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diff --git a/old/62257-8.txt b/old/62257-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 68cf880..0000000 --- a/old/62257-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5048 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Practical Organ Building, by W. E. Dickson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: Practical Organ Building - -Author: W. E. Dickson - -Release Date: May 28, 2020 [EBook #62257] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL ORGAN BUILDING *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Alan and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -[Illustration: _Frontispiece_.] - - - - - PRACTICAL - - ORGAN-BUILDING - - BY W. E. DICKSON, M.A. - PRECENTOR OF ELY CATHEDRAL - - _SECOND EDITION, REVISED, WITH ADDITIONS_ - - [Illustration: Capio Lumen] - - - LONDON - CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND CO. - 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL - 1882 - - [_All rights reserved_] - - - - - LONDON: - PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED, - CITY ROAD. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -THIS little work is undertaken because it is believed that no treatise -on the construction of organs, at once short, practical, and accessible -by all classes of readers, is extant. - -The bulky volume of Hopkins and Rimbault, worthy as it is of all -commendation, and abounding with matter interesting to the musician, -does not profess to enter into details essential to the workman. The -same remark may be applied to sundry treatises in the form of articles -contributed to Encyclopædias, or to periodicals of a popular kind. -The writers of these articles, probably fully masters of the subject, -cannot, from the very nature of the case, command the time, space, and -amplitude of illustration absolutely necessary for the full elucidation -of the mechanical processes involved in the construction of the most -elaborate and ingenious of all musical instruments. - -Readers of the French language, indeed, may find all that they require -in a most admirable and exhaustive work, the "Facteur d'Orgues," by M. -Hamel, forming one of the series of the "Manuels-Roret," published -in 1849 by Roret of Paris, in three volumes, with an atlas of plates. -The author of this complete exposition of the organ-builder's art has -taken for the foundation of his book the great work of Dom Bedos, a -Benedictine monk, who printed in 1766-78, at Paris, two sumptuous folio -volumes, with plates, which leave unnoticed nothing which was known or -practised by the workmen of his period. The modern editor, however, who -displays a most intimate knowledge of his subject, together with an -enviable power of explaining it in all its minutest details, aided, as -he is, by the most accurate of all European languages, has produced in -his third volume a manual of the art of organ-building in recent times, -which covers the whole field of investigation, and of which it is not -too much to say that it can never be surpassed. - -A somewhat indifferent translation of a German treatise on the "Organ -and its Construction," by Herr Seidel, of Breslau, appeared some years -ago. But this work, like the English publication first noticed, is -not for the dwellers in workshops, but for organists, choir-masters, -clergymen, and others entrusted with the care of existing organs, or -likely to be concerned in the erection of new ones. - -The writer has lately perused, with much pleasure and advantage, a -tract of about forty pages on "Organ Voicing and Tuning," published for -the author (evidently a practical operator). He can warmly recommend -this unpretending introduction to the highest branch of the art, so -seldom mastered save by those who have had the advantage of early and -assiduous practice under skilled guidance. But it deals, of course, -with that highest branch only, and assumes previous knowledge of -mechanical construction. - -He himself, several years ago, contributed a short series of articles -on the construction of small organs to a periodical publication now -extinct. The letters which he received from working men, urging him -to treat the subject in greater detail, furnished a striking proof of -the extent to which the leisure hours of many artisans are devoted -to the production of an organ in some one of its innumerable forms, -from the toy with two or three stops to the complete instrument with -as many rows of keys. Such inquirers will not be satisfied, he fears, -by the narratives of "How we made our First Organ," and the like, -in well-meant and otherwise well-written books for boys. The real -difficulties of organ-building (and they are numerous) are simply -evaded in some recent books of this kind, which convey the irresistible -impression that their authors are not themselves handlers of the plane -and chisel. The true workman knows full well that the very simplest of -organs cannot be put together in a few weeks, out of school-hours, and -side by side with other undertakings. - -If the present work, in which the writer describes the results of -his own experience, and lays down no rules which he has not reduced -to practice in his own workshop, should have the effect of deterring -ingenious boys from attempting their "First Organ" until the possession -of a large stock of patience, as well as the command of leisure, and -of means moderately adequate for the purchase of good materials, -are abundantly and unmistakably assured to them, the author, once a -plodding and untiring boy-workman himself, will have reason to be -satisfied that his efforts to explain a complicated and intricate -structure have not been entirely fruitless. - - - - -PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. - - -SINCE the publication of this work, the author has had reason to -believe that some hints as to the design and erection of small organs -in country churches may be acceptable to readers who occupy the -position, not of constructors, but of purchasers. He trusts that the -chapter now added, "On Village Church Organs," will be found to contain -the desired information. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - _PLANT AND MATERIALS._ - PAGE - The Workshop--Tools--Lathe--Materials 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - _THE STOPPED DIAPASON._ - - Tablature, or Names of Notes--Lengths of Pipes--Parts of - Stopped Pipe--The Scale--Two Methods of making Wooden - Pipes--Some Varieties of Pipes--Old English Organs 10 - - - CHAPTER III. - - _THE SOUND-BOARD._ - - Dimensions of Organs--Construction of Sound-board--Channels - --Sliders--Plantations of Pipes--Bars--Bearers--Upper Boards - --Rack-boards 27 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - _THE SOUND-BOARD._--(_Continued_.) - - Grooving--Boring Holes--Conducting-boards--Conveyances 44 - - - CHAPTER V. - - _THE WIND-CHEST._ - - Running of Wind--Blacklead used--Pallets--Leather for - Pallets--Springs--How to make them--Pull-downs--Drilling-- - Brass Plate--Front-board 55 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - _THE BELLOWS, TRUNKS, AND FRAME._ - - Shape of Bellows--Valves or Clacks--Cummins's Improvements - --Counter-balances--The Cuckoo-feeder--Hydraulic-power - Engines--Trunks--The Frame--Its general Dimensions--Hollow - Frame-work--Blowing Pedal--Blowing Lever 72 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - _PLANTATION OF PIPES._ - - Pipe-feet--Rack-pins--Symmetry 90 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - _THE ACTION._ - - Definitions--Back-fall--Bridge--Square--Sticker--Tracker-- - Tapped Wires--Cloths--Buttons--Rollers--Roller-boards-- - Principle of Organ-action--Fan-frame--Keys--Roller-frame-- - Double Sound-board Action--Thumping-board 94 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - _VOICING AND TUNING._ - - Metal Pipes--Their Construction--Nicking--Voicing--The - Wind-gauge--Defects in Pipes--Temperament--Regulation 115 - - - CHAPTER X. - - _THE DRAW-STOPS._ - - Four Methods of drawing the Stops described--Levers-- - Bell-cranks--Trundles--Iron Trundles 127 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - _PEDALS._ - - Their Compass--Dimensions--Springs--Dip--Connection with - Key-board--Removable Pedal-board 135 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - _TWO-MANUAL ORGANS._ - - Remarks on the Swell-organ--Organs with Great and Choir-- - Borrowing in Two-manual Organs--Chamber Organ by Schmidt-- - The Swell-box--Its Construction--The Swell-action--Reed-stops - --Manual Couplers--Rising and Falling Bridges--Pedal Couplers - --Old Method of Coupling--A Combination Manual--The Pedal - Sub-bass of 16-feet Tone--Scale--Wind-valve for Pedal Chest-- - Violoncello Stop--Terzo Mano 141 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - _VILLAGE CHURCH ORGANS._ - - Principles of Construction--Suggestions for Designs--Objections - noticed--Care of Old Organs 165 - - - - -ORGAN-BUILDING. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -_PLANT AND MATERIALS._ - - -WE shall assume at once, and at the very outset, that our reader has -the fixed purpose of producing an organ which shall be creditable to -its builder, a source of pleasure to its players and their hearers, and -an ornament to the room or building in which it is erected: in short, -that he remembers the excellent maxim, "whatever is worth doing at all, -is worth doing well," and will not be content with rough workmanship, -inferior materials, and inharmonious results. - -Assuming this as the basis and principle of all our suggestions, -we shall nevertheless bear in mind the necessity of adapting our -rules to the conditions imposed by slender purses, and the imperfect -appliances of humble workshops. Without attempting to quote the actual -market prices of the wood, leather, and metal required, or of those -important parts of the instrument which in most cases will be purchased -ready-made, we shall endeavour to show how economy may be consulted -by obtaining all these gradually, as our work advances with that -inevitably slow progress which attends all proceedings in which most -haste is found to be worse speed. - -We shall buy nothing which we can make for ourselves. The common sense -of our readers may be trusted not to press the application of this -rule to a _reductio ad absurdum_. As we shall certainly buy, and not -make, our screws and nails, so in the course of the following pages -we may possibly recommend the buying of certain parts of the work, in -full remembrance of our rule. But even in these occasional instances -we shall probably point out how expenditure may be saved by patient -industry. We need not anticipate. Our readers will see for themselves -what we mean as we go on. - -Our task will be somewhat simplified if we suppose that an organ is -desired for a room of moderate size. Such an instrument will commonly -have one manual, or row of keys, with four or five stops, or sets of -pipes. Pedals, with or without pipes of their own of deep bass quality, -must be considered essential in every organ making any pretension to -completeness, or intended to afford useful practice for learners. -Taking this as a rough outline or sketch of probable plans, it will be -easy to see hereafter how they may be indefinitely extended. - -Our organ factory, then (with some such plan in our head), must be -a roomy, well-lighted, perfectly dry workshop, furnished with a -fire-place or stove for the glue-pot, with drawers or cupboards for -storing away skins of leather and other materials not in constant -requirement, and with shelves on which pipes may be stowed without -danger of rolling off. It must not be a mere shed or hovel in which we -might mend the cart or the wheel-barrow, and it should not be far from -our dwelling-house, if we are likely to work at our serious undertaking -in the winter evenings. - -The shop must be fitted with a full-sized bench in good condition, that -is to say, with its top dressed truly, and not hacked by rough usage; -and good workmanship will be much promoted if the usual appliances of -such a bench are of the best kind and in complete order. True planing, -so vitally essential in organ-building, cannot be done upon a crazy or -worn-out bench. The bench should stand near a window, and it should -be so placed that boards much longer than itself may be occasionally -dressed upon it by temporary arrangements. - -The tools required are chiefly those which are common to every joiner's -shop; notably and of first importance the three planes, the jack, the -jointer or trying plane, and the little smoothing plane. This last may -now be bought in a very handy form, entirely of iron, and fitted with -a clever adjustment by which the cutter can be set to any degree of -fineness. This little plane (an American invention) is invaluable for -many purposes involving extreme neatness and accuracy. The planes must -at all times be kept in first-rate order, and any defect which makes -its appearance must be instantly rectified by a careful use of the oil -stone. The latter, let us mention by the way, as we may have youthful -and inexperienced readers, should be levelled occasionally by being -rubbed on a flat slab with sand and water. The plane is emphatically -_the_ tool of the organ-builder, and no pains should be considered too -great to be bestowed on the care of these beautiful tools, or on the -attainment of dexterity in the use of them. - -The usual saws, the ripping saw, the panel saw, the dovetail, the -key-hole or pad saw, will be required; and we may take this opportunity -of remarking that as the organ-builder must have a strong dash of the -smith as well as of the joiner in his composition, his shop must have -a stout vice fixed in a convenient part of it, and a few good files -always available for brass or for iron. (The reader is doubtless aware -that the same file must not be used for both these metals.) Drills -for metal, some of them of small clockmaker's sizes with a bow and -breast-plate for working them, will belong to this department, which -will also include a screw-plate for tapping wires of various sizes from -one-eighth of an inch downwards, and cutting pliers or nippers for -dividing the wire. - -The tool-chest must contain a thoroughly good brace and bits; and -among the last should be some one of the various forms of adjustable -centre-bits for cutting large circular holes of graduated dimensions up -to 3 inches diameter. - -In connection with this it may here be mentioned that most of the holes -bored with the brace and bits (though not the huge holes just referred -to), will be scorched or charred with a red-hot iron, in order to clear -them of splinters, and allow a perfectly free passage for the air which -will pass through them. A few pieces of iron rod, of sizes suitable -for this purpose, will therefore be required. Many of these holes will -be also countersunk, that is, rendered conical at their extremity, -in order to receive the conical feet of the pipes which receive from -these conduits their supply of wind. This countersunk portion is also -scorched or charred, and two or three conical irons will be wanted for -this purpose. But we have not yet come to this. When we are ready for -these irons, we can have them made by any blacksmith, or we may have -put aside some stout morsels of old iron from which we ourselves may -contrive to fashion them. - -An important question must next be asked. - -Is a turning-lathe absolutely necessary as part of the plant of our -factory? We must answer this. We should be sorry to deny that a small -organ certainly can be and may be built without the aid of a lathe. -We know that it has been done. But it is equally undeniable that -the absence of a lathe, or of access to a lathe, will necessitate -the purchase of certain parts (wooden pipe-feet for instance, and -rack-pins), at an outlay which will bear an appreciable proportion to -the first cost of a simple and inexpensive machine. Pressed, then, -to say if our workshop must include a lathe, we are bound to reply in -the affirmative, explaining, in the same breath, that all the purposes -of the young organ-builder will be answered by a lathe of humble -character and trifling cost. We ourselves, during several years of -early beginnings, used a small clockmaker's lathe by Fenn, of Newgate -Street, just capable of admitting between its centres the little billet -of wood ready for shaping as a pipe-foot, that is to say, about 7 -inches in length, and from 2 inches down to half an inch in diameter. -We still possess this little lathe, and still sometimes use it for -small work. Some such simple lathe, or some lathe still simpler, being -voted as necessary, the usual turning-chisels and gouges will of course -accompany it, and we shall assume that our readers possess a sufficient -acquaintance with the wood-turner's art to require no hints from us on -the subject other than those which we shall give in regular course as -we proceed. If they are fortunate enough to possess a superior lathe, -with slide-rest and slow motion for turning iron and brass, they will -find the machine most conducive to good and durable workmanship, and we -shall not hesitate to point out, as we go on, how materially it will -assist us in giving strength, firmness, and finish, to various parts of -our work. - -We have furnished, then, our workshop, or rather, let us say, we see it -in our "mind's eye" furnished as we should wish it to be. And now we -may lay in our stock of wood. - -Several boards of half-inch pine, perfectly dry and sound, without -knots; these are of first necessity. Such boards are generally about 12 -feet in length and from 12 to 15 or even 20 or more inches in breadth. -If a little stock can be laid in of such boards when an opportunity -occurs of obtaining exceptionally clean stuff, it will be well to have -them by us. A board or two of three-quarters stuff, and a board of inch -stuff, all sound and clean pine, must be provided. - -And here we may pause for a moment. - -We intend to begin our organ by making a set of wooden pipes. Hence we -need not provide ourselves with more timber for the present than we -shall need for this first operation. But as in our imaginary furnishing -of the workshop, we included several or many things which belong rather -to future than to immediate use, so we may here place the reader in a -position to form some idea of the further expense to which he will be -put for the purchase of timber for his proposed small organ of four -or five stops. The pine boards just enumerated will give us our first -set of pipes; but when these are ready, we shall require some rather -costly wood for the sound-board. This should be Honduras mahogany, -often called "Bay wood," and of three thicknesses, say, three-quarters -stuff for the table of the sound-board;[1] a full inch, or, still -better, five-quarters, for the upper boards; and some very thin stuff, -three-eighths or less, known as "coach-panel," for the sliders. The -quantities, or number of square feet, of these mahogany boards will be -determined by considerations discussed in a subsequent chapter. The -wood must be carefully selected, for the grain of it is often tortuous -and unkindly for the plane; it must be, like the pine, free from large -knots, flaws, and cracks; and the completeness of its seasoning should -be quite unquestionable and beyond the reach of suspicion. - -[1] All these expressions will, of course, be explained hereafter. - -It is not unreasonable to assume that the reader, who has contemplated -for some time the building of an organ, has already by him some -materials which he knows will be necessary; for instance, some boards -of sound white deal for the framework, and perhaps for the bellows; -and some scantlings of red deal, or pitch pine, or oak, or mahogany, -or red cedar, for the blocks and stoppers of pipes. He will not need -the aid of this book to be aware that old materials may sometimes be -turned to excellent account in such a business as that upon which he is -embarking. We have known the purchase (for a pound or two) of an old -square pianoforte turn out a profitable investment. Its mahogany top -was solid, not veneered; and the thin boards found in its interior dry -as touch-wood, and perhaps one hundred years old, were made into pipes -of charming sweetness. - -The old organs before the days of mahogany were made chiefly of -oak, often called "wainscot." We ourselves have made much use of -this durable and trustworthy material, which may be obtained in the -convenient form known as "coopers' staves," being planks about 6 feet -in length, as many inches in width, and 2 or 3 inches thick. They may -be divided, at any saw-pit or saw-mill, into boards of the desired -thinness, and they work pleasantly under thoroughly sharp tools. - -And now we may set to work upon our set of wood pipes. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -_THE STOPPED DIAPASON._ - - -WHY do we begin by making a set of wooden pipes? - -For two reasons. First, because they will afford a trial of patience, -and involve a great deal of good joinery. Second, because until they -are made, or, at any rate, until we know their precise dimensions, we -cannot plot out with accuracy the very important sound-board, which -is to carry them and the other pipes which are to follow. Either of -these reasons is, to our mind, sufficient, apart from the other; and -we strongly recommend the young beginner to set himself resolutely to -the manufacture of the complete set of wooden pipes belonging to the -commonest of all organ-stops, the Stopped Diapason, before taking any -step in the direction of the machinery or apparatus which is to waken -them into harmonious vibrations. - -Our explanations will be much assisted here if we introduce a few -definitions of terms in constant use. The pipes which we are about to -make will give notes, when tuned, which are familiarly designated by -certain names. Thus, the lowest note on the manual or key-board of -modern organs is called _Double C_ (printed CC). The note one octave -above this is _Tenor C_; the octave of Tenor C is _Middle C_; and -above this, again, we have _Treble C_ (often called _Foot C_) and _C -in Alto_. Some of the other notes of the scale, in a similar way, have -convenient names. Thus, the first F in the bass is _Double F_, or FF; -the next F, the F of the Tenor octave, is often called _Clef F_, as -the Bass, or F Clef, stands upon this line in music; its sharp is FF -sharp; but then we come at once to a single G, and this note is often -called _Gamut G_. The octave above this note is called _Fiddle G_, as -it sounds the same note as the fourth string of the violin. The note -B, we may add, throughout the organ, is understood to mean _B flat_; -the semitone above this is indicated by the musical symbol the Natural -(symbol). - -We have not quite done with this. There is another way of referring -to pipes, and to complete sets of pipes, which is in familiar use, -and is part of the mother-tongue of the organ-builder. We have said -that Treble C is often called _Foot C_. This is because the ordinary -open pipe of that note (speaking now quite inexactly, and without -precision), is 1 foot in length. In a similar way, CC is 8-_foot C_, or -the 8-_foot note_, because the open pipe is 8 feet in length, speaking -roundly or roughly. Tenor C is 4-_foot C_; Middle C, 2-_foot C_. - -It will be easily understood that these convenient designations are -retained, even though the construction of the pipes may render them -strictly inapplicable. Thus, the lowest note of our first stop will -still be 8-foot C, though, as we shall soon see, the stopping of the -wooden tube enables us to reduce the actual length by one-half. Our CC -will still be of 8-_feet pitch_, or _tone_, and by no means becomes a -4-_foot_ C, because its actual measurement, when completed, will not -exceed 4 feet in total length. - -One step further. The theoretical length of the lowest note is not -only used to designate that note and the pipes which belong to that -note, but is extended to the designation of the whole set of pipes of -which it is the lowest or longest. This whole set of pipes is called -familiarly a _Stop_; thus we have at once the ready terms, 8-feet -stops, 16-feet stops, 4-feet stops, 2-feet stops, &c.; and it will be -understood that by an 8-feet stop, we mean a set of pipes yielding the -common or ordinary pitch of the pianoforte, or of the human voice; -while a 4-feet stop, when the very same keys are pressed down, will -yield notes one octave higher than this ordinary or standard pitch; -the 2-feet stop, notes two octaves higher; the 16-feet stop, notes -one octave lower, or deeper. And if all these four stops are played -at the same time, (tuning and other manipulations being now assumed), -an effect will be produced highly agreeable to the ear, and vastly -superior to that which would result from the mere multiplication of -8-feet stops only. - -Our little organ of five stops, when completed, will probably be -described with correctness if it is said to contain two 8-feet stops, -two 4-feet stops, and one 2-foot stop: a ready and conventional way of -speaking, we repeat yet once more, since the instrument will contain no -open pipe 8 feet in length, and since, of the 4-feet stops, one will be -only of 4-feet tone, or pitch, while even the 2-feet stop, for reasons -which will be abundantly made clear, may possibly have no 2-feet pipe. - -Some pains have been taken to explain all this, because we have met -with young workmen whose comprehension of such rudimentary matters -was far from complete, and who were misled by the fanciful and wholly -unimportant _names_ engraved upon the knobs which govern the stops, -_e.g._ "Flute," "Dulciana," &c. If we have any such young beginners -among our present readers, they will see that the names are quite of -secondary concern, and that the essential thing is to have a clear -understanding of the _pitch_ of each stop, as represented by the length -of the pipe, _actual or virtual_, corresponding to the lowest note of -the manual. - -And now we proceed to our work. What we have to do is to make -fifty-four pipes, extending from CC to F in alto, and of the form or -sort known in England as Stopped Diapason. One of these pipes, let us -suppose Tenor C, is shown in Fig. 1. _a_ is a block of mahogany or oak, -or of some other wood faced with mahogany or oak, and about 3 inches in -length. It has a throat or deep depression across it, formed by taking -out the wood between two saw-cuts, or by boring adjacent holes with a -centre-bit. _b_ is a stopper, made of any wood, the exact size of the -block, or a trifle less, to allow for a leather covering, and fashioned -at top into a knob, or turned in the lathe, for convenient handling by -the tuner. _c_ is the pipe when put together by gluing three boards, -namely, the back and the two sides, to the block, and one, namely the -front board, to the edges of the sides. This fourth board is about 3 -inches shorter than the others, and has a lip formed on its lower edge -by bevelling the wood with a sharp chisel. _d_ is a cap, 3 inches long, -and as wide as the block with the side boards attached; it is hollowed -in a wedge-shaped form as shown in the figure. _e_ is a foot, turned in -the lathe, bored from end to end, and 5 or 6 inches in length. _f_ is -the completed pipe, with the stopper inserted, the cap put on, and the -foot in its place. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.] - -We have to make fifty-four such pipes, each of the dimensions proper -for the production of its own note, deep in the bass or shrill in the -treble. - -It is quite clear that we must not work by "rule of thumb," but -understand well what we are about from the very first, if we do not -wish to cut our wood to waste and cover ourselves with mortification. - -Begin thus. Take a sheet of stout paper, and on it, with rule and -compasses, draw a scale showing all the requisite measurements. - -Here we must be a little arbitrary, and lay down the law without giving -lengthy reasons for our ruling. Stopped pipes are half the length of -open pipes yielding the same notes. Our CC pipe will therefore be -4 feet long. The four C's of the ascending scale are the halves of -each other. Therefore Tenor C will be 2 feet, Middle C 1 foot, Treble -C 6 inches, and C in alto 3 inches, in length. The word _nearly_, -or _about_, must be understood as prefixed in every case to our -measurements. Accordingly, the lengths of all the pipes in the stop -will be easily obtained by drawing a vertical line 1 foot in length -on the paper, and dividing it into twelve equal parts. At the bottom, -write Tenor C, 2 feet; at the top, Middle C, 1 foot. Then the length of -each of the eleven pipes intervening between these extremes will be at -once obtained by easy measurement. By doubling these lengths we shall -obtain those of the bass, or 8-feet octave. By halving them, those of -the middle octave. By dividing them by four, we get those of the treble -octave. - -Note well that these rough and approximate lengths are speaking -lengths of the wooden tubes, or, in other words, of the column of air -within them, measured from the top of the block to the under side -of the stopper. Hence, in cutting out the boards, the length of the -block--about 3 inches, or less in small pipes--must be added to three -of them, and an inch or more allowed to all four of them to give good -room for the stopper. - -But we are not yet in a position to cut out the boards. - -It might be thought that as we get the lengths by the easy arithmetical -process described above, so with equal ease shall we get the widths and -depths of the blocks. The pipes are not square, but are deeper than -they are wide, in the proportion of about 5 to 4. It might be thought -that if the block of Tenor C be 2 inches wide and 2-1/2 inches deep, -then the block of Middle C will be 1 inch by 1-1/4 inches; the block of -Foot C 1/2 inch by 5/8, and so on. This is not so. These treble pipes -would be quite unreasonably small, and would give weak and thin sounds, -while the bass octave, commencing with a block 4 inches by 5 inches, -would be needlessly large for a chamber organ. Without wasting words -upon a matter which is really very simple, let us say at once that we -shall adopt for our Stopped Diapason a scale commencing with a CC block -3-1/4 inches wide and 4 inches deep, and that the block of Tenor C will -be 2-1/8 inches wide and 2-5/8 deep. Thus the half of the width and -depth of the CC block will not be reached until the eighteenth note -above it, instead of the thirteenth, and in the higher parts of the -scale the diminution in the sizes of the blocks may be yet more gradual. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.] - -A glance at Fig. 2 will enable our readers to draw scales for -themselves for the Stopped Diapason, and for other wooden stops which -may follow it, from a few given data, and to suit circumstances. A -minute or Chinese accuracy is not requisite. The vertical line of any -convenient length being drawn upon the paper, the width and depth of -the CC block are measured off upon a horizontal line drawn at its lower -extremity. Eighteen divisions being marked upon the vertical line, the -half-width and half-depth of the CC block are measured upon another -horizontal line drawn at the eighteenth mark. These points being joined -by straight lines, and horizontal lines being drawn at each of the -marks parallel to the others, we shall have the widths and depths of -the blocks of all the pipes from CC to Clef F inclusive, viz. eighteen -blocks. The next eighteen blocks will be sized in a precisely similar -manner, and as three times eighteen is equal to fifty-four, the whole -stop may be divided into three sections of eighteen pipes in each -section, and it may be for our convenience to make one section at a -time. - -There are two methods of working together the block and the four boards -which form the pipe. We will give them both, and decide between them. - -First method. Cut out the board for the back, and dress it carefully to -the exact width of the block. Glue the block to the lower extremity, -and when the glue is dry dress up all perfectly flush. Cut out the -side boards as wide as the depth of the block with the thickness of -the back board added to it. Glue them to the sides of the block and to -the edges of the backboard, obtaining a perfectly close joint by using -wooden clamps and wedges as in gluing up a violin, or by other obvious -contrivances. When the glue is dry dress up the front edges flush with -the block, and glue on the front board, which will be cut out as wide -as the block together with the thicknesses of the side boards. The -front board must overlap the upper edge of the block by about 1/8 inch -or more. If all this is carefully done according to the rules of good -joinery the result should be a neat and strong pipe, truly rectangular -at its upper or open extremity. Brads or sprigs are not to be thought -of in pipe-making, unless, indeed, in the very exceptional case of -organs intended for tropical climates. - -Second method. Cut out first the two side boards the width of the -depth of the block, and glue them to it. Dress the edges flush with -the block, and glue on at once the back and front boards, obtaining -irreproachable joints as before, and taking infinite care that the -upper extremities of the side boards do not approach each other. In -making our smaller pipes (say from Middle C upwards), we are in the -habit of straining whip-cord or stout hempen string round them, winding -it first upon a loose pipe-foot or smooth tool-handle to avoid cutting -the hands; and we ensure a correct aperture at the top by placing -within it a thin slice cut from the block itself, or by introducing the -stopper if it has been already prepared of the same size as the block. -The notches made by the string upon the edges of the soft pine-wood -are easily removed when the finished pipe is dressed over with a fine -plane. - -We have no difficulty in giving our decision in favour of the second -plan, which avoids the four tedious dryings of the glue, and which -admits more readily of pressure being applied to the freshly glued -joints. But in making open pipes, which have not to bear the driving-in -of a stopper, there is much to recommend the first method. - -This point being settled, we may cut out the side boards and prepare -the blocks for one of our divisions, let us say the middle section, -from Clef F sharp to the natural below Foot C. Blocks of this moderate -size will be best made by taking a piece of wood of suitable character, -long enough for six or more, and by dressing it down as each block is -cut off, making careful and constant use of the gauge, the square, -and the callipers. We like to form the throat with a centre-bit after -the pipe is put together. The thirty-six boards will be glued to the -eighteen blocks, and while the glue is drying we can prepare the backs -and fronts. The bevelled lip of the latter will be left uncut until all -the pipes have been glued up and dressed over, and the top edges nicely -cleaned off and made true. But as there will be, doubtless, a most -pardonable anxiety to hear the sound of one pipe, we will here explain -that the height of the mouth of each pipe must be equal to one-third -of its width; thus the mouth of the pipe measuring one inch and a half -across the block (A in our scale) will be 1/2 inch in height. In -measuring the height of the mouths, a pair of proportional compasses -with sliding centre, or common dividers set to thirds, fourths, and -fifths, will be useful if not necessary. The slope of the bevel is not -of great importance. Cut it with a sharp chisel, taking care not to -injure the block, and leave the lower edge or lip rather blunt. A sharp -and pointed knife may be employed in cutting the lip truly, guided by -the square. The use of fine glass-paper is permissible here to smooth -all these parts nicely. - -The throat having been formed in the face of the block, about 1 inch -from its lower end, bore the foot-hole in the bottom of the block clear -into the throat, beginning with a small borer, and enlarging the hole -cautiously, as rough and hasty proceedings might split the block at -this point, especially in the case of small pipes. - -Prepare the cap from a suitable bit of mahogany, oak, or other -close-grained wood, and hollow out the back of it with a chisel as -shown in _d_, Fig. 1. Form the flue or wind-way through which the air -is to pass to the lip by filing away the edge left at the top of the -wedge-shaped hollow, trying your work by placing the cap against the -side of the pipe or any other flat surface. The flue must not be wider -than 1/16 inch at Tenor C, and must be reduced as we ascend the scale -until it will hardly admit a slip of thin paper. It will not be so much -as 1/8 inch wide even at CC. - -Perhaps the stopper has been already prepared of the same size as -the block, and has been formed into a knob at top, or turned in the -lathe, or, in the case of the larger pipes, fitted with a turned handle -glued into a hole bored for its reception. Dress off the angles of the -stopper in order to allow room for the soft white leather with which -it is covered to fold itself in the corners of the pipe. We generally -rasp our stoppers, leaving them rough that the leather may cling to -the stopper and not to the pipe. The leather cannot be too thin if it -is soft, and if the stopper fits closely. Rub the interior of the top -of the pipe with a bit of tallow-candle, and introduce the stopper -cautiously. It should slide within the pipe at once easily and with -accurate fit, and if your joinery has been good there should be no fear -of splitting the pipe or of opening the joints. - -The cap when finally fitted will have its upper edge about 1/8 inch -below the upper edge of the block. On applying it in this position, -holding it there with your fingers, or tying it on with string, and -blowing gently into the foot-hole, you will have a pleasant fluty -musical note. Probably a little chirp or whistle will be heard before -the note comes on. The removal of this defect belongs to the important -operation called _voicing_, of which we shall treat hereafter. - -We have cut our boards from the half-inch pine, but as we rise in the -scale much thinner stuff will be used. It is well to foresee this in -laying in our materials. Red cedar, often used by cabinetmakers for -the inside of drawers and wardrobes, makes very pretty pipes, holds the -glue well, and has an agreeable odour in working. Harder woods, notably -oak, were often used by the old builders. Pear-tree commends itself -much in German workshops. - -The four or five lowest pipes (CC to EE, or higher) should be of -stouter stuff than half-inch, say five-eighths or even three-quarters. -The caps of these large pipes will not be glued on but fixed with three -screws, and we may modify a previous remark by admitting that in the -case of these larger pipes the use of nails is legitimate. - -Of the pipe-feet we shall speak when we come to the business of -planning the rack-board with its holes for their reception. - -We must not close this chapter without giving some further explanations -on the subject of pipe-making. - -Large pipes, both open and stopped, may be advantageously made with -_languids_ instead of blocks. Fig. 3 shows the section of a pipe so -made. The block is replaced by two pieces of suitable wood, _a a_, -let into the side boards with plenty of glue. The glue should also be -allowed to run freely into the angles and corners of the throat when -the back board is fitted. Pipes made in this way are a little lighter -than those with blocks. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.] - -The stoppers of the smaller pipes, say from Fiddle G or Middle C to -top, are often bored with a hole passing clear through the wood and -leather, and burnt smooth with an iron. After what has been said of the -necessity of securing a good fit for the stopper, it might be thought -that this hole would ruin the pipe. Curiously enough it is not so, but -imparts a slight increase of fulness to the tone. The holes must not be -large, 1/4 inch at Middle C will be sufficient. Note well that pipes -with perforated stoppers must be a trifle longer, say 1 inch in 12, -than those completely closed. Thus the pipe for C sharp must be as long -as the fully stopped C pipe. - -Wooden pipes are also made with inverted mouths, that is to say, the -bevelled lip is formed on the inside instead of on the outside of the -front board. In this case the bevel is cut and the mouth measured and -formed before the pipe is put together, and the front board will be -of the same length as the others, and will be glued like them to the -block. The throat is cut through the board into the block, and the cap -will project beyond the level of the board. All this is shown in Fig. 4. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.] - -We have a very charming Stopped Diapason made in this way, and with -perforated stoppers, in one of our organs. It is of red cedar from -Middle C to top; the lower part is of pine and of the ordinary -construction. The mouths are in the proportion of two-sevenths of the -width of each pipe. Inverted mouths are well suited, also, to the -Clarabella and Hohl Flöte, two kindred stops which sometimes take the -place of the Stopped Diapason in its upper octaves. The pipes are open, -and have a hollow penetrating tone; Middle C is 2 feet long, and its -block may be of the same size as that of the same note in our scale, -namely, _about_ 1-3/8 by 1-3/4. The mouth about 2/7 of the width. These -open pipes are tuned by means of shades, which are pieces of pipe metal -let into a saw-cut made in the top edge of the back board. The shade -must be as wide as the pipe, and 1/2 inch longer than its depth. The -pipe is flattened by bending the shade over the open top, sharpened by -raising it. - -The German stop, the Doppel-flöte, which has two mouths opposite to -each other, and of course two caps for each pipe, is seldom or never -heard in this country. A few pipes which we have made as experiments -hardly seem to repay us for the additional trouble and labour. - -Trouble and labour were of little account, apparently, in the old days -of English organ-building two centuries ago, if we may judge from the -really marvellous specimens of patient pipe-making in wood which have -come down to us. We ourselves have seen and played organs of exquisite -sweetness and beauty by old Bernhard Schmidt (1660-1708), containing -four or five stops in which every pipe was of oak, even up to the top -note of a Fifteenth of 2 feet. Such an organ, built by Loosemore, -1664, the builder of the cathedral organ, is preserved, we believe, -at Exeter. It has six stops, including a Twelfth, all made of wood. -Modern life is too hasty and impetuous for such efforts. If any of our -readers, however, should set themselves the task of making very small -pipes in wood, we advise them to form the block and foot from one -piece, and to follow the first method (see p. 18) in putting the minute -contrivance together. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -_THE SOUND-BOARD._ - - -WE may fairly assume that no one will embark upon the very serious -business of building an organ, and that probably no one will read this -book, who has not sufficient previous knowledge of the subject to -understand what is meant by the expressions sound-board, wind-chest, -pallets, sliders. - -It may be taken as certain, moreover, that the reader who takes up this -book to assist him in the arduous work which he has undertaken, and -in the hope (which we trust we shall not disappoint) of finding rules -laid down in it which he can readily reduce to practice, has long ago -decided upon the position which the projected organ is to occupy, and -has measured with his eye, if not with his two-foot rule or tape, the -breadth, depth, and height which can be fairly allowed to the finished -instrument. - -Great diversity of dimension and design is one of the peculiarities -which distinguish organs from all other musical instruments. Our organ -may be wide and shallow like a book-case, or it may be of little -greater width than its key-board, but deep like a wardrobe; it may -be carried up nearly to the ceiling of a lofty apartment, or may be -kept down to suit the low-browed rafters of a country farmhouse or a -workman's cottage. - -The site chosen for the organ may allow of convenient access to the -back of it for tuning purposes; or it may compel us to arrange the -interior so that the back may always remain in close contact with the -wall. The projection of the keys, too, from the front, and therefore -the position of the player when seated at the instrument, possibly in -a small room; the place for the blowing-handle and for the person who -works it, so that convenient space may be left for him to fulfil his -irksome duty--these are matters of detail admitting of great variety of -treatment. - -There are cases in which it may be possible, and very advantageous, to -separate the bellows from the organ which they supply, and to establish -them in an adjoining room, or beneath the floor or platform on which -the organ is placed. - -All these considerations must receive full attention, and drawings or -rough sketches sufficiently intelligible to the workman himself must -be made in accordance with the decisions arrived at. Then, and not -till then, we can launch ourselves upon the very serious business of -designing and constructing the sound-board. - -A serious business, we say, making a large demand upon our industry and -perseverance, and calling for adroit use of tools of several different -characters. - -To facilitate our own task in describing the process of constructing -a sound-board, we shall divide this chapter into short sections, with -intervening remarks. - -1. The sound-board is a shallow box, divided internally into as many -transverse grooves or channels as there are notes on the key-board. -The pipes stand upon holes bored through the top of the box into these -channels; and it is plain that if air is made to fill these channels, -and to issue from these holes in a constant stream when we please, all -the pipes which stand upon the holes will give their sounds according -to their pitch and character. - -_Remark._--Thus if one channel, say the channel corresponding to Tenor -C, have five holes bored into it through the top of the box, then five -pipes standing upon those holes may be made to speak at once, or in -chorus, by pressing down the one key on the manual. - -2. It is plain that we must possess the power of opening and closing -these holes in sets or classes at our pleasure, so that the air may -be directed into those pipes which we desire to hear, while others -are silent. The top of the box is therefore made double, or of two -layers of wood; and between the two layers long strips of thin wood -are introduced, lying lengthwise, that is to say, at right angles to -the channels beneath or within. The holes are bored down through all -these three layers of wood forming the top of the box; and we see that -by sliding the thin slip an inch or so to the right or left, we can cut -off at once the current of air from the pipes standing on those holes, -since the apertures in the three layers will then no longer coincide. - -_Remark._--All this is quite independent of, and preliminary to, the -arrangements for admitting the supply of air to the channels themselves. - -3. Having already made our Stopped Diapason pipes, let us range them -on a table or floor, and consider well how they must be planted on a -sound-board such as we are about to make for our organ, be it broad and -shallow, or narrow and deep, be it low or lofty. - -_Remark._--No other stop will practically take up so much room on the -sound-board as the Stopped Diapason; hence, if we plot the board with -reference to it, all the other pipes will be easily worked in. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.] - -4. On the opposite page several different plantations of the Stopped -Diapason are shown both in elevation and in plan. In Fig. 5 the pipes, -planted in a double row throughout, are placed alternately to the -right and to the left, meeting in the middle at the smallest pipe. The -exact reverse of this plantation, namely, placing the largest pipes in -the middle, and sloping down to the smallest pipes at each end, can -be easily imagined, and it is unnecessary to figure it. It is clear -that in both these plantations the large pipes occupy a space, as -regards depth, out of proportion to the space occupied by the upper -part of the stop. Fig. 6 shows a very common plantation of pipes, -which, as we shall see hereafter, allows us to simplify the internal -mechanism or action. Fig. 7, in plan only, shows a mode of economising -space as regards depth by planting the pipes of the lower octave in a -single row, resuming the double row at Tenor C. This plantation would -suit a wide and shallow organ. Figs. 8 and 9 show different methods -of planting the large pipes in order to avoid a disproportionate -sacrifice of space on the board. It will be seen at a glance that they -can be ranged behind the pipes of the tenor and treble octaves, or -carried off to the right and left in rows standing at right angles to -them. Fig. 10, in elevation only, shows how we may build an organ under -the ceiling of a very low room, by planting the eight feet octave on a -board of its own at a lower level than that of the sound-board proper. -And it is easy to conceive, without a figure, that this accessory board -may be replaced by two boards, to right and left, resulting in a plan -resembling that in Fig. 9, but giving a lower level to the tall pipes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.] - -_Remark._--We confess to a strong liking for these later plantations, -which require some little careful mechanical adaptations, but result -in a compact arrangement, admitting of enclosure in a case of graceful -outline. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.] - -5. We have still some considerations requiring careful attention before -we can map out our sound-board. The plantation of the pipes will be -the chief guide to the planning of the channels, with the divisions or -spaces between them; but it must not be forgotten that the boring of -the holes for the supply of air must be done in regular lines within -spaces or widths easily covered by the sliders. A slider is seldom -more than from 2 to 3 inches wide; there are good reasons why this -width cannot conveniently be much exceeded. But the feet of the large -pipes in the bass octave will be as much as 5 inches or more apart when -the pipes are planted back to back, as in Figs. 5 and 6. Hence we must -decide, before we begin to work, not only how the pipes are to stand -on the board, but how they are to get their wind and be deprived of it -by the action of a slider of the usual width. Perhaps we shall resolve -to run two narrow sliders under the foot-holes of the whole stop, one -for each of the two rows, controlling both sliders by a single knob -or handle. By this method every pipe will stand on its wind, as the -workmen say, that is, will be in direct and uninterrupted communication -with the channel when the holes are open. Or possibly it may suit our -plans better to run two sliders under the feet of the bass pipes, and a -third between them, under the rest of the stop; all three, be it well -understood, extending from end to end of the sound-board, but having -holes only at the proper places, and being blank elsewhere: these -three sliders being governed by one knob, or by two, if the stop is -to draw in halves (as it is called), that is, as a separate Bass and -Treble. Or, once again, we may use a single slider for the whole stop, -but carry the wind through grooves fashioned in the solid wood from -the holes bored in the usual way to the points at which the pipes are -planted. And, lastly, we may carry the wind from the holes to pipes -planted in any position, and practically at any distance by tubes made -of pipe-metal or other material. - -_Remark._--It need hardly be said that an examination of the interior -of a well-built organ will be of great service to the beginner who is -planning his first sound-board. - -6. The dimensions, then, and character of the sound-board having been -determined after full consideration of the site for the organ, and -a drawing or sketch having been made for your own guidance, proceed -thus:--Take a board of good clean bay-wood, 1/2, 5/8, or 3/4 inch in -thickness, and long enough and wide enough to form the "table" or -top of your work; and dress this carefully until one of its surfaces -is quite true and level. This dressed or levelled side is to be the -lower or under side, and we are about to form upon it the grooves or -channels of which it will ultimately form the roof. Next prepare a -ruler or straight edge of any thin stuff, and on this, with compasses, -rule, and square, guided by plenty of deliberate consideration, mark -the size and place of each of the grooves, and of the bar of wood -which will divide each groove from its neighbour, from end to end. You -will find, of course, and you were previously aware, that the widths -of the grooves and the thickness of the bars will vary in proportion -to their place in the scale. Let us say at once that 3/4 inch will be -ample width for the CC groove in our small organ; and let us advise -that the smallest groove in the treble be about 1/4 inch in width, and -that the bars between these narrow grooves be at least 3/8 or 1/2 inch -in thickness, in order to allow a good seat or margin for the pallets -or valves which are to govern the admission of the wind. In the bass -the bars will be very much thicker than this, or not, according to the -plan which you have adopted. The part of your rule in which you will -soon perceive that the chief danger of crowding your pipes will arise -is the tenor octave. Refer carefully to your pipes, and be quite sure -before you mark your ruler, that you are allowing room for Tenor C and -its neighbours to stand clear of each other when they are planted on -the completed board. Having satisfied yourself on these points, prepare -your bars from sound pine-wood, planing them with care, and especially -seeing that the edge of each bar is truly square with its sides. Two -inches will be an ample width for each bar, in other words, an ample -depth for each groove when completed. Their length will of course be -equal to the width of the table, less an inch or so, according to the -construction now to be described. - -There are now two methods of proceeding. First method:--The table being -turned over, with the dressed side uppermost, your ruler well in sight, -with plenty of hot and fresh glue fix your first thick bar at or near -either end of the table. We say, "or _near_ either end," because you -may like to leave room for a finishing cheek of mahogany when all the -bars are put in. The second bar will be glued to the table in like -manner, the proper distance from the first being secured by "filling-in -pieces" of wood of the exact thickness, glued between the bars at -their ends. This alternation of bars and fillings-in will be continued -until all the grooves have been formed according to your ruler; the -rough ends of the bars will then be dressed with a sharp plane, and -neat cheeks of stout bay-wood will be glued on all the four sides of -the divided box which you have thus built up. Second method:--Prepare -the bay-wood cheeks first, and in the two long ones, using a fine saw -and small chisel, cut grooves to receive the ends of the bars. Form -a shallow box by gluing these bay-wood sides and ends to the table. -The corners need not be dovetailed, but an equally close joint must -be secured if dovetailing is omitted. Then introduce the bars, using -an abundance of hot glue, and taking care that no bar fits so tightly -between the cheeks as to risk bending. When all the bars are glued in, -add more thin glue within each groove, placing the sound-board in a -sloping position that the glue may run into the angles, and afterwards -reversing the board to the opposite slope, repeating the coating of -thin glue. - -_Remark._--This unusual profusion of glue is to preclude the -possibility of air making its way from one groove to the adjacent one -bypassing between the edge of the bar and the table; and what is here -said applies equally to both methods. - -We ourselves prefer the second method to the first. M. Hamel, in his -wonderfully accurate and minute treatise, describes a third, in which -the fillings-in are avoided. Those to whom his book is accessible -cannot fail to share the present writer's admiration of his marvellous -industry, and of his great gift of clear and precise description of -mechanical processes. Hopkins and Rimbault may also be consulted with -much advantage. - -7. The work, thus glued up, must be left in a dry room for two or three -days, until all is perfectly set and hard. Meanwhile the other pieces -of which the completed sound-board will consist are being cut out and -prepared. We shall want the upper boards, the sliders, and the slips of -wood (_false sliders_ the French builders call them, while in England -they are termed _bearers_) which divide these from each other. - -We may safely suppose that if the ordinary form of sound-board has -been chosen--such, for instance, as that which is shown in Fig. 6--its -size will be about 4 feet, or 6 inches more, in length. Its width will -depend on the number of stops for which it is planned, and therefore -of sliders which are to work on the table; if we are to have five -stops, about 15 inches may be taken as the probable width, but this may -be less, or more, according to the class of stops selected, and the -arrangement chosen for their bass pipes. To give accurate measurements -in feet and inches for all the parts of the sound-board would only -mislead our readers at this stage of our labours. We give general rules -only: it must rest with the reader himself, as we have now abundantly -reminded him, to decide on the shape of his sound-board and to make the -plantation of his pipes, and the consequent arrangement of grooves and -sliders conformable thereto. - -Assuming, then, quite arbitrarily, and independently of all special -considerations, that the sound-board is 4 feet long and 15 inches wide, -we may cut out the upper boards from sound and clean bay-wood, 1-1/4 -inch thick. Cut them 6 inches longer than the sound-board. And now as -to width. As there are five stops, and five sliders for them, are we to -understand that we shall have also five upper boards? To this we reply, -by no means. Our stops, we assume, will be two of 8 feet, two of 4 -feet, and one of 2 feet. For reasons which we shall soon give, we shall -propose to have one upper board for each of these three divisions: -that for the 8-feet stops being 7 inches wide, that for the 4 feet 5 -inches, and for the 2 feet 3 inches. Under the 7-inch board there will -be two sliders, each 2 inches in width; under the 5-inch, two sliders, -each 1-1/2 inch in width; and under the 3-inch, one slider, 1-1/4 inch -wide. The bearers will be thus:--The two outside bearers, that is, -those which extend along the front and back margins of the sound-board, -to be 1-1/4 inch in width; the second bearer (reckoning from the back) -to be 1 inch; the third to be 1-1/2 inch, because it will lie beneath -the line of junction, or rather of division, between the two wider -upper boards; the fourth bearer may be 1/2 inch only, being merely a -separation between the next two sliders; the fifth may be 1-1/4 inch, -falling as it does under a line of division; the sixth is similar to -the first. It will thus be seen that we have-- - - 2 sliders, 2 inches each = 4 inches - 2 " 1-1/2 " " = 3 " - 1 " 1-1/4 " " = 1-1/4 " - 3 bearers, 1-1/4 " " = 3-3/4 " - 1 " 1-1/2 " " = 1-1/2 " - 1 " 1 " " = 1 " - 1 " 1/2 " " = 1/2 " - ------- - Total width = 15 inches. - -_Remark._--All this is so important that we have shown the measurements -drawn to scale in Fig. 11. - -Cut out the sliders and bearers from perfectly clean sound bay-wood or -red cedar boards, not more than 3/8 inch in thickness. Having turned -your sound-board over, with the table uppermost, assemble all the -pieces, and satisfy yourself that your measurements are correct, and -that so far there is no error in your plans. See that all your planes -are in first-rate order, and set yourself in earnest to bring to a -perfectly level and true surface the table or top of the sound-board, -and one side of the sliders and bearers. No pains must be spared to -render the surface of the table absolutely true. Apply a "straight -edge" rubbed with chalk, moving it in various directions, and use -unwearied diligence in removing all inequalities detected by this -means. Take care, too, that there is no "winding." In short, adopt -all the means which the rules of good joinery give you for producing -a surface faultlessly level. This done, arrange upon the table, with -their planed sides downwards, your sliders and bearers, and pin them -down upon it with very small brads, piercing through near their edges. -In doing this have regard to the grain of the wood, as you are about -to dress the upper surfaces. Sink the brads well out of the way of the -plane with a punch, and bring the sliders and bearers to a true level -as you did the table. - -[Illustration: Scale, two-thirds of an inch to a foot. Fig. 11.] - -_Remark._--M. Hamel advises that in making the sound-board the table -should be left 3 inches longer at each end than the actual box beneath, -expressly to afford a bearing for the ends of the sliders during this -business of planing them. If this suggestion is not followed, the -projecting ends of the sliders will require separate attention. - -The three upper boards may now be brought down upon the finished -sliders and bearers, and a couple of iron pins or dowels may be let -into each of them and into the bearers and table beneath, near their -extremities, for the purpose of confining them temporarily in the exact -places which they are to occupy. Dress over now the upper sides of the -three boards, which do not, however, require attention to absolute -truth. - -8. We cannot yet bore the holes for the pipes. Before we can do so we -must prepare yet another board or boards of clean pine, 5/8 or 3/4 inch -thick, 4 feet 6 inches long, and 15 inches wide, for the rack boards -through which the pipe-feet are to pass, and which are to maintain the -pipes in an upright position. If you have two upper boards the division -should occur between those of the 8-feet and 4-feet stops. Pin down -your rack-board upon the upper boards with brads here and there near -the edges. - -Let us now consider for a moment. We have made our box of fifty-four -transverse channels or grooves, and its top consists now of four layers -of wood--namely, the table, the sliders, the upper boards, and the -rack-boards. Through these four layers of wood, at the proper places, -are to be bored holes of various sizes clear through into the channels; -but it is plain that the holes in the rack-boards will always be much -larger than those in the three other layers, because the rack-boards -are to be ultimately raised about 5 inches above the upper board on -legs or pins, and will therefore receive the thick part of the conical -pipe-feet, while the holes in the upper board will only receive their -tip or small extremity. But the centres of the large holes in the -rack-board must coincide accurately with the centres of the small holes -beneath, and we shall therefore proceed to mark the exact spots where -each of the holes will commence. - -By the aid of your marked rule, trace a line on the front and back -cheeks of the sound-board, showing the centre of each groove. From -these points draw lines across the rack-boards. It is evident that all -holes bored through the four layers of wood at any point in any of -these lines must terminate in a channel. Draw lines at right angles to -the last, showing the widths of the sliders and bearers; it will then -be further evident that we cannot easily get wrong in boring the holes -so that they may penetrate the sliders at the exact points intended. -But the actual boring, with certain consequences or contingencies -belonging thereto, must be reserved for the next chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -_THE SOUND-BOARD._--(_Continued._) - - -THE time has come when we must decide what our five stops are to be, -since the sizes and places of the holes must be in accordance with the -quality and character of the pipes supplied by them. - -The Stopped Diapason we have already made; and in our organ it will -be the chief or foundation stop of 8-feet tone. We shall assume that -the second stop in the 8-feet pitch will be a metal Dulciana, or small -open Diapason. The 4-feet stops will doubtless be a Principal (or some -equivalent) and a Flute. The 2-feet stop we will call simply Fifteenth -for the moment. For convenience of reference we will number the stops -thus:-- - - 1. Dulciana or open } 8 feet pitch - 2. Stopped Diapason } - 3. Principal } 4 " - 4. Flute } - 5. Fifteenth 2 " - -The pipes of No. 1, being the tallest in the organ, will be planted -nearest to the back; all the others, occupying the successive sliders, -will present a gradation of heights agreeable to the eye and convenient -for the tuner. - -No. 1, we say, is the tallest in the organ; but be it carefully -observed that in our small instrument it will not be carried down to -its lowest note CC, which would be 8 feet in speaking length; it will -not descend lower than tenor C, 4 feet, and the last or lowest twelve -notes or sounds will be obtained by using the corresponding pipes of -the Stopped Diapason as a bass for both stops. - -This will be done by "grooving;" and it will now be seen why, in -cutting out the upper boards, we were careful to have a single board -for the pipes of 8-feet pitch, and another single board for those of -4-feet pitch. For it is plain that by boring holes through the upper -board, sliders, and table into any groove of the sound-board, and by -connecting these holes together by means of another deep groove or -score cut in the wood of the upper board, and then covered in with an -air-tight covering, we obtain a secondary channel, supplied with air -by _either or both_ of the sliders at pleasure; and by boring one hole -through the air-tight covering, and planting a pipe on that hole, that -pipe will speak whenever a connection is made between the secondary -channel on which it stands and the main channel or groove below, which -is receiving air at the moment from the bellows. - -Clearly, therefore, if we bore holes through the upper boards and -sliders of Nos. 1 and 2 into the twelve grooves of the bass octave, -and then connect these twelve pairs of holes by cutting upper grooves -in the surface of the boards, covering them in by thin boards of wood -well glued down, we have then only to plant our twelve largest stopped -pipes on twelve new holes bored in these thin boards last mentioned, -and we have at once a bass common to both stops, and each of the two -stops will be practically, and for ordinary purposes, complete down to -the lowest note when its slider is drawn. When both sliders are drawn, -the secondary groove will receive air from both holes in the upper -board; but this will not have the effect of over-blowing the pipe, -since the _pressure_ or _weight_ of the air remains the same, and since -the pipe can only receive the quantity of air which is permitted to -pass through the aperture in its foot. - -It will now be seen why we did not at once bore the holes, or rather -mark their places, on the rack-board. Plainly, we must make these -twelve grooves first, and cover them in. Then, replacing the rack-board -as before, carefully mark on the latter the exact place of each bass -pipe, as it will stand on any part of its secondary groove. Afterwards, -with a bradawl or other sharp-pointed borer, prick quite through the -rack-board at every one of the points which you have marked throughout -its whole extent. At these points there will hereafter be circular -holes of various sizes for the reception of the pipe-feet, but in the -upper boards, sliders, and tables there will be smaller holes, adapted -for conveying its stream of air to each pipe. Before removing the -rack-board, decide upon the places where the rack-pins, or pillars -which will hold the rack-board up above the sound-board, are to be. -Have plenty of these, say six or eight if you have a single rack-board, -or five to each if you have two, in order to insure a firm plantation -of the pipes, and bore holes for them with a centre-bit, say 5/8 -diameter, through the rack-board and to the depth of 1 inch in the -upper boards. - -The rack-board now being put aside for the present, all the holes may -be bored through the upper boards, sliders, and table with bits of -various sizes. From what has been said above it will be seen that it is -not the sizes of these holes, but of the apertures in the pipe-feet, -which regulate the volumes of wind supplied to the pipes; but you will, -of course, use bits proportioned to the pipes you have in view. The -upper, or treble, holes must not let the little pipes slip into them, -nor must the larger holes throttle or check the flow of the wind. In -the bass the holes may be as large as the grooves will allow; and if -these are narrow, or if there is secondary grooving or conducting, it -will be well to cut the round hole at its interior aperture with a -sharp chisel into a square or rectangular opening; or to bore two round -holes and connect them by taking out the intervening wood. Afterwards, -with iron rods of various sizes, heated to redness, scorch all the -holes through the three thicknesses of wood, leaving a clear and smooth -charred passage for the wind. - -We have not yet done with grooving. This seems to be the proper place -for pointing out how the use of this system may further assist us in -the arrangement of an organ. - -Our bass pipes, we have said above, may be planted on holes cut _in any -part_ of the covering or roof of their respective secondary channels. -It follows readily from this that the secondary groove or channel may -be extended or prolonged for the express purpose of locating the pipes -in situations convenient for them. Quite apart from any necessity which -may exist for supplying a common bass to two or more sliders, we may -evidently plant our larger pipes almost where and how we please by -cutting grooves in the substance of the upper board, extending from the -table beneath to the point where we wish the pipe to be. So long as the -holes are of sufficient diameter and the grooves of ample dimensions, -the wind will reach a pipe located at a distance even of 2 or 3 feet -from its source of supply without any appreciable interval between the -impact of the finger on the key and the production of the sound; and -the grooves may be curved almost as we please, though sharp angles -should be avoided. - -Even if, in consequence of alterations of original plans or other -circumstances, the upper boards should not be of sufficient thickness -or size to admit of grooving, we may still avail ourselves of this -convenient system by using an additional or supplementary upper board, -which we will here call a conducting board, screwed down upon the main -upper board, and containing the grooves. To fix the exact places for -the holes in the under side of the conducting board, corresponding -with those in the table, spread a sheet of white paper over the upper -board at the part where the conducting is to be, making the edges or -corners of the paper coincide with those of the board, and rub the -paper with the finger so as to take clear impressions of the holes; -then transfer the paper to the under side of the conducting board, -guided by the edges and corners as above, and prick out on this under -side the centres of the circular impressions made on the paper. It is -evident that when the conducting board is applied to the upper board, -edges and corners coinciding as before, these punctured marks will be -exactly over the wind holes in the table. The holes in the upper side -of the conducting board will be marked as before from the rack-board, -and grooves cut and roofed in with thin wood, as previously described. - -Note further, that the grooving may be, if necessary, on both sides of -the upper boards. All that is needful in such case is, that after the -grooves on the under sides, next the sliders, are cut, the _whole of -the board_, and not merely the grooved part of it, shall be covered or -veneered with thin stuff. This must be dressed perfectly true, as in -the case of the solid or ungrooved board, and all the holes will be -bored through it. The upper sides will also have a neater appearance -if the roofing of thin mahogany or cedar is carried over its entire -surface. Upper boards so treated are, in fact, compounded of three -layers of wood, a central thick slab containing the grooves, and two -coverings or veneers. The gluing on of these latter must, of course, -be very sound and effectual in every part, or a running of wind might -ensue--a most provoking and really fatal defect, incurable without -complete reconstruction. - -Short grooves may be made by boring holes with a centre-bit in the -_edges_ of the upper boards, and making the wind-hole beneath and the -pipe-hole above communicate with this concealed tunnel. On plugging up -the external aperture in the edge of the board, or on stopping a whole -row of such apertures by gluing a band of leather, parchment, or thick -paper over them, it is clear that the wind will pass to the pipes at -pleasure. All such holes and channels must be scorched with hot irons. -To the true joiner this may seem an unworkmanlike expedient, but it is -necessary to prevent the weakening of the currents of air which would -ensue from friction against rough surfaces, and to preclude the risk of -carrying tiny chips and particles of wood into the pipes. If conducting -boards are used, they should be faced with soft white leather on their -under surfaces before they are screwed down in their places, unless, -indeed, they are glued down immovably. The places for the screws, as -well as for those which secure the whole upper board to the table, must -be carefully determined with reference to the grooves. - -Fig. 12 is intended to show, in a rough way, how in an upper board BB -grooves may conduct the wind from the holes in a slider AA to a row of -pipe-holes near the margin of the board, resulting in an arrangement -like that shown in Fig. 8. The dotted lines are meant to indicate -grooves cut in the under side of the board. It is clear that these -might be made to cross the others, so that different plantations of -pipes might be obtained, as in Fig. 9. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.] - -_Remark._--These figures, however, must be understood rather as -illustrations of our meaning than as representations of actual work. - -Conveyancing tubes are in constant use, not only as substitutes for -grooving, but as ancillary to it. They are made of pipe-metal, and from -about 5/8 inch in diameter to much larger sizes. To manage them neatly -and well you should be adroit in the use of the soldering-iron. They -are commonly smeared over with a composition which will not receive -the melted solder; this composition is scraped off at the points where -a junction is to be made at an angle, and with the usual copper tool, -a little resin and tallow, the solder is applied. Much practice is -needed to give mastery of this process, apparently so easy; we have -known instances in which it has been avoided altogether by covering -the junctions of the conductors with white leather secured by thick -flour paste. It is right, also, to add, that we have seen successful -conveyances made of cartridge paper rolled upon wooden mandrels with -paste. Any tin-plate worker in your town or village would make them of -his own material or of zinc, and in an hour or two would solder all the -junctions for you when you had planned your arrangement thoroughly. - -Assuming, however, the use of the usual tubes, we may say that they are -thus applied. Let us suppose that the large pipe shown in Fig. 10 is to -be conducted off from the sound-board at the higher level to the plank -on which it stands. Bore the hole in the upper board a trifle larger -than the outside diameter of the tube. Glue a patch of white leather -over the hole, and cut out the aperture in this leather somewhat -smaller than the hole, leaving an excess of leather all round the hole -of about 1/8 inch. Then, making the end of the tube a little conical, -thrust it into the hole; it will carry in with it the surplus margin of -the leather, which will form around it an air-tight joint or collar. A -right angle may be allowed in the tube at this first commencement at -the hole itself, but in its subsequent course sharp corners should be -avoided. The pipe is planted on a hole bored to a sufficient depth in -a plank; a second hole, suited to a conducting tube, is bored at any -convenient distance from this, and communication made between these -two holes by a groove in the under side of the plank closed in with -leather, parchment, thick paper, or wood; then the end of the tube is -forced as before into the hole bored for it and provided with leather -packing, and all is complete. - -It is by these means that "speaking fronts" are arranged according to -any design. - -_Remark._--If you have all your pipes, metal as well as wood, ready -at hand, it might be well to pierce the rack-board and fit them in -their places at this stage of the proceedings, because chips and dust -are inseparable from the operation, and may be more troublesome and -mischievous after the pallets are put in than now. Those readers who -resolve on this course may turn, then, to the subsequent pages, in -which they will find all the directions which are necessary for their -guidance. For our own part, we prefer to continue in the next chapter -our account of the mechanism of the sound-board. - -We may further remark, that while the boring-tools are in use we may -perhaps do wisely in piercing holes also for the screws which are to -hold the upper boards down upon the sliders. If the planing has been -perfectly true, about four pairs of screws should be enough for each -upper board, and no extra screws should be required to force the boards -into closer contact at any intermediate part. The screws should pass -clear and easily through the holes in the boards, and should bite -well in the table beneath. The heads of the screws should be let down -below the level of the upper surface of the boards by counter-sinking, -and it is a useful practice to mark the places of these screws on the -rack-board as well, and to bore corresponding holes in this latter, in -order that if hereafter a slider should be pinched too tightly between -the upper board and table, the end of a long screw-driver may be -introduced to ease it by slackening the screws without disturbing the -pipes. - -But we shall have to return to this part of our subject. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -_THE WIND-CHEST._ - - -THE somewhat wearisome task of boring more than 250 holes in the -sound-board being now assumed as accomplished, we may take the upper -boards and sliders apart, and retouch the holes here and there, as -required, with the hot iron. The apertures of the holes in the interior -of the channels must be thus attended to, as the boring-bit may have -occasionally torn the wood and left rough edges. Upon the faintest -suspicion arising in your mind of any flaw or crack set up in any -channel during the business of boring, smear over the whole interior of -that channel anew with thin glue, letting it flow as before into the -angles. A running of the wind from one channel to the next is, as we -have said, the most provoking of all defects, and might compel us to -pull the whole of the organ to pieces after it was set up. - -The running of wind from one pipe-hole to an adjacent one, either under -the slider or between the slider and upper board, though very annoying, -is a much less serious evil. As a precaution against its occurrence, it -is usual to make little cuts or canals running tortuously all across -the table from edge to edge between the pipe-holes, and to make similar -canals or ducts across the under side of the upper boards, so that no -vagrant wind can pass from a hole to its neighbour in any direction -without encountering one of these little cuts, and being conducted by -it to the edge of the sound-board, where it will escape harmlessly. -If the planing of all the surfaces is absolutely perfect, these cuts -should be unnecessary, and we have seen highly finished sound-boards in -which they were omitted; but we must recommend their introduction by -all young beginners. They may be neatly and quickly formed by using the -=V=-shaped tool common among sculptors in wood, and procurable at any -good tool warehouse. Its two edges should be exceedingly keen. The cuts -may be about 1/8 inch in depth. - -After this is done, the movement to and fro of the sliders should be -regulated by cutting a little slot in each of them, and letting a very -stout pin of wood or iron into the table within the slot, so as to stop -the slider at the exact points. Of course all your sliders will have -the same extent of play, say 1 inch, less or more, according to your -arrangement of the pipe-holes. You will probably have so far thought -over your whole work as to be able also to cut the openings or slots in -the projecting ends of the sliders by which the mechanism for drawing -them in and out will be applied to them. We shall show, hereafter, one -or two different ways of effecting this movement to and fro. - -After this, take some good blacklead in powder, and with a stiff brush -rub it over every part of the table until the whole surface has a -lustre like that of a well-cleaned boot. Treat the sliders and the -under side of the upper boards in the same way. This application of -blacklead greatly diminishes friction between wooden surfaces brought -into contact. Some operators mix the blacklead powder into a thick -paste with spirits of turpentine, or with water. We prefer using it -dry, but we heartily endorse M. Hamel's complaint that it is difficult -to procure blacklead of good quality. That which is sold for household -purposes is often little better than a gritty sand. - -When the blacklead has been applied, the bearers may be pinned down in -their places with small brads. The holes which you have bored for the -screws will be conspicuous in them: over each of these holes, using -thin glue or paste, place a slip of paper, extending 2 or 3 inches -along the bearer on each side of the hole. The use of this is to hold -up the upper board, in order that the slider may not be pinched so -tightly as to be immovable. The upper boards may then be laid upon the -bearers, with the sliders in place, and the screws turned until the -sliders can be made to glide to and fro with smooth and easy motion. - -Our bench, let us assume, has been swept and cleaned up after this -blacklead rubbing, and now we turn over our work and proceed to a new -class of operations. - -We have to attach to this lower side of our sound-board a shallow box -of the same length, and about 3 inches deep, called the wind-chest, -which is to contain the apparatus by which the admission of compressed -air to the channels is governed, and which is in direct communication -with the bellows by means of a wooden tube called the wind-trunk. - -We are mindful, of course, in drawing up this account of organ-building -operations, that the majority of our readers stand in no need of -definitions of these common terms. To such readers it is superfluous -to explain that the valves by which the channels are kept closed while -the keys are untouched by the fingers are called "pallets," and that -these pallets are slips of wood a few inches in length, planed to a -triangular prism-like section, faced with soft white leather, and held -up against the channels, so as effectually to prevent the ingress of -air, by springs. When the keys are pressed, the pallets corresponding -to them are drawn down or opened by wires called "pull-downs," passing -in an air-tight contrivance through the bottom of the chest. - -Fig. 13 is a transverse section of the wind-chest, in which _a_ is the -pallet, held up by _b_, the spring, and drawn down by _c_, the wire. -Part of the sound-board is shown above, also in section, as will be -easily comprehended; and Fig. 14 is a view of part of the interior of -the wind-chest when the front board is removed, four of the grooves -being shown in section. - -We proceed by sections, with intervening remarks, as in Chapter III. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.] - -1. Seven inches will be an ample length for the pallets in our -organ; and as our channels are about 12-1/2 inches in length (inside -measurement), there will be between 5 and 6 inches of the channels -uncovered by the pallets, and closed permanently in another way. - -_Remark._--We take 7 inches as the length of our pallets on the -assumption that the widths of the channels are proportioned to a -sound-board about 4 feet long. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.] - -2. Between the bars of the sound-board, at a distance of 6-1/2 inches -from that side at which you mean the movable front board to be, glue -pieces of thin wood about 2 inches long and fitting nicely, and when -the glue is dry dress these over with a fine plane truly flush with -the edges of the bars and of the cheeks. You have now a firm wooden -surface to which you will glue, by-and-by, the little flap of leather -which forms the hinge of the pallet. - -3. The width of the wind-chest will be governed by that of the space -covered by the pallets to be enclosed within it, in our case about 8 -or 9 inches. 3 inches will be a sufficient depth. Make the two ends or -cheeks of stout stuff, and face them up to correspond with those of -the sound-board, with which they will be flush, taking care that their -thickness is not so great as to prevent the leaving of an ample margin -to the two extreme channels for the pallet to rest upon. - -_Remark._--In one of these cheeks a trunk-hole may have to be cut -for the entrance of the wind. We ourselves greatly prefer making the -trunk-hole in the bottom board of our chests. Your plans may not admit -of this, and you will act accordingly. - -The back of the chest, called the "wind-bar," _d_, Fig. 13, should be -of strong and sound stuff, oak or mahogany, as it greatly helps to -strengthen the whole sound-board and to bear the weight of the pipes. -The corners should be dovetailed, or otherwise well and firmly jointed. -These three pieces, the two cheeks and the back or wind-bar, will now -be attached to the sound-board with glue and screws, to be separated -from it no more; but the bottom, _e_ (of 1-inch pine), will be fixed on -with screws only, strips of soft white leather being interposed between -the surfaces to ensure air-tightness; and the front board, _f_, will -be similarly fitted with an eye to occasional removal. - -_Remark._--All such screws should be dipped in melted tallow, or -otherwise well greased before use, that they may not rust in their -places. - -4. Prepare the pallets from clean and very dry pine. Every pallet -will be at least 1/4 inch wider than its channel, that it may have -not less than 1/8 inch of overlapping or margin on each side, and -it will have more than this space to spare at each end. The pallets -will be separated from each other when finally put in by stout pins -of iron or brass, driven into the bars _g_, Fig. 13 and Fig. 14. Two -such pins may be necessary between many of the pallets if the plan of -your sound-board has given unusual thickness to some of the bars, and -therefore unusual spaces between the pallets. - -5. The pallets are to be faced with white sheep-skin, and it is usual, -but not absolutely necessary, to give two layers of it to each pallet. -About an inch of surplus will be left at one end to form the hinge; -and this hinge should be stiffened by gluing a slip of thinner leather -upon it and upon the sloped-off end of the pallet. The quality of the -facing leather is of the highest importance, and we must counsel the -reader to procure it from a builder, or from one of the shops which -supply builders' materials. The price of such skins is between three -and four shillings. If an inferior leather is used disappointment is -sure to ensue; and though leather of very promising appearance may -be bought at the fellmongers' or shoemakers' in your town, you will -only be put to new expense and additional trouble in the end by using -it. In putting the leather on the pallets, a common plan is to pin -down a sheet of glass-paper of medium roughness on a board, and to -scatter a little whitening on it. The face of each leathered pallet -(when the glue is dry) is gently drawn across this whitened surface. -If, however, the leather is of superior quality in the first instance -the glass-paper may be omitted, and a little whitening rubbed upon the -leathered face will suffice. Even this may not be essential. - -6. In working the pallets in take great care that each channel is -covered by its pallet with an equal margin or surplus on each side -of it. It is well to trace pencil lines on the bars as a guide. As -you glue down each hinge give a little tap with a light hammer to the -pallet, and satisfy yourself by inspection that the impression on the -leather is equal and similar in every part. Allow no defect to pass. -Rectify, for instance, the slightest bruise or depression in any of -the bars at the points covered by the pallets. See, also, that all the -pallets play easily between their guide-pins. Finally, a slip of wood -about an inch wide may be bradded down upon the hinge-pieces. This is -not essential, but it is a protection against possible straining and -injury to the hinge by incautious treatment hereafter in cleaning the -surface of the pallets. - -_Remark._--Organs have been constructed in which the pallets were made -to play upon a pin at the hinder end, and not upon a leathern hinge -glued to the bars. Such pallets could be taken out one by one at any -time for repair or cleaning. But repairs and cleaning, if the original -workmanship is good, become necessary only at extremely rare intervals, -and these removable pallets may be ranked among the mere curiosities of -our subject. They are described and figured, however, by Seidel. - -7. The springs, see Fig. 13, are now commonly of steel, which has -extensively superseded brass, in consequence of the deterioration to -which the latter metal is subject. We are bound to say, however, that -we have used springs of best brass wire, even of late years, without -any disappointing results, and that sets of such brass springs are, -to our knowledge, as efficient as ever after thirty or forty years of -constant use. But it is undeniable that the brass wire now procurable -is subject to a change under the influence of damp and (it is said) -under that of the fumes of gas, which renders it brittle and quite -useless for purposes which require flexibility. Springs certainly -cannot be made from wire so spoilt; but, as we have said, when once -made from new wire, they may continue in use for periods practically -unlimited. - -_Remark._--The store of brass wire should be kept wrapped up in brown -paper. This applies also to brass plate. - -Whatever the wire, the springs may be quickly fashioned by using a -board, Fig. 15, in which you have fixed a stout wooden peg, _x_, and -two pins, _y_ and _z_. The wire, if brass, should be about No. 17 or -No. 18 of the gauge. The formation of the spring, by twisting the wire -round _x_, _y_, and _z_, is too obvious to require further remark. The -arms of the spring maybe about 5 inches in length, and they are curved -outwards (see Fig. 16) by drawing them between the thumb and fingers. -When so curved, and left uncompressed, the gape or distance between the -extremities will be 7 or 8 inches. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.] - -_Remark._--The strength of the springs must be regulated by your plans -in other respects. We ourselves like strong springs, even if the manual -touch be in consequence a little heavy. - -8. The two extremities of each spring are bent at a right angle -or nearly. One of these will be inserted, but quite loosely, in a -small hole or punch-mark near the middle of the back of the pallet; -the other, also quite loosely, in a similar hole or depression in a -wooden bar extending the whole length of the wind-chest, and screwed -down within two notches made for it in the inside of the cheeks. -As the united pressure of the 54 springs will certainly bend this -bar, it is well to introduce a long screw at about its middle point, -passing through it, and biting well in one of the sounding-bars. The -spring-bar has a slip of wood, cedar or mahogany, about 2 inches wide, -glued or bradded to it along the side which is to be nearest to the -back of the chest. The springs will be held parallel to their pallets -by playing loosely in cuts, about 1/8 inch wide, made in this slip of -wood (Fig. 17). - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.] - -The socket, or punch-mark, upon which the pressure of the spring is -exerted, should be a little in advance of the middle of the pallet, so -that the latter may be held up against the bars throughout its extent. -The spring, be it carefully observed, is loosely held in place by the -sockets and by the rack in which it plays, and it can be removed at any -future time by the aid of the little clever tool which we have figured -in Fig. 18, and which you can make for yourself. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.] - -When all this is done, furnish every pallet, if you have not already -done so at an earlier stage, with a little ring or crook, by which to -draw it down. This ring is best made by bending one end of a bit of -suitable wire, and thrusting the other obliquely into the pallet (see -Fig. 18_a_). This is better than driving in a little staple vertically. -The rings may be in a line drawn across the pallets about 1-1/2 inches -from their extremities. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18_a_.] - -_Remark._--But it will be convenient that the rings to which the -pull-downs will be hooked should be quite clear of the guide-pins. - -9. The bottom board being now put in its place for the moment, draw a -line upon it from end to end exactly above the line of rings on the -pallets, and draw lines at right angles to this corresponding with -the centre of each channel, and therefore of each pallet. At each of -these points a pull-down will pass through the board, and it is plain -that it must be made to do so without allowing the wind included in -the chest to escape. This was formerly effected by "purses" (French, -_boursettes_), little leather bags, tied or otherwise attached to the -pull-downs. We have seen this method successfully tried, but it is now -so completely superseded by a simpler and more effectual plan that we -do not think it worth our while to say more of it. - -The arrangement now invariably adopted is thus made:--Procure a strip -of brass plate, or several strips, equal in the aggregate to the length -of the chest, and about 1-1/2 inch or 2 inches wide. In too many organs -this plate is poor stuff, not thicker than a visiting-card, sometimes -even of zinc only, but in our opinion it should be at least as thick -as a shilling. Drill holes in this plate near the edges, and pin it -down for the moment on the bottom board, so that the lines of holes -for the pull-downs may run along its middle. Mark on the brass the -intersections of the lines as before. Having previously chosen the wire -for your pull-downs (of which more directly), take a fine drill, with -your breast-plate and bow, and on a bit of waste plate try the size -of the hole made by it, altering it on the oil-stone until the hole -receives the wire with the nicest and most accurate fit. - -_Remark._--It will be well to store away the drill afterwards, with a -bit of the wire as a specimen, and to use it for no other purpose. - -This drilling is not a difficult operation, and only requires care -and delicate manipulation. Of course, however, any clockmaker would -drill the holes for you. Assuming confidently that you will drill them -yourself, we recommend you to hold the bottom board, with the plate -on it, in the screw-clamp of your bench, or in a similar vertical -position, so that as the drill penetrates the brass it may be received -by the soft wood of the board. This will diminish the risk of breaking -it. - -_Remark._--Those who have a light handy lathe will know how to utilise -it in drilling the holes in the brass plate apart from the board. - -When all the holes are drilled, remove the plate, and clean off with -a fine file the rough projections thrown up by the drill. With a much -larger drill, twirled gently between the thumb and finger, smooth the -edges of all the holes on both sides of the plate. Try a bit of the -wire in every hole, and draw it to and fro, when necessary, until its -passage is perfectly smooth and easy. Grease should not be used; or, if -a little tallow is rubbed over the wire, it should be wiped off clean. - -The holes in the bottom board itself may be of any size we please, -since they have nothing to do with keeping in the wind, and merely -allow a perfectly clear passage for the wire pull-downs. - -It is plain that if we now pin down the drilled plate in its place, the -arrangement will not be complete without some provision for preventing -the escape of wind in large quantities, and with an intolerable hissing -noise, at the edges of the plate. - -The builders prevent this escape and hissing by fitting two long slips -or tringles of wood (see _h_, _k_, Fig. 13) along the two edges of -the plate with glue and brads, or screws. These slips press the plate -closely to the board throughout its entire length, and they protect -from injury at the same time the rings of the pull-downs, which might -easily be bent and distorted. - -Using thicker plate, however, we ourselves greatly prefer to glue -a strip of white leather, of the same width as the plate, over the -holes in the board, piercing it with a sufficiently large awl at the -centre of each hole, and we screw down our plate upon this leather, -using numerous short screws, placed only 4 or 5 inches apart, passing -through holes drilled near the edges of the plate, and countersunk in -the usual way. All escape of air is thus most effectually prevented, -and the slips or tringles of wood become unnecessary, except, indeed, -in their secondary character as protectors of the rings. - -The bottom board may now be put on, and strongly secured by plenty of -screws, well lubricated with tallow. Prepare the pull-downs, of uniform -length, each with its little ring neatly formed; pass each through its -hole in the plate, and with suitable pliers form the top of the wire -into a hook, which takes hold of the ring of the pallet. - -_Remark._--Or you may pass all the wires through the holes, and form -the hooks upon their ends before you fix the board in its place. - -The builders often muffle the hook or ring with silk thread, or a -morsel of soft and thin leather, to prevent a slight clicking noise -which might be heard of wire against wire. This, however, is really not -essential. It is, or formerly was, very common also to interpose an =S= -of wire between the hook of the pull-down and the ring of the pallet. -These connecting links are unnecessary, and are better omitted. - -According to strict rule the pull-downs, passing through holes in -brass, should themselves be of iron or steel; but we have always used -brass wire, and we must refer our readers to what we have said of this -material in treating of springs. They must judge for themselves. The -essential thing is that the wires should play easily and smoothly -through the holes, drawing down the pallets with perfect freedom, and -allowing them to return, when released, with a pleasant smartness. If -a single pull-down fails in these respects remove it at once. Perhaps -it is a little bent or bruised; possibly the hole in the plate may have -been inadvertently left with a sharp edge, which has cut a notch in -the wire; possibly, also, the pallet-ring may not be quite in a line -with its fellows, and therefore not quite correctly above the hole in -the plate, throwing the pull-down out of a right line into an oblique -one. Rectify all defects of this kind at any expenditure of time and -patience. - -We have left all this time several inches of each channel open or -uncovered, since the wind-chest closes in only that portion of the -channels to which the pallets are applied. We may now finish our work -by gluing white leather, or parchment, or even only stout paper, over -the open part of the channels, taking care that it adheres well in -every part. - -We may add that it is sometimes, or often, convenient to place the -wind-chest under the back part of the sound-board, and not under the -front; or to place it midway between the back and front, or a few -inches from either. This is done with an eye to arrangements connected -with the action or movement, which will be described in detail. When -the wind-chest is so placed care must be taken to provide for the -complete closing of the front board. A ledge of wood should be glued -and pinned to the bars in such case, to afford a bearing for the front -board and to receive the screws which secure it; or the edges of the -board may be leathered, and it may be thrust in, with a tight fit, -between the under side of the channels (roofed with wood at that point -for the purpose), the cheeks, and the bottom board, cut an inch wider -accordingly. Wedges are sometimes used, driven in behind clasps or -hooks of iron, to keep it in its place. But in truth, when the organ -is once well built and finished, several years may elapse without a -disturbance of the board. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -_THE BELLOWS, TRUNKS, AND FRAME._ - - -AFTER all our minute operations with small drills and fine wires, -calling for a light hand and patient accuracy, we have to turn to work -comparatively rough and coarse. The business of bellows-making presents -no serious difficulty, and we hope we may pass rapidly over it. We -shall have no reader who is not already familiar with the form of -organ-bellows, which consist of three main boards, namely, the middle -board, the top board or table, and the feeder, and of thin plates of -wood called ribs, the whole united together with flexible white leather -forming hinges and gussets. - -The shape or form of the bellows will of course be determined by that -of the organ; they may be long and narrow, or short and wide, like the -sound-board. Their capacity, or area, will depend on the number and -character of the pipes which they have to supply with wind. A common -rule is to assign two square feet of superficial area for each stop -in the organ; but this would be in excess of the requirements of such -a small organ as that which we are making. 3 feet 6 inches by 2 feet, -giving 7 square feet of area, will be ample dimensions in our case, -and will work in conveniently with the size which we have assumed -throughout for the sound-board, namely, about 4 feet or 4 feet 6 inches -by 15 inches. In arranging your plans in the first instance, allow -room for a drop or play of the feeder of at least 10 inches, free of -all interruption from the pedal or other contrivance for blowing, for -it is upon the capacity of the feeder that you must depend for the -quantity of air supplied, the upper part of the bellows being merely a -reservoir in which the compressed air is stored away, and from which -it is distributed to the pipes as it is wanted. The reservoir may have -a rise or play of about 10 inches or a foot. Get out the three main -boards of deal or any sound stuff, leaving the middle board some inches -longer than the other two, that its ends may rest upon the frame of -the organ, or upon other supports as you may arrange. Cut out pieces, -also, to form a shallow box, say 4 inches deep, upon the middle board, -of the same size as the top board. This is called a trunk-band, and is -introduced to allow of fixing the wind-trunks which are to convey the -wind to the chest. You will want also a light frame of three-quarters -stuff, pine recommended, to carry and support the ribs of the -reservoir; the four boards of which it is made will be of the same -width as the ribs themselves, namely, about 4 or 4-1/2 inches. The ribs -are of very thin stuff, say 1/4 inch, but they must be quite sound and -free from cracks. You will want sixteen ribs (eight pairs) for -the reservoir and six for the feeder; of these last the long ones will -be of triangular form. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.] - -Cut plenty of large openings in the feeder board for the admission of -the external air, and in the middle board for the transfer of that air -to the reservoir. These openings may be rectangular, say 4 inches by -1-1/2, and there may be fully six of them in each board. After cutting -them, convert them into gratings by fitting little wooden bars across -them, 1 inch apart, let in flush with the board, and planed level. -Each of these gratings will be covered with a valve or clack of stout -white leather, two thicknesses glued together, and held down along -one edge by a slip of wood and brads. These leathern valves should -play with perfect ease, and it is well to thin down the hinge-flap, -or cut it half through with a sharp penknife, that the valve may fly -open at the slightest pressure of the wind, and may not throttle or -retard its passage. It is a common plan to make these valves without -a hinge, by attaching pieces of tape to the four corners, and pinning -down the ends of the tapes to the board. The whole valve then rises -and falls. We prefer the hinge. After cutting your ribs to the proper -shapes, in which you can hardly get wrong, sort them into pairs, and -glue a long strip of stout white sheep-skin along the edges of each -pair. Stout calico or linen may be substituted for leather on the -opposite side, namely, the side which will present the inner angle, -and in which the ribs will be in close contact when folded together. -A glance at Fig. 19 will show that the upper ribs of the reservoir are -in a position the reverse of that of the lower ribs. This inversion of -the ribs represents the result of a clever invention by one Cummins, -a clockmaker. Before its introduction, the air in the reservoir had -suffered a slightly unequal compression as the top board descended, in -consequence of the closing-in on all sides of the folds of the ribs, -which diminished the space occupied by the air. Cummins's ingenious -modification at once rectified this inequality, since the upper ribs -fold outwards, and allow more room for the air, precisely in the same -proportion as the lower ribs fold inwards and diminish the space. -An unpractised ear might not, indeed, detect the slight change in -the tone of the pipes caused by bellows made in the old-fashioned -way, but let us by all means follow Cummins's plan. You will do well -first to join the inner lower edges of the upper ribs to the inner -sides of the middle frame; then their other edges to the top board -at the proper distance from its margin; then attach the upper and -outer edges of the lower ribs to the outer edges of the middle frame; -lastly, the lower edges of the lower ribs to the trunk-band. All this -must be done quickly that the glue may not grow cold; it will much -facilitate a distasteful operation to use a small sponge with warm -water, passed over the outer or smooth side of the leathern strips as -they are glued on. The main hinge of the feeder will be best made by -passing pieces of hempen rope through several pairs of holes bored -obliquely for the purpose in the feeder board and middle board, and -wedged in with pegs and glue. Fig. 20 sufficiently explains this. Two -or three layers of the stoutest leather will be glued over the line of -junction formed by this hinge. There is no reason why the hinge should -not be on one of the long sides of the feeder, instead of its narrow -end, if your arrangements for the blowing-handle or pedal render this -form of construction desirable. (You have doubtless well considered -your blowing mechanism.) The ribs of the feeder being worked in like -those of the reservoir, and all the glue dry, fix the bellows in a -fully distended position by temporary appliances, and fill up the -open corners by gusset-pieces of your best and most flexible leather. -Material will be economised and neatness consulted by preparing a -paper pattern of the gusset-pieces in advance. Those of the feeder must -be very strong, and it may be well, but it is not necessary, to put on -a second pair over the first, but not glued to them in the folding or -crumpled part. All must be perfectly tight and well glued down in every -part. A mere pin-hole will betray itself hereafter by a disagreeable -hissing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.] - -We had almost forgotten to say that a valve 4 inches square, or -thereabout, must be fitted in the middle of the top board to prevent -over-blowing. This is generally made of a small board of wood, planed -truly level, and covered with two thicknesses of the pallet leather, -rubbed with whitening. It opens inwards, and is held closed by any -simple application of a stout spring made of much thicker wire -than the pallet springs. Fig. 21 suggests one of the very simplest -of arrangements. A string, fastened to the under side of this -safety-valve, and to the middle board beneath it, may be of such length -as to pull the valve open when the bellows are fully inflated; or the -valve may be pushed open from above by a wooden arm or catch attached -for the purpose to some part of the frame. - -The apertures for the trunks should be cut in the trunk-band, according -to well-digested plans, before the bellows are put together, that -there may be no sawdust or chips afterwards to get under the clacks; -and it is well to give the whole interior of the bellows two coats of -glue-size before the ribs are closed in. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.] - -The little contrivance _a b c d_, Fig. 22, is to ensure the -simultaneous rising of the top board and middle frame when the bellows -are in action. It may be conveniently made of hoop-iron, but oak or any -hard and strong wood will be equally good. If some such contrivance -were not introduced, the top board and upper ribs would rise first on -the working of the feeder, and the frame and lower ribs would follow -in their turn. This would cause inequality of pressure, since the top -board would not at once bear up the weight of the frame and lower ribs. -The little jointed apparatus redresses this by causing the whole of the -ribs to obey the first admission of air. A simpler form of it will be -found in Fig. 22_a_. - -We are building a very small organ, but, desiring as we do to give as -much completeness to this treatise as circumstances will allow, we -here explain that in larger instruments two feeders are generally or -always introduced, unless, indeed, a "cuckoo feeder" is used, which -practically amounts to the same thing, being a long board hinged to -the under side of the middle board by a stout transverse piece in -its middle, and provided with two sets of ribs, each set filling up -the space from the middle hinge to the end of the board. This feeder -supplies wind with the upward as well as the downward stroke of the -bellows-handle, but it would not be suitable for an organ in which the -blowing is effected by the foot. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22_a_.] - -We may have readers who are so fortunately circumstanced as to be able -to apply water-power to their bellows. In this case two feeders should -be fitted in order to utilise both strokes of the ingenious little -machine, which consists essentially of a piston moving water-tight in -a cylinder provided with a valve which admits water alternately above -and below it. This is not the place for entering on a discussion of the -conditions essential to the due working of the water-pressure engine; -they may be studied in any modern treatise on hydro-dynamics; it is -enough for our present purpose to say that a cylinder not larger than -a common wine-bottle will give ample power for such an organ as ours, -provided that the pressure on the piston be not less than 30 lbs. to -the square inch, and that the supply-pipes be of ample size. Water, it -must be remembered, does not expand like steam when admitted into an -empty space, or rather into a space occupied only by atmospheric air; -hence large pipes, large valves, and large ports, or valve-openings, -must be provided, that the water-pressure, irresistible when properly -applied, may be thrown at once upon the point where it is wanted. But -this is by the way, and we will only add that the water machine should -be in a room or cellar below or adjoining that in which the organ -is placed, as a slight noise is inseparable from its action, and it -should act on the feeders by a wooden or iron rod brought up through -the floor. Still better if the whole apparatus, feeders, reservoir, -and all, can be down-stairs or in a neighbouring apartment, the -trunks only passing through the wall or floor. In very large modern -instruments the feeders, worked by steam or water, are commonly made to -move horizontally, in a way which will be understood if we imagine an -accordion or concertina laid upon its side. When the reservoir is fully -inflated it acts upon a valve, which reduces or cuts off the supply of -water or steam. - -The trunks are rectangular wooden tubes made of half-inch pine, and -well jointed. In their course from the trunk-band to the wind-chest -right-angled mitres are permissible, for it is a mistake, though a -common one, to imagine that the wind rushes in an impetuous stream -along the trunks as it does (for instance) along a conveyancing tube -when its pallet is open. The trunks are simply connecting links between -the reservoir and wind-chest, but they must be large enough to ensure -an equality of wind-density in both wind-chest and reservoir under -all demands on the part of the player. Our trunk may be 5 inches by -2, inside measurement; or it may be 9 or 10 inches wide by only 1; -or we may make it 3 or 4 inches square, as may suit our plans. The -ends of the trunk should not be glued into the openings cut in the -trunk-band and wind-chest. The ends, reduced by half the thickness of -the wood, and brought to a shoulder, should be glued into an opening -in a small board, an inch or two larger on all sides than the area of -the trunk. Engineers would call this a "flange." This flange being -leathered, and the aperture of the trunk cut out, it may be pressed -with four or more screws against the margins of the openings with which -it is in communication, and will thus be removable at any time if the -organ is taken down or altered. The interior of wind-trunks should be -well coated with thin glue, and the exterior should be painted. Some -builders prefer to cover the exterior of their trunks with paper, and -to line the ribs of the bellows with the same material, applied with -common paste. Trunks have been made, too, of zinc, and oval in section. - -The frame of the organ, whatever its form or plan, should be very -strong and solid, and should stand firmly in its place on the floor -without any tendency to vibration or unsteadiness. The pieces of which -it is composed should be of good deal, 1-1/4 inch thick, and from 3-1/2 -to 4-1/2 inches wide, according to circumstances, that is to say, -according to the weights which it has to carry. The essential points -are these, namely, that the keys, or manual, shall rest upon firm -supports at the proper height above the floor; that the sound-board -shall be borne upon bearers at a sufficient height above the keys to -admit the intervening mechanism; that the bellows shall be carried on -cross pieces far enough removed from the floor to admit of the free -play of the feeder. - -You will take into consideration, in designing your frame, the question -whether you will have pedals, and the still more important question -whether you will have separate pipes for them, and how they are to -be connected with the lower keys. Room must be provided for all the -apparatus involved in these arrangements, and, as in every part of -our work, so in this, we say that the reader himself must think over -carefully all contingencies, and make a preliminary drawing to scale -for his own guidance. - -Enough if we lay down here the following rules:-- - -1. The under side of the key-board must be 25 inches from the floor, -or from the upper surface of the pedal-board. - -2. The under side of the wind-chest should, if possible, be at least 15 -inches above the key-board. - -3. The middle board of the bellows should be fully 12 inches above the -floor, or above any trackers or other mechanism connected with pedals. - -4. The front edge of the key-board should project about 1 foot in -advance of the panels closing in the lower part of the case. - -5. Ample space should be secured for a large book-board by allowing -a still greater distance between this front edge of the keys and the -front edge of the sound-board above. - -These are not quite all the considerations involved in designing the -frame. The draw-stops and their connection with the sliders must be -well considered, and room left for the requisite apparatus; and the -position of the bellows-handle should be determined, and the part of -the frame on which its fulcrum or centre will rest. - -Fig. 23 gives, perhaps, the simplest form of frame usually adopted for -a small organ. It is made of four distinct frames, united at the angles -by screws, so that the whole can be easily taken to pieces. It must -be understood that the key-board is carried upon two cross-bearers, -leaving the under part of the tails of the keys accessible; and the -sound-board in like manner rests upon two bearers under its extreme -ends. If any longitudinal bar is introduced to assist in sustaining -the weight of the sound-board, it must be after careful consideration -of all the arrangements for the action or movements of the keys. -Similarly, the entrance of the trunk must depend on the mechanism of -the action and of the draw-stops. It is unnecessary to screw down -the sound-board to the bearers. Its own weight when loaded with the -pipes will keep it down, while a couple of dowels (short wooden pegs), -one in each bearer, fitting into sockets in the bottom board of the -wind-chest, will prevent it from moving laterally. - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.] - -There is another form of frame well suited to small organs, and which -we ourselves greatly approve. According to this plan, which is sketched -in Fig. 24, the bellows are enclosed in a stout low structure rising -no higher than the level of the key-board which rests upon its top. The -sound-board is carried upon cheeks screwed or otherwise attached to the -bottom board of the wind-chest either at its extreme ends or at points -nearer to its centre, according to your plans for the action and the -draw-stops. Or the cheeks may be united by a stout transverse piece or -girder, the sound-board being then kept in place by dowels only. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.] - -The present writer has further modified this arrangement by -substituting a wide and shallow trunk for one of the cheeks. This trunk -is screwed by its flange to the bottom board of the wind-chest, where -the wind enters, and it is closed at the bottom, where it rests upon -the cross-bearers of the frame. A lateral aperture is cut in it an inch -or two from this lower end, and a short mitred trunk connects it with -the bellows. All this may be sufficiently understood by inspection of -Fig. 24. - -_Remark._--The late eminent builder, Mr. W. Hill, we believe, exhibited -an organ at the London International Exhibition in 1851 which had -hollow framework, serving as trunks. It is evident that by making -one end of our bellows rest upon a hollow bearer we might omit the -trunk-band entirely, since this hollow bearer might be directly -connected by a mitred trunk with the hollow cheek supporting the -wind-chest. And by making one leg of the bellows-frame hollow, and -connecting it at top with a hollow cross-bearer, carrying the cheek on -which rests the wind-chest, it is plain that we supersede the separate -trunk altogether. Such plans as these may amuse some of our readers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.] - -If the feeder is worked by the foot of the player such a pedal as -that shown in Fig. 25 will be found convenient. It is made of hard -wood--oak, birch, ash, or walnut--with iron or brass hoops and -pivots, and is screwed to the floor of the room, independently of the -organ-frame. The little roller should be covered or muffled with soft -leather, and you will see that it rolls clear of the valve-holes in the -feeder. By lengthening the middle piece or shaft we may work with the -right foot, a feeder having its play on the left side; but in such a -case the whole machine will be best made of iron by a smith. He will -coat the pedal for you with india-rubber where the foot rests upon -it--a much better plan than roughening it like a rasp. The pedal, as -figured, is intended to be on the extreme right of the player, and to -be clear of a pedal-board of two octaves. - -The reader will see that by reversing the positions of the arms of the -pedal it may be made to suit any little organ with a manual only. In -this case the muffled roller will traverse the feeder not crosswise, -but lengthwise. - -We pointed out in a former page that the position of a bellows-blower -must be considered in your plans for the finished instrument. If he -stands close to the player on either side of him the lever will be -easily poised upon a strong pin projecting from the frame. A piece of -web or a leathern strap will be a better connection with the feeder -than any rigid bar of wood or of iron. If the organ is not placed -against a wall the position of the blower may with equal ease be -precisely reversed. The lever, however, may be arranged parallel to the -back wall by constructing your bellows in the first instance with a -view to this, the hinge of the feeder being on one of its long sides, -as we have explained in a former page. Or, with a feeder hinged as -usual at its end, the lever may still be parallel to the back wall by -acting upon an arm with a roller precisely similar to our foot-blower. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.] - -Another mode of effecting this is shown in Fig. 26. _a b_ is the -handle turning on a strong pin at _a_, fixed to the back of the frame. -_c d_ is a shaft which should be of iron, but might be of hard wood, -hooped at the ends, having two arms, _e_ and _f_, projecting from it -in opposite directions. This shaft turns on stout iron pivots which -enter holes in stanchions securely fixed to the frame. These holes -will be better for being bushed with brass. _g_ is a short wooden link -connecting the handle with the arm _f_; and _h_ is a wooden rod which -connects the arm _e_ with a forked lug screwed to the feeder. All these -connections are by stout turned pins of iron or brass. It is plain -that every downstroke of the handle _a b_ will bring up the feeder. All -this is a matter of mere mechanical arrangement; the simpler you can -make it, by diminishing as much as possible the number of pivots or -turnings, the better it will be. - -We conclude this chapter, and turn to the next branch of our subject, -with the assumption that the organ is thus far satisfactorily advanced. -When the new bellows are worked we assume that no hissing is heard, -and no escape of air perceived at any of the holes when a slider is -drawn, or at any part of the junctions of the trunk. We assume also -that when any pallet is opened by drawing down the ring of its wire, a -strong rush of wind will immediately follow, and will be as instantly -stopped by releasing the ring, when the pallet will close with a ready -and prompt snap. The sliders, too, must glide to and fro with perfect -smoothness and ease. - -Pass over no serious fault. Remedy all defects with unwearied patience, -even if it involves a reconstruction of your work. - -It is usual to paint the frame and bellows (leaving the ribs untouched, -however) with some dark priming. A dull red was formerly in vogue; -chocolate, dark brown, or a slaty black have now found favour in the -eyes of builders. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -_PLANTATION OF THE PIPES._ - - -WE explained in a former page that it is well to plant all the pipes -upon the sound-board before the pallets are fitted, because dust and -chips are inseparable from the operation, and may be troublesome and -mischievous if introduced into the grooves and conveyances. Some of our -readers, therefore, having their stock of pipes by them, have perhaps -already perused this chapter and acted upon its suggestions. It has -been reserved, however, for this place in our work, in accordance with -our wish to meet the case of workmen and young beginners who are under -the necessity of proceeding by degrees. - -Possessing a turning-lathe, and resolving to turn the wooden pipe-feet -yourself, you will doubtless commence by boring four or more holes in -a bit of thin board with centre-bits of different sizes as a guide or -gauge for the diameters of the pipe-feet. If you mount this little -board at a height of 4-1/2 inches above another board or stand, by -pillars or legs, it will represent a portion of your rack-board, and as -you rapidly throw off the feet in the lathe they will be as quickly -sorted by passing them into these trial holes. The billet of wood, -pine, willow, sycamore, or any other suitable stuff, should be bored -while still in the rough by a bit revolving in the lathe. The bore -cannot then fail to be central. It should ultimately be scorched with -a hot iron, unless, indeed, your borer has been so well suited to the -wood as to render unnecessary any further smoothing. The feet will be -slightly conical, the smaller end tapered off to fit the countersunk -hole on the board, the larger formed into a neck with a shoulder (see -Fig. 1). - -The rack-pins should be of mahogany or oak, with a shoulder at each -end, the necks fitting tightly in the holes provided for them already. -These necks may be blackleaded, to facilitate removal. - -All the holes may now be bored in the rack-board corresponding to our -two wooden stops (Nos. 2 and 4), at the points marked long ago, when -the grooving was finished; the board may be placed on its rack-pins, -and the feet dropped into their places, adjusted, where necessary, -with a half-round file. The pipes may then receive their feet one by -one, and if your calculations have been correct and your measurements -accurate they should stand in orderly array. Use the spirit-level, -square, and plumb-line in planting the pipes, to ensure truly -horizontal and perpendicular lines. The feet should not be actually -glued into the blocks until the last little adjustments have been given. - -In planting the metal pipes, holes 2 inches or more in diameter will -be required in the bass, while those in the extreme treble will be -little larger than a common quill. Adjustable bits may be bought, -clever contrivances producing beautifully true circular holes (see -Chap. II.). In the absence of these, we recommend you to use discs of -stiff paper or cardboard, representing the exact size, as ascertained -by callipers, of the conical foot of the pipe at about 5 inches from -its lower extremity; from these discs the outline of the holes may be -traced on the board, and all the holes, great and small, may be cut -out with a pad-saw, or bored with common bits, in every case a trifle -smaller than they are ultimately to be. Then, the rack-board being in -place, each pipe may be adjusted in its position by using a half-round -rasp, and similar or rat-tail files. With these you will easily give a -conical form to the holes in the board. - -Great care will be well bestowed in this operation. If, unfortunately, -you cut any hole too large, line it with a morsel of soft leather. But -every true workman will desire to resort as seldom as possible to this -expedient. - -Probably none of the metal pipes will require to be grooved off. But -this you have attended to long ago. If any of them are grooved off, -take care that the grooves are of ample size, that the wind may not be -throttled. - -When all the pipes are planted, whatever the arrangement which you have -adopted, they should gratify the eye by their perfect symmetry. - -"If they do not look well they will not sound well," was a good maxim -long ago impressed upon the writer by an ingenious German workman, to -whom he was indebted for much valuable information. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -_THE ACTION._ - - -THIS important subject will be prefaced by a few definitions, -superfluous, perhaps, for some readers, necessary for others. - -_Backfall_. A lever of any clean wood, 3/8 inch or less in thickness, 1 -inch or 2 inches in width, and seldom more than 1 or 2 feet in length, -turning upon a wire as its axis or fulcrum. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.] - -_Bridge_. Backfalls occur in sets, corresponding to the number of keys -in a manual or of pallets in a wind-chest. They are arranged side by -side in notches formed by taking out the wood between saw-cuts in a -balk of mahogany or oak 2, 3, or more inches square. This balk is -called a bridge. Fig. 27 shows part of a set of backfalls and their -bridge. - -_Square._ Squares are now usually of metal, but may be easily made of -wood, and consist of two arms, 2 or 3 inches long, united at a right -angle to each other, or cut at once from a single piece, and turning -on a wire as an axis passing through a hole at the intersection of -the arms. Like the backfalls, they may be arranged side by side in a -bridge, but the modern metal squares are screwed separately in their -places (Fig. 28). - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.] - -_Sticker._ A slender rod of light wood, not larger than a common cedar -pencil, and from a few inches to a foot or two in length (Fig. 29). - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.] - -_Tracker._ A flat riband of pine, sometimes several feet in length, -about 3/8 inch in width, and less than 1/8 inch in thickness. Trackers, -however, are now frequently slender round rods, like the stickers (see -Fig. 30). - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.] - -_Tapped Wires._ Formerly of brass, afterwards of tinned iron, and now -generally of phosphor-bronze or some other alloy. These are pieces of -wire about 3-1/2 inches in length, from No. 16 to No. 18 in gauge, and -cut with a screw-thread upon about half their length, with a ring or -hook at the untapped end. - -_Buttons_. Round nuts of old and thick leather, or latterly of a -composition into which gutta-percha enters, pierced at their centre to -receive the tapped part of the wire. - -_Cloths._ Little discs of woollen cloth, mostly red, used as mufflers -to prevent the rattling noise of wood against wood, or metal against -metal. - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.] - -_Roller._ An axis or shaft of light wood (but in certain cases of -iron), turning easily on two wires as pivots, which enter holes in -studs fixed firmly. The roller has two (or more) arms, 2 or 3 inches -long, projecting from it, generally near its ends. It is plain that -any motion given to the roller by acting on one of these arms will -be transmitted to the other arm. Rollers are in sets, like backfalls -and squares, and are arranged symmetrically on a board called a -roller-board (Fig. 31). - -The nine articles just described are all brought together in the action -of an organ, even of a simple kind. We shall endeavour in this chapter -to show how they are combined in ordinary circumstances, involving no -peculiar complications. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.] - -A simple and rudimentary example of the principle underlying all -systems of organ-action may be seen in Fig. 32. _a b_ is the key-board, -in which each key (as always in England) is balanced on a pin-rail near -its centre, and has a pin, _c_, passing through a little mortice cut in -it, while another pin, _d_, out of sight, near its fore end, keeps it -in its place, parallel to its fellows. At the tail of the key, _e_ is -a sticker, having a wire thrust into each of its ends, and projecting -about 1 inch; one of these wires is inserted in a small hole drilled -in the key-tail, and conical beneath, or cut into a little mortice. -A "cloth" is slipped upon the wire to prevent the end of the sticker -from rattling upon the key-tail. The upper wire of the sticker slips -into a similar hole (a cloth interposed as before) in the end of _f_, a -backfall working in its bridge, _g_. The other end of _f_ is connected -at once to the pull-down of the pallet by a tapped wire and button. -Clearly, if a finger is placed upon the key, its hinder end will rise -and will push up the back end of the backfall, which will draw down the -pallet; and by simply reversing the position of the backfalls as shown -in the cut, we may pull down the pallets in the wind-chest when placed -under the back of the sound-board. - -If, then, we have fifty-four keys in the manual, a repetition of this -simple apparatus fifty-four times will be requisite to bring every -pallet, with the pipes controlled by it, under the command of the -player. - -But this is taking no account of the fact that the pipes are not -planted in an unbroken chromatic series from bass to treble. In the -arrangement shown in Fig. 5 (and in its reverse or opposite plan) it is -plain that our simple backfalls would fail us; while in Fig. 6 some of -the bass pipes are planted to the right of the player, equally out of -reach. - -Here we resort, then, to rollers. Fig. 33 shows a single roller, in -which _i k_ is the roller, turning on pivots in studs, and having arms, -_l_, _m_, of wood or of iron, projecting from it. The sticker from the -key-tail pushes up the arm _l_ when the key is depressed; the roller -turns on its pivots, and the arm _m_ pushes up the tail of the backfall -by another sticker, the pallet being thus opened as before; and it is -plain that by arranging a set of rollers on a board, as in Fig. 31, we -may act with ease upon pallets to the right and left which could not be -reached in any other way. - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.] - -The roller-board as here described is placed above the key-board, -with action by stickers; but it might be as easily placed immediately -under the wind-chest, with action by trackers. In this latter case, -the key-tail will push up the end of the backfall, the other end of -which will draw down a roller arm by means of a tracker; the other arm -of the roller will be hooked to the pull-down of the pallet by means -of another tracker. If so placed, room must of course be left for the -roller-boards by fixing the wind-chest at a sufficient height above -the backfalls. Figs. 34 and 35 show, sufficiently for our purpose, but -without any pretension to exactness of detail, the two positions of the -roller-board, and it is easy to see that by reversing the backfalls, -and in Fig. 35 the roller-board also, we can act upon a back wind-chest. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.] - -Probably the reader has already surmised that the notches in the bridge -are by no means necessarily parallel to each other, or, in other -words, that the backfalls themselves are not parallel. The left-hand -pipes, as shown in Fig. 6, are reached by cutting the notches in -the bridge askew, so that while one end of the backfall is over the -key-tail, the other may be under the pull-down; and as this applies to -the whole set of backfalls, except those connected with the rollers, -the whole of the notches will be cut at varying angles to the central -line or axis, and the complete set of backfalls, when put in their -places, will present a fan-shaped plan. Hence it is sometimes called a -"fan-frame." - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.] - -But parallel backfalls occur constantly as transmitters of motion from -the keys to the rollers, and in other positions which will be noticed. -The plantation of pipes shown in Fig. 5, for instance, and the reverse -of it, which has the larger pipes in the centre, can only be adopted by -having a roller for every pallet; and in this case the backfalls will -be parallel, whether the action be by stickers or by trackers. - -Already, we hope, we have given explanations so far intelligible that -ingenious reader's might have no difficulty in devising for themselves -some one of the numerous distinct combinations which may be made of the -nine pieces or members which we began by defining. - -Let us take, however, the very common arrangement of Fig. 6 as that of -our organ, and apply to it the rules already laid down. - -1. The keys will be procured, of course, from a maker, unless the -cost--fifty to sixty shillings--can be saved by adapting an old set. -We ourselves are admirers of the old-fashioned claviers with black -naturals and white sharps, or sharps of bone or ivory with an ebony -line down the middle of each. We possess two specimens of double -manuals of this kind; one of them, taken from an organ by the elder -England, is extremely handsome, with a mahogany frame almost black -from age, purfled like a highly finished violin. It was presented to -the writer many years ago by the late excellent builder, Mr. Walker. -The other double set, in a plainer frame, was bought at a sale for the -sum of one shilling and sixpence! The chief objection to the use of -old claviers is that the keys, from long usage or from original faulty -construction, rattle audibly against their guide-pins. This, however, -may be quite obviated by bushing the little mortices which receive the -guide-pins with fine cloth, as modern piano keys are bushed, or with -thin leather--for instance, the kid of old gloves. If the keys are -handsome, a little patience bestowed in this way may well reward the -operator, who will find the movement of his old manual when this is -done as silent as he can wish it to be. - -2. We shall assume that the front board of the wind-chest is above -the keys, and that the organ is to stand against the wall. Hence the -backfalls will be turned towards the player, as in Figs. 32 and 34. But -all that we shall say will be applicable to backfalls acting on a back -wind-chest. - -The keys, whether new or old, will probably be 18 or 19 inches in -length from their front edges to the rear. Their position in the frame -should be such as to allow the front edge to project 10 inches at least -beyond the front line of the wind-chest, in order to allow room for -a book-board; hence our backfalls will be short. But their shortness -will not be an evil, since the extent of their play or oscillation is -extremely trifling. One-third of an inch will be a sufficient descent -of the pull-down; the other end of the backfall will traverse a similar -space, and it will easily be seen how small an arc will be described by -any point near the centre. Backfalls from 4 to 6 inches in length will, -therefore, present no practical inconvenience. At the same time it must -be admitted that with such short backfalls the obliquity of those to -the extreme left will be somewhat embarrassing, and we shall recommend -the use of rollers for the six pallets to the left as well as those -to the right, especially since, as we shall show, the width of the -roller-board will not be materially increased thereby. - -The backfalls should be of oak or mahogany, and the bridge of the same, -or other hard wood. If the bridge is not sufficiently strong and rigid, -a disagreeable and perceptible yielding of the whole manual will take -place when the player presses down a chord. The backfalls, if parallel, -or if only at a moderate degree of obliquity, will oscillate upon a -single wire extending throughout the whole range. This wire should be -sunk in a score or channel made with a =V=-tool before the notches of -the bridge are cut; and it should be held firmly down by small cross -slips of oak screwed with very fine screws into the wood of the bridge -between every six or so of the backfalls. This is much better than the -common way of driving in little staples of wire, which are apt to split -the wood, and are not easily extracted in case of repairs becoming -necessary. The small holes for such screws may be bored conveniently -with a drill, revolving by means of the Archimedean drill-stock, now -sold in all tool-shops for the use of fret-cutters. - -Stickers may be quickly, easily, and neatly made by a bead plane. Take -a piece of three-eighth pine board of the requisite length and dress -it over. Then, with a three-eighth bead plane, strike a bead along one -edge, reversing the board when cut half through, and using the plane -as before. A slender wooden rod will be the result, which will only -require a little smoothing with glass-paper. To fit the wires into the -ends of the stickers, mark the centre of the rod with a punch or other -suitable pointed tool, and pierce a hole with a fine drill revolving in -the lathe. The wire may then be driven down without fear of splitting -the sticker or of entering it obliquely and penetrating the side of it. - -For trackers we prefer round rods, made precisely as above, but with -a 1/4-inch bead. If tapped wires are to be inserted in the ends of -the trackers, it is well to flatten the inserted end of the wire by -hammering it, that it may not turn round in the wood when the button is -afterwards applied. A fine saw-cut is made in the end of the tracker, -the flattened part of the tapped wire inserted, and strong red thread, -well waxed, neatly tied round. The ends thus whipped are sometimes -varnished with a red composition. But this is superfluous. - -If flat trackers are unavoidable, they may be cut from a three-eighth -pine board with a gauge, armed with a cutting-point instead of the -usual scoring-pin. A smoothing plane should be specially prepared by -fixing two slips of wood to its face. These slips will prevent the -plane from cutting anything thinner than themselves. Then, the plane -being held firmly down upon the bench, an assistant, walking backwards, -draws the tracker beneath the blade until it is reduced to the same -thickness as the slips, say 1/8 inch. The tapped wires will be inserted -and the ends whipped as before. - -The squares shown in Fig. 28 are cut from thin boards of oak or -mahogany. Perhaps it will be found less troublesome and laborious to -make each square of two distinct arms, halved together and glued at the -angle, or more effectually joined by tenon and mortice. Metal squares -can be bought ready made, or they may be cut with shears from brass -plate. But we should use wood ourselves. - -The rollers will be of pine or deal. They are cut out and dressed up as -square or rectangular rods of the requisite length, but two of their -sides are afterwards rounded or curved. It follows from this that when -arranged side by side on their board the curved sides may be nearly in -contact. As our rollers are short, three-quarters stuff will suffice -for them, but rods inch or more square should be used when rollers have -a length exceeding 2 feet or 30 inches. - -Iron roller-arms have some great advantages, and they may be bought at -a moderate price per gross, neatly bushed at the holes to prevent a -rattling of metal against metal. But we ourselves deliberately prefer -arms of wood, involving, as they do, much greater labour. If these are -used, they should be made of oak or other hard wood, and let neatly -into a little mortice in the flat side of the roller. After they are -glued in, the holes may be pierced in each end of the roller to receive -the wires or pivots on which it revolves, and which should be stout and -rounded smoothly at the external extremity. One of the reasons why we -prefer wooden arms is this, viz. that the pivot can be driven into or -through the arm, which may thus be at the extreme end of the roller; -while if iron arms are used a margin or surplus must be left at each -end of the roller to allow room for the insertion of the pivot without -interfering with the arm, the screw of which passes through the axis of -the roller. But it is undeniable that iron arms abridge labour and save -time. - -The studs in which the pivots are supported are also among the fittings -which can be obtained from the shops; but we have always made our own -of oak, turning the peg or shank in the lathe. These studs must be -bushed with cloth. Drill the hole truly through the stud, using a borer -much larger than the pivot-wire. Cut a strip of red cloth about 3/8 -inch in width. Point one end of it, and draw it through the hole in the -stud. It will adapt itself to the circular hole, and will take the form -of a cloth pipe lining the hole, and effectually preventing a rattling -noise which would certainly be heard in its absence. - -The planning of a roller-board, so as to economise space as much -as possible, is one of those operations which call for forethought -and ingenuity. The forms which it may assume are numerous; we shall -indicate by one or two simple diagrams some of the combinations of the -fan-frame with rollers which occur in ordinary practice. - -Fig. 36 shows the usual way of carrying the touch to the pallets on -the right and left in the common form of sound-board shown in Fig. -6. A set of backfalls is assumed as _in situ_ under the wind-chest, -parallel to each other as regards the six pallets at each extremity, -but fan-framewise as regards the pallets from Tenor C to the top. As -the actual key-board (disregarding its frame) is about 2 feet 6 inches -in width, while the row of pull-downs on which it is to operate extends -to a length of 4 feet or more, we see that there will be an overhanging -margin or surplus of the wind-chest on each side of some 9 or more -inches, and it is probable that all the pallets affected by rollers -will be included in these overhanging portions of the chest. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36.] - -Take a piece of three-quarters or five-eighths board, the full length -of the wind-chest, and wide enough for your twelve rollers when placed -as we shall now direct. Dress it up, and give it two coats of priming. -At its lower edge mark the exact centres of the key-tails from end to -end of the key-board. At its upper edge mark the precise centres of the -tails of the twelve backfalls on which the rollers are to act, fixing -the board temporarily so that precision may be secured. Along the two -side margins of the board (which has been squared up true) mark rows -of dots at equal distances, say 1 inch or considerably less, according -to the scantling of your rollers, which may be placed as close to each -other as possible without actual contact when made to revolve through -a small arc on their pivots. You have now all the _data_ which you -require, and may draw pencil lines showing the exact place of every -stud on the board, the exact length of every roller, and the exact -spots on each roller at which the arms must be inserted. - -Fig. 36, in which _x y_ is the key-board, the rollers and stickers -being represented by lines only, shows that the longest roller, that -of CC sharp, is placed by itself at the top. This is done in order to -enable us to use a single stud, common to two rollers, throughout the -board until we come to the last, which will stand alone. If the rollers -of CC and of its sharp were thus placed in a line, running into a -single stud, there would be hardly room enough for the latter, as the -arms would be in immediate contiguity. By giving the CC sharp roller -a place by itself, we get the following pairs: CC and DD sharp; DD -and FF; EE and G; FF sharp and A; G-sharp and B natural; A sharp will -have its own two studs. Thus we obtain a distance of fully 1-3/4 inch -between the centres of the contiguous arms of these pairs of rollers; -and if iron arms are used, there is room to drive in the pivot without -meeting with the interruption of the screw in the heart of the wood. - -When these measurements have been made, and lines drawn in pencil or -chalk, the holes for the shanks of the studs may be bored, and the -board cleaned over and perhaps repainted. When the work is complete, -the cleanly planed rollers with their neat studs on the dark background -of the board should present a pleasing appearance. - -[Illustration: Fig. 37.] - -Sometimes the roller-board lies horizontally. It is then usually called -a roller-frame. Fig. 37 is a slight sketch showing how a roller-frame -may be united with squares in certain cases. _a b_ is a key-board, -acting by stickers on a set of squares, _c_, arranged in a bridge. _d_ -is another set of squares in a longer bridge under the pull-downs of a -chest, _e_, let us say that of the second manual in an instrument of -considerable size, placed at the back of the case, and possibly some -feet from the player. _f_ is a roller-frame, transmitting the touch by -trackers to the extreme pallets right and left. - -If economy of height is no object, however, the roller-board will be -placed between the squares _d_ and the chest _e_ in the usual vertical -position, or it may be above the keys. - -Sometimes space is saved by inserting the roller-arms on _opposite -sides_ of the rollers, cutting apertures in the board through which -one arm of each pair may protrude. This plan may be regarded as a -compromise between the fan-frame and roller-board, the latter doing -duty as a set of backfalls. - -[Illustration: Fig. 38.] - -This arrangement is sketched in Fig. 38. The roller-board, _g_, is -above the key-tails, which act by stickers on arms brought through -openings in the board. The opposite arms, _h h_, in front as usual, -act on the pull-downs by trackers. We have adopted this plan in a very -small organ, and under the necessity of economising space as much as -possible, with complete success, although every pallet had its roller, -the fan-frame being entirely absent. - -Rollers are often made of iron, especially in the case of pedal -movements, where space is not abundant. It will easily be understood -that iron tubes of small calibre, plugged with wood at the ends to -receive the pivots, and having iron arms screwed into drilled holes, -would present no serious difficulties to the workman, and might be -arranged upon a board little more than half the size of that required -by a set of rollers in wood. - -We must not close this chapter without explaining that the plantations -of pipes sketched or indicated in Figs. 8 and 9 may be contrived -without grooving by an arrangement involving no serious difficulty or -complication. - -[Illustration: Fig. 39.] - -In Fig. 39, _a b c_ is a sound-board shown in section, divided -internally into two unequal parts by a longitudinal bar at _b_. The -front part, _b c_, nearest to the player, has 42 channels, and carries -all the pipes from Tenor C upwards. The hinder part has 12 channels -only, and supplies the bass octave. These two separate internal -divisions will have their pallets and springs as usual, and a single -wind-chest may include both sets of pallets, or two wind-chests may -be united by a short trunk, or separate trunks may be fitted to each, -at the discretion and convenience of the builder. We have now only -to adapt a set of backfalls in a fan-frame to the front pallets, and -a roller-board acting on twelve parallel backfalls to the pallets of -the bass octave, and we have a very compact and sightly arrangement -of pipes without a single groove, every pipe standing on its wind. If -the back pipes were these--Stopped Diapason, Bass, 4-feet tone, and -open Flute, wood, 4 feet; while the front pipes comprised a Dulciana, -Stopped Diapason, and Principal, or some equivalent--this little -instrument might be entirely satisfactory in all respects. - -We may add that this arrangement of a double sound-board and wind-chest -has been successfully applied by the writer to an organ with two -manuals. The sound-board was about 5 feet 3 inches in length. The front -division had 84 channels, viz. 42 for each of the two manuals from -Tenor C to top F; the hinder division had 24 channels, viz. 12 for each -manual bass octave. There were practically eight stops, two of them -grooved to each other in the bass. Of this grooving, when there are two -manuals, we shall have something to say in a subsequent page. It is -not quite so simple an affair as the grooving already described. - -When the key-board is in its place, the stickers adjusted, and the -keys levelled by attention to the buttons on the tapped pull-downs, a -heavy damper or "thumping-board" should be laid across the key-board. -In modern organs this is generally a solid bar of lead, about 1/2 inch -thick, and about 1-1/2 inch in width; it is covered with baize on its -under side, and a guide-pin, moving loosely in a little vertical groove -cut in the key-frame at each end, keeps it in position. Our damper may -be of oak or mahogany, very straight and true, and loaded with lead, -run when fluid into cavities made with a large centre-bit. The damper, -lying upon the keys, and supported by them, helps to keep them level, -and by receiving the blow or shock of each key, as the finger leaves -it, it prevents a tapping noise which might be heard if the rising keys -were stopped only by the board of the key-frame. - -The descent or fall of the keys when pressed by the fingers should not -exceed 1/3 inch. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -_VOICING AND TUNING._ - - -THE time has now come when we may bring our little organ into musical -order, and reap some of the fruits of our toil. - -If the processes described in previous chapters have been steadily -carried out, the instrument is now complete (so far as the manual only -is concerned) with the exception of the draw-stop action, which we -intentionally reserve, and the external case. - -We shall insert here, therefore, a few pages on voicing, the important -and delicate operation by which the correct speech and distinctive tone -of organ-pipes is imparted to them. - -Let us warn the reader at once, and with emphasis, that the process -of voicing metal pipes is so complex that a complete mastery of its -practical details is by no means uniformly attained, even after years -of steady practice under skilled guidance. A very sensitive and -educated ear, a delicate sense of touch in the handling of fine tools, -and a thorough familiarity with the tonal quality, or _timbre_, of -the best examples of the many varieties of pipes--these gifts are -essential to the successful voicer. Hence we cannot counsel beginners -to attempt the voicing of metal pipes, unless they are fortunate enough -to find themselves in a position to obtain lessons from some clever -operator willing to give them, or unless they can gain permission to -attend at some first-class factory, for the express purpose of watching -the pipe-makers and voicers at work. - -We shall not be deterred, however, by these considerations from -describing, to the best of our ability, the business of voicing and -regulating an ordinary metal pipe, pointing out specially, as we go -on, all that may be necessary for the removal of defects and faults in -pipes already voiced by other hands. But we must acknowledge our own -obligations to the little treatise on voicing and tuning mentioned in -the preface to this work. Those who obtain and peruse this thoroughly -practical little tract will find all the information which they can -require. - -Figs. 40, 41 show the well-known forms of metal organ-pipes as seen -in the Open Diapason, Principal, &c. Figs. 42, 43 give details. The -languid, Fig. 42, is a little enlarged. It will be seen that the -essential features of wooden pipes have their counterpart in those of -metal--the language, or languid, answering to the wooden block, the -conical termination to the wooden pipe-foot, the cylindrical body to -the rectangular wooden tube. - -[Illustration: Fig. 40.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 41.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 42.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.] - -We have never made any metal pipes ourselves, and we doubt if our -readers will do well to embark upon an undertaking requiring special -"plant" and appliances in a separate workshop, and calling for great -dexterity and neatness in a class of operations familiar only to -trained artisans. For the information, however, of those who choose to -make the experiment, we may explain that the metal sheets from which -the pipes are made are thus produced:-- - -"The ingredients (viz. tin and lead in various proportions) are melted -together in a copper and then cast into sheets, a process effected by -pouring it in a molten state into a wooden trough, and running the -trough rapidly along a bench faced with _tick_. The metal escapes from -the trough through a narrow horizontal opening at the back, leaving -a layer of metal behind it as it proceeds; and the wider the cutting -is, of course the thicker will be the sheet of metal produced. After -being cast to an approximate thickness, the metal is planed down to the -precise thickness required. It is then cut into portions of the shape -necessary to give to the pipes the required size and form, and is thus -finally worked up."[2] - -[2] Hopkins and Rimbault, p. 76. - -The three parts which compose the pipe are first separately prepared. -The sheet of metal is rolled round a wooden cylinder or cone, called a -mandrel, and the edges are soldered together. The extreme neatness of -this soldered joint is secured by smearing the metal with composition, -which is scraped off at that part only which is to retain the solder; -but a steady hand, and long familiarity with the manipulation of -the heated copper tool and with the properties of soft solder, are -absolutely essential to success. - -At the lower part of the body thus soldered, the mouth is formed by -flattening a portion of the cylinder and by cutting away a horizontal -slip of the metal. The width of the mouth is to be in all cases a -quarter of the circumference of the pipe. In the case of large pipes -the mouth is formed by cutting away a piece of metal of considerable -size, and replacing it by a sheet called the "leaf," having the mouth -cut on its lower edge. - -The foot is formed in a similar manner, and has a flattened portion -corresponding to that of the body. - -The language, or languid, is a circular disc of much thicker stuff, -bevelled off round its periphery, which is altered into a straight -line at that portion which will lie beneath the mouth when the pipe is -complete. - -The three component parts are thus worked together. - -The languid is placed on the wide opening of the foot, and the windway -formed by leaving a narrow slit between the straight edge of the -languid and the flattened lip of the foot. The two are then neatly -soldered together. The body is then soldered to the foot, care being -taken to adjust the mouth exactly opposite to the windway. - -The larger pipes have ears, namely, rectangular pieces of metal -soldered on each side of the mouth. - -Thus completed and cleaned over, the pipes are handed to the voicer. - -It will be remembered that we left a wooden pipe, similarly put -together but unvoiced, in an earlier portion of this book. We have -now to explain that both classes of pipes pass through a similar or -analogous course of treatment at the hands of the voicer. - -With small metal tools, called notchers, of which he has four or five, -he cuts a row of nicks in the straight edge of the languid, causing it -to resemble somewhat the edge of a saw. These nicks or notches, coarse -or fine, close together or at rarer intervals, as the case may be, -conduct the sheet of wind from the foot-hole against the upper lip of -the mouth, and influence to a most important extent the character of -the tone. - -In a similar way, and using a file ground to a saw-like edge, the -operator on a wooden pipe cuts nicks in the slightly bevelled upper -edge of the block, and continues or prolongs these notches obliquely -across the front of the block, letting them die away or come to nothing -at their extremity. Fig. 44 shows the front of a block thus treated. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44.] - -The art of the voicer, however, is by no means expended upon this -notching of the languids and blocks. It extends to the accurate and -nice adjustment of the height of the mouth, the aperture of the -foot-hole, and the width of the windway. All these will bear strict -proportion to the scale or size of the body of the pipe, and to the -weight or pressure of the wind. - -It will be seen, therefore, that the tone, quality, or _timbre_ of an -organ-pipe, and therefore of a "stop" or set of organ-pipes, depends -upon skilled attention to at least six distinct considerations, viz.:-- - - _a._ Scale of pipe. - _b._ Height of mouth. - _c._ Diameter of foot-hole. - _d._ Width of windway. - _e._ Character of notching. - _f._ Weight of wind. - -It is the thorough mastery of the art of manipulating pipes, with -all these essential points kept in view, which enables the voicer to -produce the exquisite contrasts of tone heard in good organs between -the tranquil Dulciana and the delicate Salcional; between the Violin -Diapason and the Gamba; between the Keraulophon and the Viola, as -variously constructed; between the fluty-toned stops, of wood or of -metal, to which various names have been given: and the full chorus -or combined power of a large instrument will be majestic, imposing, -and dignified, or, on the other hand, shrill, harsh, and unpleasing -(quality of materials being assumed to be similar), in proportion to -the skill, taste, and judgment with which it is finally voiced and -regulated. - -We have said enough, perhaps, to justify our advice that metal pipes be -procured in a finished condition from competent makers. - -Our little organ contains two metal stops, viz. a Dulciana (or a small -Open Diapason) from Tenor C to f in alt, and a Principal of 4 feet -throughout. Each of these, made of good metal, should cost £6 or £7. -Cheap pipes mean inferior metal, and this we cannot recommend in any -organ, great or small. The nearer the approach made to pure tin the -better (other essential points being assumed) will be the quality of -the tone. - -In ordering the pipes, the weight or pressure of wind on which they are -to speak must be carefully specified. This may be easily ascertained -by using a wind-gauge, a little instrument which we sketch in its -simplest form in Fig. 45. It consists of a glass tube, bent as shown -in the figure (this can be done at any glass-blower's or optician's), -and having its lower end inserted in a wooden pipe-foot. Planting the -gauge on any hole of full size in any part of the sound-board, we pour -a little water into the bent part or dip of the gauge. On blowing the -bellows steadily, and depressing the key on the manual corresponding to -the groove on which the gauge is placed, the water will be depressed in -the inner column, and will rise in the outer. By adjusting the weights -on the bellows we may make this difference in the levels of the two -columns greater or less as we please. In our organ we shall have a -"2-inch wind;" that is to say, we shall load the bellows so that the -gauge may indicate a difference of 2 inches between the two columns. - -[Illustration: Fig. 45.] - -We may note here that about 7 lbs. per square foot of surface of -top-board will be required to give this pressure. Pieces of old cast -iron about an inch thick may be procured at any foundry, and form the -most suitable material for weights. - -The voicer having worked to a 2-inch wind, it is probable that when -the new metal pipes are planted in their places they will speak -with charming evenness and truth. If some or any of them, however, -betray some defects, it will be well not to meddle with them until we -have satisfied ourselves that the fault does not belong to our own -mechanism. If, for instance, one pipe should be softer or less prompt -and clear than the others, let us be sure that the flow of wind to that -pipe is not interrupted or throttled by a chip in the wind-hole or -(if there is conveyancing) in the channel. This will be ascertained by -planting the pipe for the moment on some other groove than its own. If -the holes and channels are all clear, and the pallet is opened freely -by the key, the fault must be in the pipe. This may have suffered some -little injury in the packing case, _e.g._ the lower lip may have been -nipped too close to the edge of the languid, thus reducing the width of -the windway. This may be carefully rectified with the flat blade of a -common table-knife, or similar object. Or the languid itself may have -been bent or depressed by the weight of another pipe, packed within it -to save room in the case. If this is so, the languid must be carefully -pushed back to the level by a stout wire or rod inserted through the -foot-hole. If the _upper_ lip has been pressed inwards, we must counsel -the utmost care in bringing it back to its position. The pipe should be -sent back to the maker if the distortion is serious or considerable. If -it is slight we may rectify it by passing a slip of iron bent into the -shape of the letter =L= through the mouth, and thus pulling forward the -whole of the lower par of the "leaf," preserving its regular slope as -before. If the mouth, lips, and languid are all right, it is possible -that by some accident the size of the foot-hole has been reduced. It -may be cautiously enlarged with a penknife or with a broach; and if -under other circumstances the foot-hole requires reduction, this maybe -done by gently rapping or hammering the metal round the aperture with -the flat side of a chisel. The builders have a heavy brass cone for -effecting this reduction called a "knocking-up cup." Similar brass -cones, we may here add, are used in tuning. They are expensive, however. - -All that we have said of possible defects in metal pipes applies, -_mutatis mutandis_, to wooden pipes; and as we make these ourselves we -may deal more boldly with them. - -An unvoiced wooden pipe will generally emit a chirp or whistle before -its note. The nicking of the block will remove this, but if we overdo -this nicking we shall hear a huskiness or buzzing equally or more -disagreeable. This husky quality may also be due to a too wide windway; -in this case, remove the cap and rub the inside face of it on a sheet -of glass-paper pinned down upon a board, or plane off the inside face -and file the windway anew. If the mouth has been cut too high, there -may be nothing for it but to take off the front board and remake the -pipe. If the pipe, in other respects good, is too loud, plug the -foot-hole with neat flat plugs. If it is too soft, the pipe-foot may -have been imperfectly bored, or may be defective in some way, or chips -may have been left in the throat of the pipe. Ill-fitting stoppers -are a fruitful source of defects in wooden stopped pipes. Refit them -in every case of doubt, and leave no room for misgivings as to the -soundness of the joints of the pipe near the top. - -We must point out to our readers that strength, sonority, or power -must on no account be expected from wooden pipes. A tone utterly harsh -and intolerable will be the result of over-blowing the Stopped Diapason -or Flute, stops of which the characteristic quality should only be -tranquil sweetness and softness. The flute of 4-feet tone, especially, -cannot be too delicate, and in its upper octave great patience will be -requisite in the adjustment of the tiny mouths and windways to prevent -shrillness. - -These remarks apply also to our fifth stop, which we have been content -hitherto to call simply "Fifteenth" 2-feet. The Fifteenth proper is -a metal stop of strong shrill quality, having its value in large -instruments, where it is balanced by other stops in affinity with it. -Such a stop would be quite unsuitable to our little organ. If we are to -have a 2-feet stop at all, it should be a "Flageolet" or "Flautina," -an echo, in fact, of the 4-feet Flute. This may be successfully made -by diligent operators in wood, the lower part stopped, the upper part -open. The professional voicers produce the fluty quality from ordinary -metal Fifteenths by peculiar treatment of the mouth. In foreign organs -such stops are generally or often of conical form, the narrow aperture -at the top. These stops (which may also be of 4-feet or 8-feet pitch) -usually bear the names "Gems-horn" or "Spitz-flute." - -We may dismiss the subject of Tuning with a very few remarks. The -general principles of Temperament--that is to say, of the compromise -or adaptation requisite in the modern scale of an octave containing -twelve semitones--are not peculiar to organs, and may be studied in -any treatise. Mr. Hopkins exhausts the subject in a very interesting -chapter of his great work. Our useful little tract on voicing gives -all needful information. A sensible and practical pamphlet on the same -subject has been published by Mr. Hemstock, organist of Diss. - -You will begin with Regulation, that is, with equalising the power or -strength of the pipes composing each stop. Bestow every care on this, -especially in the upper ranges of the small wooden pipes. The pleasing -effect of the organ will greatly depend upon success in this operation. - -When satisfied on this point, tune your wooden pipes to the metal -Principal, which has been sent from the maker's ready tuned and voiced. -After this rough approximation to absolute correctness, go over the -whole organ with great deliberation and care, following the rules given -in the works which we have cited, or in any one of them. A second or -third tuning may be requisite before a sensitive ear is quite satisfied. - -Cones and cups of boxwood, or made of sheet copper with brazed seams, -may be used in the absence of the expensive cast-brass articles. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -_THE DRAW-STOPS._ - - -WE have provided no means as yet for bringing the sliders under the -control of the player. The mechanism by which this will be effected -must depend upon our plans for the case and book-board. - -_Method 1._--As we have only five stops we may have resolved to arrange -the knobs in a horizontal row above the key-board, and below the edge -of the book. We shall soon see that this arrangement will result in -much convenience and simplicity. - -The ends of the sliders project at each end 2 or 3 inches beyond the -margin of the sound-board. To the cheek of the wind-chest, below these -projecting ends, will be screwed a stout balk of oak or mahogany (say -2-1/2 inches square), constituting a bridge, and having stout levers, -after the manner of backfalls, working in notches. These levers should -be of oak, birch, or other hard wood, at least 1/2 or 5/8 inch in -thickness, and not less than 2 inches wide; and the pins on which they -work should be very stout, say 1/4 inch in diameter, and should be -held down in their places by slips of hard wood firmly screwed down -to the bridge. All this is sufficiently shown in Fig. 46, and it will -be quite plain to the comprehension of every reader that these levers -(like backfalls) may be askew to the straight line of the bridge, so -that while their upper ends spread out to reach the sliders, their -lower extremities may be brought into any position convenient of access. - -[Illustration: Fig. 46.] - -The arms of these levers will of course be of unequal lengths. About -2 inches, or a trifle more, will be found a sufficient and agreeable -play for the draw-stops. If the sliders have a play of 1 inch only, it -is clear that the lower arm of the levers must be twice the length of -the upper arm. At any rate the adjustment of the play of the draw-stops -to that of the sliders should be made in fitting these levers, and not -in any other part of the mechanism. The upper end of the lever, shaped -into a tenon or tongue, will enter a square aperture in the end of the -slider, and the edges of this aperture should be bevelled, in order -that the lever may bear equally upon it in all positions. Rub the end -of the lever with blacklead, and use this wherever there is friction of -wood against wood. - -The levers being fitted, three at one end and two at the other, or -all the five at the same end, as may best suit the position of the -wind-trunk, the form of the frame, and other considerations, it will -be easy to connect them with the draw-stops by means of squares or -bell-cranks. - -[Illustration: Fig. 47.] - -Fig. 47 shows these squares or bell-cranks arranged upon a board which -is screwed upon the key-frame. They may be cut out of sheet iron or -may be made of oak, the arms halved together or joined by tenon and -mortice. They should work upon a strong pin of iron or brass, and a -small block underneath each square lifts it above the level of the -board. A trace, or light rod of pine, 1 inch or 7/8 square, notched at -one end to receive the arm of the crank, and at the other to catch the -end of the lever, is connected with each by a pin of iron or brass, and -blacklead is used as before. - -The draw-stops are generally turned and polished for a few inches at -the end which appears in sight, and which carries the knob, and it is -usual to line the holes through which this turned and polished part -protrudes with scarlet or other cloth. The tails of these draw-bars, -left square, should work in guides cut in a vertical piece at the back, -or otherwise arranged to ensure parallel movement. A short slip of hard -wood or of metal connects each draw-bar with its bell-crank. The action -of this mechanism must not be considered satisfactory unless each stop -operates with ease and exactness, and without any sense of elasticity -or unequal resistance. - -The knobs will be easily fashioned, from a good pattern, by any turner -possessing a light lathe; nor is it difficult to engrave the names on -the ivory faces. A convenient tool for this latter purpose may be made -by grinding down the end of a small triangular file. But the engraver's -"burin" may be bought at the tool-shops. The knobs will not be glued -into the ends of the draw-bars until all is complete, that the engraved -titles may be rightly adjusted at a true level. - -_Method 2._--If it is preferred to place the draw-stops to the right -and left of the player, as in large organs, we shall have the bridges -and levers as before. The draw-bars will run through guides at the -back, fixed to some part of the frame, and their polished ends will -be brought through lined holes in the cheeks of the case, fitted -according to taste. The connection of these horizontal draw-bars with -the vertical levers will be effected by squares or bell-cranks of a -form known as "trundles." We give a representation of one of these -in Fig. 48, where _a_ is the slider, _b_ the lever acting upon it, -_c_ the trace connecting it with _d_, an arm of the trundle _e f_. -This trundle should be of oak, birch, or other hard wood; it has pins -at each end, which are received into holes bored in bearers arranged -accordingly, and not shown in the figure, or in the frame itself of the -organ. (It is well to char these holes.) The trundles are of course -placed parallel to each other in a row, and the second arm of each -trundle will be inserted at the level answering to the position of the -draw-bar. In the cut _g h_ is this second arm and draw-bar. - -[Illustration: Fig. 48.] - -The trundles are easily made of iron, and with manifest increase of -strength and neatness. We have used gas-pipe for this purpose, 1/2 -inch in external diameter. The arms made from iron slips, 1/2 inch -wide and 1/4 thick, were brought to a round pin at one end in the -lathe. This round pin passes through a hole drilled through the trundle -(whether tubular or solid), fitting it tightly, and the projecting -end is spread out with a riveting hammer. All this may be done cold, -but still more effectually with the aid of a forge. The ends of the -trundle will be received in charred holes in bearers as before, using -tallow as a lubricator; or if tube is adopted, brass or iron pins may -be jammed into the ends of the tube, and trued up in the lathe. All -such iron-work, introduced here or elsewhere in the organ, may be -painted over with the composition known as "Brunswick black varnish," -which will prevent rust. The holes in the arms, to receive the pins of -the traces and draw-bars, will be drilled with ease in the ever-handy -lathe, or with a bow and breast-plate, or by any blacksmith. - -[Illustration: Fig. 49.] - -_Method 3._--In small organs, with short sound-boards, the iron -trundles may be made to act at once upon the sliders, without the -intervention of the levers and bridge. When this is done the upper arm -of the trundle will be quite at its top, and will be sloped or bent -upwards as shown in Fig. 49. Near its end will be a short and strong -pin, which will enter a little slot or oblong hole in the slider. The -trundle will revolve in a wooden collar screwed to the cheek of the -wind-chest, and at its base in a hole in a bearer or in the organ-frame -as before. The draw-bar will act directly upon the lower arm of the -trundle, and the lengths of the two arms must be proportioned to each -other, so as to compensate for the difference between the play of the -slider and that of the draw-stop. - -Cases of peculiar construction may be easily imagined, in which two -sets of trundles may become necessary, communicating with each other -by long traces. In some other cases the trundles may be horizontally -placed, like a roller-frame, and common squares may act upon the -sliders; with upright traces connecting them with the arms of the -horizontal trundles; while combinations of these various plans will -suggest themselves to the inventive reader to meet possible exigencies -of position or arrangement. - -_Method 4._--We may still further explain that trundles may be -discarded by fixing common squares or bell-cranks upon steps or stages -cut on the edge of a piece of thick plank, screwed to the organ-frame, -the steps or stages corresponding to the levels of the draw-stops as -arranged in the cheeks or jambs of the organ. The draw-bars will act -directly on these squares, which will transmit the movement to the -levers by traces; but in this case it is plain that the levers will -be of varying lengths, and must be provided with separate bridges, in -order that the proper relation may be maintained between the play of -the several parts. This plan has much to recommend it. - -We have entered at some length into the subject of the draw-stop -action, because much of the comfort of the player depends upon its -efficiency. The arrangement to be adopted should be well considered, -and the plans for it matured at an early stage of the work. All the -pins used should fit accurately, and it is well that means should be -taken to prevent the dropping or working out of these pins. A very -neat way of guarding against this common accident is to reduce a small -portion of the end of the pin with a file or in the lathe, and to cut -a screw-thread upon this reduced portion; a leather button will then -render failure impossible. The other end of the pin is usually bent -down at a right angle. - -Composition pedals, for drawing and shutting off the stops in groups by -the foot, are not wanted in so small an organ as ours, and we need not -describe them. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -_PEDALS._ - - -WE have hitherto said nothing of pedals. What we shall now say will not -occupy much of our remaining space. - -We have to fit our little organ with a set of pedals pulling down the -bass keys of the manual, but commanding no separate pipes of their own. - -What is to be their compass? On this we have to remark that when an -organ is intended for the practising of a student or professional -musician, or for the performance by any player whatever of genuine -organ music, the full compass of thirty notes, C to f, is quite -essential. On this point no room must be left for misconception. But -small organs, designed for humble and unambitious players, or for the -accompaniment of voices in a room or in a village church, may be fitted -with pedal-boards shorter by a whole octave than this complete or full -compass. A range of seventeen notes, C to e, will certainly suffice for -the ordinary practice of the great majority of persons who are at all -likely to sit down to our little organ. - -Observe, however, that this curtailed pedal-board must be placed in -the same position relatively to the key-board which would be occupied -by one of full range. In other words, it must _not_ be located, for -appearance sake, in the middle of the case, but must be pushed away -to the left of the player, leaving a blank space on the floor to the -right. If this were overlooked, it is plain that a player accustomed to -the imperfect pedals would be utterly at fault when introduced to an -instrument of higher character. - -An excellent rule on this subject has been laid down by Mr. Hopkins, -whose opinion in such matters is judicial. It is this:--To place the -central C of the pedals--the thirteenth note, commencing from the -left--directly underneath the middle C of the manual. If this rule be -observed, the foot will easily find all the notes of the lower octave, -whether the compass be complete or curtailed; and we must leave to -our readers to decide upon the range of their pedal-board after a -due consideration of circumstances. Seventeen notes (an octave and a -third) must be taken as a minimum; twenty notes (octave and a half) and -twenty-five notes (two octaves) are alternatives still falling short -of the full compass of thirty notes necessary for the practice of the -preludes and fugues of Bach and other great masters. - -The pedals should be made of oak, and should be from 18 to 20 inches -in length, 1 inch wide or thick, and at least 1-1/2 or 2 inches in -depth. The sharps, or short keys, should be about 5 inches in length, -but they are glued or otherwise fastened upon strips of oak as long as -the other pedals. The front or near end of the sharps should stand up -about 1 inch above the level of the naturals; from this point they may -slope up to 1-3/8 inch. The long tails or bearers of the sharps must -be sunk about 1 inch below the level of the naturals, in order that -they may not be touched by the foot. The fore-end of the sharps will be -well rounded off, and the upper edge of all the pedal keys will be made -slightly convex. Lastly, the distance between the centres of any two -adjoining naturals may be 2-1/2 inches precisely. Of course an empty -space or gap will appear between E and F and between B and C in each -octave, as those intervals have no intervening short key. - -We have found the following arrangements convenient and satisfactory. -Make the pedal-frame of stout oak; the back bar, behind the heels of -the player, a balk 3 inches or more by 2 inches. The fore end of the -frame under the organ-panel is formed by an upper and a lower bar, -between which strong round pins of oak are placed, making a rack -through which the ends of the pedals protrude an inch or two. These -protruding ends, where they pass through the rack, are muffled with -cloth to prevent rattling, and each pedal descends upon a small pad of -vulcanised india-rubber, and is met by a similar pad under the upper -bar when it recovers its position. If this is properly managed the -movement will be quite noiseless. - -The builders commonly use a spring, screwed at one end to the under -part of each pedal, and pressing at the other extremity upon a board or -bar; or, on the other hand, the springs are screwed to this board or -bar and press against the under sides of the pedals. In this case the -tail of the pedal key, out of sight under the back bar of the frame, -works upon a pin passing into a mortice. - -We ourselves, however, have long used a spring which serves both for -spring and for hinge. It is a simple slip of steel, 5-1/2 inches long, -5/8 inch wide, and 1/16 inch thick, having two holes near the one end, -and one hole near the other. This latter is screwed firmly down to -the back bar of the frame, which, as we have already explained, is a -balk 3 inches by 2. The fore end of the spring is screwed by its two -holes to the under side of the tails of the natural keys (cut away to -receive it), and to the upper side of the tails of the sharp keys. Or, -the spring may be quite concealed from view by being let into a saw-cut -in the tails of all the pedals. We have found this plan perfectly -effectual, and we strongly recommend it to our readers. The springs can -be made by any smith for twopence or threepence each. Their strength or -resistance can be easily regulated by screwing them, not to the plane -surface of the back balk, but within grooves cut in it, 1/2 inch deep -at the back, diminishing to nothing in front. A few turns of the screw -(which should be well greased with tallow), by lowering the tail of -the spring, will bring on it a strain or tension which enables us to -adjust with accuracy the resistance of each pedal to the pressure of -the foot. - -The pedal-board should be laid upon the floor so that the distance -between the upper surface of the pedal natural keys and the upper -surface of the manual natural keys may be 28 inches. - -The manual should overhang the pedal-board so that the front of its -sharps may be just over the front of the pedal-sharps. - -The seat of the player, to correspond with these arrangements, should -be 22 inches above the pedals. The dip, or fall, of the pedals, under -the foot of the player, need not exceed 5/8 inch, or at most 3/4 inch, -where they pass through the rack. - -The connection between the pedals and keys will be by backfalls, -working in a strong bridge secured to the frame below the key-board. -These may be parallel, in which case a roller-board will be requisite, -or disposed as a fan-frame. The hinder end of each backfall has a -tapped wire passing through a hole in it, and carrying a button on its -top, muffled with a disc of cloth or baize. The lower end of the wire -underneath the backfall is bent into a ring, so as to be easily turned -round by the finger and thumb. These adjustable buttons push up the -tails of the keys when the fore ends of the backfalls are drawn down -by trackers connecting them with the pedals. The eyes or rings on the -pedals, to which these trackers are hooked, should be bushed, and great -care should be taken to secure noiseless action in every part. - -The pedal-board is usually secured to the floor by a couple of screws -passing through the side cheeks. But it is sometimes convenient, -especially in small rooms, to make it removable at pleasure. This can -be easily done by fitting a set of false or dwarf pedals, about 6 -inches in length, in a bridge spaced to correspond with the keys of -the pedal-board, and screwed to the floor under the organ. These false -pedals are practically short backfalls, turning on a wire near their -hinder end, and having the trackers hooked to them an inch or two -from their fore end; and some simple form of spring should be placed -under each. Then we have only to adjust matters so that the protruding -ends of the organ-pedals may rest upon the fore ends of these false -pedals, either or both of them being leathered or otherwise muffled at -the point of contact, and it is plain that the pressure of the foot -on any pedal will pull down the manual key as before. Two iron pins -should be fitted to the pedal frame, going into holes in brass or iron -plates screwed to the floor. These guide-pins will insure instantaneous -fitting of the pedal-board at any time. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -_TWO-MANUAL ORGANS._ - - -THIS treatise must not close without some reference to organ work of a -more advanced kind than that which we have taken as the groundwork or -medium of our hints on this subject. - -Some of our readers may very naturally wish to understand the -construction of an organ with two or more manuals and a pedal with -separate pipes; and this implies a description of coupling movements -and of the swell-box and its appliances. - -In the first place, let us remark that as the swell-organ is a modern -invention, innumerable examples of organs with more than one manual and -with numerous stops, but entirely without the swell, were in existence -in England up to a recent period, and are still to be found in every -part of the continent of Europe. A great number of the most renowned -organs of Germany and of Holland, organs furnished with four manuals -and an immense aggregate of pipes, are without the swell to this day. - -This is not the place to discuss the question whether the introduction -of the swell, as the second division of an organ with only two -manuals, has been an unmixed advantage, and whether it has or has -not tended to raise the standard of organ music and organ-playing in -England. But some few musicians may agree with the present writer that -it is quite possible to sacrifice sound principles of organ-building to -the prevailing worship of the pretty and fanciful effects of the swell, -and may even go so far as to regret, with him, the supersession of the -old "choir organ," with its sweet tranquil tone and quiet cheerful -brightness. We ourselves make no secret of our wish that in the design -and erection of organs with only two manuals, the second manual should -act upon a choir organ, while the swell should be reserved for those -instruments in which a third manual is introduced. But we are quite -aware that these views will be received with derision by a great -majority of persons, who have become accustomed to the constant use of -the swell and of the pedal Bourdons which characterizes the playing of -many English organists on modern English organs. - -Quite apart, however, from these views, which must be taken for what -they are worth, there are reasons why any reader, resolving from the -first to construct a small organ with two manuals for chamber use, will -do well to resist the temptation to introduce the swell. These reasons -will become apparent if we sketch out one or two plans for such chamber -organs, and we should only occupy space needlessly by stating them in -advance. - -Resolving, then, to indulge ourselves with two manuals, but compelled -to be economical of space and of pecuniary outlay, we decide at once -to plant all the pipes, belonging to both manuals alike, upon a single -sound-board, and by the system of borrowing to avoid the reduplication -of large pipes in the bass octave. - -To our original design of five stops on a single manual, let us suppose -that we have added three, played by a second key-board. We must assume -that the five stops belonging to the first manual (the lower), will be -all throughout, and may be something like this, viz.: an open Diapason -with wood bass octave; a Clarabella, with stopped bass octave; a -Principal, Flute, and 2-feet stop as before. Then the second or upper -manual should have some such stops as these: Stopped Diapason, the -bass octave borrowed from that of the Clarabella; Dulciana to Tenor C; -Gems-horn, or some other light 4-feet stop, the bass octave borrowed -from that of the Flute or Principal. - -As the sound-board will have two grooves for each note throughout -its whole extent, namely 108 grooves if the manuals are of the usual -compass, its length might be unwieldy and inconvenient, ill adapted -to the size of ordinary rooms. We must strongly recommend, therefore, -that the arrangement shown in Fig. 39 (see p. 112) be adopted. On the -front portion, _b c_, containing eighty-four grooves, and carrying -eight sliders, all the stops from Tenor C to top F may be planted. On -the back portion, _a b_, which will have twenty-four grooves only, all -the bass pipes will be placed, unless, indeed, we assume that the large -open 8-feet pipes are conveyanced off. This back portion will carry one -slider for this open bass, one for each of the 4-feet and 2-feet stops, -and two pairs of twin sliders, placed close together, for the borrowed -stopped bass and borrowed 4-feet bass. - -Our readers may feel confidence in the directions now given if we say -that we are describing an organ built by ourselves and now in our -possession.[3] The sound-board, admitting of eighty-four grooves in -its front division, is 5 feet 3 inches long, and its seven sliders (we -have no stopped Flute), with the bearers, occupy a width of 16 inches; -but the 4-feet octave of the Open Diapason, and six pipes of the -Dulciana, are brought into sight as a "speaking front," and therefore -fill no space on the board itself. The back part of the board, with -four sliders (two of them twin), has also a width of about 16 inches, -our large open wood bass being on a board at a lower level, as in Fig. -10. Thus the whole board, carrying practically eight stops (one of our -stops is of two ranks, viz. a Twelfth and Fifteenth) throughout, is 5 -feet 3 inches long and 32 inches wide. - -[3] This organ is sketched in the frontispiece. - -We hope we have said quite enough in former pages of roller boards and -backfalls to enable any intelligent reader to devise for himself the -double action of such an organ. An inspection of Figs. 37, 38, and 39 -may suggest ideas to him. An essential point is that everything should -be within reach if defects should require attention; and access to the -back as well as to the front of such an organ is indispensable. - -A word about the borrowing. It is plainly not enough to groove the two -channels of each note together in the bass, as in the case of a single -manual. If this were done the wind would fill the _whole_ of the two -channels upon lowering a key in the bass octave of either manual, and -_all the stops_ of which the sliders happened to be drawn at the time -would speak together. Thus our purpose of borrowing one particular stop -would be defeated. We must effect it thus: the twin sliders will be -closely contiguous, and will only be separated by short pins of brass -or iron let into the table, to prevent the friction of actual contact. -Thus the two holes which are to be brought into connection are near -to each other, and the communicating groove will be short. If this -is cut in the upper board itself it must be neatly executed, and the -bottom of the groove must be level and smooth. Over each of the two -holes within the groove so cut must be placed a valve, consisting of a -small piece of pallet leather covering the hole completely, and rising -with complete freedom by a hinge along its edge, like the clacks of -the bellows. Each pair of holes being furnished with these valves the -grooves are roofed in and the pipes planted, as described in earlier -pages of this book. On lowering one of the keys the wind will affect -the borrowed pipe only, since the little valve will stop the twin -hole and prevent the flow of air through it into the channel. If the -key corresponding to the same note be pressed down on both manuals, -then both the little valves will be blown open by the wind; but if -all the channels, grooves, and holes be of ample size, so that there -is no throttling of the wind, the speech of the pipe will be entirely -unaltered, since it will only receive a given _quantity_ of wind -through the perforation in its foot, and this wind will be of the same -_weight_ or _pressure_ as before. - -The borrowing grooves may be cut in the under surface of a separate -board, which will then form a roof or cover to the several pairs of -valves arranged over the holes on the upper surface of the sound-board -itself. Or this borrowing-board may be put together with bars, cheeks, -and an upper table like a light sound-board. The essential point is -that all the openings be of ample size, and that the valves fly open -widely at the slightest breath of wind, and close the holes as promptly -when the wind is withdrawn. If due attention is given to all this no -failure need be anticipated with the borrowed basses. - -We have proposed the lower key-board as "Manual I.," in accordance -with the German usage, and because that arrangement will facilitate -some of our mechanism, for instance, the pulling down by the pedals of -the bass notes. But lovers of old English organs, among whom we must -reckon ourselves, may prefer to make Manual I. the upper manual of the -two. A beautiful instrument of this class, built by the late J. C. -Bishop, stands in the chapel of Jesus College, Cambridge, and was the -gift of an accomplished amateur, whose performances on it are still -remembered.[4] The same gentleman was the possessor of a chamber organ -of exquisite tone by Bernhard Schmidt, of such remarkable composition -that it merits description here. The lower manual, or Choir, had three -stops, an Open Diapason, a Stopped Diapason, and a Principal, all made -of oak, and of extreme delicacy and beauty. The upper manual, or Great, -had likewise three stops, all metal, namely, Stopped Flute, Fifteenth, -and Mixture of two ranks (19th and 22nd in the bass, 12th and 17th in -the treble). The Stopped Diapason could also be played upon this manual -by borrowing. A coupler united the lower to the upper at pleasure, -and then the "Full Organ" was produced upon the upper manual with an -astonishing effect of sprightliness and brightness. Such an organ as -this, with some changes (its key-boards were very antiquated, and so -high from the ground that the player was perforce erect), might afford -an admirable model for imitation. - -[4] The late Sir John Sutton, Bart., author of "A Short Account of -Organs built in England from the Reign of King Charles II. to the -Present Time." Masters, 1847. - -Let us add that if pedal notes of 16-feet tone are added to an -organ of this class, namely of two manuals, Great and Choir, only -twelve large pipes will be necessary, even though the compass of the -pedal-board be of thirty notes complete. This great economy of space -and outlay will be secured thus: 1st, by making the pedals pull down -on the chief manual throughout their whole extent as before; 2nd, by -adapting the twelve deep pipes to the lower octave of the pedals, and -by making their upper octave and a half pull down upon the lowest -keys of the second manual. A moment's reflection will show that the -16-feet tone is thus obtained throughout the whole compass, and no -inconvenience whatever will ensue to the player. - -The mode of introducing the large bass pipes, and of pulling down as -above, will be described before we conclude this work. - -Still desiring to erect a _chamber_ organ, and, therefore, to be chary -of space and cost, we must now show how the swell-box may be included -in our design. - -We shall suppose that the organ has been completed so far as the lower -manual is concerned, with all that pertains to it, according to the -rules which have now been given at length and in detail. In laying it -out we must assume that care has been taken to give increased size to -the bellows, and to arrange the frame for the reception of a second -sound-board. - -We feel it due as well to our readers as to ourselves to explain that -we confine ourselves in all that follows to a description of work done -by ourselves in our own workshop. - -We shall place only three stops in our swell, which will have a -compass of forty-two notes, from Tenor C to top f. The stops will be -a Diapason in wood, partly stopped, and the rest open; a Flute of -4-feet tone in wood, open throughout; and a Gamba of reedy quality, in -metal, of 8-feet pitch, but only descending to Fid. G., 3 feet, the -remaining notes being grooved to No. 1. This curtailment is greatly to -be regretted, but such imperfections are among the objections to the -swell-box, which would assume dimensions inconsistent with a _chamber_ -organ if an attempt were made to give full compass to its 8-feet stops. - -The sound-board for these three stops will be only 2 feet 9 inches in -length, and 1 foot in width; but the upper boards must have an ample -margin or surplus in both directions to afford support for the box -which will rest upon them. - -This box must be made of thick stuff, say 1-1/2 inch deal; it will -therefore be very heavy, and care must be taken to provide for its -weight in planning the frame. It should be put together with screws, -so that it can easily be taken to pieces for transit, and it is usual -to line the whole of its interior with sheets of thick brown paper, -applied with glue. It will be very convenient, if access can be had to -the back of the organ, to fit the back of the box with hinged doors, -or to make the back removable like a shutter; in this case the pipes -should be planted so as to present themselves readily to the tuner. -If access to the back cannot be had, then a space is inevitable in the -middle of the organ for a passage-board, on which the tuner may stand, -or at least place his foot, while he removes the front shades in order -to reach the pipes planted accordingly. In the swell-boxes of church -organs the sides of the box are generally fitted as doors; then, the -pipes being planted with the tallest in the centre, diminishing in -height to each end, half of them can be tuned at one operation. When -the pipes are thus planted, the top of the box will slope towards each -side from a central ridge, like the roof of a house. - -[Illustration: Fig. 50.] - -We cannot doubt that many of our readers have had, or may have, -opportunities of examining the construction of the shutters or shades -of a swell-box. We have sketched it, however, in Fig. 50. The shades -are 6 inches in breadth, and of the same thickness as the rest of the -box, and each shade turns on pins let into the ends of it at a distance -of 2 inches from its upper edge. These pins work in notches cut in the -cheeks of the box, so formed that any shade may be easily lifted out -and replaced. The edges of the shades are bevelled to half a right -angle so that they overlap when closed, and the bevelled surfaces are -faced with leather or cloth to shut in the sound more effectually. - -[Illustration: Fig. 51.] - -The mode of opening the shades, and so producing a _crescendo_, is -shown in Fig. 51. _a_, _b_, _c_ are arms of oak, morticed into the -shades at the level of the pins, viz. 2 inches from the upper line; -_d e_ is a long rod or tringle of wood, connecting all these arms by -pins passing through them and itself. It is evident that by drawing up -this rod at its top, or by pushing it up from below, we shall open all -the shades at once, and as they are hung on axes placed at one-third -of their breadth, they will close by their own weight when released. -The leverage by which this movement is brought under the control of -the player may be safely left to the inventive powers of the reader. -It is usual to give promptness to the return of the swell-pedal, and -therefore to the closing of the shades, by attaching a strong spiral -spring to the pedal, and to some firm point in the frame. - -[Illustration: Fig. 52.] - -As the swell-box is at the back of the instrument, its key-action will -have to pass or cross that of the Great organ. The way in which this -will be effected must depend a little upon circumstances--for instance, -upon the length of the key-tails in the two manuals. If the swell -manual acts by squares and trackers, while the Great has backfalls -and stickers, the small trackers, being thin ribands of wood, can be -easily made to pass between the Great stickers. Or if the swell-keys -act on backfalls, these backfalls may be thinned down behind the line -of key-tails, so as to allow the stickers of the lower manual to pass -between them. This may be understood from Fig. 52, though that figure -refers to another subject. The worst plan of all is to make the lower -stickers pass through holes or mortices in the upper key-tails, since -this prevents the removal of the upper key-board without a disturbance -of the whole action. - -We believe that these constructive details contain in themselves the -grounds on which we based our advice to hesitate before including a -swell-box in the design for a small chamber organ. It has been made -apparent that it brings with it a considerable increase of bulk, -weight, and complication, and that it cannot possess the full compass. -We must add that if the bellows are worked by the foot, the use of the -swell-pedal at the same time is of course impossible. - -The large swells of church organs owe their grandeur of effect to their -reed-stops; the trumpet, of which the oboe is a soft echo and our -little gamba a faint and humble imitation, the horn or cornopean, and -the double trumpet or bassoon, a stop of 16-feet pitch. All reed-stops -are quite beyond the range of amateur construction, and each of the -above will cost about £25 if purchased from a good maker and made of -first-class material. Beautiful as such stops are when made and voiced -by highly-skilled workmen, they may easily be unpleasing and even -offensive. - -Let us add that the twelve notes of the swell manual, below Tenor C, -may be made to act on the lower manual by a "choir coupler" (see next -section, and Fig. 52); or, if there is a complete pedal Sub-bass or -Bourdon of twenty-five or more notes, the silent keys of the swell -manual may borrow the pedal notes from CC, 8-feet tone upwards. An -easy mechanical movement of squares and trackers will effect this. - -Two manuals imply couplers, though we greatly regret the incessant use -of these contrivances by modern organists. - -[Illustration: Fig. 53.] - -We shall treat, very briefly, of couplers under three heads, viz. the -coupling of-- - - (_a_) Upper Manual to Lower Manual. - - (_b_) Lower Manual to Upper Manual. - - (_c_) Manuals to Pedals. - -(_a_) The common Tumbler coupler is represented in Fig. 53. _a_ is -a slender bridge, having as many notches as keys in the manual, -and fitted with short stickers called tumblers. These tumblers, or -stickers, are generally rectangular in section, and they must fit the -notches neatly but with freedom of motion; the notches are closed in by -a tringle of wood glued over them, thus forming a series of mortices; -and each sticker has a little pin, or a pair of pins, to prevent it -from falling out of its notch or mortice. Or, the tumblers may be made -from round rods, and may pass through round holes in the bridge. They -are well blackleaded in either case. Now if this bridge, with its -tumblers, is placed between the manuals near their hinder extremities, -if the length of the tumblers is equal to the interval between the -upper and lower key-tails, it is evident that on pressing down a key of -the lower manual the tumbler will push up the tail of the corresponding -key on the upper manual, and so on throughout the full compass of both. -To reverse this, and to leave the manuals separate and independent as -before, the bridge is made to take a quarter of a revolution in sockets -fitted to carry its ends, which are rounded or turned in the lathe; the -tumblers, by this partial revolution, are then no longer perpendicular, -but parallel to the key-tails, as shown by the dotted lines in the -figure, and cease to be touched by them. On the whole, this is the -simplest form of swell-coupler. - -[Illustration: Fig. 54.] - -The tumblers may also be placed on or off by causing the bridge to -slide between guides for a distance of 1 inch or 2 inches. When the -bridge is pushed back by drawing a stop-handle (which acts upon a -horizontal trundle with arms and traces to give the sliding motion), -the tumblers act on the key-tails; when it is drawn forward by -thrusting in the stop, they fall into a hollow cut in the key-tails, -and are too short to be of use. The hollow in the key-tails is -bevelled, and the inclined plane so formed is leathered and blackleaded -(see Fig. 54). - -[Illustration: Fig. 55.] - -The ram coupler, Fig. 55, acts in a way closely resembling the last. -Instead of tumblers, the bridge carries a set of short backfalls, -turning on a wire as usual, and cut at the free end into a circular -form. The sliding of the bridge brings these circular ends into contact -with the key-tails of both manuals, or places them in a hollow cut -in the keys, bevelled, leathered, and blackleaded as before. The -ram-coupler can be used between manuals arranged too closely to admit -of tumblers. - -(_b_) It will facilitate our description of the choir-coupler and -pedal-couplers if we here point out that if a bridge with backfalls -(or squares) be made to rise or fall 1/2 inch or more at pleasure, the -action connected with it will be thrown into or out of gear at the will -of the player. If, in Fig. 32, for instance, the bridge _g_ be made to -rise 1/2 inch by drawing a stop-handle, the stickers _e_ will then be -too short by 1/2 inch, or the pull-downs _h_ will be too long in an -equal degree, and the manual will be silenced. - -[Illustration: Fig. 56.] - -An easy way of making such a bridge rise and fall is shown in Fig. 56. -The bridge _a_, which cannot be too solid and heavy, is held between -guides, _c d_, which are blackleaded and accurately adjusted. At each -end of the bridge is fitted a little roller or wheel of box-wood, -turning freely on a pin. To the frame below is fitted another such -roller, or two, as in the figure. Between these two or three rollers, -at each end of the bridge, an inclined plane of wood, _e_, is made to -traverse by means of a horizontal trundle and arms. It will be seen at -a glance that when the inclined plane is pushed between the rollers -by drawing or thrusting in a stop-handle, it lifts the bridge between -the guides and dislocates the action; when it is withdrawn, the bridge -resumes its place by its own weight, and the action is again in order. - -It is now easy to understand the construction of the remaining -couplers. The choir-coupler (Fig. 52, p. 152), has two bridges, _x_, -_y_, with two sets of short backfalls and communicating stickers. If -the bridges are fixed, then on depressing any key on the upper manual -its tail raises the backfall, which presses down the lower backfall, -which in its turn pushes up the tail of the lower key and causes the -note to be heard. If the upper bridge be made to rise or the lower to -fall 1/2 inch, then the keys are at once disconnected. - -(_c_) The coupling of manuals to pedals is generally effected by rising -and falling bridges, carrying backfalls which push up the tails of -the keys. These bridges are arranged one above the other beneath the -keyboards in large organs with three or four manuals, each bridge -bringing its own manual into connection with the pedals by the movement -already described. One roller-board (the rollers are often of iron for -the sake of compactness) suffices for all the sets of backfalls, and -the stickers (in this case generally flat strips of wood) pass through -mortices cut in the tails of the lower keys to act upon the tails of -the keys to which they belong. - -The reader will easily perceive from these hints how the pedals may be -made to act through their whole extent upon one of our manuals, and -through only a part of their extent upon the other manual, as we have -hinted at page 148. There will be two bridges, one over the other, and -a very little ingenuity will be required to plan the roller-board so -that the central C of the pedals shall pull down the lowest C of the -second manual (be it upper or lower), and thus give the octave below -(or 16-feet pitch) without additional pipes from that note upwards. -But this, perhaps, belongs to the subject of the pedal organ, which we -reserve for the conclusion of this book. - -It is right to add here that in old-fashioned organs, both in England -and on the Continent (where many such instruments remain unaltered), -the manuals were made to couple by being drawn out or pushed in about -1/2 inch. A spur or protuberance of wood was glued to the upper part of -the tail of each key, and a similar spur to the under part of the tail -of the key in the manual above. These spurs had rounded ends covered -with leather. On shifting one of the key-boards backwards or forwards -the spurs met each other, and the coupling was effected. Or the spurs -were glued under the front of each key, immediately behind the beading -of the key-frame, and upon the upper surface of each key in the manual -beneath it, and a similar shifting brought about a like result. We -see no objection to this very simple old-fashioned arrangement strong -enough to induce us to discard it from consideration. - -The common type of small church organ with Great and Swell (throughout) -would be vastly improved by the introduction of a manual between the -other two, having no stops of its own, but coupled to both by such -spurs. Instead of two qualities of sound, namely Swell alone and -Great and Swell combined (the incessant use of the coupler being -the inveterate habit of most players), we should have three: Great -alone, Swell alone, and combination of Great and Swell. This obvious -improvement could be introduced into new organs or added to existing -instruments at a very small cost. There should be a coupler to connect -this Combination Manual with the pedals. - -It is undeniable that the addition of a pedal organ with a Sub-bass or -Bourdon of 16-feet tone is a very important and valuable improvement -to any organ, large or small. It gives a dignified cathedral-like -solemnity and grandeur which every ear can appreciate. We shall bring -our treatise to a close by a few remarks upon it. - -1. The pipes will be made precisely like those of the Stopped Diapason, -of which they may be regarded as a continuation, and they should -be of stout material, the last four or five of inch stuff, then -three-quarters to the twelfth or thirteenth note above. - -On the question of scale the most diverse opinions have found favour -of late years. A writer whose _dicta_ are entitled to respect[5] urges -that the lowest pipe (CCC, 16-feet tone) should have the enormous if -not preposterous scale of 11-1/2 by 13 inches inside measurement, and -that the next six pipes above it should be in proportion. After that, -he says, a smaller scale may suffice. It is clear that if this ruling -be correct we may dismiss the idea of introducing a Sub-bass into our -chamber organ. Mr. Hopkins, on the other hand, prints two scales for -16-feet toned Bourdons, the larger of which gives 6-1/8 inches by 4-5/8 -as the inside measurement of the CCC pipe; while the smaller gives 5 -inches by 3-3/8 for the same pipe. We may safely adopt this larger -scale of Mr. Hopkins; and we will only say further that with our light -2-inch wind the mouths should be cut up one-third of the width, or -rather less, and the foot-holes should be of ample size. - -[5] Rev. F. G. Hayne, Mus. Doc., "Hints on the Purchase of an Organ." -Novello, 1867. - -2. Their location in the organ must depend very much on special -circumstances. When they can be placed in a row at the back of the -instrument, their connection with the pedals becomes very simple, two -sets of squares with trackers running under the bellows being all that -will be necessary. If the room has abundance of height, the back set of -squares may act on a roller-board, and then the pipes can be disposed -symmetrically, the largest at each end. - -3. The board on which they stand will not require a slider. It will be, -in fact, a wind-chest only, a long box of stout pine or deal, having -holes in its top countersunk to receive the pipe-feet. Under each hole -is placed a pallet or valve, held up by a strong spring, and having a -pull-down wire passed through a brass plate in the usual way. - -The aperture of the wind-trunk is in the lower board of this chest, and -over it, before the board is in place, is fitted a valve, faced with -leather, and made to slide to and fro between guides. An iron spindle, -turned to fit accurately in a brass collar, carries an arm jointed -to the valve by a connecting rod or trace; and outside the chest it -carries another arm, at right angles to this, jointed to the draw-stop -handle or its trace. We have, in fact, a trundle passing air-tight -through a collar, and by this simple contrivance we can shut off the -wind at pleasure from the chest. Other methods of effecting this are in -use, and may easily be devised. The pipes are very frequently placed -on both sides of the organ, to the right and left. In this case the -two chests will be at right angles to the manual chest or chests, and -the action will be less direct. But it will be readily arranged as -follows:--The pedal roller board will be long enough to act upon sets -of squares, carried on the organ-frame to the right and left of the -player, and at any convenient height. The other arms of these squares -act by trackers on roller-frames placed under the chests. - -There are cases in which this roller-board will be better placed at -the back of the organ, the connection between it and the pedals being -by squares and trackers; and there are also cases in which a large -roller-frame lying upon the ground under the bellows may be made to -answer every purpose. Bell-cranks, or horizontal squares, may also -transmit the pressure of the foot on the pedal by other squares and -trackers to the pedal pallets in a manner analogous to that of the -draw-stop action, Fig. 49. There is abundant room for ingenuity and -contrivance in all these details; the essential points are strength, -quietness, and accessibility for repair or adjustment. - -Some of our readers may be able to indulge in the luxury of a second -pedal stop. This should be a Violoncello in metal, of 8-feet tone -and length. In this case the pedal chest or chests will be regular -sound-boards, with sliders; or the Sub-bass may be on a chest as -already described, while the Violoncello may be on another, with two -actions. - -We have only to add, that the power and effectiveness of small organs -may be increased by the contrivance called a "Terzo Mano" (Third -Hand), or octave coupler. Let us suppose that an ordinary action has -been fitted with backfalls in the usual positions. Then a second -bridge, rising and falling by a draw-stop, is introduced, carrying -skew backfalls which act on the pull-downs an octave higher than the -first set. Thus the key CC will take down the Tenor C note, and so on -throughout the scale. It is evident that the effect on the ear will -be nearly, though not quite, the same as if each 8-feet stop had its -corresponding 4-feet stop drawn with it. An Open Diapason will sound -like an Open Diapason and Principal; a Stopped Diapason, like a Stopped -Diapason and Stopped Flute, &c. To render the illusion complete, the -pipes should be carried up twelve notes higher than the apparent -compass of the key-board, that is to say, if the key-board has -fifty-four notes the sound-board should have sixty-six grooves. - -In a similar way the pedal Sub-bass may be made to play in octaves, -producing the effect of a Sub-bass, 16-feet tone, with a Flute-bass of -8-feet tone added to it. - -Of all such mechanical devices it must be said, finally, that neatness, -accuracy, and noiseless precision of action are the conditions -necessary to complete success. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -_VILLAGE CHURCH ORGANS._ - - -OUR labours have hitherto been exclusively directed towards the -production, in private workshops and by young workmen, of small -organs adapted for domestic use. That such organs should be of varied -character, and that they should represent the differing musical tastes -and unequal mechanical ingenuity and adroitness of their unprofessional -or self-taught constructors, is the legitimate outcome of the -circumstances assumed. - -The case of organs for churches must be regarded from a different -stand-point. Designed for public use, and consecrated to lofty -purposes, they should reflect no private fancies or peculiar -tastes; should admit of no experiments or eccentricities; should -be distinguished by excellence of material, finished perfection of -workmanship, and solid stability of structure. We cannot, therefore, -recommend the construction of any church-organ in a private workshop. -The aim and object of this volume would be entirely misconceived by any -reader who should imagine that we encourage such an ambitious attempt. -However humble as to style of architecture the church may be, however -unpretending the scheme for the organ may be, we must strenuously -advocate the placing the order for its erection in the hands of a -well-established firm of professional builders. - -Guarding ourselves thus, we trust, against all possibility of -misconception, we shall endeavour in the following pages to offer -some suggestions on the subject of village organs, which may tend -to smooth away perplexities from the path of those who, without any -previous acquaintance with such matters, find themselves called upon to -exercise discretion, and pronounce decisive judgment on estimates and -specifications submitted to them by builders and by musicians. - -In using the term "Village," we refer less to locality than to -condition. We desire to be of service to the promoters of the erection -of an organ in those very numerous cases in which no skilled player is -resident in the place, and in which the new instrument will inevitably -be left to the modest efforts of a schoolmistress or of a young -beginner, on whose ability, moreover, no greater demand will be made -than that which is involved in the accompaniment of simple chanting -and psalmody. It is to the dwellers in such quiet corners of the -country that we would offer a few rules or maxims, based, we hope, on -principles, the soundness of which will commend itself to their good -sense. - -Let us bring together, in a compressed form, a few of these maxims, -afterwards examining them in detail. - -A village organ should be of simple construction, containing no -mechanism liable to sudden derangement. It should stand well in -tune, without attention, even though placed in a building exposed -to alternations of temperature and perhaps not free from dampness. -Its musical effects should be readily and obviously producible by -any person sitting down to it for the first time, and guided only by -experience gained at the harmonium or pianoforte. It should present no -facilities for ambitious attempts at executive display by thoughtless -aspirants. Its power, or volume, should be sufficient to assert itself -unmistakably in a full congregational chorus; and its tone, or quality, -should be that which long experience has shown to be impressive and -pleasing to the vast majority of listeners. Hence, it will be capable -of emitting no sounds which might be described by any uneducated hearer -as odd or curious. Lastly, let us add that its case should be shapely, -even if destitute of ornamentation. - -Whole pages of disquisition may be saved if we proceed at once to apply -these maxims to the specification of the smallest and least costly -organ which we shall recommend for a village church: an organ, namely, -with four stops only. - -1. Organ No. 1. The manual will be from CC to E in alt, 53 notes. - -_Remark._--The key-board is more sightly when its two extremities -are rendered similar by this omission of the top F. But the further -omission of the four upper notes would still leave a compass of 49 -notes, amply sufficient for the accompaniment of voices. - -2. Its stops will be these:-- - -(_a_) Open Diapason, metal throughout, or of metal from Gamut G, with -seven pipes of open wood below. - -_Remark._--These open wood pipes, when properly scaled and voiced, have -some advantages over metal for our present purpose, and may be placed -so as to close in the back of the case instead of panelling. - -(_b_) Principal of metal throughout, being the octave of the Open -Diapason, to which it will therefore be made to conform as regards -scale and voicing. - -_Remark._--The two stops, (_a_) and (_b_), when played together, will -furnish the element of power, or loudness, to the organ. - -(_c_) Stopped Diapason of wood throughout, or of metal with chimneys -from middle C to top; but not with a Clarabella of open wood as its -upper part. - -_Remark._--The metal Stopped Diapasons which have come down to us from -the days of Harris, and other old builders, are often of exquisite -beauty of tone. Modern builders are apt to neglect the stop, and to -treat it as a mere "Coppel," or vehicle for exhibiting the qualities of -imitative stops. We should be glad to persuade them to make the upper -octaves of oak, after the example of Schmidt. - -(_d_) Stopped Flute of wood throughout, or of metal with chimneys as to -its three upper octaves. This stop pretends to no imitation whatever -of the well-known musical instrument, the Flute, but is simply the -octave of the Stopped Diapason, of which it should follow the scale and -voicing. - -_Remark._--The two stops, (_c_) and (_d_), when played together, supply -to the organ the important element of softness and tranquil clearness; -and when added to (_a_) and (_b_), they enhance the fullness and volume -of those stops, while correcting a certain crudeness or tendency -towards harshness. The Stopped Flute fulfils a further most important -office. When added to the two Diapasons (without the Principal), it -imparts not only a most pleasing silvery sweetness to the tone, but -gives a definiteness of pitch which will correct the tendency of -school-children to sing out of tune. This stop should, therefore, on no -account be omitted, or cancelled in favour of more showy or conspicuous -qualities of tone. - -3. Be it carefully observed that the stops (_a_) and (_b_) can be -made to produce sounds of several gradations of loudness according to -the scale of the pipes, the pressure or weight of the wind, and the -character of the voicing. Their tone will be further affected by the -substance and quality of the pipe-metal. Let us confidently assume -that the order for the new organ will be given to no builder who does -not hold his art in such esteem as to be incapable of using inferior -and perishable materials. The metal should be tin and lead only, in at -least equal proportions; still better if the tin be three-fourths, -four-fifths, or seven-eighths of the whole alloy. The wind-pressure -should be light, as we desire that the feeder should be easily worked -by the foot of the player. The scaling and voicing must be left to the -judgment of a trustworthy builder, as they will vary with the capacity -of the church and the requirements of the singing. Enough if we advise -that, even in the case of the smallest church, the two metal stops -be of bold, out-speaking character, asserting themselves distinctly, -and having no tinge of the muffled or subdued quality proper to -chamber-organs. - -4. The case of the organ, even if carving be entirely absent, may be -of graceful and pleasing outline by making the upper part, above the -level of the keys, overhang the lower part, or base, which encloses the -bellows.[6] This lower part need not be much wider than the key-board -itself, and about three feet in depth, from front to back. If the upper -part be five feet in width, it will overhang the base one foot or a -little less on each side, obtaining apparent support from a pair of -brackets. The total height, if the open bass pipes be set down at the -back, will not exceed nine feet; but the speaking front may be well -thrown up by the usual expedients if the church be lofty. We strongly -advise that these speaking front pipes be left of their natural -silver colour, which they will not lose if tin predominates largely -over lead in the alloy. For our own part, we are no admirers of the -chocolates, dark blues, and sage greens smeared upon front pipes by way -of decorating them. Too often, we fear, such diapers are a cloak for -very inferior metal, which would soon betray the presence of antimony -and other deleterious ingredients by turning black if left unpainted. - -[6] See the frontispiece of this book. Some charming but elaborate -designs will be found in the Rev. F. H. Sutton's "Church Organs," -published by Rivingtons. Folio. 1872. - -The draw-stops will be most conveniently handled if arranged above the -keys, under the ledge of the book-board, as in the harmonium. It will -be well to place the Stopped Diapason and Flute on the left, and the -Open Diapason and Principal (which will be more frequently drawn and -shut off) on the right, leaving an interval of a foot or so between the -two pairs. - -The cost of this four-stop organ, made of first-class materials, in a -case of stained deal or pitch-pine, should not exceed £80. A provincial -builder, who works with his own hands, might undertake it for a smaller -sum, but we cannot counsel a diminution of cost by a lowering of the -standard of the pipe-metal or by a resort to inferior woods. - -A hasty _résumé_ of our design will show a close correspondence with -our initial maxims. - -The organ is:-- - -1. Of simple construction, containing no mechanism liable to sudden -derangement. - -2. It will stand well in tune, without attention, even for years, -especially if the smaller stopped pipes be of metal with chimneys. - -3. A new player will be met by no special difficulty whatever. - -4. As there is no "swell," there can be no exhibition, on the part of -the player, of the peculiar forms of bad taste to which that invention -lends fatal facility; and as there are no pedals, there will be no -lumbering and blundering attempts to play grand compositions never -meant for village churches. - -5. Its power, or volume, will be ample for the accompaniment of the -ordinary congregational singing of two or three hundred persons, and -more than abundantly sufficient for the support of a rustic choir; -and it emits no sounds which can provoke criticism by singularity of -intonation, and which have not been found, by long years of experience, -to be invariably agreeable to all musical ears. - -Organ No. 2. To the four-stop instrument just described, a "Dulciana" -might be added, at a further cost of about £10, less or more, according -to quality of pipe-metal, &c. Its compass will be from Tenor C to top, -or, still better, from B flat or a lower note, the remaining sounds -being obtained by grooving to the Stopped Diapason. The Dulciana is of -beautifully delicate tone, slightly nasal; when played with the Stopped -Diapason it gives a charming clearness and sonority to that soft stop. -When the Flute is added, we have a true choir-organ quality, most -useful in the accompaniment of low and solemn music. - -_Remark._--Some builders or organists may recommend a "Salicional," -or "Viola di Gamba," or "Keraulophon," in place of the Dulciana. All -these stops, when properly made, are of beautiful tone, but their -beauty is of a kind which soon satisfies, and then is apt to weary -the listener. They are therefore excluded from our village organ by -one of our maxims. The same sentence of exclusion must be passed -upon the class of stops known as "Lieblich Gedact," and rightly -introduced in large organs as alternatives for the Stopped Diapason -and Stopped Flute. "Their tone in the treble," says Mr. Hayne,[7] "is -so peculiar as to become wearisome, and a little of them goes a very -long way." The imitative Flutes, which have many different names, -as "Flauto Traverso," "Concert Flute," "Oboe Flute," and the like, -find their place in organs of much larger dimensions than our village -organ; and Harmonic stops, of every pitch and quality, are shut out -by their costliness, if not by the character of their tone, which is -unacceptable to some ears. - -[7] "Hints, &c.," p. 14. - -Organ No. 3. Perhaps greater loudness may be reasonably desired when -the village church is large and the singers numerous. This accession -of power will be gained by adding two more complete ranks of pipes, -namely, a Twelfth of three feet (nominal) and a Fifteenth of two feet, -both in metal. We cannot enter into controversy with modern purists -who object to the Twelfth. Enough that its effect, when duly balanced, -has been accepted as dignified and elevating for centuries past. As it -is never used without the Fifteenth, the pipes of both may be governed -by one slider, and in this case the stop may be called "Mixture, ii. -ranks." - -The additional cost of the Twelfth and Fifteenth, with the necessary -enlargement of the sound-board and bellows, may be £20 or £25. - -Organ No. 4. The stops which have been enumerated, with one or two -additions, might be distributed between two manuals, with great -advantage to the player, and without a violation of any of our -self-imposed conditions. Instead of suggesting the list of stops -ourselves, we give the names and distribution of those in the beautiful -little organ in the choir of Jesus College Chapel, Cambridge, designed -by the late Sir J. Sutton, Bart., and built by the late J. C. Bishop, -some old wooden pipes by Schmidt being worked in. - - -_Upper Manual, or Great Organ._ - - 1. Open Diapason 8 feet. - 2. Stopped Diapason 8 " tone - 3. Principal 4 " - 4. Twelfth 3 " - 5. Fifteenth 2 " - 6. Tierce 1-3/5 " - 7. Mixture iii. ranks. - -_Lower Manual, or Choir Organ._ - - 1. Open Diapason, wood 8 feet. - 2. Stopped Diapason " 8 " tone. - 3. Open Flute " 4 " - 4. Stopped Flute " 4 " tone. - -Such an organ could not be costly, as there is no swell-box, and as -large Bourdons or 16-feet Open Diapasons are absent, together with -couplers and all other complications. But perhaps it is luxuriously -large for a village church of average size. It might be somewhat -lessened thus:-- - -Organ No. 5. - -_Great Organ (Upper or Lower, as preferred)._ - - 1. Open Diapason 8 feet. - 2. Hohl-flöte, wood 8 " - 3. Principal 4 " - 4. Stopped Flute 4 " - 5. Mixture iii. ranks. - - -_Choir Organ (Lower or Upper)._ - - 1. Stopped Diapason 8 feet tone - 2. Dulciana 8 " - 3. Gemshorn, _a light Principal_ 4 " " - -_Remark._--The Mixture, No. 5, will be 15th, 19th and 22nd from CC to -middle B, and 8th, 12th and 15th onwards to the top. - - * * * * * - -Perhaps we should not conclude without noticing one or two objections -to our plans. - -First. "Organs cannot be properly played without pedals." - -Most unquestionably true classical organ music cannot be played on -instruments with manuals only. But it was on such instruments that the -illustrious HANDEL, with his contemporaries and predecessors, Croft, -Boyce, Worgan, the blind Stanley, and a host of others, delighted their -audiences by their masterly performance. Pedals were not added to -English organs until the latest years of the eighteenth century. The -nineteenth was far advanced before the pedal-board, of full compass, -had come to be considered an essential part of every organ. - -Why should the effective management of organs without pedals be among -the lost arts? Why should not the clever manipulation of such organs be -practised by ladies, and by the modest players in villages, to whom the -preludes and fugues which echo through the aisles of the cathedral must -ever be a dead language? Why should the cathedral player himself, fresh -from his pedal fugues, deem it beneath his dignity to draw sweet music, -in a totally different style, from an instrument on which Handel would -have willingly displayed his powers? - -We were present on a certain occasion, many years ago, when the late -Professor Walmisley, of Cambridge, was asked to play on a small and -old-fashioned organ without pedals. The distinguished pedallist and -renowned interpreter of Bach's compositions did not turn away with -contempt. He seated himself, and charmed all who were present by his -ingenious extemporisation. The skill, and learning, and resource of the -true musician were never more conspicuously displayed. - -We see no reason whatever why such a bright example should not be -followed; and, while we yield to no one in appreciation of the -pedal-organ, and of the music proper for it, we hold that the typical -organ of the village church has no concern with these, and that no -greater demand should be made upon the executive powers of its player -than that which is made in the acquirement of a pure _legato_ style at -the pianoforte or harmonium. - -Second. "Why omit the Swell, the greatest improvement of modern organs?" - -The Swell-organ proper owes its effectiveness to its reed stops, and -these are one and all excluded from our village organ by the fact that -they require the frequent attention of a tuner. We grant, however, -that reedy stops of the Gamba class might take their place in small -organs; and we admit that our organs, Nos. 1, 2, and 3, might be very -easily enclosed in swell boxes, while a "Swell" might take the place of -a "Choir" in No. 5. Such alterations would have many advocates, both -professional and amateur. - -In adhering resolutely to our plans, we must express the opinion that -the judicious management of the Swell is a gift rather than an art. -It is but occasionally, we think, that refined taste is made evident -by a sparing use of the tempting contrivance. Too frequently, even in -churches of high class and pretension, the tone of the swell-organ, -with its mechanical rise and fall, prevails from the beginning to the -end of the performance, until the ear longs for relief. If the abuse of -the Swell be thus common even in town churches, is it well to trust -an apparatus which may be so easily misunderstood to the discretion of -players in village churches? - -Moreover, our village organ is for the accompaniment of singers. -We believe that many musicians will endorse our opinion that as -an accompaniment for singers the Swell-organ is misleading and -unsatisfactory. An accurate ear will often detect a slight difference -of pitch in the pipes of a small Swell-organ when the shades are closed -or suddenly opened. We have repeatedly heard the voices of the men -and boys, even in very good choirs, thrown out of tune by injudicious -persistence in the use of the Swell as an accompaniment. The sense -of discomfort and uncertainty was removed at once when the player -transferred his hands to the Choir-manual, with its quiet and cheerful -brightness. - -It is for these reasons, and not from any want of appreciation of the -effect of the Swell in the hands of an educated and gifted performer, -that we counsel our village friends to turn a deaf ear to the praises -of the Swell which will doubtless reach them from many quarters, and -to rest content with genuine organ-tone produced by means which do not -lend themselves to abuse. - -A few words may be added for the guidance of those who find themselves -entrusted with the care of old instruments. - -The eighteenth century witnessed the erection, in the churches of many -country towns, of noble organs, honestly constructed by true artists, -men who disdained the use of inferior timber or of base metal. A great -number of these costly and beautiful instruments remained unaltered, -or at least uninjured, within the recollection of the present writer, -but demolition rather than restoration has been at work during the last -thirty or more years, and the plea which we would put forward for the -reverent preservation of the works of old masters may now be opportune -in but few and isolated cases. - -Nevertheless, if it should happen to any of our readers to discover in -a village church, or in that of some quiet market-town, an organ by -SNETZLER (1749), by his predecessors, or by his immediate successors, -ending with the ENGLANDS, father and son, we would earnestly counsel a -respectful treatment of the valuable contents. - -An old picture may have long lain hidden in a lumber-room, with -its face to the wall; when brought into the light, and its merits -recognised by an expert, its possessor replaces the worm-eaten -stretcher and decayed frame by new wood, but he would indeed act -strangely if he permitted the house-painter to touch the precious -canvas with his brush. - -Yet we have known many organs by the builders and of the period -indicated above, taken down and carted away; their pipes (in Snetzler's -case of nearly pure tin) sold for a trifling sum or thrown into the -melting-pot; and this wanton destruction has been justified on the -ground that the time is come for a "better instrument," that the old -organ is "screamy;" above all, that the belauded "Swell" is wanting. -Accordingly the modern builder meets the wishes of his customers -by providing an organ of the common-place type, and the reign of -Swell-coupler and Pedal Bourdon is duly inaugurated. - -Surely a wiser course would have been this:--Carefully preserve every -pipe, and round out those which may be bruised by rolling them on -mandrils; insist on the inclusion of all these pipes without any -omission whatever in the new structure which the ravages of the worm -may have rendered inevitable; add to these original contents (if funds -permit) some modern ranks of pipes carefully voiced by an accomplished -artist to the same pressure of wind, and calculated to support and -balance the shrill high tones which the old organ doubtless contains; -repair the old case, and even retain the old key-board if possible. - -No doubt, in towns, where a succession of skilled players may be -found, the addition of a Swell-organ and of a pedal-organ, both most -carefully designed, scaled, and voiced, cannot justly be disapproved. -The instrument, thus reinstated, will be a most interesting link with -the past; will supply in itself a history of the progress of the -organ-builder's art, and will possess an individuality of tone which -educated listeners will appreciate, and which they fail to perceive in -many or most of the organs erected in the present day. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Action. (_See_ KEYBOARD, PEDAL.) - - - Backfalls, 94 - - Bars of sound-board, 36 - - Bearers of ditto, 38 - - Bell-cranks, 129 - - Bellows, construction of, 73 - - Blacklead, 57 - - Blowing pedal and lever, 86 - - Boards, upper, 39 - - Borrowing in bass octave, 45, 145 - - Bourdon, 160 - - Brass, its employment, 63, 67 - - Bridge, 94, 157 - - Building-frame, 81 - - Buttons, leather, 96 - - - Channels, 29 - - Choir-organ, 142 - - Clarabella, 25 - - Cloths, 96 - - Compass, of pedals, 135 - - Combination-manual, 159 - - Conducting-boards, 48 - - Conveyances, 51 - - Counter-balances for bellows, 78 - - Couplers, various kinds of, 152-157 - - Cuckoo-feeder, 79 - - Cummins, his invention, 75 - - - Diapason, open, 44, 121 - - Diapason, stopped, 10 - - Dip of keys and of pedals, 103, 139 - - Drilling, 67 - - Double sound-boards, 112 - - Draw-stops, 127 - - Dulciana, 121 - - - Engines, hydraulic, 79 - - - Fan-frame, 101 - - Feeders, 79 - - Fifteenth, Flageolet, Flautina, 125 - - Flute, 125 - - Frame, building, 81 - - - Gamba, 149 - - Gems-horn, 125 - - Great-organ, 147 - - Grooving, 45, 145 - - - Key-boards, 102 - - Key movements, 97 - - - Lathe, 5 - - Leather for pallets, 61 - - - Manuals, 146 - - Manual and Pedal, their relation, 136, 139 - - Manual for combination, 159 - - Materials for sound-board, 7 - - - Names of notes in scale, 10 - - Nicking. (_See_ VOICING.) - - - Organ, Old English, 25, 147 - - - Pallets, 61 - - Pedal-organ, 136, 160 - - Pipes, wooden, 14, 23 - metal, 117 - lengths of, 11, 15 - plantation of, 30, 99 - - Principal, 44, 121 - - Pull-downs, 69 - - - Rack-boards, pins, 42 - - Reed-stops, 153 - - Regulation, 126 - - Ribs, inverted, 75 - - Roller-board, 96 - - Running of wind, 50, 55 - - - Scales for pipes, 16 - - Sliders, 29 - - Sound-board, construction of, 39 - - Spitz-flute, 125 - - Springs for pallets, 63 - - Squares, 95 - - Stickers, 95 - - Stops, methods of drawing, 127 - - Sub-bass, 160 - - Swell-organ, box, 141, 150 - - - Tablature, or nomenclature of notes, 10 - - Temperament, 125 - - Terzo Mano, 163 - - Trackers, 95 - - Trundles, wooden, iron, 131 - - Tuning, 126 - - - Valves of bellows, 74, 77 - - Voicing pipes, metal and wooden, 120 - - Village Church Organs, 165 - - - Wind-chest, 55 - - Wind-gauge, 122 - - Wind-trunks, 80 - - Wind-valve, or ventil, 162 - - Workshop, 2 - - -THE END. - - -PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED, CITY ROAD, LONDON. - - - - - Transcriber's Notes: - - Bold type is shown as =strong=. - - Italics are shown thus: _sloping_. - - Small capitals have been capitalised. - - Illustrations have been moved out of mid-paragraph. - - Variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained. - - Punctuation has been retained as published. - - 'Fig 29.' has been added to the illustration on page 95. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Practical Organ Building, by W. E. 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