not hesitate an -instant. He renounced all his rights to the succession of the -throne of France, and the Cortes solemnly ratified his decision. -"I will live and die a Spaniard," said the young king. -</p><p> -The English required that the Duke of Berry and the Duke of -Orleans abandon their rights to the crown of Spain. The peace was -the object of violent attacks in the English Parliament, above -all in the House of Lords. Marlborough vigorously defended -himself from having been hostile to it. "I can declare with a -safe conscience," said he, "in the presence of her Majesty, of -this illustrious assembly, and of the Supreme Being, who is -infinitely above all the powers upon earth, and before whom, -according to the ordinary course of nature, I must soon appear, -to give an account of my actions, that I was ever desirous of a -safe, honorable and lasting peace; and I was always very far from -any design of prolonging the war for my own private advantage, as -my enemies have most falsely insinuated. But at the same time, I -must take the liberty to declare, that I can by no means give in -to the measures that have lately been taken to enter into a -negotiation of peace with France, upon the foot of the seven -preliminary articles. I am of the same opinion with the rest of -the allies, that the safety and liberties of Europe would be in -imminent danger, if Spain and the West Indies were left to the -House of Bourbon." -</p><p> -The enemies of Marlborough were powerful around the queen, and -also in the House of Commons. His military successes had given -him a strength that it was necessary to take from him, at all -hazards; his pecuniary avidity and the malversations of which he -was suspected furnished a ready arm against him. He was accused -before Parliament, and was at the same time deprived of all his -offices, "in order," said the official note, "that the inquiry -might be impartial and free." The Duke of Ormond, honest but -feeble, and popular but without great military talents, was given -the command of the army. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116">{116}</a></span> -The commotion was great among the allies. Prince Eugene himself -came to England, eager to assist his companion-in-arms. The queen -received him coldly, would accord him no private interview, -excusing herself on the plea of ill-health, and sent him to her -ministers. When the great Austrian general returned to the -continent, recalled by the necessities of the war, which had -recommenced in the spring of 1712, in spite of the negotiations, -he soon learned that the Duke of Ormond had received orders to -take no part in the military operations. St. John wrote to the -duke, on the 10th of May: "Her Majesty has reason to believe that -we shall come to an agreement upon the great article of the union -of the two monarchies, as soon as a courier, sent from Versailles -to Madrid, can return. It is therefore the queen's positive -command to your grace, that you avoid engaging in any siege, or -hazarding a battle, till you have further orders from her -Majesty." -</p><p> -The duke was informed, at the same time, that these instructions -were to be kept secret from Prince Eugene, but were nevertheless -known to Marshal Villars. -</p><p> -It was virtually an armistice that England accorded to France, -and this could not long be concealed. Prince Eugene began the -siege of Quesnoy, and urged Ormond to take part; the latter -finally consented. "My Lord Ormond was not authorized to risk a -battle," said the Lord Treasurer Harley to the House of Commons, -"but he could not refuse to sustain a siege." Marlborough arose: -"I ask," said he, "how it is possible to reconcile the declaration -of my Lord Treasurer with the laws of war, for it is impossible -to undertake a siege without risking a battle; in case the enemy -sought to succor the place, there would remain no other -alternative than to shamefully raise the siege." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117">{117}</a></span> -<p> -An armistice was signed with France. Orders were given to the -Duke of Ormond to withdraw from the allied army, and to take -possession of Dunkirk—placed as security in the hands of the -English. The auxiliary regiments, recently in the pay of England, -declared their intention of remaining in the service of the -emperor. A certain discontent manifested itself among the English -troops. The queen solemnly communicated to the two houses the -conditions upon which she hoped to conclude peace. "I will -neglect nothing to bring the negotiations to a happy and prompt -issue," said her Majesty, "and I count upon your entire -confidence and loyal co-operation." -</p><p> -The clever maneuvres of Harley and St. John, in Parliament, were -crowned with success. Notwithstanding a protest from Marlborough, -Godolphin, and some other peers, addresses favorable to the -peace, were passed in both houses. -</p><p> -Louis XIV. had confided to Marshal Villars the last army and the -last hopes of the French monarchy. When taking leave at Marley, -the old king said: "You see my state. There are few examples such -as mine, where one has lost in the same week, a grandson, a -grand-daughter, and their child, all of very great promise and -very tenderly loved. God punishes me, and I have well merited it. -But I must suspend my griefs concerning my domestic misfortunes -and see what can be done to prevent those which threaten the -kingdom. If reverses happen to the army which you command, listen -to what I propose; afterwards give me your opinion. I would go to -Peronne or St. Quentin, mass there all my troops, and with you, -make a last effort to save the state, or perish together. I will -never consent to allow the enemy to approach my capital." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118">{118}</a></span> -<p> -Louis XIV. was not deceived regarding the plans of his -adversaries. Although enfeebled by the withdrawal of the English, -Prince Eugene, who had taken Quesnoy on the 3rd of July, proposed -to follow the former plan of the Duke of Marlborough, and to -resolutely advance into the heart of France. Marshal Villars -placed himself before him upon the road from Marchiennes to -Landrecies, "the road to Paris," said the imperialists. He threw -bridges over the Escaut, and on the 23rd of July, 1712, crossed -the stream between Ponchain and Denain. The Duke of Albemarle, at -the head of seventeen battalions of auxiliary troops, commanded -this small town. Prince Eugene advanced by forced marches to -relieve Denain. Villars lost no time in preparation: "We have -only to make fascines," said he; "the first body of our men who -shall fall in the trench, will hold the place for us." -</p><p> -Prince Eugene was unable to cross the Escaut, guarded by the -French. Denain was taken under his very eyes. "I had not taken -twenty steps in the town, when the Duke of Albemarle, and six or -seven lieutenant-generals of the Emperor, halted my horse," says -the Marshal in his Memoirs. The allies retreated. Marchiennes was -invested by De Broglie, and Prince Eugene was unable to save it. -His troops raised the siege of Landrecies. The Marshal seized -Douai and recaptured Quesnoy and Ponchain. The imperialist, who -had been unable to accomplish anything, retired towards Brussels. -The fortune of war had once again inclined victory to the side of -France; she profited by it to obtain an honorable peace. "The -time to flatter the pride of the Dutch is past," wrote Louis XIV. -to his plenipotentiaries at Utrecht; "but it is necessary, in -treating with them, in good faith, that it be with a becoming -dignity." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119">{119}</a></span> -<p> -The delegates of the States-General themselves comprehended the -necessities of the situation, and henceforth they also desired -peace. "We take the position that the Dutch held at -Gertruydenberg, and they take ours," said Cardinal Polignac: "it -is a complete revenge."—"Gentlemen, we will treat for peace in -your country, for you, and without you," said the French to the -Dutch deputies. Heinsius had not known, in 1709, how to shake off -the influence of Marlborough and of Prince Eugene, in order to -take the initiative in a peace necessary to Europe; and in -consequence of this ignorance he had delivered this power into -the hands of Harley and St. John. Henceforth the history of -Holland, as a great power, was ended. She owed her liberty, her -independence, and her influence in Europe, to the superior men -who had so long directed her destinies. William the Silent, John -De Witt, and William III. were no more; able and faithful as -Heinsius had been, he nevertheless was compelled to arrest the -progress and glory of his country at that threshold of grandeur -which God alone is able to pass. With the development of material -resources, the day of small countries passes forever. -</p><p> -The peace which was signed at Utrecht on the 11th of April, 1713, -and of which St. John—recently made Viscount -Bolingbroke—determined the final conditions, in a journey which -he made to Paris, has been often and bitterly attacked. It was -concluded by France, England, the United Provinces, Portugal, the -King of Prussia, and the Duke of Savoy. Louis XIV. consented to -recognize the Protestant succession in the House of Hanover, -although the Elector still refused to separate himself from the -Emperor, and the Pretender was to leave France. This was a great -bitterness for the king; the difficulty was aggravated by the -obstinacy of the Chevalier St. George, who desired to live at -Fontainebleau. "Let M. de Torcy recall his journey to the Hague," -said Bolingbroke, "and let him compare the plans of 1709 and -1712." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120">{120}</a></span> -<p> -England kept Gibraltar and Minorca; the fortifications of Dunkirk -were to be razed. Sicily was given to the Duke of Savoy. Louis -XIV. regained Lille and some cities in Flanders, by fortifying -the barriers of the Dutch. The King of Spain protested for some -days, but finally signed. The Emperor and the Empire alone -resisted; the taking of Speyer, of Kaiserlautern, of Laudan and -of Friburg—seized one after the other by Villars, triumphed over -the anger and pretensions of the Germans. Villars and Prince -Eugene negotiated together at Radstadt. On the 6th of March, -1714, peace was finally signed. All Europe was once more at -peace. The terms of the treaty were more favorable to France than -had been expected, and were glorious and profitable for England, -notwithstanding the attacks of the Whigs and their violent -protestations against the Treaty of Commerce. -</p><p> -The peace assured for a time the equilibrium and liberties of -Europe, as well as the preponderance of England in the councils -of Europe. It had been concluded by a bold decision on the part -of the English ministry, to the detriment and against the will of -their allies. The dangers which were permitted to still remain, -were more apparent than real, but the Treaty of Commerce was -unmistakably favorable to France. French wines threatened to -replace the Portuguese. The city of London was violently -agitated, and the bill for the execution of the treaty was -rejected, on the 18th of June, 1713, by a majority of nine. -</p><p> -The address of the Queen, on the dissolution of Parliament, -showed great anger. Triumphant in war with the Whigs, and in -politics with the Tories, Queen Anne nevertheless failed on a -commercial question before her Parliament. It was the precursory -symptom of a great disquietude and profound distrust. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121">{121}</a></span> -<p> -The general elections took place in August, 1713. The country -vaguely felt, without fully realizing the serious reasons, the -danger concealed under the indolence of the Earl of Oxford and -the intrigues of Lord Bolingbroke, which threatened one of the -questions which had gravely occupied it for fifteen years. -</p><p> -I have desired to recount without interruption the events of the -continental war, and that series of successes which carried -England to the summit of power and influence in Europe. I have -shown her powerful enough to sustain the struggle against Louis -XIV., and wise enough to put an end, for a time, to the evils -which her people endured, without exacting the ruin of her -enemies. I have not wished to mix in this recital the -complications of her internal policy: active and powerful -regarding the military affairs of Europe, while the Whigs -remained and Marlborough was at the head of the armies, but -without serious effect upon the fate of Europe. The Tories gave -peace to France; this was their supreme effort and triumph. The -two great internal questions which agitated the reign of Queen -Anne: the Protestant succession and the political union of -Scotland with England, were regulated at the foundation, by a -tacit accord between the moderates of both parties. -</p><p> -We have seen King William III., in concert with his Parliament, -in 1701, decide the question of the succession to the throne of -England, by an act of foresight and political sagacity worthy of -the monarch who inspired it, and resolutely maintained by the -nation, in spite of great obstacles, and notwithstanding serious -objections. The intrigues of the Jacobites had never entirely -ceased; they had lessened during the first part of Queen Anne's -reign, while the war absorbed all thoughts, and seemed to widen -the gulf between England and that young prince who aspired to -govern her, even though fighting in the ranks of the enemy at -Malplaquet. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122">{122}</a></span> -The gradual enfeeblement of the health of the queen, who had lost -her husband on the 28th of October, 1708, the interest which she -manifested regarding her brother, and the indifference that she -felt towards the House of Hanover, all contributed to revive the -hopes of the Jacobites, as well as the anxieties of those who -remained attached to the great work of William III. -</p><p> -Of the two questions which had occupied the last days of William -of Orange, the one still remaining was noisily disputed, but -without real or serious danger; the other, involving the honor -and happiness of England and Scotland, had been regulated after -long negotiations and alternate difficulties. The union of the -two kingdoms was the object of the last message of the dying king -to parliament, and was the last thought which had pre-occupied -that clear and far-seeing mind, even to the very gates of death. -</p><p> -Party violence in Scotland, the jealousy of the feebler kingdom -against the predominance of her ancient rival, and the religious -questions, always inflammable, had more than once disturbed the -conferences. The order of the succession to the throne, regulated -by the English parliament, had been contested. The Scotch -commissioners had attempted to assimilate the projected measure -to an act of federation and not of union. The firm resolution of -some wise minds, the prudent and moderate management of Lord -Somers, at the head of the English commissioners, finally -triumphed over all obstacles. The financial questions were -difficult to regulate in regard to a poor country whose products -were not over abundant. A uniform system of taxes was established -upon equitable bases; Scotland was at first exempted from certain -taxes, and a considerable sum was fixed upon as an indemnity for -the new charges which were to be levied upon her. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123">{123}</a></span> -The representation of Scotland in the united parliament of Great -Britain was appropriate to her historic dignity as an independent -kingdom, rather than in proportion to her population: forty-five -commoners and sixteen Scotch peers were to sit in parliament. The -national sentiment exacted an Act of Security for the -Presbyterian Church, everywhere troubled and anxious. The -opposing passions of the Jacobites as well as of the Cameronians, -excited popular movements, and many disturbances took place in -Edinburgh. Even to the last moment, the vote on the Act of Union -remained doubtful in the Scotch Parliament. -</p><p> -On the 16th of January, 1707, its partisans finally triumphed, at -Edinburgh. Early in March the English Parliament, in its turn, -passed the bill. The queen desired to give her assent to this -great measure of national interest in person. She came to -Westminster. -</p><p> -"I consider this union," said she, "as a matter of the greatest -importance to the wealth, strength, and safety of the whole -island; and, at the same time, as a work of so much difficulty -and nicety in its own nature, that till now all attempts which -have been made towards it in the course of above a hundred years -have proved ineffectual. I therefore make no doubt but it will be -remembered and spoken of hereafter, to the honor of those who -have been instrumental in bringing it to such a happy conclusion. -I desire and expect from all my subjects, of both nations, that -from henceforth they act with all possible respect and kindness -to one another, that so it may appear to all the world they have -hearts disposed to become one people. This will be a great -pleasure to me, and will make us all quickly sensible of the good -effects of this union." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124">{124}</a></span> -<p> -On the 23rd of October, 1707, the Parliament of Great Britain met -for the first time. The work was accomplished: there had been -bitter and continued opposition, not without corruption and -rancor, but finally wise and powerful reasons of patriotic policy -and morality triumphed, to the great and increasing advantage of -both countries. Without losing any of their distinctive and -persistent qualities, the English and the Scotch have equally -served, since then, the honor and prosperity of their common -country, without ever becoming either confounded or separated. -The primitive thought of the union was the last title of glory of -King William III. It was to the honor of the councillors of Queen -Anne, Lord Somers in particular, that they accomplished the work, -and affixed the seal to the undertaking, in spite of all violence -and all obstacles. -</p><p> -It was during the reign of Queen Anne, and in the full enjoyment -of free institutions, without despotic or revolutionary -interruptions, that the two great parties were formed, which -have, since then, divided and disputed the government of Great -Britain. The Tories, above all, attached to conservative -principles and to the established Church, and the Whigs, on the -other hand, partisans of progress and constant defenders of -tolerant measures, succeeded each other in power, without violent -shocks, under the authority of a queen personally favorable to -the Tories and sincerely devoted to the Anglican Church. The -intrigues of the court and the influence of the Duchess of -Marlborough—long dominant, but finally supplanted in the favor -of the queen, by Lady Masham, played their parts in the -ministerial revolutions. The state of the parties, in the country -and in Parliament, changed more often and more completely than -was generally conceded or believed. Four ministries succeeded to -power during the twelve years of Anne's reign. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125">{125}</a></span> -The first cabinet, which remained Whig in principle and in -majority, even when Godolphin became Lord Treasurer, was -overthrown soon after the declaration of war, in 1702. The Duke -of Marlborough, already powerful, inclining sometimes towards the -Tories and sometimes towards the Whigs, and solely occupied with -military interests and his personal grandeur, embarrassed the new -Tory ministry, and the enthusiastic majority that the new -elections had assured it in Parliament, by his demands for the -subsidies necessary for the prolongation of hostilities. The -animosity of the party opposed to the revolution of 1688, -manifested itself in the first address from the House of Commons -to Queen Anne, congratulating her Majesty on having, by the hands -of the Duke of Marlborough, <i>raised up</i> with honor the -ancient reputation and glory of England. At the same time, and in -order to boldly testify their attachment to the Anglican Church, -the Tories presented a bill against <i>Occasional Conformity</i>, -ordering prosecutions against all those who habitually frequented -dissenting worship, although <i>occasionally conforming</i> to -the rites of the established Church, as exacted by law from all -public functionaries. The queen was favorable to the bill, -although Prince George of Denmark was among the delinquents. -After having sustained numerous checks, the bill—as dangerous to -the Church as it was unjust—was presented anew by the last Tory -ministry of Queen Anne, and finally passed in 1711. During seven -years it preserved the force of law. The queen, on her part, gave -to the Church a touching testimony of sympathy, by renouncing the -revenues from the "first fruits," recently given to the crown, in -order to donate the same to the poor clergymen. The fund from -which indigent curates are still to-day sustained bears the -significant name of "Queen Anne's Bounty." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126">{126}</a></span> -<p> -The Tories, with Lord Nottingham at their head, returned to their -first principles; they were, in reality, hostile to the war. -Violent and exacting, they wished to exclude from the council the -Dukes of Somerset and Devonshire, the only Whig representatives. -Upon the refusal of the queen, Nottingham retired, and the -influence of Marlborough caused him to be replaced by Harley; the -latter took with him St. John. That moderate ministry soon -underwent a grave transformation by the entrance into power of -Lord Sunderland. -</p><p> -In 1708, the Whigs having a majority in the new house, and always -the true partisans of the war, firmly seized the power. The five -Lords of the Junta, Somers, Oxford, Wharton, Halifax and -Sunderland, found themselves reunited in the same cabinet with -the Duke of Marlborough and Lord Cowper. Robert Walpole, who had -been a member of the house since 1700, but who had as yet -occupied only insignificant positions, replaced St. John as -secretary of state. This was the beginning of a rivalry which was -to last throughout their lives. -</p><p> -During two years the Whig ministry governed with a power which -seconded the victories of the Duke of Marlborough. It was -nevertheless constantly threatened by the want of personal liking -of the queen, as well as by the intrigues of the court, which -secretly undermined the influence of the Duchess of Marlborough. -Handsome, imperious and brilliant, as well as arrogant and -ambitious, Sarah Jennings had for a long time maintained over -Queen Anne an authority which increased as her favors multiplied. -That domination which she exercised to the very last over her -illustrious husband, was slowly declining with the queen. -Marlborough had for some time succeeded in maintaining his power -by changing from the Whigs to the Tories, and from the Tories to -the Whigs. He was sustained at first by the Whigs, formerly his -adversaries; a Tory ministry that was to cause his fall was -preparing. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127">{127}</a></span> -<p> -Weary of the violences and inequalities of the temper of her -haughty favorite, the queen had found some consolation in the -affection of a young and adroit woman, a relative of the Duchess -of Marlborough. Abigail Hill was simply a waiting-maid to the -queen, who had married her, at the suggestion of her protectress, -to a Mr. Masham, a poor gentleman of the chamber. At first she -was not even admitted to the royal dressing-room. It was little -by little, and through chance indiscretions, that the Duchess of -Marlborough recognized that she was being supplanted in the -confidence of the queen, who was naturally capricious. -Notwithstanding her long fidelity to the duchess, the queen could -not endure restraint. Mrs. Masham secretly introduced Harley; the -anger of the duchess was to serve the ambition of the former -Secretary of State, and the aspirations of the Tories towards -power. -</p><p> -An unfortunate trial, begun against an insolent and declamatory -clergyman. Dr. Sacherevel, embittered religious passions. The -High Church and the fashionable world were ardent and pronounced -in favor of the accused. His sermon upon the "<i>False -Brethren</i>," had not formally attacked the revolution of 1688, -but had extolled the absolutism of the prerogative in sustaining -the doctrine of non-resistance. His suspension for three years, -by the House of Lords, was equivalent to an acquittal. "This -fatal trial makes me sick," said Godolphin; "the life of a -galley-slave would be a paradise for me." The Tories triumphed. -"The ministers have a curate to roast," ironically said St. John, -"and they have made so great a fire that they have roasted -themselves." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128">{128}</a></span> -<p> -On the 8th of August, 1710, after many significant changes in the -cabinet. Lord Godolphin received by a messenger from the royal -stables, a note from the queen, praying him to break the white -rod—his insignia of office. The queen appeared before Parliament -to dissolve it; the Chancellor, Lord Cowper, endeavored to speak, -but Anne silenced him. The power passed from the powerful junta -of the Whigs, and Harley was named Chancellor of the Exchequer; -Lord Rochester became President of the Council, and St. John -Secretary of State. -</p><p> -The Duchess of Marlborough, disgraced without being dismissed, no -longer saw the queen. Anne, overwhelmed by reproaches and -insults, left the chamber where the duchess insisted upon -remaining. Some months later the humility and prayers of the -great general were unavailing to maintain the duchess in her -position at court; he was obliged to pick up from the floor the -golden key—the sign of office of the mistress of the robes—that -his wife had flung away in her anger. -</p><p> -"She has conducted herself strangely," avowed the duke, "but -there is nothing to be done, and it is necessary to endure many -things to obtain peace in the household." -</p><p> -The day of grandeur of the Duke of Marlborough had passed; his -administration of the funds of the army was condemned by -Parliament. He defended himself ably, with that bold moderation -which habitually characterized him. He was accused of having -taken moneys from the contractors of supplies: he replied, -declaring it was the custom in the Low Countries, and that -although it was true, that no English general had ever before -exercised this right, yet it had been for the simple reason, that -no English general had ever before been commander-in-chief in the -Low Countries. Walpole, unjustly included in the same -condemnation, would not defend himself, and in consequence was -confined in the Tower, as a prisoner, until the end of the -session. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129">{129}</a></span> -<p> -The elections of 1713 were not favorable to the ministry; the -country was uneasy and suspicious; the cabinet was divided. The -perfidious ability and moderation of the Earl of Oxford were -opposed to the bold ambition of Bolingbroke, and that marvellous -eloquence, the memory of which remained so powerful among his -contemporaries and successors, that Pitt, when asked what he -would prefer to recover from the shades of the past, replied: -"One of the lost decades of Titus Livius, and a speech of -Bolingbroke." -</p><p> -The secret rivalries suspected by public opinion, and the -violence of party struggles, manifested themselves upon all -sides, through the press, now almost absolutely free from -restraint, and directed during the reign of Anne by men of great -talents, nearly all of whom were engaged in the political -contests. Addison and Steele were members of the House of -Commons, and also at the same time, publishers of <i>The -Spectator</i>. Addison had even occupied a place in the Whig -ministry. Swift, the intimate friend of Harley and Bolingbroke, -employed in the defence of their policy all his bitter and -sarcastic wit, without, however, being able to obtain—owing to -the legitimate repugnance of the queen—the ecclesiastical -preferments which he desired. -</p><p> -Defoe arduously defended the principles of the revolution of -1688, in brilliant pamphlets whose renown, for a time, exceeded -the popularity of his Robinson Crusoe. The poet Prior was -actively employed in diplomatic negotiations by Bolingbroke. -Isaac Newton alone withdrew from politics, after having taken an -unimportant part, and thenceforth consecrated his life to the -study of the laws of nature. Pope, however, took no part in the -struggles of the day, but devoted himself purely to literature. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130">{130}</a></span> -<p> -The intrigues increased and multiplied in all directions. The -Earl of Oxford hesitated between the Stuarts and the Protestant -succession, but was disposed to rely upon the Duke of -Marlborough, who courted his favor. Bolingbroke was resolved to -supplant the prime minister, and was at the same time imprudently -engaged in the Jacobite plots. The Queen was ill, and -low-spirited; she may even have felt remorse and doubts. The -ecclesiastical advancements had been of a character favorable to -the fallen house. The Dean of Christ Church, Francis Atterbury, -able, restless, and an enthusiastic Jacobite, was appointed -Bishop of Rochester. It was in accord with him that Bolingbroke, -the notorious sceptic and libertine, presented to Parliament an -act of schism, forbidding the right to teach to all persons who -had not accepted the test and furnished proof that they had -partaken of the communion within a year. "I am agreeably -surprised that some men of pleasure are, on a sudden, become so -religious as to set up for patrons of the Church," said Lord -Wharton. The bill was passed, but was never enforced. -</p><p> -The Church of England had for some time been urging the Pretender -to return to her bosom, and had even flattered herself that she -would succeed in the illustrious conquest. The illusions and -imprudence of the Jacobites were increasing: they began to speak -openly of a restoration. The majority in Parliament, as well as -in the country, remained firmly attached, nevertheless, to the -Protestant succession. The nation was anxious and disturbed. On -the 12th of April, 1714, the Hanoverian minister, Baron Schutz, -who had come to an understanding with the chief of the Whigs, -called upon the Chancellor, Sir Simon, afterwards Lord Harcourt, -and demanded of him, in the name of the Elcctress Sophia, the -summons for her son, the elector, to the House of Lords, in his -quality as Duke of Cambridge. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131">{131}</a></span> -The queen, being at once consulted, peremptorily and angrily -refused. Schutz was obliged to leave London. Anne wrote -personally to the electress absolutely forbidding the prince, her -son, to set foot on English soil. Some days later, on the 28th of -May, 1714, the prince became the heir presumptive to the crown of -England by the death of his mother. "I would die happy if there -could be written upon my coffin: Here lies Sophia, Queen of -England," said the electress. -</p><p> -Upon the advice of the House of Lords, alarmed at the ardor of -the Jacobites, the queen consented to issue a proclamation -offering a reward of £5,000 to any one who would arrest the -Pretender if he should set foot upon the soil of England. The -peers were preparing to vote an address of thanks, when -Bolingbroke entered the house; he was taken unawares. "The best -measure of defence for the Protestant succession," said he, -"would be to arraign for high treason all who are enrolled in the -service of the Pretender." They took him at his word, and the -house placed him at the head of the committee appointed to draw -up the bill. "Neither the proclamation nor the bill will do us -any harm," said Bolingbroke to the French envoy, D'Iberville. He -had undertaken, with the Duke of Ormond, to reorganize the army -in the interests of Marlborough, with the ultimate view of -delivering it into the hands of the Jacobites. By one of those -deliberate calculations, which often resemble a ruse, the Lord -Treasurer did not furnish the necessary funds in time. Oxford had -lost the confidence of the queen; he had quarrelled with Lady -Masham. "You have never rendered her Majesty a service, and you -are not now in a position to render her one," angrily said the -favorite. Oxford did not reply; he clung tenaciously to the -remnants of his power. "The least indisposition of the queen -causes us great alarm," wrote Swift; "when she recovers, we act -as if she was immortal." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132">{132}</a></span> -<p> -On the 27th of July, after a stormy interview with the queen, and -surrounded by his most desperate enemies, Lord Oxford delivered -the white rod into the hands of her Majesty. It was publicly -rumored, and the Duke of Berwick affirms it in his Memoirs, that -the Court of St. Germain had insisted upon the dismissal of the -minister. "Come and see me," wrote Oxford to Swift, on the day -following; "if I have not, at other times, wearied you, hasten to -one who loves you. I believe that in the mass of souls ours were -made for each other. I send you an imitation of Dryden, which -occurred to me on my way to Kensington: To wear out with love, -and to shed one's blood is approved of on high; but here below -examples prove that to be an honest man, brings misfortune." -</p><p> -From the doubtful political honesty of Harley, Queen Anne passed, -it was believed, to the imprudent and bold intrigues of -Bolingbroke. From France there was suggested a bold and daring -stroke: "The queen," said the Duke of Berwick, "should go to -Westminster with her brother, and present him to the two houses -as her successor." When dying, James II. had pardoned his -daughter, charging Mary of Modena to say to her that he prayed -God to convert her and to confirm her in the resolution to repair -to his son the wrong which had been done to himself. It was upon -this favor of the queen that the Jacobites counted, -notwithstanding a letter of the Pretender declaring himself -irrevocably attached to the Catholic faith. Bolingbroke had -foreseen the value of the death of the queen. Scarcely had the -power fallen into his hands when he assured the Abbé Gautier that -he should hold the same sentiments regarding the prince, provided -he took measures which were agreeable to the honest people of the -country. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133">{133}</a></span> -<p> -The day following the sudden death of Queen Anne, the French -envoy D'Iberville, wrote to Louis XIV.: "My Lord Bolingbroke is -overwhelmed with grief; he has assured me that all his -precautions were so well taken, that in six weeks' time things -would have been in such a state that we would have had nothing to -fear from that which has just happened." -</p><p> -The Whigs, as well as Bolingbroke, had also taken their measures; -they awaited the Duke of Marlborough, still in the Low Countries. -On the 14th of July, Bolingbroke wrote to Lord Strafford: "The -friends of Marlborough announce his arrival; I hold it for -certain, without knowing whether it is owing to the bad figure -which he makes abroad, or in the hope of making a good one among -us. I have reason to believe that certain persons who would move -heaven and earth sooner than renounce their power or make a good -use of it, have recently made overtures to him, and are in some -measure in accord with his creatures." Contrary winds detained -the Duke at Ostend, but General Stanhope disembarked at the Tower -of London. -</p><p> -The queen had been seriously disturbed by the altercation which -had taken place in her presence at the time of the dismissal of -the Earl of Oxford. "I shall never survive it," said she to her -physicians. On the morning of the 30th of July, 1714, she had an -attack of apoplexy. As a strong indication of public opinion, -stocks rose at the news of her illness, and declined when the -physicians announced a gleam of hope. The privy council assembled -at Kensington; the Dukes of Argyle and Somerset had not been -called, but being secretly informed by their friends, they -presented themselves. The Duke of Shrewsbury thanked them for -their readiness and invited them to seats. Prudent, often -hesitating, always reserved, the Duke of Shrewsbury had at last -chosen his side, and had not forgotten the part he took in the -revolution of 1688. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134">{134}</a></span> -The great Whig lord proposed to fill the office of lord -treasurer, which remained vacant. In the pressing danger of her -Majesty, they suggested the name of Shrewsbury. Bolingbroke, -concealing his spite and anger, found himself constrained to -enter the royal chamber with the two other secretaries of state, -Bromley and Lord Mar, in order to propose to the dying queen the -choice which was to destroy all his ambitious hopes. "Nothing -could be more agreeable to me," murmured the queen; and extending -to him the white rod, she said, "use this for the good of my -people." Lord Shrewsbury wished to resign the important offices -that he already held. "No, no," replied Anne; then she sank into -a lethargy which prevented her from articulating a word. -</p><p> -On the 1st of August, 1714, an embargo was put upon all the -ports; the order of embarkation was given to a fleet, and -considerable forces were called to London. The Elector of Hanover -had been requested to pass into Holland, and the entire privy -council was convoked, when Queen Anne expired, without having -regained her consciousness, and without having been able to -receive the sacraments or to sign her will. -</p><p> -The regency was instantly established, and the fleet put to sea, -to receive the new sovereign. Atterbury alone dared to propose to -Bolingbroke the proclamation of James III. at Charing Cross. He -desired to walk at the head of the heralds in his episcopal -robes. Bolingbroke, as well as all the other ministers, had -signed the measures taken in favor of the Protestant sovereign. -"Behold the best cause in Europe lost for want of boldness," -cried the Bishop. "The Earl of Oxford was dismissed on Tuesday," -wrote Bolingbroke to Swift; "the queen died on Sunday. What a -world this is, and how fortune mocks us!" -<br> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/134.jpg" border=1><br> -Shrewsbury Invested With The White Rod. -</p> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135">{135}</a></span> -<p> -Other blows were in reserve for this adroit and artful intriguer; -imprudent and chimerical, always ready to attempt new adventures, -and counting upon the resources of his fertile genius. "The -Tories seem resolved not to be crushed," wrote he, on the 3rd of -August, "and this suffices to prevent its being done. I have lost -all by the death of the queen, except my energy of spirit; and I -protest to you that I feel it expanding within me. If you wish, -in a month, all the world shall say that the Whigs are a lot of -Jacobites." -</p> -<br> - - <h2>Chapter XXXIV. -<br><br> - George I. And The Protestant Succession.<br> - (1714-1727.)</h2> -<br> -<p> -It pleases God to confound the fears as well as the hopes of -mankind. All moderate Englishmen were passionately attached to -the Protestant succession. The great mass of the nation for some -years looked forward to the death of Queen Anne with great -anxiety, while the Jacobites awaited that event with -ill-disguised confidence, believing it the hour of their triumph. -The forebodings of the one, as well as the hopes of the other, -were equally disappointed. King George I., although away from -England, a foreigner, and unknown to all, was proclaimed without -opposition, and his name was received with public acclamations as -enthusiastic as though he was a well beloved son, ascending -peaceably the throne of his father; a powerful and striking -indication of that grave and firm resolution which caused the -English nation to remain attached to its religious faith, as well -as its political liberties; an indication, however, which was -long unrecognized by the partisans of the fallen house of Stuart; -faithful and blind, not only to the temper of the English people, -but also to the disposition and intentions of the princes for -whom they were to sacrifice from generation to generation, their -estates and their lives. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136">{136}</a></span> -<p> -King George I., although proclaimed, was still absent, remaining -in his electorate, which he was loth to leave. He was naturally -slow and deliberate, just and moderate, without any charm of mind -or manner, and surrounded by favorites more foreign and more -dissatisfactory even than himself to the English nation. A -Council of Regency governed during his absence. It contained all -the illustrious names of the Whig party, with the exception of -the Duke of Marlborough, who was soon placed at the head of the -army, and Lord Somers, who was old and an invalid. Louis XIV. -recognized the new sovereign. One of the first measures voted by -Parliament, was the increase of the reward, from five thousand to -one hundred thousand pounds sterling, to any one who should -arrest the Pretender, if he dared to land upon English soil. -</p><p> -The prince protested immediately; he wrote from Plombières, where -he had gone to take the waters, proclaiming his rights to the -crown of England, as well as his grief at the death of the queen, -his sister: "whose good intentions we could not doubt," added he. -"And we have therefore remained inactive, awaiting the happy -issue which has been, unfortunately, prevented by her death." -Exiled princes, banished by revolutions, are sometimes ignorant -even of the language of the people they hope to govern: in the -face of popular indignation, the friends of the Pretender, and -those of the last ministry of Queen Anne, were compelled to -affirm that the proclamation of Plombières was an odious -fabrication. -</p> -<br> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/136.jpg" border=1><br> -George I. -</p> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137">{137}</a></span> -<p> -The king finally arrived, landing at Greenwich, on the 18th of -September, 1714, accompanied by his son the Prince of Wales. A -ministry was formed immediately, conferring all power upon the -Whig party; Lord Nottingham alone belonged, in principle, to the -Tories, but parliamentary intrigues had for some time past -reconciled him to the triumphant party. William III. had -endeavored to unite, in the same government, the chiefs of the -two great political factions; but however powerful might be his -intelligence and personal action, he was not calculated for -internal struggles and jealousies. George I. delivered himself -without reserve into the hands of the party that he believed the -most faithful to his cause. Even before his arrival in England he -ordered the dismissal of Bolingbroke. The seals were immediately -taken from him. "I have been neither surprised nor grieved at my -fall," wrote he to Atterbury. "The mode that they have used -shocked me only for a moment. I am not in any way alarmed by the -malice or the power of the Whigs, but that which distresses me is -this: I see clearly that the Tory party is destroyed." -</p><p> -The new Parliament was more intensely Whig than the Commons of -1713. Lord Townshend, at the head of the cabinet, was honest and -sincere, but as rude in his temper as in his actions. General -Stanhope, second Secretary of State, shared his sentiments; both -had received from their adversaries an example of violence. -Walpole, although holding no prominent official position, but -having more influence than any other member of the house, had -answered for the Commons, provided the Whigs were allowed full -liberty of action. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138">{138}</a></span> -<p> -The peace of Utrecht was severely censured in the two houses. -Seals had been placed upon the papers of Lord Strafford, the -intimate friend of Bolingbroke, and Prior was recalled from -Paris. The report spread that the poet had promised to reveal the -secrets of the negotiations. The displaced ministers were in -danger of arrest. Bolingbroke appeared at a play at Drury Lane, -on the 25th of March, 1715. He applauded loudly, and, according -to the custom of the time, chose another play for the following -evening. The same night, carefully disguised, he fled to Dover, -and on the evening of the 27th embarked for Calais. Justly -troubled, although his conscience was but rarely scrupulous, he -did not dare to confront either the revelations of his agents, or -the hatred of his enemies. Lord Anglesea, who was not a Whig, but -a Hanoverian Tory, had said to him, the preceding year: "If I -discover that there is perfidy, I will pursue the ministers from -the foot of the throne to the Tower, and from the Tower to the -scaffold." -</p><p> -On the 9th of June, 1715, Walpole's report upon the conduct of -the deposed ministers was laid before the House of Commons. -Bolingbroke was immediately indicted. Lord Coningsby rose: "The -honorable president of your committee attacks the hand," said he, -"but I accuse the head. He has denounced the clerk. I address -myself to the judge; he has accused the servant; I demand that -justice be done the master. I accuse Robert, Duke of Oxford, as -guilty of high treason." -</p><p> -The adroit prudence of the duke served him better than the -alarmed remorse of Bolingbroke; he remained at his house, quietly -attending to his affairs, without seeming to avoid the threatened -prosecution. He was taken to the Tower, where he remained two -years before the passions of his accusers were sufficiently -appeased to allow him an acquittal. The Dutchess of Marlborough -vigorously opposed his release. While in prison, he received a -visit from the Duke of Ormond, who was less compromised by the -peace of Utrecht, as he had obeyed the orders of his superiors, -but was more deeply engaged in the Jacobite intrigues. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139">{139}</a></span> -Ormond was preparing to fly, although at first he exhibited much -disdain. He urged Oxford to follow his example, but the latter -refused: "Farewell, Oxford without a head," said -Ormond.—"Farewell duke without a duchy," responded Harley. Both -recalled the adieus of the Prince of Orange and Count Egmont. The -Duke of Ormond never saw England again. Like Bolingbroke, he -entered the service of the Stuarts; less fortunate than -Bolingbroke, he was not disgraced by his new master, but followed -him from one attempt to another, and from retreat to retreat, -even to that last gloomy residence at Avignon, where he died in -1745. The storm was preparing; less dangerous than was feared, -but nevertheless severe, and destined to leave deep traces. In -their vengeance, the ministers employed a certain moderation, as -the spirit of their party was more violent than their acts. Young -Lord Stanhope, of Shelford, subsequently Lord Chesterfield, said -in his first speech in the House of Commons: "I have no desire to -shed the blood of my countrymen, still less that of a noble peer; -but I am persuaded that the safety of the country requires that -an example be made of those who have so unworthily betrayed it." -</p><p> -As soon as Bolingbroke reached Paris, he called upon Lord Stair, -the English ambassador. "I promised him not to engage in any -Jacobite undertaking," wrote he, after the interview, to Sir -William Wyndham; "and I have kept my word. I have written a -letter to Lord Stanhope, the Secretary of State, disclaiming all -intention of offending the government, and I will retire into -Dauphiné, in order to remove any objection that might be made -against my residence near the court of France." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140">{140}</a></span> -<p> -Bolingbroke nevertheless saw the Marshal of Berwick before -departing for his retreat. When he learned that a bill of -attainder had been brought in against him, he received at the -same time an invitation from the Pretender to join him at -Commercy. He departed immediately, wearied already of his -inaction, and urged on by his anger and love of intrigue. He had -scarcely reached Lorraine when he accepted the seals of secretary -of state from King James III., although he fully comprehended the -vanity of all the Pretender's expectations. "My first -conversation with the chevalier," wrote he to Wyndham, "does not -respond to my expectations, and I assure you, in all truth, that -I have already begun to repent of my imprudence; at least, I am -convinced of yours and mine. He spoke like a man who only awaited -the moment of departure for some place in England or Scotland, -without well knowing where." -</p><p> -The hesitation of the leaders of the Jacobite party was great. -While the Duke of Ormond remained in England, he strenuously -insisted upon the necessity of co-operation from France, -affirming that they could not trust exclusively to a national -uprising. Having arrived in France, leaving the conspirators at -home without a leader, the duke, when urging the Chevalier St. -George to embark with him for England, repeated his assertions -and demands. "I have seen here," wrote Bolingbroke, "a crowd of -people, each one doing whatever seemed best to him, without -subordination, without order, without concert; they no longer -doubt the success of the enterprise; hope and anticipation are -read in the animated eyes of all the Irish. Those who know how to -read and write, are continually interchanging letters, and those -who have not attained that degree of knowledge, whisper their -secrets in the ear. The ministry is in the hands of both sexes." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141">{141}</a></span> -<p> -Louis XIV. died on the 1st of September, 1715. "He was the best -friend of the Chevalier," said Bolingbroke, "and my hopes sunk as -he declined, and died when he expired." The most blind as well as -the most ardent among the Jacobites could not be seriously -deluded regarding the disposition of the regent; he was -indifferent and careless, and naturally inclined to oppose any -policy that the late king had followed, and was also reasonably -sensible of the dangers of a new war with England. The vessels -which, with the connivance of Louis XIV., had been armed at -Havre, under false names, for the service of the projected -expedition, were demanded by Lord Stair; their cargoes of arms -were at once disembarked. Admiral Sir George Byng appeared in the -channel with a squadron. Orders were sent to Lord Mar, who had -charge of the Pretender's affairs in Scotland, not to give the -signal for the rising, but to wait for new instructions. He had -already left London. -</p><p> -On the 27th of August, a grand re-union of the chief Jacobites -took place at Mar's castle, in the county of Aberdeen. On the 6th -of September, the royal standard of the Stuarts was raised in the -little village of Braemar. Sixty men only then surrounded it, but -soon the contagion spread from village to village, from fortress -to fortress. Some days later the country north of the Tay was -almost entirely in the hands of the insurgents. -</p><p> -The time for hesitation and prudence on the part of the chevalier -had passed; in fact he had already hesitated too long, in the -opinion of those who generously risked, for him, all that they -possessed. The inclemency of the weather, contradictory advice, -snares and enticements held out to him by Lord Stair, the return -of the Duke of Ormond, who had attempted, without success, to -land upon the coast of Devonshire, all these had retarded his -movements. It was not until the middle of December that the -Pretender, accompanied by six gentlemen, finally landed at -Dunkirk. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142">{142}</a></span> -<p> -The unfortunate fate of his partisans in England had already been -decided. In Scotland it trembled in the balance; and the gloomy -forebodings of the most faithful servants of the house of Stuart -began to be realized. The Earl of Mar, restless and cunning, -clever in court intrigues, but destitute of all military talent, -as of all military knowledge, had lingered in the Highlands, -remaining for some time at Perth, where his forces increased -daily. The Duke of Argyle, placed by the government at the head -of the royal troops, found himself at Stirling menaced on all -sides by the Jacobites, who, however, did not advance. "When at -last Lord Mar drew the sword, he did not know what to do with -it," says the Duke of Berwick; "and thus was lost the most -favorable opportunity which has presented itself since 1688." -</p><p> -The Scotch had their eyes fixed upon England; the general -uprising in the south, anticipated by the Duke of Ormond, had -failed, as the plot was discovered, and the chief Jacobites—the -Duke of Powis, Lord Lansdowne, and Lord Duplin, were arrested. -The ministry demanded of the House of Commons authority to -impeach six of its members, compromised in the conspiracy. Sir -William Wyndham was defended in vain by his father-in-law, the -Duke of Somerset. After being concealed for several days he -delivered himself up to justice. Sir Thomas Foster succeeded in -escaping, and some days later headed an insurrection in -Northumberland. Lord Derwentwater and Lord Widdington joined him, -and "King James III." was proclaimed, at Warkworth, to the sound -of trumpets. Being a Protestant, Sir Thomas was chosen General of -the English insurgents. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143">{143}</a></span> -He counted upon combining his movements with those of Brigadier -Macintosh, of Bordlase, who had just landed at Aberlady. The -alarm extended to Edinburgh. A movement of the Duke of Argyle -decided the Jacobites to throw themselves into the citadel of -Leith. The Duke arrived under the walls of the fortress. "We do -not know the meaning of the word surrender," replied the -Highlanders to the demands of the detested chief of the -Campbells; "and we have no desire to learn it. We are resolved -neither to give nor to receive any quarter. If his grace is -disposed to attempt the assault, we are determined to repulse -him." -</p><p> -Noble boastings are sometimes the consolation of proud souls when -their cause appears doubtful. The Duke of Argyle did not attempt -the assault, but returned to Edinburgh, from where he soon -advanced to Stirling, now threatened by the Earl of Mar. His -presence destroyed the hope of surprising the capital. Macintosh -marched to the south, and joined the English insurgents at Kelso. -The Northumbrians wished to re-enter England, and endeavored to -compel the Highlanders to follow them; they refused. "If we are -to be sacrificed," said they, "we intend it shall be in our -country." Foster led his troops as far as Preston. A great number -of Catholic gentlemen there joined them, bringing in their train -crowds of peasants without arms and without discipline. Generals -Carpenter and Wills, both experienced officers, who had served -with distinction in Spain, advanced against the rebels from the -north and from the south. When the news of their approach reached -the insurgents, their commander was in bed sleeping off the -effects of a drunken debauch. Lord Kenmure had great difficulty -in arousing him sufficiently to give intelligible orders. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144">{144}</a></span> -<p> -On the 12th of November, 1715, the Jacobites were attacked at -Preston by General Wills. The defence was feeble, although the -insurgents, concealed in the houses, killed many of the soldiers. -The leaders were divided. Foster lost courage and proposed a -capitulation. "If the rebels wish to lay down their arms, and -surrender at discretion," replied the English general, "I will -prevent my soldiers from cutting them in pieces, until I have -received orders from my government." -</p><p> -The Highlanders were furious; they brandished their weapons, and -threatened to cut their way through the royal troops to gain -their own country. But already Lord Derwentwater and Brigadier -Macintosh had surrendered themselves as hostages, and the -soldiers had no other resource than obedience. Prisoners of note -abounded in the camp of General Wills; many were to pay with -their lives for the part they had taken in an insurrection, -inconsiderately undertaken and shamefully and sadly terminated. -Only seventeen men had been killed when the little army of -Jacobites surrendered at Preston. On the same day, the 12th of -November, the Earl of Mar, who had at last shaken off his -lethargy and left Perth, arrived at Ardoch, four leagues from -Stirling: his forces amounted to about ten thousand men. The -Highland chiefs led their clans. A body of gentlemen, well -mounted and well equipped, formed a striking contrast to a crowd -of peasants badly armed and half naked; but nevertheless resolved -to fight. -</p><p> -When Lord Mar learned that Argyle was advancing towards him, and -that he occupied Dumblane, he assembled his principal officers, -and offered them the alternative of battle or retreat. "Fight! -Fight!" cried the Highland chiefs. Soon the same cry spread -throughout the army; hats were waved and swords were brandished. -When the troops of Argyle began the contest in the valley of -Sheriffmuir, the line of battle of the insurgents was imposing. -"I have never seen regular troops form a finer line of battle," -subsequently said General Wightman, "and their officers conducted -themselves with all the bravery imaginable." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145">{145}</a></span> -<p> -Personal heroism and undisciplined fury were ineffectual when -directed by a chief incapable and devoid of energy. The -Highlanders forced the left wing of Argyle's army, while that -general was pursuing their right, which he had quickly routed. -The divisions of the army thus became separated, and had no -communication with each other: but Argyle, returning from the -pursuit, reformed his regiments upon the field of battle, while -Mar, triumphant, at the head of his Highlanders, but anxious, -uncertain, and fearing an ambuscade, was slowly uniting his -forces. When the enemy appeared, at the foot of the hill, the -Scotch chiefs were impatiently awaiting his orders to charge. -"Oh, for an hour of Dundee," already cried Gorden of Glenbucket. -The bagpipes sounded the retreat, and Mar withdrew, without -attempting a final effort "The battle is won," said he to his -lieutenants, in the hope of calming their irritation. The Duke of -Argyle retired to Dumblane. On the following day he re-appeared -on the field of battle, but the Earl of Mar had not returned. -"Your Grace has not gained a complete victory," said one of his -officers. Argyle responded by singing two lines of an old Scotch -song: -</p> -<p class="cite"> - "If 'tis not weel wound, weel wound, weel wound,<br> - If 'tis not weel wound, we'll wind it again." -</p><p> -The same ardor also animated some of the Scotch in the rebel -army. "If we have not yet gained the victory," said General -Hamilton, "we must fight every week until we do gain it." But -uneasiness and lassitude already pervaded the army and extended -even to some of the leaders. Lord Sutherland advanced at the head -of the Whig forces. The Highlanders were urged to conceal their -booty. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146">{146}</a></span> -Many detachments had already left the army and returned to Perth, -when the Chevalier St. George finally landed at Peterhead, on the -22nd of December, 1715. The forces of the Duke of Argyle were -increased by the arrival of auxiliary Dutch troops, that had been -demanded from the States-General by the English Government, and -henceforth his army was larger than that of the rebels. -</p><p> -On the 8th of January, 1716, the Pretender established himself, -without opposition, in the royal palace at Scone. The ceremony of -the coronation was announced for the 23rd of the same month. -</p><p> -The joy of the insurgents upon learning of the arrival of "<i>the -King</i>," was great. "We are now going to live like soldiers, -and to measure ourselves with our enemies," they said, "in place -of remaining here inactive, waiting the vain resolutions of a -frightened council." On his part, James, upon landing, had -written to Bolingbroke: "Behold me, thanks to God, in my ancient -kingdom. I find things in good shape, and I think that all will -go well if the friends of your side do their duty, as I will do -mine. Show this note to the regent." -</p><p> -The illusions did not last long on either side. The Pretender -found the army of his partisans diminished, disordered, and -divided. He was not personally qualified to act upon such men, -and his virtues were better suited to a monarch peacefully seated -upon his throne than to an exiled prince, obliged to conquer his -crown. "He was tall and thin," wrote one of the adherents, "pale -and grave. He spoke but little; his conversation was vague, and -his manners and character seemed measured. I do not know how he -would have been in his pleasures; it was not the time for such -thoughts. We had no opportunity of gayety, and I never saw him -smile. I will not conceal that at the time when we saw him whom -we called our king, we were not in any way reanimated by his -presence, and that if he was disappointed in us, we were ten -times more so in him. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147">{147}</a></span> -We saw nothing in him that looked like spirit. He never showed -either animation or courage, in order to cheer us. Our men began -to despise him and to ask if he could talk. His physiognomy was -dull and heavy. He took no pleasure in mingling with the -soldiers, either to see them drill or exercise. It was said that -our condition discouraged him: I say that the figure he made -among us discouraged us also. If he had sent us five thousand -good troops, instead of coming himself, the result would have -been different." -</p><p> -James III. had nevertheless done an act of power. He issued -proclamations to the army, and these were spread throughout the -country. Two Presbyterian ministers only substituted his name for -that of King George in their public prayers; the Episcopalians, -<i>en masse</i>, rallied around the new monarch, who nevertheless -refused a promise of tolerance to the Anglican Church of Ireland, -and whose assurances were doubtful even in regard to the church -of England. He affected great devotion to his friends and to his -country. "Whatever happens," said he, in his address to his -council, "I will not leave my faithful subjects any reason to -reproach me for not having done all that they might have expected -of me. Those who neglect their duty and their proper interest, -will be responsible for the evil which may happen. Misfortune -will be nothing new to me. From my cradle, all my life has been a -series of misfortunes, and I am ready, if it pleases God, to -endure the threats of your enemies and mine." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148">{148}</a></span> -<p> -On the 31st of January, on the approach of the Duke of Argyle, -urged and constrained to action by General Cadogan, recently -arrived from London, the insurgent army began its retreat. The -soldiers were discouraged, and the leaders uncertain or -irritated. "What has the king come here for?"' asked the -soldiers: "is it to see his subjects killed by the executioner, -without striking a blow in defence? Let us die like men, not as -dogs."—"If his Majesty is disposed to die as a prince, he will -find ten thousand Scotch gentlemen to die with him," said a rich -country gentleman of Aberdeen. But the forces of the Duke of -Argyle were overwhelming. The councillors of the Pretender, -alarmed and trembling for his safety as well as their own, and -hoping for better conditions in the absence of their prince, -urged him to depart. On the evening of the 4th of February, -secretly, and after having taken every precaution necessary to -deceive the army, the Chevalier left the quarters of the Earl of -Mar, whither he had gone on foot. Accompanied by that leader, he -entered a small boat and was taken on board a French ship which -awaited him. General Gordon was now at the head of an army which -was disbanding, in the midst of a country devastated by fire. The -prince had ordered the burning of all villages as far as -Stirling. He and all his adherents were now exposed to the -vengeance of that government which they had so recently menaced. -On departing, and as a compensation for so many evils, the -Pretender wrote to the Duke of Argyle, sending him all the money -he possessed: "I pray you," said he, "have this sum distributed -among the inhabitants of the villages which have been burned, in -order that I may at least have the satisfaction of not having -caused the ruin of any one; I, who would have died for them all." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149">{149}</a></span> -<p> -The honor of saving a people costs more dearly and necessitates -more sacrifices than the Chevalier St. George was inclined to -believe, in his indolent nature; he had failed personally, as -well as in his political and military enterprises. But the -Jacobite party was not destroyed; it was still to nourish long -its hopes and to shed much blood for his cause. The insurrection -of 1715 was at an end. The Highlanders sought refuge in their -mountains, and the great lords and gentlemen either concealed -themselves, or escaped from Scotland and increased the little -exiled court. James arrived at Gravelines, and from there he went -to St. Germain. Bolingbroke joined him immediately. The prince -desired to remain a few days in France, but the regent would not -permit it, and also refused to see him. He desired to find a -refuge with the Duke of Lorraine, before the English government -could interfere. The chevalier separated from his minister with -feigned protestations of friendship. Three days later the Duke of -Ormond presented himself before Bolingbroke, bearer of a letter -from James, which thanked him for his services, of which he had -no longer need, and ordered him to deliver all the state papers -into the hands of Ormond. "The papers were held without -difficulty in an envelope of ordinary size," ironically remarked -Bolingbroke. "I delivered them solemnly to my Lord Ormond, as -well as the seals. There were some letters of the chevalier which -would have been inconvenient to show to the duke, and which he -had without doubt forgotten. I subsequently sent them to him, by -a sure hand, disdaining to play him false by executing his orders -to the letter. I did not wish to appear annoyed, being far from -angry." -</p><p> -Bolingbroke deceived himself: his anger against the Jacobites -constantly displayed itself during the remainder of his agitated -and restless life. With a disdainful thoughtlessness, many times -too familiar to princes, James measured the devotion of his -secretary of state; but he had judged less justly the services -which he had already rendered him, and which he might still -render. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150">{150}</a></span> -<p> -"It would seem that one must have lost his senses," wrote Marsna -Berwick, "in order not to comprehend the arrant folly which -induced King James to deprive himself of the only Englishman able -to govern his affairs. Bolingbroke was endowed with brilliant -talents, which had advanced him, at an early age, to the highest -offices. He exercised a great influence upon the Tory party, of -which he was the soul. Nothing could be more deplorable than to -separate himself from such a man, at a time when he was most -necessary, and when it was important not to make new enemies. I -have been a witness of the conduct of Bolingbroke: he had done -for King James all that he was able to do." -</p><p> -The entreaties of the queen mother were unable to appease -Bolingbroke. "I am free," said he, "and may my hand wither if I -ever take the sword or pen in the service of your son." From that -time all the thoughts of the exile turned towards England, while -the prince whom he had served, and who had not appreciated him, -departed for Avignon, thus virtually abandoning his royal party -by this retreat to a Papal country, the most odious and most -suspected of all, by the English. -</p><p> -Scotland had suffered from the presence of armies, by the -destruction of crops, by the flight or death of a great number of -the gentry, and by the new animosities excited between the clans -engaged on the different sides. The government had taken but few -prisoners, and even those were unimportant. The English -insurrection had delivered to justice, or to the vengeance of the -Whigs, many important hostages. Lord Widdington, Lord Nairn, Lord -Kenmure, the Earls of Nithisdale and of Derwentwater, were -accused of high treason. All were condemned. The entreaties of -their friends obtained the pardon of Lords Nairn, Carnwath and -Widdington. Lord Wintoun, who alone had plead "not guilty," and -in consequence had undergone a trial, succeeded in escaping from -the Tower. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151">{151}</a></span> -Lady Nithisdale had the happiness of saving her husband, who -escaped disguised in her clothing. Lord Derwentwater and Lord -Kenmure alone remained. Many members of both houses were inclined -towards clemency. "I am indignant," said Walpole, with a severity -foreign to his character, "to see members of this great body so -unfaithful to their duty that they are able to open their mouths -without blushing in favor of rebels and parricides." Lord -Nottingham boldly declared for the condemned; he was dismissed -from the ministry. On the 24th of February, 1716, the two lords -perished upon the scaffold at Tower Hill, proclaiming to the last -moment their faithful allegiance to King James. Condemnations -were less numerous among the rebels of an inferior order. Justice -had been severe, but it had not become vengeance. "The rebel who -declares himself boldly, justly compromises his life," affirms -Gibbon, with positive equity. New measures, purely repressive, -were voted against the Catholics, among whom were naturally -reckoned many Jacobites. Among the constant partisans of the -fallen house, the devotion, the fidelity, the honest and sincere -attachment, merit the respect of men and the sympathetic -indulgence of history. Indignation and contempt belong to those -who had nourished hopes, encouraged intrigues, even furnished -resources secretly and perfidiously, like the Duke of -Marlborough, the General-in-chief of the armies of King George, -without risking a day of their lives nor an atom of their -grandeur. The splendor of genius and the most brilliant successes -can never efface such a stain. Slowly and noiselessly, -Marlborough had lost in public opinion, and he was soon to fall -into an intellectual and physical decadence: worthy chastisement -of a life, a singular mixture of great power of mind and moral -baseness, of cold calculation and violent passions, of glory and -of ignominy. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152">{152}</a></span> -Attacked by paralysis, in May, 1716, Marlborough expired on the -16th of June, 1722, and was interred, with royal honors in -Westminster Abbey. "I was a man then," said the invalid Duke, -when contemplating his portrait in a picture which represented -the battle of Blenheim. He left an immense fortune, the results -of the great offices which both he and the Duchess had held, as -well as the exactions that his extreme avidity for money had led -him into. "I have heard his widow say," said Voltaire, "that -after the division made to four children, there still remained to -her, without thanks to the court, a revenue of £70,000." -</p><p> -National gratitude had contributed its share to this enormous -accumulation of wealth. It is to the honor of England that she -has always recompensed her great servants magnificently. -</p><p> -Parliament, on its own authority, and by a legitimate exercise of -its power, now took an important step. The experience of the last -twenty years of triennial legislative elections had convinced -many sound thinkers that an agitation so frequently renewed was -dangerous to the electors, as well as to the liberty of action of -those elected. It was remembered that William III. had once -refused his assent to the bill, which was subsequently imposed -upon him. A new law decided that the duration of the parliaments -should henceforth be seven years. Usage has often abridged this -term by a year, but it has remained, notwithstanding frequent -infractions, the regular limit for legislatures. About the same -time, and in spite of serious obstacles, that clause of the act -of Establishment which formerly forbade the sovereigns to leave -the soil of Great Britain, was repealed by the houses. The desire -of George I. to visit his hereditary states became irresistible; -he had long been detained by the jealousy which he felt regarding -his son. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153">{153}</a></span> -It was with regret and upon the formal advice of his ministers, -that he decided to confide the government to the Prince of Wales -during his absence. "This family has always been quarrelsome," -said Lord Carteret, one day, to the full Council, "and it will -quarrel always, from generation to generation." -</p><p> -The king left England on the 17th of July, 1716, accompanied by -the Secretary of State, Stanhope. The latter profited by his -presence upon the continent, and formed, with the States-General -and the Emperor, a treaty of defensive alliance: the only -guarantee which he was able to obtain from the jealous -susceptibility of the court of Vienna, and the restless -feebleness of the Dutch negotiators. Heinsius was no longer in -power, and soon afterwards died. "Forced to rely upon many heads, -the government no longer has a head," said Horace Walpole, -brother of the leader of the House of Commons and minister to the -Hague; "there are here as many masters as wills." -</p><p> -An understanding with France, regarding new enterprises of the -Pretender, became necessary to England. The regent was not -personally opposed to it; he was weary of the indolence and -cowardly incapacity of the Chevalier St. George; he was besides -urged by the Abbé Dubois, formerly his tutor, corrupt himself and -a corruptor of others, and already secretly at the head of -foreign affairs, but waiting until he should be officially -appointed, and aspiring to become prime minister. -</p><p> -Without respect for law, destitute of all religious convictions, -and consequently inaccessible to the motive which led many good -Catholics, in Europe, to desire the re-establishment of the -Stuarts, Dubois was able, often far-seeing, and sometimes even -bold; he had a mind active, clear, and moderately practical. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154">{154}</a></span> -The alliance of England seemed to him useful to his master and to -France. He adroitly availed himself of his former relations with -General Stanhope, when commander of the English troops in Spain, -in order to begin secret negotiations, which soon extended to -Holland. "The character of our regent," wrote Dubois, on the 10th -of March, 1716, "leaves no room to fear that he prides himself -upon perpetuating the prejudices and the policy of our ancient -court; and as you can remark for yourself, he has too much spirit -not to recognize his true interests." -</p><p> -Dubois carried to the Hague the propositions of the regent. King -George was expected there; the clever diplomat concealed the -object of his journey under the pretext of buying rare books. He -went, he said, to redeem from the hands of the Jews the famous -picture of the Seven Sacraments, by Poussin, recently stolen from -Paris. The order of the succession to the crowns of France and -England, conformably to the peace of Utrecht, was guaranteed in -the treaty. It was the only decided advantage to the regent, who -hoped thereby to confirm the renunciation of Philip V. Dubois had -demanded that all the conditions of the treaty of 1713 should be -recognized. Stanhope formally refused. "It has taken me three -days to get out of this with the Abbé Dubois," wrote he to -England: as to the remainder, all the concessions came from -France; her territory was forbidden to the Jacobites, and the -Pretender, who was established at Avignon, was to be invited to -cross the Alps. The English demanded the abandonment of the works -on the canal at Mardyke, destined to replace the port of Dunkirk. -The Dutch claimed commercial advantages. Dubois yielded upon all -these points, but defended to the last, with a vain tenacity, the -title of King of France, that the English still disputed to our -monarchs. Stanhope was urged to terminate the negotiations. -Diplomatic complications that threatened to lead to war in the -north gravely pre-occupied George I., always absorbed in the -interests of his patrimonial States. "The scope of his mind does -not extend beyond the Electorate." said Lord Chesterfield; -"England is too large a morsel for him." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155">{155}</a></span> -<p> -Unfriendly relations had long existed between King George and the -Czar, Peter the Great, that powerful and erratic genius, who by -his personal merit laid the foundations of a great empire. He had -made advances to France. -</p><p> -The Dutch were slow in deciding, but in October, 1716, the -preliminaries of the treaty were signed by Stanhope and the Abbé -Dubois only. On the 6th of January, 1717, the ratifications were -finally exchanged at the Hague. "I signed at midnight," wrote -Dubois, triumphantly, to the regent; "you are no longer a page, -and I have no more fear." The treaty of the Triple Alliance -gained for Dubois the office of secretary of foreign affairs. It -disturbed the English ministry and disorganized momentarily the -Whig party. Lord Townshend was hostile to the haste shown by -Stanhope in concluding the treaty; his brother-in-law, Horace -Walpole, had refused his signature. Court intrigues aggravated -this discontent; the king, besides, was irritated against Lord -Townshend and Robert Walpole, whom he regarded as favorable to -his son. Always honest, often rude, and with but little tact, -Lord Townshend believed he could obtain from George I. -discretionary powers for the Prince of Wales. This rendered his -fall inevitable. Even before his return to England, the king -dismissed his minister, offering to him in exchange for his -office, the vice-royalty of Ireland; but scarcely had the session -opened, when the animosities became more aggravated, and the -apparent reconciliations were broken off. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156">{156}</a></span> -Lord Townshend and Robert Walpole withdrew from public affairs. -Lord Sunderland, as able, although not as corrupt as his father, -became secretary of state; Addison, at the same time, was called -to the ministry, and General Stanhope was appointed First Lord of -the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer. In spite of the -ministerial modifications, the power remained in the hands of the -Whigs. "While there remain Whigs disposed to serve him, the king -is decided to be served by the Whigs," wrote Stanhope, while yet -in Hanover, with George I., "and I will not be the one to turn -his Majesty from this good resolution, by refusing to take some -trouble, or to expose myself to whatever peril may arise." -</p><p> -The ministry and England were at this epoch greatly disturbed by -a new intrigue, organized in Europe, in favor of the Pretender. -Spain was governed by Cardinal Alberoni, the crafty, ambitious, -and bold Italian who had placed Elizabeth Farnese upon the throne -with Philip V., and through her exercised the power. He had -regulated the finances and industry, he had prepared a fleet and -an army; "meditating," he said, "the peace of the world;" and he -began this great enterprise, by maneuvres which could lead to -nothing less than setting fire to the four corners of Europe, in -the name of a feeble and dull king, and of a queen ambitious, -artful, and unpopular, "whom he had locked up, carrying the key -in his pocket," says St. Simon. He dreamed of establishing the -empire of Spain in Italy, of disturbing the government of the -regent in France, of overthrowing the Protestant king of England -by re-establishing the Stuarts upon the throne, and of raising -himself to the supreme power in Church and State. Already he had -obtained from Pope Clement XI., the cardinal's hat, by -concealing, under the pretext of war against the Turks, the -preparations which he was making against Italy. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157">{157}</a></span> -Having remained neutral during the Jacobite insurrection of 1715, -he entered into the projects of Görtz, a passionate intriguer, -animated against King George by an ardent rancor, and using his -influence upon the heroic madman who reigned in Sweden, in order -to engage him also in the Jacobite plots. The alliance with the -Czar, Peter the Great, was to advance the projects of the -Chevalier. A first naval enterprise delivered Sardinia into the -hands of Alberoni. The Spanish troops entered Sicily. The Emperor -and Victor Amadeus were aroused; the Pope, overwhelmed by -reproaches from these two princes, wept, according to his custom, -saying that he had damned himself by raising Alberoni to the -Roman purple. Dubois profited by the agitations created in Europe -by the belligerant attitude of the all-powerful minister, to -finally draw the emperor into the alliance with France and -England. He renounced his pretensions to Spain and the Indies, -and returned Sardinia to Savoy, receiving Sicily in return. The -succession to the Duchies of Parma and of Tuscany was assured to -the children of the Queen of Spain. The Quadruple Alliance seemed -to promise peace to Europe; the Dutch and the Duke of Savoy -reluctantly consented. France and England engaged to gain the -consent of Spain by force of arms, if they were not able to -obtain it peacefully within a certain time. -</p><p> -King George I. demanded from Parliament an increase of naval -subsidies. A considerable fleet, under the orders of Admiral -Bing, soon appeared in Spanish waters. Lord Stanhope departed for -Madrid in order to support by negotiations the salutary effect of -the presence of the English fleet. Neither the persuasions of the -minister, nor the long line of ships presented by the admiral, -acted upon the spirit of Alberoni. He tore up the paper which the -admiral presented. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158">{158}</a></span> -"Execute the orders of the king your master," said he, angrily. -Upon learning of the departure of Lord Stanhope, he had -immediately written: "If my Lord Stanhope comes as a legislator, -he may dispense with his journey. If he comes as a mediator, I -will receive him; but in any case I inform him that at the first -attack of our vessels by an English squadron, Spain has not an -inch of ground where I would be willing to answer for his -person." -</p><p> -Lord Stanhope had scarcely left Spain, when Admiral Bing, in -conjunction with General Daun, who commanded for the emperor, -attacked the Spanish fleet off Cape Passero. The Spaniards had -recently taken possession of Palermo; Messina opened its gates to -them. The Piedmontese garrison had crowded into the citadel, when -the victory of the English and the destruction of the growing -Spanish fleet suddenly changed the face of affairs. Messina -delivered, and Palermo blockaded, without hope of succor, were to -Cardinal Alberoni a mortal blow. Furious, he seized the persons -and the goods of English residents in Spain, and drove out the -consuls. Trumpeters were sent through the streets of Madrid, with -orders to the people, forbidding any discussion regarding the -affairs of Sicily. -</p><p> -The hope of a diversion in the north, favorable to the projects -of the Jacobites, as well as those of Alberoni, was destroyed by -the death of the King of Sweden, Charles XII., killed on the 12th -of December, 1718, before Frederickshall. -</p><p> -Alberoni summoned the Pretender to Madrid. The conspiracy of -Cellamare, absurd and frivolous, organized in Paris against the -power of the regent, by the Spanish ambassador and the Duchess of -Maine, was discovered by Dubois early in December, 1718. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159">{159}</a></span> -The declarations of war from France and England succeeded each -other rapidly (Dec. 17, 1718, Jan. 9, 1719). At the same time -King Philip V., by a proclamation, on the 25th of December, 1718, -pronounced all his renunciations null and void, and claimed his -rights to the crown of France upon the death of Louis XV. At the -same time he made an appeal to the States-General against the -tyranny of the Regent, who had allied himself, he said, to the -enemies of both countries. -</p><p> -In England, as in France, Alberoni counted upon internal -divisions and party animosities. The Pretender occupied the royal -palace of Buen Retiro, at Madrid; the King and Queen of Spain -visited him. A small squadron, secretly armed at Cadiz, put to -sea, under the orders of the Duke of Ormond. Public anxiety in -England was so great, that the government of King George accepted -auxiliary forces sent by the emperor and the States-General. The -regent offered troops, and sent to London all the information -which he received. A reward was offered for the capture of the -Duke of Ormond. Once more the sea protected the coast of England, -and the king whom she had chosen. The Spanish flotilla was -dispersed by a tempest; two frigates only, having on board Lord -Keith, known in Europe under his hereditary title of Earl -Marischal, Lord Seaforth, and the Marquis Tullibardine, landed -upon the coast of Scotland, with three hundred Spanish soldiers. -Some gentlemen joined them. The force of the rebels had increased -to about two thousand men, when General Wightman marched against -them. Some unimportant engagements were favorable to the rebels, -but finally they were defeated. The Highlanders disappeared in -the inaccessible recesses of their mountains; the Spaniards were -taken prisoners and conducted to Edinburgh. The three leaders of -the insurrection withdrew to the western isles, from where they -soon embarked; the one to return some years later to Scotland -(Lord Seaforth), another to die of grief in the Tower, after the -insurrection of 1745 (Tullibardine), and the third to enter the -service of the King of Prussia and to add his name to the -diplomatic intrigues of Europe. Voltaire and Rousseau were in -turn associated with Lord Marischal. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160">{160}</a></span> -<p> -As usual, the humble partisans of the fallen house suffered -bitterly for their blind fidelity. "I made a tour through the -difficult passes of the country of Seaforth," wrote General -Wightman, "and we terrified the rebels by burning the houses of -the guilty, while we spared the peaceful subjects." -</p><p> -Alberoni, weary of the ill-fortune of the Stuarts, and of the -useless burden that it imposed upon all those who desired to -serve them, informed the Pretender that he should leave Madrid. -His intended bride, the Princess Clementine Sobieski, recently -arrested by order of the emperor, at the instigation of England, -had escaped from her prison; James joined her at Rome, where -their marriage was solemnized. -</p><p> -The war was brilliant, notwithstanding the deceptions with which -Alberoni incessantly quieted his master. "The regent is able, -whenever he desires, to send a French army," wrote the cardinal, -on the 21st of November, 1718. -</p><p> -"Assure him publicly that he will not have a shot fired against -him here, and that the king our master will have supplies ready -for him." The army in fact entered Spain in March, 1719. The old -Marshal Villars declined the honor of commanding against the -grandson of Louis XIV. The Prince of Conti bore the title of -general-in-chief. The Duke of Berwick, less scrupulous than -Villars, accepted the effective functions; notwithstanding his -former connection with Spain, the presence of his eldest son the -Duke of Leria, in the Spanish ranks, and the services that Philip -V. had just rendered to the head of the house of Stuart. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161">{161}</a></span> -Alberoni conducted the king, the queen, and the prince of -Asturias to the camp. Philip V. expected the defection of the -French army, en masse. No one moved; some refugees made an -attempt with some officers; their messenger was hung. -Fuenterabra, St. Sebastian, and the castle of Urgel soon fell -into the hands of the French. Another division burned six vessels -which were upon the docks. Everywhere the English brought ruin -upon the Spanish navy. Their fleets, separate or united to the -French, destroyed the Spanish vessels at Santona, at Centera, and -in the port of Vigo; everywhere the magazines were delivered to -the flames. This cruel and disastrous war against an enemy whose -best troops were fighting at a distance, usefully served the -passions as well as the interests of England. -</p><p> -"It is very necessary," wrote Berwick, "that the government be -able to make the next Parliament believe that they have spared -nothing in order to decrease the Spanish navy." During this time -the English fleet, and the troops of the emperor, under the -orders of the Count of Mercy, attacked the Spanish army in -Sicily; it defended itself heroically, but was without resources, -without reinforcements, and diminishing every day. After a -momentary success at Franca Villa, the Marquis of Leyde held only -Palermo and the environs of Etna. -</p><p> -An attempted insurrection, poorly seconded by some Spanish -vessels, failed in Brittany. Three gentlemen and a priest -perished upon the scaffold. "Never have I seen a plot more poorly -organized," says Duclos, in his Memoirs; "many did not know what -they were fighting for." The attempt of Alberoni to excite a -revolt in England and France, did not succeed any better than the -war in Spain or Sicily. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162">{162}</a></span> -The Spaniards were everywhere defeated, and the cardinal was -vigorously attacked at home. He made overtures of peace at London -and at Paris. Dubois wrote to Stanhope, who responded -immediately: "We would commit a great error if we did not -consolidate the peace by the overthrow of the minister who has -caused the war. His insatiable ambition has been the only cause -of hostilities; if he is compelled to accept the peace, he will -yield momentarily to necessity, but with a confirmed resolution -of seizing the first opportunity for vengeance. Thank God he does -not know either what he can do or what he ought to attempt. He -recognizes no other condition for peace than exhaustion and -weakness; let us not leave him time to recover himself. Demand -from the king that he be sent from Spain. No stipulation could be -more advantageous for his Catholic Majesty and for his people. It -is a good thing thus to give to Europe an example which may -intimidate turbulent ministers, unfaithful to treaties, and who -allow themselves to attack impudently the persons of princes." -</p><p> -Three months later, on the 4th of December, 1718, after a -prolonged audience with Philip V., who had treated him with his -usual kindness, Alberoni suddenly received an order to leave -Madrid within eight days, and Spain within three weeks. No -entreaty would induce the king or queen to see him. The cardinal -retired at first to Genoa, and then to Rome, where he passed the -remainder of his life, in the peaceful enjoyment of an immense -fortune. The country which he had oppressed, but reanimated and -served, soon fell into its former lethargy. "The queen is -possessed with a devil," said he, in his retirement; "if she -finds a soldier who has any resources of mind, and is a good -general, she will cause an uproar in Europe." The queen did not -find a general, and on the 17th of January, 1720, the -preliminaries of peace were signed at the Hague. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163">{163}</a></span> -The definitive articles were not agreed upon until the 13th of -June, 1721. In the interval, thanks to the union with France, -England was enabled to put an end to the war with Sweden and -Denmark. King George gained the Duchies of Bremen and of Verden, -for which he had long entertained pretensions. Peter the Great -alone remained in arms. Europe had at last gained the repose -which she was to enjoy for many years. -</p><p> -The war had not suspended parliamentary struggles. In 1718, upon -a sincerely liberal proposition of Lord Stanhope, the <i>Acts of -Schism</i> and of <i>Occasional Conformity</i> were repealed by -the Houses. The ministers desired to go further and amend the -<i>Test Act</i>, in order to place the Dissenters upon a footing -of legitimate religious equality with the members of the Anglican -Church. -</p><p> -The bishops were divided upon the question. "We have already had -much trouble," said Lord Sunderland; "but if we touch the Test, -all will be lost." Lord Stanhope desired to include the -Catholics; the day of liberty and justice for them had not yet -arrived. -</p><p> -King George had just returned to London, after a recent voyage -into Germany, when a bold proposition was made in the House of -Lords. The peers had not yet forgotten the numerous creations -hazarded by the Earl of Oxford in order to assure a majority to -the court; the character of the Prince of Wales offered few -guarantees, and the foreign favorites were eager for honors and -distinctions. The thought was conceived of limiting the number of -peers by restraining the royal prerogative. The king made no -objection. "His Majesty has so strong a desire to establish the -peerage of the realm upon a basis which will assure forever the -constitutional liberty of Parliament," said Lord Stanhope, "that -he consents not to hinder this great work by the exercise of his -prerogative." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164">{164}</a></span> -<p> -The discussion was long, animated, and many times resumed; the -good judgment of the nation finally prevailed over the rancors of -the past, and over the jealousies of the future. Adopted by the -Lords, the bill was rejected in the House of Commons by a large -majority. "The road to the temple of fame formerly passed through -the temple of virtue," said Walpole; "this bill makes it -necessary to arrive at honor through the winding sheet of an old -decrepid lord, or the grave of an extinct noble family." It is -the sole happiness of England, and one of the sources of her -grandeur, as well as of her security, to have maintained upon the -ancient bases a force in the state constantly renewed and -liberally recruited by personal merit. -</p><p> -This check to the ministry was important; but a greater shock, -which was to overthrow it and overwhelm the country in ruin, was -preparing. At the same time that Paris and France were a prey to -the fever for wild speculations, excited by the system of Law, -England, for other reasons and from other pretexts, suffered an -analogous contagion, accompanied by the same fatal results. The -South Sea Company had been founded in 1711, by Harley. In -guarantee for the payment of the national debt, important -privileges had then been accorded to him. In 1719 the directors -of the company proposed to liquidate the public debt in -twenty-six years, upon condition that the different claims were -to be concentrated in their hands, and that they would be -supplied with new privileges as well as great latitude in their -negotiations. The Bank of England disputed with the South Sea -Company the honor and supposed profit of this enterprise, which -was put up at auction. A bill of Parliament assured the monopoly -to the company, which had engaged to pay seven and a half million -sterling. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165">{165}</a></span> -In order to sustain this enormous burden, the directors plunged -into the wildest speculations. Walpole had predicted the fatal -effects, but without measuring the criminal folly of the leaders, -and the stupid avidity of the followers. The shares of the -company increased from one hundred and thirty to a thousand -pounds sterling; while new societies were formed for the working -of the most insane industries. Raising the wrecks upon the coast -of Ireland, the freshening of the waters of the sea, the -fabrication of the oil of turnsole, the importation of donkeys -from Spain, the fattening of pork, formed simultaneously the -objects of fictitious speculations, suddenly arrested at the -instigation of the South Sea Company, jealous and anxious to -concentrate upon their enterprise all the energy of the -stock-jobbers. Exchange Alley became the rival of Quincampoix -street; the greatest lords, the most delicate ladies; -ecclesiastics elbowed merchants and servants, all hurrying to -secure for themselves the new stocks put in circulation, and the -fabulous profits which were expected from them. The Prince of -Wales himself consented to become a director of the company for -the working of copper mines in Wales. The intervention of the -ministry was necessary to threaten the company with prosecution, -before his royal highness would consent to withdraw with a profit -of £40,000. -</p><p> -The edifice of Law, in France, began to totter; the ruin of the -fictitious companies in England soon involved all reasonable and -legitimate speculations. In a few weeks the stock of the South -Sea Company fell below three hundred pounds sterling; the -suddenness of the catastrophe seriously involved the English -speculators. Everywhere families were ruined, fortunes the most -solid were shaken, and character and reputations were lost. "The -very name of the South Sea Company became odious," says a -contemporary. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166">{166}</a></span> -In vain was Walpole, who had recently retired to his country -house at Houghton, recalled to London to seek a remedy for the -evils which he had foreseen; but the ruin was beyond his efforts -and power. Public anger and indignation knew no bounds. The king, -who was in Hanover, returned precipitately, and Parliament was -convoked for the 8th of December. "I avow," said Lord Molesworth, -to the House of Commons, "that the ordinary laws do not reach the -directors of the South Sea Company, but extraordinary crimes call -aloud for extraordinary remedies. The Roman lawgivers had not -foreseen the possible existence of a parricide; but as soon as -the first monster appeared, he was sewed in a sack and cast -headlong into the Tiber; and I shall be content to inflict the -same treatment on the authors of our present ruin." -</p><p> -The calm good sense of Walpole, as well as his prudent foresight, -powerfully advanced his ascendancy in Parliament. He succeeded in -controlling the unchained passions. "If London was on fire, wise -men would endeavor to extinguish the flames before they sought -the incendiaries. We have a matter of still greater urgency: to -save the public credit." Able and wise measures had been -presented to Parliament, but public vengeance was not satisfied; -a thorough inquiry ended in the discovery of grave evidences of -corruption and bribery. The discussions became so violent that -the doors of the House were closed and the keys placed upon the -table. The German favorites of the king, the Duchess of Kendal -and the Countess of Platen, the Lord Treasurer, the Earl of -Sunderland and Mr. Aislabie the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and -many other inferior officers of the government, were found to be -seriously compromised. A parliamentary quarrel between Lords -Wharton and Stanhope agitated the latter so violently that he had -an apoplectic fit and died the next day, to the great regret of -the public who had never doubted his honesty. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167">{167}</a></span> -<p> -The Secretary of State, Craggs, justly accused of having received -a bribe from the directors of the company, died of the small pox; -his father, the Postmaster-General, took poison. Aislabie was -sent to the Tower, and the greater part of his property was -confiscated. All the property of the directors was seized, and -they were declared forever incapable of holding any public office -or of sitting in Parliament. Lord Sunderland had lost -considerable sums: "He is a dupe, but not an accomplice," -scornfully said even his enemies. He was acquitted, but -nevertheless could not preserve his power. Walpole succeeded him -as first Lord of the Treasury. Sunderland died on the 17th of -April, 1721, some weeks after the general elections, and two -months before his illustrious father-in-law, the Duke of -Marlborough. -</p><p> -Robert Walpole had finally attained the power which he was to -exercise during twenty years, for the repose, if not always for -the honor and moral grandeur of his country. Jealous of his -authority, to the extent of removing from the circle about the -king all those not his friends, and even those of his friends -whom he could not control absolutely, he encountered, at the -outset, the intrigues of the Jacobites, re-awakened by the -general discontent and by the new aspirations which the birth of -a son awakened in the Pretender. -</p><p> -A new expedition was prepared under the orders of the Duke of -Ormond, and matured and directed from England by a council of -five members who conducted the affairs of "King James III." The -soul of this little clique was the Bishop of Rochester, Francis -Atterbury, indefatigable in his zeal as well as inexhaustible in -his resources; sincerely attached to the Protestant faith, but -sacrificing all to his political passions, and more occupied in -preparing for the landing of the invaders and in fomenting an -insurrection during the absence of the king in Hanover, than in -the care of his diocese. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168">{168}</a></span> -When the plot was discovered, the inferior agents were promptly -arrested, and the Duke of Norfolk, Lord Orrery, and Lord North, -at first imprisoned in the Tower, were soon released: the bishop -remained gravely compromised. Walpole resolved to risk a trial. -Among the accomplices a young barrister named Layer alone -suffered the extreme penalty; the property of some others was -confiscated; but public interest concentrated itself upon the -bishop, who was kept in close confinement in the Tower. -</p><p> -Atterbury was eloquent and convincing; when he appeared before -the House of Lords, all his efforts tended to prove that the -testimony against him was forged. Walpole was compelled to defend -himself: "A finer passage at arms between two such antagonists -was never seen," said Onslow, the speaker of the House of -Commons; "one fighting for his reputation, the other for his -life." The evidence was overwhelming against the bishop; he had -evidently conspired against a sovereign to whom he had sworn -allegiance. His address was as eloquent as able. "I have suffered -so much," said he, "that the little strength which I enjoyed at -the time of my arrest, in the month of August last, has -completely disappeared, and I am not in a state to appear before -your lordships, still less to defend myself in an affair of so -extraordinary a nature. I am accused of having conspired. What -could I gain, my lords, by going thus out of my way? No man in my -order is less urged by ambition for higher dignities of the -Church. I have always scorned money; too much so, perhaps, for I -may now need it. Could I have been drawn by a secret attraction -towards papacy? -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169">{169}</a></span> -My lords, since I have known what papacy is, I have exposed it; -and the better I have known it, the stronger I have opposed it. -For the last thirty-seven years I have written in favor of Martin -Luther. Whatever may happen to me, I am ready to suffer all, and -by the grace of God to perish at the stake sooner than depart -from the Protestant faith as set forth by the Church of England. -I have awaited my sentence these eight months, my lords, -separated from my children, who have not been able to write me or -even send me a message without express authority. When the -illustrious Earl of Clarendon, accused of treason, was compelled -to retire into exile, he had passed the greater part of his life -abroad, and was well known there; he understood the language, and -he enjoyed a large fortune; all these consolations are wanting to -me. I resemble him only in my innocence and my punishment. It is -not in the power of any man to alter the first resemblance, but -it is in the power of your lordships to profoundly modify the -second; I hope for it and I expect it from you." Atterbury was -condemned; a majority of the prelates voted against him. -</p><p> -The English Catholics had ardently espoused the cause of the -house of Stuart, and they were to pay once again for their -illusive imprudence and folly. The attempt which had just cost -the Bishop of Rochester his episcopal see and the freedom of his -country, served as a pretext for Walpole to propose a tax of -£100,000, to be collected from the estates of the Catholics. -"Many of them are guilty," said the minister. This contempt for -justice and liberty, which long pursued the Catholics in England, -weighed upon the French Protestants still longer and more -heavily. The bill which passed the Houses included all the gentry -who had refused to take the oath of allegiance. Many who had -resisted, up to this time, in consequence of a sincere -repugnance, now hastened to take the oath to the established -order of things. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170">{170}</a></span> -<p> -"I have observed well," said the Speaker Onslow, who was opposed -to the measure of Walpole, "and it was a strange and ridiculous -spectacle to see the crowd which gathered at the quarterly -Sessions in order to pledge their allegiance to the government, -while, at the same time, cursing it for the trouble which it was -giving them and for the fear which it inspired. I am convinced -that the attachment for the king and his family has received a -severe shock from all that happened at this time." -</p><p> -As the exiled bishop put his foot upon the soil of France, at -Calais, he learned that Lord Bolingbroke had been pardoned by the -king, and had arrived in that city on his way to England. "I am -exchanged, then," said Atterbury, smiling. "Assuredly," wrote -Pope, the intimate and faithful friend of the bishop, "this -country fears an excess of talent, since it will not regain one -genius without losing another." -</p><p> -It was to the venal protection of the Duchess of Kendal that -Bolingbroke owed the royal pardon. Walpole had not received -favorably the overtures which had been made to him in favor of -the exile. "The attainder ought never to be abolished, and crimes -ought never to be forgotten," said he, in the Council. The -Marquise de Villette, niece of Madame Maintenon, at first the -friend and subsequently the wife of Bolingbroke, had succeeded in -interesting the favorite in his behalf. Eleven thousand pounds -sterling were paid, it was said, for permission to return to -England. He had as yet recovered neither his title, his rights, -nor his fortune. The offer of his services was refused by -Walpole. It was not until 1725, and even then, through the -intervention of Madame Villette and the Duchess of Kendal, that -Bolingbroke, having returned to France, finally obtained -permission to present to Parliament a petition that Walpole -consented to support. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171">{171}</a></span> -More clear-sighted than he had often been during his public life, -Bolingbroke while in France had served continually and to the -utmost, the interests of the English minister, by sustaining his -brother Horace and his brother-in-law Lord Townshend, in their -rivalry against Lord Carteret, the Secretary of State. The -amnesty voted by Parliament restored to Bolingbroke his personal -fortune, and his rights to the heritage of his father, but -without giving him the right of disposing of it. The king had -promised Walpole, it was said, that Bolingbroke should never -again hold any political position. "I am restored to two-thirds," -wrote he to Swift, from his country house at Uxbridge. He -received his friends, occupying or at least pretending to occupy -himself exclusively with his estate and in literary pursuits. -Voltaire was one of his visitors, when driven from France by his -quarrel with the Chevalier Rohan, and passed two years in -England. This event had a powerful effect upon Voltaire's mind, -and many traces of the same may be found in his writings. The -relations of the poet with Bolingbroke were of long standing; -they had often met at the Chateau de la Source, near Orleans, -where the exile lived for some time. "One thing which interests -me," wrote Voltaire, "is the recall of milord Bolingbroke to -England. He will be at Paris to-day, and I shall have the grief -of bidding him farewell, perhaps forever." When Voltaire, in his -turn, again reached his own country, he dedicated to Bolingbroke -his tragedy of <i>Brutus</i>: "Permit me to present to you -<i>Brutus</i>," wrote he, "although written in another language, -<i>docte sermonis utriusque linguœ</i>, to you who have given me -lessons in French as well as in English, to you who have taught -me at least to give to my language that force and that energy -which noble liberty of thought inspires: for vigorous sentiments -of the soul always pass into the language, and he who thinks -forcibly speaks likewise." Voltaire, on asking permission to -visit England, had remarked: "it is a country where they think -freely and nobly without being restrained by servile fear." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172">{172}</a></span> -<p> -Troubles in Ireland, caused by the recoinage of money, and in -Scotland, by a tax upon beer, which had been substituted for the -malt tax, had for some time detained King George in England. -Finally, in 1725, he departed for Hanover, accompanied, as usual, -by Lord Townshend and the Duchess of Kendal. The state of affairs -in Europe had become critical. In France the regent had died on -the 2nd of December, 1723; the Duke of Bourbon, who had succeeded -him, governed ostentatiously and violently, but without either -true force or authority, and abandoned to the influence of his -favorite, the corrupt and avaricious Marquise de Prie. Both -desired to assure the duration of their power by giving to the -young King Louis XV. a wife who would owe to them her elevation, -and who would remain submissive to them. -</p><p> -The Infanta of Spain had been educated at the French Court, -treated as queen, and was only waiting until her age would permit -her to wed the young King Louis XV., according to a treaty -solemnly negotiated with Philip V. She was sent back to Madrid, -and Marie Leczinska, daughter of Stanislaus, the dethroned and -ruined King of Poland, was chosen in her place for the sad honor -of sharing the throne of Louis XV. "It is necessary that the -Infanta depart immediately, in order that this may be done -sooner," said the Count of Morvilliers, who was charged with the -marriage negotiations. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173">{173}</a></span> -<p> -The anger and indignation of Spain were extreme. "All the -Bourbons are true demons," said the queen; then turning towards -the king, whose origin she had forgotten, in her fury, she added: -"Save your Majesty." The fragile edifice of the Quadruple -Alliance succumbed beneath the imprudent insolence of the French -government. Philip V. gave his daughter to the Prince of Brazil, -the heir to the throne of Portugal. By this alliance, agreeable -to England, the faithful friend of Portugal, the King of Spain -hoped to gain the support of George I. "We will put confidence -only in your master," said the queen to William Stanhope, the -English minister at Madrid, "and we desire no other mediator but -him in our negotiations." The English government nevertheless -refused to break with France. Philip V. formed an alliance with -the Emperor Charles VI., the most ancient, and even then, the -most implacable of his enemies. The Archduke had no son, and -wished to secure the succession to his eldest daughter, the -Archduchess Maria Theresa. The Pragmatic Sanction which declared -this will, awaited the assent of Europe. That of Spain was of -great value. She offered, besides, to open her ports to the -company of Ostend, recently founded by the Emperor to compete -with the Dutch commerce. -</p><p> -The house of Austria divided the house of Bourbon by opposing to -each other the two branches of France and Spain. The treaty of -Vienna was concluded on the 1st of May, 1725. The two sovereigns -renounced all pretensions to their respective states, and -proclaimed a full amnesty for their partisans. The emperor -recognized the hereditary rights of Don Carlos to the Duchies of -Tuscany, Parma and Plaisance; he promised, at the same time, his -good offices, to obtain from England the restitution of Gibraltar -and Port Mahon. In spite of negotiations already entered into -with the Duke of Lorraine, the hands of the Archduchesses, the -daughters of the emperor, were promised to the two sons of -Elizabeth Farnese, Don Carlos and Don Philip. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174">{174}</a></span> -<p> -King George was in Hanover when the secret articles of the treaty -became known. "On this occasion, it was not the ministers of his -Majesty who instructed him," subsequently said Walpole, "but it -was his Majesty who gave his ministers the information. The -information which the king had received in Hanover was so sure, -that they could not be deceived." The Count de Broglie went to -Germany to join George I. The King of Prussia, Frederick William -I., was called to the conference; the Empress Catherine I., widow -of Peter the Great, made advances to Spain in consequence of her -antipathy towards England. The necessity for strong alliances was -felt; the King of Prussia hesitated, realizing the danger he ran -from his nearness to the emperor; he signed, nevertheless, but -soon afterwards abandoned his allies. The Treaty of Hanover was -concluded on the 8th of September, between England, France, -Prussia, Denmark and Sweden. "Hanover advances itself -triumphantly upon the shoulders of England," said Lord -Chesterfield. George I. was accused of having defended his -electorate at the expense of his kingdom; in Hanover the elector -was reproached for having protected the commercial interests of -England by exposing his native country to great perils. The Count -de Broglie shared the English opinion: "His Majesty regards -England as a temporary possession, by which it is necessary to -profit while at his service, more than as a durable heritage," -wrote he, on the 20th of January, 1724, to Louis XV. The Duke of -Bourbon had just been replaced at the head of the French -government by Cardinal Fleury, moderate and prudent, favorable to -the English alliance and sincerely desirous of preserving peace -in Europe. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175">{175}</a></span> -Lord Townshend directed the negotiations of the treaty of -Hanover. Walpole was secretly jealous and censured certain -clauses. The secret articles, concluded at Vienna, greatly -pre-occupied England. "I know, from a source, which cannot be -doubted," said George I., in his address at the opening of -Parliament, in 1727, "that the re-establishment of the Pretender -upon the throne of this kingdom, was one of the secret articles -signed at Vienna. If time proves that by abandoning the commerce -of this nation to one power, and Gibraltar and Port Mahon to -another, a market has been made of this kingdom, in order to -impose upon it a papist Pretender, what will not be the -indignation of all English and Protestant hearts." -</p><p> -The emperor protested boldly against the address from the throne, -and appealed from the king to the nation. The Pretender, recently -filled with hope, by the alliance of the empire and Spain, -alienated these two powers by his cruel conduct towards his wife. -The princess had left him on the 15th of November, 1725, to -retire into the convent of St. Cecilia, at Rome. War, -nevertheless, seemed inevitable; but the emperor realized his -feebleness, and cared but little for the interests of Spain. On -the 31st of May, 1727, the preliminaries of peace were signed at -Paris, between England, France and Holland, on the one part, and -the empire on the other. English commerce was satisfied by the -suspension of the privileges of the company of Ostend for seven -years. Philip V. voluntarily raised the siege of Gibraltar. The -prudent moderation of Walpole and of Cardinal Fleury, once again -succeeded in maintaining the peace of Europe. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176">{176}</a></span> -<p> -Walpole was threatened, nevertheless; he governed with sagacity -the nation so long and so cruelly agitated, and became rich and -prosperous; but he governed without glory. "Little jealous," says -De Rémussat, "of honoring men, provided he rules them." He was -reserved and haughty, carefully withdrawing from even the shadow -of a rivalry. Bolingbroke had never pardoned his hostility; he -attacked him anonymously in a journal directed by Pulteney, who -was detached from the Whigs by an ancient enmity against Walpole. -He undertook to lower him in the estimation of the king. The -Duchess of Kendal, secretly hostile to the minister, placed in -the king's hands a Memorial drawn up by Bolingbroke, in which the -latter pointed out all the dangers to which the state was exposed -in the hands of Walpole, and demanded an audience. George I. -simply turned over the memorial to Walpole, who promptly divined -from whom the blow came. "Join with me. Duchess, in praying the -king to accord Lord Bolingbroke an audience;" boldly said Sir -Robert. The king hesitated, as he did not speak English. "It is a -great proof of the ability of Walpole that he governed the king -in Latin," it was said. Bolingbroke understood French perfectly, -and it was in that language that the interview was held. The -Viscount claimed the restoration of his political privileges. "It -is sufficient that your Majesty exacts it," said he. "Sir Robert -is here, let him be called, and I will convince him before your -Majesty that the thing can be done."—"No, no," replied the king, -"do not call him." Then, as the Chancellor of the Duchy of -Cornwall, Lechmere, who was at this time antagonistic to both -Walpole and Bolingbroke, entered, the king could scarcely refrain -from laughter. When his minister, somewhat disturbed, came to -learn the result of the conversation with Bolingbroke, -"Bagatelle, bagatelle!" repeated George I. Walpole never learned -more. -</p> -<p class="note"> - [Transcriber's note:<br> - Bagatelle: Something of little value or significance.] -<br> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/176.jpg" border=1><br> -The Mysterious Letter. -</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177">{177}</a></span> -<br> -<p> -The king prepared for another journey to Hanover. Some months -before, on the 12th of November, 1726, his wife, Sophia Dorothea -of Zell, died. She was beautiful and amiable, but arbitrarily -condemned by her husband during thirty-six years. The Count of -Konigsmark, the man who had, it was said, gained her favors, -disappeared mysteriously at the time when the princess was -imprisoned, by the order of her father-in-law as well as her -husband. The place where the Count was struck down is still -shown. Many years later his bones were found under the marble -slab before the chimney of the castle. The prince obtained a -divorce, but never relaxed his severity towards his wife, who, on -her part, never ceased protesting her innocence. -</p><p> -It is said that at the time when King George I. entered Germany, -in June, 1727, an unknown person threw into his carriage a letter -from the princess, written during her last illness, solemnly -adjuring her husband to repent of the terrible injury which he -had inflicted upon her, and calling upon him to appear within a -year before the tribunal of God. -</p><p> -It was to this summons from the tomb that was attributed that -unexpected blow which so suddenly fell upon King George. On the -10th of June, 1727, he departed from Delden in good health, but -within a few hours was struck by apoplexy. His servants desired -to stop, but the king repeated, in a stifled voice, "Osnabruch! -Osnabruch!" When they gained that palace of the prince Bishop, -his brother, the King of England was dead. -</p> -<br> - -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178">{178}</a></span> -<br> - <h2>Chapter XXXV. -<br><br> - George II (1727-1760).</h2> -<br> -<p> -It is the honor and the good fortune of free countries to be -often served, and at times gloriously governed, without display -and without the personal grandeur of the sovereign called to the -throne by the law of heredity. Already slowly undermined by the -misdeeds and misfortunes of King Louis XIV.'s last years, -absolute power was enfeebled and dishonored in France, in the -indolent and corrupt hands of Louis XV. In Europe, in Asia, in -America, war was about to deal it a mortal blow, by despoiling -our country of that military glory which had for long been our -appanage, despite the crimes and errors of our home government. -Honest and well disposed toward his counsellors and his people, -without cunning and without breadth of view, constantly -pre-occupied with the German interests of his Electorate, George -II. was about to assure to England a long period of security and -prosperity, sometimes brilliant, always fatal to his enemies at -home and to his rivals abroad, to the house of Stuart as to -France. -</p><p> -It was to the natural development and to the regular play of -parliamentary government that England owed this repose, often -laborious and difficult, solidly founded on the firmest bases -during the long reign of the second Hanoverian monarch. Four -notable ministries were to succeed each other round the throne of -George II., the first and the last in the hands of men eminent in -various ways, Robert Walpole and Lord Chatham: -1727-1741-1756-1760; directed from 1742 till 1744 by Lord -Carteret, soon afterwards Lord Granville, and from 1744 till 1756 -by the Duke of Newcastle and his brother Henry Pelham. -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/178.jpg" border=1><br> -George II. -</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179">{179}</a></span> -<p> -All called to face serious difficulties, great internal and -external shocks, the ministers of George II., eloquent or -commonplace, remained faithful to the king whom they served, and -never afforded that example of treason and deplorable weaknesses -which had shamefully marked the life of so many Statesmen during -the last three reigns. There was conspiracy yet, but the -conspirators no longer hid themselves in the royal palaces, at -the head of armies or of public affairs. It was on the field of -battle that the Stuarts were to play and lose their last game. At -the death of George I. the fate of the new dynasty and of the -protestant succession might, to superficial observation, have -appeared uncertain and precarious. At the death of George II. the -work had been accomplished; thenceforth revolutions were to be -for England only a remembrance at once glorious and sad, without -possible recurrence and without bitter traces. National victories -would efface the last remnant of intestine strifes. -</p><p> -By the side of George II., on the throne still occupied by a -half-foreign monarch, who spoke the language of his people with a -pronounced accent, who was of slender appearance, and more brave -in person than royal in tastes and habits, was seated a clever, -moderate, wise and learned princess, with a semblance of -pedantry, who was skilful, and very soon dominant in the -government, without ever giving evidence of any presumption. -Princess Caroline d'Anspach had often had to lament the -infidelities of her husband; he remained attached to her, -nevertheless, and her influence was constantly first with him. -Robert Walpole had known how to anticipate this influence. He -never omitted, for the benefit of the prince's favorite, the -deference that he had displayed to the Princess of Wales. The -queen did not forget it. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180">{180}</a></span> -<p> -The first moment of the new reign had not been propitious to the -powerful minister of George I. When he presented himself at the -palace, in order to announce to the new monarch the death of the -king his father, George II., scarcely awakened from his customary -siesta, had brusquely replied to the minister's question, "Whom -does your Majesty charge with the communications to the Privy -Council?"—"Compton," said the king. In retiring to convey the -royal command to his rival, thus designated as his successor, -Walpole lost neither his coolness nor his firm resolution to -govern his country for the longest possible period. "I am about -to fall," he had just said to Sir William Young, "but I advise -you not to throw yourself into a violent opposition, for I shall -not be slow to rise again." -</p><p> -As a matter of fact, Walpole was not to fall. It was only the -breath of royal disfavor that was to pass over him. Sir Spencer -Compton, soon afterwards Lord Wilmington, an honest and capable -man, but of dull wit and without facility of speech, as without -ministerial experience, modestly requested Walpole to compose for -him the communication with which the king had charged him. -Walpole did so. The secret leaked out. At the same time the -minister, momentarily superseded, proposed to the queen an -increase of revenue for the king and a dowry for herself, which -he believed himself sure of having voted by Parliament. Already -well-disposed toward Walpole, Caroline knew how to cleverly prove -to her husband the danger that he would find, at the commencement -of his reign, in losing a powerful and popular minister by -throwing him into opposition. Already the courtiers had abandoned -Walpole, and crowded around Sir Spencer Compton. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181">{181}</a></span> -At the ceremony of hand-kissing, Lady Walpole "could scarcely -force a passage between the disdainful backs and elbows of those -who had flattered her the day before," writes her son Horace, in -his Souvenirs. When the queen, perceiving her in the last ranks, -exclaimed, "Ah! I see a friend down there," the crowd opened -right and left. "In coming back," said Lady Walpole, "I might -have walked over their heads, if I had desired." During thirteen -years more Walpole was to exercise that authority of which he was -secretly so jealous. "Sir Robert was moderate in the exercise of -power," said Hume; "he was not just in seizing the whole of it." -Walpole had already alienated Pulteney and Carteret; he was about -to embroil himself with Townshend. The divisions of the Whig -party were the work of his jealous contrivings. It had for long -been draining its strength; its debility and downfall were one -day to follow. -</p><p> -The attack especially directed against the foreign policy, soon -began, and was hotly sustained in the House of Commons by -Pulteney, for the time being at one with the Tories and with Sir -William Wyndham; in the press and in the depths of parliamentary -intrigues by Lord Bolingbroke, ever the implacable enemy of -Walpole, who was obstinate in refusing him re-entrance into the -House of Lords. The Treaty of Seville had just put an end to the -dissensions with Spain (November, 1729). It was then, on the -accomplishment of the Treaty of Utrecht, that the attacks of the -<i>patriots</i>,—a name adopted by the Whigs who had gone into -opposition—were brought to bear. The ministry was reproached -with not having guarded against the demolition of Dunkerque, "I -went the day before yesterday to Parliament," wrote Montesquieu -in his "<i>Notes on England</i>," to the lower House. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182">{182}</a></span> -<p class="cite"> - "The Dunkerque affair was under discussion there. I have never - seen such a blaze. The sitting lasting from one o'clock in the - afternoon till three o'clock after midnight. There, the French - were well abused. I noticed how far the frightful jealousy goes - which exists between the two nations. M. Walpole attacked - Bolingbroke in the most savage manner, and said that he had - conducted the whole intrigue. Chevalier Wyndham defended him. - M. Walpole related in reference to Bolingbroke, the story of a - farmer, who, passing under a tree with his wife, found that a - man who had been hanged there, still breathed. He cut him down - and took him to his house and he revived. They discovered that - this man had on the day before stolen their forks. So they - said, 'The course of justice must not be opposed; he must be - carried back whence we have taken him.'" -</p><p> -It was only in 1734, and under the threat which perhaps qualms of -conscience made him fear, that Bolingbroke once again voluntarily -exiled himself. Walpole had conceived a great financial scheme -for the increase of indirect taxation or excise. The opposition -violently pounced upon this unpopular project. The rumor spread -that the excise would be general. "I declare," said Walpole, -"that I never had the thought, and that no man to my knowledge -has ever had the thought of proposing a general application of -the excise. I have never dreamed of any duties except those on -wines and tobacco, and that in consequence of the frequent -complaints I have received from merchants themselves about the -frauds which are daily committed in these two branches of -commerce." -</p><p> -Public discontent and irritation were too vehement to be calmed -by the moderation of Walpole: the minister prudently let the -discussion drop. The queen had constantly supported Walpole. She -had summoned one of the king's personal friends, Lord -Scarborough, in order to consult him. "I answer for my regiment -against the Pretender," said he, "but not against those who -insist upon the excise." Tears came into the eyes of the -princess. "Then," said she, "it must be renounced." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183">{183}</a></span> -<p> -Emboldened by this negative victory, the chiefs of the opposition -took up the question of septennial Parliaments. The duration of -the legislature was approaching its termination. The attack was -directed by Wyndham, who was covertly backed and instructed by -Bolingbroke. It was against this cloaked and absent foe that -Walpole rose with all the eloquence, temperate in form, -impressive and haughty in effect, with which, on occasion, he so -well knew how to overwhelm his adversaries. "Much has been said -here of ministers arrogantly hurling defiances, of ministers -destitute of all sense of virtue and honor: it appears to me, -gentlemen, that with equal right, and more justly, I think, we -may speak of anti-ministers and mock patriots, who never had -either virtue or honor, and who are actuated only by envy or -resentment. Let me suppose an anti-minister who regards himself -as a man of such consequence, and endowed with such extensive -parts, that he alone in the State is equal to the conduct of -public affairs; and who stigmatizes as blunderers all those who -have the honor to be engaged therein. Suppose that this personage -has been lucky enough to enrol among his party men truly -distinguished, wealthy, and of ancient family, as well as others -of extreme views, arising from disappointed and envenomed hearts. -Suppose all these men to be moved by him solely in respect to -their political behavior, without real attachment for this chief -whom they so blindly follow, and who is detested by the rest of -humanity. We see this anti-minister in a country where he ought -not to be, where he could not be without the exercise of an -excessive clemency, yet employing all his efforts to destroy the -source whence this mercy flowed. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184">{184}</a></span> -Let us suppose him in that country, continually occupied in -contracting intimacies with the ambassadors of princes who are -most hostile to his own; and if there should be a secret, the -divulgence of which would be prejudicial to his country, -disclosing it without hesitation to the foreign ministers who -have applied to him to discover it. Finally, let us suppose that -this anti-minister has travelled, and that at every court where -he has been placed as minister, he has betrayed every confidence, -as well as all the secrets of the countries through which he has -passed; destitute as he is of faith and honor, and betraying -every master whom he has served." -</p><p> -I have desired to give an idea of the violence of parliamentary -discussion under George II., as well as of the deep-rooted -animosity which existed between Walpole and Bolingbroke. The -latter did not dare to face any revelations or more definite -accusations. He soon quitted England, not to return as long as -Walpole was in power. When he came back, in 1742, at the moment -of his father's death, it was to establish himself in the -country, in the house at Battersea, where he was born, and where -he finally died, on the 17th of December, 1751, after the most -stormy life, sadly devoted to unfortunate or disastrous -enterprises, which were unscrupulously pursued with the resources -of a rare and fruitful genius. "God, who has placed me here -below," said he to Lord Chesterfield, in bidding him farewell, -"will make of me what he will, after this; and he knows what is -the best thing to do." All the irregularities of his life and all -the inveterate doubts of his mind had never availed to snatch -from the depths of the dying Bolingbroke's soul the hereditary -faith in God which he had learned as a child at the knees of his -mother, who had been piously attached to the principles of the -old Dissenters. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185">{185}</a></span> -<p> -The prolonged power of Walpole was menaced, and his authority -seriously shaken. Troubles had broken out in Scotland. The escape -of one smuggler and the punishment of another had aroused the -populace of the capital, and caused that riot against Captain -Porteous which forms one of the principal episodes of the Prison -of Edinburgh. -</p><p> -Discord reigned in the royal family between King George II. and -his eldest son, Frederick, Prince of Wales, as it had previously -reigned between King George I. and his son. The queen shared the -annoyance of her consort, and refused to see the prince, when, in -the month of November, 1737, she was on her death-bed. "I hope -that you will never desert the king," said she to Walpole. "It is -to you that I commend him. Continue to serve with your accustomed -fidelity." Walpole's regrets were bitter and sincere. He was -losing an ally as certain as she was efficacious, at the moment -when the violence of the attacks against him was increasing. -</p><p> -The Convention of Madrid, which ended with the close of the year -1738, had excited great discontent among the English merchants. -The wise endeavors of the minister for the maintenance of peace -with Spain were regarded as cowardice. Sixty members of the -opposition, with Wyndham at their head, had declared their -resolve of no longer taking part in the deliberations of a -corrupt Parliament. The government majority grew smaller daily. -Walpole, always obstinately attached to power, determined to bend -before the storm and to lend his aid to a war which he deplored, -and the result of which he doubted. On the 19th of October, 1739, -as the city bells were sounding with all their peals in honor of -the declaration of war, "Ring the cords of all your bells -to-day," muttered Walpole; "it will not be long before you are -wringing your hands." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186">{186}</a></span> -<p> -The prudent sagacity and experience of Walpole had not deceived -him. England entered upon a restless and stormy period, the -beginnings of which were not happy. The first expeditions had -been directed against the Spanish colonies of South America. By -dint of courage and address, Commodore Anson, who was charged -with the attack on Peru, opposed by wind and tide, succeeded in -saving only one of his ships, with which he accomplished the tour -of the world, whilst Admiral Vernon, at first victorious before -Porto-Bello, and lauded to the skies by the opposition, to which -party he belonged, failed sadly before Cartagena and Santiago. -The patriots attributed the checks suffered by English armies to -Walpole. "For nearly twenty years he has demonstrated that he -possesses neither wisdom nor prudence," exclaimed Lord Carteret; -"there is still left him a little of the cunning common to -Smithfield cattle-dealers or to French valets under indulgent -masters; but his whole conduct proves that he has no true -sagacity. Our allies know and deplore it; our foes know it and -are glad of it." Yet once again, Walpole triumphed in the Houses; -his strength was being spent in repeated struggles. -</p><p> -Parliament had just been dissolved; the electoral prospects were -threatening. Europe was agitated by the gravest anxieties. The -Emperor Charles VI. had just died, on the 20th of October, 1740. -All the powers had agreed to the Pragmatic Sanction, which -assured the rights of the Archduchess Maria-Theresa. Scarcely had -her father been laid in the grave, than the majority of the great -sovereigns were already dividing the spoils. The competitors were -numerous and their titles were various. The young Queen of -Hungary found opposed to her a rival and an enemy. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187">{187}</a></span> -The elector of Bavaria reclaimed the domains of the House of -Austria by virtue of a will of Ferdinand I., father of Charles V. -He was supported by France, despite the peaceful inclinations of -Cardinal Fleury, grown old, and instigated by the Marshal -Belle-Isle. Spain laid claim to the sovereignty of Hungary and of -Bohemia, which had long been dependants of her crown. She united -her forces with those of France and Bavaria against -Maria-Theresa. The new King of Prussia, Frederick II., on -obsolete or imaginary rights, marched boldly to the conquests of -which he was ambitious. From the time when he came to the throne, -in the month of August, 1740, preceded by the reputation for a -cultivated and liberal mind, and amenable to generous sentiments, -Frederick, who had long been kept away from state affairs by the -brutal jealousy of his father, had been silently preparing his -means of attack. On leaving a masqued ball, he had set out post -haste for the Silesian frontier, where he had collected thirty -thousand troops. Without preliminary notice, without a -declaration of war, he entered the Austrian territory, which was -inadequately or badly defended. Before the end of January, 1741, -he was master of Silesia. At his departure, Frederick had said to -the French ambassador: "I believe I am going to play your game; -if the aces come to me we will divide." -</p><p> -England was excited by the war. King George II. was more excited -than England. Hanover was menaced; he crossed to Germany to raise -troops. A subsidy was voted in favor of the Queen of Hungary; -certain English envoys arrived at the camp of the belligerents. -Lord Hyndford sought to excite some generous scruples in the mind -of Frederick. "Do not speak to me of magnanimity, my lord," -exclaimed the king; "a prince should consult only his interest. I -have no objection to peace, but I require four duchies, and I -will have them." -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188">{188}</a></span> -The proposals transmitted by Mr. Robinson in the name of the -Queen of Hungary seemed hard to that princess. "I hope, with all -my heart, that he will reject them," she had said, with tears in -her eyes. "Always subterfuges," exclaimed Frederick; "if you have -nothing to say to me in regard to Silesia, negotiations are -useless. My ancestors would rise out of their tombs to reproach -me with the abandonment of their just rights." -</p><p> -France had concluded an alliance with the King of Prussia, -assuring him the possession of lower Silesia. Marshal Maillebois -was closely pressing Hanover; King George II. was alarmed, and -signed a treaty of neutrality for one year, engaging not to -furnish any assistance to the Queen of Hungary and to refrain -from voting as elector for her husband, Francis of Lorraine, who -aspired to the imperial dignity. On the 26th of November, 1741, -the Elector of Bavaria was proclaimed King of Bohemia. On the -14th of February, 1742, he was crowned emperor, under the name of -Charles VII. The allied armies had menaced Vienna, and Queen -Maria-Theresa, flying from town to town before her triumphant -enemies, had only found refuge and support in Hungary, amid the -palatines and magnates assembled at Presbourg. <i>Moriamur pro -rege nostro, Maria-Theresa!</i> they had shouted, with a -unanimous voice, drawing their swords. All the horrors of war -were desolating Germany. Everywhere irregular troops scoured the -country, pillaging, massacring, burning. The hereditary domains -of the new emperor were in turn menaced. "He remains at -Frankfort," wrote the lawyer Barbier, in his journal, "and it -would be difficult for him to go elsewhere safely." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189">{189}</a></span> -<p> -The neutrality of Hanover had been received in England with -anger; public feeling had been against the minister since the -opening of the session, and a contested election brought the fact -to light. The most devoted friends of Walpole pressed him to -resign. He still hesitated, being passionately attached, after -twenty years of its exercise, to that power which he had -obstinately defended against so many enemies. He decided, at -last, renouncing together with authority, the thorough dominance -which he had so long maintained in the House of Commons. He -received from the king every pledge of affection and of the most -sincere regret, and the title of Earl of Orford. Some months -later, Pulteney, in his turn, was elevated to the House of Lords, -under the name of Lord Bath. Walpole, still influential with -George II., had contributed with all his power to this -annihilatory elevation. He approached his ancient antagonist with -a smile. "Well, my lord," said he, "behold us become the two most -insignificant personages in England." -</p><p> -Walpole did not long survive his downfall. In spite of his -withdrawal to Houghton, he never became, because he could not be, -insignificant. He had governed for twenty years with consummate -skill, employing indifferently good and evil means, oratorical -eloquence as well as parliamentary corruption; anxious to serve -his friends rather than to conciliate his enemies, without ever -giving to his country the pleasure of glory or the spectacle of -political and moral greatness; contributing nevertheless to the -happiness and prosperity of England by assuring to her, in the -midst of serious external and internal troubles, long years of -peace. His great rival in the art of governance was already -rising to view; and amid the ranks of the patriot Whigs observing -foresight had distinguished young William Pitt, destined to rule, -as a master, the country and the Parliament that Walpole, like a -skilful pilot, had long guided. "Between Sir Robert Walpole and -Lord Chatham," as Lord Macaulay has wittily remarked, "there was -all the distance between success and glory." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190">{190}</a></span> -<p> -The new cabinet had just been formed, under the direction of Lord -Carteret, soon afterwards, in right of his mother, Lord -Granville. Pulteney had declined all office. "I have too often -protested my disinterestedness to occupy any place," he had said. -When he perceived that influence as well as power had escaped -him, it was too late to retrace his steps. The ministry as formed -was already discussed in Parliament, as well as throughout the -country, and was experiencing an opposition which would ere long -become formidable. Carteret was intelligent, brilliant and -amiable, unequal and uncertain. He allowed himself to be led, at -times, even as far as debauchery: he always remained eloquent and -adroit in diplomatic maneuvres. He had concentrated all his -efforts on the maintenance of the king's favor, often neglecting -his partisans, and relying on corruption to rally his friends. -"What do the judges and bishops matter to me?" said he, -contemptuously; "my concern is to make kings and emperors, and to -preserve the European balance." "Very well," replied the -office-seeker, so cavalierly denied; "those who do care for -judges and bishops will be appealed to." -</p><p> -Thus began already the power of the Pelhams, who were more -careful than Carteret to use such means of influence as the -exercise of high offices placed in the hands of ministers or -their friends. -</p><p> -The war was still being waged in Germany. With the fall of -Walpole, England's neutrality had ended. Already a body of troops -had taken the road for Flanders. Women of distinction, with the -Duchess of Marlborough at their head, had collected by -subscription the sum of one hundred thousand pounds sterling, -which they successfully offered to the haughty Maria-Theresa. The -king had taken into his pay six thousand Hessian soldiers. The -cabinet proposed to raise in Hanover a body of sixteen thousand -at England's expense. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191">{191}</a></span> -The opposition violently inveighed against this measure. "It is -too evident," said Pitt, "that this great kingdom, which is -powerful and formidable, is regarded as a province of a pitiful -Electorate, and that troops are only raised in pursuance of a -design long matured, in order to swallow up all the resources of -our unhappy country." The proposal passed, however, and the king -put himself at the head of the forces he had collected in -Germany. The States-General of Holland had united their troops -with his. The fortune of war had changed. Charles VII., a -fugitive in his turn, driven from his hereditary States, which -Marshal Broglie had evacuated, had no longer any hope, save in -the aid of France. She alone sustained all the burden of the war, -which she had not yet officially declared. In England they -laughed at the state of matters in Europe. "Our situation is -absurd," said Horace Walpole, the intelligent son of the great -minister, who was constantly dabbling in politics, as in -literature. "We have declared war on Spain without making it, and -we make war on France without having declared it." -</p><p> -King George II., as well as his second son, the Duke of -Cumberland, gave proof of striking bravery on the 17th of July, -1743, at the battle Dettingen, which was disastrous to France, -despite the able preparations of Marshal Noailles. An imprudence -of his nephew, the Duke de Grammont, decided the fate of the day. -But the jealousy which existed between the English and German -generals hindered the course of operations. A treaty concluded at -Worms, on the 13th of September, between England, Austria and -Sardinia, was badly received by Parliament, which, with good -reason, deemed it more favorable to the interests of Hanover than -to those of England. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192">{192}</a></span> -The name Hanoverian began to be used as an insult, and was -applied at times to the king himself. All the influence that -Walpole had preserved in Parliament, and his speech in the House -of Lords, were necessary to obtain the maintenance of the foreign -troops. Lord Wilmington had just died, and at this time it was by -the advice of Walpole that Henry Pelham was called to fill his -place at the head of the Treasury. One year later, in the month -of November, 1744, a division occurred in the cabinet. In spite -of the personal favor of the king, Carteret, then Lord Granville, -yielded to the influence of Henry Pelham and his brother-in-law, -the Duke of Newcastle. War was at length officially declared -between France and England. The new ministers lately raised to -power in the name of English interests, as against the German -proclivities of the king, continued to hire Hanoverian troops. At -the opening of the campaign of 1745, the Duke of Cumberland found -himself at the head of the allies. -</p><p> -The Emperor Charles VII. had just died, and his son had treated -with the Queen of Hungary. Already for two years Frederick II., -being master of Silesia, had quitted the field of battle, and -observed with curious and cool interest the struggles which were -drenching Europe in blood, and serving to weaken his rivals. -Uneasy at the progress which Maria Theresa was making, he -re-entered the lists, however. King Louis XV. had taken the lead -of his army. He had just arrived before Tournay, with the -dauphin, who had recently been married to the daughter of the -King of Spain. On the 9th of May, 1745, at the break of day, the -hostile forces met near the little village of Fontenoy. The -relation of this victory belongs to the history of France. -Marshal Saxe, a foreigner, and a Protestant, was henceforth to -maintain alone the glory and the high tradition of Louis -Fourteenth's marshals. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193">{193}</a></span> -He was sick, and believed to be dying, but he caused himself to -be borne on a litter at the head of the army. "The question is -not to live, but to proceed," he had replied to Voltaire, who was -astonished at sight of his preparations. The Austrians were few -in number. The veteran general Königseck commanded a corps of -eight thousand men. An attack directed by the English on the -forest of Lane, which the French troops occupied, had been -repulsed. General Ingoldsby had fallen back on the main body of -the army, commanded by the Duke of Cumberland. "March straight -before you, your highness," said Königseck to the prince. "The -ravine in front of Fontenoy must be gained." The movements of the -Dutch were slow and undecisive; the English gave way. They formed -a deep and serried column, preceded and flanked by cannons. The -French batteries thundered right and left; entire ranks fell in -their tracks; they were soon replaced; cannons, dragged by hand -opposite Fontenoy, and redoubts answered the French artillery. It -was in vain that the French guards sought to capture the enemy's -cannon. The two armies were at last face to face. -</p><p> -Frequent mention has been made of the interchange of courtesies, -which took place between French and English officers, on both -sides of the ravine. The English officers had saluted; Count -Chabannes and the Duke de Biron, who were in advance, uncovered -in their turn. "Gentlemen of the French guard, withdraw," cried -Lord Charles Hay. "Withdraw yourselves, gentlemen of England," -retorted Count d'Auteroche; "we are never the first to retreat." -The English fusillade was mortal to the French guard. Their -colonel, the Duke de Grammont, had been slain at the beginning of -the battle. The soldiers yielded. The English crossed the ravine -which protected Fontenoy. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194">{194}</a></span> -They advanced as though on parade; the majors each having a small -cane in his hand, rested it lightly on the muskets of the -soldiers, in order to regulate their fire. One after another the -French regiments broke against this immovable column. The Duke of -Cumberland had ceased to advance, but, impassive and victorious, -through the calm bravery of his soldiers, he occupied the field -of battle. Königseck sent him his felicitations. -</p><p> -Marshal Saxe had begged Louis XV. to retreat. "I know that he -will do what he ought," replied the monarch, "but I stay where I -am." The marshal had just concentrated his troops, in order to -make a final effort. The Irish brigade in the French service, -which was almost entirely composed of Jacobite exiles, headed the -regiments which charged at once on the English. The Dutch had -effected their retreat. The English column found itself -overwhelmed. It finally gave way without disorder, and preserved -to the end its bold front. The Duke of Cumberland, the last to -retreat, as he had been the first to attack, recalled to his -soldiers the glorious memories of Blenheim and Ramillies; he blew -out the brains of an officer who took to flight. The military -skill of the English generals had not equalled their heroism. The -battle of Fontenoy gave the result of the campaign to France, but -Queen Maria Theresa had just accomplished her great aim. Her -husband had been raised to empire on the 13th of September, 1745. -She had made a treaty with the King of Prussia. Louis XV. stood -alone against Germany, which had become neutral, or which rallied -round the reinstated empire. Great internal struggles henceforth -absorbed the thoughts and efforts of England. -</p><p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195">{195}</a></span> -<p> -An attractive young man, bold and frivolous, Prince Charles -Edward Stuart, the eldest son of the Chevalier St. George, had -for a long time cherished the hope of recovering the throne of -his fathers. Since the beginning of 1744, he had left Rome, where -he was living with his father, attracted to Paris by the rumor of -an invasion of England, which the ministers of Louis XV. desired -to attempt. He was provided with letters patent, declaring him -regent of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, -the <i>alter ego</i> of the king, his father, charged, [in] his -absence, with the exercise of royal authority. The projected -attempt did not eventuate: the ships collected at Dunkirk were -dispersed, as Prince Charles Edward had not been able to obtain -an audience with Louis XV. For some time he maintained the -strictest incognito. "I have taken a house a league from Paris, -and I live there like a hermit," he wrote to his father. "This -becomes however, the secret of the comedy." The repulse of the -English at Fontenoy seemed a favorable opportunity to the young -prince. "I have always had at heart," said he, "the -re-establishment of my father's throne, but only with the aid of -his own subjects." He was encouraged in his project by Cardinal -de Tencin, who had lately obtained his hat by the influence of -the dethroned monarch. "Why do you not try to cross in a ship to -the north of Scotland?" he had said to the prince; "your presence -can form a party and an army for you. France will be compelled to -give you aid." -</p><p> -Charles Edward had kept his secret from the ministers of Louis -XV. as he had kept it from King James. It was only on the 12th of -June, 1745, that he wrote to his father, from the Chateau de -Navarre, near Ivry: "Your Majesty would not desire me to have -followed his example. You acted in 1715 as I do to-day, under -very different circumstances; those which now present themselves -are more encouraging. This will only transpire after the -embarkation. The lot is cast. I have determined either to conquer -or die, resolved that I am not to yield a foot so long as I shall -have a man with me." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196">{196}</a></span> -<p> -The young prince's jewels had been pledged; he had purchased arms -and supplies. On the 13th of July he set sail, accompanied by a -freight vessel, the Elizabeth, which was soon followed by a -French vessel. The little brig that carried him touched on the -Scotch coast. A large eagle hovered over the Isle of Erisca, when -the ship touched land. "Behold the king of the air come to salute -your royal highness," exclaimed Lord Tullibardine. Gladdened by -this happy augury, the bold exiles disembarked fearlessly. The -prince was disguised, and the crew did not even yet know his -name. -</p><p> -In Scotland they were better informed. The Jacobites had for some -time been cognizant of the prince's intentions. They were uneasy, -and secretly disturbed. The most eminent had even declared to -Murray, the prince's agent, that it would be impossible for them -to effect a rising without the landing of a body of regular -troops. Charles Edward came alone. When he summoned the -Macdonalds—the chiefs of the small cluster of islands where he -landed—the old Macdonald of Boisdale presented himself in the -name of his absent nephew, and refused to pledge his support to -the undertaking. "A word will be sufficient to bring Sir -Alexander Macdonald and McLeod of McLeod here," exclaimed the -prince. "Your highness is mistaken," replied Boisdale; "I have -seen them both a few days ago, and they have told me of their -determination to risk nothing without external aid." The prince -was silent, being more annoyed than dejected. When he cast his -eyes on a young highlander who had come on board his ship with -Boisdale, and who fixed his gleaming glance on him; "You, at -least, you will come to my assistance," said he, quickly turning -to the young man. "Even to death, if I should be alone to draw -the sword," cried Ranald. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197">{197}</a></span> -"I did not know him yet, and I felt my heart in my mouth when I -looked at him in his abbe's habit," said another witness of the -first interview. Enthusiasm is a contagious power; the chiefs of -the Macdonalds were conquered. They promised to sacrifice -everything, life and property, in the cause of their legitimate -sovereign. -</p><p> -Eight days had not elapsed before the greater part of the -highland gentlemen had followed their example. Vainly had the -chief of the Camerons, young Lochiel, for a time resisted the -contagion. "Do not go to see the prince," his brother had said to -him; "when you are in his presence he will make you do what he -wishes." Lochiel had followed this course. Charles Edward pressed -him in vain. "I am resolved to run the chance of it," at last -exclaimed the adventurous young man. "In a few days I shall -raise the royal standard and proclaim to the people of Great -Britain that Charles Stuart is come to reclaim the crown of his -ancestors, prepared to perish if he should fail. Lochiel can -remain at home. My father had often instanced him as the -staunchest of our friends. He will learn from the papers the fate -of his prince." It was too much. "No," replied the chief, "I -shall share the fate of your highness, whatever it may be, and I -shall involve in my fortune all those whom birth or chance has -placed under my authority." -</p><p> -The Cameron clan was the first and most numerous at the -rendezvous fixed by Charles Edward at Glennin. About fifteen -hundred men assisted there at the unfurling of the royal banner -of the Stuarts, so often and so cruelly disastrous to Scotland -and the Scotch. Some weeks later, profiting by the uneasiness -which the wild mountain defiles had inspired in Sir John Cope, -who was commanding the troops of King George in Scotland, the -young prince pressed quickly forward. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198">{198}</a></span> -Received everywhere with acclamations, he entered Perth on the -4th of September, where he organized his army, which was -constantly enlarged by new recruits. He chose Lord George Murray, -brother of the Duke of Athol, who had served with distinction on -the continent, for lieutenant-general. Sterling, Falkirk, -Linlithgow, either opened their gates to him or were obliged to -surrender. On the 17th, Charles Edward, from the heights of -Certesphine, viewed the noble city of Edinburgh seated like a -queen between the mountains and the sea. Already the young prince -had put a price on the capture of "George, elector of Hanover." -"If any harm happen to him," said the proclamation, "the blame -will recoil on those who have first set this infamous example." -</p><p> -After having effected a movement in advance, which had eventuated -in a retreat without fighting, General Cope was drawing near the -rebels by sea. The weather was contrary. The guardianship of the -capital was intrusted to a regiment of militia and a volunteer -corps supported by two regiments. The latter had been charged -with the defence of the heights. The terror was extreme, and the -feeling vainly concealed itself beneath a noisy display of -courage. When they learned of the highlanders' approach, and that -the troops were summoned to arms, a handful of volunteers, -speedily diminished still farther by the entreaties of wives and -mothers, appeared on parade. The militia corps was not any -braver. The dragoons took flight, crossed the town at a gallop, -and only paused at the borders of Berwick. The prince sent -summons after summons to the provost. "My proclamation and the -declarations of the king my father are a sufficient protection -for the security of all the towns of the kingdom," said Charles -Edward. "If I enter peaceably within your walls you will suffer -no harm; if you resist, you will be placed under martial law." -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/198.jpg" border=1><br> -Charles Edward. -</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199">{199}</a></span> -<p> -The municipal magistrates still hesitated; the prince refused to -receive their deputies, for the second time. As the carriages -were re-entering the town, and as the gate opened to give them -passage, eight hundred Camerons, commanded by Lochiel, flung -themselves on the guards and easily effected an entrance into the -city. In an instant they had command of every gate. At the break -of day, Charles Edward, who had immediately been informed, set -out with his little army. Avoiding the fusillade from the castle, -which was occupied by Lord Guest, he entered the capital at -midday, without striking a blow. The Scotch heralds, -incontinently brought to the Square were forced to proclaim King -James VIII., and to read in a loud voice the proclamations of the -king and his son. The Jacobite ladies crowded to the windows, -saluting the prince with their applause. James Hepburn, of Keith, -carrying his drawn sword before the young regent, introduced him -into the palace of his ancestors. Holyrood resounded with shouts -of joy. A crowd of noble lords pressed round the young prince. -"To-morrow, gentlemen, we will march to meet General Cope," said -he, as he parted from his guests. Acclamations from all sides -answered him. On leaving the town, at daybreak, Charles Edward -drew his sword and brandished it above his head, exclaiming, -"Gentlemen, I have thrown away the scabbard." -</p><p> -General Cope, having landed at Dunbar, had rallied his fugitive -dragoons, and was advancing with all speed on Edinburgh. On the -20th of September, the two armies found themselves face to face -on the plain of Prestonpans. It was late: the prince was urged to -make the attack, but marsh separated him from the foe. A council -was held. Charles Edward lay down on a bundle of straw in the -midst of his soldiers. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200">{200}</a></span> -In the night he was awakened by one of his aides-de-camp. The -proprietor of the piece of ground occupied by the troops, Mr. -Wilson, of Whitbough, had remembered an indirect passage which -enabled them to avoid the dangerous parts of the marsh. He -communicated his plan to the prince. At sunrise the highlanders -had surmounted the obstacle, and already threatened the royal -troops. A moment of meditation, with uncovered head, on the part -of all the soldiers, preceded the shrill summons of the bagpipes -and the shouts of the mountaineers. Before the English soldiers -could draw, the highlanders had turned aside, with blows of their -daggers, the barrels of the muskets, striking with their -claymores the foremost ranks, who fell back dying. The cannon had -been discarded from the first. -</p><p> -Like the Vendean peasants, the Scotch mountaineers dreaded -artillery, and their impetuous bravery was constantly bent on -hindering its ravages. Like the former, also, they dragged after -them an old field-piece, which they called 'the mother of -muskets,'—a worthy predecessor of the illustrious <i>Marie -Jeanne</i> of the army of Lescure and under Laroche-jacquelin. -</p><p> -The dragoons had, as on the day before, taken flight, in spite of -the efforts of the brave and pious Colonel Gardener, slain soon -afterward himself, as he was encouraging the resistance of a -little platoon of troops. The infantry held its ground well, but -every effort of the highlanders was now concentrated against it. -The axes of Lochabar felled heads and lopped limbs. Before this -savage valor the English soldiers at length gave way. James -MacGregor, son of the celebrated Rob Roy, himself pierced with -five wounds, shouted to his companions, "I am not dead, my men; I -look to you to do your duty." Everywhere the chiefs were in the -fray, at the head of their men. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201">{201}</a></span> -"Do you think that our men are fit to resist the regular troops?" -the prince had asked of MacDonald of Keppoch, who had served long -in France "I know nothing about it," replied the highlander; "it -is long since our clans have been defeated; but what I know well -is that the chieftains will be in front, and that the soldiers -will not leave them long alone." The attack and the victory only -lasted for some moments. General Cope followed his dragoons and -brought the news of his defeat to Berwick. "You are the first -general who has ever himself announced his own defeat," said Lord -Mark Kerr, ironically to him. The fugitives had not been pursued: -the highlanders were absorbed in the division of spoils. The -prince had carefully protected the wounded. "If I had gained the -victory over foreigners, my joy would be complete," he wrote on -the morrow to the king his father, "but the idea that it is over -the English has mingled in it more bitterness than I thought -possible. I learn that six thousand Dutch troops have arrived, -and that ten battalions of English have been sent. I wish that -they were all Dutch, so that I should not have the sorrow of -shedding English blood. I hope I shall soon oblige the elector to -send the rest, which at all events will be a service done to -England, by making her renounce a foreign war, which is ruinous -to her. Unhappily the victory brings embarrassments. I am charged -with taking care of my friends and of my enemies; those who ought -to bury the dead, as if that did not concern them. My highlanders -consider themselves above doing it, and the peasants have -withdrawn. I am equally much embarrassed on account of my wounded -prisoners. If I make a hospital of a church, people will cry out -against this great profanation, and will repeat what I said in my -proclamation, by which I was pledged not to violate any -propriety. Let come what may, I am resolved not to leave the poor -wounded fellows in the street. If I cannot do better, I shall -convert the palace into a hospital, and give it to them." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202">{202}</a></span> -<p> -King George II. had just returned to England, recalled by the -anxieties of his cabinet. The Marquis of Tweedale, charged with -Scotch affairs, being himself undecided and perplexed, complained -of being neither seconded nor obeyed. The inhabitants of the -Lowlands possessed no arms, the Whig clans of the Highlands -delivered up their muskets after the rebellion of 1715 and 1719. -Public spirit was not yet excited in England. Either the fears -there were shameful, or the indifference excessive. "England will -belong to the one who arrives first," wrote Henry Fox, afterwards -Lord Holland, and himself a member of the government, to one of -his friends. "If you can tell me which will be here most quickly, -the six thousand Dutch and the ten English battalions that we are -receiving from Flanders, or the five thousand French and Spanish -that are announced, you would be made certain of our lot." -</p><p> -Patriotic sentiment, even when it is tardy of awakening, is more -powerful than politicians are sometimes led to believe. The -prudent indifference of Louis the XV.th's ministers was not -deceived. In spite of the ardor of his warlike zeal, Charles -Edward felt how precarious was success, and how necessary was -external aid. He had several times renewed his representations to -the Court of Versailles. Some convoys of arms and money had been -sent him; it was even proposed to place the young Duke of York at -the head of the Irish brigade; but the ordinary slowness of a -weak government interfered with its operations. The assistance so -often promised by Spain, as by France, was, up till then, -confined to the personal expeditions of some brave adventurers. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203">{203}</a></span> -The Duke of Rochelieu ought to place himself at the head, it was -said. "As for the landing at Dunkirk which was spoken of," wrote -the eminent Barbier, at the end of the year 1745, "there is much -anxiety about it, for we are at the end of December and it is not -yet accomplished, which permits every one to invent news -according to his fancy. This uncertainty discourages the French, -who publish that our expedition will not take place, or at least -that it will not assemble." -</p><p> -The expedition did not sail. The prince was ardently desirous of -marching upon London, being, like his predecessors in the -Scottish insurrection, fatally drawn on to seek, in the very -centre of Great Britain, that support and success which always -failed them. The Scottish chiefs protested, being violently -opposed to the abandonment of Scotland. The prince was -ill-inclined to bear contradiction, and promptly flew into a -passion in the council. "I perceive, gentlemen," he cried, "that -you are determined to remain in Scotland and defend your country. -I am not less determined to try my fortune in England. I will go, -though I should be alone." -</p><p> -The highlanders yielded with reluctance, and without confidence. -"We have undertaken to re-establish the kingdom as well as the -King of Scotland," they had often said, and Charles Edward had -solemnly announced that his father would never ratify the union. -He had even thought of convoking a parliament at Edinburgh. The -practical difficulties of the project had deterred him from it. -Before turning his steps into England, the prince published an -appeal to his subjects of the three kingdoms, as clever as it was -impassioned. "It has been sought to frighten you concerning the -dangers that your religion and liberty might run. You have been -spoken to of arbitrary power; of the tyranny of France and Spain. -Give ear to the simple truth. I have at my own expense hired a -vessel. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204">{204}</a></span> -Provided but ill with money, arms, or friends, I have come to -Scotland with seven persons. I have published the declaration of -the king my father, and I have proclaimed his rights, with pardon -in one hand and liberty of conscience in the other. As for the -reproaches lately addressed to the royal family, the wrongs which -might have called them forth have been sufficiently expiated. -During the fifty-seven years that our house has lived in exile, -has the nation been more happy and more prosperous for it? Are -you right, as fathers of Great Britain and Ireland, to love those -who have governed you? Have you found more humanity among those -whom their birth did not call to the throne than among my royal -ancestors? Do you owe them other benefits than the crushing -burden of an enormous debt? If it be not so, whence come so many -complaints and such continual reproaches in your meetings? I have -come here without the aid of France or Spain. But when I see my -enemies rallying against me—Dutch, Danes, Hessians, Swiss—and -that the Elector of Hanover summons his allies to protect him -against the subjects of the king, it seems to me that the king my -father is also, in his turn, warranted in accepting some -assistance. I am ready, however. If my enemies desire to put it -to the proof, let them send back their foreign mercenaries; let -them trust to the lot of battles. I shall run my chance with the -subjects of my father alone." -</p><p> -The prince's army amounted at most to six thousand men. Many of -the great lords and Scotch gentlemen had remained neutral. Some, -like Lord Lovat, the chief of the Fraser clan, being scandalously -perfidious and corrupt, had secretly authorized their sons to -join the prince, reserving to themselves the right of -repudiating, if necessary. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205">{205}</a></span> -"There is a singular mixture of gray-beards and beardless boys," -wrote a spy who had been sent from England about the middle of -October. "There are old men ready to descend into their graves, -and youngsters who are not much higher than their swords, and who -have not strength to wield them. There are perhaps a good four or -five thousand courageous and determined men. The remnant are -ill-looking bands, more intent on pillage than on their prince, -on a few shillings than on the crown." -</p><p> -It was with these forces, uncertain and irregular, in despite of -their devotion, that Charles Edward crossed the frontier on the -8th of November, 1745. The soldiers, as well as the highland -chiefs, left their country with regret. A certain number of -desertions had already occurred. At the moment when they put -their foot on English soil, the highlanders, uttering loud cries, -drew their swords. Lochiel wounded himself in the hand with his -weapon, and the sight of blood troubled his followers. It was -under the influence of this vexatious omen that the Scots laid -siege to Carlisle. The direction of operations had been intrusted -to the Duke of Perth. The prince, with Lord George Murray, had -conceived a movement on Kelso which should deceive, and which in -fact did deceive. General Wade, who found himself at Newcastle -with the royal troops. When the English general perceived his -error, Carlisle was in the hands of the Jacobites. Charles Edward -made his entry there solemnly on the 17th of November, being -anxious to appease the germs of discord which the success of the -Duke of Perth had just planted among the chiefs of his little -army. Lord George Murray was maintained in his important -functions. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206">{206}</a></span> -From Carlisle to Preston, from Preston to Wigan and Manchester, -the Scotch advanced without striking a blow, but uneasy, and -suspicious of enemies who did not show themselves or give them -occasion to display their valor on the field of battle, and -discontented with the English Jacobites, who remained inert and -did not in any way second their efforts. A little body of -volunteers was formed at Manchester under the orders of Colonel -Townley, who belonged to an old Catholic Lancashire family. On -the banks of the Mersey, among the gentlemen assembled to receive -him, the prince perceived a very old woman who had formerly -assisted at Dover, in 1660, at the landing of King Charles II. -Since the revolution of 1688, Mrs. Skyring had constantly divided -her income into two parts, sending half of it to the royal -exiles. At the news of Charles Edward's arrival, she had -collected her plate and her jewels, in order to lay everything at -the feet of the young prince. Her prayers were heard, she said, -like Simeon of old: "Lord, now lettest thou thy servant depart in -peace, according to thy word, for mine eyes have seen thy -salvation." Tradition relates that the old Jacobite did actually -die some days after the departure of the adventurous young man -whose success she so ardently desired. -</p><p> -The prince was advancing towards Derby, that fatal limit of -Scotch expeditions into England. Three armies were formed around -and against him. General Wade was at last moving across the -county of York; the Duke of Cumberland, recalled from Germany, -had gathered at Litchfield a body of from seven to eight thousand -men. Considerable forces were assembled at Finchley for the -defence of London. Charles Edward alone was still joyous. The -road to the capital of Great Britain was open to him; a quick -march had left behind him the Duke of Cumberland as well as -General Wade. When he established himself at Derby, on the 4th of -December, his whole preoccupation was to know whether he should -enter London on foot or on horseback; dressed simply as an -English gentlemen, or in the highland costume which he had worn -since his arrival in Scotland. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207">{207}</a></span> -<p> -The views of his adherents were different and their -preoccupations more serious. Scarcely had they arrived at Derby, -when the chiefs repaired in a body to the prince, representing to -him the extreme danger they ran, surrounded as they were by -hostile armies, in a hostile or indifferent country, without -assistance from the Jacobites, and far distant from the forces -which had remained in Scotland under the command of Lord -Strathallan. A victory at the gates of London, the only chance of -glory and success, would leave them still isolated and exposed to -the vengeance and anger of the Elector. The latter had thirty -thousand men at his disposal; their army did not number more than -five thousand fighting men. All counselled retreat, whilst there -was yet time, while the roads were not cut off, and -reinforcements awaited them in Scotland. -</p><p> -The prince bore himself violently. "I would rather be twenty feet -under the ground than retreat," he exclaimed. He multiplied -reasons, arguments, and hopes, both groundless and chimerical; -promising a landing of French troops in the county of Kent, -expatiating justly on the terror into which their approach had -thrown London, where the day of entrance into Derby long bore the -name of Black Friday. The Scots remained immovable. Their -soldiers were preparing to march into the capital, sharpening -their swords or piously prostrating themselves in the churches; -but the chiefs were resolved not to run any new risk. On the -evening of the 5th of December the prince finally yielded. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208">{208}</a></span> -"You desire it," he said to the members of his council; "I -consent to the retreat; but henceforth I will consult no one. I -am responsible for my actions only to God and to my father. I -shall no longer ask nor accept your advice." -</p><p> -In spite of the liberal protestations of Charles Edward, he had -sucked in with his milk the maxims and haughtiness of absolute -power; but bad fortune had more than once compelled the Stuarts -to bend before the firm resolution of their faithful friends. The -anger of the soldiers equalled that of the prince. "If we had -been beaten, we would not have been more sad," said one of them. -The discontent of the troops displayed itself by a new growth of -irregularity. A long line of stragglers pillaged the cottages; -some set fire to the villages which resisted them. The prince did -not exercise any oversight. He no longer looked on himself as -chief of the army, and he had abandoned his position in the -advance guard. The Duke of Cumberland had raised his camp and was -following the retreating army. Already at Clifton Moor, an -advance detachment had thought to surprise Lord George Murray's -corps. The lieutenant-general was on his guard. In the shade he -perceived the dragoons who had descended from horseback, and who -were gliding under the shelter of the walls. "Claymore!" cried -the Scottish chief, and his soldiers instantly started in pursuit -of the enemy, and soon put them to rout. Lord George had lost his -cap and fought bareheaded. -</p><p> -The rebel army entered Scotland without another battle. Scarcely -had it left Carlisle when the place was invested by the royal -troops. The Manchester regiment which occupied it for the young -Pretender was forced to capitulate "under the good pleasure of -his Majesty." The good pleasure of George II. was to be, for the -larger part of the officers, condemnation to death. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209">{209}</a></span> -<p> -The royal authority had been re-established at Edinburgh since -the prince had taken the road to England. General Hawley, who -occupied it for George II., advanced towards Stirling. Charles -Edward had just arrived there. He had blockaded the citadel, but -on learning the movement of the English general he immediately -marched to meet him. The prince had rallied all his forces; his -army amounted to about eight or nine thousand men, a figure -nearly equal to that of the royal troops. The English were -encamped on the plain of Falkirk. On the 17th of January, 1746, -when the rumor spread that the highlanders were approaching, the -general was absent, being detained at Cullender House by the -hospitality of the Countess of Kilmarnock, whose husband had -taken part with the rebel army. The soldiers were preparing their -dinner; confusion reigned among all the regiments. Hawley, who -had come hatless in hot haste at a hard gallop, immediately -hurried his dragoons along with him, ordering the infantry to -follow him, so as to cut off the road to the mountaineers. Rain -was driving in the face of the soldiers. The highlanders already -occupied the acclivity when the royal troops arrived to meet -them. Hardly had they formed their lines when the mountaineers -dashed on them, having dispersed the cavalry, who suffered the -disadvantage of the position. Only three regiments of the right -wing stood the impetuous attack of the highlanders. On this -juncture the Scotch brigade that Sir John Drummond had brought -from France belied the reputation that it had achieved at -Fontenoy. According to custom, the mountaineers, certain of -victory, no longer thought of anything but plunder, and did not -pursue the fugitives. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210">{210}</a></span> -Hawley and his dragoons, drenched almost to the skin by torrents -of rain, beaten by a furious wind, ashamed and humiliated, -reentered Linlithgow at a gallop, in order to take refuge -immediately after in Edinburgh. The fugitive foot-soldiers joined -them there, and bore all the rage of their terrible chief. The -gibbets that he had prepared for the punishment of the rebels -were loaded with his coward soldiers. The Duke of Cumberland -alone, who was coming by forced marches to measure himself with -the Pretender, put an end to these punishments. On the 30th of -January he slept at Holyrood, in the same room and in the same -bed that his rival had lately occupied. Yet once more the future -of Great Britain seemed destined to be played for on the field of -battle between two princely adversaries, both representing the -most opposite principles, both young and brave, having at command -forces the same to outward view, but in reality very different. -To clear-sighted observers, even though prejudiced, Charles -Edward's cause was lost. -</p><p> -It was the opinion of his most faithful adherents, absolutely -devoted, as before Derby, to a cause the weakness of which they -appreciated, and which they were resolved to defend to the very -end. After his victory at Falkirk, the prince wished to again -undertake the siege of Stirling Castle, without other counsel -than that of a French engineer, M. de Mirabelle, and some -subordinates. The chiefs were gloomy; they presented a -remonstrance to the prince; desertions were becoming every day -more numerous in the face of foes who were each day more -threatening. "We are humbly of opinion," said the highland -chiefs, "that the only means of snatching the army from an -imminent peril is to withdraw to the highlands, and we can easily -occupy the winter in getting possession of the northern -fortresses. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211">{211}</a></span> -We are thus certain of retaining sufficient men to deter the -enemy from following us into the mountains at this season of the -year. In the spring a new army of ten thousand men will be ready -to accompany your Royal Highness where it may seem good to you." -On this occasion again the determined will of the men who had -risked everything in his cause overcame the young prince's -obstinacy. In his rage he dashed his head against the wall. "Good -God! have I lived long enough to see this?" he cried. But the -siege of Stirling Castle was abandoned, and the retreat toward -the mountains began without any order or method. In his bad humor -Charles Edward had neglected to give his orders. The rebels -without difficulty invested Inverness, the castle of which -yielded at the end of some days. The convoys of arms and supplies -coming from France had almost all been intercepted by English -cruisers. The coffers of the army needed money; the troops were -receiving their pay in flour; dissatisfaction was on the -increase; the French and Spanish adventurers were tired of the -war; they ran no danger, and they reaped neither glory nor -profit. The Duke of Cumberland pursued the retreating army. On -the 2nd of February he had entered Stirling; on the 25th he took -up quarters at Aberdeen, being himself irritated and gloomy. "All -the inhabitants of the country are Jacobites," he wrote; -"gentleness would be quite out of place; there would be no end if -I should enumerate the villains and the villainies which abound -here." The hour of vengeance was approaching, rendered more cruel -by the natural harshness of the conqueror, as well as by the -passionate obstinacy of those of the rebels who should become his -victims. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212">{212}</a></span> -Already the march of the royal army was marked by gibbets. The -duke's advance was for a time hindered by the departure of the -Dutch troops. Scarcely had Lord John Drummond set foot in -Scotland than he had communicated to the troops of the -States-General his commission from Louis XV. As prisoners of war -who had capitulated at Tournay and at Dendermonde, the Dutch -regiments were pledged not to bear arms against France. They had -just been replaced by Hessians, when the Duke of Cumberland, -crossing the Spey in spite of the highlanders' efforts, advanced -as far as Nairn, where he established his camp. About seven -leagues separated the two armies; plenty reigned among the -English. On the 15th of April, the Duke of Cumberland's birthday, -an extraordinary distribution of provisions was made among the -troops. When the highlanders were called to arms in the night -they had scarcely had a biscuit to appease their hunger. The -prince and Lord George Murray had conceived the hope of effecting -a surprise. The body of troops was inconsiderable, but the night -was dark, the road bad, and the English made drowsy by copious -drinking. The mountaineers set out on the march; they were -enfeebled, and they advanced slowly. Day was beginning to break -when they found themselves in sight of the English camp. Charles -Edward was disposed to push forward. "A little light will be -advantageous to us in wielding the two-edged sword," said -Hepburn; but Lord George, ever prudent, and stationed at the head -of the advance guard, had already ordered the retreat. The men, -fatigued and discouraged, resumed their position in the plain of -Culloden, at the foot of the castle which the prince occupied, -and which belonged to the great Judge Duncan Forbes, one of his -most decided as well as most intelligent and reasonable -adversaries. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213">{213}</a></span> -It was there that the Duke of Cumberland came in his turn to -offer battle to the Pretender. The army of the latter was small -in number; several clans, disaffected on different points, did -not respond to the call. Charles Edward refused to hear the wary -counsels which his friends threw away on him, among others the -Marquis d'Equilles, who had lately come from France with a letter -from King Louis XV., and who pompously assumed the title of -ambassador. The die was cast; the two armies drew up for battle -in the plain. It was about eleven o'clock in the morning. On the -18th of April, 1746, before close of day, the Jacobite army had -ceased to exist. -</p><p> -The courage of Charles Edward and his conduct at the battle of -Culloden have often been questioned. Standing motionless on the -hill at the head of a squadron of cavalry, he took no part in the -action, and when he perceived the disorder of the troops he made -no effort to rally them and to die in their midst. He was -displeased and gloomy, affected perhaps by the fatalistic -superstition that seemed to have impressed several of the clans. -The Macdonalds had been placed at the left wing, whereas they had -occupied the right at Prestonpans and at Falkirk. This change had -seemed to them a bad augury. Lochiel had been severely wounded; -two of his followers had carried him bleeding far from the field -of battle. The courtiers who surrounded the prince took fright -when they saw the fortune of battle declare itself against them, -and withdrew, ignoring the fate reserved for them and what -intellectual and moral degradation should attach to that man who -had started in life by an undertaking so adventurous and -brilliant that it had for a time placed him in the estimation of -Europe among heroes. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214">{214}</a></span> -The Duke of Cumberland was constantly borne to the front rank. "I -have just given the orders of the day, that fugitives will be -shot," he had said to his troops at the beginning of the battle. -"I tell you this, that those who do not feel their courage very -certain, should retire. I prefer to fight with one thousand -resolute men behind me than to have ten thousand among whom are -cowards." The regiments had responded by the cry of "Flanders! -Flanders!" a just and noble souvenir of their attitude at -Fontenoy. The battle was finished and the victory complete when -the duke wrote to London, "I thank God for having been the -instrument of this success, the glory of which belongs solely to -the English troops, who have cleansed themselves of the little -check at Falkirk without the help of the Hessians. They would -have been well able to spare us the trouble, and have not been -useless in spite of their inaction." -</p><p> -The highlanders had for the most part fought valiantly; their -losses were great, and few of the prisoners were to see their -families again. The rigors of triumphant vengeance already were -commencing to spend themselves on them. The Duke of Cumberland -and General Hawley did not feel the sentiments which had formerly -affected Charles Edward after the battle of Prestonpans. The -prisoners and the wounded suffered hunger and thirst. A certain -number of the fugitives were burned in the cottages where they -had concealed themselves. "It is necessary to draw a little of -this country's blood," said the Duke of Cumberland. "We weaken -this folly, but we do not cure it. Even if we have destroyed -them, the soil is so impregnated by this rebellion that it will -crop out again." Already the prince's agents were scouring the -country seeking fugitives of note, searching houses, and leaving -traces of their passage by fire and sword. "I think it will not -be long before I lay my hand on old Lovat," wrote the duke. "I -have several detachments on the way to search for him, and papers -which suffice to convict him of high treason." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215">{215}</a></span> -<p> -It was at the house of Lord Lovat, the most perfidious of all his -secret adherents, that Charles Edward had sought refuge after -leaving the battle-field of Culloden. The cruel old man, grown -hoary in intrigues, had refused to join him personally, whilst -sending him his son. He was henceforward determined to sacrifice -all his possessions in order to save his life. He coldly received -the unfortunate prince, who would not sleep under his roof, and -who pursued his way as far as the abandoned castle of Invergary. -A fisherman of the neighborhood brought two salmon that he had -just caught in the little river. The prince and his companions -were worn out with fatigue, discouraged, and convinced with -reason that the check was definite and the cause lost. Lord -George Murray had rallied twelve hundred men at Ruthven. Prudent -in the moment of success, dauntless in the hour of reverse, he -advised the prince to maintain the struggle at every risk. "We -can hold out in the mountains so long as there is a cow and a -measure of meal in Scotland," said he. A message from the prince -thanked his faithful adherents for their zeal, asking of them, as -a last favor, to think of their personal safety. All were gravely -compromised; danger was imminent; they scattered, and the -rebellion of 1745-1746 was over. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216">{216}</a></span> -<p> -While the Duke of Cumberland established himself in Fort -Augustus, exercising to the full all those cruelties which made -him deserve the name of butcher, while the most fortunate of his -enemies escaped with great difficulty, Prince Charles Edward, as -his grand-uncle, King Charles II., had formerly done after the -battle of Worcester, wandered from hiding-place to hiding-place, -exhausted, dying of hunger, a hundred times recognized, forced to -trust to the poorest people, to the most powerless of his -friends, yet everywhere served, assisted, defended, with a -devotion which was proof against everything. He had taken refuge -in the little archipelago which bears the name of Long Island. -The English vessels cruised along the coasts; houses were -incessantly searched; peasants were arrested; the danger was -increasing every day. A young girl, Miss Flora Macdonald, who was -on a visit in the Isle of Wight succeeded in procuring herself a -passport for the Isle of Skye. She disguised the prince, and, -taking him in her suite as a lady's maid, went for refuge to the -house of her cousin, Sir Alexander Macdonald, who had been -constantly adverse to Charles Edward's attempt, and had ended by -actively opposing it. His wife, Lady Margaret, seconded Flora's -efforts. The castle was filled with militia officers, but she -succeeded in effecting the prince's escape. Some days later he -crossed to the Isle of Rosay, almost at the moment when his -deliverer, Flora Macdonald, was arrested and conducted to London, -where her detention lasted about a year. Some people found fault -with Lady Margaret's conduct, the Princess of Wales being of the -number. "In such a case would you not have done as much?" said -her husband, turning quickly upon her. "I hope so; I am sure of -it." The persevering fidelity of the Jacobites endowed Flora -Macdonald. After five months of perils and sufferings -courageously endured, the fugitive prince at last set foot in -France. He embarked on the 20th of September at Lochmanagh, -almost at the same place where he had formerly landed full of the -most joyous and brilliant hopes. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217">{217}</a></span> -"Nothing troubled him, neither fatigues nor privations," said one -of the temporary companions of his flight. "He alone should -suffer," he said; but when he thought of all those who were in -peril for his sake, his heart was strained and on the verge of -losing courage. His name long dwelt in the popular songs of the -highlands, which remained persistently faithful to the -remembrance of common efforts and dangers. -</p><p> -"I have had sons; I no longer have any. I have brought them up -with difficulty, but I would be willing to bear them all again -and to lose them for love of Charles." -</p><p> -Whilst the prince, the object of a devotion so passionately -disinterested, was receiving at the court of Louis XV. a welcome -as impressive as it was vain, his illustrious partisans thronged -the prisons and scaffolds, while their lands were laid waste by -the English soldiers. In vain did Duncan Forbes claim the -application of laws. "Laws!" replied the conqueror; "I will make -laws with a brigade." Colonel Townley and his companions had -already endured their horrible sentence at Kennington Common in -sight of an eager and terrified crowd. Lord Cromarty, Lord -Kilmarnock, and Lord Balmerino were confined in the Tower. When -they were brought before the Court of Peers the first two pleaded -guilty. Lord Cromarty implored the compassion of his judges for -his wife and eight children. Lord Balmerino pleaded not guilty. -"I wish to be judged by God and my peers," said he proudly. All -three were condemned to the punishment of traitors; Lord Cromarty -alone obtained pardon. "I do not consider him worthy of life who -is not ready to die," said Lord Balmerino when his sentence was -confirmed. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218">{218}</a></span> -As the sheriff pronounced the customary formula, "God save King -George," Kilmarnock uttered an "Amen." Balmerino raised his head. -"So God save King James," exclaimed he; "if I had a thousand -lives I would give them all for this cause." He knelt down on the -scaffold. "My God, reward my friends, forgive my enemies, bless -King James, and receive my soul," he uttered in a loud voice. The -agitated executioner had scarcely strength to cut his head off. -</p><p> -Last of all, Lord Lovat had suffered the punishment merited by -his entire life rather than by his part in the Jacobite -rebellion. A coward and a suppliant as long as he believed pardon -possible, he recovered on the day before his death the theatrical -pride of his best days, and even on the scaffold he murmured the -line of Horace: "<i>Dulce et decorum est pro patriâ mori.</i>" -Legal measures had followed these bloody executions; the -highlanders were disarmed; hereditary jurisdictions were -abolished; their national costume was forbidden to the -mountaineers. Along with the power of the Jacobites the feudal -spirit was slowly extinguished in Scotland. Keppoch had -sorrowfully said on the battle-field of Culloden, when he saw the -Macdonalds quietly retire without fighting, "Have I lived long -enough to see myself deserted by the children of my people?" -Death had seconded fatigue and private grudges. "It is to the -Duke of Cumberland that we owe this peace," was what was written -on the monument of Culloden battle-field. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219">{219}</a></span> -<p> -The anger and harshness of the English government in regard to -the Jacobites multiplied the checks that the coalition had -encountered everywhere on the continent, with the exception of -Italy. At the moment when the Duke of Cumberland was defeating -Charles Edward at Culloden, Antwerp surrendered to Louis XV. in -person. Mons, Namur, and Charleroi were not long in yielding. The -victory of Raucoux in 1746, and that of Lawfelt in 1747, had -carried the glory of Marshal Saxe to its height. Originally a -foreigner like him, like him serving France gloriously, the Count -Lowendall hard pressed the Dutch, who were against their -inclination engaged in the struggle. He had already taken Ecluse -and Sas de Gand; Berg-op-Zoom was besieged. As in 1672, the -French invasion had given rise to a political revolution in -Holland. The aristocratic <i>bourgeoisie</i>, which had regained -power, yielded to the efforts of the popular party, directed by -the House of Nassau and sustained by England. "The republic needs -a chief to oppose an ambitious and perfidious neighbor who makes -game of the faith of treaties," said a deputy of the -States-General on the day when the stadtholdership was -proclaimed, which was re-established in favor of William IV., -grand-nephew of the great William III. and son-in-law of George -II. King of England. The young prince immediately took command of -the Dutch troops, but a good understanding did not long exist -between him and the Duke of Cumberland. "Our two young heroes -scarcely understand one another," wrote Mr. Pelham on the 14th of -August, 1747. "Ours is open, frank, resolute, and a little -hot-headed; the other is presumptuous, pedantic, argumentative, -and obstinate; in what a situation do we find ourselves? We must -ask God to come to our aid, for we can direct nothing. There is -nothing to be done but appease quarrels and obtain time to -breathe. Perhaps somebody will recover common sense." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220">{220}</a></span> -<p> -Marshal Saxe had said to Louis XV., "Sire, peace is in -Mæstricht." The place was invested on the 9th of April, 1748, -before the thirty-five thousand Russians promised to England by -the Czarina Elizabeth had time to arrive. The Dutch were alarmed, -and vigorously insisted on peace. Philip V. was dead. His -successor, Ferdinand VI., who was less faithful to the House of -Bourbon, made overtures to England. For a long time the prime -minister, Henry Pelham, was disposed to peace. His brother, the -Duke of Newcastle, opposed it out of servile deference to the -king. Lord Chesterfield, lately become a member of the cabinet, -and who was intelligent and sagacious in spite of his worldly -unconcern, being dissatisfied with the conduct of the court -towards him, had just given in his resignation. Notwithstanding -her successes, France was, like her adversaries, weary. Marshal -Saxe himself made pacific proposals. The preliminaries of the -peace were signed on the 30th of April. Austria and Spain were -not slow in giving their adhesion to it. On the 18th of October -the final treaty was concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle. After so much -blood spilt and treasure squandered, France gained from the war -no other advantage than the guarantee of the duchies of Parma and -Plaisance to the infant Don Philip, son-in-law of Louis XV. -England yielded to France Cape Breton and the colony of -Louisburg, the only territory that she had preserved after her -numerous expeditions against our colonies, and the immense injury -she had done our commerce. This clause excited much ill-feeling -among the English people. Hostages had been promised. Prince -Charles Edward was in Paris when they arrived. He was seized with -an access of patriotic anger. "If ever I remount the throne of my -fathers," he exclaimed, "Europe will witness my constant -endeavors to oblige France in turn to send hostages to England." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221">{221}</a></span> -<p> -Prince Charles Edward was himself an inconvenient and -compromising hostage whom France engaged in expelling from her -territory. Vainly, since his return from Scotland, the young -Pretender had obstinately sought to rekindle a flame which was -forever extinguished. "If I had received only half of the money -that your Majesty sent me," he wrote to Louis XV. on the 10th of -November, 1746, "I would have fought the Duke of Cumberland with -equal numbers, and I would have certainly defeated him, since -with four thousand men against twelve thousand I held victory in -the balance for a long time. These disasters can yet be repaired -if your Majesty is willing to intrust me with a body of from -eighteen to twenty thousand men. The number of warlike subjects -has never failed me in Scotland. I have needed at once money, -provisions, and a handful of regular troops. With one of these -three aids alone I would still be to-day master of Scotland, and -probably of all England." Louis XV. had remained deaf to this -appeal, which no longer found an echo in Spain. The Duke of York, -second son of the Chevalier de St. George, had just taken orders. -The Court of Rome had forthwith made him a cardinal, to the -violent indignation of his brother. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle -removed from the unfortunate Stuarts that asylum which France had -with so much pomp lately offered them. Charles Edward refused to -understand the notice which the ministers of Louis XV. had -conveyed to him. "The king is bound to my cause by his honor, -which is worth all treaties," said he. In vain had his father -counselled him to yield to necessity and not to provoke a monarch -who could be useful to him. The prince was determined to remain -in France, and at Paris. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222">{222}</a></span> -On the 11th of December, as he arrived at the opera, his carriage -was surrounded by police agents. M. de Vaudreuil, major in the -guards, presented himself before the prince. "I arrest you in the -name of the king, my master," said he. "The manner is a little -cavalier," coolly replied the young man. When the major asked for -his arms, "Let them take them," said he, freeing himself from the -hands of the police officers. They bound his hands with silken -cords, the last sign of respect accorded to the heir of a house -forever fallen, and he was conducted from stage to stage as far -as the frontier. He would never see France again. Twice he -reappeared secretly in England: in 1753, on the occasion of a -projected surprise on the person of George II., which he himself -deemed impossible; and in 1761, amid the festivities at the -coronation of George III. Twice the kings of the House of Hanover -were not ignorant of the presence of their enemy in the capital; -they made no effort to seize him, and wisely allowed him to set -out again for an exile, the long weariness of which had mortally -affected his mind as well as his heart. Deprived by his faults of -the pure joys of family life, he had lowered himself so far as to -seek forgetfulness in drunkenness. He was old and almost -forgotten when he died at Rome in 1788. Only the inscription on a -tomb recalls the name of the last three Stuarts, and it was King -George IV. who caused it to be engraved as a souvenir of extinct -passions: "To James III., son of James II., King of England; to -Charles Edward, and to Henry, Cardinal of York, last scion of the -House of Stuart, 1819." -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/222.jpg" border=1><br> -Arrest Of Charles Edward. -</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223">{223}</a></span> -<p> -The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle had, with good reason, excited more -discontent in France than in England. We alone had gained -brilliant victories and made great conquests. We alone preserved -no increase of territory. The great Frederick kept Silesia, and -the King of Sardinia the domains already ceded by Austria. -Humorous lampoons were sung in the streets of Paris, and "<i>Bête -comme le paix</i>," was a customary expression. -</p><p> -The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle had a graver defect than that of -barrenness; it was not and could not be lasting. England had -proved her power on the sea. She had battled against our ruined -navy, and against enfeebled Spain. Holland, her ally after having -been her rival, could no longer dispute the sovereign empire with -her. She became daily more eager for the conquest of the distant -colonies that we did not know how to defend. The peace had left -in suspense disputed points which would soon serve as a pretext -for new aggressions. In proportion as the ancient influence of -Richelieu and Louis XIV. on European politics grew weaker, -English influence, based on the growing power of a free country -and government, was strengthening. Without any other allies than -Spain, who was herself shaken in her fidelity, we stood exposed -to the enterprises of England, henceforth freed from the phantom -of the Stuarts. "The peace concluded between England and France -in 1748 was only a truce," said Lord Macaulay; "it was not even a -truce on other parts of the globe." It was there that the two -nations were about to measure themselves, and that the burden of -its government's shortcomings would cause France to lose that -empire of the Indies and those Canadian colonies which had been -founded and so long sustained by eminent men, one after another, -victims to their patriotic devotion which was as hopeless as it -was without results. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224">{224}</a></span> -<p> -Frederick, Prince of Wales, died on the 20th of March, 1751. -Having caught a slight cold, without being alarmed at his -illness, he soon felt seriously affected. "I feel death," he had -said. The dispute which reigned in the royal family did not cease -at the grave; the project of the Regency law had occasioned some -bitter passages between the dowager princess, mother of the new -Prince of Wales, and the Duke of Cumberland. The prince was not -popular. "I do not know why," said King George II. "This nation -is capricious. The Scotch and the Jacobites think ill of him; and -the English do not like discipline." On the 6th of March, 1754, -Henry Pelham unexpectedly died. His administration had been just -and intelligent, without vigor, but without disturbance. "I shall -have no more peace," exclaimed the old king when he learned of -his minister's death. As clever in court finesse as he was -incapable of directing with grandeur general policy, the Duke of -Newcastle knew how to seize the high rank that escaped the dying -hands of his brother. William Pitt bided his time. -</p><p> -It was in the midst of this administrative weakness and -intellectual stagnation that a religious movement had begun, and -was spreading, which was destined to reanimate moral life in -England, to purify manners, and to give it strength to resist the -fatal impulse of the French Revolution. Under the influence of -examples which originated in the court of Charles II., and which -since then had been fostered by numerous scandals, English -society was gradually corrupted in high places, and the contagion -of moral evil was beginning to make itself felt even in the most -remote provinces. Religious faith, enfeebled by the indifference -of the clergy as well as by the theories of philosophers, was -struggling faintly against the depravity of manners. The Anglican -Church had fallen into a respectable languor; the old dissenting -sects, having escaped from the tight bonds of persecution, had -lost their ancient fervor. -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/224.jpg" border=1><br> -William Pitt—Lord Chatham. -</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225">{225}</a></span> -<p> -The religious sentiment yet existed in a latent condition among -the lower and middle classes. Here it was that it awakened with -an unexpected ardor at the eloquent voice of John Wesley and -George Whitefield. Both students of Oxford, both destined to -embrace the holy ministry, both consecrated in the Anglican -Church, they undertook with enthusiasm a sacred crusade for the -salvation of souls and the destruction of moral evil. Whitefield, -who was more ardently eloquent, less contained, and of a less -tolerant spirit than Wesley, now travelled over the country, -preaching to the miners, who came out of their gloomy retreats in -thousands in order to hear his fervent exhortations, and now -assembled at the house of the Countess of Huntington the -<i>élite</i> of the worldly society of London. Strong workingmen -sobbed and groaned under his pathetic appeals; peasants fell to -the earth as though stricken with inward convulsions; -philosophers tranquilly admired an eloquence of which they -recognized the power as well as the sincerity. "All appeared -moved to some extent," said Whitefield in writing of a piously -worldly assembly. "Lord Chesterfield thanked me, saying, 'Sir, I -will not say to you, what I say of you to others, how much I -commend you.' Lord Bolingbroke assisted at the meeting. He was -seated like an archbishop, and did me the honor to say that in my -discourse I had done justice to the divine attributes." Some -years later the eloquence of Whitefield was to draw from the -economical hands of Franklin the whole contents of his purse. But -already the ardor of his zeal had closed to him the pulpits of -the Anglican Church. He had sought sympathy for his cause even in -America. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226">{226}</a></span> -On his return to England some difference of opinion had separated -him from Wesley. Henceforth each worked for his reward in the -vast field of unbelief, indifference, and moral corruption. Both, -however, pursued the same work, following the bent of natural -disposition, which was more ardent and dissenting with Whitefield -and the Methodist sects born under his inspiration, more moderate -and conservative with Wesley as with the innumerable adherents -who yet do themselves the honor of bearing his name. -</p><p> -Never was the author of a great and lasting popular movement -further removed than Wesley from all revolutionary tendency. The -spirit of government and organization, attachment to ancient and -venerated forms, a lofty and calm judgment united to an ascetic -nature, a slight leaning towards mysticism—such were the -characteristic and necessary traits of a reformer and religious -founder in the eighteenth century. Wesley was tenderly attached -to the Anglican Church; he only separated himself from it with -regret, constrained by the ecclesiastical dislike which closed -the pulpits to him, and compelled, little by little, and against -his inclination, to accept the vault of heaven for his temple, -and the laity for his fellow laborers, as Whitefield had done -since the beginning. During his long apostolate, which lasted -from 1729 to 1791, from the prayer-meetings in his room at Oxford -to the complete and strong organization of the sect he had -founded, Wesley exercised an absolute authority over his numerous -subjects. "If you mean by an arbitrary power, a power which I -alone exercise," he said, with a tranquil simplicity, "it is -certainly true; but I see no harm in it." However, in -courageously accomplishing his work, Wesley did more than he -intended; he had founded a religious society; he had not had the -intention of founding a sect. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227">{227}</a></span> -A minister of the Anglican Church, and a witness of its -shortcomings, he had felt that in order to awaken the parish -clergy it was necessary to create a kind of regular clergy; that -in order to announce the Gospel to those who did not go to -church, or who only heard these cold exhortations, it was -necessary to organize an army of ardent missionaries; that in -order to touch the heart of the masses it was necessary to seek -them in the fields, the markets, and the byways, and to address -them in their own common language. Wesley was forced to separate -himself from the Anglican Church, but his disciples have -constantly remained respectful to her, and as an intermediate -body between her and dissenters, they have, from without, -rendered her most important services. Wesley and Whitefield have -reawakened religious life in England, and no religious society -has profited by it so much as the Anglican Church herself. -Movements of various kinds, all serious and sincere, have -manifested themselves in her wide bosom. She has sufficed to -foster much warmth, to satisfy minds and hearts widely -dissimilar, but all beset by veritable religious needs; she has -united herself to the most noble attempts of modern philanthropy, -the worthy fruits of awakened and revived Christian faith. It is -to the great religious movement created in the eighteenth century -by Wesley and Whitefield that England has owed the glorious -efforts of Clarkson and Wilberforce for the emancipation of -slaves, and the prison reform of John Howard. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228">{228}</a></span> -<p> -England had need of all her forces, ancient and new, moral, -religious, and patriotic, for she was approaching an era of -blended glory and danger, agitated and tempestuous even in -victory. The war with France, long sustained on distant seas -without preliminary declaration, and with enormous detriment to -French commerce, which was everywhere interrupted and ruined, -became at last patent and officially inevitable. In the Indies as -well as in Canada, it had not ceased for a single day. In the -month of March, 1755, the ministers asked Parliament for an -increase of forces for the defence of the American possessions -threatened by the French. The governor of Canada, the Marquis -Duquesne, had erected a series of forts in the valley of the -Ohio. M. de Contrecœur, who commanded in that region, learned -that a body of English troops was marching upon him under the -orders of young Colonel Washington. He immediately detailed M. de -Jumonville along with thirty men, to call upon the English to -retire and evacuate the French territory. At break of day on the -18th of May, 1754, Washington's corps surprised De Jumonville's -little encampment. The attack was unforeseen; the French envoy -was killed along with nine of his troop. The irritation caused by -this event precipitated the commencement of hostilities. A band -of Canadians, reinforced by some savages, marched against -Washington, who had intrenched himself in the plain. It was -necessary to attack him with cannon shot. In spite of his -bravery, the future conqueror of American independence was forced -to capitulate. The colonies were keenly excited; they formed a -sort of confederation against the French power in America. They -especially raised militia. In January, 1755, General Braddock was -already in Virginia with regular troops. In the early part of -May, Admiral Boscawen, after a desperate combat, captured several -vessels which had been separated by bad weather from the squadron -of Admiral Dubois de la Motte. Three hundred merchant vessels -fell into the hands of the English navy. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229">{229}</a></span> -War was finally declared, to the secret uneasiness of the two -governments as well as of the two nations. "What is the use of -having plenty of troops and money," wrote the lawyer Barbier, "if -we only wage war with the English by sea? They will one after -another take all our vessels, get hold of all our American -settlements, and manage all the commerce. Some division in the -English nation itself must be hoped for, because the king -personally does not desire war." -</p><p> -King George II. was uneasy on account of Hanover—a point of -attack naturally pointed out to the armies of King Louis XV. The -English nation dreaded the landing so often and so vainly -announced. "What I wish," exclaimed Pitt, "is to snatch this -country from a state of enervation which makes it tremble before -twenty thousand Frenchmen." Being a member of the administration, -as well as paymaster-general of the forces, he violently attacked -the treaties of subsidies and alliance, which the king had just -concluded with Prussia and Hesse. For the first time, his -eloquence swayed the House. "He has surpassed himself," wrote -Horace Walpole. "Do I need to tell you that he has surpassed -Demosthenes and Cicero? What figure would their solemn, -elaborate, studied harangues have cut beside this manly vivacity -and this impetuous eloquence which, all at once, at one o'clock -in the morning, after eleven hours' session, pierced the stifling -atmosphere." Legge, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, had, like -Pitt, refused his assent to the treaties. Both were replaced, and -Pitt was thrown into the opposition, which rallied round the -princess dowager and the young Prince of Wales. "This day will, I -hope, give the key-note to my life," he had rightly said in his -great speech. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230">{230}</a></span> -<p> -The weakness of the English government became more apparent every -day. "I say it with regret on account of my friend Fox," wrote -Horace Walpole, "but the year 1756 was, perhaps, that of the -worst government I have ever seen in England: the incapacity of -Newcastle had fair play." In spite of their inadequate resources -the Canadians defended themselves heroically and not -unsuccessfully against the efforts of the American colonies -backed by the mother-country. Acadia, a strip of neutral country -between the English and French territories, the inhabitants of -which had constantly refused to take the oath of allegiance to -England, was invaded by the American troops, the population swept -off, and the houses pillaged. General Braddock encountered more -resistance in the valley of the Ohio. He proposed to surprise -Fort Duquesne, and forced the march of his little corps. "I never -saw a finer sight than that of the English troops on the 9th of -July, 1755," wrote Colonel Washington, who was commanding under -the orders of Braddock. But soon the English advance-guard was -stopped by a heavy discharge of artillery; the enemy did not -appear; the foremost ranks were disordered and recoiled on the -body of the army. The confusion became extreme; the regular -troops, little used to this sort of fighting, refused to rally -round the general, who would have wished them to manœuvre as on -the plains of Flanders. The Virginia militia alone, being -scattered in the woods, answered the fire of the French or Indian -sharpshooters without showing themselves. General Braddock soon -received a mortal wound; Colonel Washington, reserved by God for -other destinies, sought in vain to rally the soldiers. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231">{231}</a></span> -"I have been protected by the all-powerful intervention of -Providence," he wrote to his brother after the action; "I -received four bullets in my coat, and I have had two horses -killed under me; however, I have got out of it safe and sound, -while death swept off all our comrades around me. We have been -beaten, shamefully beaten, by a handful of Frenchmen, who only -anticipated hindering our march. A few moments before action we -believed our forces almost equal to all those of Canada, and now, -contrary to all probability, we have been completely defeated, -and have lost everything." The little French corps, sent out from -Fort Duquesne under the command of M. de Beaujeu, numbered but -two hundred Canadians and six hundred Indians. It was only three -years later, when Canada, exhausted and dying, succumbed beneath -the burden of a war which it had sustained almost without aid, -that Fort Duquesne, destroyed by its defenders themselves, fell -into the hands of the English. They gave it the name of -Pittsburg, in honor of the great minister who was in power—a -name which a prosperous city bears even to-day. -</p><p> -While the Marquis de Montcalm was successfully sustaining the war -against the English in America, Marshal Richelieu, a clever, -prodigal, and corrupt courtier, had the good luck to achieve the -only happy stroke of the Seven Years' War, the remembrance of -which should remain firm in the mind of posterity. On the 17th of -April, 1756; a French squadron under the command of M. de la -Galissonière attacked the Island of Minorca, an important -military point in the Mediterranean to which the English attached -a high Value. Chased from Ciudadela and Port Mahon, the garrisons -had taken refuge in Fort St. Philip. They relied on the help of -the English fleet. The Admiral who commanded it attacked M. de la -Galissonière on the 10th of May. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232">{232}</a></span> -The English were repulsed and could not effect a landing. The -ships had suffered a good deal, and the English forces were -inferior to those of France. Byng feared defeat; he consulted his -council of war and fell back on Gibraltar. General Blakeney, shut -up in the fortress, sick, and without hope of aid, defended -himself weakly against the impetuous assault of the French. Fort -St. Philip was taken, and the Duke de Fronsac, eldest son of the -Duke de Richelieu, hastened to Paris to convey the news to King -Louis XV. -</p><p> -The rage and humiliation, like the joy and pride of France, -exceeded the extent and importance of the success. Admiral Byng, -peremptorily recalled, was with great difficulty brought safe and -sound to London, so strong was the anger of the mob. The -government made no effort to protect him. On the first -representations being made to him against the admiral, who was -honest and brave, but a blind slave of rule and badly provided -alike with ships and sailors, the Duke of Newcastle hastily -replied, "Oh! certainly, certainly; he will be judged -immediately; he will be hanged immediately." In spite of the -efforts made in his favor in the Houses, as well as by Marshal -Richelieu and Voltaire, Byng expiated with his life the check he -had sustained and the wounded pride of his country. The Duke of -Newcastle was at last overcome by his notorious incapacity. -William Pitt seized the reins of power for a short time, of which -the aversion of the king was not long in depriving him. The great -orator had refused to come to an understanding with Mr. Fox, who -bitterly reproached him with afterwards sustaining the treaties -of subsidies and alliances which he had lately attacked so -passionately. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233">{233}</a></span> -France had just entered into an alliance with Maria Theresa; the -houses of Bourbon and Austria were making common cause; all the -available forces of England were engaged in the struggle, and -Pitt did not hesitate to recruit in the highlands. "Men are never -wanting to a good cause," he said afterwards. "I have lately -employed the very rebels in the service and defence of the -country. Being thus brought back to us, they have fought for us, -and have gladly shed their blood to protect those liberties which -in the past they wished to destroy." -</p><p> -It was in vain that George II. still strove against the minister, -who imposed the national will on him as the favor of heaven. In -vain, making use of the royal prerogative against him, did he -force him to yield up the seals of office from the beginning of -April, and involve in his disgrace Lord Temple, his -brother-in-law. In vain did he seek to form a new cabinet, with -the insatiable thirst of the Duke of Newcastle for the nominal -side of power, and the desire which Fox felt to actually govern. -Parliament as well as the people demanded the powerful hand which -could guide them through the bursting storm. On the 29th of June, -1757, Pitt was named secretary of state, and rallied around him -some illustrious names, but he was the sole efficient master of -the government, and was resolved to bear alone the whole burden -of it. The most sagacious observers interchanged gloomy -forebodings. "England has no longer any course but to cut her -cables and set sail towards an unknown ocean," wrote Horace -Walpole. "It matters little who may be in power," said Lord -Chesterfield; "we are lost at home and abroad—at home by our -debts and our growing expenses; abroad by our incapacity and bad -luck. … We are no longer even a nation." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234">{234}</a></span> -<p> -It is sometimes the good fortune and glory of great men, under -the hand of God, to baffle the doleful prognostications of their -contemporaries. As a constitutional minister, the first William -Pitt should occupy a lower position than the noble career of his -son. He was overbearing, whimsical, personal, and theatrical. -Abroad he could push national pride as far as the most impolitic -insolence. He sacrificed his country's interests for the sake of -humiliating her enemies. He made England feared, but he isolated -her in Europe and in the world by a proud and obdurate policy, -for which he was to pay cruelly later. At home he was unbalanced -and violent, carried away by opposing and always extreme -passions, without limit and without foresight. The greatness of -his mind, ability, and character, however, overcame all his -defects. He governed his country through a long and difficult war -in stormy times which demanded painful sacrifices, making -constant appeals to the most noble passions of the human soul by -the prestige of eloquence, rectitude, patriotism, and glory. It -is his honor to have re-established the fortune of England in the -war; it is no less a service to have lifted hearts to the level -of fortune in order to sustain a great cause. -</p><p> -Pitt's first warlike efforts were not happy. An expedition -attempted against Rochefort was unsuccessful. The King of -Prussia, lately victorious in Saxony, whence he had driven the -elector, the King of Poland, found himself in turn closely -pressed by the Austrian Marshal Daun, who had conquered him at -Cologne. Marshal d'Estrèes, slowly occupying Westphalia, had -entrapped the Duke of Cumberland on the Weser. On the morning of -the 23d of July, 1757, the marshal summoned his lieutenant-generals. -"Gentlemen," said he, "I do not assemble you to-day to -ask you whether we must fight M. de Cumberland and invest Hameln. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235">{235}</a></span> -The honor of the king's arms, his wish, his express orders, the -interest of a common cause, bind us to take the firmest -resolutions. I only seek, therefore, to profit by your light, and -to concoct with you the best means of successful attack." The -Duke of Cumberland's troops were of various races. He had not -under his command any English regiment. His warlike spirit was -not sufficient to compensate for the defects of his military -organization. On the 26th of July Marshal d'Estrèes forced him -into the intrenchment at Hastenbeck. He retreated, without being -pursued, to the marshes at the mouth of the Elbe, under the -protection of English vessels. Marshal d'Estrèes was recalled by -a court intrigue. Marshal Richelieu and the Duke de Soubise -divided the command. Richelieu systematically pillaged Hanover, -Hesse-Cassel, and Brunswick. He threatened the position of the -Duke of Cumberland, and the latter asked to capitulate. On the -8th of September, by the intervention of the Count de Lynar, the -minister of the King of Denmark, who remained neutral between the -belligerents, the Duke of Cumberland and Marshal Richelieu -signed, at the advance posts of the French army, the famous -capitulation of Closter-Severn. The troops of King Louis XV. -occupied all the conquered country; those of Hesse, Brunswick, -and Saxe-Gotha were to return to their quarters. The great -Frederick had already recalled the Prussians; the Hanoverians -were to remain fortified in the neighborhood of Stade. In his -presumptuous levity the marshal had not even thought of exacting -their disarming. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236">{236}</a></span> -<p> -However incomplete as was this convention, which was severely -judged by the Emperor Napoleon I. in his memoirs, it excited -great anger in England as well as in Prussia. When the Duke of -Cumberland presented himself before his father, the old king -greeted him with this startling sentence: "There is my son who -has dishonored himself whilst ruining me." Wounded and -discouraged, the duke officially renounced his command and handed -in his resignation of all his offices, to linger yet some years -in obscurity, and finally die in 1765, at the age of forty-six -years. Pitt alone of the ministers had defended him. When the -king repeated that he had never authorized his son's conduct, the -prince's constant antagonist replied in an honest spirit of -justice: "It is true, Sire; but his powers were extensive, very -extensive!" -</p><p> -The King of Prussia remained alone opposing the allies. Every day -his force diminished, affected by desertion as much as by death. -The Russian army had invaded the Prussian provinces and beaten -General Schouvaloff near Memel; twenty-five thousand Swedes had -just landed in Pomerania. For a moment Frederick II. thought of -killing himself, but the indomitable strength of his soul, a -strange mingling of corruption and heroism, constantly drew him -back to battle with fresh efforts of ability and resolve. The -favor of Madame de Pompadour had reserved for the Prince Soubise -the honor of crushing the King of Prussia. The two armies met on -the 5th of November, 1757, on the banks of the Saale, near -Rosbach. That evening the French army, utterly defeated, fled to -Erfurt. It left on the field of battle eight thousand prisoners -and three thousand dead. A month later the Austrians were in turn -vanquished at Lissa. The glory of the great Frederick, obscure -for a time, shone forth anew in all its splendor; he became the -national hero of Germany. The Protestant powers, lately engaged -against him, made approaches to the conqueror. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237">{237}</a></span> -In England enthusiasm was at its height; Pitt concluded a new -agreement with Prussia. Parliament, without difficulty, voted a -subsidy of sixty-seven thousand pounds sterling. King George II., -as Elector of Hanover, had refused to ratify the capitulation of -Cloister-Severn, and his troops were already renewing the -campaign under the command of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. -Being clever and honest, he had soon gained possession of the -country of Luneberg, of Zell, of a part of Brunswick and of -Bremen. In order to maintain the struggle in Germany, King Louis -XV. and Madame de Pompadour had just put the Count de Clermont at -the head of the French troops. -</p><p> -The Zaporogue Cossacks inundated Prussia, and Frederick II. had -scarcely beaten the Russians on the bloody day of Zorndorff when -he was himself conquered at Hochkirch by Marshal Daun and forced -to evacuate Saxony. Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick had just won -the important victory of Crevelt over the new French general. The -Count de Clermont had given evidence of the most distressing -incapacity; his army escaped every day more and more from under -the yoke of discipline. It was discontented, humiliated, and -without confidence in the chiefs who successively headed it, -being exalted to the command by court intrigues or manœuvres. The -Marquis de Contades had succeeded M. de Clermont. At Versailles -the Count de Stainville, created Duke de Choiseul, had become -Minister of Foreign Affairs in place of Cardinal de Bernis, who -was always inclined to pacific counsels. The second treaty of -Versailles had united France to Maria Theresa more firmly than -ever. The English had on two occasions unsuccessfully attempted -an attack on the coasts of Normandy and Brittany. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238">{238}</a></span> -The Duke d'Aiguillon, governor of that province, had taken to -himself the honor of having repulsed the invasion; a single -unimportant battle had taken place, and this formed the pretext -for a grand project of descent on the English coasts. The Prince -de Soubise was recalled from Germany in order to direct the -invading army. The expedition was ready, and only awaited the -signal to issue from the port, but Admiral Hawke was cruising in -front of Brest, Admiral Rodney had just bombarded Havre, and it -was only in the month of November, 1759, that the Marquis de -Conflaus, who commanded the fleet, was able to put to sea with -twenty-one vessels of the line and four frigates. The English -forces were superior to his, and immediately set out in pursuit. -M. de Conflaus thought he would find refuge in the tortuous -passages at the mouth of the Vilaine. -</p><p> -The English penetrated there after him. Sir Edward Hawke engaged -the <i>Soleil Royal</i>, which was commanded by the French -admiral. His pilot represented to him the danger of navigating. -The brave seaman let him talk. "Very well," he answered; "you -have done your duty, now you have only to obey me; manage so as -to place me alongside the <i>Soleil Royal</i>." The battle thus -waged in the various narrow passages became disastrous to the -French vessels. The commander of the rear guard, M. Saint-André -du Verger, let it be raked by the enemy's cannon in order to -cover the retreat. The admiral ran aground in the Bay of Croisic, -and himself burned his vessel. Seven French and two English ships -remained engaged in the Vilaine. M. de Conflaus' day, as the -sailors named the episode, dealt a fatal blow to the unfortunate -remnant of the French navy. The English triumphed everywhere on -the sea, and even in our own waters. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239">{239}</a></span> -<p> -They also triumphed at a distance in our colonies, entirely -abandoned to their forces, which prolonged in a heroic struggle -the throes of their agony. Pitt had determined to achieve the -conquest of Canada. Already the outposts of Louisburg and Cape -Breton had succumbed beneath the attacks of the English. The -Anglo-American forces were increased during the campaign of 1758 -to sixty thousand men. The entire population of Canada was not -more numerous. In 1759, three armies invaded the French territory -at once. On the 29th of June, a considerable fleet carried to the -Island of Orleans, fronting Quebec, General Wolfe, a young -officer of great promise who had distinguished himself at the -siege of Louisburg. Pitt believed that he discerned in him the -elements of superior merit. In spite of the blundering— -sometimes presuming, and again depressed—of Wolfe, he had -resolved to confide to him the direction of the great expedition -he contemplated. "If the Marquis de Montcalm succeeds again this -year in deceiving our hopes," said the new general, "he can pass -for a clever man: either the colony has resources that are -unknown, or our generals are worse than ordinary." -</p><p> -Quebec occupied an advantageous position, but the fortifications -were bad; the loss of the place involved that of Canada. "If the -Marquis were shut up there," said Wolfe, "we should soon have -triumphed; our artillery would have made short work of the -walls." An intrenched camp stretched before Quebec. The Indian -tribes, hitherto ardently attached to France by the habitual -kindness of its commerce, were decimated by the war, or had -silently withdrawn, gained over by the money as well as the -success of England. The two great European nations did not -hesitate to wage war by means of the cruel or perfidious -proceedings of their Indian allies. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240">{240}</a></span> -<p> -For more than a month the town had borne the enemy's fire. The -churches and convents were in ruins, and the French had not -stirred from their camp of <i>l'Ange-Gardien.</i> Skirmishes were -frequent. "Old men of seventy and children of fifteen years fire -on our detachments," wrote Wolfe. "Our men are wounded at every -border of the forest." The anger of the English soldiers had -little by little reduced to a desert both banks of the St. -Lawrence. In every direction villages and scattered dwellings -were given to the flames. -</p><p> -Generals Amherst and Johnson, who had been charged with distant -expeditions against Niagara and Ticonderoga, had succeeded in -their enterprises, but had not rejoined Wolfe according to Pitt's -plan. The latter bore on his shoulders all the responsibility of -final success. Being repulsed before the French camp on the 31st -of July, Wolfe fell sick from vexation and spite. "There only -remains to me the choice of difficulties," he wrote to the -English cabinet. "I have regained sufficient health to do my -work, but my constitution is destroyed without my having the -consolation of having rendered, or being able to render, -considerable service to the state." Three days after the date of -this letter. General Wolfe suddenly advanced on the banks of the -St. Lawrence. On the night of the 12th of September he landed on -the creek of the Foulon. The officers had responded in French to -the "<i>Qui vive?</i>" of the sentinels, who believed that they -beheld a long expected convoy of provisions passing. Twice did -the boats, which were insufficient in number, silently cross the -stream. Wolfe alone repeated in an undertone the poet Gray's -"Elegy in a Country Churchyard." He was touching land, when he -turned to say to his lieutenants, "I would prefer to be the -author of that poem than to take Quebec." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241">{241}</a></span> -<p> -Day was scarcely breaking when the English army occupied the -Heights of Abraham. A skirmish had sufficed to put to flight the -French detachment charged with guarding them. The Marquis de -Montcalm viewed his enemies from afar. "I see them plainly where -they ought not to be," said he, "but if we fight with them I -shall crush them." The English were already on the march; before -the break of day the French were routed, Montcalm was dying, and -Quebec was lost. -</p><p> -General Wolfe had murmured the last of Gray's lines—"The path -of glory leads but to the grave." He had received three mortal -wounds as he was encouraging his grenadiers to charge. Already -his eyes were veiled by the eternal shadows, when an officer who -was attending him exclaimed, "See, they fly!" "Who?" asked Wolfe, -raising himself up painfully. "The enemy; they yield at all -points." The hero let himself fall back on his couch. "God be -praised," said he; "I die content." He was not yet thirty-four -years of age. -</p><p> -Montcalm died also, eager even to the last moment to give his -orders and arouse the courage of his soldiers. "All is not lost," -he repeated. When the surgeons announced to him that he had only -some hours to live, "So much the better," said he; "I shall not -see the surrender of Quebec." He was buried in the hole scooped -by a ball in the middle of the Ursuline church. It is there he -still sleeps. On one of the squares of the town, which became -English without the effacement of the tender memory of France, -Lord Dalhousie had a marble obelisk erected bearing the names of -Wolfe and Montcalm, with this inscription: "<i>Mortem virtus -communem, famam historia, momumentum posteritas dedit</i>." Their -courage has given them a common death; history, renown; -posterity, a monument. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242">{242}</a></span> -<p> -Parliament decreed a magnificent tomb in Westminster Abbey to the -great conqueror of Quebec. The whole of England wore mourning. -With Quebec France had lost Canada. The impotent despair of M. de -Vaudreuil and the Duke de Levis, who were incapable of defending -Montreal, led them vainly to attempt to again seize the capital. -For a second time the Heights of Abraham were witnesses of a -bloody combat. The French troops blockaded the place. On both -sides, the arrival of reinforcements asked from Europe was being -awaited. The invincible hopefulness of our nation deluded the -Canadians. The English vessels entered the river. On the night of -the 16th to the 17th of May, the little French army raised the -siege; on the 8th of September, Montreal, in its turn, fell into -the hands of the conquerors. -</p><p> -At the same period, after long alternations of success and -reverse, England achieved a conquest in India which assured to -her forever the European empire of the East. An entire people, -passionately attached to the mother-country, had struggled in -Canada. In India, some eminent men had dreamed of establishing -the French power on the most solid foundations. They had -prosecuted their aims at the cost of all sacrifices, and one -after another they had fallen victim to their devotion as well as -to their reciprocal jealousy. Mahé de la Bourdonnais, governor of -the Isle of France, a clever, enterprising, honest man, and the -conqueror of Madras in 1746, had unfortunately engaged in a -rivalry with Dupleix, then governor-general of Pondicherry, which -had led both into grave errors. -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/242.jpg" border=1><br> -Death Of Wolfe. -</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243">{243}</a></span> -<p> -The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle gave Madras to the English, but La -Bourdonnais, destitute, suspected, and consigned to the Bastile, -finally died of vexation, having used the last remnants of his -energy to disseminate suspicions against Dupleix, which were soon -to bear fruits fatal to that French greatness in India to which -M. de la Bourdonnais had formerly consecrated his life. -</p><p> -Joseph Dupleix, born of a Gascon family, the son of the -controller-general of Hainant, had settled in India from his -youth. He had married there, and had learned to know all the -tortuous policy of the Indian princes, whose language his wife, -the princess Jeanne, as she was called, knew, and whose secrets -she divined. Not over-scrupulous, ambitious and daring for his -country's sake even more than his own, he had foreseen and -prosecuted this European empire of India which was soon to fall -into more fortunate if not more clever hands. In 1748 he had -defended Pondicherry against Admiral Boscawen. The peace of -Aix-la-Chapelle, while changing the name of the belligerents, had -not put an end to hostilities. The two commercial companies, the -French and the English, had continued the war hitherto sustained -in the name of their sovereigns. Dupleix entered more and more -into the internal intrigues of India. In the Dekhan he had -supported Murzapha Jung against Nazir Jung, and in the Carnatic, -Tchunda Sahib against Anaverdy Khan. His adroit patronage had -brought good fortune to his proteges. In their solicitous -gratitude they had conceded vast territories to France. A third -of India was already obedient to Dupleix, and the Great Mogul, -the invisible sovereign who silently granted degrees of -investiture, had just recognized his supremacy. Dupleix thought -that he had arrived at the goal of all his dreams. He had taken -no account of the improvident weakness of the French government. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244">{244}</a></span> -<p> -Already Dupleix's success had alarmed King Louis XV. and his -ministers, who were more uneasy in respect of new embarrassments -which might be created for them than solicitous for the greatness -of France in India. England was irritated and perturbed. Her -affairs had been for a long time badly managed in India, but she -remained there vital, active, and sustained by the indomitable -ardor of a free people. At Versailles Dupleix was refused the -help he asked; the confirmation of his conquests was delayed. The -man who was to establish for England the empire of India over the -ruins of Dupleix's work, had just arisen. Robert Clive, born in -1725, of a family of small Shropshire landholders, had been -placed while very young in the offices of the India Company. His -nature was turbulent. The assiduous work of a copying clerk did -not admit of any title for him: he was a born general, and -already his counsels were listened to by the chiefs of the -company. In the peril which menaced it in consequence of -Dupleix's triumphs, young Clive was placed at the head of an -expedition which he had planned against Arcatan, the capital of -the Carnatic. Having become master of the place by a bold stroke -in the month of September, 1751, he was soon attacked there by -Tchunda Sahib. During fifty days he withstood in the fortress the -efforts of the Indians and the French. Provisions gave out, the -rations became more insufficient every day; but Clive knew how to -inspire in those who surrounded him the heroic resolution which -animated himself. "Give the rice to the English," the sepoys came -and said to him; "we will content ourselves with the water in -which it has been boiled." -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245">{245}</a></span> -A body of Mahrattas, allies of the English, caused the siege to -be raised. Clive pursued the French in their retreat; he twice -defeated Tchunda Sahib and razed the town and the monument that -Dupleix had erected in remembrance of his victories. When he had -effected his junction with Governor-General Lawrence he broke the -blockades of Trichinapolis and delivered Mahomet Ali, the son and -successor of Anaverdy Khan. Tchunda Sahib, for his part, being -confined at Tcheringham, was given up to his rival by a chief of -Tanjore to whom he had trusted himself His throat was cut. The -French commandant, a nephew of Law, gave himself up to the -English. Clive had destroyed two French corps and was pressing -the third army hard. Bussy-Castelnau, the faithful lieutenant of -Dupleix, was fighting on the Dekhan and could not come to its -aid. In vain did the indomitable energy of the governor-general -triumph over all obstacles. Dupleix had found troops and money, -and was resisting Clive, whose health was shaken when the news of -his dismissal arrived from Europe. His temporary reverses of -fortune had achieved the work begun by the suspicions which M. de -la Bourdonnais had sown; the ministers of Louis XV. had taken -fright. M. Godehen, one of the directors of the company, had been -accused of treating with the English. Dupleix re-entered France, -sad and irritated, but filled even yet with dreams and hopes. -Since the time of his landing from the East he was hailed by the -acclamations of the crowd, but the government was opposed to him. -He had embarked his entire personal fortune in the service of his -great patriotic designs; his claims were not listened to; his -wife died of vexation, and he finally, in poverty and despair, -succumbed in 1763. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246">{246}</a></span> -"I have sacrificed my youth, my fortune, my life," he exclaimed, -with just bitterness; "I have wished to load my nation with -honors and riches in Asia. Unfortunate friends, too confiding -relatives, virtuous citizens, have consecrated their wealth to -make my projects succeed; they are now in misery. … I demand -what is due me as the last of the creditors. My services are -fables; my demands are ridiculous; I am treated as the vilest of -men. The little property that remains to me is seized. I have -been obliged to apply for writs of suspension, so as not to be -dragged to prison." History has avenged Dupleix by doing justice -to his services. He was the most illustrious victim of those -mighty French ambitions in India, without being the last or the -most tragical of them. -</p><p> -After being detained some time in England by the care of his -health. Clive returned to India in 1755, strong in his past glory -and freed henceforth from the indomitable energy and clever -intrigues of Dupleix. He cast his glances at Bengal, the -sovereign of which, Surajah Dowlah, was hostile to the English -rule. The Indian prince had just taken the initiative in -hostilities by attacking Fort William, which formed the defence -of the rising town of Calcutta. The governor took fright, and the -place fell into the hands of Surajah Dowlah, who shut up the -English prisoners in the dungeon of the garrison;—a terrible -"black hole," scarcely sufficient to contain two or three -delinquents. One hundred and forty-six unfortunates were crammed -there in a stifling heat. In the morning when the door was -opened, the cries of suffering, the rending appeals, had ceased. -Twenty-three survivors, panting and dying, had scarcely strength -to drag themselves out of the horrible place, the witness of -their punishment. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247">{247}</a></span> -The nabob, indifferent and triumphant, gave Calcutta the name of -Alinagore, or Port of God. He returned to his capital of -Moorshedabad, occupied in torturing men, as in his childhood he -had taken pleasure in torturing birds. -</p><p> -The anger of the English had placed Clive at the head of a little -army. Surajah Dowlah called to his aid the French established at -Chaudernagore. Dupleix was no longer there, busy to profit by all -military or political complications. The French merchants refused -to take part in the hostilities, although the Seven Years' War -had just broken out in Europe. Everywhere the arms of France were -opposed to those of England. Chaudernagore did not escape the -common lot. The English seized it after Clive had repaired -Calcutta and Fort William. The decadence of France in India was -marching with rapid steps; the treaty concluded by Godehen had -dealt a death-blow to its empire, and all the conquests of -Dupleix had been abandoned. -</p><p> -Upright and sincere in his relations with Europeans, Clive had -contracted the fatal habit of different morality in regard to the -Hindoos. Treaties concluded and violated, conspiracies encouraged -in all directions, shameful and flagrant perfidies, mark with a -black stain, in the life of the great general, his relations with -the cruel nabob of Bengal. The victory of Plassey, which he -finally gained on the 23d of June, 1757, terminated brilliantly a -campaign of mingled heroism and crimes. Henceforth Bengal -belonged to England. Bussy, summoned too late by Surajah Dowlah, -had not been able to arrest Clive's success. He revenged himself -for it by sweeping off all the English factories on the coast of -Orissa, and closing to them the road between the coast of -Coromandel and Bengal. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248">{248}</a></span> -<p> -On the day after Clive's triumph in India, a bold and improvident -soldier, of indomitable courage and will, passionately attached -to France, which had received him and his cause—M. -Lally-Tollendal, of Irish origin, and already known by his -conduct, first in England and then in Scotland, during the -expedition of Prince Charles Edward—proposed to the ministers of -Louis XV. a new attempt to re-establish France's situation in the -East. The directors of the India Company sustained his proposal. -The king had promised troops. M. d'Argenson knew Lally's -character, and hesitated. The representations of the company won -him. When M. de Lally landed at Pondicherry in 1757, the treasury -was empty, the arsenals unprovided with arms and munitions, and -the English were pressing on the French possessions at all -points. The ardor of the general sufficed to remove all -obstacles. Lally marched on Gondalem, which he razed on the -sixteenth day. Shortly afterward he invested Fort St. David, the -most notable of the English fortresses in India. The first -assault was repulsed. The count had neither cannons nor beasts of -burden to bring them. He hastened to Pondicherry and attached the -Hindoos to the trains of artillery, taking indiscriminately the -men who came to hand, without troubling himself as to rank or -caste, thus imprudently wounding the dearest prejudices of the -country that he came to govern. Fort St. David was taken and -razed. Devicotch, hardly besieged, opened its gates. Lally had -been scarcely a month in India, and already he had chased the -English from the south coast of Coromandel. "My whole policy is -contained in these five words, but they are sacramental: 'No -English in the peninsula,'" wrote the general. He had sent orders -to Bussy to rejoin him at Madras. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249">{249}</a></span> -<p> -The ardent heroism of M. de Lally had for a time troubled the -English by restoring courage to the remnants of the French -colony. The grave defects of his character soon seconded the -efforts of his adversaries by surrounding him with enemies, -secret or declared, among his compatriots themselves. Being badly -backed by M. d'Aché, who was in command of the French fleet, and -who was twice beaten by the English, he attacked Madras in the -month of September, 1758, with an undisciplined army, addicted to -the most frightful debauchery, and commanded by chiefs who were -either angry or discontented. Bussy could not console himself for -having been obliged to abandon the Dekhan to the feeble hands of -the Marquis de Conflaus. The black town had been stormed; the -white town resisted valiantly. On the 18th of February, 1759, -Lally was obliged to raise the siege; Colonel Coote had just -taken possession of the fortress of Wandewash. The general wished -to regain it. The battle which was fought on the 22d of January, -1760, was fatal to the French; M. de Bussy was made prisoner and -immediately sent to Europe. "To him alone did the capacity belong -to have continued the war for ten years," said the Hindoos. -Karikal was in the hands of the English. They were marching on -Pondicherry. -</p><p> -M. de Lally was shut up there, resolved to hold out to the last -in a place which was badly defended, and where he was generally -hated. The siege commenced in the month of March, 1760; on the -27th of November it was changed to a blockade. It was only on the -16th of January, 1761, that the directors of the French Company -at last forced the hand of the general, indomitable in the midst -of ruins. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250">{250}</a></span> -"No person can have a higher opinion of General Lally than I," -wrote Colonel Coote, who had just razed the ramparts and -magazines of Pondicherry. "He has striven against obstacles that -I believed insurmountable, and he has triumphed over them. There -is not in India another man who could have kept on foot so long -an army without pay and without resources on any hand." No aid -had come from France to the last general who still defended her -power and glory in the Indies; the cause was forever lost, and no -one would ever more attempt to revive it. The fate of M. de la -Bourdonnais and that of Dupleix remained as a gloomy proof of the -ingratitude of corrupt and feeble governments; that of M. de -Lally frightened the most courageous hearts and disgusted the -most far-sighted spirits. Shut up in the Bastile of his own will -at the end of the year 1763, he remained there nineteen months -without being examined. When his trial finally began, the -animosities which he had imprudently engendered in India rose up -against him with an irresistible violence. Accused of treason in -regard to the interest of the king and the company, he was -condemned to death on the 6th of May, 1766. Three days later he -expired on the scaffold in the <i>Placede Greve</i>, being gagged -like the worst of criminals. At the same moment. Lord Clive, -rich, powerful, and a brilliant member of Parliament, was -returning to the Indies as Governor-General of Bengal, charged -with reforming its entire administration. The contrast is -sorrowful, and explains the frequent checks received by France in -distant enterprises, which, grandly conceived and courageously -pursued by the patriotic devotion of citizens, were yet through -laxity and cowardice abandoned by the government. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251">{251}</a></span> -<p> -Success so great and so sustained beyond the bounds of Europe -lent new force and zeal to the struggles of England on the -continent. In Germany, the Duke de Broglie had successfully -repulsed the attacks of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick on his -intrenchments at Bergher, on the 13th of April, 1759. The united -armies under M. de Coutades had invaded Hesse and advanced on the -Weser. They were occupying Minden when Prince Ferdinand attacked -them on the 1st of August. The action of the two French generals -was badly concerted, and the rout was complete. The English -infantry played a glorious part in the victory. The cavalry was -commanded by Lord George Sackville, son of the Duke, of Dorset. -Prince Ferdinand gave him orders to advance. Some contradiction -in the terms produced a momentary hesitation on the part of the -English commander, and he resisted the representations of his -aides-de-camp. "The orders are positive," said young Fitzroy; -"the French are flying, and the opportunity is glorious." Lord -Granby put himself in motion; the voice of his superior officer -compelled him to stop. When the scruples of Lord George were -finally satisfied, the battle was won, the enemy in retreat, and -the reputation of the English commander so seriously compromised -that he was obliged to resign from his rank and ask to undergo a -court-martial. The sentence was, like public opinion, severe. -Lord George Sackville was declared unworthy to serve in his -Majesty's armies. He already belonged to the court opposition -which was thronging around the heir to the throne, the princess -dowager, and the Marquis of Bute, the acknowledged favorite of -mother and son. King George II. intimated to his grandson that he -had prohibited Lord George from presenting himself before him. -The day was not far from dawning in which the memories of Minden, -despite their abiding bitterness, could not impede the proud -career of Lord George Sackville. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252">{252}</a></span> -<p> -Mr. Pitt was triumphant at home as abroad. In spite of the king's -small predilection for his minister, the latter had obtained the -garter for his brother-in-law, Lord Temple. Enormous subsidies -were voted by the House without demur. "It is the wisest economy -to spare nothing in the expenses of war," he had said, without -circumlocution, when he was presenting the budget to Parliament. -His animosity against France was on the increase. "Formerly I -would have been content to see her on her knees," he said, in -privacy; "to-day I wish to see her overturned in the dust." -Notwithstanding the persistent bravery of the French nobles, who -are always ready to die on the battle-field, the disorder of the -troops and the inferiority of the generals who commanded in -opposition to Frederick II. and Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, -sadly subserved the hatred of the great English minister. -</p><p> -The victories of England in both worlds and the triumphant -supremacy of Pitt in the Houses were not sufficient to assure the -success of their allies on the continent. At one time the great -Frederick thought he saw all Germany rallied round him. Now, -defeated and fortified in Saxony during the winter of 1760, he -sought alliances everywhere, and everywhere saw himself repelled. -"There remain to me but two allies," said he; "valor and -perseverance." Repeated victories, earned at the sword's point by -dint of boldness and at extreme danger, could not even protect -Berlin. The capital of Prussia saw itself compelled to open its -gates to the foe, on the sole condition that the Cossacks should -not go beyond its precincts. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253">{253}</a></span> -When the regular troops withdrew, the generals had not been able -to prevent the pillage of the town. The heroic efforts of the -King of Prussia only ended in his keeping one foot still in -Saxony. On the 10th of March he wrote to Count Algarotti, "It is -certain that we have only experienced disasters during the last -campaign, and that we have found ourselves nearly in the same -situation as the Romans after Cannes. Unfortunately, toward the -end I had an attack of gout. My left hand and my feet were -disabled, and I could only let myself be carried from place to -place, a witness to my own reverses. Happily, the speech of Barca -to Hannibal can be applied to our enemies, 'You know how to -conquer, but you do not know how to profit by victory.'" The -cruel bombardment of Dresden in the month of August, 1760, was -like an overflowing of the long pent-up rage of Frederick II. He -had lately said, "Miserable fools that we are, we have only an -instant to live, and we make that instant as sorrowful as we can. -We take pleasure in destroying the masterpieces of art that time -has spared us; we seemed resolved to leave behind us the odious -memories of our ravages and of the calamities we have caused." -The monuments and the palaces of Dresden fell beneath the fire of -the Prussian cannon in the face of the flames which devoured the -suburbs. -</p><p> -It is a relief in the midst of the horrors of war and the -ferocious courage there displayed, to recall an act of -disinterested bravery and a devotion which has no other -recompense than glory. Marshall de Broglie, who had become -general-in-chief of the French armies, had detailed M. de -Castries to succor Wesel, which was besieged by the hereditary -Prince of Brunswick. The French corps had just arrived, and was -still in bivouac. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254">{254}</a></span> -On the night between the 15th and 16th of October, the Chevalier -d'Assas, captain in the regiment of Auvergne, was sent to -reconnoitre. He was marching in front of his men when he just -fell into the midst of a body of the enemy. The Prince of -Brunswick was preparing to attack. All the guns were levelled on -the young captain. "If you stir, you are a dead man," muttered -threatening voices. Without answering, M. d'Assas collected all -his energies. "<i>A moi Auvergne; voila les ennemis,</i>" he -cried. He fell immediately, pierced by twenty bullets; but the -action of Klostercamp, thus begun, was glorious for France. The -hereditary prince was obliged to abandon the siege of Wesel and -to recross the Rhine. The French corps maintained their -positions. -</p><p> -The war still continued, bloody, monotonous, and fruitless; but a -great event had just taken place, which was speedily to change -the face of Europe. On the morning of the 25th of October, King -George II. had risen as usual, being as regular and methodical at -seventy-six as he had been in his youth. He asked for the foreign -dispatches, when his servants heard the noise of a fall. They -rushed in. The king was on the ground, and already breathing his -last. When his daughter, the Princess Amelia, was summoned, she -being deaf and very near-sighted bent towards her father in order -to catch his last words. In alarm she started back. King George -II. was dead. -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/254.jpg" border=1><br> -George III. -</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255">{255}</a></span> -<br> - <h2>Chapter XXXVI. -<br><br> - George III.<br> - The American War<br> - (1760-1783).</h2> -<br> -<p> -The House of Hanover reigned without further contest. The Stuarts -had disappeared, borne forever by their misdeeds and misfortunes -far from the throne of their ancestors, and the young King George -III. peaceably succeeded his grandfather. Europe now, as well as -England, understood the importance of the change which had just -been accomplished. William III., called to the throne by the -English nation, had delivered it from an odious yoke and had -assured to it its religious and political liberties. He had -constantly remained a foreigner in the England which he served -gloriously and effectively without loving it. George I. and -George II. were Germans, elevated to the throne by the national -will, which was strong and wise, without sympathy and without -pleasure. They had remained Germans in manners and in speech. -England had grown under their rule; her institutions were -strengthened and developed. At the death of George II., thanks to -the illustrious man who, as an absolute master, had governed her -in freedom, she had become the arbiter of Europe, predominant in -America as well as in Asia. However, the English people's loyalty -of feeling had never been satisfied since the downfall of the -Stuarts, and the most obstinate of the Whigs, although -passionately opposed to all the attempts of the Jacobite -restoration, yet excused, in the depths of their heart, those who -had sacrificed all to their attachment towards the hereditary -monarch. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256">{256}</a></span> -George III. was at last reigning, loved and respected beforehand, -and the painful trials of his life and his long reign never -caused him to lose the confidence and sympathy of his people. It -was the feeling of the whole nation as well as his own that the -young monarch expressed when he spontaneously said, in his first -speech from the throne: "Born and brought up in this country, I -glory in the name of Englishman, and it will be the pleasure of -my life to give happiness to a people whose fidelity and -attachment to myself I regard as the security and lasting honor -of my throne." -</p><p> -New counsels already began to spread, less violent against France -than those of Mr. Pitt. The young king had cordially received his -grandfather's ministers, asking them to continue in their duties -under him; but he had also admitted Lord Bute to the Privy -Council, and the favorite's intrigues already came in contact -with those of the Duke of Newcastle. Some weeks later, at the -moment of the dissolution of Parliament, Bute succeeded Lord -Holderness as secretary of state. Pitt, it is said, was not -consulted. -</p><p> -The haughty displeasure of the great minister had its influence -upon the tone of the negotiations then begun with France. The -Duke de Choiseul, burning to serve his country, although active, -restless, and courageous, still felt the necessity of peace. He -had proposed a congress. While Pitt delayed his answer, an -English squadron had blockaded Bellisle. A first assault, made on -the 8th of April by General Hodgson, was repulsed. The governor, -M. de St. Croix, had received no assistance, and, despite an -heroic resistance, he was forced to capitulate on June 7th, 1761. -It was almost at the same time that news was received of the -check of De Broglie and De Soubise at Minden, and of the -disastrous surrender of Pondicherry. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257">{257}</a></span> -England's answer to the proposals of peace at last arrived. The -Duke de Choiseul had proposed to evacuate Hesse and Hanover, -demanding the restoration of Guadaloupe and Marie Galante, and of -Bellisle in exchange for Minorca. He accepted the conquest of -Canada and of Cape Breton, but in return he laid claim to all the -captures made at sea of the French merchant ships before the -declaration of war, and required an engagement that the English -troops, under the orders of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, should -not proceed to reinforce the Prussian army. The ultimatum was -modest, and was a bitter trial to the patriotic pride of M. de -Choiseul. Pitt's answer left no hope of peace. All the conquests, -all the captures, full liberty to aid the King of Prussia—such -was the language of the English minister. Dunkerque must be -razed, as a lasting monument of the yoke imposed on France. "So -long as I hold the reins of government," said Pitt, "another -Peace of Utrecht shall never sully the annals of England." -</p><p> -Pitt had well estimated the exhaustion and the fatigue of France. -He had not foreseen the influence which the accession of a new -monarch to the throne of Spain would exert upon her alliances. -Ferdinand VI. had died childless. His brother, Charles III. King -of Naples, had succeeded him. He brought to his hereditary -kingdom a quicker intelligence than that of the dead king, a -great aversion to England (of which he had lately reason to -complain), and the traditional attachment of his race for the -interests and glory of France. The Duke de Choiseul was adroit -enough to avail himself of these tendencies. In the distress in -which the war had thrown King Louis XV., at the moment when Pitt -rejected his ultimatum, insulting him by inacceptable proposals, -Spain generously entered the list. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258">{258}</a></span> -The treaty, known under the name of the Family Compact, was -signed at Paris on the 15th of April, 1761. Pitt immediately -proposed to George III. to make sure of the Isthmus of Panama, -and to attack immediately the Philippine Islands. -</p><p> -It was the last straw for the tottering empire of the minister -who had been so long absolute in the council as well as in the -Houses. The cabinet had hardly accepted the harshness of the -conditions which he exacted from France. A declaration of war -with Spain was rejected by a large majority. Pitt arose. "I thank -you, gentlemen," said he, "for the support which you have often -given me, but it is the voice of the people which has called me -to public affairs. I have always considered myself as accountable -to it for my conduct. I cannot then remain in a position where I -shall be responsible for measures of which I have no longer the -direction." Several days later Pitt placed in the king's hands -the seals of office. George III. received him kindly. "Sad," he -said, "to part from so illustrious a servant." The haughty -minister burst into tears. "I confess, your Majesty," he said, -"that I expected the signs of your displeasure. Your Majesty's -kindness confounds and overwhelms me." Against the advice of his -friends, Pitt accepted a pension of three thousand pounds -sterling and a peerage for his wife, who became Lady Chatham. His -popularity in consequence suffered a slight blow, yet it remained -so great that at the annual lord mayor's dinner on the 9th of -November, all looks were turned toward the fallen minister, all -the applause was reserved for him, at the expense of the king and -of his young wife, Charlotte de Mecklenberg-Streglitz. This -popular triumph became insulting to the royal personages. "At -each step," said an eye-witness, "the crowd pressed around the -simple carriage where were to be found Pitt and Lord Temple. They -laid hold of the wheels; they embraced the servants, and even the -horses." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259">{259}</a></span> -<p> -"Mr. Pitt will not make peace because he cannot make that which -he has given the nation reason to hope for," an acute observer of -the court, Bubb Doddington, had already said. On succeeding to -power, Lord Bute and the tories found themselves still driven by -public opinion to measures more violent than their tastes or -their intentions. France had made a supreme effort to reorganize -its army. In the month of January, 1762, the English government -declared war on Spain, striking from the first the most -disastrous blows at our faithful ally. The year had not gone by -before Cuba was already in the hands of the English, the -Philippine Islands ravaged, and galleons laden with Spanish gold -captured by British vessels. The campaign undertaken against -Portugal, always friendly to England, was productive of no -result. Martinique had followed the lot of Guadaloupe, which had -already been conquered by the English after an heroic resistance. -The war dragged on slowly in Germany. The death of the Czarina -Elizabeth and the brief occupation of the throne by the young -Czar Peter III., a passionate admirer of Frederick the Great, had -freed the King of Prussia from a dangerous enemy, and promised -him an ally faithful as well as powerful. The hope that the -Family Compact had for a time given to France was deceived. The -negotiations began again. On the 3d of November, 1762, the -preliminaries of peace were signed at Fontainebleau. France -abandoned all her possessions in America. Louisiana, which had -taken no part in the war, was ceded to Spain in exchange for -Florida, which was given over to the English. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260">{260}</a></span> -Only the small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon were reserved -for the French fisheries. A special stipulation guaranteed to the -Canadians freedom in Catholic worship. In exchange for engaging -not to introduce troops into Bengal, France recovered -Chaudernagore and the ruins of Pondicherry. Guadaloupe and -Martinique became again French. The English kept Tobago, -Dominique, St. Vincent, and Grenada. In Germany the places and -country occupied by France were to be evacuated. Like his -illustrious rival. Lord Bute insisted upon the demolition of -Dunkerque. -</p><p> -England's success had been great, and France's humiliation -profound, and yet it was not enough for the persistent hatred of -Pitt, now freed from the shackles of power, and at liberty to -allow full reign to his rancor against Lord Bute as well as to -his animosity toward our nation. He was disabled by gout, the -persistent scourge of his life; he had himself carried, wrapped -in flannel, to the House of Commons. Two of his friends led him -to his seat, and supported him during the first part of his -speech. Exhausted, he ended by sitting down, contrary to all -parliamentary usage. "I have come here at the risk of my life," -he exclaimed, "to raise my voice, my hand, my arm against the -preliminary articles of a peace which tarnishes the glory of the -war, which betrays the dearest interests of the nation, and which -sacrifices public faith while deserting our allies. France is -chiefly, if not entirely, formidable to us as a maritime and -commercial power. What we gain in this respect is doubly precious -from the loss which results to her. America, gentlemen, has been -conquered in Germany; to-day you leave to France the possibility -of re-establishing her navy." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261">{261}</a></span> -<p> -Peace was voted notwithstanding. Lord Bute had felt the need of -support in the House of Commons against the thundering eloquence -of Pitt. He had called Henry Fox, who lacked neither adroit -eloquence nor insidious manipulations. His personal experience -had taught him to judge men severely. The aged Lord Grey was -asked in our time who was the last English minister susceptible -of being corrupted. He unhesitatingly answered, "Lord Holland." -</p><p> -England had achieved a glorious peace. She was fatigued from her -long efforts, and resolved henceforward to leave to the -continental powers the care of settling their own quarrels. -Austria and Prussia alone were left, the first to enter the -lists, the only nations which retained a serious interest in the -questions in dispute. Frederick the Great had based new hopes on -the young czar, and a caprice of fortune had robbed him of his -support. Catherine II., Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, was on bad -terms with her husband. She took advantage of the indiscretions -of Peter III. to excite a military insurrection against him. He -was deposed, and shortly after died in his prison. Catherine was -proclaimed sovereign in his place. The new sovereign was bold, -ambitious, and as unscrupulous in her greed for power as in her -private life. She remained neutral between Prussia and Austria. -The states were at the end of their resources, the population -decimated. In ten years Berlin had lost a tenth of her -population, and thirty thousand of her inhabitants owed their -subsistence to public charity. The two sovereigns agreed to an -interchange of conquests. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262">{262}</a></span> -All this disturbance and all this suffering ended for Germany in -the maintenance of the <i>statu quo</i>. France was exhausted, -deprived of her most flourishing colonies, degraded in her own -eyes as well as in those of Europe. She had dragged Spain along -in her misfortune. England alone emerged triumphant and -aggrandized with booty. She had gained forever the Empire of -India, and for some years at least almost the whole of civilized -America obeyed her laws. She had gained what we had lost, not by -the superiority of her arms, nor even of her generals, but by the -natural and innate force of a free people skillfully and nobly -governed. -</p><p> -The peace had been accepted by the nation as well as by the -Houses, but ill-will existed against Lord Bute, a Scotchman and -favorite, who was attacked on all sides, both in pamphlets and in -Parliament. More jealous of his influence with the royal family -than he was of power, Lord Bute resolved to resign. He had -written to one of his friends: "Isolated in a cabinet which I -have formed, having no one to support me in the House of Lords -but two peers, who are friends of mine, with my two secretaries -of state maintaining silence, and the Lord Chancellor, whom I -placed in his position, voting and speaking against me, I find -myself upon ground which is undermined beneath me, and which -makes me dread not only to fall myself, but to drag my royal -master with me in my fall. It is time that I should retire." -George Grenville succeeded him in power, and Fox passed to the -House of Lords with the title of Lord Holland. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263">{263}</a></span> -<p> -A brother-in-law of Pitt, who had never submitted to his -domination, George Grenville was bold, presumptuous, and -short-sighted, violent in his methods and methodical in his -administration. The defects of his temper and character caused -serious embarrassments to the government which he directed, and -drew down great mishaps upon England. He pursued with obstinacy -John Wilkes, the pamphleteer, and proposed to apply the stamp tax -to the American colonies. -</p><p> -John Wilkes, born in London in 1727, Member of Parliament for -Aylesbury, blustering, ruined, corrupt, hideous in personal -appearance, and given over to the most unbridled licentiousness -of life, had sought a means of re-establishing his fortunes by -founding a skillfully and audaciously edited journal, which he -called <i>The North Briton</i>. Lord Bute had already been -violently attacked by Wilkes, who was secretly encouraged, it is -said, by Lord Temple; but no prosecution had been directed -against him. In proroguing Parliament at the end of April, 1763, -the king congratulated himself on the happy termination of the -war; "so honorable," he said, "for my crown, and so happy for my -people." Wilkes' journal attacked the speech in his forty-fifth -number, dated April 23d. Eight days after, in spite of his -parliamentary privilege, Wilkes was arrested at his own house and -conducted to the Tower, where he remained some days in secret. In -passing under the gloomy gate, Wilkes ironically asked to be -lodged in the room which had formerly been occupied by the father -of Lord Egremont, one of the ministers who had signed the order -for his arrest. As soon as his friends received permission to -visit him, Lord Temple and the Duke of Grafton hastened to see -him. The public feeling overcame the dislike which the character -of the accused generally inspired, and transports of joy broke -out in the crowd when the Chief Justice, Sir Charles Pratt, -firmly pronounced his acquittal. "We are all of the opinion," he -said, "that a libel does not amount to a breach of the public -peace. The most that can be said is that it tends to it, without -being in consequence subject to the penalties of the law. I order -that Mr. Wilkes be released." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264">{264}</a></span> -<p> -For seven years to come, under different phases—sometimes in -France, under pretext of obtaining cure for a wound received in a -duel; sometimes in London as candidate for the House of Commons; -outlawed by the Middlesex magistrates for his indecent pamphlets; -chosen by the city as one of its representatives—John Wilkes was -almost constantly before the public, sustained by the most -diverse partisans, honest or corrupt; absorbed in those public -liberties which they considered outraged in his person, or -sympathetically interested in the audacious impiety which bore -without blushing the banner of moral or political license. It was -the error and the fault of the government to have alienated -public opinion by imprudent prosecutions, thus assuring to Wilkes -a popularity in no way deserved. When at last he died, in 1797, -the venal and debauched pamphleteer had for a long time fallen -into the obscurity and contempt from which he should never have -emerged. -</p><p> -The Stamp Act has left its date and its ineradicable trace on the -history of England, and of the world. Already for a long time -under the influence of the rapid development of their prosperity -and resources, the American colonies proudly defended their -privileges, resenting the offensive investigations of the revenue -officers, while admitting the right of the mother-country to that -monopoly of commerce which they succeeded in violating by an -active contraband trade. Submitting without trouble to the -external taxes intended to regulate the commerce, the Americans -claimed entire independence as regarded other duties. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_265">{265}</a></span> -In 1692 the General Court of Massachusetts resolved that no tax -could be imposed upon his Majesty's colonial subjects without the -consent of the governor, the council, and the representatives -assembled in General Court. It was this fundamental principle of -the liberties of Great Britain, as well as of her colonies—that -an English subject could not be taxed without his consent—that -was openly violated in 1765 by the proposition of Mr. George -Grenville. This financial expedient had been previously suggested -to Sir Robert Walpole, but he answered with his usual good sense, -"I have Old England already on my hands; do you suppose I wish to -encumber myself in addition with New England? He will be a bolder -minister than I who will assume that." -</p><p> -Grenville was naturally bold, as Cardinal de Retz said of Anne of -Austria, because he was neither prudent nor far-sighted. He was -at once absolute and without tact. The extension to the colonies -of the stamp tax had been voted almost without opposition. Mr. -Pitt himself had not protested. Thoughtlessly, and in consequence -of the financial embarrassment brought on by the war, the English -government, without systematic scheme, and without <i>arrière -pensée</i>, had committed itself to a fatal line of policy in -which the national pride was to sustain it too long. The taxes -were light and could not entail any suffering on the colonists. -They were the first to recognize this themselves. "What is the -matter, and what are we disputing about?" said Washington in -1766. "Is it about the payment of a tax of threepence a pound on -tea being too burdensome? No, it is the principle alone which we -contest." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266">{266}</a></span> -<p> -A general and speedily riotous protestation was made in 1765, in -New England, in the name of the rights of the colonies, unjustly -violated by the pretensions of the metropolis. At Boston the -people arose and broke into the house of the distributors of -stamped paper. The ships which happened to be in port lowered -their flags to half-mast, in token of mourning, and the church -bells sounded the funeral toll. At Philadelphia the inhabitants -spiked the cannons on the ramparts. At Williamsburg the House of -Burgesses of Virginia resounded with the most violent menaces, -and in the midst of the discussion of the Stamp Act, Patrick -Henry, who was still very young, uttered these words: "Caesar -found his Brutus, Charles I. his Cromwell, and George III. … !" -"Treason! treason!" cried the royalists. "And George III. will -doubtless profit from their example," retorted the young orator. -The remonstrance which he had proposed was voted. -</p><p> -The attitude of the American people and the numerous petitions -which revealed it had warned Pitt of the danger. He openly -attacked the cabinet and called for the repeal of the Stamp Act. -"The colonists," said he, "are subjects of this kingdom, entitled -equally with yourselves to the special privileges of Englishmen. -They are bound by English laws, and to the same extent as we. -They have a right to the liberties of this country. The Americans -are the sons, and not the bastards, of England. When we agree in -this House to the subsidies to his Majesty, we dispose of that -which belongs to ourselves; but when we impose a tax on the -Americans, what are we doing? We, the Commons of England, give -what to his Majesty? Our personal property? No. We give the -property of the Commons of America. It is a contradiction of -terms. I demand that the Stamp Act be repealed, absolutely, -completely, immediately; that the reason of the repeal shall be -proclaimed. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267">{267}</a></span> -The principle on which the act was based was false. At the same -time let the supreme authority of this country over her colonies -be clearly affirmed in the most decided terms that can be -imagined. We can bind their commerce, restrain their -manufactures, and exercise our power under every form. We cannot, -we should not, take the money in their pockets without their -consent." -</p><p> -The honor of obtaining from the English Parliament the repeal of -an unjust measure was reserved for a new and more moderate -minister. George Grenville, beaten and overthrown, remained -obstinately attached to the cause on which he had entered. "If -the tax were still to impose, I should impose it," said he; "the -enormous expenses that were caused by the German war have made it -necessary. The eloquence which the author of this proposal brings -to bear to-day against the constitutional authority of Parliament -renders it indispensable. I do not envy him his applause. I take -pride in your hisses. If the thing were still to do, I should -begin again." -</p><p> -Twice already since George Grenville had taken the reins of -power, the king, soon wearied of his arrogant rule, had asked -Pitt to free him from it. The new reason for disagreement had -just increased the bitterness between George III. and his -minister. The monarch, suffering and ill, had felt the first -attacks of that malady which was at recurrent intervals to cloud -his faculties, and which at last plunged him into an insanity -that only ended with his life. Barely recovered, the young king, -with touching firmness and resignation, himself proposed to his -ministers the question of a regency. The Prince of Wales was not -yet three years old. The act prepared by George Grenville and his -colleagues excluded the princess dowager from the regency on the -ground that she was not of the royal family. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268">{268}</a></span> -The hatred and jealousy inspired by Lord Bute, which always -operated strongly upon both mother and son, had suggested the -singular interpretation of the legal text. For a moment the king -agreed with a melancholy sweetness; but the insult offered his -mother soon wounded him, and he resolved to escape at last from -the tyranny which weighed upon him. Formerly he feared the junta -of the great Whig lords. It appeared to him less formidable than -George Grenville and the Duke of Bedford. The Duke of Cumberland, -in the king's name, visited Mr. Pitt, who was sick and detained -in the country. Pitt refused to assume the direction of affairs -without the assistance of Lord Temple. The latter was -particularly hostile to Lord Bute, and personally compromised in -relation to the king. George III. would not submit. Negotiations -resulted finally in the formation of a Whig cabinet, which was -really honest and dull. The Marquis of Rockingham was its chief. -It was in his service and as his private secretary that Edmund -Burke for the first time took part in public affairs and entered -Parliament. -</p><p> -The only important act of Lord Rockingham's ministry was the -repeal of the Stamp Act, accompanied by a contradictory -declarative clause which proclaimed the right of Parliament to -bind by its decrees the colonies under any circumstances -whatever. This fruitful seed of new dissensions passed -unperceived in the first outburst of American joy and of the -triumph of the friends of liberty in England. Mr. Pitt was -already on the threshold of power. Lord Rockingham, involved with -a new party, which was known under the name of the king's -friends, saw his authority rendered powerless and his honest -intentions feebly fulfilled. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269">{269}</a></span> -The king desired to get rid of the Whigs at any price, without -being obliged to submit again to George Grenville. Pitt once more -agreed to become prime minister, but to the great astonishment -and universal regret of his friends he abandoned at the same time -the supreme empire which he had exercised in the House of Commons -and entered the House of Lords with the title of Lord Chatham. -</p><p> -The cabinet which the new earl had formed was composed of diverse -and contradictory elements. His powerful hand alone could -preserve unity. "Lord Chatham," said Burke, "has composed a -ministry so odd and hybrid, he has put together a checker-board -so curiously divided and combined, he has constructed so strange -a mosaic of patriots and conservatives, of the king's friends and -of republicans, of Whigs and Tories, of perfidious friends and -avowed enemies, that, strange as the sight may be, he is not sure -of where he can put down his foot, and is unable to keep it -there." -</p><p> -Lord Chatham found this out himself. In spite of the haughtiness -of his character, he felt that the wind of popularity did not -bear him as in the past upon its powerful wings. He was sick, -defiant, and jealous of his colleagues, and ill at ease at the -bottom of his heart in the new atmosphere of the House of Lords. -He had conceived large projects for the reform of the -administration in India. He caused an investigation to be -proposed in the House of Commons, and the proposition came from -Alderman Beckford, who did not form part of the administration. -Soon after he withdrew to the country. Strange rumors spread -abroad as to his state of mind. Lady Chatham refused absolutely -to allow any of his colleagues to have access to him. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270">{270}</a></span> -The discords within the cabinet increased, and the feebleness and -the hitches of the government became more striking. Charles -Townshend, a brilliant orator, witty and clever, had just died at -the age of forty-three. Intrigues multiplied in the Houses and at -court. The king renewed his entreaties to Lord Chatham. "I am -ready," said he, "to go find you, if it is impossible for you to -come to see me." Gout had again attacked the prime minister, -replacing, we are assured, a more cruel malady. Lord Chatham -finally consented to receive the Duke of Grafton. "I expected to -find him very sick," writes the duke in his memoirs, "but his -condition exceeded all that I had imagined. The sight of this -great intellect, overwhelmed and weakened by suffering, would -have profoundly affected me, even if I had not been for a long -time sincerely attached to his person and his character." As a -matter of fact and practically, the Duke of Grafton had become -prime minister many months before Lord Chatham finally resolved, -in October, 1768, to send in his resignation. Sir Charles Pratt, -now Lord Camden, and the honor of the bench as well from the -purity of his character as from his oratorical talent, still held -up the tottering ministry. The importance of Lord North, then -Chancellor of the Exchequer, continued to increase from day to -day. -</p><p> -Melancholy is the spectacle of a great light which is going out, -and of a power once supreme losing its influence over men. Lord -Chatham had the good fortune to cast a final gleam before falling -forever. After two years of a mysterious retreat, he reappeared -in public life in 1769, and the Duke of Grafton's ministry could -not withstand his attacks. Lord North, still young, and without -high political ambition, of an amiable character, and personally -agreeable to the king, had just accepted the heavy burden of -power (January, 1770). -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271">{271}</a></span> -Lord Chatham pretended to see in this new combination that -persistent influence of Lord Bute which was a favorite theme for -the attacks of the pamphleteers, whether it was a question of -John Wilkes, or of that mysterious writer, still hidden after -more than a hundred years, under the name of Junius. "Who does -not know," he cried, "that Mazarin, though absent from France, -was always there; and do we not know an analogous case? When I -was recently called to public service, I hastened upon the wings -of my zeal. I agreed to preserve a peace which I detested—a -peace which I should not have made, but which I was resolved to -maintain because it had been made. I was credulous, I admit, but -I was taken in; I was deceived; the same mysterious influence -still existed. My cruel experience has at length painfully -convinced me that behind the throne there is hidden something -greater than the throne itself." -</p><p> -The situation of affairs in America became each day more serious. -On his accession to office. Lord Chatham had consented to extract -a revenue from the colonies. A customs law had established taxes -upon tea, glass, and paper, creating a permanent administration -for collecting external imposts. The distinction which the -colonists had previously established was thus turned against -them, and they abandoned it forever. The time for legal fictions -was past. [Footnote 1] -</p> -<p class="footnote"> - [Footnote 1: Cornelis de Witt's History of Washington.] -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272">{272}</a></span> -<p> -In truth there was already between the government of George III. -and the colonies something besides a constitutional and financial -question. The Americans were no longer simple subjects of the -metropolis, merely struggling against such an abuse of power or -such a violation of right. It was one people aroused against the -oppression of another people, whatever might be the form or the -name of that oppression. Still attached to the mother country by -the ties of a secular fidelity, and ardently refraining from all -aspirations towards independence, they were still dominated by a -supreme sentiment—love for the American country, for its -grandeur, its liberty, its force. "You are taught to believe that -the people of Massachusetts is a rebel people, uprisen for -independence," wrote Washington as late as the 9th of October, -1774. "Permit me to tell you, my good friend, that you are -deceived, grossly deceived. I can assure you, as a matter of -fact, that independence is neither the desire nor the interest of -that colony, nor of any other on the continent, separately or -collectively. But at the same time you may be sure that not one -of them will ever submit to the loss of those privileges, of -those precious rights which are essential to every free state, -and without which liberty, property, and life are deprived of all -security." -</p><p> -America did not fall below her destiny. "From 1767 to 1774," says -Cornelis de Witt, in his history of Washington, "there were -formed everywhere patriotic leagues against the consumption of -English merchandise and the exportation of American products. All -exchange between the metropolis and the colonies ceased. In order -to drain the sources of England's riches in America, and to -constrain it to open its eyes to its folly, the colonists -recoiled before no privation and no sacrifice. Luxury had -disappeared. Rich and poor accepted ruin rather than abandon -their political rights." "I expect nothing more from the petitions -to the king," said Washington, already one of the firmest -champions of American liberties, "and I should oppose them if -they were to suspend the non-importation agreement. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273">{273}</a></span> -As sure as I live, there is no alleviation to be expected for us -except from the distress of Great Britain. I think, or at least I -hope, that we retain sufficient public virtue to refuse -everything except the necessities of life in order to obtain -justice. That we have the right to do, and no power on earth can -force us to alter our conduct before it has reduced us to the -most abject slavery." … And he added, with a stern sense of -justice, "As to the non-importation agreement, that is another -thing. I admit that I have my doubts as to its legitimacy. We owe -considerable sums to Great Britain. We can only pay them with our -products. In order to have the right to accuse others of -injustice we must be just ourselves; and how could we be so while -refusing Great Britain to pay our debts? That is beyond my -conception." -</p><p> -All minds were not so firm, nor all souls so just as -Washington's. Resistance still continued legal, and the national -effort was still retained within the limits of respect. The -excitement became more lively every day, irritation more profound -and more passionate. Order still reigned in almost all the -colonies. Only at some principal places, and especially at -Boston, the popular enthusiasm offered a pretext to the violence -of George III. and his ministers. Jefferson himself, upon the eve -of the drafting of the Declaration of Independence, wrote to Mr. -Randolph, "Believe me, my dear sir, there is not a man in the -whole British Empire who cherishes the union with Great Britain -more heartily than I; but, by the God that made me, I should -cease to exist sooner than accept that union on the terms which -Parliament proposes. We lack neither motives nor power to declare -and sustain our separation. 'Tis the will alone that fails us, -and that increases little by little under the hand of our king." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274">{274}</a></span> -<p> -When he was still Sir Charles Pratt, Lord Camden had once said, -in 1759, to Franklin, who was charged with the management of the -colonies' affairs in London, "In spite of all that you say of -your loyalty, you Americans, I know that one day you will sever -the bonds which unite you to us, and that you will raise the flag -of independence." "No such idea exists, and it will never enter -into the head of Americans," answered Franklin, "unless you -maltreat them very scandalously." "That is true, and it is -precisely one of the causes which I foresee, and which will bring -about the consummation." -</p><p> -Lord Camden's prediction was sorrowfully fulfilled in England. -Faults succeeded faults. The measures of the metropolitan -government, whether indecisive or violent, increased the -excitement of the colonies. All the new imposts had been -abolished with the exception of the tax on tea, maintained from -pride and for the purpose of sustaining a principle without hope -of receiving from it a serious revenue. American resistance was -immediately concentrated on the importation of tea. At the end of -November, 1773, two vessels arrived from England and appeared -before Boston. They were laden with tea. Their captains received -orders to leave the harbor. They waited for a permit from the -governor. The populace boarded them, pillaged the ships, and -threw the chests of tea into the sea. George III. and his -ministers had not understood the nature of the movement which was -agitating America. They thought that they could chastise a riot -by new rigors. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275">{275}</a></span> -The rights of the port of Boston were withdrawn, and the ancient -charter of Massachusetts was rescinded. "I will tell you what the -Americans have done," said Lord North; "they have maltreated the -officers and subjects of Great Britain; they have despoiled our -merchants, burnt our ships, refused all obedience to our laws and -our authority. We have used a long patience in respect to them. -It is time to adopt another line of conduct. Whatever may be the -consequences, we must resign ourselves to running some risks, -without which all is lost." -</p><p> -It was in the name of the eternal principles of justice and of -liberty that Lord Chatham and his friends of the opposition -protested against the measures adopted with reference to the -colonies. "Liberty," said the great orator, passionately, -employing in the struggle the remnant of his failing strength; -"liberty is arrayed against liberty. They are indissolubly united -in this great cause. It is the alliance of God and nature, -immutable and eternal as the light in the firmament of heaven! -Beware! Foreign war hangs over your heads by a light and fragile -thread. Spain and France are watching your conduct, waiting the -result of your errors. Their eyes are turned upon America, and -they are more occupied with the disposal of your colonies than -with their own affairs, whatever they may be. I repeat to you, my -lords, if his Majesty's ministers persevere in their fatal -designs, I do not say that they can alienate from him the -affections of his subjects, but I affirm that they are destroying -the greatness of the crown. I do not say that the king is -betrayed; I say that the country is lost." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276">{276}</a></span> -<p> -Young Charles Fox, second son of Lord Holland, who held an -inferior office in the administration, had embraced the cause of -the American colonies. Lord North wrote to him, on the 22d of -February, "Sir—His Majesty has judged it wise to revise the -Treasury Commission. I do not see your name there. [Signed] -NORTH." The opposition received him into its ranks with joy. He -had already given proof of the faults of his character and of the -licentiousness of his life, yet at the same time he had secured -the attachment of numerous and faithful friends, by his frank and -open good-nature and by the generosity and sweetness of his soul. -He had inspired in his adversaries a great admiration for his -oratorical ability and the inexhaustible fertility of his wit. -The young rival who was soon to dispute the pre-eminence with him -and to vanquish him had not yet appeared on the horizon, except -to sustain the feeble footsteps of his infirm father. The last -time that Lord Chatham appeared in Parliament he was supported on -the arm of the second William Pitt. Debates followed one another -in the English Houses of Parliament. The opposition and the -government exchanged proposals, which were conciliatory or -perfidious, liberal or arbitrary, sustained in turn by the most -eloquent voices. No measure, no speech, availed or could -henceforth avail, to calm the growing irritation of the colonies. -New England and Virginia, the sons of the Puritans and the -descendants of the Cavaliers, marched at the head of the national -movement, animated by the same spirit, however different were its -manifestations. It was from Virginia that the call to arms came. -Washington had said, with his usual moderation, "I do not pretend -to indicate exactly what line it will be necessary to draw -between Great Britain and the colonies, but I am decidedly of -opinion that it will be necessary to draw one and to secure our -rights definitively." Patrick Henry, less scrupulous and more -ardent, uttered the war-cry. "We must fight," said he loudly, at -the opening of the year 1775, at the session of the Virginia -Convention; "an appeal to the sword and the God of armies is all -that is left us." Already, in 1774, a general congress of all the -provinces had met at Philadelphia, announcing a new session for -the following year. Political resistance had henceforth found its -centre. The day of armed resistance had come. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277">{277}</a></span> -<p> -It was time for action. On the 18th of April, 1775, in the night, -the choicest corps of the garrison of Boston went out of the -town, by order of General Gage, governor of Massachusetts. The -soldiers were as yet ignorant of their destination, but the "Sons -of Liberty" had divined it. The governor had caused the gates of -Boston to be shut. Some of the inhabitants, however, had found -means of escape. They had spread the alarm in the country, and -already the men were repairing to the posts designated -beforehand. As the royal troops, approaching from Lexington, were -confident of laying hands on two of the principal agitators, -Samuel Adams and John Hancock, they stumbled in the night against -a body of militia who guarded the way. The Americans remaining -immovable before the command to withdraw, the English soldiers, -led by their officers, fired. Some men fell. The war between -England and America was entered on. The same evening Colonel -Smith, in seeking to take possession of the supply depot formed -at Concord, saw himself successively attacked by detachments -hastily raised in all the villages. He retired in disorder, even -as far as the shelter of the cannon of Boston. Some days later -the town was besieged by an American army, and Congress, -assembled at Philadelphia, appointed Washington general-in-chief -of all the forces of the united colonies—"of all those which -have been or which shall be raised there, and of all others which -shall volunteer their services or shall join the army in order to -defend American liberty and repulse every attack directed against -her." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278">{278}</a></span> -<p> -"There is a spectacle as fine as, and not less salutary than, -that of a virtuous man struggling with adversity: it is the -spectacle of a virtuous man at the head of a good cause and -assuring its triumph. God reserved this good fortune for George -Washington." [Footnote 2] -</p> -<p class="footnote"> - [Footnote 2: M. Guizot, <i>Etude sur Washington</i>.] -<br><br> - [Essay on the Character and Influence of Washington in the - Revolution of the United States of America; page 13; - http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60668] -</p><p> -Born on the 22nd of February, on the banks of the Potomac, at -Bridge's Creek in Virginia, the new general belonged to a good -family of Virginia planters, descended from those country -gentlemen who had formerly caused the English revolution. He lost -his father at an early age, and was brought up by his mother, a -distinguished woman, for whom he always preserved as much -tenderness as respect. He had undergone in his youth a free and -rough life as a land-surveyor. At the age of nineteen, during -the war in Canada, he had taken his place in the militia of his -country, and we have seen him fighting brilliantly by the side of -General Braddock. When the war ended, his haughty discontent -concerning a question of military rank brought him home again. -His eldest brother was dead, and had left him the Mount Vernon -estate. He settled there, became a great agriculturist and -sportsman, was loved and esteemed of everybody, and was already -the object of the confidence as well as the hopes of his -fellow-citizens. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279">{279}</a></span> -<p> -"Capable of raising himself to the highest destinies, he had been -able to ignore himself without suffering from it, and to find in -the cultivation of his land the satisfaction of those powerful -faculties which were sufficient for the command of armies and the -founding of a government. But when the occasion offered, when the -necessity arrived, without effort on his part, without surprise -on the part of others, the wise planter was a great man. He had -in a high degree the two qualities which, in active life, render -a man capable of great things. He knew how to believe firmly in -his own idea, and to act resolutely -according to what he thought, without fearing the -responsibility of his action." [Footnote 3] -</p> -<p class="footnote"> - [Footnote 3: M Guizot, <i>Etude sur Washington</i>.] -<br><br> - [Essay on the Character and Influence of Washington in the - Revolution of the United States of America; page 60; - http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60668] -</p><p> -He was moved and disquieted, however, at the beginning of the -struggle, the burden of which was going to weigh on his -shoulders. He did not unhesitatingly accept the choice of -Congress. He did not delude himself either in his own regard, or -in relation to his country, and the resources which were at his -disposal. "I know my unfortunate position," wrote he to one of -his friends. "I know that much is expected of me; I know that, -without troops, without arms, without supplies, without anything -that a soldier needs, almost nothing can be done; and what is -very mortifying, I know that I can only justify myself in the -eyes of the world by declaring my needs, by disclosing my -weakness, and by doing wrong to the cause which we serve. I am -determined not to do it!" Washington had resolutely accepted the -bitterness of power in the heart of a revolution. "Among great -men, if there have been those who have shone with more dazzling -splendor," said M. Guizot, "no one has been put to a more -complete proof—that of resisting in war and in government, in -the name of liberty and in the name of authority, king and -people, of commencing a revolution and of finishing it." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280">{280}</a></span> -<p> -When the new general arrived before Boston in order to take -command of the confused and undisciplined masses which crowded -into the American camp, he learned that an engagement had taken -place on the 16th of June, on the height of Bunker's Hill, which -overlooked the town. The Americans had seized the positions, and -had so bravely defended themselves there that the English had -lost more than a thousand men before removing their batteries. -Some months later, Washington was master of all the surroundings, -and General Howe, who had replaced General Gage, was obliged to -evacuate Boston (17th of March, 1776). -</p><p> -On the day after the battle of Bunker's Hill, and as a last -effort of fidelity towards the metropolis. Congress had voted -(July 1, 1775) a second petition to the king, which was called -the Olive Branch, and which Richard Penn was charged with -conveying to England. A numerous and considerable faction in the -American assemblies were strongly in favor of loyal union with -the mother-country. "Gentlemen," Mr. Dickinson, deputy from -Pennsylvania, had recently said, "in the reading of the project -of a solemn declaration, justifying the taking up of arms, there -is only a single word of which I disapprove, and it is that of -<i>Congress</i>." "And for my part, Mr. President," said Mr. -Harrison, rising, "there is in this paper only a single word of -which I approve, and it is the word <i>Congress</i>." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281">{281}</a></span> -<p> -The petition of the thirteen united colonies received no answer. -At the opening of the session on the 25th of October, 1775, the -king's speech was clearly menacing. The Duke of Grafton had -tendered his resignation as keeper of the privy seal. "I ventured -to communicate our apprehensions to the king," wrote he in his -<i>Memoirs</i>. "I added that the ministers, themselves in error, -were drawing his Majesty into it. The king deigned to expatiate -on his projects, and informed me that a numerous body of German -troops was going to be united to our forces. He appeared -astonished when I replied that his Majesty would perceive too -late that the doubling of these troops would only increase the -humiliation without attaining the proposed end." Lord George -Sackville, who had become Lord George Germaine, had been charged -with the direction of American affairs. He was haughty and -violent. Public sentiment, strongly excited by the taking up of -arms by the Americans, began to express itself in addresses and -loyal declarations. George III., his ministers and his people -marched together against the rebellion of the colonies. Alone and -for various reasons the Whig opposition in Parliament struggled -against the rising tide of national irritation. The Prohibition -bill had just been voted, interdicting all commerce with the -thirteen revolted colonies, and authorizing the capture of -vessels or merchandise which belonged to Americans, and should -become the property of the conquerors. The arguments were as -violent as the measures. The chancellor, Lord Mansfield, -distinguished among all the judges, recalled the sentence of the -great Gustavus to his troops during the German campaign: "My -boys, you see those men down there: if you do not kill them, they -will kill you." -</p><p> -The resolution was taken in America as well as in England. "If -every one was of my opinion," wrote Washington in the month of -February, 1775, "the English ministers would learn in a few words -to what we wish to come. I would proclaim simply and without -circumlocution our grievances and our resolve to obtain their -redress. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282">{282}</a></span> -I would tell them that we have long and ardently desired an -honorable reconciliation, and that it has been refused us. I -would add that we have comported ourselves as faithful subjects, -that the spirit of liberty is too powerful in our hearts to -permit us ever to submit to slavery, and that we are firmly -decided to break every bond with an unjust and unnatural -government, if our serfdom alone can satisfy a tyrant and his -devilish ministry; and I would say all that to them in no covert -terms, but with expressions as clear as the sun's light at full -noon." -</p><p> -The hour of independence was at last come. Already as a -termination of their proclamations, instead of "God save the -King!" the Virginians had adopted this proudly significant -phrase, "God save the liberties of America!" Congress resolved to -give its true name to the war against the metropolis, sustained -for three years by the colonies. After a discussion which lasted -for three days, the proposition drawn up by Jefferson for the -Declaration of Independence was adopted with -unanimity—"unanimity unfortunately slightly factitious." -[Footnote 4] -</p> -<p class="footnote"> - [Footnote 4: Cornelis de Witt, History of Washington.] -</p><p> -To the solemn preamble affirming the eternal rights of peoples to -liberty as well as justice, followed an enumeration of the -grievances which had forever alienated from the sovereign of -Great Britain the obedience of his American subjects. "We, -therefore, the representatives of the United States of America -assembled in general congress, invoking the Supreme Judge to -witness the rectitude of our intentions, do solemnly publish and -declare in the name of the good people of these colonies that the -united colonies are and have a right to be free and independent -states, that they are disburdened of all allegiance to the crown -of Great Britain, and that every political bond between them and -Great Britain is and ought to be entirely dissolved. … Full of -a firm confidence in the protection of Divine Providence, we -mutually devote to the maintenance of this Declaration our lives, -our fortunes, and our most sacred possession, our honor." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283">{283}</a></span> -<p> -In America the solemn Declaration of Independence did not cause a -lively emotion; the lot had been cast for the Americans since the -day when they had taken up arms. At the opening of Parliament on -the 31st of October, King George III., while deploring the -decisive act by which the rebels had broken all the bonds which -attached them to the mother-country, and rejected attempts at -conciliation, ended his appeal to the fidelity of the nation with -these words: "A single and great advantage will flow from the -frank declaration of their intentions by the rebels; we shall be -henceforth united at home, and all will understand the justice -and necessity of our measure. I have not, and I cannot have, in -this cruel struggle, any other desire than the true interest of -all my subjects. Never has a people enjoyed a good fortune more -complete or a government more lenient than have the revolted -provinces. Their progress in all the arts of which they are -proud, give them sufficient proof of it; their number, their -wealth, their strength on land and sea, which they deem -sufficient to resist all the power of the mother-country, are the -unexceptionable proof of it. I have no other object than to deal -them the benefits of the law in the liberty which all English -subjects equally enjoy, and which they have fatally exchanged for -the calamities of war and the arbitrary tyranny of their chiefs." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284">{284}</a></span> -<p> -The calamities of war indeed were weighing on the United States -of America. The attempt against Canada directed by Arnold had -completely failed; oftentimes during the rough campaign of 1776 -Washington had believed the cause lost. He had seen himself under -the necessity of abandoning positions of which he was master, in -order to fall back on Philadelphia. "What would you do if -Philadelphia were taken?" he was asked. "We should retreat beyond -the Susquehanna River; then, if necessary, beyond the Alleghany -Mountains," replied the general, without hesitation. By an -unhoped-for good luck for the future destinies of America, -General Howe, in spite of the reinforcements constantly arriving -from Europe, allowed the war to spin out, relying on time and the -rigors of the season to weary the courage of the rebel troops. He -had deceived himself as to the efficacy of the national feeling, -still more as to the hardihood and indomitable perseverance of -the general. At the end of the campaign, Washington, suddenly -assuming the offensive, had in succession beaten the royal troops -at Trenton and at Princeton. This brilliant action had reinstated -the affairs of Americans, and prepared the formation of a new -army. On the 30th of December, 1776, Washington was invested by -Congress with the full powers of a dictator. He had claimed them -for a long time, with that modest and proud authority which -looked simply to the patriotic end without heed of popular -clamors. "If the short time left us in which to prepare and -execute important measures," he had written to the President of -Congress, "is employed in consulting Congress about their -opportunity, so evident to all; if we wait until it has caused -its decisions to reach us at a distance of a hundred and forty -miles, we will lose precious time and we will fail of our end. It -may be objected that I claim powers which it is dangerous to -confer; but for desperate evils extreme remedies are necessary. -No one, I am convinced, has ever encountered so many obstacles in -his way as I." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285">{285}</a></span> -<p> -America began to feel the need of external support in the -terrible struggle she had just engaged in. Already agents had -been sent to France to sound the intentions of the government in -relation to the revolted colonies. M. de Vergennes leaned toward -secret aid. M. Turgot advised the most strict neutrality. "Leave -to the insurgents," said he, "full liberty to make their -purchases in our ports, and to procure by means of commerce the -supplies, even the money of which they have need. To furnish them -secretly with these would be difficult of concealment, and this -step would excite just complaint on the part of the English." The -Minister of Foreign Affairs, under the influence of the Duke de -Choiseul, had for a long time founded great hopes on the -dissensions which should burst forth between England and her -colonies. Faithful to tradition, the first clerk, M. de Ragneval, -presented a remarkable memorandum which precluded hesitation. One -million, speedily followed by other aid, was poured for the -Americans into the hands of Beaumarchais, who was ardently -engaged in the cause of American independence, in the service of -which he had then put forth all the resources of the most fertile -and busy mind. "I would never have been able to fulfill my -mission here without the indefatigable, intelligent, and generous -efforts of M. de Beaumarchais," wrote Silas Deane to the secret -committee, whose agent he was. "The United States are more -indebted to him in every respect than to any other person on this -side of the ocean." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286">{286}</a></span> -<p> -Franklin had come to join Silas Deane. Already well known in -Europe, where he had fulfilled several missions, his great -scientific reputation and his clever and wise devotion to his -country's cause had prepared the way to a worldly success which -the skillful negotiator was well able to make subserve the -success of his enterprise. Soon the French government began to -remit money directly to the agents of the United States. -Everything tended to a recognition of their independence. In -spite of the king's formal prohibition, numerous French -volunteers set out to serve the cause of liberty in America. The -most distinguished of all, M. de la Fayette, arrested by order of -the court, had evaded the surveillance of his guards, leaving his -young wife, who was on the point of her confinement, in order to -embark on a ship which he had secretly purchased. He landed in -America in the month of July, 1777. -</p><p> -England was irritated and uneasy. Lord Chatham, quite recently -sick and almost dying, more implacable than ever in pursuing -everywhere the influence and intervention of France, exclaimed, -with the customary exaggeration of his powerful and passionate -talent, "Yesterday England could yet resist the world; to-day no -one is insignificant enough to show his respect for her. I borrow -the words of the poet, my lords, but what his lines express is no -fiction. France has insulted you: she has encouraged and -sustained America; and whether America be in the right or not, -the dignity of this nation demands that we repulse with disdain -the officious intervention of France. The ministers and -ambassadors of those whom we call rebels and enemies are received -at Paris; they treat there of the reciprocal interests of France -and America. Their natives are sustained there, and supplied with -military resources, and our ministers allow it and do not -protest. Is this sustaining the honor of a great kingdom, which -formerly imposed law on the House of Bourbon?" -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/286.jpg" border=1><br> -Franklin. -</p> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_287">{287}</a></span> -<p> -The manifest favor of France had forever enrolled Lord Chatham -among the opponents of the recognition of American independence. -He carried to the House a proposal to cease hostilities and enter -upon a negotiation with the revolted colonies, under one sole -condition, that of submission to the mother-country. In the -violent discussion raised on this subject, Lord Suffolk desired -to defend the cruel practices of the Indian savages who were -tolerated in the service of Great Britain. Lord Chatham rose in -his place, forgetting that he had lately accepted the same -auxiliaries during the war against the French in Canada. "My -lords," he exclaimed, "have we heard aright? Men, Christians, -profane the royal majesty at the very side of the throne. God and -nature have placed these arms in our hands, you are told. I do -not know what ideas may be conceived of God and of nature, but I -know that these abominable principles are equally contrary to -religion and to humanity. What! shall the sanction of God and of -nature be attributed to the cruelties of the Indian -scalping-knife, to cannibal savages who torture, massacre, -devour—yes, my lords, who devour the mutilated victims of their -barbarous combats? And on whom have you let loose these infidel -savages? On your brothers in faith, in order to devastate their -country, in order to desolate their dwellings, in order to -extirpate their race and their name!" -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_288">{288}</a></span> -<p> -The proposals of Lord Chatham were rejected, but the situation -had already changed. Shortly after the arrival of M. de la -Fayette in America, the battle of Brandywine, in which he had -taken part as major-general, had been disastrous to the -Americans; the young volunteer had been wounded. At Germantown -fate had been equally against the colonists, and they had been -forced to evacuate Philadelphia, the aim of General Howe's -operations. They had fallen back on Valley Forge. General -Washington had cleverly established his camp there for the -winter. Nevertheless, successes at other points counterbalanced -and even outweighed the reverses. On the frontiers of Canada the -English general Burgoyne, obstinate and presumptuous, had been -defeated by General Gates. Being deceived in his hope of being -succored by Howe or by Clinton, who was commanding at New York, -he was left to be surrounded by the English troops. Deprived of -provisions and supplies, without resources and without means of -communication, Burgoyne, at the end of his strength, was, after -an heroic resistance, forced to lay down arms and capitulate at -Saratoga, on the 17th of October, 1777. He obtained honorable -conditions, but the soldiers, while free to return to Europe, -were bound not to serve any more against America. Gates was an -Englishman; he did not wish to witness the humiliation of his -countrymen, and he did not assist at the defile of General -Burgoyne's troops. For the first time on American territory, -European arms were given up. The echo was immense in Europe, and -seconded Franklin's efforts at Paris. On the 6th of February, -1778, France officially recognized the independence of the United -States; a treaty of alliance was concluded with the new power, -which thus took rank among nations. Two months later, on the 13th -of April, a French squadron, under the command of Count -d'Estaing, set sail towards America, and soon hostilities were -being carried on in the British Channel between the French and -English ships, without declaration of war, owing to the natural -pressure of circumstances and the state of feeling in the two -countries. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289">{289}</a></span> -<p> -At the very moment when France was according to the American -revolt that support which she had secretly afforded it for more -than two years, Lord North, forcing the hand of King George III., -proposed two bills to Parliament, by which England renounced the -right to levy taxes in the American colonies and recognized the -legal existence of Congress. Three commissioners were to be sent -to the United States to treat concerning the conditions of peace. -"The humiliation and sorrow were great and were legible on all -countenances," said an ocular witness; "no one gave any sign of -approbation, and silence succeeded the minister's speech." The -propositions were, however, voted without serious opposition. -Necessity pressed upon all spirits with sad bitterness. -</p><p> -Public sentiment in England, as well as in Parliament, blamed the -weakness of the government. Lord North felt it, and on the 14th -of March, 1778, on the receipt of the French letter ironically -assuring King George III. of the continuation of Louis XVI.'s -peaceful intentions, the minister had advised the king to recall -his ambassador from Paris and to form a new cabinet at home. It -was with profound repugnance that the monarch consented to make -advances to Lord Chatham; the demands of the great orator were so -haughty that the negotiations remained suspended. The king made a -last appeal to Lord North. "Will you abandon me in the moment of -danger, like the Duke of Grafton?" he asked. The Duke of Richmond -had just made a proposition for the recall of the troops fighting -on land and sea in America (7th April, 1778). -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290">{290}</a></span> -He relied on the support of Lord Chatham, but anti-French passion -in this unbalanced and proud soul surmounted all abstract -considerations of right and justice. He had formerly said, "You -will never conquer America. Your efforts will continue vain and -powerless. If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, so long -as foreign forces marched against my country, I would never lay -down my arms—never! never!" The intervention of France in the -struggle had modified the views of the great minister who had so -long followed her with his hatred. He desired her, above all -things, to be humiliated and conquered. The recognition of -American independence became impossible, encouraged as it was by -the House of Bourbon. The Earl had himself carried to -Westminster, supported on one side by his son William, on the -other by his son-in-law, Lord Mahon. He was nothing more than the -shadow of himself—pale, emaciated, and with difficulty drawn -from his bed of suffering. He rose slowly, supported by his -crutch and leaning heavily on his son's shoulder. His voice was -hollow and failing, his words broken. The transient gleams of his -genius alone animated the supreme effort. "I thank God," said he, -"that I have been enabled to come here to-day to accomplish a -duty and to say what has heavily weighed upon my heart. I have -already one foot in the grave: I am going there soon. I have left -my bed to sustain in this House the cause of my country, perhaps -for the last time. I congratulate myself, my lords, that the -grave has not yet closed over me, and that I yet live to raise my -voice against the dismemberment of this ancient and noble -monarchy. My lords, his Majesty has succeeded to an empire as -vast in its extent as it is illustrious in its reputation. Shall -we tarnish its lustre by the shameful abandonment of its rights -and of its finest possessions? Shall the great kingdom which has -survived in its entirety the descents by the Danes, the -incursions of the Scots, the conquest of the Normans, which has -stood firm before the threatened invasion of the Spanish army, -fall to-day before the House of Bourbon? Truly, my lords, we are -greater than we were. If it be absolutely necessary to choose -between peace and war, if peace cannot be preserved with honor, -why not declare war without hesitation? My lords, everything is -better than despair; let us at least make an effort. If we are to -yield, let us yield like men." -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/290.jpg" border=1><br> -The Last Speech Of The Earl Of Chatham. -</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291">{291}</a></span> -<p>He let himself fall back on his seat exhausted and fainting. Soon -he tried to rise in order to answer the Duke of Richmond; his -strength failed him; for the last time the wavering flame of this -great torch had flung out its brilliancy. A weakness seized him. -The House, silent and anxious, surrounded him. They carried out -the great orator, the illustrious adversary of France who had -lately conquered her, and who was about to succumb while yet -following her "with his sad and inflexible looks." [Footnote 5] -</p> -<p class="footnote"> - [Footnote 5: Bossuet, <i>Sur le Cardinal de Retz</i>.] -</p><p> -Some days later he breathed his last in his country house at -Hayes, encompassed by national regret and respect, and soon -afterwards was buried at the expense of the state in Westminster -Abbey. He was to await his son there only twenty-seven -years—that son who was the enthusiastic witness of his glory, -the emulator of his eloquence and political virtues; who was -greater than he in the governance of his country, and who sleeps -at his feet without other monument than a simple name, "William -Pitt," without other epitaph than the funeral oration which his -father, with outstretched arm, seems constantly to pronounce over -his tomb. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292">{292}</a></span> -<p> -The proposals of the Duke of Richmond had been rejected, but Lord -North's bills had excited great uneasiness in Washington's mind. -He knew better than any one else at what price the war had been -hitherto sustained; he dreaded for his country those concessions -which had no effect upon his own soul. He wrote immediately to -his friends, "Accept nothing that is not independence. We can -never forget the outrages which Great Britain has made us suffer; -a peace on other conditions would be a source of perpetual -broils. If Great Britain, impelled by her love of tyranny, sought -anew to bend our foreheads beneath the yoke of iron—and she -would do it, be certain, for her pride and ambition are -indomitable—what nation would hereafter believe in our -professions of faith and lend us her aid? It is now to be feared -that the proposals of England may have great effect in this -country. Men are naturally friendly to peace; and more than one -symptom leads me to believe that the American people are -generally tired of war. If it is so, nothing is more politic than -to inspire confidence in the country by putting the army on an -imposing footing, and giving a greater activity to our -negotiations with the European powers. I believe that at the -present hour France ought to have recognized our independence, -and that she is going to declare war immediately on Great -Britain." -</p><p> -From natural taste and from English instinct, Washington did not -care for France and had no confidence in her. M. de la Fayette -alone had been able to make conquest of his affection and esteem. -He raised himself, however, above his peculiar inclinations, and -felt the need of an efficient alliance with the great continental -powers which were enemies or rivals of England. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293">{293}</a></span> -Congress had just declined all negotiation with Great Britain as -long as an English soldier remained on American soil. On all seas -the English and French fleets obstinately engaged each other. In -the naval combat in sight of Ouessant, on the 27th of July, 1778, -success remained doubtful. The English were accustomed to be the -conquerors, and Admiral Keppel was put on trial. The merchant -shipping of France, however, suffered great loss. On all sides -English vessels covered the sea. -</p><p> -Franklin had recently said, with penetrating foresight, "It is -not General Howe who has taken Philadelphia; it is Philadelphia -which has taken General Howe." The necessity of guarding this -important place had obstructed the operations of the English. -Upon the news of the alliance of France with the United States -and of the departure of Count d'Estaing's squadron, orders had -been given to evacuate the place and to fall back on New York. -Howe had been actively pursued by Washington, who had gained a -serious advantage over him at Monmouth. The victory would have -been decisive but for a jealous disobedience on the part of -General Lee. Sir Henry Clinton had taken the chief command of the -English army, being more active than his predecessor, while -himself insufficient to struggle against Washington. "I do not -know whether they cause fear to the enemy," said Lord North, -ironically; "what I do know is that they make me tremble whenever -I think of them." Washington established his camp thirty miles -from New York. "After two years of marches and countermarches," -he exclaimed; "after vicissitudes so strange that no war, -perhaps, has ever presented their like since the commencement of -the world, what a subject of satisfaction and astonishment it is -for us to see the two armies returned to their starting-point and -the assailants reduced, in order to their defence, to recur to -shovel and pickaxe." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294">{294}</a></span> -<p> -An expedition contrived by General Sullivan against Rhode Island, -which was still occupied by an English corps, had just failed, by -reason of a clever manœuvre of Admiral Howe. The weather was bad, -and the French admiral put into Boston to repair his damages. The -cry of treason was forthwith raised; a riot greeted the Count -d'Estaing: all the violence of the democratic and revolutionary -spirit seemed let loose against the allies, who had lately been -hailed with such warmth. The efforts of Washington, seconded by -the Marquis de la Fayette, were employed to re-establish harmony. -Borne away by an ill-considered reaction, Congress conceived the -idea of attempting, in conjunction with France, a great -expedition on Canada. Washington, being tardily consulted, -refused his assent; he preserved, in respect of French policy, a -prudent mistrust. "Shall we allow," wrote he to the president of -Congress, "shall we allow a considerable body of French troops to -enter Canada and to take possession of the capital of a province -which is attached to France by all the ties of blood, manners, -and religion? I fear that this would be to expose that power to a -temptation too strong for every government directed by ordinary -political maxims. … I believe I can read on the faces of some -persons something besides the disinterested zeal of simple -allies: I am willfully deceiving myself; perhaps I am too much -given over to the fear of some misfortune; but above everything, -sir, and putting aside every other consideration, I am averse to -increasing the number of our national obligations." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295">{295}</a></span> -<p> -The project against Canada was tacitly abandoned. The Marquis de -la Fayette set out for France, ever ardently attached to the -American cause, which he was soon to serve efficaciously in -Paris, with the government of Louis XVI. -</p><p> -The English had just made a descent on Georgia, had taken -possession of Savannah, and were threatening the Carolinas as -well as Virginia. The Count d'Estaing was fighting in the -Antilles, and had seized St. Vincent and Grenada. The Marquis de -Bouillé, Governor of the Windward Islands, had taken Dominique. -The English had deprived us of St. Pierre and Miquelon. The -French admiral, who had just been recalled, wished to venture a -final effort in favor of the Americans. He laid siege to -Savannah, and was repulsed after a desperate struggle. The only -advantage of the expedition was the deliverance of Rhode Island. -Sir Henry Clinton, fearing a surprise on New York, had called -back the garrison. Washington had just gained Stony Point, which -secured the navigation of the Hudson to the Americans. Spain had -at last consented to take part in the war by virtue of the Family -Compact, and in order to lend aid to France. Faithful to the -monarchical traditions of his house and of his nation, Charles -III. had refused to recognize the independence of the United -States, or to ally himself with them. -</p><p> -England's situation was becoming grave, and she was inwardly and -profoundly uneasy concerning it. The government was weak and -unequal to the burden of a struggle which became each day more -obstinate; formidable petitions, sustained by the most eloquent -voices—by Fox as well as by Burke—demanded an economic reform, -necessitated by the ever-increasing expenses of the war. Sudden -riots excited in the name of the Protestant religion, which was -said to be menaced all at once, stained England and Scotland with -blood. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296">{296}</a></span> -In the preceding year a law intended to free the Catholics from -some legal disabilities was passed in the Houses almost without -opposition. That just measure had excited a certain feeling among -the masses. Lord George Gordon, a sincere fanatic whose religious -passions disturbed his judgment, had headed a network of -Protestants which signed petitions against the modifications -effected in the penal laws against Catholics. On the 2d of June, -1780, an immense crowd, assembled at St George's Fields for the -presentation of the petition, was moved to the most violent -outrages against the peers suspected of being favorable to the -Papists. Lord Mansfield entered the House of Lords with his coat -torn and his wig in disorder; the Bishop of Lincoln with -difficulty saved his life. Soon the tumult spread over the entire -town: particular houses were attacked and pillaged; the bank was -assailed; moral terror reigned throughout all England, menaced -from within and from without, trembling at the idea of a French -and Spanish invasion, and incessantly agitated by the howls of a -furious populace—"No Popery!" It was a sad and ominous -spectacle. "Sixty-six allied ships of line plowed the British -Channel; fifty thousand men, assembled in Normandy, were -preparing to pounce upon the midland counties. A simple American -corsair, Paul Jones, was ravaging the Scotch coasts with -impunity. The northern powers, united in Russia and Holland, -threatened, arms in hand, to sustain the rights of the neutrals -disregarded by the English admiralty courts. Ireland was only -waiting a signal to rise; religious strife tore England and -Scotland. The authority of Lord North's cabinet was shaken in -Parliament as well as in the country. Popular passions carried -the day in London, and this great city could be seen for nearly -eight days given over to the populace, whose excesses nothing but -its own weakness and shame was able to oppose." [Footnote 6] -</p> -<p class="footnote"> - [Footnote 6: Cornelis de Witt, History of Washington.] -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297">{297}</a></span> -<p> -The firmness of the king at length suppressed the riot: -twenty-three culprits expiated their crimes with their lives. -After long delays, the fruit of legal chicanery, Lord George -Gordon was finally acquitted as not having been previously -informed of the seditious projects. He pursued unshackled the -course of his follies, and towards the end of his life embraced -Judaism. The English Parliament had, however, the courage and -honor to proudly maintain the principles of religious toleration, -so brutally assailed by popular violence. Burke as well as Lord -North had defended the bill of 1778. "I am the partisan of -universal toleration," exclaimed Fox, "and the foe of that -narrow-sightedness which brings so many people to Parliament, not -that they may be freed from a burden which overwhelms them, but -to entreat the Houses to chain and throttle their -fellow-countrymen." -</p><p> -The imposing preparations of the allied powers against England -had not effected other results than the Protestant riots fomented -by Lord George Gordon. The two French and Spanish fleets had, -from the month of August, 1779, effected a junction off the -<i>Corogne;</i> they slowly re-entered the channel on the 31st of -August. When near the Sorlingue Islands the English fleet, only -thirty-seven strong, was caught sight of. The Count de Guichen, -who commanded the advance guard, was already manœuvreing with the -intention of cutting off the enemy's retreat. Admiral Hardy was -too quick for him, and took refuge in the port of Plymouth. Some -partial engagements took place; that of the <i>Surveillante</i> -with the <i>Quebec</i> was glorious for the Chevalier du Couëdic, -who commanded her, but without other result than this honor for -the Breton sailor of having alone signalized his name in the -great array of the maritime forces of France and Spain. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298">{298}</a></span> -After a hundred and four days of useless traversing of the -British Channel, the immense fleet sadly returned to Brest and -speedily dispersed. Admiral d'Orvilliers, who had lost his son in -a skirmish, took to a religious life. The Count de Guichen upheld -the honor of the French flag in a frequently successful series of -battles against Admiral Rodney. The latter, crippled with debts, -was detained at Paris, without being able to go back to England. -"If I was free," said he one day before Marshal Biron, "I would -soon have destroyed all the French and Spanish fleets." The -marshal immediately paid his debts: "Go, sir," said he, with a -boastful generosity to which the eighteenth century was a little -subject; "the French wish to gain advantage over their enemies -only by their bravery!" The first exploit of Rodney was to beat -Admiral Zangara, near Cape St. Vincent, and to revictual -Gibraltar, which the allied forces blockaded by land and sea. -</p><p> -However, the campaign of 1779 had been insignificant in America. -The state of feeling there was humiliating and sad; Congress had -lost its authority while decreasing in public esteem; moral -strength appeared weakened; the great springs of national action -were slackened in the heart of a war always hanging and dubious; -a violent reaction led people's minds to indifference and their -hearts towards light pleasures. Washington himself felt his -influence growing less along with with the heroic resolution of -his fellow-citizens. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299">{299}</a></span> -"God alone can know what will result to us from the extravagance -of parties and the general laxity of public virtue," wrote he. -"If I were to paint the time and men from what I see and what I -know, I would say that they are invaded by sloth, dissipation, -and debauchery; that speculation, peculation, and an insatiable -thirst for wealth rule all the thoughts of all classes; that -party disputes and private quarrels are the great matter of the -day, while the interests of an empire, a heavy and ever -increasing debt, the ruin of our finances, the depreciation of -our paper-money, the lack of credit, all vital questions in fine, -scarcely attract attention, and are set aside from day to day as -if our affairs were in the most prosperous condition." -</p><p> -In a military sense as well as in a political, the affairs of -America were drooping in sorrowful alternations. Sir Henry -Clinton had known how to profit by the internal dissensions of -the Union; he had rallied round him the royalists in Georgia and -the Carolinas; the civil war reigned there in all its horrors, -precursors and pledges of more cruel rancors yet which our days -were to witness. General Lincoln had just been forced to -capitulate at Charleston. Washington, all the time encamped -before New York, beheld his army decimated by hunger and cold, -without pay, without provisions, without shoes, obliged to live -by despoiling the surrounding population. Discouragement was -overtaking the firmest hearts, when, in the month of April, 1780, -the Marquis de la Fayette landed anew in America. He brought the -news that a French army corps was preparing to embark in order to -sustain the failing strength of the Americans. By a prudent -prevision of the disputes which might arise from questions of -rank or nationality, the Count dc Rochambeau, who commanded the -French, was to be placed under the orders of General Washington, -and the auxiliary corps entirely put at his disposal. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_300">{300}</a></span> -The enthusiasm of M. de la Fayette for the cause of American -liberty had gained over the French court and people. He had borne -upon the government of King Louis XVI., which was as yet -uncertain and naturally preoccupied with the difficulties and -growing expenses which the war was imposing on France. The -national ardor and the rash generosity common to our character -had prevailed. The campaign of 1780 was tardy and without great -results, but the year 1781 was going to be decisive in the annals -of the War of Independence. France was to take a glorious part in -it. Washington had just suffered a serious vexation and a sad -disappointment. In spite of the glaring vices of General Arnold, -and of the faults which were repugnant to the austerity of -character of the general-in-chief, his signal bravery and -military talents had maintained him in the foremost rank among -Washington's lieutenants. Accused of malversations, and lately -condemned by a council of war to suffer a severe reprimand, -Arnold was yet in command of the fort at West Point, the key to -the upper part of the State of New York. He had taken possession -of it in the month of August, 1780, under the pretext of the rest -which his wounds entailed; but he had already made overtures to -Sir Henry Clinton. "I am quite ready to yield myself," he had -said, "in the way which can be most useful to the arms of his -Majesty." The English general charged a young officer of staff to -carry the acceptance of his final instructions to the perfidious -general of the Union. Major André was arrested as a spy. Arnold -learned of it and had time to escape, leaving behind him his -young wife and his new-born infant. Washington was returning from -an interview with Count de Rochambeau and had given a -<i>rendezvous</i> to Arnold. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301">{301}</a></span> -The latter was not at the appointed place. He had been, it was -said, called back to West Point. The general repaired thither. -While he was crossing the river, contemplating the majesty of -nature which surrounded him, he turned towards his officers. "At -bottom," he said, "I am not vexed that Arnold should have -preceded us; he will salute me, and the boom of the cannon will -have a fine effect in the mountains." They landed, but the fort -remained silent. Arnold had not appeared there for several days. -Displeased but unsuspicious, Washington was beginning an -inspection of the place when Colonel Hamilton brought him some -important dispatches which had followed him. It was the news of -the arrest of Major André and of the perfidy of Arnold. Always -master of himself, the general did not betray his emotion by a -change of countenance; only, turning to the Marquis de la -Fayette, who was informed of the facts by Hamilton, "On whom can -we depend now?" said he sadly. -</p><p> -The culprit was beyond reach; his ignorant and innocent wife had -been seized by a despair which resembled madness. Major André was -tried as a spy and condemned to suffer the fate of one. He was -young, honest, and brave, brought up to another career, and -driven into the army by a love disappointment. His tastes were -elegant, his mind cultivated; he had not foreseen to what dangers -his mission and the disguise that he had assumed, against the -advice of Sir Henry Clinton, exposed him. "My mind is perfectly -tranquil," he however wrote to his general when he was arrested, -"and I am ready to suffer all that my faithful devotion to the -king's cause can draw down on my head." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302">{302}</a></span> -<p> -One thing alone troubled Major André's peace of mind. He dreaded -the ignominy of the gibbet, and wished to die as a soldier. -"Sir," wrote he to Washington, "sustained against the fear of -death by the feeling that no unworthy action has sullied a life -consecrated to honor, I am confident that in this supreme hour -your Excellency will not refuse a prayer the granting of which -can sweeten my last moments. In sympathy for a soldier, your -Excellency will consent, I am sure, to adapt the form of my -punishment to the feelings of a man of honor. Permit me to hope, -that if my character has inspired you with some esteem, and if I -am in your eyes the victim of policy and not of vengeance, I -shall prove the empire of those feelings over your heart by -learning that I am not to die on a gibbet." -</p><p> -With a harshness unexampled in his life, and of which he seemed -always to preserve the silent and painful remembrance, Washington -remained deaf to the noble appeal of his prisoner. He did not -even do Major André the honor of answering him. "Am I then to die -thus?" said the unfortunate man when he perceived the gibbet. -Then immediately recovering himself, "I pray you to bear witness -that I die as a man of honor," said he to the American officer -charged with seeing to his punishment. Washington himself paid -homage to him. "André has suffered his penalty with that strength -of mind which might be expected from a man of that merit and from -so brave an officer," wrote he. "As for Arnold, he lacks pluck. -The world will be surprised if it do not yet see him hanged on a -gibbet." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_303">{303}</a></span> -<p> -A monument was erected in Westminster Abbey to the memory of -Major André, "the victim of his devotion to his king and -country." His remains repose there since the year 1821. The -vengeance and anger of the Americans vainly pursued General -Arnold, who was henceforth occupied in the war at the head of the -English troops, with all the passion of a restless hatred. Spite -and wounded vanity, linked with the shameful necessities of an -irregular life, had drawn him into treason. He lived twenty years -after, enriched and despised by the enemies of his country. "What -would you have done to me if you had succeeded in taking me?" he -asked one day of an American prisoner. "We would have separated -from your body that one of your limbs which had been wounded in -the service of the country," answered the militia-man calmly, -"and we would have hanged the rest on a gibbet." -</p><p> -Fresh perplexities were assailing General Washington, scarcely -recovered from the sad surprise which Arnold's treason had caused -him. He had pursued for almost a year the reorganization of his -army, when the successive mutinies among the Pennsylvania troops -threatened to reach those of New Jersey, and to extend by degrees -into all the corps secretly tampered with by Sir Henry Clinton. -Mr. Laurens, formerly president of Congress, and charged with -negotiating a treaty of alliance and of loan with Holland, had -been captured by an English ship. He was imprisoned in the Tower, -when his son, an aide-de-camp of Washington, set out for France. -"The country's own strength is exhausted," wrote the -general-in-chief. "Alone we cannot raise the public credit and -furnish the funds necessary to continue the war. The patience of -the army is at an end. Without money we can make but a feeble -effort, probably the last one." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_304">{304}</a></span> -<p> -As well as money, Colonel Laurens was charged to ask for a -reinforcement of troops. France furnished all that her allies -asked. M. Necker, clever and bold, was equal, by means of -successive loans, to all the charges of the war. In a few months -King Louis XVI. had lent or guaranteed more than sixteen million -pounds for the United States. A French fleet, under the orders of -the Count de Grasse, set out on the 21st of March, 1781. Arrived -at Martinique on the 28th of April, the Count de Grasse, despite -the efforts of Admiral Hood to block his passage, took the island -of Tobago from the English. On the 3rd of September he brought -Washington a reinforcement of three thousand five hundred men and -twelve hundred thousand pounds in specie. The soldiers as well as -the subsidies were intrusted to Washington personally. No -dissension had ever arisen between the general and his foreign -auxiliaries. By that natural authority which God had bestowed on -him, Washington was always and naturally the superior and chief -of all those who came near him. -</p><p> -After so many and so painful efforts the day of victory at last -arrived for General Washington and for his country. Alternations -of success and reverse had marked the commencement of the -campaign of 1781. Lord Cornwallis, who commanded the English -armies in the South, was occupying Virginia with considerable -forces, when Washington, who had been able to conceal his designs -from Sir Henry Clinton, while deceiving even his own lieutenants, -passed through Philadelphia on the 4th of September, and advanced -against the enemy by forced marches. The latter had been for a -long time harassed by the little army of M. de la Fayette. Lord -Cornwallis hastened to Yorktown. On the 30th of September the -place was invested. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_305">{305}</a></span> -<p> -It was insufficiently or badly fortified, and the English troops -were fatigued by a rough campaign. "This place is not in a -condition to defend itself," Lord Cornwallis had said to Sir -Henry Clinton, before the blockade was complete; "if you cannot -come to my aid soon, you must expect the worst news." The -besiegers, on the contrary, were animated by a zeal which even -increased to emulation. The French and the Americans rivaled each -other in ardor; the soldiers refused to take any rest; the trench -was open since the 6th of October. On the 10th the town was -cannonaded; on the 14th an American column, commanded by M. de la -Fayette and Colonel Hamilton, attacked one of the forts which -protected the approaches. It was some time since Hamilton had -ceased to form part of Washington's staff, in consequence of a -momentary ill-temper of the general's which was keenly resented -by his sensitive and fiery lieutenant. The reciprocal attachment -which even to their last day united these two illustrious men had -suffered nothing from their separation. The French attacked the -second fort under the command of Baron de Viomesnil, the Viscount -de Noailles, and the Marquis de St. Simon, who, being sick, was -carried at the head of his regiment. The resistance of the -English was heroic, but almost at the same instant the flag of -the Union floated over the two outposts. When the attacking -columns joined each other beyond the walls, the French had made -five hundred prisoners. All defence became impossible. Lord -Cornwallis vainly attempted to escape; he was reduced, on the -17th of October, to sign a capitulation more humiliating than -that of Burgoyne at Saratoga. Eight thousand men laid down their -arms, and the English vessels which were at Yorktown and -Gloucester were given up to the conquerors. Lord Cornwallis was -ill with regret and fatigue. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_306">{306}</a></span> -General O'Hara, who took his place, tendered his sword to the -Count de Rochambeau. The latter took a step back. "I am only an -auxiliary," he said, in a loud voice. The hatred which sundered -the ancient compatriots, now become enemies, was profound and -bitter. "I remarked," said M. de Rochambeau's chaplain, "that the -English officers in laying down their arms and in passing by our -lines courteously saluted the lowest French officer, while they -refused that mark of politeness to American officers of the -highest rank." -</p><p> -"In receiving the sword of the English general, Washington had -secured the pledge of his country's independence. England felt -it. 'Lord North received the news of the capitulation like a -bullet full in the chest,' related Lord George Germaine, colonial -secretary of state. He stretched out his arms without being able -to say anything but 'My God, all is lost!' and he repeated this -several times while striding up and down the room." -</p><p> -At a quite recent date, and on receipt of a private letter from -M. Necker, who proposed a truce which should leave the two -belligerents on American soil in possession of the territories -which they occupied, King George III. had exclaimed: "The -independence of the colonies is inadmissible, under its true name -or disguised under the appearance of a truce." The catastrophe -which consternated his ministers and his people did not, however, -shake the obstinate constancy and sincere resolve of the king. -"None of the members of the cabinet," he immediately wrote, "will -suppose, I take it for granted, that this event can modify in -anything the principles which have hitherto guided me, and which -shall continue to inspire my conduct in the struggle." Only one -slight indication betrayed the monarch's agitation. Contrary to -his habit, he had omitted to date his letter. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_307">{307}</a></span> -<p> -Repeated checks had overtaken the English arms at other points. -Embroiled with Holland, where the Republican party had got the -better of the stadtholder, who was devoted to them, the English -had carried war into the Dutch colonies. Admiral Rodney had taken -St. Eustache, the centre of an immense commerce; he had pillaged -the warehouses and loaded his vessels with an enormous mass of -merchandise. The convoy which was carrying a part of the spoils -to England was captured by Admiral de la Motte-Piquet; M. de -Bouillé surprised the English garrison left at St. Eustache and -restored the island into the hands of the Dutch. The latter had -just sustained, with brilliancy, near Dogger Bank, their ancient -maritime reputation. "Officers and men all have fought like -lions," said Admiral Zouthemann. The firing had not commenced -until the moment that the two fleets found themselves within -gunshot. "It is evident after this," said a contemporary, "that -the nations which fight with the most ardor are those who have an -interest in not fighting at all." The vessels on both sides had -suffered severe damages; they were scarcely in a seaworthy state. -The glory and the losses were equal, but the English Admiral, -Hyde Parker, was annoyed and discontented. King George III. came -to visit on board his ship. "I wish your Majesty had younger -sailors and younger ships," he said; "as for me, I am too old for -the service," and he persisted in giving in his resignation. This -was the only action of the Dutch during the war. [Having] Become -insolent in their prosperity and riches, they justified the -judgment passed on them some years later: "Holland could pay all -the armies of Europe; she could not face any of them." -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_308">{308}</a></span> -They left to Admiral de Kersaint the care of recovering from the -English their colonies of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, on -the coast of Guiana, as to the Bailiff de Suffren the duty of -protecting the Cape of Good Hope. A little Franco-Spanish army at -the same time besieged Minorca. The fleet was considerable. The -English had neglected their preparations, and Colonel Murray was -obliged to shut himself up in Fort St. Philip. In the mean time -operations had miscarried, and the Duke de Crillon, who was in -command of the besieging troops, wearied of the blockade and -proposed to the commandant to deliver the place to him. The -offers were magnificent; the Scotch officer answered indignantly, -"M. le Duc, when the king his master ordered your brave ancestor -to assassinate the Duke de Guise, he replied to Henry III., -'Honor forbids me.' You should have made the same reply to the -King of Spain when he charged you to assassinate the honor of a -man as well-born as the Duke de Guise or as yourself. I do not -wish to have other relations with you than those of arms." -Crillon understood the reproach. "Your letter," wrote he to the -proud Scotchman, "has placed us both in the situation that suits -us; it has increased my esteem for you. I accept your last -proposition with pleasure." He himself directed the assaults, -mounting the breach first. When Murray capitulated, on the 4th of -February, 1782, the fortress contained only a handful of -soldiers, so wasted by fatigues and privations that "the -Spaniards and French shed tears on seeing them file between their -ranks." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309">{309}</a></span> -<p> -This was the last blow to the ministry of Lord North, which had -long been tottering on its base. It had been sought to -consolidate it by adding to it, as chancellor, Lord Thurlow, -distinguished by his eloquence even at this era of great judges; -already, however, less esteemed than several of his illustrious -rivals. So many efforts and sacrifices eventuating in so many -disasters wearied and irritated the nation. "Great God!" -exclaimed Burke, "is it still a time to speak to us of the rights -that we sustain in this war? O excellent rights! Precious they -should be, for they have cost us dear! O precious rights! which -have cost Great Britain thirteen provinces, four islands, a -hundred thousand men, and more than ten millions sterling! O -admirable rights! which have cost Great Britain her empire on the -ocean, and that superiority so vaunted which made all nations bow -before her! O inestimable rights! which have taken away our rank -in the world, our importance abroad, and our happiness at home; -which have destroyed our commerce and our manufactures, which -have reduced us from the most flourishing empire in the world to -a state curtailed and without greatness! Precious rights! which -will doubtless cost us what remains to us!" The discussion became -more and more bitter. Sincerely concerned for the public weal. -Lord North vainly sought to influence the king to change his -ministry. George III., as sincere as his minister, and of a -narrow and obstinate mind, was meditating withdrawing to Hanover -if the concessions which Lord Rockingham exacted were repugnant -to his conscience. Already the negotiation had several times been -broken off. The chancellor poured forth a torrent of curses. -"Lord Rockingham," said he, "carries things to that point that it -would be necessary for the king's head or his own to remain there -in order to decide which of the two shall govern the country." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_310">{310}</a></span> -<p> -The majority in the House of Commons had escaped the government. -Nine voices only had rejected a vote of want of confidence. On -the 20th of March, 1782, a new proposal of Fox excited a violent -storm. Lord North entered the hall, and a great tumult arose; -Lord Surrey disputed speech with the minister. "I propose," cried -Fox, "that Surrey should speak first." "I demand to speak on this -motion," said Lord North, eagerly, and as he arose, "I would have -been able to spare the House much agitation and time, if it had -been willing to grant me a moment's hearing. The object of the -present discussion was the overturning of the actual ministry. -This ministry no longer exists; the king has accepted the -resignation of his cabinet." The surprise was extreme. A lengthy -sitting had been expected; the greater part of the members had -sent away their carriages. That of Lord North was waiting at the -door: the fallen minister mounted it, always imperturbable in his -witty good humor. "I assure you, gentlemen," said he, smiling, -"that it is the first time I have taken part in a secret." The -great Whig coalition came into power. Lord Shelburne had refused -to charge himself with it; he consented, however, to become -secretary of state. The Marquis of Rockingham, the Duke of -Richmond, and Mr. Fox occupied the most important posts. Like -William Pitt and Henry Fox previously, Burke had been named -paymaster-general of the forces by land and sea. In spite of -political principles utterly opposed to those of his colleagues, -Lord Thurlow remained chancellor. -</p><p> -The era of concessions was approaching. The first were granted to -Ireland, which had violently risen up against the restriction -placed upon its commerce, and against the act of George II., -which attributed to the English Parliament, in conjunction with -the king, the right of legislating on the condition of Ireland -without the participation of the Irish Houses. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_311">{311}</a></span> -The eloquence of Henry Grattan potently served the national -cause; oppressive or arbitrary laws were abrogated. The king at -the same time announced his intention of entering on the path of -economic reforms. Already young and ardent spirits foresaw other -reforms, but Burke, who was a passionate friend of the -retrenchment of expenses and pensions, was beside himself with -anger when parliamentary privileges appeared in question. Fox had -with difficulty restrained him on the subject of a motion of -young Pitt, who had recently entered the House, noticed and -esteemed by all. He soon blazed forth with all the customary -transport of his character and talent. "Burke has at last -unburdened his heart with the most magnificent improvidence," -wrote Sheridan to Fitzpatrick. "He attacked William Pitt with -cries of rage, and swore that Parliament was and had always been -what it ought to be, and that whoever thought to reform it wished -to overturn the constitution." -</p><p> -In the midst of parliamentary discords and shocks of power, other -preoccupations continued to weigh upon the nation, saddened and -humiliated by the state of affairs in America, and daily more -convinced that peace, however sorrowful, was indispensable. A -brilliant success of Admirals Rodney and Hood against the Count -de Grasse had for an instant reanimated the pride and the hopes -of the English. Although a good sailor, and for a long time -fortunate in war, the French admiral had at various times shown -himself short-sighted and credulous. He let himself be driven -away from St. Christopher, which he was besieging, and of which -the Marquis de Bouillé took possession some days later. He was -embarrassed by his ships, which had suffered heavy damages. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_312">{312}</a></span> -The two fleets met between St. Lucia and Jamaica; the combat -lasted ten hours without stoppage of cannonading; the French -squadron was cut up; one after another the captains were killed. -"We passed near the <i>Glorieux</i>," wrote an eye-witness; "it -was almost completely dismasted; but the white flag was nailed to -one of the shattered masts, and seemed in its ruin to defy us -still. Henceforth incapable of action, the enormous mass -presented a spectacle which struck the imagination of our -admiral. As he spends his life reading Homer, he exclaimed that -he was now working to raise the body of Patrocles." The vessel of -the French Admiral, the <i>Ville de Paris</i>, was attacked at -once by seven hostile ships; his own could not succeed in -approaching him. The Count de Grasse, full of sorrow and anger, -still fought when all hope was long since lost. "The admiral is -six feet every day," said the sailors, "but on days of battle he -is six feet one inch." When the admiral's ship at last hauled -down its flag, it had suffered such damage that it sank before -arriving in England. Since Marshal de Taillard, the Count de -Grasse was the first French commander-in-chief made prisoner -during the combat. "In two years," wrote Rodney to his wife, "I -have taken two Spanish admirals, one French, and one Dutch. It is -Providence who has done all; without it would I have been able to -escape the discharges of thirty-three ships of line, who were all -set upon near me? But the <i>Formidable</i> has shown herself -worthy of her name." -</p><p> -The Bailiff de Suffren was at the same time sustaining in the -Indian seas that honor of the French navy so often heroically -defended against the most formidable obstacles. He succeeded in -landing at the Cape of Good Hope the French garrison promised to -the Dutch, when he received command of the fleet from the dying -hands of Admiral d'Orves. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_313">{313}</a></span> -A clever and bold adventurer who had become a great prince, the -Mussulman Hyder-Ali, was obstinately combating English power in -the Carnatic. He had rallied around him the remnant of the French -colonists, almost without asylum since the ruined Pondicherry had -been retaken by the English in 1778. A treaty of alliance united -the nabob to the French. On the 4th of July a serious battle was -fought before Negapatam between the French and English fleets. -The victory remained dubious, but Sir Edward Hughes withdrew -under Negapatam without renewing hostilities. The Bailiff had -taken possession of Trincomalee. As had already happened several -times, whether it were cowardice or treason, a part of the French -forces yielded in the middle of the action. A combination was -formed against the admiral; he fought alone against five or six -assailants; the mainmast of the <i>Heros</i>, which he commanded, -fell under the enemy's balls. Suffren, standing on the bridge, -shouted, being beside himself, "The flags, let the white flags be -put all round the <i>Heros</i>." The vessel, bristling with the -glorious signs of its resistance, responded so valiantly to the -attacks of the English that the squadron had time to form around -it again. The English went to anchor before Madras. M. de Suffren -freed Bussy-Castelnau, who had just arrived in India and who had -let himself be closed up by the English in Gondelore. Hyder-Ali -died on the 7th of December, 1782, leaving to his son, Tippoo -Saib, a confused state of affairs, which was soon to become -tragic. M. de Suffren alone defended the remnants of French power -in India. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_314">{314}</a></span> -<p> -England had just gained in Europe a success most important for -her policy as well as for her national pride. Twice revictualled, -by Rodney and by Admiral Darby, Gibraltar had resisted for two or -three years the united efforts of the French and Spaniards. Each -morning, on awaking, King Charles III. asked his servants, "Have -we Gibraltar?" And, at the negative answer, "We shall soon have -it," the monarch would assure them. It was finally resolved to -have satisfaction of the obstinate defenders of the place: the -Duke de Crillon brought on a body of French troops. He was -accompanied by the Count d'Artois, brother of the king, and by -the Duke de Bourbon. Their first care, on arriving, was to send -to General Eliot the letters addressed to him which had been -delayed for some time at Madrid. The Duke de Crillon had added to -the correspondence a present of game, fruit, and vegetables, -asking at the same time the hostile general's permission to renew -this gift. The distress in the besieged town was terrible, but -General Eliot responded to the duke with thanks and a refusal. "I -have made it a point of honor," said he, "in the matter of plenty -and of dearth to make common cause with the last of my brave -soldiers: this will be my excuse for begging your Excellency not -to overwhelm me with favors in the future." -</p><p> -Some floating batteries, cleverly constructed by a French -engineer, the Chevalier d'Arcon, threatened the ramparts of the -place. On the 13th of September, at nine o'clock in the morning, -the Spaniards opened fire; all the artillery of the fort replied: -the surrounding mountains echoed the cannonade. The entire army, -which covered the coast, anxiously awaited the result of the -enterprise. The fortifications were already beginning to give -way, and the batteries had been firing for five hours. All at -once, the Prince of Nassau, who commanded a detachment, thought -he perceived that the flames were reaching his heavy ship. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_315">{315}</a></span> -The fire spread rapidly, and one after another the floating -batteries were dismantled. "At seven o'clock we had lost all -hope," said an Italian officer who had taken part in the assault; -"we no longer fired, and our signals of distress remained without -effect. The red balls of the besieged rained on us. The crews -were threatened on all sides. Timidly and in weak detachments, -the boats of the two fleets glided into the shadow of the -batteries, in the hope of saving some of the unfortunates who -were perishing. The flames which blazed over the ships doomed to -perish served to direct the fire of the English as surely as if -it were full day. Captain Curtis, at the head of a little -flotilla of gunboats, barred the passage of the rescuers up to -the moment when, suddenly changing his character, he consecrated -all his strength and the courage of his brave sailors to contend -with the flames and waves for the life of the unfortunate -Spaniards who were on the point of perishing. Four hundred men -owed their existence to his generous efforts. One month after -that day so disastrous for the allies, Lord Howe, favored by -chance winds, revictualled, for the third time and almost without -a fight, the fortress and the town, under the very eyes of the -enemy. Gibraltar remained impregnable. The siege no longer -continued except in form." -</p><p> -Negotiations were being carried on in Paris, secretly and in -private between America and England by Messrs. Oswald and -Franklin, and officially between Mr. Grenville and M. de -Vergennes. Lord Rockingham had just died, at the age of -fifty-two, and the cabinet was re-formed under the leadership of -Lord Shelburne, deprived of the brilliancy which Charles Fox had -brought to it. The latter seized a pretext to withdraw. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_316">{316}</a></span> -He had demanded that the independence of the American colonies -should be recognized at once and without relation to a treaty of -peace. Lord Shelburne, while admitting the same basis, wished to -pursue a more complete negotiation. Fox gave in his resignation, -and William Pitt took his place in the cabinet. The first care of -Lord Shelburne was to recall Sir Henry Clinton, who was too much -compromised in the heat of the American war to be in a position -to shape the peace. Party and territorial feuds were grafted on -the fertile trunk of national enmities. Everywhere in Georgia and -Carolina the ambuscades and reprisals of loyalists and patriots -fostered a state of irritation and cruel disorder to which -Washington was resolved to put an end. The loyalists of -Middletown captured a captain in the service of Congress, and he -was hanged. The general-in-chief demanded that the English -officer who commanded the detachment should be given up to him. -On the refusal of Sir Henry Clinton, who had himself caused the -delinquent to be arrested, Washington decided to employ the -system of reprisals. Up till then he had studiously avoided it. -"I know better than to think of the system of reprisals," he -wrote to General Greene; "I am, however, perfectly convinced of -this: when one has not the criminal himself at hand, it is the -most difficult of all laws to execute. It is impossible that -humanity should not intervene in favor of the innocent condemned -for the fault of others." The council of war and Congress had, -however, adopted the principle and condemned to death Captain -Asgill, son of Sir Charles Asgill, an amiable young man of -nineteen. Washington seemed to have made up his mind and to have -hardened his heart against the appeals of pity. "My resolve," -said he, "is based on so long reflection that it will remain -immovable. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_317">{317}</a></span> -Whatever my feelings of sympathy for the unhappy victim may be, -the satisfactory conduct of the enemy can alone cause a ray of -hope to arise for him." He delayed, nevertheless, to have the -sentence executed. Lady Asgill, in her maternal despair, -addressed herself to Marie Antoinette. The latter charged M. de -Vergennes to transmit to Congress and to Washington her pressing -entreaties in favor of the unfortunate young man. "If I were -called to give my opinion," said the general, "I would be of -opinion that he should be released." On the 7th of November a -vote of Congress pronounced the pardon of Captain Asgill. M. de -Vergennes had provided against fresh acts of vengeance. "In -seeking to deliver the unfortunate young man from the fate which -threatens him," he wrote, "I am far from pledging you to choose -another victim; for the pardon to be satisfactory, it is of -importance that it should be complete." -</p><p> -Washington did not manifest any confidence in the pacific -advances of Great Britain. In taking command of the English -troops, Sir Guy Carleton had been charged with the most -conciliatory proposals. He had tried to open negotiations with -Congress. The latter voted a new resolution, confirming its first -declarations of never treating without the concurrence of France. -Washington wrote, in the month of May, 1782, "The new -administration has caused overtures of peace to be made to the -various belligerent nations, probably with the design of -detaching some one from the coalition. The old infatuation, the -duplicity, and the perfidious policy of England render me, I -avow, quite suspicious, quite doubtful. Her disposition seems to -me to be perfectly summed up in the laconic saying of Dr. -Franklin—'They are said to be incapable of making war, and too -proud to make peace.' -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_318">{318}</a></span> -Besides, whatever may be the intention of the enemy, our -watchfulness and our efforts, far from languishing, should be -more than ever on the alert. Defiance and prudence cannot harm -us. Too much confidence and yielding will lose everything." He -said at the same time, with a bitter feeling of his impotence in -view of the sufferings of his troops, "You can rely on it, the -patriotism and courage of the army are at their limit; never has -discontent been greater than at this moment; it is time to make -peace." -</p><p> -Peace was on the point of being concluded at Paris, and without -the French, between England and the United States. By a -diplomatic calculation, or by the insinuations of the English -agents, the American negotiators—Franklin, Jay, John Adams, and -Laurens—pretended to have conceived some suspicions as to the -disinterestedness of France. "Are you afraid of serving as tools -to the European powers?" asked Mr. Oswald of John Adams. "Yes, -truly." "And what powers?" "All." The suspicion, it is true, was -unjust, and Washington felt so without ever expressing it -frankly. The preliminary articles of the treaty, which formally -reserved the rights of France in a general peace, were secretly -signed on the 30th of November, 1782. -</p><p> -The independence of the United States was fully recognized, and -conditions as equitable as liberal were granted to the subjects -of the two nations. France remained exposed to the dangers of -isolation, whether in negotiation or battle. "I altogether share -your Excellency's feelings," wrote Washington to the French -minister at Philadelphia, the Chevalier de la Luzerne. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_319">{319}</a></span> -"The articles of treaty between Great Britain and America are so -inconclusive in regard to what touches a general peace that it -behooves us to preserve a hostile attitude, and to remain ready -in any event for peace or for war." M. de Vergennes wrote to the -same diplomatist: "You will assuredly be as satisfied as I am as -to the advantages which our allies the Americans will derive from -peace, but you will not be less astonished than I have been at -the conduct of the commissioners. They have carefully avoided me, -answering me evasively on every occasion when I have inquired as -to the progress of the negotiations, in such a way as to make me -believe that they were not advancing, and that they had no -confidence in the sincerity of the English minister. Judge of my -surprise when, on the 30th of November, Dr. Franklin apprised me -that everything was signed! … Things are not yet as far -advanced with us as with the United States; however, if the king -had employed as little delicacy as the commissioners, we would -have been able to sign the peace with England a long time before -they did." It was only when the cessation of hostilities and the -preliminaries of a general peace were signed at Paris, on the -20th of January, 1783, that Washington allowed his joy at peace -to break forth freely. He had eagerly desired it. More than any -other, and to a degree rarely granted by God to the personal -action of one man, he had contributed to render it glorious and -happy for his country. "I am greatly rejoiced," wrote he to -Colonel Hamilton, "to see an end put to our state of war, and to -see a career open before us, which, if we follow it wisely, will -lead us to become a great people, equally happy and respectable; -but we must have, in order to advance in this path, other means -than a narrow political place; than jealousies or unreasoning -prejudices. Otherwise one need not be a prophet to foresee that -in the hands of our enemies, and of European powers jealous of -our greatness in union, we will only be the instruments of -dissolving the confederation." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_320">{320}</a></span> -<p> -Through many faults, through serious and dangerous errors, and in -spite of shocks, the last and most cruel of which has failed to -dissolve that union so dear to the patriotic thoughts of -Washington, the American people has remained a great people, and -its place among nations has in a century become more considerable -than its founders had foreseen. Washington had not yet ended his -work; he was to guide in the paths of government that generation -of his compatriots which he had so painfully accustomed to the -art of war. Scarcely was peace signed when Congress was disputing -with the army as to the recompense for its sufferings and -efforts. The newborn United States were threatened with a -military insurrection. The influence of the general-in-chief -preserved them from it, while sparing his country the shame of a -cowardly ingratitude. "If this country denies the prayer of the -troops," he exclaimed, at the end of one of his official letters -to the president of Congress, "then I shall have learned what -ingratitude is; I shall have assisted at a spectacle which for -the remainder of my days will fill my soul with bitterness." -</p><p> -The wishes of the American army were heard, and peace obtained in -America as well as in Europe, although precarious and doubtful in -many respects, and threatened by inward fermentation or by -outside dangers, which were but ill warded off by negotiations -and treaties. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_321">{321}</a></span> -<p> -To the exchange of conquests between France and England was added -the cession to France of the Island of Tobago, and of the Senegal -River with its dependencies. The territory of Pondicherry and of -Karikal received some increase. For the first time for more than -a hundred years the English renounced the humiliating -stipulations so often exacted on the subject of the port of -Dunkerque. Spain saw how to confirm her conquest of Florida and -the Island of Minorca. The Dutch recovered all their possessions -with the exception of Negapatam. -</p><p> -At the opening of Parliament, on the 5th of December, 1782, King -George III. announced in the speech from the throne that he had -at last recognized the independence of the American colonies. The -nation was not unaware of how he had long resisted this cruel -necessity. "In thus accepting their separation from the crown of -these kingdoms," said the monarch, "I have sacrificed all my -personal wishes to the desires and opinions of my people. I -humbly and earnestly ask the All-powerful God that Great Britain -may not experience the evils which may result from so great a -dismemberment of the empire, and that America may be preserved -from the calamities which have lately proved in the -mother-country that monarchy is necessary to the maintenance of -constitutional liberties. Religion, language, interests, -reciprocal affection, will serve, I hope, as a bond of union -between the two countries: I shall spare neither my cares nor my -attention in that direction." "I have been the last in England to -consent to the independence of America," said George III. to John -Adams, the first man charged with representing his country at the -court of London; "I shall, however, be the last to sanction its -violation." In the hot debates against the peace which speedily -arose in Parliament, the king earnestly sustained his ministers. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_322">{322}</a></span> -Lord North and Mr. Fox, of late so violently opposed, had united -to attack the treaties. "It is not in my nature," said Fox, "to -preserve my rancors long, nor to live on bad terms with any one; -my friendships are eternal, my enmities will never be so. -<i>Amicitiæ sempiternæ, inimicitiæ placabiles.</i>" Lord -Shelburne was defeated, and retired. During five weeks the young -chancellor of the exchequer, William Pitt, who had borne the -burden of the discussion with Fox in debate, remained charged -with the administration. Then the king asked him to form a -cabinet. Pitt declined, with that mixture of boldness and -sensible moderation which constantly distinguished his political -life; the coalition ministry of North and Fox came to power on -the 2nd of April, 1783. The first act of the new cabinet was to -present an important bill in regard to the government of India. -The affairs of that distant empire, where Great Britain was -slowly coming to establish her power, engrossed all minds, -excited many ambitions, and served to nourish numerous intrigues. -Since the year 1765, after a violent struggle in the India -Company's council, Lord Clive had been charged with remodeling -the internal administration of Bengal. The prince whom he had -placed on the throne was dead. To Meer Jaffier had succeeded a -child, raised to the supreme dignity by the agents of the -company, who had put the throne to auction. Corruption and -violence obtained in all branches of the government. Clive's -feelings had not been delicate, nor his conscience -over-scrupulous. He was humiliated and shocked at the spectacle -which met his eyes. "Alas!" wrote he to one of his friends, "how -low the English name has fallen! I could not help paying the -tribute of a few tears to the glory of the English nation, which -is so irretrievably lost, I fear. However, I swear by the Great -Being who sounds hearts and to whom we are all responsible, if -there is anything after this life, I have come here, with a soul -above all corruptions, determined to exterminate these terrible -and ever-growing evils or to die hard." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_323">{323}</a></span> -<p> -It was with a resolute sincerity that Clive undertook and -accomplished the difficult task with which he had been charged. -In eighteen months he reformed all abuses and constructed a new -administration on intelligent and sensible bases. Private -commerce was denied to the agents of the company, whose salaries -were at the same time increased. It was absolutely forbidden to -receive any presents from natives. When the resistance of the -Calcutta employés threatened for a time to nullify his plans, the -inflexible governor announced that he would procure agents -elsewhere, and he brought from Madras those whom he wanted. The -most obstinate were left destitute; the others yielded. A -military plot was discovered and baffled; the ringleaders were -arrested, judged, and cashiered. Clive exhibited in regard to -them a mingled kindness and severity. He was threatened with an -attempt at assassination: he smiled disdainfully. "These -officers," he said, "are Englishmen, not murderers." The sepoys -remained faithful to him. The Hindoo princes who had recently -sought to revolt asked for peace. The English power and the -company's authority in Bengal were forever established when Lord -Clive, exhausted by fatigue and sickness, departed for England in -1767. He had refused all the presents which had been offered to -him, making a gift to the company, in favor of the invalid -officers and soldiers of the army, of a considerable legacy which -Meer Jaffier had left him. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_324">{324}</a></span> -<p> -Lord Clive had laid his hand on bleeding wounds; he had dried up -in them the source of much abuse; he had effectually hindered -ambitious and evil projects. His enemies were numerous and -determined, and they pursued him to England with their jealous -hatred. The most honorable part of his life was calumniated. Past -acts were recalled which did honor neither to his heart nor his -conscience. By a very natural mistake of public opinion, Clive -became to the mass of the nation the type of those functionaries -enriched in India who were then called <i>nabobs</i>, a great -number of whom had seen their malversations stopped by his firm -government. A horrible famine which desolated Bengal in 1770, the -origin of which was falsely attributed to his measures, cast -trouble into the soul as well as confusion into the affairs of -the company. Many of its agents were fiercely accused. Lord Clive -was involved in their unpopularity. His adversaries presented a -bill on the affairs of India to Parliament. Clive did not want to -be personally attacked. He defended himself in a long and -carefully prepared speech, which had a great and legitimate -success. His enemies then directed their accusations against the -first part of his life, which were more difficult to defend. -Irritated, but not uneasy, Clive boldly maintained the necessity -of the manœuvres he had employed, asserting that he would not -hesitate to have recourse to the same means again, and when the -gifts that he had received from Meer Jaffier were harped upon, -"By God, Mr. President," exclaimed Clive, "when I think of the -offers which have been made to me, of the caves full of ingots -and precious stones which have been opened to me, what astonishes -me at this moment is my moderation." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_325">{325}</a></span> -<p> -With wise justice the House of Commons had blamed, in regard to -certain points, Clive's conduct while establishing legitimate -principles of government; it had at the same time the justice to -recognize the great services which the general had rendered his -country. Clive was acquitted by the House and justified in the -eyes of public opinion. He was rich and powerful. The American -war, then commencing, was about to open a new field for his -military genius, and the ministry had already made proposals to -him. On the 22d of November, 1774, Clive died by his own hand in -the magnificent castle which he had built at Claremont. He was -about to enter on his forty-ninth year. On several occasions ere -this, in all the vigor of his youth, he had been attacked by that -gloomy melancholy which was at last to cost him his life. Being -sick and unemployed, he had recourse to the fatal solace of -opium. An energetic spirit of most powerful faculties had -foundered in shipwreck. England had lost the only general capable -of struggling against Washington. -</p><p> -When Clive died thus sadly and gloomily, wearied of fortune and -of glory, his successor in the Indian Empire, as potent in -administration and policy as the general had been in war, -Governor Warren Hastings was sustaining against his foes and his -rivals that desperate struggle which the maintenance of his -method was to render celebrated in England and in Europe. Born on -the 6th of September, 1732, of an ancient but impoverished -family, and sent to India, while very young in the civil service, -Warren Hastings had already distinguished himself by intelligent -services when he was appointed agent at the court of Meer -Jaffier, at the moment when Clive, during his stay in India, was -establishing the empire of England over Bengal. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_326">{326}</a></span> -He afterwards became a member of the council at Calcutta, at the -era when disorder and corruption reigned there unchecked, before -the powerful hand of Clive had introduced into administration the -first elements of order and probity. In 1764 he returned to -England. His fortune was modest; he made liberal use of it -towards his family, and heavy losses swallowed what remained. -Hastings returned to India in 1769 as member of the council of -Madras. -</p><p> -Being capable and sagacious, he was occupied in seeking -advantageous investments for the funds of the company, the -affairs of which prospered in his hands. The directors had at the -same time got sight of the rare political faculties of their -clever agent. They resolved to nominate him as governor of -Bengal. The double government which Clive had founded still -existed. It left the appearance of power to the nabob, but -confided the reality to the hands of the English. The native -ministry Clive had elevated still guided the affairs of the -Hindoo prince. He was a Mussulman, and was called Mohammed Reza -Khan. For ten years a clever and unscrupulous Hindoo rival, the -Brahmin Nuncomar, had pursued him with his jealous animosity. -Shortly after the arrival of Hastings, and contrary to his -advice, on orders come from London, the new governor was obliged -to depose Mohammed Reza Khan. He knew Nuncomar, however, and was -resolved not to satisfy his greedy ambition. When the Mussulman -minister, a prisoner, but kindly treated, had set out for Madras -under a strong guard, Hastings took from the infant <i>nabob</i> -the remnants of his authority. The post of native minister was -abolished. The administration of Bengal passed entirely into the -hands of the English. The little prince, still surrounded by a -court and provided with an ample revenue, was confided to the -care of a woman who had formed part of his father's harem. The -hatred of Nuncomar was transferred from Mohammed Reza Khan to the -governor of Bengal, Warren Hastings. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_327">{327}</a></span> -<p> -Having become all-powerful, and being constantly pressed by the -company to send it money, Hastings had used violent and irregular -means to procure the sums demanded of him. He had reduced the -pensions which the English had agreed to pay to the deposed -princes; he had sold towns or territories to native sovereigns; -he had, last of all, engaged the company's troops in a private -war of the nabob vizier of Oude against the Rohillas, and he had -for a sum of money enslaved on the prince's behalf a proud and -independent population, henceforth given over to the most cruel -oppression. The distant rumor of this iniquity reached as far as -England. In 1773, under Lord North's ministry, a new law had -seriously modified the government of India. Henceforth the -presidency of Bengal was to exercise control over the other -possessions of the company: a council composed of four members -was charged with assisting the governor-general; a supreme court -of justice, established at Calcutta, was to be independent of the -governor and of the council. Among the members of this new -administration was Sir Philip Francis, probably the author of the -celebrated letters of Junius, who was endowed with a persistent, -violent, and bitter spirit, and who was soon engaged against -Hastings in a struggle which was to last as long as their lives. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_328">{328}</a></span> -<p> -Francis swayed the majority in the council. He took away the -government from Hastings and put his hand on all branches of the -administration. Disorder became extreme. The hate of Nuncomar led -him to believe that he had found a chance of destroying his enemy -forever. He formulated the gravest charges against the -governor-general, and Francis undertook to transmit his -deposition to the council. Hastings treated Francis and Nuncomar -with haughtiness. Public opinion in India was favorable to him, -and he did not at that time consider himself seriously menaced. -In appealing to the higher authority at London, he addressed his -resignation to Colonel Maclean, his agent in England, instructing -him only to hand it in in case the council of the company should -show itself hostile to his interests. -</p><p> -His precaution being taken so far as England was concerned, -Warren Hastings, bold as he was clever and calm, resolved to -attempt a great stroke. He was master of the supreme court, -which was absolutely independent in its scarcely limited -jurisdiction. The president, Sir E. Impey, had been his -schoolfellow, and willingly became his docile tool. Nuncomar was -accused of forgery in a business letter—the most common and most -venial of crimes in the Hindoo practice and morality. He was -arrested and cast into prison. After a trial in which all the -resources and intrigues of the council failed before the firm -resolve of the judges, Nuncomar was declared guilty and condemned -to death. -</p><p> -The entire population of Calcutta was in consternation. The -members of the council, being furious, swore that they would save -their <i>protegé</i>, were it at the foot of the gallows. Sir E. -Impey refused the reprieve that Nuncomar's friends demanded in -order that they might have time to appeal to justice or the royal -clemency. The Brahmin suffered his fate with the cool courage -peculiar to that Oriental race, so often weak and cowardly in -battle, but impassive in the face of torture and death. The -affrighted crowd which was present at his punishment fled, -covering their faces; a multitude of Hindoos threw themselves -into the sacred waters of the Hooghly, as if to purify themselves -from the crime of which they had been the powerless spectators. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_329">{329}</a></span> -<p> -Hastings was triumphant at Calcutta. At London, in spite of the -enmity of Lord North, who was closely leagued with that majority -of the council in conflict with the governor-general, the -shareholders summoned to vote at a general meeting inclined to -the support of Warren Hastings. The finances had never been more -prosperous. If he had committed faults it was in the service of -the company and to its profit. The governor-general's partisans -upheld him with a hundred voices. -</p><p> -The discontent of the ministry was so great that Colonel Maclean -dreaded a premature convocation of Parliament and the accusation -of his employer. He remitted to the director of the company the -resignation which had been intrusted to him. Delighted to get out -of the embarrassment thus, the London council addressed to -General Clavering, the senior of the Calcutta council, orders to -exercise power until the arrival of Mr. Wheeler, who was charged -with replacing Warren Hastings. -</p><p> -When the company's decisions reached their distant empire, the -aspect of affairs was changed. The death of one of the members of -the council had overthrown the majority, and the -governor-general's voice prevailed. He had resumed all his legal -authority, annulled the measures of his adversaries, and deposed -their creatures. He boldly denied the instructions transmitted to -Colonel Maclean, and declared his resignation invalid. After a -conflict of some days between General Clavering and the -governor-general, both put it to the decision of the court. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_330">{330}</a></span> -It was favorable to Hastings. Public opinion sustained him in the -colony; he became again the undisputed master of power, and his -title was confirmed by the company. The English government, -struggling with the American rebellion, and threatened by a -European coalition, felt the need of maintaining in India a -clever, experienced, and resolute governor. -</p><p> -Without scruples of conscience to hamper him in a policy which -was as far-seeing as it was adroit, Hastings had disarmed the -supreme court. The latter had shamefully abused its power; -judicial extortions and violence had spread terror in Bengal. The -governor-general did not hesitate to audaciously purchase the -assistance of Sir E. Impey. Thanks to new charges added to his -enormous appointments, the chief judge allowed those dangerous -weapons which he had used towards a defenceless population to -fall into the shade. Francis, who detested Impey, rose up, not -without cause, against the means which Hastings had employed to -deliver the country from legal abuses. Recriminations and -quarrels began again between the two adversaries. "I cannot rely -on Mr. Francis's promises of good faith," wrote Hastings to -London. "I am convinced that he will not hold to them. I judge of -his public conduct by his private conduct, which I have always -found destitute of honor and veracity." A duel took place. -Hastings seriously wounded Francis. Scarcely recovered of his -wound, the latter set out for England without his rancor and -hatred of his fortunate rival having lost any of their -bitterness. He bided his day of vengeance. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_331">{331}</a></span> -<p> -Meanwhile, Warren Hastings had attempted a futile enterprise -against the Mahrattas. He was threatened in the Carnatic by the -growing power of Hyder-Ali, the founder of the Mohammedan kingdom -of Mysore, imprudently provoked by the English authorities of -Madras, who found themselves defenceless against the most -formidable enemy. -</p><p> -The regiments of Munro and Baillie had already been destroyed; -the approach of De Suffren was announced; some fortified places -alone were left to the English in the Carnatic. Madras, in -terror, contemplating the flames which were devouring the -villages of the plain, asked aid of the governor-general. Some -weeks later Hastings dispatched Sir Eyre Coote, formerly -conqueror of M. de Lally-Tollendal at Wandewash, against -Hyder-Ali. Using without reserve the full extent of his -authority, he raised troops, collected money, and energetically -sustained the movements of his little army. The progress of -Hyder-Ali was arrested. On the 1st of July, 1781, the victory of -Porto Novo gave splendor and prestige to the English power, soon -triumphant by reason of the death of its clever and intrepid -rival. -</p><p> -The internal embarrassments of a disputed government had -disappeared as far as Hastings was concerned. He had triumphed in -military attacks, but financial difficulties, aggravated by the -war which was just ended, remained heavy. It is a great proof of -moral worth to resist the pressing need of money when the means -of acquiring it for one's self, or for those whom one wishes to -serve, present themselves at our door on every hand. Formerly, -Warren Hastings had satisfied the needs of the company by -despoiling the Great Mogul and reducing the Rohillas to slavery. -Now he pillaged the rajah of Benares, Chey-ta-Sing, not without -difficulty and at the risk of his life, which he was accustomed -to expose with calm temerity. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_332">{332}</a></span> -Ruined and conquered, the Hindoo prince fled from his country, of -which the governor-general forthwith took possession; his nephew, -become rajah, was nothing more than a dependent of the India -Company, which assured him an ample pension. More odious -proceedings extorted from the princesses of Oude the immense -fortune which their nabob husbands had left them. Banished to -their palace and deprived of the necessaries of life, the begums -knew that their most trusted servants were abandoned at Lucknow -to the vengeance and cool animosity of the English. In order to -deliver these servants from the hands of their persecutors, they -at last gave up their treasures. Sir E. Impey covered all these -indignities with the cloak of legal justice. An inquiry which had -just taken place in the House of Commons, under the direction of -Dundas and Burke, disclosed some of these culpable actions. Sir -E. Impey was immediately recalled. The shareholders of the India -Company absolutely refused to depose Warren Hastings. It was only -two years later that the governor-general himself resigned his -functions. His wife, whom he had married under circumstances more -romantic than honorable, and to whom he was passionately -attached, had been obliged to return to England on account of her -health. Warren Hastings joined her there in the month of June, -1785. -</p><p> -India was pacified. Tippoo-Saib had made a treaty with England, -and his troops had evacuated the Carnatic. Alone among English -possessions, the vast Oriental territories had not suffered any -diminution during the war engendered by the American rebellion. -The Hindoo princes had seen their power vanishing; they had -become magnificent subjects while still enjoying the sovereign -title. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_333">{333}</a></span> -The supreme authority of the English was everywhere established; -a regular administration, however imperfect and rude as yet, had -on all hands succeeded anarchy. Incessantly fettered by -unintelligent or contradictory orders coming to him from Europe, -the governor-general had found in the resources of his fertile -genius the means of government and control which his rivals and -chiefs disputed with him. He had known how to attach the army to -him, and the natives themselves, accustomed to the capricious -exactions of their princes, blessed the prosperity and order -which marked his government. He had unrestrictedly used his power -with an ill-ordered zeal for the public weal. "The rules of -justice, the sentiments of humanity, the sworn faith of treaties, -were nothing in his eyes when they were opposed to the actual -interests of the state." He had enriched himself, and his wife -even more, but he had above all, enriched and served the company -and England without scruple and without remorse. -</p><p> -It was this delicate scruple and this honest remorse that the -most ardent of Warren Hastings' adversaries, virtuous, -passionate, and embittered by vexatious and severe -disappointments, felt. Among the accusers of Warren Hastings many -were animated by hatred or personal views. Edmund Burke solely -stood up for the cause of the justice and right offended by the -governor-general. His name has remained connected with the trial -of Hastings as that of an avenger of public virtue, disinterested -and sincere even in the violence of his patriotic transport. -</p><p> -The greeting that awaited Warren Hastings in London did not -prepare him for the fate which threatened him. Treated by the -king with a marked distinction, he was solemnly thanked by the -India Company. "I see myself treated on all sides," wrote he -three months after his arrival in England, "in a way that proves -to me that I possess the good opinion of my country." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_334">{334}</a></span> -<p> -The attack was being prepared, however, and Burke had already -announced it. The coalition ministry had fallen, precisely on the -India bill. It had presented a violent address against Hastings; -a vote of the House of Commons had condemned it. -</p><p> -What would be the attitude of the new cabinet, at the head of -which William Pitt reigned as master, of which Dundas formed -part, he who had lately proclaimed the faults of the -governor-general, no one knew. The entire opposition was in arms -against Warren Hastings. Francis had entered the House of Commons -and pursued his enemy with his persistent hate. The accusation -brought by Burke on the subject of the war against the Rohillas -was rejected by a great majority. When Fox attacked the -governor-general's conduct in the affair of Benares, Mr. Pitt, -who had been deemed favorable to Warren Hastings, declared that -the governor had had a right to impose a fine on the fugitive -prince, but that the penalty had not been proportioned to the -offense. To the general stupefaction he then supported Mr. Fox's -proposition. "The affair is too bad; I cannot sustain him," he -said to his intimate friend Wilberforce. An eloquent speech of -Sheridan ended in deciding the House. The Commons voted twenty -heads of accusation, and the trial was carried before the House -of Lords. -</p><p> -It began on the 13th of February, 1788, with extreme brilliancy. -The reputation of the accused and that of the lawyers was effaced -by that of his accusers, the most eloquent of their eloquent -epoch. Pitt alone took no part in the discussion. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_335">{335}</a></span> -Fox, Sheridan, Wyndham, and young Lord Grey had left to Burke the -honor of making the first speech. He spoke at length. Chancellor -Thurlow himself, although favorable to Warren Hastings, could not -withhold a murmur of satisfaction. The impassioned tones of the -great orator stirred all consciences, moved all hearts, when he -cried at last, in a voice of thunder, "This is why the House of -Commons of Great Britain has ordered me, in all assurance, to -impeach Warren Hastings of crimes and grave offenses. I impeach -him in the name of the House of Commons, whose confidence he has -deceived; I impeach him in the name of the English nation, whose -ancient honor he has soiled; I impeach him in the name of the -Hindoo people, whose rights he has trodden under foot and whose -country he has made a desert; finally, in the name of nature -herself, in the name of men and women, in the name of all times, -in the name of all ranks, I impeach the common enemy and -oppressor of all." -</p><p> -It was with the same violence, excessive and unjust in the -passion of its justice, that Burke pursued the public prosecution -against Warren Hastings. The trial lasted ten years. Proclaimed -from 1785 in the House of Commons, sometimes ardently, sometimes -languidly, sustained before the House of Lords since 1788, it was -only in 1795, and when national attention was directed elsewhere -upon the actual and neighboring dramas of the French revolution, -that Warren Hastings, old and almost ruined, was finally -acquitted by the House of Lords, the greater portion of whose -members had not assisted at the beginning of the trial. "The -impeachment has taken place before one generation," said Hastings -himself, "the sentence has been pronounced by its children." The -accusers, like the judges, were scattered, drawn into various -paths by political passion. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_336">{336}</a></span> -Burke no longer fought with Fox, nor Wyndham with Lord Grey and -Sheridan. Public opinion, formerly severe on the accused, had -softened. The length of the trial had placed the crimes of -Hastings among the facts belonging to history; it had brought to -light the eminent services which he had rendered to the country. -When he entered the retreat from which he was only to emerge at -rare intervals, Hastings was accompanied there by public favor. -It remained faithful to him even to the end of his long life. -After having struggled, governed and suffered with the same -calmness and the same evenness of mind which he brought towards -the end of his career to the peaceful study of literature, Warren -Hastings died at Daylesford, the ancient manor of his fathers, -which he had formerly bought and embellished, on the 22nd of -August [1818], at the age of eighty-five years. -</p><p> -Warren Hastings was yet alive, and America had long become an -independent and free nation. India was conquered and henceforth -submissive to English law. Hereafter it was on the European scene -exclusively that great dramas and great actors were to appear. -</p> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_337">{337}</a></span> -<br> - <h2>Chapter XXXVII. -<br><br> - George III.<br> - Pitt And The French Revolution.<br> - (1783-1801).</h2> -<br> -<p> -I have endeavored to analyze the far distant questions, which for -a long time agitated the English nation, and I now return to the -events more directly bearing on its internal life and policy. I -encounter at the outset, with profound satisfaction, that wise, -able, and powerful minister, who has ever remained the type of a -great statesman in a free country. His history is that of his -country, of her glory as well as of her misfortunes; he lived for -her, and died when he believed her vanquished, without carrying -into the tomb any presentiment of final victory and noble reward -of his indefatigable efforts. -</p><p> -William Pitt was scarcely twenty-four years of age, when he -refused to accept the power offered him by George III. He -determined, upon the formation of the coalition ministry of North -and Fox, that he would not ally himself with either party, but -would hold himself in reserve and act with that party which -appeared to him to be in the right. Before the end of the -session, Pitt found himself at the head of the opposition by his -own judgment, as well as by the spontaneous movement of public -opinion, openly and justly adverse to the alliance of the Whigs -and Tories,—the partisans and the adversaries of American -independence. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_338">{338}</a></span> -<p> -The affairs of India were upon a hazardous and uncertain footing; -the ministers of the coalition had nevertheless resolved to -radically change the administration of that country, by the -formation of a Council of seven persons, having authority to -appoint and to dismiss all agents, and to administer the -government at their will, regardless of the charters of the East -India Company and its established rights. It was in consequence -of a necessity that each day became more and more urgent, that -Mr. Fox employed his powerful arguments against the disorders and -abuses which reigned in the administration of India. "What is a -charter?" impudently asked Attorney-General Lee; "it is only a -piece of parchment, with a seal of wax hanging from one of the -corners." All English regard for acquired rights and precedents, -revolted at this cynical remark. "Necessity is the argument of -tyrants, and the law of slaves," said Pitt. -</p><p> -The members of the new Indian council were all intimate friends -of the coalition. "The bill upon the Indian question which Fox -has presented, will be decisive, one way or the other, for or -against the ministry," wrote Pitt to his friend the Duke of -Rutland. "I thoroughly believe that the measure is the boldest -and most unconstitutional that has ever been attempted; since it -throws, by a single blow, in spite of all charters and contracts, -an immense influence and patronage in the East into the hands of -Charles Fox,—in power or out of power. I believe that this bill -will meet with much opposition. The ministry have risked all on a -venture upon which they will probably be defeated." -</p><p> -All the efforts of the opposition in the House of Commons failed. -The Indian bill passed by a large majority. Burke, eager already -to pursue those crimes and abuses which he was one day to -overwhelm with the thunders of his eloquence, gave his support to -the bill. He delivered in the house a noble eulogy on that -friend, from whom he was one day to separate himself with so much -applause. Said he, "Fox is traduced and abused for his supposed -motives. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_339">{339}</a></span> -He will remember that obloquy is a necessary ingredient in the -composition of all true glory: he will remember that it was not -only in the Roman customs, but it is in the nature and -constitution of things, that calumny and abuse are essential -parts of triumph. He is now on a great eminence, where the eyes -of mankind are turned to him. He may live long, he may do much; -but here is the summit: he never can exceed what he does this -day. He has faults, but they are faults that, though they may in -a small degree tarnish the lustre, and sometimes impede the march -of his abilities, have nothing in them to extinguish the fire of -great virtues. In those faults there is no mixture of deceit, of -hypocrisy, of pride, of ferocity, of complexional despotism, or -want of feeling for the distresses of mankind. His are faults, -which might exist in a descendant of Henry IV. of France, as they -did exist, in that Father of his country." -</p><p> -The House of Lords was less inclined to reject the bill than Pitt -had believed. "As much as I abhor tyranny under any form," said -Lord Thurlow, "I oppose energetically this strange attempt to -destroy the equilibrium of our Constitution. I desire to see the -crown respected and powerful; but if the present bill should -pass, it will be no longer worthy of the support of a man of -honor." The ex-chancellor, boldly facing the Prince of Wales, who -at this time was Mr. Fox's personal friend and admirer, added: -"In fact, the king will take the crown from his own head, and -place it upon that of Mr. Fox." -</p><p> -George III. was more courageous than prudent, and more occupied -with the rights of the crown than with parliamentary privileges. -He charged Lord Temple to make it known in the house, that he -"regarded all those who voted for the Indian bill, not only as -unfriendly, but also as enemies." The mission had its effect; the -adjournment of the measure was voted. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_340">{340}</a></span> -The Commons, in their turn, offended by the royal intervention, -censured openly those who had provoked it. The struggle between -the two houses increased. On the night of the 18th of December, -1783, Mr. Fox and Lord North received orders to surrender their -seals of office. The following day, as Parliament sat agitated -and expectant, there entered the House of Commons a young member, -Mr. Pepper Arden, who at once offered a resolution proposing to -convoke the electors of the borough of Appleby, in order to elect -a new representative in place of the very Hon. William Pitt, who -had just accepted the post of First Lord of the Treasury and -Chancellor of the Exchequer. The move was so bold that at first -it excited only incredulity and pleasantry. The opposition -supposed that the young minister, finding himself in a minority -in the House of Commons, would call for a dissolution. "No one -will admit," said Fox, "that such a prerogative ought to be used, -solely to serve the purposes of an ambitious young man. As for -me, I declare in the face of this house, if the dissolution takes -place, and they do not give good and solid reasons for it, I will -pledge myself, if I have the honor to sit in the new Parliament, -to propose a serious inquiry into this affair, and to compel -those who have proposed it to render an account." -</p><p> -Pitt, however, was wiser and bolder than his adversaries -anticipated; he resolved to allow the country time to gain -confidence in his abilities; to the passions excited by the -contest, time to betray their motives and their consequences. He -had great difficulty in forming his cabinet. Lord Temple, who -accepted the office of Secretary of State, soon resigned, through -spite and personal caprice. The Dukes of Rutland and Richmond, -Lord Gower, Lord Thurlow and Dundas had nevertheless consented to -join the ministry. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_341">{341}</a></span> -The young chief resolutely faced the struggle. The houses were to -reassemble on the 12th of January, 1784. "Do not quit your house -nor dismiss a single servant before you see the result of the -12th," wrote Fox to Lord Northington. "Mr. Pitt is able to do -whatever he wishes during the recess," said the friends of Fox. -</p><p> -On the 30th of December, the new Premier wrote to his mother, -that he trusted she believed that it was not from choice that he -had so long kept silence; in general, he said, things were more -satisfactory than they appeared; and when one was uncertain -regarding a result, the conviction that one was not wrong, was -sometimes sufficient, especially when there was nothing better; -there was besides a certain satisfaction in hoping for something -more. -</p><p> -The first effort of the opposition tended to prevent the -dissolution. Fox boldly contested the right to dissolve, in the -midst of a session. Pitt sustained the attack, with a lofty and -courageous boldness; he had no intention, he said, to counsel the -king to dissolve, but he was not able to pledge himself never to -give an advice that might become necessary. Accused of having -used secret influences, he responded with disdain, that he had -not come there through back-stairs influences, but when sent for -by the king, had simply obeyed orders; he had used no secret -influences, and he trusted that his integrity would be sufficient -to preserve him from this danger: "I have neither meanness -enough," said he, fixing his eyes on the opposition, "to act -under the concealed influence of others, nor hypocrisy to -pretend, where the measures of an administration, in which I had -share, were blamed, that they were measures not of my advising; -and this is the only answer I shall ever deign to make on the -subject." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_342">{342}</a></span> -<p> -Pitt was beaten at the outset upon a parliamentary question, and -again when he presented the bill which he had substituted, for -the project planned by his adversaries for the government of -India. The council which he proposed was to have no share of the -patronage. "My intention is," said he, "to institute a council of -political control, in place of a council of political influence." -General Conway accused the cabinet of corrupt practices in the -country. Pitt interrupted him: "I have the right," said he, "to -summon the very honorable General to specify a case where the -agents of the ministers have overrun the country, practising -corruption. These are assertions that ought not to be made unless -one is able to prove them. As for my honor, I intend to remain -the only judge of that; I have at least the same advantage over -the honorable general that the young Scipio had over the veteran -Fabius: <i>Si mulla allia re, modestia certe et temperando -linguæ adolescens senem vicero.</i>" -</p><p> -A certain dissatisfaction began already to manifest itself among -the opposing majority. The violence of Fox had surpassed all -bounds; in the opinion of the country, it counterbalanced the -recent violence of the king. The young minister gained ground; a -proof of his rare disinterestedness had impressed the minds of -the people most favorably. Sir Edward Walpole, youngest son of -the great minister, had just died. He held the clerkship of -Pells, a life sinecure, which was worth £3000 per year. Pitt had -no fortune; his friends urged him to appropriate this revenue. -The minister refused, and profited by this conjuncture to provide -for Col. Barré, who previously had from the Rockingham Ministry a -pension of ^3,200. Barré renounced his pension and became clerk -of the Pells. "I avow," said Lord Thurlow, some weeks later, in -the House of Lords, "I had the baseness to counsel Mr. Pitt to -appropriate this office, which had so honorably fallen to him, -and I believe that it will not be to my discredit, since so many -high in authority have done likewise." -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_343">{343}</a></span> -Some independent members made advances to Pitt; they had -conceived vain projects of conciliation: they failed. A struggle -to the death had begun. "The question was," said Dr. Johnson, -"who should govern England: the sceptre of George III. or the -tongue of Charles Fox?" Two addresses, begging him to dismiss his -ministers, were successively sent to the king. -</p><p> -Fox was vanquished in advance, and by his own fault; he had -attacked that equilibrium of the Constitution, dear to all good -citizens, and to honest men who are not irrevocably bound in the -dangerous bonds of party spirit. He threatened to suspend the -supplies, and proposed to limit to two months the duration of the -mutiny act, usually voted for a year. In vain did he employ, in -order to defend his conduct, all the marvellous resources of his -eloquence. A great remonstrance to the king, that he had prepared -with care, passed by the majority of a single voice. The supply -and the mutiny bills were passed without difficulty. "The enemy -seems to be upon its back," wrote Pitt to the Duke of Rutland, on -the 10th of March, 1784; and to his mother on the 16th, he wrote, -"I regard our actual situation as a triumph in comparison with -what it was. My joy is doubled by the thought that it extends -even to you, and gives you satisfaction." -</p><p> -The moment to make an appeal to the country had finally come. -After three months of courageous and bold patience, Pitt -counselled the king to dissolve parliament. When the writs of -convocation were about to be issued, the great seal had -disappeared; it has never been known by whom or for what purpose -the theft was committed In twenty-four hours the loss was -repaired, as it had been after the flight of King James II., who -had thrown his great seal into the Thames. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_344">{344}</a></span> -On the 24th of March, 1784, the king presented himself at the -House of Lords, and said: "After having well considered the -present situation of affairs and the extraordinary circumstances -which have produced it, I have decided to put an end to this -session of Parliament. I feel that it is my duty towards the -Constitution and the country, to make an appeal to the good sense -of my people, as soon as possible, by convoking a new -Parliament." -</p><p> -Never were elections more enthusiastic, never was success more -complete than that of the cabinet. One hundred and sixty friends -of Fox lost their seats. His own election at Westminster was for -a long time uncertain. Neither his resolution nor his presence of -mind deserted him. "The bad news spreads on all sides," wrote he -to one of his friends; "but it seems to me that misfortunes, when -they crowd in upon us, should have the effect of increasing our -courage instead of intimidating it." -</p><p> -The electoral contest was prolonged at Westminster for forty -days. The Prince of Wales appeared on the hustings as a partisan -of Fox, and the first ladies of the Whig party, the beautiful -Duchess of Devonshire at their head, lavished their smiles upon -the electors, for their votes. The majority for the great orator -was left a matter of doubt; fraudulent practises had, it was -charged, been employed, and the High Sheriff Corbet refused to -make an official proclamation of the result, without a -Parliamentary investigation. Fox was nevertheless assured of a -seat. Sir Thomas Dundas had already named him for the borough of -Kirkwell, of which he had the disposal. -</p><p> -Before the dissolution, the king had strengthened in the House of -Lords the number of the partisans of Mr. Pitt, by three -elevations to the peerage; following the elections, he manifested -anew his firm resolution to support his minister by creating -seven new peers. Henceforth the sovereign and the country were in -accord; the opening of the session proved clearly the ascendancy -of the minister. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_345">{345}</a></span> -<p> -The great financial measures which Pitt had prepared were voted -by large majorities: they were new as well as daring. The imposts -upon tea and alcohol were lowered, in the hope of destroying -contraband trade. New imposts and a new loan, largely offered to -the public, re-established the equilibrium of the budget. -"However painful may be my task to-day," said the minister, "the -necessity of the country forbidding all hesitation, I confide in -the good sense and patriotism of the English people. As minister -of the finances, I have adopted this motto: To conceal nothing -from the public." The bill upon the administration in India -passed without great effort, as well as the measure of Dundas for -the restitution to the legitimate owners, of all the property -confiscated during the rebellion of 1745. The proposition of -Alderman Sawbridge for parliamentary reform was rejected. Pitt -remained faithful to his convictions: he voted on that occasion -with the minority, promising to renew the question himself during -the next session. -</p><p> -Parliament met on the 25th of January, 1785. Its first business -was to consider the alleged frauds in the election of Fox at -Westminster. The constitutional authority was insufficient, and -the two parties employed every resource of chicanery. The -illustrious adversaries freely made use of reproaches and -insults. Fox at this time was large and robust; his black hair -always in disorder, yet profusely powdered; cordial and frank -with his friends, greatly enjoying life, ever ready for all -material or intellectual pleasures, brilliantly and powerfully -eloquent, without care or preparation; attacking each adversary -in his turn, and solely occupying himself in demolishing him. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_346">{346}</a></span> -Pitt's health was delicate; he was tall and slim, a little lofty -in his manners as well as in his mind; confiding with his -intimate friends, but reserved and cold with most of his -partisans. He had from infancy studied the art of eloquence; not -that sweeping and impassioned eloquence that distinguished Lord -Chatham, and that the illustrious father sought to impart to his -young son, as when placing him before him on a table, he cried: -"Do you see the scoundrels who are there before you, and who wish -to hang you? Defend thyself, William, defend thyself!" The -eloquence of Pitt was naturally powerful. Lucid, forcible, -convincing, perfect in expression as well as in arrangement, it -left in the minds of his contemporaries the impression of an -incontestable superiority over the most brilliant orators of his -time, over Burke himself as well as over Sheridan. -</p><p> -Pitt was beaten upon the question of the election at Westminster. -Lord North and his friends gained an equal victory on the -question of parliamentary reform. Moderate and restrained in its -application, it attacked nevertheless the principle of close -boroughs, and intended to increase the representation of the -cities. Fox voted for the measure, although it did not meet his -entire approval. The day had not yet arrived when the force of -public opinion would compel the members of the House of Commons -to vote against their own rights and titles. Pitt felt this, and -did not pursue his project. After a brilliant and obstinate -discussion, and in consequence of the national and parliamentary -jealousies of Ireland, he was also compelled to withdraw the bill -regarding commercial intercourse between the two countries. -</p><p> -Fox declared himself the irreconcilable enemy of free exchange. -The Irish Parliament was unnecessarily alarmed regarding its -legislative independence. "I do not wish to barter English -commerce against the slavery of Ireland," said Mr. Grattan, "that -is not the price I wish to pay; that is not the merchandise I -wish to buy." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_347">{347}</a></span> -<p> -The defeat of his liberal measures in favor of Ireland, was a -great disappointment to Mr. Pitt: he had just carried, with great -success, his bill for the establishment of a sinking fund placed -under control of Parliament. At the end of the session of 1786, -which is memorable for the opening of the great and celebrated -trial of Warren Hastings, the minister was engaged in negotiating -a commercial treaty with France. Scarcely had Parliament -re-assembled, when the measure was violently attacked. "I do not -contend," said Fox, "that France is, and ought to remain, the -irreconcilable enemy of England, and that it is impossible to -experience a secret desire of living amicably with that kingdom. -It is possible, but scarcely probable. I not only doubt her good -intentions toward us, at this time, but I do not believe in them. -France is naturally the political enemy of Great Britain; in -concluding with us a commercial treaty, she wishes to tie our -hands, and so prevent us from forming an alliance with any other -power." -</p><p> -Pitt judged better and more accurately those international -questions which were destined so soon to disturb the peace of the -world. In advance, and protesting in the name of eternal justice -against the violent struggle that the unloosing of human passions -would compel him to sustain against revolutionary France, whether -anarchical or absolute, he declared, with indignation, that his -mind revolted against the idea that any nation could be the -unalterable foe of another; it had no foundation in experience or -history; it was a libel on the constitution of political society; -and situated as England was, opposite France, it was highly -important for the good of the two countries to put an end to that -constant enmity that has falsely been said to be the foundation -of the true sentiments of the two nations. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_348">{348}</a></span> -The treaty, he insisted, tended to improve the facilities for -prosecuting war and at the same time also retarded its approach. -The treaty was signed, notwithstanding the bitter reproaches of -Sir Philip Francis, who accused Pitt of destroying with his hands -the work of his illustrious father. "The glory of Lord Chatham is -founded on the resistance he made to the united power of the -House of Bourbon. The present minister has taken the opposite -road to fame, and France, the object of every hostile principle -in the policy Lord Chatham's, is the <i>gens amicissima</i> of -his son." -</p><p> -To the difficulties which Mr. Pitt's financial measures -encountered, were added the internal embarrassments of the -country. The prince was passionately attached to the opposition. -He had sustained Fox in his contest against the royal -prerogative; with much more reason all his influence had been -exerted against the cabinet of Mr. Pitt. The prince, -nevertheless, needed the co-operation of the king as well as of -the minister. Besides the serious annoyances which his debts cost -him, he had aggravated his situation by his secret marriage -(December 21st, 1783), with Mrs. Fitzherbert, a young Catholic -widow, contrary to the law, which interdicted to princes any -union not having the royal assent. The religion of Mrs. -Fitzherbert added another difficulty to the situation. -</p><p> -Fox had sincerely and honestly disapproved of the conduct of the -prince, and had also warned him that it would be impossible to -keep the secret. When his apprehensions were realized, and when -pamphlets as well parliamentary allusions, compelled the friends -of the prince to speak out. Fox accepted the disagreeable duty of -denying a fact of which he had grave doubts. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_349">{349}</a></span> -"I deny absolutely that there is any truth in this marriage," -said he. "It not only would be illegal, but it has never taken -place. It is a monstrous calumny, a miserable calumny, a low, -malicious falsehood." Do you speak with authority, [he] was -asked? "Yes," responded Fox, "with direct authority." The -pecuniary affairs of the prince were regulated by the House of -Commons; his debts were paid, without discussion. Pitt had -obtained, with great difficulty, a message from the king, -recommending to the house the request of his son. -</p><p> -Everywhere the same firm and elevated principles, governmental as -well as liberal, inspired the conduct of Mr. Pitt. He had voted -against the abolition of the test act, demanded by the -Dissenters, because he believed the time was not propitious; -asserting, however, that he was favorable to the principles of -the measure. Pre-occupied by the disgraceful state of the English -prisons, he sent to New South Wales an expedition which laid the -foundation of the penal colony of Botany Bay. Finally, and above -all, he joined his friend, Wilberforce, in his noble efforts for -the abolition of the slave trade. Upon this question of humanity -and justice, Burke and Fox joined with their illustrious -adversary. "I have no scruple in declaring that the slave trade -ought to be, not regulated, but abolished," said Mr. Fox. "I have -thoroughly studied the question, and I had the intention of -presenting some remarks thereupon, but I rejoice to see the -matter in the hands of the honorable representative from the -county of York, rather than in my own. I sincerely believe it -will there have more weight, authority, and, chances of success." -Mr. Fox was right in rendering this homage to the pure and -disinterested virtue of Wilberforce. In the midst of the -brilliant excitements of his life, Fox had neither the leisure -nor the ardor of conviction, necessary to undertake and -accomplish the charitable and holy work to which Wilberforce and -his Christian friends had consecrated their lives. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_350">{350}</a></span> -<p> -External troubles for a moment threatened the uncertain peace; -the grave dissatisfaction existing between the stadtholder -William V., cousin of King George III., and the Dutch patricians, -had come to an open rupture, and the Princess of Orange was -publicly insulted. Her brother Frederick William II. of Prussia, -marched troops upon the territory of the republic. The feeble -government of Louis XVI. limited itself to a manifesto in favor -of the States-General. England prepared to sustain the -stadtholder, but the Prussian soldiers proved sufficient to -intimidate the patriots in Holland. The Prince of Orange made a -triumphant entry to the Hague; an offensive and defensive -alliance was concluded by England with Holland and Prussia. The -Czar and the Sultan had taken up arms. The King of Sweden, -Gustavus III., invaded Russia. The internal embarrassments and -troubles of France prevented her from interfering in any -quarrels. England was strong and powerful; she had firmly -established her alliances in Europe, and at home the power of -Pitt seemed founded upon the strongest basis. Mr. Fox, -discouraged, and awaiting better chances of success, departed for -Italy. A sad and unexpected event suddenly overturned all hopes -and all expectations. After a brief but severe illness, King -George III. totally lost his reason. -</p><p> -Already, in his youth, a feeble attack of mental trouble had -excited grave fears, and necessitated a project of a regency; the -king himself comprehended the import of the symptoms that he -felt. On the 3d of November, 1788, during a ride on horseback, he -encountered his son the Duke of York, and said to him, sadly: -"Would to God that I might die, for I am going to be mad!" -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_351">{351}</a></span> -<p> -Physicians attributed the malady of the king to an excess of work -and royal pre-occupations; his habits had always been regular, -his life had been almost patriarchial in its simplicity; his -health, nevertheless, was profoundly shattered. Consternation -reigned at Windsor. "That which is most to be feared," wrote Pitt -to Dr. Tomline, his intimate friend, the Bishop of Lincoln, "is -the effect upon his reason. If this lasts long it will lead to a -crisis the most difficult and delicate that one can imagine, when -it shall be necessary to provide for continuing the government. -Some weeks will pass, nevertheless, before it becomes necessary -to come to a decision, but the interval will be full of -uneasiness." The direction of the royal house had already fallen -into the hands of the Prince of Wales. The physicians could give -no opinion upon the duration of the king's malady. -</p><p> -Parliament assembled on the 20th of November. Pitt, solely -occupied with the interests of the country, desired to restrain -the regency by legislative authority. Chancellor Thurlow, -however, was intriguing secretly with the Prince of Wales and the -opposition, to retain his position, recently promised by Fox to -Lord Loughborough, who had suggested to the Prince the bold -project of seizing the regency. Fox's return from Italy was -anxiously awaited. When he arrived at London, on the 24th of -November, the houses were prorogued to the 14th of December. -Proudly silent upon the perfidious maneuvres of his colleague, -Pitt addressed no reproaches to Lord Thurlow, but he confided the -direction of the House of Lords to the venerable Lord Camden. Fox -energetically opposed the suggestions of Lord Loughborough, -regretting that he was constrained to break his word. "I have -swallowed the pill," wrote he to Sheridan; "it was very bitter, -and I have written to Lord Loughborough, who will not naturally -respond by consenting. What remains to be done? Is it the prince -in person, or you, or I, who shall speak to the chancellor? I do -not remember ever in all my life of having felt so ill at ease -regarding a political affair." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_352">{352}</a></span> -<p> -The king had been taken to Kew, very much against his will. The -chancellor and Mr. Pitt went there to see him. Miss Burney, the -author, and one of the ladies of honor of the queen, reports -that: "the chancellor came into the king's presence, with the -same trepidation that he inspired in others; and when he quitted -the king he was so overcome by the state of his royal master and -patron, that tears ran down his cheeks, and he had great -difficulty in supporting himself. Mr. Pitt was more calm, but -expressed his grief with so much respect and affection that the -universal admiration here felt towards him was increased." -</p><p> -When the houses re-assembled, Mr. Pitt presented the report of -the physicians; a new doctor, Mr. Willis, gave more hope of a -speedy cure than his associates; parliamentary maneuvres extended -even to the faculty, and the parties disputed with the doctors. -Mr. Fox proposed, from the first, to place the reins of power, -without contest, in the hands of the Prince of Wales. Without -regard to the supreme authority of parliament in such a matter, -he sustained the theory of hereditary right, with an energy so -far removed from his ordinary habit, that Mr. Pitt jocosely -remarked: "Now I'll <i>unwhig</i> this gentleman for the rest of -his days." -</p><p> -"Imagine the lack of judgment Fox has shown by putting himself -and his friends in such an embarrassing position," wrote -Wilberforce; "he perceived that what he had said had offended so -many people that he was obliged to seize the first favorable -occasion to explain and extenuate his words. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_353">{353}</a></span> -After this retraction, Sheriden terminated the day by a worse -blunder than I have ever seen committed by a man of any -intelligence. Since I have been in Parliament the battles have -been warm enough, but I do not remember of ever having heard such -a tumult as he raised by threatening us with the danger of -exciting the Prince of Wales, and urging him to vindicate his -rights: these are exactly the expressions used. You comprehend -what an advantage all this gives us; above all, when there is -joined thereto our great hope of the king's recovery." -</p><p> -The favorable progress in the malady of the King, decided the -chancellor to renounce his treachery. When the Duke of York -declared in the House of Lords that his eldest brother claimed no -rights, but desired to place his authority entirely in the hands -of Parliament, Lord Thurlow, quitting the wool-sack, followed -him, protesting his inviolable attachment and fidelity to the -sovereign who had governed England for twenty-seven years with -the most religious respect for its Constitution. He was moved by -his own words, troubled perhaps, by the recollection of his -secret perfidy, and finally concluded: "If ever I forget my king, -may God forget me!" A murmur of disgust followed: the intrigues -of the chancellor were well known. Pitt rushed precipitately from -the hall, his heart bursting with contempt. "Oh the wretch! the -wretch!" repeated he loudly. -</p><p> -The resolutions proposed by Pitt recognized the exclusive right -of Parliament to confer the regency. In an ardent and eloquent -address, Fox sustained the pretensions of the Prince of Wales, -declaring that Pitt would never have thought of limiting his -power if he had not felt that he did not merit the prince's -confidence, and that he would never be minister. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_354">{354}</a></span> -"With regard to my feeling myself unworthy of the confidence of -the Prince," said Pitt, "all that I am able to say is that there -is only one way for me, or any other, to merit it; that is to do -what I have done by seeking constantly in the public service to -do my duty towards the king, his father, and towards the entire -country. If by seeking to merit thus the confidence of the -prince, he finds that I have lost it, in fact; however painful -and disagreeable this circumstance may be for me, I should regret -it; but I say boldly that it would be impossible to repent of -it." -</p><p> -The Regency Bill contained grave restrictions to the power of the -Prince of Wales. The queen had charge of the person of the king, -and the prince had no authority to dispose of the royal property. -He was not permitted to grant the reversion of any office, nor -any pension or place without the consent of his majesty. The -prince was passionately irritated, and responded to the -communication of the minister, by a letter, that Burke had -dictated, as firm and clever as it was eloquent. Mr. Pitt -remained firm. The public were aware of the animosity that -existed between the minister, still powerful, the foolish king, -and that parliamentary and princely opposition which appeared -upon the point of seizing the power. The friends of Pitt, -realizing the sad condition of his financial affairs, preoccupied -themselves to relieve the same. A meeting of bankers and -merchants offered to Mr. Pitt a gift of £100,000, raised by -subscription, in the city London, within twenty-four hours. He -refused, without hesitation. The situation was prolonged. The -minister sought occasion for delay; for each day the king's -health improved. The five propositions of the Regency Bill had -been voted by the House of Commons, and the third reading was -announced in the House of Lords. Dr. Willis informed Mr. Pitt and -the chancellor that the convalescence of the king might be -announced. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_355">{355}</a></span> -On the 17th of February 1789, the minister wrote to his mother: -"You have seen that for several days the news from Kew improves; -the public bulletin this morning says the king continues to -improve in his convalescence. The particular news is that -according to all appearances he looks perfectly well, and that if -he continues to act sanely, they will at once declare him cured. -It remains for us to wait and see how he will support the state -in which he will find public affairs. But considering these -circumstances, the Bill will probably be adjourned, in the House -of Commons, until Monday; and if our hopes are then realized, the -project of the regency will probably be modified so as to apply -to an extremely short interval, or perhaps be entirely set aside. -This news will afford you sufficient pleasure to pardon the -brevity of my letter." -</p><p> -Four days later, the king renewed with Mr. Pitt that -correspondence, somewhat formal, but nevertheless, cordial and -kindly, which reflects so much honor on both the sovereign and -the minister. -</p><p> -On the 23rd of February, 1789, George III. wrote to Mr. Pitt: -</p> -<p class="cite"> - "It is with infinite satisfaction that I renew my - correspondence with Mr. Pitt, by acquainting him with my having - seen the Prince of Wales and my second son. Care was taken that - the conversation should be general and cordial. They seemed - perfectly satisfied. I chose the meeting should be in the - queen's apartment, that all parties might have that caution, - which, at the present hour, could but be judicious. I desire - Mr. Pitt will confer with the Lord Chancellor, that any steps - which may be necessary for raising the annual supplies, or any - measures that the interests of the nation may require, should - not be unnecessarily delayed; for I feel the warmest gratitude - for the support and anxiety shown by the nation at large during - my tedious illness, which I should ill requite if I did not - wish to prevent any further delay in those public measures - which it may be necessary to bring forward this year; though I - must decline entering into a pressure of business, and, indeed, - for the rest of my life, shall expect others to fulfil the - duties of their employments, and only keep that superintending - eye which can be effected without labor or fatigue. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_356">{356}</a></span> - "I am anxious to see Mr. Pitt any hour that may suit him - to-morrow morning, as his constant attachment to my interest - and that of the public, which are inseparable, must ever place - him in the most advantageous light. -</p> -<p class="cite2"> - G. R." -</p><p> -The power now fell into the eager hands of the Prince of Wales -and his friends. The people were as demonstrative in their joy as -they had been in their anxiety for the king. The popularity and -authority of Pitt were at their height: he was master of the -entire country, as well as of the House of Commons; the elections -of 1790 clearly proved this. -</p><p> -Only prudent and far-seeing statesmen turned their attention to -the internal state of France. The mass of the English nation had -not, as yet, felt that electric influence that our country has -always exercised over her neighbors, for the happiness or -misfortune of Europe. Already the diverging tendencies manifested -themselves among minds which had up to this time felt powerfully -the same impressions and followed the same direction. After the -taking of the Bastile, Fox wrote with transport: "How much the -greatest event it is that ever happened in the world, and how -much the best!" Burke, on the contrary, wrote to one of his -friends: "You hope that I hold the French worthy of liberty; -assuredly, I believe that all men who desire it, merit it. It is -not the recompense of our virtues nor the result of our labor. It -is our heritage. We have a right to it from our birth; but when -liberty is separated from justice, neither one nor the other -appear to be safe." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_357">{357}</a></span> -<p> -Some weeks later, at the opening of Parliament, Burke allowed -himself to be carried away by his prejudices to a gloomy and -severe review of the beginning of the French Revolution. "Since -the house has been prorogued," said he, "there has been much work -done in France. The French have shown themselves the ablest -architects of ruin that have appeared in the world: in one short -summer they have completely pulled down their monarchy, their -church, their nobility, their law, their army and their revenue. -They have done their business for us as rivals in a way in which -twenty Ramillies and Blenheims could never have done. Were we -absolute conquerors, with France prostrate at our feet, we should -blush to impose on them terms so destructive to their national -consequence as the durance they have imposed on themselves." -</p><p> -Pitt did not join in the joyous enthusiasm of Fox, regarding the -first and tumultuous efforts of the National Assembly and the -French people; still less did he abandon himself to the gloomy -forebodings of Burke. "The convulsions which now agitate France," -said he, "will lead one day or another to general harmony and -regular order; and although this situation will render France -more formidable, it will perhaps render her less dangerous as a -neighbor. I desire the re-establishment of tranquillity in that -country, although it seems to me as yet far removed. When her -system shall be re-established, and that system proclaims -liberty, well defined, the liberty proceeding from order and good -government, France will become one of the most brilliant powers -of the world. I am unable to regard with distrust, those -tendencies in neighboring states that so closely resemble the -sentiments which characterize the English people." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_358">{358}</a></span> -<p> -The excesses and disorders of revolutionary passions, which were -soon to threaten Europe with a vast conflagration, turned Mr. -Pitt from his benevolent views. He was reproached, when -subsequently he was compelled to struggle against the revolution, -both at home and abroad, for not being inclined to the violences -of Burke. It was his glory always to choose that difficult path, -alone worthy of men called by God to govern their fellow -creatures, that path which remains equally distant from either -extreme, and which resists the excesses of liberty as well as the -arbitrary tendencies of absolutism. In England, Mr. Pitt -repressed both the revolutionary passions and the tendencies to -despotism; upon the Continent, in his efforts against the -contagious violence of France, he branded as infamous the frenzy -of the Reign of Terror, and he protected the threatened European -governments, as he subsequently defended the national liberties, -against the encroachments and ambitions of absolute power. -</p><p> -The disagreement existing between the two chiefs of the -opposition first publicly manifested itself upon the -presentation, by Mr. Pitt, of a bill regarding the internal -administration of Canada. The state of France occupied all minds; -allusions to France entered into all discussions. Some -expressions used by Fox had wounded Burke: he resolved to -publicly define his position. Fox was informed of this intention; -he went to the house of Burke, praying him to delay, at least, -before commencing hostilities. Burke, for the last time, entered -the House of Commons arm in arm with Fox. The entire opposition -were uneasy and excited; they attempted to prevent the discussion -by recalling the orators to the affairs of Canada. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_359">{359}</a></span> -Burke would not permit himself to be turned aside: he immediately -attacked Mr. Fox for the fatal counsels he had given to England; -and suppressing the title of friend that he was accustomed to -give "that very honorable member," he said: "Certainly, it is -indiscreet at any period, but especially at my time of life, to -provoke enemies or give my friends occasion to desert me; yet if -my firm and steady adherence to the British Constitution place me -in such a dilemma, I am ready to risk all, and with my last words -to exclaim—'Fly from the French Constitution!'" Fox here -whispered that there was "no loss of friendship." "Yes," solemnly -exclaimed Burke, "I regret to say there is. I know the value of -my line of conduct. I have indeed made a great sacrifice. I have -done my duty, though I have lost my friend. There is something in -the accursed French Revolution, which envenoms everything it -touches." -</p><p> -Burke seated himself. When Fox rose to respond, he remained, for -some moments, standing, unable to speak. The tears ran down his -cheeks. The whole house was moved like himself. When he found -words to reply, it was with touching tenderness, that he spoke of -"the very honorable member, but lately his most intimate friend." -He declared that he had ever felt the highest veneration for the -judgment of his honorable friend, by whom he had been instructed -more than by all other men and books together; by whom he had -been taught to love our Constitution; from whom he had acquired -nearly all his political knowledge, certainly all that he most -valued; and that the separation would be most grievous to him to -the end of his life. He was nevertheless firm in his belief that -"the new Constitution of France, considered altogether, was the -most stupendous and glorious edifice of liberty which had been -erected on the foundation of human integrity in any time or -country." The ancient despotism had disappeared, and the new -system had for its object the happiness of the people. Upon this -ground he would continue to stand. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_360">{360}</a></span> -<p> -Some hasty words of Burke confirmed the rupture. Fox did not -continue the discussion; but a friendship of twenty-five years, -cemented by their united efforts in behalf of American liberty, -sank beneath the waves of the French Revolution, to the grief and -amazement of the representatives of the English nation. Separated -from his former friends, Burke formed no new ties: sometimes -passionate and exalted, always loyal and sincere, he had -sacrificed all to his conscience. With the progress of events in -France, a certain number of Whigs embraced the opinions that -Burke had proclaimed at the outset; when the phalanx formed -behind him, he continued to march with a firm step at the head of -the resistance. "We have made many enemies here, and no friends, -by the part we have taken," wrote Burke, regarding himself and -his son, to the agent of the French emigrants; "in order to serve -you we have associated with those with whom we have no natural -affiliations. We have left our business, we have broken our -engagements. For one mortification that you have suffered, we -have endured twenty. But the cause of humanity demands it." -</p><p> -The disturbances in Europe began to have some effect in England, -and even in Parliament; a momentary disagreement with Spain was -terminated in a satisfactory manner, but the persistent -hostilities between Russia and the Porte appeared to necessitate -an increase of the naval forces. Mr. Pitt presented a bill to -this effect, which was coldly received by the house. He withdrew -it in time to avoid a defeat, not however without a decrease of -his renown at home and abroad. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_361">{361}</a></span> -Notwithstanding the growing apprehensions of the friends of -France, and the anxiety that the situation of King Louis XVI. -inspired, Pitt resolutely maintained the neutrality of England. -When the declaration of Pilnitz, signed by the Emperor of Austria -and the King of Prussia, appealed to all the sovereigns of Europe -to aid the King of France, by arms, if necessary, England -remained deaf to the appeal. Pitt refused to lend to the emigre -princes the funds necessary for their military operations. -</p><p> -In the address from the throne, on the 31st of January, 1792, -George III. expressed the firm hope of seeing peace maintained; -he even counselled a diminution of the land and naval forces. -With an assurance more bold than prudent, Pitt announced in his -Budget, a progressive reduction of the taxes. He said, that -though he was aware of the many contingencies which, by -disturbing the public tranquillity, might prevent such a design, -yet there never was a time, in the history of this country, when, -from the situation of Europe, fifteen years of peace might more -reasonably be expected, than at the present moment. Still -occupied exclusively with internal questions, Pitt sustained, -energetically, the bill for the abolition of the slave trade, -proposed anew by Wilberforce and his friends; he regulated the -legislation regarding the press, henceforth relegated to the -jurisdiction of a jury; finally, he presented a bill regarding -loans. -</p><p> -Since the illness of the king, and the treachery he had -meditated, Lord Thurlow had remained secretly hostile to Pitt. On -the 15th of May, 1792, he vehemently and unexpectedly attacked -the financial bill, declaring that it was absurd to pretend to -dictate to future parliaments and to proscribe to future -ministers a line of action. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_362">{362}</a></span> -<p> -"None," said his lordship, "but a novice, a sycophant, a mere -reptile of a minister, would allow this act to prevent him doing -what, in his own judgment, circumstances might require at the -time; and a change in the situation of the country might render -that which is proper at one time, inapplicable at another: in -short, the scheme is nugatory and impracticable; the inaptness of -the project is only equalled by the vanity of the attempt." Pitt -finally lost all patience: he declared to the king that it was -impossible for him to continue to sit in the same cabinet with -Lord Thurlow. George III. did not hesitate; the chancellor was -ordered to deliver up the great seal to his majesty. Some months -later Lord Loughborough, who had become ardently favorable to the -minister, since the fall of Thurlow, was made chancellor -(January, 1793). -</p><p> -Mr. Pitt was appointed Warden of the Cinque Ports, a rich -sinecure long held by Lord North, and now, upon the death of that -nobleman, conferred upon the minister by the king. "I will not -receive any recommendations for this office," wrote the king, -"having resolved to confer it only upon Mr. Pitt;" and when he -sent his letter to Mr. Dundas, charged to forward it to Pitt, -then absent, George III. added: "Mr. Dundas is to forward my -letter to the West, and to accompany it with a few lines, -expressing that I will not admit of this favor being denied. I -desire Lord Chatham may also write, and that Mr. Dundas will take -the first opportunity of acquainting Lord Grenville of the step I -have taken." The office was worth £3,000 per year. For the first -time Pitt consented to accept the favor which was thus imposed -upon him by his sovereign. -</p><p> -Pitt was now seriously occupied with the state of Europe. The -King of Sweden, Gustavus III., had been assassinated at a masked -ball; the Emperor Leopold was dead; his son, the Emperor Francis, -in concert with the King of Prussia, declared war against France. -The position of Louis XVI. became each day more precarious. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_363">{363}</a></span> -Tossed about without hope, at one time contemplating impossible -resistance, at another, useless concessions, he had, on the 20th -of June, 1792, endured the insults and outrages of the Parisian -populace. The allied troops, under the Duke of Brunswick, had -already entered French territory. The princes of the House of -Bourbon, at the head of the emigré's, prepared themselves to -sustain the operations of the foreigners; an ill-timed manifesto -excited still further the passions of the French. On the 10th of -August, 1792, the palace of the Tuilleries was attacked, and the -Swiss guards massacred. The king, suspended from his royal -functions, was confined in the Temple, with his family; the -convention was convoked, and the prisoners in the dungeons of -Paris were murdered. -</p><p> -Amidst the chaos which reigned in Paris, La Fayette, who -commanded a French army upon the frontier, could not resolve to -defend a state of things each day more contrary to his -presumptuous expectations; he secretly quitted his command, -intending to fly to America. He was arrested by the allies and -put in prison at Olmutz. General Dumouriez fought the allied army -at Jemappes, on the 6th of November, 1792. Kellerman had defeated -them at Valmy on the 20th of September; the allied troops -evacuated French territory, and the French army entered Belgium. -Savoy was already in the hands of the French troops, and General -Custine advanced into Germany. By its decree of the 19th of -November, the Convention declared, in the name of the French -nation, that they would grant succor and fraternity to every -people who desire to obtain liberty. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_364">{364}</a></span> -<p> -Before this supreme disregard of ancient rights and international -conventions, Mr. Pitt, still favorable to preserving neutrality, -was nevertheless alarmed at the threatened fate of Holland. He -wrote to his colleague, the Marquis of Stafford, that the strange -and unfortunate events which have succeeded each other so rapidly -upon the continent, give us ample material for serious -reflection. That which is most urgent is the situation of -Holland. However painful it may be to see this country engaged, -it seemed impossible to him, to hesitate upon the question of -sustaining our ally in case of necessity; and the explicit -declaration of our sentiments is the best way to avoid this -situation at present. Perhaps some opening would present itself -which would allow us to contribute to the termination of the war -between the different powers of Europe, by leaving France to -arrange her internal affairs as well as she could; which was, he -thought, the best plan. The trial of Louis XVI. had already -commenced. -</p><p> -Pitt yet clung to the hope of an impossible peace; already Lord -Gower, the English Ambassador at Paris, had been recalled; -Chauvelin and his clever secretary Talleyrand, were in London, -but not as yet in any official capacity. Chauvelin was about to -present his credentials in the name of the French Republic, when -the condemnation and death of Louis XVI. abruptly terminated the -relations which still existed between revolutionary France and -monarchical countries. -</p><p> -On the day following (January 21st, 1793), almost all England -went into mourning, and Chauvelin received his passports. An -order of recall had already been sent him from Paris. On the 1st -of February the Convention declared war against Holland. The -terrible burden of the defence of Europe against the advance of -the arms and doctrines of the French Revolution was to fall -principally upon England, and the sagacious minister who directed -her policy. The reverses which his country was to experience, and -the obstacles which she was to overcome, saddened the latter part -of the life of Mr. Pitt, and partly obscured his glory. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_365">{365}</a></span> -The principles which he advocated were nevertheless true and -eternal, and the services that he rendered to preserve the peace -and equilibrium of Europe were incomparable. He succumbed beneath -the weight of a struggle, the obstinacy of which was not foreseen -by Lord Chatham during his triumphs in 1760; by his courageous -persistence he prepared the way for the victories of Wellington. -His name, but recently reviled by so many tongues upon the -continent, and even in his own country, has remained the foremost -among those who have sustained the cause of independence and of -the liberty of nations in Europe. He has alone had the signal -honor to maintain England within the bounds of constitutional -order during the midst of revolutionary tempests, and the still -greater glory of leaving her free. -</p><p> -It was not without much effort and severe internal struggles, -that the English government succeeded in preserving order and -repressing the dangerous tendencies which manifested themselves -upon divers occasions. During many years past, societies -favorable to the principles of the French revolution, destined to -spread its doctrines and create sympathies for its enthusiasts, -had been formed. Two foreigners. Dr. Joseph Priestley, the chief -of the English Unitarians, and Thomas Paine, the celebrated -author of "The Rights of Man," had been elected members of the -National Convention. The latter had taken his seat there. The -license of the revolutionary press surpassed all bounds; the -declarations and anarchical appeals engendered conspiracies as -culpable as powerless. Mr. Pitt used severe measures to repress -these. He was urged on by the chancellor, Lord Loughborough, -himself a recent and zealous convert. The charges and trials -against the press were numerous, and were more violent in -Scotland than in England, where the revolutionary maneuvres were -less bold. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_366">{366}</a></span> -The trials of Muir, and of Palmer, in 1793, and that of Hamilton -Rowan in Ireland, in 1794, preceded that of Walker at Manchester, -in April, 1794, and of Thomas Hardy, of Daniel Adams, and of John -Horne-Tooke at London, in the month of May of the same year. The -accused were at the head of the two principal revolutionary -societies: "The Society for Constitutional Information" and "The -London Corresponding Society." Mr. Pitt proposed to Parliament -the suspension of the habeas corpus; in spite of the vigorous -opposition of Fox and Sheridan, the bill was passed by a large -majority. Public opinion was powerfully aroused against the -excesses and crimes which deluged France with blood. The -exaggerated fright which the intrigues of the English -revolutionists caused, increased the agitation, and in -consequence the rigors of the government were approved by public -opinion. In Parliament the Whigs were divided. The Duke of -Portland and his friends openly sustained the minister. -</p><p> -General Dumouriez had vainly endeavored to resist the power of -the Convention. He had formed culpable relations with the enemies -of France. Obliged to quit his army, he had taken refuge in -England at the moment when his friends the Girondins were -overthrown and destroyed by the Jacobins, in Paris. The Committee -of Public Safety reigned in France, and the Reign of Terror -extended its sombre veil throughout that unhappy country. The -allied forces took possession of Belgium; the French garrison at -Mayence had just surrendered, after a brave resistance; the -Austrians had seized Valenciennes and Condé, not in the name of -the young captive king, but as personal conquests of the Emperor -Francis. The national enthusiasm of France, violently excited by -these reverses, sent to the frontiers troops barely disciplined, -generals of various origin, servants of the ancient régime or new -geniuses which rose suddenly from the ranks, but all equally -animated by an ardent patriotism. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_367">{367}</a></span> -The Duke of York was repulsed before Dunkirk by General Hoche, as -the Prince of Orange at Hondschoote. The Prince of Coburg, whose -name is always found united with that of Pitt, in revolutionary -execrations, found himself constrained to raise the siege of -Maubeuge, and to recross the Sambre. In the interior, civil war -desolated Vendée; it ravished the city of Lyons. Toulon, held in -the name of Louis XVII., had called to its aid the English fleet -under Admiral Howe. The siege was eagerly pushed by the -republican troops. The artillery was commanded by a young -Corsican officer, who was soon to become General Bonaparte, and -ten years later the Emperor Napoleon. On the 18th of December, -1793, the redoubts were taken, and the allied forces were -compelled to put to sea. The English and Spanish vessels were -crowded with provincial royalists who fled the vengeance of their -compatriots. Toulon was delivered to fire and sword. -</p><p> -The National Convention voted, at the instigation of Barère, a -decree ordaining that henceforth no quarter should be given to -either English or Hanoverian soldiers. The Duke of York -immediately published an order of the day—dignified and noble: -"His Royal Highness foresees the indignation which will naturally -be aroused in the minds of the brave troops whom he addresses. He -desires to remind them that mercy to the vanquished is the -brightest gem in the soldier's character; and to exhort them not -to suffer their resentment to lead them to any precipitate act of -cruelty, which may sully the reputation they have acquired in the -world. The English and Hanoverian armies are not willing to -believe that the French nation, even in its present blindness, -can so far forget its military instincts as to pay the least -attention to a decree as injurious to the troops, as disgraceful -to those who voted it." -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_368">{368}</a></span> -The French army justified this noble confidence. "Kill our -prisoners!" said a sergeant, "no, no, not that! Send them all to -the Convention, that the representatives may shoot them if they -wish; the savages might also eat them, if they chose." Everywhere -in Flanders the success of the French arms was brilliant; -Brussels was retaken. Nevertheless Corsica revolted and was -annexed to Great Britain. -</p><p> -Admiral Howe, on the 1st of June, 1794, gained a great victory -over the French fleet off the harbor of Brest. The bloody fall of -Robespierre and his friends, raised, for a moment, pacific hopes -in Europe; but the "war spirit" of France was not yet appeased. -General Jourdan drove back the Austrians beyond the Rhine. -Pichegru threatened Holland. Mr. Pitt advised placing the entire -military force of that country under a single commander; this -position was offered to the Duke of Brunswick, who refused it. -Upon the entreaties of Mr. Pitt, and much to his regret, George -III. recalled the young and inexperienced Duke of York. Before -the end of January, 1795, Holland was entirely in the hands of -the French, who proclaimed the Republic. The stadtholder had fled -to England. -</p><p> -The disquietude and agitation were great. Upon the question of -war, Wilberforce and his friends had separated themselves from -the Cabinet. The general distress in Europe was extreme. The -public cry in London, as in Paris, was for Bread, Bread, Bread! -Riots took place in many localities; the windows of Mr. Pitt, in -Downing street, were broken, and the revolutionary intrigues -redoubled their ardor. The Society for Constitutional Information -raised its head, and claimed universal suffrage and annual -parliaments. Mr. Pitt was troubled; his gloomy forebodings, at -times, knew no bounds. "If I resign," said he, one day to Lord -Mornington, "in less than six months I will not have a head upon -my shoulders." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_369">{369}</a></span> -<p> -A congress assembled at Basle; the French Republic treated there -with Tuscany, Prussia, and Sweden. England secretly prepared a -descent upon the coast of Brittany, to second the royalist -uprisings of the French noblemen and peasants designated by the -name of <i>Chouans</i>. M. de Puisaye, who had negotiated this -measure with Mr. Pitt, had charge of the Emigré's. The English -fleet was successful at first. Lord Bridport captured two vessels -from Admiral Villaret-Joyeuse. The French refugees disembarked in -the Bay of Quiberon; but the command was divided, and the orders -contradictory. Disorder caused inaction. The arrival of the Count -d'Artois was anxiously awaited, but he did not appear. General -Hoche successfully attacked the little body of Emigré's. The -roughness of the sea rendered the succor of the English -ineffectual. The massacre was horrible. A certain number of -noblemen capitulated; the conditions of the surrender were not -respected; the prisoners were executed. The last military hope of -the royalists disappeared in this bloody and unfortunate -enterprise. The war of the Vendéeans and that of the Choans -terminated at the same time. -</p><p> -The Constitution of the third year of the republic had just been -proclaimed in France, and the Directory had been constituted. An -attempt of the ancient Jacobins had been crushed, on the 13th -Vendémaire (October 5th, 1795), by the prompt and energetic -intervention of General Bonaparte. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_370">{370}</a></span> -<p> -Mr. Pitt now began to show a desire for peace. The opening of -Parliament (October 29th, 1795), was signalized by unusual -violence. Seditious cries were heard in the streets during the -passage of the king; a window of the royal carriage was broken by -a stone. Severe measures, like the Treason and Sedition Bills, -were soon presented to the houses: all insults to the royal -person, and all seditious assemblages, became liable to the -gravest penalties. Notwithstanding the eloquent and persistent -opposition of Mr. Fox and his friends in the House of Commons, -and of Lord Lansdowne in the House of Lords, the two bills passed -by a large majority. In the presence of the national and popular -dangers, the minister remained master of parliament: his measures -for the relief of public misery were received with the same -eagerness, as his bold and courageous efforts for the protection -of the public morals and the public peace. -</p><p> -While these great and important events were transpiring, at home -and abroad, the Prince of Wales broke with Mrs. Fitzherbert, to -the great joy of the king and queen, who had always refused to -admit the legitimacy of the marriage. On the 8th of April, 1795, -he espoused the Princess Caroline of Brunswick; a sad and -dolorous union, the fatal consequences of which were not slow in -developing themselves. On the 7th of January, 1796, the Princess -Charlotte was born; some weeks later the prince left his wife, -who then established herself, with her child, in a house at -Blackheath. George III., justly wounded at the conduct of his -son, promptly sustained the cause of the princess. The -misunderstanding which had so long existed in the royal family -was still further increased by this unfortunate incident. -</p><p> -Some indirect overtures for peace were made by Mr. Wickham, the -English minister in Switzerland, to M. Barthélemy, who -represented France at Basle. The disposition which had dictated -them, excited the anger as well as the fears of the avowed -enemies of the French Revolution. Burke, old and disheartened, -published his last work: "Letters on a Regicide Peace." "The -simple desire to treat," said he, "displays an internal weakness. -For a people who have been great and proud, such a change of -national sentiment is more terrible than any revolution." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_371">{371}</a></span> -<p> -Burke directed his last philippic against the powerful and -pacific Pitt, as well as against Fox and the friends of the -French Revolution. He had, nevertheless, conceived for Mr. Pitt a -sincere admiration and a just gratitude. Since 1794, a pension of -£1200 had been assigned upon the Civil List for the use of Mr. -Burke and his family. In 1795, after his irremedial misfortune in -the loss of his son, the solicitude of the king and his minister -added a new pension of £2500 to the just tribute of the national -estimate of a worthy man and great orator. Burke then wrote to -Mr. Pitt that he had provided for the repose of a life that was -now nearly extinguished. He (Burke) had only to wish him all the -blessings that he might expect at the flower of his age, and in -the great position that he occupied, a position full of severe -labor, but having great glory as the reward of his efforts; he -had the prospect of a long and laborious career; all was -difficult and formidable, but he was called to this position, and -his talents would render him successful. He (Burke) hoped that by -the grace of God he would never doubt those talents, nor his -cause, nor his country. There was one thing that he prayed for, -that the minister—England's last hope—would not fall into that -great error from which there was no relief. He hoped that the -Divine Mercy would convince both him and the nation that this -war, in principle, and in all its bearings, was unlike any other -war; and he also hoped that Pitt would not believe that what was -called peace with these brigands of France, would be able, in the -name of any policy whatever, to reconcile itself with the -internal repose, the external peace, the power or the influence -of this kingdom; this, to him, was as evident as the sun at -mid-day; and this conviction had cost him, during the last five -years, in the midst of many other profound griefs, many hours of -anxiety, both night and day. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_372">{372}</a></span> -<p> -Influenced by the events which had taken place upon the -continent, Mr. Pitt had gradually been led to the adoption of -those very ideas, and that line of policy that Mr. Burke so much -deprecated. The confederation of the great powers was broken up -in 1795, by the Congress of Basle. On the 9th of February, 1795, -the grand Duke of Tuscany signed articles of peace at Paris. -Prussia consented to leave the French in undisturbed possession -of their conquest upon the left bank of the Rhine. Sweden and -Northern Germany acceded to the same conditions; the treaty of -peace, concluded at Basle, with Spain (July 22nd, 1795), became, -on the 19th of August, 1796, a compact of alliance. The King -Charles III., exclusively controlled by the Queen, Louisa of -Parma, and her favorite Manuel Godoy, Prince de la Paix, declared -war with England on the 6th of October. The Bourbons of Naples -joined Spain. The maritime attempts of England against distant -French colonies were successful. The Antilles fell into the hands -of Sir Ralph Abercromby and Col. John Moore. These victories gave -a new life to the hopes of a happy issue to the pacific -negotiations which Lord Malmsbury was about to undertake. At the -opening of Parliament, on the 6th of October, 1796, the address -from the throne announced the departure of the ambassador to -Paris. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_373">{373}</a></span> -<p> -Negotiations were begun. At the same time, the Directory made -great preparations for an invasion of England. Twenty times like -enterprises had been projected and attempted; twenty times they -miscarried or failed. Nevertheless, they still had the power of -arousing and alarming the English people. When Pitt proposed his -plans of defence, Fox had, as usual, recourse to an insulting -incredulity. "I do not believe," said he, "that the French have -the least intention of making a descent upon us. Their government -is too much under the control of the people, and the situation of -the country, to hope for any success from such an enterprise. -Supposing they make this desperate attempt, I have no fears for -the result; but, in the interval, what are we to do? What is for -the moment the duty of this house? To cultivate among the people -the spirit of liberty, to render to them that which their fathers -have acquired at the price of their blood; to render the -ministers seriously responsible; not to intrust ourselves to the -servants of the crown, but to maintain a vigilant jealousy over -the exercise of their power. Then you will have no need to -increase your military forces at home, for in that case, even an -invasion would not be formidable." -</p><p> -To these persistent hatreds and partisan animosities, public -opinion proclaimed a determined and serious opposition. "I do not -wish to accuse these gentlemen of desiring an invasion," said Mr. -Wilberforce, "but I cannot help believing that they would rejoice -to see their country suffer just enough to lead them into power." -</p><p> -When Pitt opened his great loan to public subscription, the sum -required, amounting to £18,000,000, was taken within fifteen -hours. When that figure was reached, the list was closed. Before -it was opened to the general public, the Dukes of Bedford and -Bridgewater subscribed, at sight, for £100,100. The method of -subscription was new, and the conditions of the loan were not -especially advantageous. The patriotic zeal of the nation -responded to the confident appeal of the government. We have -since seen a still greater example. The minister, Mr. Pitt, had -the courage to attempt it; he had at the same time the courage to -propose new taxes. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_374">{374}</a></span> -<p> -The devotion of Parliament was equal to any sacrifice. -Considerable subsidies were also voted for the Emperor of -Austria, notwithstanding the dissatisfaction that Mr. Pitt had -caused, by giving assistance to that monarch, in the interval of -the session, without the authority of the houses. Lord Malmesbury -was dissatisfied and uneasy; the Directory insisted upon the -annexation of the Low Countries to France; the refusal of England -was peremptory. On the 19th of December, 1796, Delacroix, the -Minister of Foreign Affairs, requested the English Ambassador to -quit Paris within forty-eight hours, with all his suite. The -French government admitted of no proposition which tended to -modify the limits of her territory, as they had been fixed by the -decrees of the Convention. "If the English minister truly desires -peace," added Delacroix, "France is ready to conclude it upon -this basis: an exchange of couriers is all that is necessary." -</p><p> -It was impossible for the king and his government to hesitate: -the documents relative to the negotiations were immediately -communicated to Parliament. "In fact," said Mr. Pitt to the House -of Commons, "the question is, not how much you will give for -peace, but how much disgrace you will suffer at the outset; how -much degradation you will submit to as a preliminary. Shall we -then persevere in a war, with a spirit and energy worthy of the -British name and character; or shall we, by sending couriers to -Paris, prostrate ourselves at the feet of a stubborn, -supercilious government?" -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/374.jpg" border=1><br> -Surrender To Nelson At Cape St. Vincent. -</p> -<br> -<br> - -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_375">{375}</a></span> -<p> -The war, more than ever burdensome and perilous, continued. The -Empress Catherine II. had just died of an attack of apoplexy; her -son, the Emperor Paul, feeble and impetuous, with a mind -uneven—tending to insanity, was ill disposed towards England. -The brilliant successes of General Bonaparte in Italy, had worn -out the energy of the Austrians; the French had invaded the -hereditary states of the Emperor, heroically defended by the -Archduke Charles. The preliminaries of peace, signed at Leoben, -on the 18th of April, 1797, were ratified at Campo Formio on the -17th of October, 1797. Henceforth, in this great struggle, -England found herself alone; she was confronted by the passionate -ardor and success of the young French Republic, as well as the -incomparable genius of her military chief. -</p><p> -The attempt of General Hoche upon Ireland, was a complete -failure; a severe storm scattered the fleet, destroyed some of -the vessels, and prevented any landing. On the 14th of February, -1797, near Cape St. Vincent, Sir John Jervis gained a signal -victory over the Spanish squadron, commanded by Don Joseph de -Cordova. Commodore Nelson and Captain Collingwood bore the brunt -of the conflict. "<i>Westminster Abbey or Victory</i>," cried -Nelson, as he boarded a Spanish ship of twenty-four guns. "He was -standing upon the bridge," wrote Collingwood, "receiving the -submission and the swords of the officers of the two ships that -he had captured. One of his sailors, named William Fearney, tied -the swords together as tranquilly as if they had been fagots, in -spite of the fact that they were within the range of the cannon -of the enemy's twenty-four ships of the line." -</p><p> -For a moment the maritime power of England seemed threatened by a -greater danger, from the failure of supplies, owing to financial -crises at home, than from any attacks of the enemy. The state of -the finances became each day more grave; orders were given to the -Bank of England to make no payment of more than twenty shillings, -in cash. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_376">{376}</a></span> -The substitution of paper money, for a limited time, was voted by -Parliament. Merchants and men of business courageously faced the -necessity; others, ordinarily accustomed to brave all dangers, -but for some time discontented and irritated, threatened the -country, at this time, with a fatal blow. In the middle of April, -1797, a military insurrection broke out on board the ships of -Lord Bridport, who commanded the channel fleet. The precautions -of the conspirators were so well taken, that the officers were -deposed, sent on shore, or guarded as hostages, without a drop of -blood being spilled. The sailors demanded an increase of pay, -equivalent to that which the army and militia had received. They -complained of the unjust distribution of prizes, and of the -harshness of certain officers. -</p><p> -The first demand had exaggerated nothing; it was not insolent, -either in fact or in form. Admirals Gardner, Colpoys and Pole, -were appointed to confer with delegates from the mutineers. They -refused to act without the sanction of Parliament. Admiral -Gardner, giving way to passion, seized, by the collar one of the -negotiators, and swore that he would hang them all. -</p><p> -Some days later the fire which was smouldering under the ashes, -broke forth anew; the officers were again deposed. As Admiral -Colpoys, who had remained with two ships at Portsmouth, had -refused to receive the delegates, the mutiny became more violent; -The <i>Marlborough</i> and The <i>London</i> got under way for -St. Helena, without orders. The intervention of the aged Lord -Howe, always popular among the sailors, was necessary to finally -suppress the revolt; and even then it was at the price of -concessions so important that the contagion soon spread to other -squadrons. A proclamation of the king, yielding in substance to -the demands of the sailors, was read on board of all the ships. -They returned to their duty, and the fleet at once set sail for -St. Helena. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_377">{377}</a></span> -<p> -At Sheerness, under the inspiration of Richard Parker, an -enlisted volunteer, intelligent, educated, ambitious, and -corrupt, the insurgent sailors concentrated their forces and -withdrew prudently from the coast; they sailed for the Nore. They -soon attacked the vessels which had remained faithful to the -king, among others the <i>San Fiorenzo</i>, a noble frigate, -which was intended to take the Princess Royal and her husband the -Duke of Wurtemburg to Germany. -</p><p> -A greater part of the fleet of Lord Duncan joined the mutiny, -thus abandoning the blockade of Holland. Two ships only remained -faithful to the admiral. He continued his signals, as if the main -part of his fleet was still in view; but his patriotism was -profoundly wounded. "It has often been my pride to look with you -into the Texel, and see a foe which dreaded coming out to meet -us; my pride is now humbled indeed," said he. -</p><p> -The government also trembled for the army, now a prey to a -fermentation that was augmented by seditious placards. -Indications of a revolt manifested themselves at Woolwich. -</p><p> -The mutinous ships raised the red flag—that terrible pirates' -signal; they blockaded the mouth of the Thames. The first Lord of -the Admiralty, Lord Spencer, failed in his attempts at -conciliation. Parliament passed two bills, inflicting the most -severe penalties against any attempt to excite a mutiny, and -interdicting all communication with the rebellious fleet. -England, in fact, exiled the sailors who had revolted against -her. This was a most serious blow to the mutineers. The sailors, -still faithful to their duty, made an appeal to their comrades. -The delegates, however, were hard and tyrannical. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_378">{378}</a></span> -On the 4th of June, the king's birthday, all but one of the -revolted ships hoisted the royal flag, and that one was the -<i>Sandwich</i>, on board of which was Richard Parker; he himself -sent to London new propositions. Lord Northesk, one of the -imprisoned captains, charged with this message, was received by -the king in person. Henceforward the monarch refused all -negotiations with his rebellious subjects, and exacted from them -submission without conditions. One by one, the crews cut their -cables, and took refuge under the batteries of Sheerness; the -ships of Lord Duncan sailed out to join them; only the delegates, -who held the <i>Sandwich</i>, still resisted. Their crew deserted -them, and Admiral Buchner sent a detachment to arrest Parker and -his accomplices. Some weeks later Parker was hung at the yard arm -of the Admiral's vessel, while the English sailors, repentant and -confused, swore they would make their faults forgotten by new -efforts of valor. -</p><p> -During this serious crisis, Mr. Fox and Lord Grey declared their -intention of taking no further part in parliamentary discussions, -as they could neither influence nor approve the policy of the -government. Burke had died on the 9th of July, 1797. As the -illustrious rivals of Pitt were withdrawn from the field, the -leadership of the opposition fell into younger hands; Sir Francis -Burdett and Mr. Tierney were among the first. Mr. Erskine, more -celebrated at the bar than in the house, also became prominent. -New negotiations with France were begun: "I believe it is my -duty," said Mr. Pitt, "both as English Minister and as a -Christian, to do all that I can to put an end to this bloody and -ruinous war." Lord Malmesbury was sent to Lisle to treat with the -French plenipotentiaries. The <i>coup d'état</i> of the 18th -Fructidor (September 4th, 1799), placed all power in the hands of -Barras and the Jacobins, who were hostile to all pacific -concessions. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_379">{379}</a></span> -Lord Malmesbury was dismissed. Some secret and venal propositions -of Barras miscarried. The war continued, but England was -uniformly successful at sea. On the 11th of October, a battle -took place at Camperdown, in view of the Texel, between Admiral -Duncan and the Dutch Admiral De Winter. The action was desperate, -but a brilliant victory remained to the English. The Dutch -Admiral was made prisoner. The evening after the battle he played -whist in the cabin of Admiral Duncan: he lost. "It is too much," -said Winter, throwing down his cards, "to be beaten twice the -same day, and by the same adversary." -</p><p> -On his return from St. Paul's, where a service of public -thanksgiving had been held, Mr. Pitt was hooted at by the -populace; and on his return to his home in the evening, he was -escorted by a squadron of the Horse Guards. -</p><p> -The affairs of Ireland had for a long time been the subject of -serious consideration on the part of Mr. Pitt. He had used every -possible means of conciliation; seeking to satisfy the Catholics -by the founding of the College of Maynooth, for the education of -the clergy, and at the same time loyally faithful to the liberal -principles which had constantly inspired his conduct, in regard -to that portion of the United Kingdom; but Ireland was the point -of attack of all the French and revolutionary invasions. The -Irish and democratic sentiments prevailed over their religious -principles. Secret societies, everywhere existing, only awaited -orders and assistance from France. The struggles which took place -in the Irish Parliament were transformed into conspiracies. Lord -Edward Fitzgerald, fifth son of the Duke of Leinster, put himself -at the head of the United Irishmen. Acts of violence broke out in -all sections. The Orangemen, as the Irish Protestants were -called, were animated by passions no less violent. The habeas -corpus was suspended. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_380">{380}</a></span> -<p> -Lord Camden, the Lord Lieutenant, ordered that all arms in the -hands of private persons should be immediately delivered up. In -reply to an address of Lord Moira, in the English Parliament, -Lord Clare, the Irish Chancellor, said that a revolutionary -government was completely organized, in opposition to the legal -power. "What," said he, "has been the result of all our -concessions during the past twenty years? The formation of -seditious associations, a system of violence, and midnight -robbery. Orders given by the Jacobin clubs of Dublin and Belfast -to raise regiments of national guards with French uniforms and -French tactics; the league of the United Irishmen; the -resolution, frankly avowed, of accepting no overtures from -Parliament; and the desire, scarcely dissimulated, of separation -from England." -</p><p> -A dangerous outbreak was imminent; many of the leaders were -arrested. Arthur O'Connor, with the Irish priest Coigley, on -their way to Paris to hasten the promised supplies, were of the -number. Lord Edward Fitzgerald was captured. He resisted, and was -so seriously wounded that he died shortly afterwards. -</p><p> -The most severe measures against the conspirators followed the -arrest of their chiefs. Stores of arms were found in many places, -and it was necessary to take them by force; this naturally led to -cruel reprisals. With the exception of Connaught, all Ireland was -roused, and shortly became the theatre of the most frightful -scenes of disorder, cruelty and desolation. The county of -Wexford, above all, was delivered over to pillage and flames. -Lord Cornwallis was appointed Lord Lieutenant, much against his -will. "It is my idea of torture," wrote he to one of his friends. -He nevertheless accepted the position. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_381">{381}</a></span> -Sagacious to employ, in turn, severity and clemency, he was -actively seconded by the Chancellor, Lord Clare, and young Lord -Castlereagh. The rebellion was crushed. A French invasion, under -the order of General Humbert, gained a momentary success, in -consequence of the weakness, or treachery, of the Irish militia; -it was soon repulsed, and the ships of the Republic were captured -by Commodore Warren. The famous Irish leader, Wolfe Tone, the -instigator of all the intrigues in France, was taken with arms in -his hands; and while in prison, committed suicide. Byrne, -Coigley, and many others were tried, convicted, and sentenced to -capital punishment; a certain number, however, were subsequently -pardoned. The alien bill, authorizing the government to interdict -English soil to foreigners, and the suspension of the habeas -corpus act, were accorded by Parliament without difficulty. -</p><p> -Pitt now prepared an important measure, that he had been -considering for many years. The growing disorders in Ireland -convinced him of the necessity of a legislative and parliamentary -union between the two countries. On the 31st of January, 1799, he -proposed his bill; already badly received by the Irish -Parliament. The royal prerogative for the creation of Irish peers -was not limited, as it became in the definitive bill. -</p><p> -By a clever rotation of elections in the boroughs, none of them -completely lost their franchise. The number of the Irish -representatives in the House of Commons was fixed at one hundred. -The speech of the prime minister was one of the most eloquent -ever made. Three times only, in the course of his life, did he -consent to revise his addresses; the speech on the union with -Ireland, was one that had that honor. In it he declared that -England was engaged in a struggle the most important and solemn -that had ever been seen in the history of the world; in a -struggle where Great Britain alone ought to resist resolutely and -with success, the common enemy of civilized society. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_382">{382}</a></span> -They saw, he said, the point upon which the enemy believed them -assailable; and should not prudence compel them to fortify that -vulnerable point, engaged, as they were, in the struggle of -liberty against despotism, of property against rapine and -pillage, of religion and order against impiety and anarchy? And, -on the other hand, if a country should be unable to defend itself -against the greatest of all dangers which might threaten its -peace and security, without the assistance of another nation, and -that nation should be a neighbor and an ally, if she spoke the -same language, if her laws, her customs, and her habits were the -same in principle; if the commerce of that nation was more -extended, and its means of acquiring and spreading abroad riches -were more numerous; if that nation possessed a government, whose -stability and admirable constitution excited more than ever the -admiration of Europe, while the country in question possessed -only an incomplete and imperfect imitation of that constitution; -what, in such a case, would be the conduct demanded by all -motives of equity, interest, and honor? "I ask you," said he, in -conclusion, "if this is not a faithful exposition of the motives -which ought to lead Ireland to desire union? I ask you, if Great -Britain is not precisely the nation to which a country in the -situation of Ireland, ought to desire to unite itself? Could a -union contracted under such circumstances, with a free consent, -and under equitable conditions, merit to be stigmatized as the -submission of Ireland to a foreign yoke?" -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/382.jpg" border=1><br> -The Battle Of Aboukir. -</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_383">{383}</a></span> -<p> -The bill passed in the English Parliament by a large majority; -but all the eloquence of its defenders, together with the clever -maneuvres of Lords Cornwallis and Castlereagh, were not able to -induce the Irish Parliament to pass similar resolutions, before -the opening of the year 1800. Henry Grattan, long absent from the -house, returned in order to oppose the union: "In all that he -advances, the minister does not discuss—he predicts," said the -Irish orator; "one cannot answer a prophet; all that one can do -is not to believe. That which he wishes to buy of you, cannot be -sold: it is liberty; in exchange he has nothing to offer you. All -that possesses any value you have obtained under a free -constitution; if you renounce it you are not only slaves, but -madmen." -</p><p> -On the 10th of February, 1800, the bill presented by Lord -Castlereagh and discussed with the most extreme violence, was -finally passed by both houses of the Irish Parliament. On the 2nd -of July it received the royal signature. Henceforth the union of -Ireland and England was definitive, and useful and efficacious -for both countries, notwithstanding the difficulties that it was -still to encounter, and the bitterness that it left behind. This -union was of the highest importance to the repose of Great -Britain. Foreign invasions now ceased. -</p><p> -The expedition of General Bonaparte into Egypt diverted his -attention from the projected invasion of England. It had led to -the great naval battle of <i>Aboukir</i> (August 1st, 1799), -where the French Admiral Brueys was killed and the English -Admiral Nelson was severely wounded. The French fleet, after a -heroic resistance, was conquered, and almost entirely destroyed. -Bonaparte found himself shut up in Egypt, while war became again -general in Europe. The Congress of Radstadt, intended to regulate -the relations of France with the Germanic States, had not been -successful, and was officially dissolved in August, 1799: a new -coalition against the French Republic was formed, and henceforth -England was supported by Austria, Russia, Naples, Portugal and -Turkey. Hostilities broke out simultaneously in Switzerland, -Italy, and Germany. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_384">{384}</a></span> -<p> -In this great struggle, sustained by France alone, against the -European world, England took, from the commencement, an active -and glorious part. An attempt upon Holland, under the direction -of the Duke of York and Sir Ralph Abercromby, was unsuccessful. -The finances and determined public opinion of Great Britain -everywhere sustained the courage of her allies. -</p><p> -Bonaparte landed at Fréjus, leaving in Egypt his army under the -command of General Kleber. Some days later he accomplished at -Paris the Revolution of the 18th Brumaire (November 9th, 1799); -the feeble government of the Directory was overturned, and -General Bonaparte seized the power in his triumphant hands, -inspiring in those rivals who were soon to become his -lieutenants, the same ardor which animated himself. Before the -end of the year the victories of Marengo (June 14th, 1800), of -Hochstett (June 19th), and Hohenlinden (Dec. 3), changed the -aspect of affairs. Conferences were opened at Luneville, between -France, the Empire of Austria and the Germanic Confederation. On -the 9th of February, 1801, peace was signed. The Rhine became the -frontier of republican France, and the Adige that of the -Cisalpine republic. At the same time the Emperor Paul I. was won -over by the French, and at his instigation the armed neutrality -against Great Britain was renewed by Russia, Sweden and Denmark. -Once again England found herself alone against France, now -governed by Bonaparte. -</p><p> -Almost immediately master of the situation in Paris, Bonaparte, -at the beginning of his power, personally made overtures of peace -to England, by a letter addressed directly to King George III. -The ministry would not recognize this unusual proceeding, and -Lord Grenville, the minister of Foreign Affairs, replied in the -name of the king, refusing to treat alone without the -co-operation of their allies. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_385">{385}</a></span> -<p> -When the question was brought before parliament, Mr. Pitt rose. -"I am," said he, "too sincere a friend of peace, to content -myself with possessing it only in name; I desire to follow that -course that promises to assure definitively to this country and -to Europe all its benefits. I am too sincere a friend of peace to -lose it by seizing the shadow when the substance is really within -my grasp: 'Cur igitur pacem nolo? quia infida est, quia -periculosa, quia esse non potest.'" The minister was all powerful -upon foreign questions in both houses. Notwithstanding the -weariness of the nation, national pride and the confidence in Mr. -Pitt inspired yet greater efforts. Never were the friends of the -ministry more encouraged. In vain did Mr. Fox re-appear in the -house, ardently and cleverly sustained by Lord Grey. "The proud -and monumental architecture" of his eloquence crushed by its -weight the powerful charm of his adversaries. In his hands -England resisted, with an audacious calmness, coalesced Europe. -So much power and so many victorious efforts were to fall before -a double question of conscience. Sincerely and honestly liberal, -Mr. Pitt was favorable to the political emancipation of the -Catholics, and he also held himself pledged to further their -cause, in consequence of the assistance they had given to his -measures for the union with Ireland. Perhaps he mistook the -resolution of the king regarding this question, and judged -incorrectly of the effect that a great moral agony would be able -to exercise over an intelligence as limited, and a soul as -sincerely conscientious as that of George III. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_386">{386}</a></span> -<p> -The project for the emancipation of the Catholics had during -several months been discussed, in the Council, without the -knowledge of the king; but political treachery or honest scruples -finally made it known to his Majesty. When Lord Castlereagh came -to London, in the month of January, 1801, desirous of assuring -himself that the intentions of Mr. Pitt remained the same, George -III. suddenly addressed Mr. Dundas, an intimate friend of Pitt's, -and who shared his opinions on this subject: "What!" he -exclaimed, in a loud voice, "what is <i>this</i>, that this young -lord has brought over which they are going to throw at my head? I -shall reckon any man my personal enemy who proposes any such -measure—the most Jacobinical thing I ever heard of!" -</p><p> -"You'll find," replied Dundas, "among those who are friendly to -that measure, some you never supposed your enemies." -</p><p> -The king was greatly troubled. He wrote to the speaker, Mr. -Addington, a friend of Pitt's, but still more a personal friend -of the sovereign: "I know we think alike on this great subject. I -wish that he would, front himself, open Mr. Pitt's eyes on the -danger arising from the agitating this improper question, which -may prevent his ever speaking to me on a subject on which I can -scarcely keep my temper." -</p><p> -George III. believed himself solemnly bound by his coronation -oath to refuse all liberal alterations of the Constitution, in -favor of the Dissenters as well as of the Catholics. When he was -questioned in regard to the abolition of the Test Act, he -consulted Lord Kenyon and Sir John Scott upon that subject. Both -were favorable to the maintenance of the measure; they -nevertheless replied that it might be abrogated or modified, -without violating his coronation oath or the act of union with -Scotland. Less sincere, and less convinced, Lord Loughborough, -with the complaisance of a courtier, and influenced by political -ambition, had given his opinion to the contrary. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_387">{387}</a></span> -His arguments strengthened the scruples of the king, who remained -obstinately faithful. To the objections, addressed to him, in -writing, by Mr. Pitt, he replied that he hoped the sentiment of -duty would prevent Mr. Pitt from quitting, while he lived, the -position which he occupied; he pledged himself to keep henceforth -an absolute silence upon the great question on which they -differed, on the condition that Mr. Pitt would absolutely refrain -from presenting it—he could do no more. -</p><p> -The conscience of the minister was more enlightened and more firm -than that of the monarch, and he also considered it engaged in -the question. Political promises and parliamentary embarrassments -prevailed in the mind of Pitt, over the grave danger of a -ministerial crisis in the midst of a terrible war, and in the -presence of financial difficulties, steadily increasing: he -persisted in his resolution to retire. On the 5th of February, -1801. King George III. accepted sadly the resignation of his -great minister. "I do not know how I could have acted otherwise," -said Mr. Pitt to his friend Rose. "I have nothing to reproach -myself for, unless it is not having sought sooner to reconcile -the king with the idea of the measure in favor of the Catholics, -or at least to persuade his Majesty not to take an active part in -the question." "He was evidently painfully affected," added Rose; -"tears were in his eyes, and he appeared much agitated." -</p><p> -In the presence of the pious and worthy scruples that troubled -the conscience of his sovereign, it was without doubt a noble -error on the part of Mr. Pitt to throw into the balance his own -scruples and praiseworthy engagements; a grave error, moreover, -and which was to greatly imperil England, to disturb anew a -tottering reason, and to retard, more than it served, the cause -of religious and political liberty for which Mr. Pitt had -sacrificed all. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_388">{388}</a></span> -<br> -<h2> - Chapter XXXVIII. -<br><br> - George III.<br> - Addington And Pitt.<br> - (1801-1806).</h2> -<br> -<p> -Mr. Pitt, on retiring, urged Mr. Addington to accept the control -of the government. "Addington," said he, "I see nothing but ruin, -if you hesitate." He at the same time urged his friends to retain -their places; he even consented to present the Budget which had -been prepared, and which was unanimously passed. His support of -the new cabinet was assured; nevertheless, Dundas, who had -followed his friend into retirement, wrote to him from Wimbledon, -on the 7th of February, at the time when Mr. Addington was still -endeavoring to form his ministry, that he did not know what the -speaker would attempt, but he was convinced that any -administration of which Addington was chief, could not fail to -break, up almost as soon as formed. The devoted friends of Mr. -Pitt, who had remained in office at his solicitation, saw this -with regret and chagrin; and among their mortifications was the -feeling that they had joined a ministry under a chief absolutely -incapable of directing them. This was the general sentiment. -Discouraged and sad, even before the cabinet was formed, the king -remained pre-occupied and deeply agitated. He read over his -coronation oath, and exclaimed: "Where is that power on earth to -absolve me from the due observance of every sentence of that -oath, particularly the one requiring me to maintain the -Protestant reformed religion? Was not my family seated on the -throne for that express purpose, and shall I be the first to -suffer it to be undermined, perhaps overturned? No! I had rather -beg my bread from door to door throughout Europe, than consent to -any such measure. If I violate it, I am no longer legal sovereign -of this country, but it falls to the House of Savoy." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_389">{389}</a></span> -<p> -So much emotion and foreboding anxiety, shattered the tottering -reason of the monarch; he had lost that faithful support, that -sure guide on whom he had relied for more than seventeen years -past. The conscience of the king was agitated and troubled. Upon -recovering from a swoon, the old king repeated this verse from -the Psalms: "Forty years long was I grieved with this generation, -and said, it is a people that do err in their hearts, for they -have not known my ways." He murmured afterwards, "I am better, I -am better now, but I will remain true to the Church." -</p><p> -The malady had declared itself, and public prayers were ordered. -The Prince of Wales sent for Mr. Pitt—still minister, in fact. -"I will not hesitate," said Mr. Pitt, "to give to your Highness -the best counsel that I am able; but with all the respect that I -owe you, there is one thing that I demand of you permission to -establish. It is this condition: that your Highness will -interdict yourself from deliberating with those who have agitated -so long in direct opposition to the government of his Majesty." -The prince consented; not, however, without some show of temper. -</p><p> -Fox had quitted his pleasant retreat at St. Ann's Hill. He -counselled the prince to accept the limited regency, that Mr. -Pitt intended to propose. Already steps had been taken to form a -Whig cabinet, when the rapid improvement of the king's health -gave the hope of avoiding yet, for a time, that dreaded regency. -On Friday, the 6th of March, George III. passed the day in the -apartments of the Queen. He charged his physician to inform Mr. -Pitt of it. "Tell him that I am now quite well, quite recovered -from my illness; but what has he not to answer for, who is the -cause of my having been ill at all." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_390">{390}</a></span> -<p> -The sentiments of loyalty and personal attachment for the old -king were profound in the reserved and proud soul of Mr. Pitt. -The reproach of the sovereign deeply affected him. "Say to his -Majesty," replied he to Dr. Willis, "that I have authorized you -to assure him, that during his reign, whether <i>in</i> or -<i>out</i> of office, I will never again agitate the question of -Catholic Emancipation." The king drew a deep sigh. "Now my mind -will be at ease," he exclaimed; and upon the queen's coming in, -he repeated the message, and made the same observation upon it. -</p><p> -A moment after the question of conscience was decided, Mr. Pitt -had some desire of yielding to the wishes of the king, and -returning to power. Mr. Addington turned a deaf ear to the -insinuations which were made to him upon the subject. Mr. Pitt -did not insist; he had seen the king and reconciled him to his -resignation. The Catholics, fully informed regarding all affairs, -rendered their homage to Mr. Pitt for his fidelity to his -engagements with them; they awaited their day. Pitt had just -established himself in a small furnished house in Park Place. -Poor, and without leisure to look after household matters, he was -overwhelmed with debts. He had refused the patriotic gifts, as -well as the liberalities of the king. He was now, however, -compelled to accept, with great regret, the offers of his -friends, and he borrowed from them the money necessary to pay his -creditors. He sold his small estate at Holwood, and now lived -very modestly. "Each day," writes Lord Stanhope, "when he came to -the House of Commons, he took his place at the right of the -speaker's chair, in the third row of benches, near one of the -iron columns. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_391">{391}</a></span> -Many years later I saw old members point out that place, in the -old house, with a sentiment of veneration." His friends remained -steadily faithful to him. They either followed him into -retirement, as Dundas and the young Canning—perhaps his favorite -disciple, assuredly the most celebrated; or they occupied, at his -request, posts of confidence. "I have taken the great seal, only -upon the advice and pressing solicitation of Mr. Pitt," said Lord -Eldon, "and I will only keep it as long as I shall be able to -live in perfect concord with him." -</p><p> -Wellington, at this time the Marquis of Wellesly and -Governor-General of India, wrote to the fallen minister, that he -counted sufficiently upon the testimony of his own heart, not to -doubt that Mr. Pitt had full confidence in his fidelity to his -cause, whatever the circumstances might be; when that cause -should cease to prevail in the councils of the nation, he would -hasten to free himself from the disgrace of office, in order to -join Mr. Pitt in the fortress which it should please him to -defend, wherever it might be. His political relations with Mr. -Pitt, confirmed by so many ties of friendship, and by intimate -testimonies of affection and private consideration, were not only -the pride, but also the joy of his life; and that he could not -support the idea of seeing Mr. Pitt other than the guide of his -political conduct, the guardian of all that is dear and precious -in the constitution and in the country; and the first object of -his esteem, respect, and personal attachment. -</p><p> -That noble statesman, who had inspired such emotional and -faithful respect in so many eminent men, was not insensible to -the evidences of esteem and attachment lavished upon him; and, -upon the other hand, the failure of many expectations, the forced -abandonment of many cherished projects, caused him heartfelt -regrets which he did not endeavor to conceal. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_392">{392}</a></span> -The cabinet of Mr. Addington was being made up. Lord Grey -attacked the conduct of the last government. Mr. Pitt arose, and -avowed frankly the regret that he felt in quitting the power -before concluding peace. He did not pretend, he said, to that -indifference to the opinions of others, that certain persons -affect; he was not indifferent to the situation of his country. -He was not indifferent to the opinion that the public might have -concerning the part, the too great part, that he had taken in it. -He avowed, on the contrary, that those questions occupied him -much. Events had happened which had deceived his most cherished -desires, and baffled the favorite expectations of his heart. He -would have desired to pursue, even to the end of the struggle, -the object of these expectations and desires for the success of -which he had labored with so much care and anxiety. He had not -recoiled before obstacles. He had lived during the past seventeen -years with very little effect, if it was necessary now to explain -that he had not quitted his post because he feared the -difficulties; he had always acted—good or evil; it did not -pertain to him to decide which, but assuredly as a man who had -not the air of fearing difficulties. He was able to say at least -this: if he could efface from the record these seventeen years, -and speak only of that which has taken place during the past two -months, he would dare to affirm, that enough facts have been -presented, in that interval, to efface the idea that he was -disposed to recoil before any difficulty whatsoever, or that he -desired to clear himself from any responsibility. That which had -happened since that epoch, had given him the opportunity to -prove, very positively, that he was ready to accept all the -responsibility that the situation might be able to thrust upon -him. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_393">{393}</a></span> -<p> -Even in his retirement, Pitt never avoided a responsibility, but -was always ready to accept the weight of his past acts, and of -his present counsels. An expedition, that he had planned, had -just entered the Baltic. Sir Hyde Parker, who commanded it, had -been appointed commander-in-chief. He was old and feeble; the -dangers of the expedition affected his courage; the weather was -bad. "We must brace up," said Nelson, second in command, to -Parker; "these are no times for nervous systems." -</p><p> -On the 2nd of April, 1801, a decisive naval battle was fought. -Nelson attacked the batteries and the enemy's squadron before -Copenhagen. The old admiral, who had not taken an active part in -the battle, seeing Nelson in danger, ordered signal No. 39—the -signal for discontinuing the action, to be hoisted. The signal -lieutenant asked if he should repeat it. "No," replied Nelson, -"acknowledge it." He then continued walking about in great -emotion, and meeting Captain Foley, said: "What think you, Foley, -the admiral has hung out No. 39. You know I have only one eye; I -have a right to be blind sometimes." And then putting the glass -to his blind eye, he exclaimed, "I really don't see the signal. -Keep mine for closer battle still flying. That's the way I answer -such signals. <i>Nail mine to the mast.</i>" -</p><p> -The victory was glorious. On landing, three days later, Nelson -concluded an armistice with the crown Prince, by which Denmark -abandoned the alliance of armed neutrality and the confederation -against Great Britain. Some weeks later the Emperor Paul was -assassinated, and the coalition of the powers of the north -vanished. The first care of the new Russian Emperor was to -restore liberty to English sailors. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_394">{394}</a></span> -<p> -To the joy which the success before Copenhagen aroused, was added -the satisfaction inspired by the news from Egypt. Kleber was -assassinated, by a fanatic; on the 14th of June, 1800, General -Menou, who succeeded him, preserved the positions gained by the -victory of Heliopolis. At the beginning of the year 1801, and -during the ministerial crisis, a body of English troops landed in -Egypt; a desperate engagement took place near Aboukir. Sir Ralph -Abercromby was seriously wounded, and died some days later. The -French were hemmed in near Alexandria: Cairo was invested, and -General Belliard, who defended it, was obliged to surrender -before the end of June. The English received reinforcements from -India, and General Menou was obliged to capitulate on the 27th of -August. The French obtained all the honors of war, and were -permitted to withdraw, with their arms and baggage, -unconditionally, and were to be transported free, to their own -coasts. -</p><p> -At London, negotiations were in progress. Mr. Pitt took an active -part in them. Lord Hawksbury, who had charge of them, was one of -his most intimate friends. On the 1st of October, 1801, Mr. Pitt -personally announced the signature of preliminaries to Mr. Long, -but recently a member of his cabinet: "I have only a moment to -say to you, that the die is cast, and that the preliminaries have -been signed. The conditions, without being precisely and in all -respects, as one might desire, are certainly very honorable; and -taken all in all, very advantageous. I do not expect that our -friends will be entirely satisfied, but the great mass of the -public will be, I believe, extremely satisfied, and I regard the -event as very fortunate for the government and the country." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_395">{395}</a></span> -<p> -On the 25th of March, 1802, peace was signed at Amiens, between -France, England and Spain. All the colonial conquests were -restored to France and Holland, with the exception of the Island -of Trinidad and the Dutch possessions in Ceylon. Malta was given -back to its Knight Templars, and Egypt to the Sublime Porte. The -French evacuated the kingdom of Naples and the States of the -Church. "It is a peace," said Sir Philip Francis, "which -everybody is glad of, though nobody is proud of." The outbursts -of popular enthusiasm forced the opposition to accept the peace -without a contest. Fox alone was partisan enough to boldly -rejoice over the brilliant successes of France. "Some persons -complain that we have not attained the end of the war," said he; -"assuredly we have not attained it, but this fact only pleases me -better than the peace itself." In a letter to Lord Grey, who had -reproached him for his imprudence, he wrote: "For the truth is, I -am gone something further in hate to the English government than -perhaps you and the rest of my friends are, and certainly further -than can with prudence be avowed. For the triumph of the French -government over the English, does, in fact, afford me a degree of -pleasure which it is very difficult to disguise." -</p><p> -The peace which had but just been concluded was already -tottering. Bonaparte's ambition for conquest, encouraged by the -weariness of Europe, increased each day the pretensions of the -French government. English travellers crowded to the continent, -curious to visit that new France, so long closed to them. Fox was -in Paris, and often saw the First Consul, for whom he had -conceived the liveliest admiration. Bonaparte one day conducted -his illustrious visitor to the Louvre; both stopped in front of a -large globe. The General, putting his finger upon the spot -occupied by England, sneeringly remarked: "See what a little -place you occupy in the world."—Fox's English pride was -awakened: "Yes," said he, approaching the globe and attempting to -encircle it in his extended arms: "England is a small island, but -with her power she girdles the world." The First Consul did not -continue the conversation. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_396">{396}</a></span> -<p> -Some dissatisfaction had arisen between Pitt and Addington: the -protégé had many times failed to defend his protector when -violently attacked in the Houses; the counsels asked and given, -were not always followed. Efforts had been made, more than once, -to restore Pitt to power, but he felt that he could neither -direct nor overthrow the cabinet that he had so long sustained, -and for some time past he had absented himself from the House of -Commons. "I am more and more persuaded," wrote he to his friend -Mr. Rose, "after all that I see of affairs and of parties, that -the role that I would play at present, if I were in town, would -do more harm than good; it is therefore better, upon all -accounts, that I remain, for the present, in the country." Pitt -prolonged his stay at Walmer Castle some three months -(February-May, 1803). -</p><p> -The general state of affairs was in fact disquieting and serious, -and the execution of the treaty of Amiens seemed doubtful. New -revolutionary movements agitated Holland; the Cis-alpine republic -was recognized, under French influence. The mediation of -Bonaparte in the affairs of Switzerland, assured to him a weighty -and firm ascendancy. Piedmont was annexed to the French republic. -An expedition of Col. Sebastiani into Egypt disturbed the -English. The cabinets in London and in Paris exchanged complaints -and recriminations regarding the delays in consummating the -treaty. "We claim the treaty of Amiens, all of the treaty of -Amiens, and nothing but the treaty of Amiens," said the French. -England still retained Malta, under the pretext that the Knights -had not yet re-established themselves there, and that Malta was -for them the only guarantee of good faith on the part of the -French. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_397">{397}</a></span> -General Bonaparte made complaints regarding this subject, to Lord -Whitworth, the English Ambassador at Paris. "I would rather see -you in possession of the Heights of Montmartre, than of Malta," -said the First Consul. He subsequently complained of the libels -which were circulated against him in England, and of the delays -in the trial of Peltin, the French pamphleteer and refugee. At -the same time the consul himself wounded the legitimate pride of -England by the arrogant language of his message to the Corps -Legislatif. "The government declares with just pride that Great -Britain cannot contend alone against France." -</p><p> -Considerable armaments were in progress at various points on the -French coast, provoking similar measures on the part of the -British government. A message from the king to Parliament -announced the same. -</p><p> -The anger of the First Consul regarding these events was natural -and insolent, as well as premeditated. Lord Whitworth assisted at -a court reception at the Tuilleries. Bonaparte advanced quickly -towards him. "So you are determined to go to war," said he, -roughly. "No," calmly replied the noble ambassador, "we are too -sensible of the advantages of peace—we have already fought for -fifteen years." After waiting a moment for a reply he continued, -"And that is quite enough."—"But you will have to fight for -fifteen years longer," replied Bonaparte; "you force me to it." -He insisted upon the infractions of the treaty of which he had -accused England. Turning abruptly, and intimidating, by his angry -frown, the members of the diplomatic corps, already disquieted -and troubled, he exclaimed: "Woe to those who do not respect -treaties." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_398">{398}</a></span> -<p> -In the presence of this menacing attitude of France, and the -alarmed state of Europe, England regarded with regret the loss of -Pitt, and felt an ardent desire for his return to power. "It is a -strange and sad fact," said Sir Philip Francis, in Parliament, -"that at such a moment as this, all the eminent men of England -are excluded from the councils and from the government of the -country. When the sky is clear, an ordinary amount of ability is -sufficient; but for the storm which is arising we need other -pilots. If the vessel founders we shall all perish with her." -</p><p> -Addington felt this as well as the public. He made propositions -to Pitt, through Mr. Dundas, recently become Lord Melville. This -gentleman at first believed that he could induce Mr. Pitt to -consent to a division of the power, but he was soon convinced of -his mistake. "Really," said Pitt, with ironical disdain, "I had -not the curiosity to ask what I was to be." Addington was both -sincere and disquieted. He went further, and proposed to renounce -his functions as Prime Minister. Some of the friends of Pitt -urged him to accept, but the haughtiness of Lord Grenville, which -had more than once badly served the minister when in power, now -interfered with the negotiations. -</p><p> -Pitt refused the concessions that Addington demanded, and on the -other hand, Addington would not consent to the admission of Lord -Grenville and Mr. Wyndham to the new cabinet. The negotiations -were broken off, to the grave displeasure of the king, who had -been but imperfectly and tardily informed of the situation. "It -is a foolish business, from one end to the other," said George -III. to Lord Pelham; "it was begun ill, conducted ill, and -terminated ill."—"Both parties were in the wrong," said the Duke -of York to Lord Malmesbury; "so ill managed has been the recent -negotiation, as to put Mr. Pitt's return to office, though more -necessary than ever, at a greater distance than ever." -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/398.jpg" border=1><br> -"See What A Little Place You Occupy In The World." -</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_399">{399}</a></span> -<p> -The renewal of hostilities became imminent. The First Consul -rejected the ultimatum of England; the declaration of war could -not be deferred. The English ministers had committed some faults -of detail in the negotiations, but already the dangers of a proud -and insatiable ambition began to dawn. The repose and -independence of Europe would be compromised if Bonaparte became, -without resistance, master of the military and political -situation. On the 18th of May, 1803, war was officially declared. -Some days later, all English subjects travelling in France were -violently seized and thrown into prisons, and were retained there -until peace was declared. -</p><p> -Mr. Pitt left Walmer Castle, and re-appeared in the House of -Commons. Although sad and melancholy at the recent loss of his -mother, who died on the 3rd of April, 1803, he was, nevertheless, -animated by an ardent patriotism, and decided to defend the -declaration of war. When he arose to speak, the whole House -cried—"Mr. Pitt! Mr. Pitt!" and the applause drowned the first -accents of his voice. Fox himself was loud in praise of the -brilliant success of his great rival, who had just re-appeared -upon the scene. "It was a speech," he told the House, "which, if -Demosthenes had been present, he must have admired, and might -have envied." -</p><p> -Pitt ardently approved of the war measures. He sustained, -nevertheless, against the advice of the government, a proposition -from Fox, tending to accept the mediation of Russia. "Whether we -are in peace or in war," said he, "whether we desire to give -force to our arms or security to our repose, whether we wish to -prevent war by negotiations, or to re-establish peace after the -war shall have broken out, it is the duty of the ministers of -this country to profit by the good offices of the powers with -whom it is to our interest to become allied." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_400">{400}</a></span> -<p> -War became inevitable. The mediation of Russia was useless and -ineffectual; no one abroad realized the energy or sagacity of the -English cabinet. "If that ministry lasts, Great Britain will not -last," said Count Woronzow, the Russian Ambassador in England. -Parliament rejected the resolutions of censure, indirectly -sustained by Mr. Pitt; nevertheless the support of the great -orator was necessary to the cabinet in order to carry its -financial measures, and Mr. Addington accepted without resistance -the modifications demanded by Mr. Pitt. -</p><p> -The First Consul had eagerly renewed his former project of a -descent upon England. He established at Boulogne a camp and -workshops for naval service; he personally superintended the -same, inspecting the works and animating the men by his -inexhaustible ardor. Thousands of flat-bottomed boats were to -transport to England a hundred thousand soldiers, veterans of the -great revolutionary struggles. -</p><p> -Bonaparte exacted from Spain a monthly tribute; he disposed of -the resources of the Cisalpine Republic as well as those of -Holland and Belgium. "By the end of autumn," he said, "I will -march upon London." -</p><p> -Patriotic enthusiasm in England responded to the gravity of the -peril. Thiers writes that "a shudder of terror ran through all -classes of English society." The alarm, however, did not arrest -the zeal. Three hundred thousand volunteers enrolled themselves -at once. As lord warden of the Cinque Ports, Mr. Pitt powerfully -contributed to the activity of preparation. He personally took -command of a brigade, which occupied the most exposed position -upon the coast. His health, always tottering, was at this time -seriously influenced by so much fatigue. His niece, Lady Hester -Stanhope, had charge of his house; she was young and beautiful, -but capricious; without family or fortune. She was received by -her uncle, towards whom she always manifested a sincere devotion. -After his death, she was unable to content herself in England. -She established herself in the East, where she long led the life -of a queen of the desert. Strange destiny, and very contrary to -the regular habits of the mind and life of Mr. Pitt. With the -exception of a single journey to France, he had never quitted -England. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_401">{401}</a></span> -<p> -At the opening of Parliament, on the 22nd of November, Pitt -censured some of the measures adopted by the government for the -national defence, but he refused to join in the systematic attack -that Lord Grenville had prepared, and for which he had allied -himself with Mr. Fox. "In all simple and clear questions," said -he, "I have decided to sustain the government; if it should omit -anything that I believed the state of the country required, or -when it shall show feebleness or want of efficiency, I will -boldly announce my views; but even then not in a spirit of -opposition, for I will only speak after being assured that the -government persists in what I disapprove, and does not consent to -what I believe necessary." -</p><p> -The king at this time passed through another crisis of his -malady. Successive checks had disturbed the ministry decidedly, -by the consent of all, unequal to the task before it. Mr. -Addington resolved to send in his resignation. The king accepted -it with regret; he felt himself, to a certain point, master of -the situation, while the power was in the hands of Mr. Addington, -and he often spoke of him as: "My Chancellor of the Exchequer." -He was nevertheless compelled to consult Mr. Pitt immediately, -concerning the formation of a cabinet. The sovereign was -convalescent. Mr. Pitt, who had for some time been in -correspondence with the Chancellor, Lord Eldon, proposed at once -an alliance with Fox. "My opinion is founded," wrote he, "upon -the profound conviction that the critical state of our country, -at this moment, joined to that of Europe in general, and of -political parties abroad, render it more essential, than at any -other epoch, to give to the government of his Majesty the -greatest possible energy and force, by seeking to unite in his -service the talents and influences accounted eminent, without -exception, from parties of all names, without care for divisions -or past differences." -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_402">{402}</a></span> -The refusal of the king was peremptory. He sent for Mr. Pitt. -"Your Majesty is looking much better than after your former -illness," said he, upon entering.—"It is not to be wondered at," -cordially replied George III. "I was then on the point of -<i>parting</i> with an old friend, and I am now about to -<i>regain</i> one." -</p><p> -Fox manifested neither astonishment nor anger upon learning of -his exclusion by the king. "I am too old to care for office," -said he to Lord Grenville Leveson; "but I have many friends who -have been my followers for years. I shall counsel them to unite -themselves to the government, and I hope that Mr. Pitt will be -able to find places for them." Obstinately faithful to their -chief, the friends of Fox refused all proposals of the minister. -Lord Grenville, piqued at not having succeeded in his efforts at -coalition, declared that he would take no part in the cabinet. -The long friendship which had united him to Mr. Pitt, and their -family ties, rendered this refusal doubly painful, and deeply -wounded the minister. "I will teach that proud man," said Pitt, -"that in the service of, and with the confidence of the -sovereign, I can do without him;" but he added, with a sad -presentiment, "even though the effort may cost me my life." -</p><p> -Lord Harrowby replaced Lord Grenville as Minister of Foreign -Affairs. The new cabinet was strengthened by the admission of Mr. -Canning and Lord Castlereagh. The opposition was stronger than -ever, but the state of affairs on the continent had changed. The -execution of the Duke d'Enghien had irritated and exasperated the -most decided partisans of the First Consul. He had also taken -from his admirers all right of regarding him as the protector of -liberty in Europe. On the 16th of May, 1804, General Bonaparte -was proclaimed Emperor of the French, under the title of Napoleon -I. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_403">{403}</a></span> -<p> -The secret discontent of the sovereigns of Europe lent some moral -support to the resistance of England. Mr. Pitt did not, however, -trust himself to this movement of public opinion. Notwithstanding -the opposition of his adversaries, among whom Mr. Addington had -ranged himself, he demanded an increase of the regular forces. -The Emperor Napoleon was now ready to consummate his great -project of landing in England. He had confided its direction to -Admiral La Touche-Treville. "If we are masters of the Channel for -six hours," said he, in a secret letter, "we will be masters of -the world." Some days later. La Touche-Treville died, and the -great plan of Napoleon, thus baffled by a hand more powerful than -his own, terminated in a few insignificant combats between -English and French sailors. The Emperor had departed for Paris, -where he was crowned on the 2nd of December, 1804. Pope Pius VII. -had come from Rome for the purpose of crowning the new -Charlemagne. In the notes of Mr. Pitt, upon the means of defence -and attack that England then had at her disposal, we find this -passage regarding the Emperor Napoleon, inspired by patriotic -bitterness, natural and pardonable, but which alters, in some -measure, that equity of judgment which the great minister always -preserved at home, even regarding his most violent adversaries: -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_404">{404}</a></span> -<p class="cite"> - "Napoleon.—I see various and contrary qualities, all the great - and little passions fatal to public tranquillity, united in the - bosom of a single man, and unfortunately of a man whose - personal caprice is unable to change for a single hour without - influencing the destinies of Europe. I see internal indications - of fear struggling against pride in a mind, ardent, bold, and - tumultuous. I see all the gloomy mistrust of a consecrated - usurpation which is feared, detested and obeyed; the madness - and intoxication of a marvellous but unmerited success; - arrogance, presumption, the obstinacy of an unlimited and - idolatrous power; and that which is more to be feared in the - plenitude of authority, the incessant and indefatigable - activity of a culpable but unsatiated ambition." -</p><p> -The Emperor Napoleon judged more liberally of his implacable -adversary. When, during the Hundred Days, he accorded to France a -parliamentary constitution, he said to his ministers: "We do not -know how Parliaments are conducted. M. Fouché believes that by -bribing some old corrupt members, and by flattering a few young -enthusiasts, assemblies are ruled. He is mistaken; that is -intrigue, and intrigue does not lead far. In England, without -absolutely neglecting these means, they have others greater and -more serious. Recall Mr. Pitt, and behold to-day Lord -Castlereagh! By the same means Pitt directed the House of -Commons, and Lord Castlereagh controls it still to-day. Ah! if I -had such instruments, I would not fear; but have I anything like -it?" -</p><p> -The ministry lost the support of Lord Harrowby, who was ill from -a fall, and obliged to resign; but a reconciliation between Pitt -and Addington was brought about. The anger of certain of Pitt's -friends was very great. Canning spoke of quitting his office: "It -is a little hard upon us in finding fault with our making it up -again," said Mr. Pitt, "when we have been friends from our -childhood, and our fathers were so before us; while they say -nothing to Grenville for uniting with Fox, though they have been -fighting all their lives." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_405">{405}</a></span> -<p> -Addington passed into the House of Lords with the title of Lord -Sidmouth, and was sworn in as President of the Council. The Duke -of Portland, who exercised that function, remained in the cabinet -as minister, but without the portfolio. The new alliance, as well -as the growing sentiment of public confidence, had increased the -majority for the ministry. After a most animated debate between -Pitt, Fox and Sheridan, upon the subject of the war recently -declared by Spain, the conduct of the government was approved by -a majority of one hundred and forty. Mr. Pitt, however, did not -think it prudent to risk at the same time the question of the -abolition of the slave trade, to which he had constantly remained -faithful. Wilberforce persisted in presenting his motion. Pitt -and Fox gave him their support, but a majority of their adherents -abstained from voting. "I have never attempted anything during my -whole parliamentary career which has cost me so much trouble," -wrote Wilberforce, in his journal. -</p><p> -A bitter mortification awaited Mr. Pitt. As faithful in his -friendships as in his political engagements, he had remained -sincerely attached to Lord Melville, notwithstanding the coldness -which had arisen between them during the Addington ministry. Upon -returning to power, he had called his friend to the Ministry of -the Marine, of which he had recently been treasurer. Naval -construction had been much neglected by Lord St. Vincent. -Melville pushed it forward with much zeal. The order and -superintendence, however, were not equal to the activity. A -paymaster appointed by Lord Melville was convicted of having -appropriated public funds. Soon after his patron was accused of -being implicated in these malversations. It was impossible, he -said, to render an account of the sums which had passed through -his hands, and of which a part had been used for secret service. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_406">{406}</a></span> -<p> -Justly convinced of the honesty of Lord Melville, but equally -disturbed by his mismanagement and the bad intentions of the -opposition towards him, Pitt resolved to defend his colleague at -all hazards. Among his partisans, and even in the cabinet, the -dissatisfaction was profound, and opinions were much divided. -When it came to a vote, the independent members awaited the -decision of Mr. Wilberforce; he rose slowly, avoiding the glance -of Mr. Pitt, which still entreated him. "I am forced," said he, -"to vote for Mr. Whitbread's resolution of censure. I am -profoundly shocked at the guilty conduct of Lord Melville, and I -am unable to refuse to satisfy the moral sense of England." The -house was equally divided, and the speaker cast the deciding -vote. -</p><p> -Abbott, the speaker, much troubled, voted for the resolution. "I -sat wedged close to Pitt himself, the night we were left 216 to -216," writes Lord Fitzharris, son of Lord Malmesbury, "and the -speaker, Abbot, after looking as white as a sheet, and pausing -for ten minutes, gave the casting vote <i>against</i> us. Pitt -immediately put on the little cocked hat that he was in the habit -of wearing when dressed for the evening, and jammed it deeply -over his forehead; and <i>I distinctly saw the tears trickling -down his cheeks</i>. We had overheard one or two, such as Colonel -Wardle (of notorious memory), say, they would see how Billy -looked after it. A few young ardent followers of Pitt, with -myself, locked their arms together, and formed a circle, in which -he moved, I believe, unconsciously, out of the House; and neither -the Colonel nor his friends could approach him." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_407">{407}</a></span> -<p> -Lord Melville had tendered his resignation as First Lord of the -Admiralty. His enemies, however, were not satisfied, but demanded -the erasure of his name from the list of privy councillors. The -first impulse of Pitt was to haughtily refuse. Melville, as -generous and disinterested toward others as he was imprudent and -negligent in the administration of public affairs, as well as -with his personal fortune, interposed. The majority was -threatening. Melville prayed Pitt to yield to the storm. A sad -allusion to the grief of his family alone betrayed the bitterness -of his soul. "I will not conceal from you," wrote he, "that my -opinion in this matter is not entirely free from all personal -consideration. I hope that I have firmness enough to support all -the trouble that they may cause me; but you know me well enough -to comprehend how my domestic affections suffer from the grief -and constant agitation that these debates, mingled with so much -personal bitterness, naturally cause to those who are nearest to -me." -</p><p> -When Pitt announced to the House that he had already requested -the king to erase the name of Lord Melville from the list of -privy councillors; he added, with great emotion, "I confess, and -I am not ashamed to confess it, that whatever may be my deference -to the House of Commons, and however anxious I may be to accede -to their wishes, I certainly felt a deep and bitter <i>pang</i> -in being compelled to be the instrument of rendering still more -severe the punishment of the noble lord."—"As he uttered the -word <i>pang,</i>" says Lord Macaulay, "his lip quivered, his -voice shook, he paused, and his hearers thought that he was about -to burst into tears. He suppressed his emotion, however, and -proceeded with his usual majestic self-possession." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_408">{408}</a></span> -<p> -When Lord Melville appeared before the House of Lords, at that -bar of the illustrious accused, that the friendship of Pitt had -provided—in place of a criminal prosecution demanded by the -opposition—the great minister was no longer there to sustain him -by his faithful attachment and generous confidence. At the time -of the acquittal of Lord Melville, Mr. Pitt was dead (1806). -</p><p> -In the cabinet Lord Sidmouth showed much animosity towards -Melville. His enmity was increased by the nomination of his -successor, Sir Charles Middleton. For a moment the -dissatisfaction was calmed by the intervention of some mutual -friends; but finally terminated in the withdrawal of Lord -Sidmouth, and his faithful partisan Lord Buckinghamshire, from -the cabinet. The king had frankly declared to Mr. Pitt that "he -was much hurt by the virulence against Lord Melville, which is -unbecoming the character of Englishmen, who naturally, when a man -is fallen, are too noble to pursue their blows; besides," he -added, "if any disunion should manifest itself, he would -decidedly take the part of Mr. Pitt, having every reason to be -satisfied with his conduct since the first hour of his entrance -into his service." -</p><p> -When the old king, but lately insane, wrote these lines, he was -on the point of becoming blind. At the end of the session of -Parliament, July 12th, 1805, one of his eyes was already entirely -useless, and the other was growing weaker and weaker. At the same -time, to the profound grief of his friends and family, the health -of Mr. Pitt was visibly declining; and notwithstanding the -wonderful energy of his mind, it was no longer possible— -according to the striking expression of Lord Harrowby—to appear -before his adversaries "as a giant in repose." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_409">{409}</a></span> -<p> -The giant who governed France, and terrified Europe, however, -seemed to have no need of repose. Crowned at Milan on the 26th of -May, 1805, he had assumed there the title of King of Italy. This -name grated harshly on Austrian ears. The new sovereign had -annexed to France the republic of Genoa, and now began that -system of aggrandizement of his own family by ceding the -territory of Eliza Lucca, as an independent principality, to his -eldest sister. These acts of insolent domination served the -designs of Mr. Pitt, then ardently occupied in forming a new -coalition against absolute and revolutionary France. Russia, -Austria and Sweden, acceded to his propositions. Scarcely was the -European alliance concluded against him, when Napoleon arrived at -Boulogne, resolved to strike the coalition to the heart, by -attacking England. He was confident of the success of his -expedition. "The English do not know what is impending. Let -France be mistress of the passage for twelve hours, and England -has lived," said he. The plan of the emperor was to distract the -attention of the British government and scatter its fleets by -dispatching his own squadrons, some to the West Indies and others -to Spanish ports, then suddenly to return, and with all his -forces occupy the channel. Admiral Villeneuve, charged with the -supreme command, was sagacious and brave; nevertheless, sad and -discouraged in advance, by the weight of the responsibility. He -had cleared the Straits of Gibraltar when Nelson followed him. -From Spain to the Antilles, and from the Antilles to the Channel, -the two squadrons followed. -</p><p> -Villeneuve was ordered to break the blockade at Brest, to rally -the fleet of Admiral Gantheaume, and to open a passage towards -England. He hesitated, doubted, and disobeyed; and returned -towards Cadiz, where he expected to find the allies. Nelson, -apprised of this plan, started in pursuit. When Napoleon heard of -the disobedience of Villeneuve, he flew into a terrible passion. -He was at Boulogne, watching the horizon at all hours, for a -glimpse of the sails of his coming fleet. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_410">{410}</a></span> -Daru entered his cabinet one morning, and found Napoleon -intensely agitated, talking to himself, and unconscious of his -approach. Daru stood before him, silently awaiting orders. The -emperor, on recognizing him, addressed him as if he knew all. "Do -you know where Villeneuve is now?" cried he, vehemently. "He is -at Cadiz,—at Cadiz!" His fury burst forth, and he declared -himself betrayed. Some hours later, he conceived the plan of his -German campaign. At the end of September, he was upon the Rhine, -at the head of his troops, repulsing and driving back General -Mack and the Austrian army at Ulm. That place was strongly -fortified, and commanded the Danube; but the approaches were cut -off. Communication was impossible, and Mack, abandoned by certain -divisions of his army, was compelled to surrender -unconditionally. On the 20th of October, 1805, he evacuated the -city, and 30,000 men laid down their arms. -</p><p> -When this news reached London, carried by one of those vague -rumors which precede all couriers, Pitt refused to believe it. He -was ill and suffering, and the weight of public perils -overwhelmed, for the first time, that gigantic brain. He had made -new attempts to enlarge the basis of his ministry. The king was -at Weymouth; his minister went there to see him, and urge him to -consent to the admission of Mr. Fox into the cabinet. George III. -remained inflexible. The depression, which had seized Mr. Pitt, -insensibly communicated itself to his friends. "He came to me, -begging me to translate a Dutch newspaper which contained in -full, the capitulation of Ulm," writes Lord Malmesbury in his -Diaries. "I observed, but too clearly, the effect it had on him, -though he did his utmost to conceal it. This was the last time I -saw him. This visit left an indelible impression on my mind, as -his manner and look were not his own, and gave me, in spite of -myself, a foreboding of the loss with which we were threatened." -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/410.jpg" border=1><br> -Death of Nelson. -</p> -<br> -<br> - -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_411">{411}</a></span> -<p> -The light of a great joy was once more to cross the obscure -heaven of the last days of Mr. Pitt. The day following the -surrender at Ulm, the 21st of October, 1805, the English and -French fleets encountered each other before Trafalgar. Nelson and -Collingwood commanded the two lines of English vessels. -Villeneuve and Admiral Gravine had reunited thirty-three ships of -the line and seven frigates. After prodigies of valor on the part -of the French, the victory remained with the English. Standing -upon the deck of the Victory,—his flagship, Nelson signalled to -the entire fleet, those noble words, emblematic of austere -Brittanic virtue: -</p> -<p class="cite"> - "England Expects Every Man To Do His Duty." -</p><p> -Nelson wore all his decorations. "In honor I gained them, and in -honor I will die with them," said he. He was shot and fatally -wounded. He was carried below, where he died some three hours -later. A moment before breathing his last, he murmured: "Thank -God, I have done my duty." -</p><p> -The sublimest eulogy for such heroes is the public consternation -caused by their death. The victory of Trafalgar was hailed in -England with cries of joy and with tears. "Mr. Pitt observed to -me," writes Lord Fitzharris, "that he had been called up at -various hours in his eventful life by the arrival of news of -various hues; but that, whether good or bad, he could always lay -his head on his pillow, and sink into sound sleep. On this -occasion, however, the great event announced, brought with it so -much to weep over, as well as to rejoice at, that he could not -calm his thoughts, but at length got up, though it was three -o'clock in the morning." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_412">{412}</a></span> -<p> -England overwhelmed with honors and gifts the family of her hero. -She gave him the most magnificent obsequies, and placed in one of -the halls of the palace at Windsor, the mast against which he had -leaned and the ball which had struck him. National gratitude did -not stop at the illustrious hero fallen in the very summit of his -glory; it extended with the same generous ardor to the great -minister who alone opposed the irresistible invader of empires -and destroyer of European rights. -</p><p> -At the annual banquet of the city of London, on the 9th of March, -1805, after the crowd had detached the horses, in order to draw -his carriage, the Lord Mayor proposed the health of Mr. Pitt, as -already the savior of England, and soon to be the savior of -Europe. Sir Arthur Wellesley, already celebrated by his victories -in India, was present. Subsequently, under the title of the Duke -of Wellington, he was placed at the head of the armed European -coalition, and carried on the interrupted but henceforth -victorious work of Mr. Pitt. "The minister arose," related the -Duke in his old age, and waived the compliment, remarking: -"England is saved by her own efforts, and the rest of Europe will -be saved by her example." -</p><p> -The safety of Europe seemed more than ever distant and doubtful. -On the 2nd of December, 1805, the battle of Austerlitz struck the -last blow to the hopes of the allies in Germany. The peace of -Presburg, signed by Austria, on the 26th of December, abandoned -the Tyrol to the Elector of Bavaria, and Venice to the kingdom of -Italy. Russia soon gave up the struggle. The third European -coalition was destroyed. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_413">{413}</a></span> -<p> -Mr. Pitt was at Bath, seriously ill with an attack of gout, but -full of hope, in consequence of false news of a victory in -Moravia. When he learned of the battle at Austerlitz, the -bitterness of the contrast surpassed the measure of his physical -strength. He called for a map, and desired to be left alone. He -weighed sadly the future chances of his country. The malady -slowly exhausted his enfeebled body. He was taken back to his -country house at Putney, emaciated and exhausted; grown old in a -few days. A map of Europe hung upon the wall: pointing his finger -towards it, he said to his niece, Lady Hester Stanhope: "Roll up -that map—it will not be wanted these ten years." -</p><p> -For some time past, the native vigor of his mind had struggled -against feeble bodily health, as well as excessive fatigues; and -finally patriotic grief broke down the last rampart of his -declining strength. Each day he became feebler. His countenance -betrayed the intensity of his mental sufferings. "He has his -Austerlitz look," said Wilberforce. -</p><p> -In defeating the Austrians on the 2nd of December, Napoleon had -conquered a more formidable enemy than the Empire. Mr. Pitt had -only a few days to live. He preserved to the last moment, his -affectionate interest for his friends, and a serene pleasure in -their society. The Marquis of Wellesley had just returned from -India; he hastened to Putney. "I found him in his usual good -spirits," writes he, "and his understanding appeared to be as -vigorous and clear as ever. Amongst other topics, he told me, -with great kindness and feeling, that since he had seen me he had -been happy to become acquainted with my brother Arthur, of whom -he spoke in the warmest terms of commendation. He said,—'I never -met any military officer with whom it was so satisfactory to -converse. He states every difficulty before he undertakes any -service; but none after he has undertaken it.' Notwithstanding -Mr. Pitt's kindness and cheerfulness, I saw that the hand of -death was fixed upon him. This melancholy truth was not known nor -believed by either his friends or opponents. I informed Lord -Grenville that the death of Mr. Pitt was near, and he received -this sad intelligence with the greatest emotion and an agony of -tears; and he resolved immediately to suspend all hostilities in -Parliament." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_414">{414}</a></span> -<p> -Mr. Pitt fainted away before Lord Wellesley left the room. After -this he saw his friends only at rare intervals, and contrary to -the advice of his physicians. The Bishop of Lincoln, his former -preceptor, apprised him of his danger. "How long do you think I -have to live?" asked Pitt, turning toward his friend and -physician, Sir Walter Farquhar. Sir Walter answered that he was -unable to say; that possibly he might yet recover. An incredulous -smile passed over the face of the dying man. Then turning to the -Bishop, he said, "I fear, I have, like too many other men, -neglected prayer too much to allow me to hope that it can be very -efficacious now; but," rising in his bed as he spoke, and -clasping his hands with the utmost fervor and devotion, he added, -emphatically: "I throw myself <i>entirely</i> upon the mercy of -God, through the merits of Christ!" Some hours later he breathed -his last. -</p><p> -Pitt lived and died poor. Parliament paid his debts, which -amounted to £40,000; it provided for the support of his three -nieces and defrayed the expenses of his funeral. Great -consternation seized the entire nation upon hearing of his death. -Within three months England had lost both Nelson and Pitt, the -hero of heroes, and the great pilot of her political government. -In the presence of a growing peril and of an implacable enemy, by -the premature death of two men, England found herself weakened -and disarmed: she was not, however, to abandon all hope. Mr. Pitt -had said, with great modesty, that it did not appertain to any -single man to save Europe. Between the day of the death of the -great minister and the definitive conclusion of peace, there were -yet to be long years of resistance, as persevering and as -desperate as the aggression. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_415">{415}</a></span> -<br> - <h2>Chapter XXXIX. -<br><br> - George III. And The Emperor Napoleon.<br> - (1806-1810.)</h2> -<br> -<p> -Lord Grenville succeeded Pitt, as Prime Minister. His alliance -with Fox had brought forth fruits; the Cabinet now had the good -fortune to contain only eminent men: Fox, Grey, Windham, Lord -Sidmouth, Lord Henry Petty, second son of Lord Landsdowne, whose -title he was one day to wear, and whose renown he was to sustain. -Canning alone was excluded. -</p><p> -Fox had charge of foreign affairs. His physical strength already -failing, had nevertheless triumphed over the health of his great -rival. Years before, Lady Holland, in comparing the two in their -early youth, had said to her husband that she had seen at the -house of Lady Hester Pitt, the little William who was only eight -years old, but was the most extraordinary child that she had ever -seen: "he is so well educated," said she, "and has such good -manners, that he will be all his life a thorn in the flesh, for -Charles. Remember well what I say to you." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_416">{416}</a></span> -<p> -The thorn had fallen: after seventeen years of exclusion from -power, amidst the alternatives of passionate struggles and of -midly indolent discouragements, Fox seized the rudder in an hour -of dolorous and patriotic agony. His admiration for the Emperor -Napoleon, and the sympathy which he had constantly shown for -France, inclined him naturally towards peace. He immediately made -overtures; his envoys were moderate in their demands as in their -tendencies. A happy chance furnished the minister with the -opportunity of rendering a signal service to the emperor. An -adventurer had offered to assassinate the enemy of England. Mr. -Fox at once notified Talleyrand. However they might differ in -their methods, the emperor and his minister were equal adepts at -flattery. "Thank Mr. Fox," replied Napoleon, "and say to him, -whether the policy of his sovereign causes us to continue much -longer at war, or whether as speedy an end as the two nations can -desire, is put to a quarrel useless for humanity, I rejoice at -the new character which, from this proceeding, the war has -already taken, and which is an omen of what may be expected from -a cabinet, of the principles of which I am delighted to judge -from those of Mr. Fox, who is one of the men most fitted to feel, -in everything, what is excellent, what is truly great." -</p><p> -The conditions of peace proposed by England were moderate; for -the first time, those of France indicated seriously the desire -for peace. Only one stumbling-block hindered the success of the -negotiations: England would not treat without Russia. Napoleon -refused absolutely to admit Russia among the number of the -contracting powers. "The obstacle is for us, insurmountable," -wrote Fox to Talleyrand; "if the emperor could see, with the same -eye that I behold it, the true glory which he would have a right -to acquire, by a just and moderate peace, what happiness would -not result from it for France and for all Europe!" -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_417">{417}</a></span> -<p> -Nevertheless, negotiations continued. The emperor proposed to -George III. to restore Hanover, but recently assigned to Prussia, -and to cede to him, at the same time, the Hanseatic cities. He -had just taken possession of the kingdom of Naples, and placed -his brother Joseph upon the throne. He intended to join to it, -Sicily, still in the hands of the Bourbons, and under the -protection of the English. The Russian envoy, M. d'Oubril, who -had arrived at Paris, complicated the negotiations. The long -deferred hope of Fox began to fail. "The first wish of my heart," -said he to the House of Commons, "is peace; but such a peace only -as shall preserve our connections and influence on the continent, -and not abate one jot of the national honor. That peace only, and -no other." The pretensions of Napoleon were of a contrary nature. -The treaty concluded by M. d'Oubril, at Paris, was not confirmed -by the Emperor Alexander. Almost at the same moment, Prussia, -offended by the arrogance and premeditated insults of Napoleon, -officially declared war; too late, however, to be of any -effectual service to England. On the 13th of October, 1806, the -battle of Jena delivered that kingdom into the hands of the -Conqueror, who devastated it. Napoleon entered Berlin in triumph. -It was there that he signed his decree of a continental blockade, -interdicting throughout the whole extent of his dominions the -importation of English merchandise. -</p><p> -The French armies were everywhere charged to enforce this decree. -They began by the seizure of all English commodities in the port -of Hamburg. Some months before, the invaders had arbitrarily -arrested, at Nuremburg, a bookseller named Palm, accused of -having written a libel against the emperor and king. Judged and -condemned by a court-martial, the unfortunate man was shot on the -26th of August, 1806. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_418">{418}</a></span> -<p> -This flagrant violation of the rights of nations, as well as of -common justice, powerfully contributed to convince Mr. Fox of the -futility of his efforts to obtain for England and Europe a -durable peace. He rendered his name honorable, however, by -accomplishing finally the work which he had so long pursued in -concert with Mr. Pitt, and at the instigation of Wilberforce and -his Christian friends. A bill passed by the two Houses -interdicted the slave trade to English vessels from the 1st of -January, 1807. One of the bas-reliefs on the tomb of Fox, recalls -this noble remembrance of his life. "If God spares the health of -Fox, and his union with Grenville is preserved," said -Wilberforce, "the next year we may end our labors." The health of -Fox was failing. Before the battle of Jena came to break down the -last rampart which opposed the irresistible waves of French -conquest in Germany, Fox had died at Chiswick, September 13th, -1806. He had never admired the philosophy of the eighteenth -century, and the disorders of his life had not destroyed in his -soul certain noble aspirations towards a higher life. "Since God -exists, the spirit exists," said he; "why should not the soul -live in another life?" "I am happy;" said he to his wife, as -death approached. "I am full of confidence, I might say of -certainty." Born ten years earlier than his illustrious rival, he -had survived him only eight months. Pitt died at the age of -forty-seven, Fox was scarcely fifty-seven. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_419">{419}</a></span> -<p> -Exceedingly popular during the greater part of his life, and -admired even by those who did not share his opinions, Mr. Fox's -reputation has nevertheless declined, as the magic of his words -and the supreme influence of his eloquence have ceased to act -upon succeeding generations. History has judged him eminent in -parliament and master of political eloquence. An ardent and -sincere patriot when not blinded by the hatreds or the -enthusiasms of party, generous and charming in his private -relations and personal intercourse, mediocre in his views of -government; in turn feeble and violent, and imperfect as a -writer, notwithstanding his pronounced taste for letters and the -favor he showed toward literary men. His death deprived the -ministry of great prestige; it enfeebled it in Parliament, and -even in the eyes of Europe, long dazzled by the parliamentary -glory of the great orator. It modified neither the direction nor -the attitude of the government, already weak, in hands that were -incapable of struggling against the overwhelming success of the -Emperor Napoleon abroad, as well as against the attacks of its -adversaries, and the growing difficulties of the situation at -home. -</p><p> -Negotiations with France were broken off. Russia came to the -assistance of Prussia. Both reckoned upon subsidies from England. -The finances of that country were gravely embarrassed, and the -courageous expedients of Mr. Pitt, to fill the treasury, were -wanting. Canning forcibly attacked in parliament both the -parsimonious subsidies accorded to the allies, and the feeble -position assumed by the government, even after important -victories. Sir John Stuart had defeated at Maida, in Calabria, a -superior force of the enemy. Admiral Popham had retaken the Cape -of Good Hope. "He who adds to the glory of his country," said the -eloquent orator, "renders her a greater service than if he gained -for her vast possessions. Time and subsequent events do not alter -glory. The territory that England acquired in the glorious days -of Crecy and Poictiers has long since passed from us, but the -renown they added to the English name lives, and will ever remain -immortal." A fatal torpor had affected all military operations -since the death of Mr. Pitt. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_420">{420}</a></span> -<p> -"All the talents," united, were not sufficient to replace a chief -naturally called to govern men, either in Parliament, or at the -head of armies, in peace or in war. The cabinet tottered to its -very foundation; the question of Catholic emancipation struck the -final blow. The increase of the allowance accorded to the college -at Maynooth, had already excited great resistance. Lord Howick -proposed to substitute for the Test Act, an oath which would -permit Irish Catholics to enter the service either in the army or -navy. The opinions of the king had not changed. In the House of -Commons a considerable majority held the views of the king. -</p><p> -After the dissolution in the preceding year, the ministry made an -appeal to the electors, and were beaten. They were dismissed and -replaced by the Tories, who in their turn again appealed to the -country. The new Parliament, ardently conservative, united itself -with the friends and disciples of Mr. Pitt. Mr. Canning was -placed at the head of Foreign Affairs, Lord Castlereagh became -Minister of War, and the Duke of Portland First Lord of the -Treasury. Lord Eldon was Chancellor, and Lord Hawkesbury was made -Minister of the Interior. -</p><p> -Moderate in its political principles, and more pronounced in its -ecclesiastical and protestant convictions, the new cabinet was in -sympathy with the sovereign, and from the first Lord Harrowby -indicated to Parliament the confidence the king felt in the -counsellors that he had chosen. The maritime expeditions planned -by the Grenville ministry had not succeeded either in South -America or against Turkey. The victories of Eylan, of Dantzic, -and of Friedland, had just terminated in the peace of Tilsit, -concluded on the 7th and 9th of July, 1807, between France, -Russia and Prussia. England remained alone, delivered from the -prospect of invasion, but virtually isolated in consequence of -the continental blockade, confirmed by the articles sighed at -Tilset. The Emperor Alexander, young, ardent, and credulous, -allowed himself to be seduced by the flattering advances and -apparent generosity of Napoleon. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_421">{421}</a></span> -He engaged to serve as mediator between France and England, and -in case the latter refused to accept the conditions offered by -the French Emperor, Russia was to join her forces to those of -France, and immediately declare war against Great Britain. Louis -Bonaparte was recognized as king of Holland. The kingdom of -Westphalia, detached from the Prussian provinces, became the -appenage of Prince Jerome. -</p><p> -England meanwhile did not remain idle, but prepared herself to -strike an effective blow. Denmark had remained neutral, but was -believed, in London, to be hostile to British interests; her -feebleness, likewise, placed her at the mercy of her powerful -neighbors, Holland, France or Russia. Lord Cathcart and Sir -Arthur Wellesley were charged to prepare an expedition against -Copenhagen. Some negotiations preceded the armed demonstration. -The Crown Prince smiled bitterly at the offers of assistance from -Mr. Jackson, the English envoy: "You offer us your alliance," -said he; "we know what it is worth. A year ago, when your allies -waited in vain for your assistance, we learned to estimate at its -just value the friendship of England." -</p><p> -The British fleet appeared before Copenhagen on the 17th of -August, 1807. A proclamation invited the Danes to place -themselves under the protection of England. Neutrality was no -longer possible, and their arms were in danger of being turned -against their natural allies. The Danish government responded by -seizing the merchant vessels belonging to the English. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_422">{422}</a></span> -<p> -The bombardment of the capital began on the 2nd of September, -1807. All the advanced positions were occupied by the English -troops, and on the 7th a capitulation was signed. The entire -Danish navy fell into the hands of the English. It was the -purpose of one of the secret articles of the treaty of Tilsit to -place it at the service of Napoleon. The anger of the French was -great, and the news of commercial reprisals, decreed at London, -by order of the Council (November 11th, 1807), increased it. -France, and the countries subject to her, were declared in a -state of blockade, and all ships engaged in commerce with them, -were subject to the right of seizure. A new decree of Napoleon, -dated at Milan, the 17th of December, 1807, extended this -imprudent and violent measure to all the English possessions upon -the surface of the globe. The United States of America, the only -maritime power remaining neutral, had the embargo also laid on -her, and henceforward the commerce of the world was suddenly -destroyed or condemned to the perilous condition of piracy. All -rights and all interests were for a time disregarded. -</p><p> -It is sometimes the glory of a feeble and courageous people, to -accept tyranny for a time. Charles IV., King of Spain, had bowed -to the yoke of revolutionary and absolute France. The Spanish -nation, however, was weary of bearing the burdens and fighting -the battles of a foreign master, under the name of its legitimate -sovereign. On the 17th of March, 1808, a popular insurrection -dethroned the feeble monarch and his servile favorite, Godoy, as -they were preparing to flee to America. Prince Ferdinand, drawn -to the opposition by his hatred of the Prince of Peace (Godoy), -was proclaimed king, after the abdication of his father. The army -of General Junot already occupied Portugal, and Murat had -established himself at Burgos, as lieutenant of the emperor; he -marched upon Madrid, of which he soon became master, deceiving -and abusing, in turn, both the father and the son, the dethroned -sovereign and the new monarch. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_423">{423}</a></span> -General Savary came to second Murat in his diplomatic mission. -His address and his promises drew Ferdinand to Bayonne. The -emperor was already there. The Prince expected to be recognized -as King of Spain, but instead found himself a prisoner, carefully -guarded. The demands of Napoleon were peremptory: it was -necessary, he said, to be assured of the co-operation of Spain, -and in consequence he had decided to place upon the throne a -prince of his own blood. Ferdinand's renunciation of the throne -was the price of his liberty. He resisted. The intrigues of the -Prince of Peace, who had been delivered from prison by order of -Napoleon, brought to Bayonne the old King Charles IV. who -protested against his own abdication and the coronation of his -son; at the same time he ceded the crown of Spain and the Indies -to his faithful ally, the emperor of the French, to be disposed -of at his convenience, with the only conditions, that the same -monarch should not reign at one time at both Paris and Madrid, -and also that the Catholic religion should remain sovereign and -supreme in Spain. The compensations offered by Napoleon to the -princes that he had betrayed, were: the estates of Navarre and -Chambord, the use of the palace at Compiègne, a civil list, the -preservation of their personal treasures, and the society of the -Prince Talleyrand at Valencay. "That which I have done here, is -not politic from a certain point of view," said Napoleon himself, -"but necessity demands that I do not leave in my rear, so near -Paris, a dynasty hostile to me." -</p><p> -Riots and bloodshed took place at Madrid. A Spanish insurrection -resisted the authority of Murat, whom Charles IV. had designated -as his lieutenant. The Council of Spain hesitated, troubled by -the prospect of war, and ashamed to proclaim the overthrow of the -House of Bourbon. On the 6th of June, nevertheless, Joseph -Bonaparte was declared King of Spain, to the great discontent of -Murat, who had counted upon receiving the kingdom which he had -secured for Napoleon. The crown of Naples was soon to soften his -regrets, without, however, removing all bitterness. On the 20th -of July, the new sovereign entered Madrid. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_424">{424}</a></span> -<p> -A national Junta organized itself at Seville, renewing the oath -of allegiance to Ferdinand VII. General Castanos, who commanded -an army of 20,000 men in Andalusia, announced his resolution of -remaining faithful to the exiled dynasty. He entered into -negotiations with Sir Hugh Dalrymple, the English Governor of -Gibraltar, and a subscription from English merchants furnished -the first funds necessary. A tardy dispatch from Lord Castlereagh -announced a succor of ten thousand English troops. Lord -Collingwood took the command of the fleet that was to proceed to -Cadiz. Some days after the proclamation of Joseph Bonaparte, even -before he had placed a foot upon Spanish soil, the peninsula -became the theatre of a war which was to become as sanguinary as -desperate. Ninety-two thousand Spaniards, of whom one-third were -militia, sustained the rights of the House of Bourbon, and the -national independence. A French army of eighty thousand soldiers -overran the kingdom. Junot occupied Portugal with thirty thousand -men. At Bayonne, Druot, with a reserve of twenty thousand troops, -was ready to march. On the 14th of June, 1808, the first serious -engagement took place near Valladolid, between Marshal Bessières -and the old General Cuesta. The Spaniards were defeated. The same -day they avenged themselves at Cadiz, by seizing the French fleet -in that port. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_425">{425}</a></span> -<p> -On the 19th of July, General Dumont, blockaded in Andalusia by -the Spanish forces, was defeated at Baylen. On the 22nd he signed -a disastrous capitulation, in the hope of saving his troops, who -were to be sent back to France. The Spaniards, however, -unscrupulously violated the conditions and retained the army as -prisoners. The universal joy and the national hopes were excited, -and alarmed Joseph Bonaparte, who hastened to leave Madrid. The -siege of Saragossa was raised. -</p><p> -Notwithstanding the presence of Junot, a movement hostile to -France manifested itself in Portugal. Sir Arthur Wellesley landed -at Oporto, with ten thousand men. Junot advanced to meet him, but -his forces were insufficient, and he was defeated at Vimeiro. The -Convention of Cintra, on the 30th of August, 1808, decided the -evacuation of Portugal by the French. -</p><p> -The unjust invasion of the peninsula already brought forth its -fruits. King Joseph, in desperation, wrote to his brother, on the -9th of August: "I have an entire nation against me. The nobility -themselves, at first uncertain, have ended by following the -movement of the lower classes. I have not a single Spaniard left -who is attached to my cause. As general, my part would be -endurable, nay easy, for with a detachment of your veteran -troops, I would conquer the Spaniards; but as king my part is -insupportable, since I must slaughter one part of my subjects to -make the other submit. I decline therefore to reign over a people -who will not have me. If you wish it, I will restore Ferdinand -VII. to them, in your name. I shall demand back from you the -throne of Naples." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_426">{426}</a></span> -<p> -The will of Napoleon was more tenacious and his passions stronger -than those of his brother. Joseph was obliged to remain King of -Spain. The Convention of Cintra, definitively adjourned, after -the surrender of Torres Vedras to the English, was not approved -either by Sir Arthur Wellesley nor by the English Cabinet. The -French armies had obtained in Spain numerous partial successes. -Saragossa was again besieged. After a long campaign Sir John -Moore was defeated and killed, at the battle of Corunna. His -troops hastened to embark for England. They scarcely took time to -bury him. "We left him alone with his glory," says Wolfe the -poet. Marshal Soult took possession of the city. The negotiations -between France and England, through the intervention of Russia, -had failed. An interview between the two emperors, at Erfurt, had -strengthened their alliance. Napoleon evacuated Prussia, and -concentrated his efforts upon Spain. He reached there on the 29th -of October, 1808. On the 4th of December he was at Madrid, -ordering upon every side and in all directions, the movements of -his lieutenants. When he returned to Paris, January 22nd, 1809, -King Joseph was firmly established in his capital. Napoleon -accorded to his troops a month of repose before completing the -conquest of Spain. The threatening attitude of Europe, encouraged -by the resistance of the Spaniards, compelled the emperor to -leave to others the task of conquering enemies constantly -defeated, but never subdued. -</p><p> -The heroic defence of Saragossa was the type and example of the -war in Spain. General Palafox commanded there. To the demand to -surrender, he replied with this laconic message: "War to the -knife:" and this finally became the watchword. The ramparts were -taken only after a desperate resistance, in which even the women -took part. Then began, perhaps, the most heroic contest the world -ever saw. Street by street was obstinately defended; every house -became a fortress, and every church and convent a citadel. -"Never," wrote Marshal Lannes to the emperor, "have I seen so -much desperation as our enemies have shown in the defence of this -place. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_427">{427}</a></span> -I have seen women bravely confronting death in the breach. This -siege resembles nothing that we have had in war heretofore. It is -a position where great prudence and great vigor is necessary. We -are obliged to take with the mine or by assault, every house. -Finally, sire, it is a horrible war." After twenty-nine days of -siege and twenty-one days passed in conquering the streets, one -by one, Saragossa finally capitulated, on the 21st of February, -1809. Of the one hundred thousand inhabitants enclosed in the -city, fifty-four thousand had perished. Henceforth the name of -Saragossa is added on the roll of those cities which have been -made forever famous and glorious by their heroic defences, to -that of Numantia and Jerusalem, of Leyden and Londonderry. -</p><p> -Parliament opened on the 19th of January, 1809. The Whigs at once -attacked the ministry on the conduct of the war and predicted its -fatal termination. The campaign had added nothing to the glory of -the arms of the great belligerant powers; only the patriotic -perseverance of the Spaniards encouraged their defenders. Mr. -Canning concluded with the Junta of Seville a close treaty of -alliance. The military and financial preparations necessitated -great efforts. The command of the troops was given to Sir Arthur -Wellesley. Marshal Soult again invaded Portugal. It was against -this country that the English General at first directed attacks. -Landing at Lisbon, on the 22nd of April, 1809, he left the -capital on the 28th, to proceed to Coimbra. All his forces -concentrated there, and on the 11th of May, he found himself on -the banks of the rapid Douro. The river was crossed at midday, in -the face of the French army. On the 12th, Oporto was taken. While -Marshal Soult was retreating towards Spain, the English general -published a proclamation in favor of the French wounded and -prisoners left in the city. The Spaniards had often treated their -conquered enemies with great barbarity. "I appeal to the mercy of -the people of Oporto, in regard to the wounded and prisoners," -said Sir Arthur Wellesley. "By the laws of war they are under my -protection, and I am resolved to give it to them." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_428">{428}</a></span> -<p> -On the 2nd of July the English entered Spain, at Placencia. On -the 27th the victory of Talavera delivered to Wellesley a strong -military position, but without the provisions or munitions of war -that he much needed. "They have no magazines," wrote Sir Arthur. -"We have none, and are unable to form any. It is a positive fact -that during the last eight days the English troops have not -received a third of their rations, although they fought during -forty-eight hours, and defeated an army twice their number. There -are at this moment in the hospitals of this city nearly four -thousand wounded soldiers, who are dying for the want of the -commonest necessaries of life, that any other European nation -would provide for its enemies. Here I can obtain nothing, they -will not even bury my dead." Without aid from the Spaniards, who -were in fact secretly hostile to the English, the latter were -compelled to fall back upon Portugal. -</p><p> -After the victory of Talavera, Sir Arthur was raised to the -peerage, under the title of Baron Duro of Wellesley, and Viscount -Wellington of Talavera. "We have at this time the entire cohort -of French marshals in Estramadura," wrote Wellington: "Soult, -Ney, Mortier, Kellerman, Victor and Sebastiani, without counting -King Joseph and the five thousand men of Suchet." Wellington -fixed his headquarters at Badajoz. Everywhere the Spanish -generals were defeated by the French. "It is deplorable," said -Wellington, "that affairs which were in such good condition a few -weeks ago, have been ruined by the ignorance and presumption of -those who have the charge of directing them. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_429">{429}</a></span> -I declare that if they had preserved their two armies, or even -one of them, the cause was safe. The French could have no -reinforcements which could have been of any use; time would have -been gained; the state of affairs would have improved daily: all -the chances were in our favor. The French armies must have been -driven out of Spain. But no, they must fight great battles on the -plains, where the defeat of the Spanish troops was assured from -the first. They have never been willing to believe what I have -told them regarding the French forces. Up to the present time, -when upon the field of battle, they have found them superior to -themselves under all circumstances." -</p><p> -Austria re-opened hostilities. A great English expedition was -directed, against the naval preparations of Napoleon in the -Scheldt. The fleet invested and took Flushing. The troops -occupied the Isle of Walcheren, the possession of which, however, -was of no practical utility, and led to no important results, but -was attended with great suffering and frightful mortality. -Another English expedition, directed against the south of Italy, -was equally unsuccessful, although Sir John Stuart took -possession of the Ionian Islands. -</p><p> -Napoleon pursued his triumphant way in Germany, but his victories -were more severely contested and more dearly bought. At Paris -Prince Talleyrand had been disgraced, and the most violent -councils prevailed. "It appears," said Napoleon to Prince -Metternich, the Austrian ambassador, "that the waters of Lethe, -and not those of the Danube flow by Vienna. New lessons are -necessary, and they will be terrible, I promise you. Austria -saved the English in 1805, when I was about to cross the Straits -of Calais, and has just saved them once more, by hindering me -from pursuing them at Corunna: she will pay dear for this new -diversion. I have no desire to draw the sword except against -Spain and England, but if Austria persists, the struggle will be -immediate and decisive, and will be such, that in the future, -England will find no allies upon the continent." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_430">{430}</a></span> -<p> -In this great struggle for the independence of European nations, -against an insatiable conqueror, and a heroic people which he had -intoxicated by his glory, the successive reverses of the -Austrians finally delivered Vienna to the Emperor Napoleon. The -battle of Essling lasted two days, and was more desperate and -more bloody than all the battles which had preceded it. Fortified -on the Island of Loban, in the middle of the Danube, General -Mouton, with an army of forty thousand men, firmly withstood for -six hours, the fire of the batteries of the Archduke Charles; -always on horseback among the guns and the troops, with no other -word of command as the files of soldiers fell under the fire, -than these sinister words: "Close the ranks." -</p><p> -When Napoleon demanded of Massena if he was able to defend the -heights of Aspern: "Say to the Emperor," replied he, "that I will -hold it two—six—twenty-four hours, if he wishes; as many as may -be necessary for the safety of the army." In the council of war -held on the evening of the first day at Loban, when Napoleon, now -upon the borders of an abyss, developed the plan which was to -lead to the victory of Wagram, the same Massena, often jealous, -and always morose, exclaimed, with a passionate admiration for -that superior genius that he recognized in spite of his envy: -"Sire, you are a great man, and worthy to command such as me." -The battle of Wagram led to the peace of Vienna, signed on the -14th of October, 1809. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_431">{431}</a></span> -<p> -When Pope Pius VII. protested against the occupation of his -states by French troops, he was shut up in the Quirinal. The -Emperor decided the question, in his usual manner, by uniting the -Roman States to the Empire. The successor of Charlemagne withdrew -the gift which that great conqueror had bestowed upon the Holy -See. This violence was followed by the papal excommunication. The -Pope was rudely taken from Rome and transported to Savona. The -superior judgment of Napoleon was not long deceived regarding the -fatal effects of this insult to the religious sentiments of -Catholic Europe. He wrote from Schonbrunn on July 18th, 1809, -that he regretted that the Pope had been arrested; that the -arrest was a great piece of folly; that although it was necessary -to arrest Cardinal Pacca, the Pope should have been left in peace -at Rome; but nevertheless there was now no remedy for what was -done. He did not, however, want the Pope in France, and if he -would cease his mad opposition, his return to Rome would not be -opposed. -</p><p> -Some days later new projects developed themselves in that brain -constantly excited by the intoxication of absolute power. The -Pope, who had been taken to Grenoble, was carried back to Savona -by orders from the Emperor himself. Indomitable and patient, he -was detained there for three years. "You have not grasped my -intentions," wrote Napoleon, on the 15th of September, to the -Minister of Police; "the movement from Grenoble to Savona, like -all retrograde steps, has been fatal; it is that which has given -hopes to this fanatic. You see that he wishes to make us reform -the Napoleonic Code; to deprive us of our liberties, etc. Could -anything be more insane? I have already given orders that all the -Generals of the Order, and the Cardinals who have no Episcopal -see, or do not reside at one, whether Italians, Tuscans, or -Piedmontese, should report at Paris; and probably I will end by -summoning the Pope himself, whom I will place in the suburbs. It -is just that he should be at the head of Christianity. This of -course will create a sensation the first months, but will soon -subside." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_432">{432}</a></span> -<p> -Napoleon desired to have heirs to the throne. He dissolved his -marriage with the Empress Josephine by a decree of divorce. After -an abortive negotiation with the Emperor Alexander on the subject -of a union with the grand Duchess Anne, the peace of Vienna was -confirmed by a contract of marriage, signed on the 7th of -February, 1810, between the Emperor Napoleon and the Archduchess -Marie Louise of Austria. The triumphant conqueror took by assault -the sovereign families as well as their states; but he was not -able to subdue either the conscience of the Pope nor the -passionate resistance of the Spaniards, sustained by the policy -and determined resolution of England. -</p><p> -Important changes took place in the government of Great Britain; -a disagreement upon the subject of the conduct of the war, led to -a duel between Lord Castlereagh and Mr. Canning. The latter was -wounded, and immediately retired from the Cabinet, taking Mr. -Huskisson with him. Mr. Perceval and Lord Liverpool, but lately -Lord Hawkesbury, called to their aid the Marquis of Wellesley. -Lord Palmerston took part, for the first time, in public affairs, -as Under Secretary of War. The Spanish possession of San Domingo -was delivered to the English, who also seized the French -settlements in Senegal and Guadaloupe. Overwhelmed by his -fatigues and patriotic efforts. Admiral Collingwood died at sea, -on the 7th of March, 1810. He had asked to be retired: "I have -deferred making this request until I am entirely unfitted for -service," said he. "As long as I am good for anything, my life -belongs to my country." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_433">{433}</a></span> -<p> -Some weeks after the dispersal of the French fleet at Toulon, -Collingwood was lying very ill on board his flagship, the City of -Paris, when the signal officer expressed fears of a coming -tempest, which would be exhausting to the invalid: "Nothing in -this world will now trouble me," said the veteran; "I am dying." -He was not yet sixty years of age, but since his childhood he had -constantly given to the English navy the noblest example of -courage and virtue. -</p><p> -In England all eyes and all thoughts were directed towards Spain. -The old king, George III., had finally become hopelessly insane. -The grief caused by the death of his daughter, the Princess -Amelia, had brought about that final relapse that the physicians -declared incurable. The Prince of Wales accepted the Regency, -with the conditions prescribed in 1788 by Mr. Pitt. -Notwithstanding the constant opposition of Mr. Perceval and his -friends, the Regent decided to retain the Tory Cabinet, without -providing any places for his friends or Whig partisans. The -haughty tone of Lord Grenville and of Lord Grey towards him, had, -it was said, decided the Prince to this generally popular -measure. Resolved, in common with the rest of the royal family, -to obstinately pursue the war, but without military ardor or -personal incentive, the Regent gave no direction to the national -movement which sustained in England the terrible burden of that -great European struggle, which became each day more violent -against England. A decree of the Emperor, on the 27th of August, -1810, ordered that all English merchandise in any port, wherever -smuggled since the declaration of the continental blockade, -should be burned. Sweden, the last maritime power in Europe -remaining neutral, after a revolution which had dethroned the -foolish and incompetent King Gustavus IV., had formed an alliance -with France and Russia. Swedish ports were henceforth closed to -the English. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_434">{434}</a></span> -<p> -The King of Holland, Louis Bonaparte, soon wearied of that throne -which he had accepted with regret, abdicated without consulting -the Emperor, and immediately took refuge in Germany. Napoleon -responded by a decree uniting the Low Countries to France. The -Hanseatic cities had met the same fate. The Emperor confided to -Massena the command of the French armies in Spain. The old -Marshal accepted the task with dissatisfaction, and his -lieutenants were still more displeased. Wellington had chosen for -his base in Portugal, the fortified lines of Torres Védras, -without allowing himself to be turned from his plan by the -insults of the enemy or the inconsiderate ardor of his officers, -who wished to march at once against the French. The first -encounter took place at Alcola, on the 27th of September, 1810, -but without brilliant results to either army. Massena saw the -impossibility of forcing the English entrenchments, and demanded -reinforcements. Napoleon was preparing for the fatal Russian -campaign: he was unable to detach even a single army corps; his -forces were recruiting, but with difficulty and slowly. Soult -refused to aid Massena, who was now reduced to the most extreme -distress. "They have but few resources other than pillage," wrote -Wellington; "they receive scarcely any money from France, and -very few contributions are raised in Spain." -</p><p> -On the 4th of March, 1811, Massena began slowly to retreat. On -the 10th of May the French had once again evacuated Portugal, and -Marmont was ordered to replace Massena at the head of the armies -in Spain. The campaigns of 1810 and 1811 had this sad result for -the French: their victories were scarcely sufficient to preserve -past conquests, while the national resistance lost none of its -desperation; and at the same time Wellington had not been -compelled to yield a single foot of ground in the Peninsula. In -the West Indies the Isle of France had fallen into the hands of -the English. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_435">{435}</a></span> -<p> -The campaign of 1812 was to be still more active and more fatal -to France. Before Napoleon entered Russia, during the month of -January, Wellington quitted his intrenchments and boldly took the -offensive. On the 19th he recaptured Ciudad-Rodrigo, but recently -taken under his very eyes, by the troops of Massena. On the 7th -of April, he wrested from Marshal Soult his conquest of Badajoz, -and on the 22nd of July, he defeated Marmont at the battle of -Arapiles before Salamanca, where the Marshal was so grievously -wounded that he was believed to be dying. On the 14th of August -the English entered Madrid, without, however being able to remain -there long. After having failed before Burgos, the English forces -concentrated themselves near Salamanca. When the three French -armies united themselves to pursue and crush him, Wellington was -out of reach, and secured his retreat upon Ciudad-Rodrigo without -difficulty. -</p><p> -While the prudent and sagacious English general slowly continued -his work in Spain, the Emperor Napoleon had ventured, played, and -lost his great stake against Russia. Moscow was set on fire -through individual resolution, as patriotic as cruel. From -victory to victory, the French army, destroyed by the climate, by -the distances, by fatigue, and sufferings of all kinds, -disappeared, little by little, in the snows; abandoned by the -Emperor, who had secretly taken his departure for Paris on the -5th of December. Some lines inserted in the Moniteur had alone -preceded him. These announced that he had assembled his generals -at Smorgoni, transmitted the command to King Murat for the time -being, as the cold paralyzed military operations, and that he was -coming to Paris to personally direct the affairs of the empire. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_436">{436}</a></span> -Some months later he entered Germany, where a national movement, -encouraged by the disasters of the Russian campaign, was becoming -each day more determined against him. The King of Prussia finally -took up arms. Everywhere the Emperor Alexander was hailed as the -liberator of Germany. Only the terrible battles of Lützen and -Bantzen slackened the zeal of the allies. The mediation of -Austria obtained an armistice; more useful, however, to the -allies than to Napoleon. He rejected all the conditions proposed -by the Emperor Joseph. The terrible battles of Dresden and of -Leipsic were the final struggles of the dying lion. -</p><p> -Mr. Perceval, the Prime Minister of England, a prudent, moderate, -and determined statesman, was assassinated by a personal enemy, -in the vestibule of the House of Commons. Lord Liverpool at once -assumed the entire responsibility of affairs, recently -complicated by a declaration of war from the United States. The -English government had not revoked, in time, those decrees of the -Council which were opposed to, and abused, the rights of nations, -and which were particularly unfortunate in the present instance, -as Napoleon had raised the continental blockade in their favor. -When the English finally withdrew their prohibitions, it was too -late, as hostilities had already begun on sea and land. An -American army invaded Canada, and the English and American fleets -fought with desperation. There, however, England did not expend -her warlike efforts; for in 1813 the progress of Wellington in -Spain absorbed all her thoughts and all her hopes. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_437">{437}</a></span> -<p> -For a time Marshal Jourdan took command of the French army that -supported King Joseph, in Spain. On the 21st of June he was -defeated by the English at Vittoria. Joseph narrowly escaped -being captured. Marshal Soult succeeded Jourdan. In a -proclamation to his army, he attributed the defeats to the -cowardice and incapacity of those who had preceded him in the -command: a sad presumption which was soon to receive its -chastisement. The conflicts of Roncesvalles, on the 28th and 31st -of July, 1813, forced the Marshal to fall back upon the Bidassoa, -without being able to make even an effort for the relief of the -besieged city of San Sebastian, which fell into the hands of the -English, on the 8th of September. On the 7th of October -Wellington, in his turn, crossed the Bidassoa, and while -Pampeluna surrendered to the Anglo-Spanish forces, on the 31st of -October, Marshal Soult was forced within his lines at St. Jean de -Luz. French territory was invaded. Delivered in advance to the -anger of its enemies, it was to suffer cruel reprisals of which -France has not even yet ceased to bear the weight or pay the -price. -</p><p> -Napoleon defended Champagne and Lorraine; calling to his aid the -troops from Spain, as well as the remnants of the German army, -and blaming Marshal Augereau, who was slow in joining him. More -than ever master, and more than ever imperious, he continued -indomitable and inexhaustible in the fecundity of his genius. -"The Minister of War has shown me your letter of the 16th," wrote -Napoleon to Augereau, his old comrade of the revolution: "that -letter has grieved me deeply. What! six hours after receiving the -first troops from Spain, and you are not already on the march! -Were six hours of repose necessary? I gained the battle of Nangis -with a brigade of dragoons from Spain, who had not been off their -horses since they left Bayonne. The six battalions of Nîmes lack, -you say, clothing and equipments, and are inexperienced. What an -excuse to make me, Augereau! I have destroyed 80,000 of the -enemy, with battalions composed of conscripts, having no -cartridge boxes, and but half clothed. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_438">{438}</a></span> -There is no money, you say; and where do you expect to find -money? We will have that, only when we have torn our receipts -from the hands of the enemy. You lack horses? Take them -everywhere. You have no magazines? That is too ridiculous! I -order you to take up your line of march within twelve hours, -after you receive this letter. If you are still the Augereau of -Castiglione, obey this order; but if your sixty years weigh too -heavily upon you, turn over your command to the oldest of your -general officers. The country is threatened, and in danger. It -can only be saved by audacity and good-will, and not by vain -temporizations. You ought to have a nucleus of more than six -thousand veteran troops; I have not as many, and I have moreover -destroyed three armies, made 40,000 prisoners, taken two hundred -cannons, and three times saved the capital. The enemy fly in all -directions toward Troyes; be the first at the ball. It is no -longer a question of acting, as in the last days, but it is -necessary to act with the spirit and resolution of '93. When the -French soldiers see your plume in the advance, and when they see -you the first to expose yourself to the fire of the enemy, you -will be able to do with them whatever you wish." -</p><p> -The blows of despair, although heroic, were not sufficient to -destroy the consequences of a long series of faults and fatal -errors. The empire succumbed beneath the efforts of combined -Europe, driven to extremities, and finally resolved to shake off -a yoke which England alone had never submitted to. During the -month of February, 1814, the forces of Marshal Soult and those of -Wellington were nearly equal. A series of minor conflicts -compelled the marshal to leave his intrenched camp, under the -walls of Bayonne. On the 27th of February, the battle of Orthez -was lost by the French army, and General Foy was wounded. Soult -was obliged to fight while retreating. -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/438.jpg" border=1><br> -Waterloo. -</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_439">{439}</a></span> -<p> -Bordeaux already proclaimed the Bourbons. The army of Soult -covered Toulouse, and there was fought, on the 10th of April, the -last battle of that war, which had already lasted more than -twenty years. The glory of the marshal was increased, although -the disaster which menaced France was not lessened. Before the -army of Wellington had again met their old adversaries of Spain -before Toulouse, the Emperor Napoleon had abdicated at -Fontainbleau (April 11th, 1814). -</p><p> -The Duke of Wellington returned to Spain, to bid adieu to his -faithful army. He returned to France in the month of August, as -the English ambassador to King Louis XVIII. Some months passed, -and the throne of the Bourbons, scarcely raised again, was once -more overthrown. -</p><p> -All Europe arose, for Napoleon had secretly quitted the Island of -Elba, and had reappeared in France. At sight of him, the army -forgot its oath. A breath of delirium passed over their souls. -Napoleon himself was not deceived regarding the serious and -definitive results of his enterprise. In descending from his -carriage at the door of the Tuilleries, he said to the young -Count Molé, but recently strong in his good graces: "Ah, well! -This is a fine prank!" -</p><p> -Meanwhile the allies united their forces; all nations marched -together against the insatiable ambition of that conqueror, who -placed for a second time the fate of the world at the hazard of -his destiny. Wellington was at Brussels, collecting his forces -and awaiting those of the allies. Placed by public consent at the -head of all the allied armies, he was prudent and moderate; -careful to avoid violent sentiments and exaggerated resolutions; -friendly to the Bourbons, but without ill-will either towards -France or the Emperor Napoleon. The wise attitude which he -imposed upon the English, by the ascendancy of his authority and -character, was not imitated by all the powers, Prussia, -especially, having grievous injuries to avenge, acted with -intense bitterness. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_440">{440}</a></span> -<p> -Napoleon entered Belgium. On the night of the 15th of June, 1814, -the English officers were at a ball at the house of the Duchess -of Richmond in Brussels. During the festivities they were -informed, one after the other, of the approach of the French -army; they quietly withdrew, and at once placed themselves at the -head of their troops. On the 16th the two battles of Ligny and -Quatre Bras were fought by the Prussian General Blücher and the -Duke of Wellington, and cost the allies more than 15,000 men. On -the 18th, at Waterloo, the English army alone left 15,000 dead -upon the field of battle. The Emperor Napoleon there lost his -crown, and France lost all the conquests she had so unjustly and -imprudently acquired, and which had caused her so many tears and -so much blood. -</p><p> -Yet once more, after a hundred days of agitation and of anguish, -the French people, tossed from one master to the other, -vacillating and thoughtless, wounded nevertheless by their -reverses, to the depths of their souls, and sad notwithstanding -their deliverance, saw returning to his palace their fugitive -king; while Napoleon rendered to England, his persevering enemy, -the involuntary homage of demanding an asylum upon her territory. -Accompanied by General Becker to Rochefort, he entered into -negotiations with Captain Maitland, commander of the Bellerophon. -Maitland received him on board, refusing to make any engagement -in the name of the English government, but resolved not to allow -his illustrious guest to escape. That government promptly decided -that the Emperor Napoleon, who was so dangerous to the repose of -Europe, should be detained during the remainder of his life on -the island of St. Helena. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_441">{441}</a></span> -<p> -He departed, while England, through the intervention of the Duke -of Wellington, lent to the monarchical restoration, as well as to -the French nation, the support of her wise counsels and prudent -moderation, without any one, at that time, being able to divine -the role that his name and the prestige of his glory was yet to -play in the history of the French nation and in the history of -Europe. -</p> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_442">{442}</a></span> -<br> - <h2>Chapter XL. -<br><br> - George IV.<br> - Regent And King.<br> - (1815-1830).</h2> -<br> -<p> -Peace was established in Europe. It had cost France great anguish -and great grief. The Duke Richelieu, who had concluded it, and -whose personal influence over the Emperor Alexander had -powerfully contributed to soften its conditions, expressed the -sentiment of all France when he wrote to his sister, Madame -Montcalm, "All is consummated. More dead than alive, I have -affixed my name to that fatal treaty. I had sworn not to do it, -and I had said it to the king. The unhappy prince conjured me, -breaking into tears, not to abandon him. I no longer hesitated. I -have the confidence to believe that no one else could have -obtained as much. France, expiring under the weight of the -calamities which overwhelm her, claims imperiously a prompt -deliverance." -</p><p> -England again breathed: triumphant, but weighed down by her long -efforts. The state of the public finances and the monetary -situation occupied all minds, and served as a theme for the -attacks of the opposition against Lord Liverpool and Lord -Castlereagh. A certain inquietude manifested itself also upon the -subject of the secret conditions of the peace. Henry Brougham, a -young advocate of great talent, in a speech upon this question, -demanded the publication of the Treaty, half mystical, half -absolute, known under the name of the Holy Alliance, and signed -at Paris on the 20th of November, 1815, by the Emperors of Russia -and Austria, as well as by the King of Prussia. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_443">{443}</a></span> -<p> -"In his capacity as constitutional sovereign, the Prince Regent -was not competent to affix his signature to this treaty, -concluded by the sovereigns themselves," said Lord Castlereagh; -"England has therefore no right to call for its publication." The -Houses gave themselves the noble pleasure of rewarding the valor -of their generals and their armies. Monuments were erected to the -memory of those who had fallen in the war. The pensions formerly -accorded to the Duke of Wellington were doubled; he received from -the just gratitude of his country five hundred thousand pounds -sterling. It is to the honor of the English nation that no -absolute monarch was ever more liberal toward his favorites than -it has shown itself in regard to its great servants. -</p><p> -England, as well as all Europe, had founded great expectations -upon the re-establishment of peace. She had assured security to -the commerce of the Mediterranean, by an expedition against the -Dey of Algiers, nominal sovereign of the hordes of pirates -constantly infesting that sea, to the great peril of merchant -vessels. Lord Exmouth had bombarded Algiers, destroyed the -vessels of the pirates, and obtained the liberation of all the -Christian slaves. But this new achievement was not sufficient to -re-awaken commerce, overwhelmed by numerous and repeated losses. -The harvest had been bad; to the actual and pressing evils was -added the bitterness of ignorant hopes cruelly deceived. Popular -movements manifested themselves in many places; the Regent was -insulted as he came from Westminster, after having opened -Parliament (January 28th, 1817). The government was informed of a -vast conspiracy that threatened "to fire the four corners," of -Great Britain. Energetic measures were adopted; the suspension of -the habeas corpus act was prolonged; a new law imposed the most -severe penalties upon seditious re-unions. The forces intended -for the maintenance of order in the interior, were increased to -ten thousand men. The nation was still agitated and suffering, -after the long trial of a war energetically carried on during -twenty years, and was weary and overburdened, in spite of the -victory. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_444">{444}</a></span> -<p> -Before the delights of peace had calmed the spirits and -re-assured all minds, before all hearts had lost the habit of -suffering and resisting suffering, it required an effort on the -part of the nation, as of the individual, to enjoy the charms of -repose. -</p><p> -An unforseen event deeply moved public feeling. Princess -Charlotte, heiress to the throne, loved and esteemed by all, and -upon whom reposed those loyal sympathies (of which her father was -justly deprived), had just died at Claremont, on the 6th of -November, 1816, in giving birth to her first child. -</p><p> -All England shared in the grief of her young husband, Prince -Leopold of Saxe-Cobourg. He was destined subsequently to be the -first to ascend the throne of Belgium, assisted thereto by new -family ties that he contracted in France, as well as by the -affection still cherished for him in England. He was sagacious -enough to make use of both these influences for the good of his -adopted country, as well as a beneficial influence in the -counsels of European politics. On the 29th of May, 1819, less -than two years after the death of Princess Charlotte, the -Princess Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent, was born at -London. Some months later the old King George III. died (January -28th 1820); blind and insane during the last ten years of his -life. Patient and quiet in his madness, he preserved in the -hearts of his people a respectful and melancholy popularity which -showed itself at the time of his death. Honest and obstinate, -seriously and sincerely religious, observant of his duties both -as man and as king, as he understood them, he had often served -and often hindered the policy and the government of his country; -he had always loved it, and had always believed himself obligated -to consecrate to it his life and his strength, to the prejudice -of his tastes or personal desires. During these ten years, in the -long silence of his sad isolation, he had exhausted all anger and -extinguished all hatred. The nation remembered only his simple -and honest virtues, his immovable courage and his patriotic -disinterestedness. No illusion regarding the abilities and faults -of his successor was possible. -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/444.jpg" border=1><br> -George IV. -</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_445">{445}</a></span> -<p> -For ten years already George IV. had satisfactorily occupied the -throne, when he was officially proclaimed king on the 31st of -January, 1820. -</p><p> -The fruits of evil are bitter even for those who plant them. -Unhappily married, as he deserved to be, after the disorderly -life he had led, the new monarch had for a long time cherished -towards his wife an aversion amounting to hatred. He addressed to -her the gravest reproaches. Upon his accession to the throne, the -princess was upon the continent. Orders were given to erase her -name from the liturgy of the established church, and to omit the -public prayers for the Queen, as her husband had decided never to -recognize her. The natural courage of the princess and the -indignation of the woman, wounded in her honor, brought Queen -Caroline immediately back to England, proudly resolved to submit -her cause to public opinion. -</p><p> -"I wrote to Lord Liverpool and Lord Castlereagh, to demand the -insertion of my name in the liturgy of the Church of England," -declared the queen, "at the same time that the order was given to -all the ambassadors, ministers and English consuls to recognize -me and to treat me as Queen of England. After the address of Lord -Castlereagh in reply to that of Mr. Brougham, I have no other -insult to fear. I demand that a palace be prepared for my -reception. I fly toward England, which is my true country." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_446">{446}</a></span> -<p> -All the generous sentiments of the English nation, as well as its -contempt for the character and habits of its sovereign, were -shown in the ardent and sympathetic reception which greeted the -arrival of Queen Caroline on the sixth of June, 1820. -</p><p> -"They have erased her name from the liturgy," said her faithful -and honest counsellor, Mr. Denham, "but all England prays for her -in praying for those who are desolate and oppressed." -</p><p> -In the midst of her popular triumph, all attempts at compromise -were rejected by the queen, notwithstanding the advice of her -eminent advisors, Brougham and Denham. The king demanded a -divorce, which his ministers refused to second; public excitement -was increasing; for a moment some regiments of infantry seemed to -waver in their fidelity. Political maneuvres increased the -agitation; the leaders of the radical opposition espoused the -cause of the queen; she addressed a petition to the House of -Lords, demanding the authority to defend herself. The government -finally took the initiative, with regret, and constrained by the -violence of royal and popular passions, Lord Liverpool presented -to Parliament his Bill of Pains and Penalties, formally accusing -Queen Caroline of conjugal infidelity, and demanding a divorce, -in the name of King George IV. -</p><p> -The venerable Lord Eldon remarked with judicious sagacity, before -the arrival of Caroline: "Our queen threatens to come to England; -if she ventures here, she is the most courageous woman I have -ever heard of. The evil she will do by coming will be -incalculable. At the outset she will be immensely popular with -the multitude; I give her only a few weeks, or at the most, a few -months, to lose the opinion of the entire world." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_447">{447}</a></span> -<p> -It was a sad and unheard of spectacle to see a sovereign publicly -arraigning his wife before the supreme tribunal. A great -multitude besieged the environs of Westminster, insulting those -ministers and peers that they knew were opposed to the accused -queen, and saluting her defenders with acclamations. Popular -passion had judged well the doubts and uncertainties which -enveloped the principal facts and the formal accusations; it -closed its eyes, however, to the license of life and language -which the corrupt and contradictory testimony of foreigners -reluctantly revealed. -</p><p> -The burning eloquence and the wonderful management of Brougham -carried the enthusiasm of the multitude to the highest pitch. In -summing up the evidence, he said: "Such, my Lords, is the case -now before you, and such is the evidence by which it is attempted -to be upheld. It is evidence—inadequate, to prove any -proposition; impotent, to deprive the lowest subject of any civil -right; ridiculous, to establish the least offence; scandalous, to -support a charge of the highest nature; monstrous, to ruin the -honor of the Queen of England. My Lords, I call upon you to -pause. You stand on the brink of a precipice. If your judgment -shall go out against your queen, it will be the only act that -ever went out without effecting its purpose; it will return to -you upon your own heads. Save the country—save yourselves. -Rescue the country; save the people of whom you are the -ornaments; but severed from whom, you can no more live than the -blossom that is severed from the root and tree on which it grows. -Save the country, therefore, that you may continue to adorn -it—save the crown, which is threatened with irreparable -injury—save the aristocracy, which is surrounded with -danger—save the altar, which is no longer safe when its kindred -throne is shaken. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_448">{448}</a></span> -You see that when the Church and the throne would allow of no -church solemnity in behalf of the queen, the heartfelt prayers of -the people rose to Heaven for her protection. I pray Heaven for -her; and I here pour forth my fervent supplications to the throne -of mercy, that mercies may descend on the people of this country, -richer than their rulers have deserved, and that your hearts may -be turned to justice." -</p><p> -So much eloquence and oratorical passion, together with the -intense earnestness of public opinion, had, as might be expected, -a great effect upon the House of Lords. The majority in favor of -the bill, which at first was quite considerable, diminished day -by day. On the third reading, it was but nine. Lord Liverpool -rose and said, that, in the presence of a majority so small, he -did not think it advisable to continue the discussion. On the -10th of November, 1820, the bill was withdrawn, to the intense -delight of the people. Catherine of Brunswick had gained her -cause; she remained the wife of George IV. and Queen of England. -</p><p> -It was one of those triumphs, which cost so dear to the victors, -and which accelerates their fall. In passing through the crowded -streets about Westminster, Lord Mulgrave was threatened by the -multitude, who demanded that he should join in the cry: "Long -live the queen!" He turned towards the populace and said, "Very -well, long live the queen, and all you women that resemble her." -Something of this bitter sarcasm began to penetrate slowly into -the minds of the people, but lately carried away, without -reflection, in the defence of a wife outraged by him who had set -her so fatal an example. The resolution shown by the ministers in -the conduct of their painful task, and the perils they had -braved, led to a sincere reaction in their favor. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_449">{449}</a></span> -A diabolical plot that has been called "the Cato street -conspiracy"—after the name of the street where its principal -author, Arthur Thistlewood, resided, had threatened the lives of -all the members of the cabinet; they were to be assassinated -<i>en masse</i>, in the dining-room of Lord Harrowby, in -Grosvenor Square. The plot was discovered, and the conspirators -suffered the penalty of their crime on the 1st of May, 1820. -</p><p> -Almost at the same moment grave disorders broke out in Scotland -and the north of England. The energy of their repression equalled -the violence of the attempts. The honest mass of the nation rose -as one man against those misguided wretches that threatened to -annihilate social order. "Among those who are here," said Sir -Walter Scott, in a public meeting at Edinburgh, "there are -persons who are able, by uniting their forces, to raise an army -of fifty thousand men." -</p><p> -Notwithstanding that the government of George IV. had shared in -the great unpopularity of the sovereign, it finally regained the -favor of the nation. The majority which sustained it in -Parliament became each day more decided and more united. "In six -months the king will be the most popular man in the realm," said -Lord Castlereagh, with a just and disdainful appreciation of the -violence of popular reaction. -</p><p> -When on the 19th of July, 1821, Queen Caroline appeared at the -doors of Westminster Abbey, in an open carriage drawn by six -horses, claiming her right to witness the coronation of the king, -admission into the church was peremptorily refused. Fearing an -outbreak of the passions so recently excited in her favor, the -display of military force was great; but few of the populace -saluted her. She withdrew, wounded to the death in her pride and -in her resentment. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_450">{450}</a></span> -Fifteen days later she expired. She had directed that her body -should be taken back to her native country and deposited in the -tomb of her ancestors, with this inscription: "Here lies Caroline -of Brunswick, the injured Queen of England." For a moment only -public sentiment was re-awakened in favor of the queen. The -funeral escort, which accompanied the remains to the port of -embarkation, had been ordered to avoid the streets of London; a -mob, however, compelled the procession to proceed through the -city. Two men were killed. A distinguished officer, Sir Robert -Wilson, severely reprimanded the soldiers for having fired upon -the people. He was cashiered, and the magistrate who had yielded -to the demands of the mob, in changing the route, was dismissed. -</p><p> -Queen Caroline was forgotten, and her royal spouse was in Ireland -receiving the enthusiastic homage of a people who had not for -long years enjoyed the honor of a royal visit. "My heart has -always been Irish," said George IV., addressing the multitude -which crowded around the Viceroy's palace; "from the day it first -beat, I have loved Ireland. Rank, station, honors are nothing; -but to feel that I live in the hearts of my Irish subjects is to -me the most exalted happiness." A similar reception awaited -George IV. in his Electorate of Hanover. -</p><p> -In the midst of this triumph of their party, the ministers, more -sincerely and more rigidly Tory than Pitt had ever been, yet -realized the need of energetic and effectual support. Since his -accession to office. Lord Sidmouth had cleverly and sagaciously -directed internal affairs, but he now was old and worn out. Mr. -Peel, Secretary for Ireland since 1812, brilliantly replaced him. -A certain number of moderate Whigs allied themselves to the -government, without however changing either its attitude or its -complexion. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_451">{451}</a></span> -Superficial minds are astonished at this long continued power of -the Tories. Peace and pacific governments were established in -Europe; the perils within and without which had threatened -England no longer existed. The causes which had permitted them to -hold the reins of power so firmly, were removed or greatly -diminished: it seemed that that power ought to be relaxed; but -the effects long survived the causes; if the Tory government was -not indispensable at this time, the Tory party at least was the -victorious and dominant party, everywhere possessing the -preponderance, and powerfully organized to preserve it. The -relations of England with the absolute monarchies of the -continent, were of the most cordial character. Her counsellors -had contracted during the severe trials of the coalition those -lines of thought, of interest, and of habit which create common -interests and common success; her external policy weighed upon -her internal policy; and Lord Castlereagh was more inclined to -assimilate with the Prince Metternich than to distinguish -himself. Unhappily for the new-born spirit of liberty, the -revolutionary spirit also reappeared, spreading its virus in -public institutions as well as in individual hearts, alarming -everywhere the governments. During the first twelve years of the -peace, England found her government more alarmed, more immovable, -more inaccessible to all reform and all liberal innovation, than -it had been in the midst of the war, during her greatest -struggles and greatest dangers. -</p><p> -The contest between the government and the opposition had begun. -The Whigs were ardent partisans of reform, in principle as well -as from political ambition, always shrewd and sagacious to -advance or to serve popular needs and desires. A famine in -Ireland and the deplorable scenes which accompanied the -sufferings of the people, drew universal attention to the violent -relations which existed between the Catholics and the -Protestants. In vain had the Marquis of Wellesly as Lord -Lieutenant of Ireland, exercised a prudent and energetic -impartiality; he only succeeded in alienating the Orangemen -without conciliating the Patriots. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_452">{452}</a></span> -<p> -Mr. Canning presented to the House a proposition for the -admission of the Catholic Peers to Parliament; "but yesterday," -said he, "at the august ceremony of the coronation, after being -exhibited to the peers and people of England, to the -representatives of princes and nations of the world, the Duke of -Norfolk, highest in rank among the peers—the Lord Clifford, and -others like him, representing a long line of illustrious and -heroic ancestors,—appeared as if they had been called forth and -furnished for the occasion, like the lustres and banners that -flamed and glittered in the scene; and were to be, like them, -thrown by as useless and temporary formalities; they might indeed -bend the knee, and kiss the hand; they might bear the train, or -rear the canopy; they might perform the offices assigned by Roman -pride to their barbarian forefathers,—<i>Purpurea tollant aulœa -Brittanni</i>: but with the pageantry of the hour their -importance faded away: as their distinction vanished, their -humiliation returned; and he who headed the procession of peers -to-day, could not sit among them, as their equal, on the morrow." -</p><p> -For some time past Mr. Peel had assumed the leadership of the -opposition on the question of Catholic emancipation; he had -conducted the same with a moderation for which Mr. Plunkett, one -of the most eloquent and ardent partisans of the measure, thanked -him in flattering terms: "I know no man in the state that will -probably have more influence upon this question; and there is no -man whose adhesion to what I would call prejudices without -foundation, would be able to do more evil to my country," said -he. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_453">{453}</a></span> -<p> -Notwithstanding the lively opposition of Peel, the proposition of -Mr. Canning was adopted by the House of Commons. The cabinet was -divided. Lord Castlereagh, become Marquis of Londonderry since -the death of his father, remained favorable to the liberal -measures in favor of the Catholics; the House of Lords rejected -the motion, not however without leaving to its partisans the -legitimate hope of the approaching success of their just cause. -</p><p> -A first effort of Lord John Russell, in favor of Parliamentary -reform, vigorously opposed by Mr. Canning, was rejected by the -House of Commons, but by a smaller majority; and after a -discussion more favorable than the ardent promoters of the -measure had perhaps expected. The last words of the address of -Mr. Canning already predicted that success that he so greatly -feared. "I conjure the noble Lord," he said, "to pause, before he -again presses his plan on the country: if, however, he shall -persevere, and if his perseverance shall be successful, and if -the results of that success be such as I cannot help -apprehending;—his be the triumph to have precipitated those -results; mine be the consolation that to the utmost and to the -latest of my power, I have opposed them." -</p><p> -King George IV. returned to Edinburgh; he had journeyed through -Scotland from castle to castle, charming all he met, by the grace -of his manner and the agreeableness of his conversation, even -those who had not attributed to him either political courage or -private virtue. He was suddenly recalled to London by a tragic -event; as Sir Samuel Romilly and Mr. Whitbread, some years -before. Lord Londonderry had just succumbed under the weight of a -burden too heavy for the equilibrium of his mind; he had cut his -throat on the 12th of August, coldly resolved, even to the last -day, as firmly to sustain peace as he had been to sustain war; -too feeble nevertheless to resist the new embarrassments that he -apprehended from the state of agitation in Europe, and -precipitated by his patriotic agonies into a fit of insanity. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_454">{454}</a></span> -<p> -The battle of Austerlitz broke the heart of Mr. Pitt. After -having victoriously concluded peace, and maintained order in -England while all the thrones of the continent were shaken. Lord -Londonderry had become a madman. -</p><p> -Mr. Canning replaced him in power, not without intrigue nor -without internal difficulty. He associated with himself Mr. -Huskinson, an able and honest minister of the finances, liberal -like himself, and disposed likewise to favor the popular -movement, that they had neither the power nor the desire to -repress. The first intimation of this new attitude of the -government, was the recognition by England of the South American -republics: ancient Spanish colonies revolted against the yoke of -the mother country. Successive shocks had agitated Spain; the -Bourbons had been overthrown and replaced by a provisory -government. Recalled to the throne by a royalist insurrection, -Ferdinand VII. had been seconded by France; the Duke of -Angoulême, eldest son of King Louis XVIII., at the head of an -army had re-established the monarchy in Spain, while Austria, in -her turn, interfered in the affairs of the kingdom of Naples, as -confused and troubled as those of Spain. Under Mr. Canning, -England remained faithful to the principle of non-intervention; -nevertheless without sympathy for the sovereigns attacked, -without good will to their defenders. "We have exerted all our -efforts to prevent the French from entering Spain," said Mr. -Canning. "We have exhausted every means but war. I admit that the -entrance of a French army into Spain was a measure of -disparagement to Great Britain. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_455">{455}</a></span> -Do you think that for this disparagement we have not been -compensated? Do you think that for the blockade of Cadiz, England -has not received a full recompense? I looked at Spain by another -name than Spain; I looked on that power as Spain and the Indies; -and so looking at the Indies, I have there called a new world -into existence and regulated the balance of power." -</p><p> -While Mr. Canning pursued a foreign policy, boldly independent in -regard to the powers and common interests of Europe, he remained -preoccupied and sad. He had reached the summit of grandeur; -admired and respected by all, still young and powerful, by reason -of his personal merit, he nevertheless stood alone, having parted -from all the friends who had fought at his side at the outset of -his career, separated from them by the attitude he had taken at -the head of the liberals; and also separated from the liberals, -that he commanded by the resistance that he opposed to -parliamentary reform. His health was good, but the nervous state -into which the trials and vexations of political life had thrown -him, slowly undermined the forces that he sought in vain to -repair by the pleasures and charms of society. He died on the 8th -of August, 1827, at Chiswick, in the beautiful villa of the Duke -of Devonshire, and in the same chamber where Mr. Fox breathed his -last. -</p><p> -One after the other, young and old, death gathered the great -actors of the long struggle sustained by England against the -anarchical passions and absolute ambition from without and the -contagion of fatal evils within. But few months after the death -of Mr. Canning, Lord Liverpool, in his turn, old and worn out, -already withdrawn from the world by an attack of paralysis, also -died. It was necessary to provide for the needs of government. A -cabinet of coalition slipped through the hands of Lord Goderich. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_456">{456}</a></span> -The Duke of Wellington had directed victoriously the affairs of -England in war, and the king now demanded of the great general -that he should take charge of the political affairs of the -government. The Duke, accustomed to obey the call of duty -wherever it led, did not hesitate, confiding simply in the power -of good sense and honest authority. The Whigs retired; the -liberal Tories, Mr. Peel at their head, closed their ranks around -the new chief whom fortune had sent them. -</p><p> -The young Lord Aberdeen, already distinguished, with Lord -Castlereagh, in the most important diplomatic negotiations, now, -for the first time, took part in the internal government of his -country. He had the good fortune to be loved and honored by all, -both at home and abroad, during his entire career. The ministry -had, from the beginning, to confront a difficult and long -contested question. It found itself constrained to support and -defend a measure that it had previously ardently combatted. The -situation in Ireland occupied all minds; the emancipation of the -Catholics became, more than ever, in the eyes of some, the -evident remedy for all evils; but to others, the object of lively -inquietude and profound repugnance. -</p><p> -Commerce had developed in Ireland; industry had increased her -exportations; the ministers hostile to the measures that were -demanded to relieve the miseries of a neighboring and dependent -kingdom, cited with pride the figures of the statistics: but the -wealth was concentrated in a small number of hands; the -proprietors of the soil were, for the most part, strangers to -Ireland; absent or indifferent to her sufferings. The common -people were engaged in agricultural pursuits of the most -primitive character, without other care than to draw from the -earth, with the least possible effort, the subsistence necessary -from day to day. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_457">{457}</a></span> -The introduction of the potato, by giving the peasants a food -more economical than wheat, had increased their idleness, their -improvidence, and their misery. Without money, without resources, -without education, habitually separated from the higher classes, -the Irish peasantry lived in a state bordering on barbarism. "The -last of the animals, does not support its kind," said, in 1822, -the most illustrious of their advocates, Daniel O'Connell, often -most useful but many times dangerous to their cause: "Their homes -should not be called houses—they have no right to that title: -they are huts, built in the earth, partly thatched over, partly -exposed to the elements. No furniture garnishes the interior; it -is a luxury to possess a trunk; and a table is rarely to be -found. All the family live in one room; they have no beds, and -sleep upon straw; in the mountainous districts they scarcely have -sufficient covering. Their wages are not above eight cents per -day, and even at that rate, farm hands cannot find work. Their -land, therefore, is their only means of support, and this land is -leased to them at a price far above its real value, owing to the -numerous middlemen who come between the proprietors and the -peasants." -</p><p> -So much suffering, so long endured without effectual relief, in a -situation seemingly without issue, at last brought about a -violent agitation, which was used to foment religious and -political passions. The Test Act was repealed, and a simple oath -of allegiance was substituted for the compulsory communion with -the established Church. This was the first step leading to the -emancipation of the Catholics; all felt it, even the protestant -dissenters, who supported the measure, although it was of more -benefit to their traditional enemies, the Catholics, than to -themselves. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_458">{458}</a></span> -<p> -Public opinion was at the time violent but brilliantly directed. -Under Mr. Canning the Irish Catholics were careful not to obtrude -their claims, as they feared to embarrass, by public alarm, the -good will of the government. When they saw the power fall into -the hands of the Tories, they at once engaged passionately in the -contest: the Catholic associations commenced their popular -assemblies, their harangues, their addresses, their pamphlets, -their subscriptions, all their ardent and adroit work, as much to -excite and to discipline the people in England as to encourage -and recruit their partisans in Ireland. O'Connell and Moore, two -men of very unequal powers, but both powerful at this time, by -diverse means, marched at the head of this crusade for the -emancipation of their faith and race. O'Connell, that robust and -audacious wrestler, that inventive and strategic legislator, -indefatigable in his eloquence, brilliant or vulgar, captivating -or diverting, devoted with unscrupulous passion to the cause -which made at the same time his glory and his fortune; Moore, -patriotic and worldly poet, pathetic and satirical, as popular in -the salons of London as O'Connell in the meetings of Ireland; -singing his melodies while O'Connell breathed forth his -invectives, both constant in their efforts, rallying to the -service of the same cause the mass of the people and the elegant -world, the impetuous passions and the elevated thoughts, the -ambition of men, and the sympathy of women, the Celtic peasants -and the Saxon nobles, the Catholic priests and the philosophic -Whigs. -</p><p> -The grandeur of the purpose responded to the ardor of the effort. -O'Connell was elected from the county of Clare, to that House of -Commons from which he was excluded by law. Ireland was completely -under his control; sometimes precipitating itself to the last -limits of legal order, then again docile and prudent. In England, -among the different classes of the laity, as well as in the bosom -of the Anglican Church, public sentiment favorable to the -Catholic Church gained ground day by day. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_459">{459}</a></span> -<p> -As obstinate in its alarms, as sincere in its faith, Protestant -Toryism struggled against the tide, but that struggle became more -and more feeble; the Orange societies of Ireland weakly opposed -the meetings of the Catholic associations, and in the House of -Lords, Lord Eldon himself lost confidence: "We will combat," said -he, "but we will be in a miserable minority. That which is most -disastrous is that many bishops will be against us." -</p><p> -Without being more sincere than Lord Eldon, the bishops favorable -to the emancipation of the Catholics had judged better than he of -their duty as Christian prelates, and the true interests of their -religious faith; the government also realized that the measure -had become necessary. The Duke of Wellington, always ready to -confront the truth, however disagreeable it might be, now became -convinced that the present state of affairs in Ireland ought not -to be prolonged, and that it was necessary to remove all cause -and all legitimate pretext for the intrigues and maneuvres of the -agitators. Religious liberty was not in question; thanks to the -progress of public opinion in the midst of Christian -civilization, the practical freedom of religious beliefs, and -different worship, either Protestant or Catholic, was not -affected: it was the equality of political rights, the separation -of civil from religious society that they demanded; and it was -from a government whose entire political establishment, royalty, -parliament and legislation, was exclusively protestant, that this -declaration was to emanate and become law. It was in consequence -of the pressing necessity, and not from any general principles of -truth and justice, that the Duke of Wellington and Mr. Peel -decided to present to Parliament, a measure that they were unable -any longer to resist, and for which they had with great -difficulty obtained the consent of the king. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_460">{460}</a></span> -<p> -It was not from principle that George IV. resisted the demands of -his ministers. Protestantism was a tradition of his house; he -regarded it as the foundation of his throne; he wished besides to -shows his authority. He feigned an endeavor to form a new cabinet -but did not succeed. "What am I to do?" said he to Lord Eldon, -"my situation is miserable. If I give my consent I shall go to -Hanover. I shall return no more to England." In order to guard -against treachery or weakness, the ministers exacted a written -authorization from him. On the 5th of March, 1829, Mr. Peel -proposed to the House of Commons the abolition of the civil and -political disabilities which weighed upon the Catholics. -Violently attacked, and censured for his cowardice in renouncing -his life-long opinion before servile terrors, the great minister -replied: "I know of no motive of conduct more ignominious than -fear; but there is a disposition more dangerous perhaps yet, -although less base; it is the fear of being suspected of having -feared. However vile a coward may be, the man who abandons -himself to the fear of being treated as a coward, shows but -little more courage. The ministers of his majesty have not been -alarmed by the Catholic associations; they had stifled all -attempts at intimidation; but there are fears which are not -repugnant to the character of the firmest man, <i>constantis -viri</i>. There are things which cannot be seen without fear. One -<i>ought</i> not to see without fear the disorganization and the -disaffection which exists in Ireland, and that one that affects -not to fear them, would show himself insensible to the happiness -or misfortune of his country." -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/460.jpg" border=1><br> -Windsor Castle. -</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_461">{461}</a></span> -<p> -It was in the same spirit of patriotic uneasiness that the Duke -of Wellington said to the House of Lords: "It has been my fortune -to have seen much of war, more than most men; I have been -constantly engaged in the active duties of the military -profession. From boyhood until I have grown gray my life has been -passed in familiarity with scenes of death and human suffering. -Circumstances have placed me in countries where the war was -internal, between parties of the same nation; and rather than a -country I loved should be visited with the calamities which I -have seen, with the unutterable horrors of a civil war, I would -run any risk; I would make any sacrifice; I would freely lay down -my life." -</p><p> -The emancipation of the Catholics had not borne all the fruits of -pacification and of conciliation that was expected; it left alive -many germs of bitterness, destined more than once to produce -cruel agitations. It was nevertheless legitimate, necessary and -honorable to the government which proposed it, and the Parliament -which passed it. Truth and justice are powerful in the souls of -men, whatever be the passions which animate them or the -prejudices which blind them. It was with the serene sentiment of -a great task nobly accomplished that Mr. Peel said to the House -of Commons, some months later, "I say without any feeling of -hostility or bitterness, I fully knew, from the first day, the -dolorous results that the emancipation of the Catholics would -have for me, both personally and in my public character; but if -the same circumstances should occur again, if I had to take my -resolution anew on this subject, and with still more knowledge of -the sacrifice, I would announce this evening to the House, a -motion to propose that measure." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_462">{462}</a></span> -<p> -Some months after the ratification of the emancipation bill. King -George IV. died at Windsor (June 26th, 1830). Great events, both -at home and abroad took place under his regency or during his -reign. Peace was concluded in Europe after the last efforts of a -supreme struggle; the great injustice so long endured by the -English Catholics, was removed by the free action of the -Protestants. This glory belonged to others rather than to him: he -left the Duke of Wellington to conquer at Waterloo—he had so -many times recounted the part he had taken in the combat that he -finally forgot that he had not left England during that epoch. He -left the Duke of Wellington and Mr. Peel to bear alone the burden -of a measure to which he was opposed from habit of mind, as well -as from personal repugnance, without any conscientious scruples. -Brilliant, highly educated and refined, he spread about him, in -the intimacy of his court, a baneful influence; corrupt himself -and a corrupter of others. The burdens of the foreign wars and -the great Parliamentary struggles, left only as their results, -demoralization and lasting evil to the country. -</p> -<br> - - <h2>Chapter. XLI. -<br><br> - William IV.<br> - Parliamentary Reform.<br> - (1830-1837).</h2> -<br> -<p> -A grand and consoling spectacle to contemplate, is that -throughout the whole course of English history, the great lords -and the landed gentry, the masters of the soil and of the -national wealth, are always to be found in the front rank in -political contests as well as in the army; in Parliament as well -as on the field of battle. The English barons had wrested Magna -Charta from John Lackland; in the government which was to -accomplish a parliamentary reform, useful and legitimate in some -respects, doubtful and bold in others, thirteen members of the -House of Lords headed the popular movement, resolved to raise -high the standard of a reform fatal to their influence and their -natural domination. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_463">{463}</a></span> -Courageously faithful in its task of moderating the outbursts of -the inconsiderate passions of the nation, the English aristocracy -has never yielded its right to be the first to brave all dangers, -and the first to advance all progress: it has lessened the -encroachments of the rising wave of democracy; it has opened its -ranks to all signal merit; it has given up its children to common -life and common labor, prompt to bear the burden of the national -destiny, in all its directions, and ardent to maintain England in -that glorious position in the vanguard of liberty, that she has -occupied with honor in Europe for many centuries. -</p><p> -Following the emancipation of the Catholics, the parliamentary -reform proposed and sustained by Lord John Russell and Lord Grey, -was a new and shining example. Confusedly, and without fully -comprehending the import of their acts and of their hopes, the -Whigs began to see that a new spirit was now animating the world, -and that the breath of the French Revolution had not passed in -vain over a generation that was slowly disappearing, leaving to -its success, a work begun. It was again that the agitation and -excitement of the popular passions came from France. The -revolution of July, 1830, had substituted upon the throne the -younger branch of the House of Bourbon, in place of the elder, -which had been induced by fatal counsels to violate its -engagements with the nation. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_464">{464}</a></span> -<p> -At the first report of the cannon of King Charles X., some one -asked the Duke of Wellington what he thought of the result? "It -is a new dynasty," answered the Duke. "And what course shall you -take?" "First, a long silence, and then we will concert with our -allies what we shall say." The national sympathy of England did -not permit so much prudence and reserve. From the month of August -it solemnly recognized Louis Philippe—"in the name of the new -King of England." William IV. but recently Duke of Clarence, had -succeeded his brother George IV. Educated for the navy, he had -never shown much talent in his profession: he was an honest -prince, of moderate intelligence, without any children living. -His wife Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, was a virtuous and agreeable -person, who exercised over the king her husband an influence, -often exaggerated by public rumor. -</p><p> -The new Parliament which assembled on the 2nd of November, 1830, -had been elected amidst extreme agitation. Disturbances and riots -had succeeded the electoral ferment, at many places; the ministry -were disturbed during the first day of the session. The day -following the address from the throne, the Reformers threw the -gauntlet to the cabinet. Lord Grey solemnly announced his views -and the end he desired; clever and sensible even in his boldness, -and placing in advance the limits which he had resolved not to -pass. "That which takes place under our own eyes ought to teach -us sagacity; when the spirit of liberty shines around us, it is -our first duty to guarantee our institutions by introducing -moderate reforms. I have been all my life favorable to reform, -but never have I been disposed to go further than to-day, if the -occasion should present itself. But I do not rest upon abstract -right, my reasons for claiming them. Some say that all men who -pay taxes, that all men who have attained their majority, have -the right to the electoral suffrage. I deny absolutely this -right. The right of the people is to be well governed, in a way -to assure its repose and its privileges; if this is incompatible -with universal suffrage, or even with an extension of the -suffrage, then the restriction, and not the extension of the -suffrage becomes the true duty of the people." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_465">{465}</a></span> -<p> -Wise maxims, ignored or unrecognized by the popular passions and -the absolute egotism of France, too often forgotten even in -England, by reformers more adventurous and less enlightened than -Lord Grey. The door that he wished to open, the way that he -traced for the future destinies of his country, excited -immediately a lively opposition on the part of the Duke of -Wellington. He responded without hesitation to Lord Grey: "As for -me, I recognize no system of representation to be better and more -satisfactory than that which England enjoys; this system -possesses and merits the full confidence of the country. I will -go further: if, at this moment, the duty were imposed upon me to -form a legislature for any country whatever, above all for a -country like ours, with great interests of all kinds, I do not -think that I would ever be able to form a legislature comparable -to this; for human sagacity does not attain at once so excellent -an institution. I am not prepared to propose the measure alluded -to by the noble lord. Not only am I not prepared to bring forward -any measure of this nature, but I will at once declare, that as -far as I am concerned, as long as I hold any station in the -government of the country, I shall always feel it my duty to -resist such measures when proposed by others." -</p><p> -The refusal was more peremptory than the public and even members -of the cabinet themselves expected; the external agitation became -so great that the king declined to visit London to attend the -Lord Mayor's banquet. Seditious movements were feared. On the -15th of November, a motion by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, -regarding the Civil List, was voted down; on the 16th the Cabinet -resigned: Sir Robert Peel as well as the Duke of Wellington. Lord -Grey and his friends, Lord John Russell, Lord Brougham, Lord -Palmerston, Lord Melbourne and Lord Althorpe, arrived at power. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_466">{466}</a></span> -From the first day they boldly raised the flag of Reform. "That -which I proposed when against the government, I have now the -power to accomplish," said Lord Grey; "and I engage myself to -present immediately to Parliament, a proposition for the reform -of our system of representation." Popular agitation was extreme; -the counties surrounding London were in a state of open -insurrection. After the declaration of Lord Grey, the situation -in Ireland became more alarming; the crops had failed, and the -sufferings of the people were excessive. O'Connell and his -friends, deprived of their weapons by the emancipation of the -Catholics, raised anew the question of the union of the two -kingdoms: they boldly demanded its repeal. O'Connell overran the -counties, haranguing the people and exciting their religious and -political passions; careful, however, to recommend that order -which he was constantly seeking to disturb, and violating -frequently the laws, feeling safe from all prosecution, inasmuch -as the government needed his support for the success of its great -enterprise. One measure alone occupied the thoughts of the -ministers: defeated in Parliament on the Budget, they called to -their aid all shades of liberals, modifying the first tenor of -their intentions, in order to assure themselves of victory. "My -first intention," said Lord Grey to the House of Lords, on the -28th of March, 1831, "was to reduce the reform to limits much -more circumscribed. After mature reflection, I am nevertheless -convinced that the measure, as actually presented, would alone be -able to satisfy the views of all classes, and assure to the -government security and respect." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_467">{467}</a></span> -<p> -Two questions occupied the reformers: the suppression of existing -abuses and the lawful extension of the political suffrage. I -borrow from May's Constitutional History the resumé of the bold -measures proposed by Lord John Russell in order to reach this -double result: -</p> -<p class="cite"> - "The main evil had been the number of nominations, or rotten - boroughs enjoying the franchise. Fifty-six of these, having - less than two thousand inhabitants, and returning one hundred - and eleven members, were swept away. Thirty boroughs, having - less than four thousand inhabitants, lost each a member. - Weymouth and Welcome Regis lost two. This disfranchisement - extended to one hundred and forty-three members. The next evil - had been, that large populations were unrepresented; and this - was now redressed. Twenty-two large towns, including - metropolitan districts, received the privilege of returning two - members; and twenty more of returning one. The large county - populations were also regarded in the distribution of seats, - the number of county members being increased from ninety-four - to one hundred and fifty-nine. The larger counties were - divided; and the number of members adjusted with reference to - the importance of the constituencies. By this distribution of - the franchise, the House of Commons was reduced in number from - six hundred and fifty-eight to five hundred and ninety-six, or - by sixty-two members. The number of electors was more than - doubled: it attained in the united kingdom to the number of - nine hundred thousand. All narrow rights of election were set - aside in boroughs, and a ten pound household franchise was - established." -</p><p> -The secret resolutions of the government had been strictly kept; -the joyous astonishment of the Reformers equalled the anger of -the Conservatives, a new name which the Tories had adopted, in -consequence of the attacks of their adversaries upon the -Constitution. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_468">{468}</a></span> -<p> -Astonishment and anger were followed by anxiety. Determined -resolution on the part of the Conservatives would be able, at the -outset, to defeat the bill and overthrow the cabinet. The -ministers were not ignorant of this fact. "We often sought to -divine the probable conduct of the opposition," subsequently -remarked Lord Brougham, then chancellor; "I said; If I was in -Peel's place I would not attempt to discuss the question; as soon -as Lord John Russell should sit down, I would declare that I was -decided not to discuss a measure so revolutionary, so insane, and -I would demand an immediate vote. If he does that we are lost." -The members of the cabinet who were not in the House of Commons -were at table at the house of the chancellor, anxiously waiting -for news of the discussion, when the last bulletin finally -arrived: "Peel has been speaking for twenty minutes," Lord -Brougham shouted for joy. "Hurrah!" cried he, "they discuss—we -are saved." -</p><p> -The shrewd instinct of the Reformers had not been deceived; no -matter however powerful and reasonable was the discussion, -however forcible the arguments against a reform more radical in -principle than in its practical application, time and debate were -necessarily favorable to a cause growing more and more popular, -notwithstanding the commotion and uneasiness of a great part of -the nation. Sir Robert Peel had not correctly judged the passions -which secretly agitated the masses. "Our judgment is troubled," -said he, "by what has just taken place in France. I admit that -the resistance of our neighbors to an illegal exercise of -authority has been legitimate; but consider what effects popular -resistance, even when legitimate, have upon national property, -upon industry, and upon the happiness of families. All that I ask -of you is that you take time to deliberate upon so grave a -question. When the people of England shall recover their strong -good sense, they will reproach you for having sacrificed the -Constitution of the country in your desire to take advantage of -an outburst of popular sentiment." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_469">{469}</a></span> -<p> -"I shall combat this bill to the end, because I believe it fatal -to our favored form of mixed government, fatal to the authority -of the House of Lords, fatal to that spirit of rest and prudence -which has gained for England the confidence of the world, fatal -to those habits and to those practices of government which, in -protecting efficaciously the property and the liberty of the -individual, have given to the executive power of this state, a -vigor unknown in any other time and in any other country. If the -bill proposed by the ministry is passed, it will introduce -amongst us the worst, and the vilest sort of despotism, the -despotism of demagogues, the despotism of the press; that -despotism which has driven neighboring countries, but recently -happy and flourishing, to the very borders of the abyss." -</p><p> -The good sense of the English nation, its wise respect for its -traditions, and that political instinct which has always warned -it on the eve of extreme peril, protected England again in this -instance from those grievous and terrible consequences, predicted -in 1831 by Sir Robert Peel, as the inevitable result of the -Reform bill. He had, nevertheless, put his finger upon the wound, -and justly indicated its effect: the equilibrium of the powers -was altered, and henceforth the will of the House of Commons -weighed in the balance to regulate the affairs and dispose of the -destinies of England, both at home and abroad. -</p><p> -At the second reading of the bill, it passed by a single vote. An -amendment by General Gascoigne against the reduction of the total -number of the House of Commons passed by a majority of eight. The -cabinet felt its measure threatened, and resolved to dissolve -Parliament and appeal to the electors. The chancellor undertook -to obtain the consent of the king. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_470">{470}</a></span> -He went with Lord Grey to the palace. William IV. resisted. "How -can I," said he, "after such a fashion, repay the kindness of -Parliament; in granting me a most liberal civil list, and giving -to the queen a splendid annuity in case she survives me?" And as -Lord Brougham explained the political reasons for an immediate -dissolution, the King objected: "The great officers of State are -not summoned."—"Pardon me, sire," and the Chancellor bowed -humbly: "we have taken the great liberty of informing them that -your Majesty would have need of their services."—"But the crown, -and the royal robes, and the other insignia of ceremony are not -prepared."—"I beg your Majesty to pardon my audacity—all is -ready."—"But, my Lords, it is impossible; my guards—the troops -have not received their orders; they cannot be ready -to-day."—"Pardon me, sir; I know how great my presumption has -been, but we have counted upon the goodness of your Majesty, upon -your desire to save the kingdom and to assure the happiness of -your people. I have given the orders—the troops are under -arms."—The King, flushed with anger, demanded, "How dare you go -so far, my Lord; you know well it is an act of treason—high -treason!"—"Yes sir, I know it," replied the chancellor, humbly, -though firmly looking the monarch in the face. "I am ready to -submit personally to all the punishments that it may please your -Majesty to inflict upon me, but I conjure your Majesty anew to -hear us and to follow our counsel." -</p><p> -Some hours later, after a violent agitation in the two Houses, -that preceded his coming, William IV. read to the assembled -Parliament the address which Lord Brougham had previously -prepared. The murmurs of surprise and disaffection rendered the -voice of the king scarcely audible; they listened only to the -first words: "My Lords and Gentlemen, I have come to meet you for -the purpose of proroguing this Parliament, with a view to its -immediate dissolution." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_471">{471}</a></span> -<p> -Thus prepared and ordered, the elections led, as might have been -expected, to scenes of sad disorder. The Reformers, intoxicated -with triumph and expectation, indulged in excesses that their -more prudent friends were not able to repress. The city of London -was illuminated on the night following the dissolution of -Parliament. At Edinburgh, the windows not illuminated were -broken. The Tory candidates were injured, at many places, and -sometimes were in great danger. The populace of Jedburgh insulted -the dying Sir Walter Scott. "<i>Troja fuit,</i>" wrote he, the -same day, in his journal. The popular illusions and ignorances -alarmed the more enlightened supporters of the measure. -</p><p> -"In the months of March and April," writes the celebrated Miss -Harriet Martineau, passionately engaged all her life in the -radical cause, "the great middle class, upon the intelligence of -which they counted to pass the bill, expected to see the time -come, when it would be necessary to refuse to pay their taxes, -and to march upon London to sustain the king, the ministry and -the mass of the nation, against a little group of selfish and -obstinate demagogues." -</p><p> -The political associations took an account of the number of their -disposable adherents; the president of the "Union of Birmingham" -declared that he would be able to furnish two armies each of -which was as good as the victors of Waterloo. Upon the coast of -Sussex ten thousand men declared themselves ready to march at the -first signal. Northumberland was ready, Yorkshire was aroused; it -might be said that the nation believed itself called upon to -march upon London. The opponents of reform trembled at the -thought that the cities would be at the mercy of the multitude. -"This measure," they said, "will owe its success only to -intimidation." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_472">{472}</a></span> -<p> -The Reformers, as well as their opponents, were anxious; after -the opening of the new Parliament on the 21st of June, 1831, the -king called the attention of the Houses to the disorders which -had taken place, as well as to the distress which existed in -Ireland, and begged of the legislature energetic remedies for -these evils. -</p><p> -On the 21st of September the reform bill passed the House of -Commons, by one hundred and nine majority. It was immediately -carried by Lord Grey to the House of Lords. -</p><p> -The debate lasted twenty-five days, and was powerful and grave; -sustained by men who knew their influence in the state was -menaced. They were, nevertheless, more occupied with the safety -of the country than with their personal authority. "I know the -courage of your Lordships," said Lord Grey, "and your proud -susceptibility to anything that looks like a menace; and I -repudiate all thought of intimidation, but I conjure you, if you -attach any value to your rights and privileges, if you hope to -transmit them intact to your posterity, to lend an ear to the -wishes of the people. Do not assume an attitude which would show -you deaf to the voice of nine-tenths of the nation, which appeals -to your wisdom in an accent too clear not to be heard, too -decisive not to be comprehended. I do not say, as was said on a -previous occasion by a noble Duke (Wellington), that the -rejection of this measure would lead to civil war: I have -confidence that such would not be the effect; but I foresee -consequences which cause me to tremble for the security of this -House, and for this nation. It is in the name of the tranquillity -and prosperity of your country that I conjure your Lordships to -reflect well, before rejecting this measure." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_473">{473}</a></span> -<p> -For a moment events seemed to justify the dolorous predictions of -the Duke of Wellington. During the discussion upon Catholic -emancipation and after the rejection of the reform bill in the -House of Lords (by forty-five majority), civil war seemed -imminent. At Derby, at Nottingham, and above all at Bristol, -violent disturbances took place, but were immediately repressed, -without great effort on the part of the government. Riots and -tumults were constantly fomented by political associations; these -however were definitely suppressed by that reaction which always -follows great disorders, as well as by the severe chastisement of -the leaders, three of whom suffered capital punishment during the -month of December, 1831. -</p><p> -A new reform bill was now presented to the House of Commons, by -Lord John Russell. Some reasonable modifications had been -introduced. One important change was to leave intact the total -number of members of the House. -</p><p> -This bill, like the first, passed the House by a large majority, -notwithstanding the efforts of Sir Robert Peel. Lord John Russell -indicated the importance of the measure, with the same anxious -solicitude which had recently characterized the efforts of Lord -Grey in the House of Lords. He claimed that the government had -weighty and serious reasons for proposing this measure. It had -been convinced, for some time past, that a law was necessary to -obviate abuses that it desires to correct, and to escape -convulsions that it wishes to avoid. If Parliament refused to -sanction this measure, it would lead to an inevitable collision -between that party which opposes all parliamentary reform, and -that other party which is only satisfied with universal suffrage. -"In consequence, torrents of blood would flow," said he, "and I -am perfectly convinced that the English Constitution would perish -in the conflict." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_474">{474}</a></span> -<p> -Secret negotiations were carried on in the House of Lords. The -ministry demanded the creation of new peers, destined to modify -the majority; the king hesitated for a long time, convinced of -the necessity of reform, but seriously opposed to the means -suggested. When he finally consented to make use of his -prerogative, the cabinet had resolved to attempt one more -venture. The second reading was voted by a majority of nine. Some -hostile peers were absent; most of the bishops voted for the -bill. But an amendment by Lord Lyndhurst made trouble for the -Reformers. He proposed, and the House of Lords voted by a -majority of thirty-five, that the new privileges accorded to the -towns and counties should be put in force before the abrogation -of the old rights of the boroughs. Upon this decision, which -gravely modified the law, and upon the refusal of the king to -create immediately sixty new peers, the whole ministry resigned. -</p><p> -It is in vain that timid prudence and sagacity attempt to stem -the irresistible tide of popular passions; those who have excited -them invariably fail to restrain them. The king called upon the -Duke of Wellington—always ready to brave danger. "I would not -dare to show myself in the street," said he, "if I refused to aid -my sovereign in the difficult position in which he is now -placed." All the efforts of the illustrious hero failed, -nevertheless, before the impossibility of forming a cabinet. Sir -Robert Peel refused a place in it. William IV. demanded that his -new councillors should themselves present a bill, more in -conformity with the desires and opinions of a great number of -conservatives, than that of Lord John Russell. -</p> -<p class="image"> -<img alt="[Image]" -src="images/474.jpg" border=1><br> -Wellington In The Mob. -</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_475">{475}</a></span> -<p> -"I have obstinately opposed the bill on principle," said Peel, -"and I do not know how I could rise and recommend, as minister, -the adoption of a similar measure. No authority, the example of -no man, nor any union of men, would tempt me to accept power -under such circumstances and with such conditions." -</p><p> -An address of the House of Commons called the attention of the -king to the critical state of affairs. William IV., wounded and -irritated, yielded with bitter regret. He recalled the Whig -cabinet and authorized it, in writing, to create the number of -peers necessary to assure the triumph of the reform bill. It was -unnecessary to have recourse to this extreme measure. The Duke of -Wellington, as well as the king, comprehended that the time had -come for the House of Lords to yield to the external pressure. -William IV. wrote to his friends to absent themselves. Upon the -renewal of the discussion, the duke arose, and followed by one -hundred peers, left the House and did not return until after the -passage of the reform bill. "If the lords of the opposition had -remained firm," subsequently said Lord Grey, as well as Lord -Brougham, "we would probably have been beaten, and the bill would -have failed, for we would not have exacted the fullfilment of the -kings promise." When William IV. and his intimate advisers bowed -their heads before the violence of public opinion, they judged -more accurately the irresistible force of the current let loose -by the Reformers; the time for resistance, as well as the time -for moderation, was past. -</p><p> -The new elections soon demonstrated this, as everywhere -throughout the country, the populace manifested great violence -toward the adversaries of the triumphant Reform. In London, on -the 18th of June, 1832, the anniversary of the battle of -Waterloo, while riding through the streets, the Duke of -Wellington was assailed by an indignant mob that literally -covered him with dirt and insults. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_476">{476}</a></span> -He pursued tranquilly his route, walking his horse. A furious -rioter seized the bridle and attempted to drag him from his -saddle; he was obliged to take refuge in the house of a friend, -protected by a number of young lawyers of Lincoln's Inn, who came -to his assistance. The next day the king, while in attendance at -the races at Ascot, was grievously wounded by a stone. His -self-possession and courage equalled the composure of the -duke—as imperturbable among the rioters, as indifferent to the -applause of the populace. All the windows of Apsley House were -broken in a moment of public frenzy. Wellington forbade the -replacing of those of the second story. At the return of popular -favor, as the people followed the duke with acclamations, he -advanced without turning his head, without giving a sign, to the -very door of his house; there dismounting from his horse, he -pointed with his hand toward the broken windows, shrugged his -shoulders and entered the house without uttering a single word. -</p><p> -The condition of the finances was serious; the monetary crises -had long weighed upon commerce, and political agitation had -alarmed and diminished the same. In order to meet the deficit in -the public revenue, the ministry proposed important retrenchments -in the war and navy departments—measures always favorably -received by the people, who see in them a guarantee of peace, -without realizing that they may become fatal to peace, as well as -to the national power. Ireland was aroused more violently than -ever; the Catholics, re-established in their political and civil -rights, demanded, by the voice of their agitators, the abolition -of the tithes with which they were burdened for the benefit of -the Church of England. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_477">{477}</a></span> -<p> -The first care of the Irish leaders, was to counsel the peasants -to refuse to pay these tithes. Scenes of disorder recommenced; -everywhere crimes against individuals increased tenfold. Scarcely -had the Reform Parliament reassembled, when it was called upon to -consider a bill of repression, energetically practical, which -would moderate for a time at least these outrages. At the same -time, and in order to appease the Catholic Irish party, who were -everywhere allied to the radicals, Lord Althorpe presented a bill -for the reduction of the Protestant ecclesiastical establishment -in Ireland: feeble precursor of the work that we have seen -accomplished in our day, and already at that time so vigorously -attacked by the conservatives, that the ministry was obliged to -mitigate its tenor before obtaining a majority in the House of -Lords. -</p><p> -Parliament, at this time, was also obliged to sanction an issue -of bills of exchequer in favor of the clergy in Ireland, -impoverished by the loss of the tithes. The tithes were imposed -upon the protestant landholders, who, however, added them to -their rents. -</p><p> -The excitement and irritation in Ireland appeared for a moment -subdued; but already, from all parts of the kingdom, arose a cry -of anger and of disappointment: reform ought to have a remedy for -all evils; parliamentary reform ought to relieve all misery. -</p><p> -"Of what use is the new parliament," asked Ashwood, on the 21st -of March, 1833, "if actual distress is not relieved? What will -the people say of a reform parliament which has already sat so -many weeks without having undertaken a single measure in favor of -those who are suffering? A general, an extreme, an extraordinary -distress weighs upon the whole country. Large numbers of the -agricultural laborers are worn out by excessive toil; many others -have nothing to do and die of hunger; labor is poorly -remunerated; manufacturers realize scarcely any profit; many work -at a loss; commerce declines in the same proportion, and a -hundred thousand men wander about the streets of London, seeking -work but finding none." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_478">{478}</a></span> -<p> -At this time, and in this agitated and difficult situation, it is -to the credit of the Whig cabinet that it did not allow itself to -be carried away by the uneasiness and discontent of its -partisans, nor by the ardor that animated its own members; it was -also to the credit of the Tories, a small number of whom were -returned to the new House, that they maintained a firm attitude, -resolved and candid, never descending to a fatal alliance with -the radicals. -</p><p> -Sir Robert Peel, at the opening of the session, said, with honest -pride: "As long as I shall see the government disposed to defend, -against all rash innovation, the rights of property, the -authority of law, the order of things established and regular, I -shall believe it my duty, without taking account of the -sentiments of party, to range myself on its side. I avow frankly -that my fears regarding this House are not that it will be too -ready to believe that all is evil which is established and old; I -do not doubt the good intentions of the majority, but I fear that -the greater part of its members have come here with the -impression that the institutions under which they live are full -of abuses that should be reformed, and that they have too great -confidence in our means of providing a remedy. Three months will -not have passed, I am convinced, before they will find themselves -disappointed in their expectations; it is absolutely impossible -that they should be satisfied. I have learned with satisfaction -that the ministers of his Majesty, although disposed to reform -all real abuses, are at the same time resolved to stand by the -Constitution as it now is, and to reject all experiments that -might cause anxiety in the public mind; I am decided to sustain -them in that resolution." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_479">{479}</a></span> -<p> -It was not only questions actual and pressing that the Reform -Parliament had to deal with, such as the financial measures, the -re-chartering of the Bank of England, and the modification of the -system of government in both the East and West Indies, but also -greater questions of humanity and policy; the abolition of -slavery, and the repeal of the Union with Ireland, equally -importunate and urgent, and ardently sustained or opposed by -their respective partisans. -</p><p> -The resistance of the colonies to the projected measures in favor -of the blacks, had become violent; a natural alarm had taken -possession of the slaveholders, disgusted by the disposition to -revolt that they saw day by day developing itself among the -negroes, and threatened by a ruin that they feared would be -complete. Already the local legislatures had refused to accede to -the orders of the Council, relative to the treatment of the -slaves; but Parliamentary reform had given a new impetus to the -generous zeal of the abolitionists. The government took the -question boldly in hand, justly weighing in the balance the -interests of the colonists, and the legitimate impatience of the -faithful partisans of the blacks. It was an effort requiring -courage and equity, at a time of such great financial -embarrassment, to present to a Parliament ardently favorable to -the abolition of slavery, a measure tending to the purchase of -the blacks, and requiring an indemnity to the planters of twenty -million pounds sterling. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_480">{480}</a></span> -<p> -The commerce of the West Indies had suffered severely; the value -of property had diminished, and the colonists accepted this new -and considerable reduction of their fortunes, not without -profound sadness, but without violence and without revolt. The -abolitionists protested against the liberality of the government; -national equity, however, recognized the good will and sagacity -which had inspired the report presented by Mr. Stanley; the bill -was finally passed by a large majority. Slavery was thus -abolished practically, as well as in principle; and England -obtained the honor of having first, without political obligation, -without revolutionary shock, in the name of the most elevated -sentiments of Christian philanthropy, given liberty to eight -hundred thousand slaves, thereby affording a noble example of -justice and virtue to all Christian nations. -</p><p> -The struggle for the abolition of slavery had been long and -difficult; persistently sustained in the face of frequent -disappointments and serious obstacles, it was finally brought to -a successful termination, to the great joy of its promoters. The -sincere and prudent friends of Ireland, were met by a problem -more grave still; a problem which seemed insoluble; that of the -repose and prosperity of that unhappy country, rent asunder anew -by insane agitators. The first motion for the "Repeal of the -Union" was presented to Parliament on the 22nd of April, 1834, by -the celebrated Daniel O'Connell. It was seriously opposed by Mr. -Spring Rice, and when put to vote, was defeated by a majority of -five hundred and twenty-three against thirty-eight in the House -of Commons, and unanimously by the Lords. But immediately the -ecclesiastical question was raised. Mr. Ward proposed another -reduction in the legal establishment of the Anglican Church in -Ireland. The Cabinet was divided upon the question; the most -conservative members of the ministry, "the leaven" of Mr. -Canning, Mr. Stanley, Sir John Graham, and the Duke of Richmond, -gave in their resignations. The Bishops of Ireland addressed an -appeal to the king: they were ready, they said, to co-operate for -the redress of all serious abuses, but they begged that the -government would not imprudently disturb the discipline and the -services of the Church. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_481">{481}</a></span> -The response of William was thoroughly Protestant and English; it -betrayed the widening of the breach that already existed between -the monarch and his Cabinet. The ministry had lost much ground in -public confidence; a difference which arose between Lords Grey -and Althorp, upon the subject of the renewal of the Irish -coercion bill, soon deprived the Cabinet of its chief. Lord Grey -tendered his resignation, and announced it himself in the House -of Lords with an emotion that twice overpowered him. Finally, for -the third time, he began: "My lords, I feel quite ashamed of the -sort of weakness I show on this occasion, a weakness which arises -from my deep sense of the personal kindness which, during my -having been in his service, I have received from my sovereign. -However, my lords, I have a duty to perform, which, painful as it -may be, I must discharge: I no longer address you as a minister -of the crown, but as an individual member of Parliament. In -retiring during the course of the administration of which I was -chief, I feel confident of having acted in the spirit of the -time, without having ever preceded or retarded its march." -</p><p> -The efforts of the ministry thus mutilated and lessened, to -govern powerfully were vain. The bill regarding the Irish Church, -proposed by Lord Melbourne, was rejected by the House of Lords. -The violence of the attacks of the press redoubled; disorder in -Ireland increased: the king declared frankly to Lord Melbourne -that he had no confidence in his cabinet, and that he intended to -recall the Duke of Wellington (November, 1834). -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_482">{482}</a></span> -<p> -It was under the weight of its own efforts, and of the movement -that it had itself inaugurated, that the great Whig ministry, so -wisely and ably directed by Lord Grey, succumbed. It had opened -the way to wild hopes and infinite illusions, without the power -to satisfy the one, or moderate the other; it was swept away by a -rising wave which it vainly endeavored to resist. It is to its -honor and lasting glory, that it used prudently and courageously -the immense power, still new and confused, that parliamentary -reform had placed in its hand, without exceeding the limits which -it had itself imposed. Its measures were moderate and wise, its -resistance to the desires and insensate passions of the masses -were honest and firm. Lord Grey remained popular, even after the -fall of his ministry. The internal affairs of the nation had been -so important, and the interests involved so pressing, that the -foreign policy of the cabinet had received but little attention -in either house, and was almost lost sight of by the general -public. It had nevertheless touched upon weighty matters, -essential to the repose of Europe; the relations of England with -the French government after the revolution of 1830, the formation -of the kingdom of Belgium, and the Spanish question. These last -two European complications had put to the test the good feeling -which existed between the French and English governments: they -had definitively served to confirm and strengthen the alliance of -the two nations. The recognition of Louis Philippe by England had -been cordial and prompt; very different from the ill-humor and -repugnance manifested by Prussia and Russia. It had its origin in -a spontaneous and sincere national sentiment, the adhesion of the -country to the liberal and conservative policy which had -succeeded the revolutionary movement in France. The new union and -the good understanding which naturally resulted from this -attitude of England, contributed powerfully to the happy issue of -the Belgium question. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_483">{483}</a></span> -The smouldering dissatisfaction which had existed throughout -several centuries, between the Flemish Low Countries and Holland, -had finally burst forth; the union was abruptly broken. -Immediately following the separation, the new state demanded of -the King Louis Philippe, one of his sons for the throne of -Belgium. He refused. "The Low Countries have always been a -stumbling block to the peace of Europe," said he to Guizot. "None -of the great powers can see them in the hands of another, without -great inquietude and jealousy. Let them become by general consent -an independent and neutral state, and that state will become the -keystone of the arch of European order." These wise and prudent -views were approved by both the English and French cabinets. The -King Louis Philippe had sent Talleyrand to London, and Lord -Granville was the English ambassador at Paris. Both were well -qualified for the work they had undertaken; the efficacious union -of France and England for the maintenance of the peace of Europe. -</p><p> -The first result of their efforts was the accession of the Prince -Leopold of Saxe-Coburg to the throne of Belgium. But lately the -adored husband of the Princess Charlotte of England, and still -popular in his adopted country, the new sovereign bound himself -to France by espousing the Princess Louise, eldest daughter of -Louis Philippe. -</p><p> -The two powers testified their satisfaction and good-will by -delivering his country from the presence of the Holland forces. -After an agreement signed at London on the 22nd of October, 1832, -not without a certain distrust on the part of Lord Palmerston, -charged with the administration of foreign affairs in the cabinet -of Lord Grey, the Belgian fortresses still occupied by the -Holland troops were evacuated. A French army under Marshal -Gérard, accompanied by the young Duke of Orleans, laid siege to -Anvers. This place, already the scene of so many bloody -conflicts, and so many diplomatic negotiations, during centuries -past, was obliged to capitulate, on the 23rd of December, 1832. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_484">{484}</a></span> -The kingdom of Belgium was now definitively constituted, and -destined to prosper rapidly under its wise and prudent sovereign, -who constantly endeavored to maintain around him that equilibrium -so essential to the preservation of peace in Europe, and so -indispensable to the development as well as the security of his -little state. -</p><p> -Spain had been for a long time the object of profound anxiety to -the astute statesmen of Europe. King Ferdinand VII. had just died -(September, 1833), leaving the succession to the throne -contested, notwithstanding the definitive act, sanctioned by the -Cortes, which had assured the crown to his eldest daughter -Isabella. Hesitating for a long time between family affection and -those absolute tendencies which had exiled into France all the -intelligent liberals of Spain, the monarch who had just breathed -his last, had scattered the seeds of the Carlist insurrection, -which broke out immediately after his death. A numerous and -obstinate party sustained the right of the infant Don Carlos to -the throne, in the name of the Salic law established in Spain by -the pragmatic sanction of Philip V., and recognized for some time -by Ferdinand VII. himself. The English and French cabinets did -not hesitate; by common consent they recognized the titles of the -young Queen Isabella II., as conformable to the ancient Spanish -law accepted by the nation. Civil war broke out in Spain. It had -already begun in Portugal, where the usurper Don Miguel, -contended in the name of the same principles for the exclusion of -the young Queen Donna Maria. Already the new governments of the -two kingdoms were compelled to ask assistance of the great -constitutional and liberal powers. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_485">{485}</a></span> -<p> -On the 15th of April, 1834, the triple alliance was concluded at -London between England, Spain and Portugal. A month later, and -upon the objection of the French government to the presumptions, -exclusively English, of Lord Palmerston, France in her turn -joined the alliance already known and powerful in Europe, -although no armed intervention had seconded the popular movement. -Civil war did not cease in Spain; it lasted for a long time, -breaking out anew at irregular intervals, yet always ardent and -obstinate. Meanwhile Don Carlos had embarked for England, and Don -Miguel had finally quitted Portugal, and retired into Italy. -Everywhere French and English diplomacy had been moderately but -firmly exerted in the service of the public welfare, and had -everywhere brought forth good fruit. -</p><p> -Wearied by the yoke that the Whigs had imposed upon him, and by -the violence he had done to his own views and inclinations, the -king called upon the Duke of Wellington. For the first time that -noble hero refused to serve his sovereign. "No sir," said he, "in -the new order of things the difficulties lie in the House of -Commons; and as that House now has the preponderance, its chief -ought to direct the government. Address yourself to Sir Robert -Peel; I will serve under him in any position that it shall please -your majesty to place me." Sir Robert Peel was in Italy—so also -was Fox, when called upon to succeed Pitt. While awaiting his -return, the Duke of Wellington, in concert with Lord Lyndhurst, -appointed chancellor, conducted alone the affairs of the -government, and taking charge of three ministerial departments, -without other solicitude than the prompt expedition of the work, -he cared but little for the objections which were raised against -this irregular administration. Sir Robert Peel accepted the -burden which was imposed upon him and upon his friends, without -either co-operation or support from without. Lord Stanley and Sir -James Graham refused to enter the cabinet. The Tories found -themselves alone in the face of a House of Commons profoundly -hostile. Parliament was immediately dissolved. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_486">{486}</a></span> -<p> -Sir Robert Peel, in expounding his principles in a long address -to his constituents at Tamworth, said: "I will repeat the -declaration which I made when I entered the House of Commons as a -member of the Reformed Parliament;—I consider the reform bill -as a final and irrevocable settlement of a great constitutional -question—a settlement which no friend to the peace and welfare -of his country would attempt to disturb, either by direct or -indirect means. If by the adoption of the spirit of the reform -bill, it becomes necessary to live in a perpetual vortex of -agitation, that public men can only sustain themselves in public -opinion by yielding to popular demands of each day, by promising -to redress immediately all abuses that may be pointed out, by -abandoning that great support of the government, more efficacious -than law or reason itself—the respect for ancient rights and -authorities consecrated by time; if that is the spirit of the -reform bill, I will not support it. If the spirit of the bill -implies merely a careful review of institutions, civil and -ecclesiastical, undertaken in a friendly temper; combining, with -the firm maintenance of established rights, the correction of -proved abuses and the redress of real grievances;—in that case I -can for myself and my colleagues undertake to act with such a -spirit and with such intentions." -</p><p> -And some weeks later, after his first check in the new -Parliament, upon the election of speaker, he continued: "I make -you great offers, which ought not to be inconsiderately rejected. -I offer you the prospect of a durable peace, the return of the -confidence of powerful states who are disposed to seize this -occasion to reduce their armies and remove the danger of hostile -collisions. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_487">{487}</a></span> -I offer you reduced estimates, improvements in civil -jurisprudence, reform of ecclesiastical laws, the settlement of -the tithe question in Ireland, the commutation of tithes in -England, the removal of any real abuse in the Church, and the -redress of those grievances of which the dissenters have any just -ground to complain. I offer also the best chance that these -things can be effected, in willing concert with the other -authorities of the state—thus restoring harmony, insuring the -maintenance, but not excluding the reform, where reform is really -requisite, of ancient institutions. You may reject my offers, you -may refuse to hear them, but if you do so, the time is -approaching when you will perceive that the popular sentiment -upon which you have relied has abandoned you." -</p><p> -Party passion was at this time too violent and party animosity -too intense, for the newly elected house to lend an ear to this -wise and patriotic language. O'Connell had sold the support of -the Irish Catholics to the Whigs, and his price was the "Repeal -of the Union." "I belong to the Repeal," said he to the electors, -"dead or alive, saved or lost, I belong to the Repeal; and I make -a solemn engagement with those who are the most opposed to me, to -serve them in all things, in a way to render the transition not -only without danger, but perfectly easy." -</p><p> -The deputies of the counties were for the most part -Conservatives, but the towns and boroughs gave a majority for the -Whigs. Sir Robert Peel accepted many checks without recoiling -before the danger, presenting day after day to Parliament the -measures which he believed to be useful to the public service; -determined to defy the opposition as long as it did not touch -upon points that he regarded as vital questions. Lord John -Russell was not tardy in responding to this defiance. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_488">{488}</a></span> -On the 30th of March, 1835, he renewed the attack but lately -directed against the Irish Church: "Missionary Church," he said, -"instituted with a view of leading the Irish population to the -Protestant faith, adapted to future wants that had been foreseen -but had never yet manifested themselves." He proposed then to -revise the ecclesiastical establishment by applying to public -instruction the sums and endowments which were now found -necessary for the religious maintenance of the curates and their -flocks. With Sir Robert Peel it was now a question of conscience -as well as of absolute conviction. Seconded by Lord Stanley, he -maintained that the ecclesiastical property proceeded from -endowments made to the Church, and properly belonged to it, and -that no one had the right to divert the same from its primitive -and religious destination. The motion of Lord John Russell was -carried, however, by a vote of three hundred and twenty-two -against two hundred and eighty-nine. The majority was in the -hands of the Irish Catholics. -</p><p> -Sir Robert Peel and his friends resolved to retire. They had -risen in the contest which they had so courageously sustained for -four months; their adversaries, as well as the entire country, -felt this, and they hastened to seize again the reins of power. -</p><p> -"No indifference for public life, no distaste for the fatigues -and weariness that it imposes, no consideration of personal -comfort, no grief of private life, would authorize a public man, -in my estimation, to desert without imperative reason the post to -which his sovereign has called him," said Sir Robert Peel, in the -House of Commons, on the 8th of April, 1835. "But at the same -time, it is a great misfortune to present to the country the -spectacle of a government which does not find in the House of -Commons the support necessary to safely conduct the affairs of -the country, nor exercise upon the acts of that House an -influence which confidence alone can give; to such a spectacle of -feebleness there are limits, which one ought not to pass." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_489">{489}</a></span> -<p> -During six years of alternate languor and energy, the cabinet of -Lord Melbourne governed England; master of the House of Commons, -and for a long time powerful in the country, losing however -little by little its popularity as well as its resources, and -slowly conquered by that adversary which had but recently -predicted its fall. "You will have no other alternative than to -invoke our aid and replace the government in the hands from which -you wish to wrest it to-day," said Sir Robert Peel, in the month -of December, 1834, "or have recourse to that pressure from -without, to those methods of compulsion and of violence which -will render your reforms vain, and will seal the death warrant of -the British Constitution." -</p><p> -Lord Grey had never renounced power; "susceptible and proud, with -a mind more elevated than discerning, he was unskilful in -defending himself from small intrigues that he was incapable of -plotting." Worn out by a long life devoted to politics, he was -sad in his noble retirement, notwithstanding the affection of his -wife and numerous children, and the profound respect always shown -him by those who had served under his banners. Lord Althorpe, now -become Earl Spencer, as well as Lord Brougham, took no part in -the new cabinet. Lord Melbourne, Lord John Russell and Lord -Palmerston, sagacious in different degrees, undertook to continue -the work of reform, but lately victoriously begun, and more -difficult to accomplish, with prudent moderation, than its ardent -defenders had at first foreseen. Many changes, but recently -loudly demanded, were silently abandoned; they compromised upon -the Irish Church question, agreeing to the conditions proposed by -Sir Robert Peel; only the reform of the municipal corporations -was accomplished slowly and with difficulty in Ireland, useful -nevertheless and everywhere accepted. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_490">{490}</a></span> -The struggle was severe, and bold hands were raised against the -foundations of the English Constitution, and against the -hereditary rights of the House of Lords. But at the same time -that the audacity of the Reformers increased and developed a -spirit of resistance, a reaction, sober and moderate, firmly -resolved to defend those ancient institutions which have been the -grandeur as well as the security of England. It was in support of -these principles that Sir Robert Peel, on the 11th of January, -1836, addressed his friends and adherents assembled at Glasgow to -elect a rector for the university. A great number of the persons -present had but recently been warm supporters of the reform -movement. "If you adhere to the principles which you professed in -1830, it is here you ought to come," said Sir Robert Peel. "You -consented to a reform, invited by a speech from the throne, -expressly on the condition that it should be according to the -acknowledged principles of the Constitution. I see the necessity -of widening the foundations on which the defence of our -Constitution and religious establishment must rest, but I do not -wish to conciliate your confidence by hoisting false colors. My -object is to support our national establishments which connect -Protestantism with the State, in the three realms. I avow to you -that I mean to support in its full integrity the House of Lords, -as an essential, indispensable condition for maintaining the -Constitution under which we live. If you assent to this opinion, -the hour is arrived when we must all be prepared to act on the -declaration of it. The disturbing force of foreign example has -diminished; the dazzling illusions of the glorious days have -passed away, and the affections of the people are visibly -gravitating again to their old centre, full of a respect for -property, a love for national freedom, and an attachment to long -established institutions." -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_491">{491}</a></span> -<p> -"From these walls I trust a spirit will go forth to animate the -desponding and encourage the timid. I look to the moral influence -of that opinion, which constitutes the chief defence of nations. -I look to it for the maintenance of that system of government -which protects the rich from spoliation, and the poor from -oppression. I look to that spirit which will range itself under -no tawdry banner of revolution, but will unfurl and rally round -the flag which has braved for a thousand years the battle and the -breeze. I do not doubt that it will continue to float -triumphantly, and that our Constitution, tried as it has been in -the storms of adversity, will come forth purified and fortified -in the rooted convictions, feelings and affections of a -religious, moral and patriotic people." -</p><p> -It was against his personal inclinations, but in conformity to -constitutional principles sincerely accepted and practised, that -King William IV. had successively sanctioned the important -reforms which were accomplished under his reign. His royal task -was soon to terminate; from day to day his health became more -feeble, and on the 20th of June, 1837, he expired at Windsor. The -supreme power fell into the hands of his young niece, the -Princess Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent, who, on the same -day, was proclaimed Queen, at Kensington. The new sovereign of -the three kingdoms, England, Scotland, and Ireland, whose laws -extend over so many distant colonies and diverse peoples, was -only eighteen years of age. -</p><p> -We have momentarily closed the History of France with the death -of the ancient Régime, at the confused and menacing beginning of -a terrible revolution, continued through many years, the memory -of which still profoundly agitates that country; we will close -the History of England at the death of King William IV., at the -beginning of a new reign, tenderly greeted by the nation, -destined to a long prosperity, rarely interrupted by wars—always -gloriously terminated. -</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_492">{492}</a></span> -<p> -Reforms have continued: bold and moderate, wise and prudent, -without ever altering the fundamental character of the -Constitution, yet profound enough to maintain England in the -first rank among liberal and free countries. The first to march -to battle for the great political rights of humanity; she has -gained them not without errors, not without crimes; she has -preserved and protected them after having definitively closed the -fatal era of revolutions. A noble spectacle and fortifying -example, which fills us with admiration and with a generous envy, -without however discouraging us, nor disturbing us in our fond -hope for our well beloved country; she has long sought repose in -order, and security in liberty; she has often caught sight of -these, and she will assuredly find them one day. -</p><p> -While awaiting that supreme hour, the constant aim of our -efforts, it is our duty and our honor to seek everywhere in the -experience of history, as in the lessons of the present, the -power of sustaining without wavering the flag of noble hopes, -that flag which has been bequeathed to us by dying hands, with -the watchword of the old Roman Emperor: "Laboremus—Laboremus." -</p> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Popular History Of England From the -Earliest Times To The Reign Of Queen , by François Guizot and Henriette Guizot de Witt - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POPULAR HISTORY OF ENGLAND, VOL IV *** - -***** This file should be named 62277-h.htm or 62277-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/2/7/62277/ - -Produced by Don Kostuch -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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