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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b4290d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #62189 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/62189) diff --git a/old/62189-0.txt b/old/62189-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 0f067f3..0000000 --- a/old/62189-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1374 +0,0 @@ -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 62189 *** - - Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism - Louisiana Archaeological Survey and Antiquities Commission - Anthropological Study No. 6 - - - - - LOUISIANA PREHISTORY - - - [Illustration: A hunter using an atlatl.] - - Baton Rouge, Louisiana - - - - - STATE OF LOUISIANA - - - Edwin W. Edwards - _Governor_ - - DEPARTMENT OF CULTURE, RECREATION AND TOURISM - - Noelle LeBlanc - _Secretary_ - - ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY AND ANTIQUITIES COMMISSION - - Ex-Officio Members - - Dr. Kathleen Byrd _State Archaeologist_ - Mr. Robert B. DeBlieux _Assistant Secretary_, Office of Cultural - Development - Mr. B. Jim Porter _Secretary_, Department of Natural Resources - Ms. V. Elaine Boyle _Secretary_, Department of Urban and Community - Affairs - - _Appointed Members_ - - Dr. Charles E. Orser, Jr. - Mr. Brian J. Duhe - Mr. Marc Dupuy, Jr. - Dr. Lorraine Heartfield - Dr. J. Richard Shenkel - Mrs. Lanier Simmons - Dr. Clarence H. Webb - - First Printing June 1982 - Second Printing, with revision April 1987 - - This public document was published at a total cost of $7,520.00. 8,800 - copies of this public document were published in this second printing - at a cost of $3,419.25. The total cost of all printings of this - document including reprints is $7,520.00. This document was published - for the Division of Archaeology by Bourque Printing, Inc., P.O. Box - 45070, Baton Rouge, LA 70895-4070 to make available to the citizens of - Louisiana information about prehistoric and historic archaeology under - authorization of La. R.S. 41:1601-1613. This material was printed in - accordance with standards for printing by state agencies established - pursuant to R.S. 43:31. Printing of this material was purchased in - accordance with the provisions of Title 43 of the Louisiana Revised - Statutes. This publication has been funded in part by the Department - of the Interior, National Park Service Historic Preservation Fund. - - - - - LOUISIANA PREHISTORY - - - [Illustration: Replica of a Mississippian effigy pipe.] - - Robert W. Neuman - Museum of Geoscience, Louisiana State University - - Nancy W. Hawkins - Division of Archaeology - - - - - Editor’s Note - - -Louisiana’s cultural heritage dates back to approximately 10,000 B.C. -when man first entered this region. Since that time, many other Indian -groups have settled here. Each of these groups has left evidence of its -presence in the archaeological record. The Anthropological Study series -published by the Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism provides -a readable account of various activities of these cultural groups. - -Robert W. Neuman, Curator of Anthropology at the Museum of Geoscience, -Louisiana State University, and Nancy W. Hawkins, outreach coordinator -for the State Division of Archaeology, coauthored this volume. It is the -result of the realization that relatively few Louisiana residents are -aware of the state’s rich archaeological heritage. Furthermore, there is -little introductory information available to them about Louisiana’s -past. _Louisiana Prehistory_ was written to meet this need. It is a -short summary of the state’s prehistory and is meant to be a person’s -first exposure to the state’s prehistoric archaeology. For this reason -theoretical and technical discussions are kept at a minimum. - -Louisiana Prehistory tells the story of man’s occupation of the state -during its first 11,600 years. It begins with the big game hunters of -10,000 B.C. and describes the changing life styles brought about by the -end of the Ice Age. It relates the influences of various people moving -into and out of Louisiana and their effects on Louisiana cultures. -Finally it recounts the development of mound building which culminated -in the large ceremonial centers described by the early European -explorers. - -I trust that the reader will enjoy this introduction to Louisiana’s -prehistoric Indian heritage. - - Kathleen Byrd - _State Archaeologist_ - - - - - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - - -Although many individuals have contributed to the development of this -volume, special appreciation goes to Dr. Clarence H. Webb of Shreveport -for allowing us the use of artifacts from his private collection. Mr. -George A. Foster, Chairman of the Board of Guaranty Corporation, -assisted us greatly by providing photographs of drawings from the -Corporation’s lobby Indian displays for use in this publication. We also -thank Dr. Judith A. Schiebout, Director of the Museum of Geoscience, -Louisiana State University, who provided continuous cooperation in the -development of this project, and Mr. Daniel S. Peace, photographer of -the Museum of Geoscience, for his efforts in photographing the artifacts -used in this booklet. - - [Illustration: INDIANS OF PREHISTORIC LOUISIANA] - - NEO-INDIAN - 1,500 - 1,000 CADDO/PLAQUEMINE-MISSISSIPPIAN - 500 TROYVILLE-COLES CREEK - A.D. MARKSVILLE - B.C. - 500 TCHEFUNCTE - 1,000 POVERTY POINT - 1,500 - 2,000 - MESO-INDIAN - 2,500 - 3,000 - 3,500 - 4,000 - 4,500 - 5,000 - PALEO-INDIAN - 5,500 - 6,000 - 6,500 - 7,000 - 7,500 - 8,000 - 8,500 - 9,000 - 9,500 - 10,000 - 10,500 - ? - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - -Tens of thousands of years ago, when the world was in the midst of the -Ice Age, the first humans made their way into North America. At that -time, thick sheets of ice covering the polar regions had tied up so much -of the earth’s water that the oceans were approximately 400 feet lower -than they are today. All around the world sections of land that are now -underwater were then above sea level. An extensive land bridge connected -Siberia to Alaska across what is now the Bering Strait and people from -Asia used this route for their passage into North America. - -The land bridge between the two continents was clear of ice for -thousands of years, and vegetation from both sides intermixed. Grazing -animals, and the people who hunted them, gradually wandered from Asia -into North America, probably without ever realizing they were moving -into a new region. Although the earliest immigrants may have reached -North America over 40,000 years ago, most of the present evidence dates -from between 23,000 and 8,000 years ago. - -Much of Canada was covered with ice during this time, but periodically, -ice-free corridors of land connected Alaska with the Great Plains of the -United States. Over hundreds of generations nomadic people spread -throughout southern North America, Central America, and South America. -At least by 12,000 years ago, the first Indians lived in the -southeastern United States. The prehistoric era in Louisiana begins with -these first inhabitants and concludes with the arrival of the Europeans. -The chart at the left outlines the long, rich prehistory of Louisiana. - - - - - PALEO-INDIAN - - -Twelve thousand years ago, the average temperature in the southeastern -United States was five to 10 degrees cooler than it is now, and the -climate was drier. The landscape was covered with oak and pine forests -mixed with open grasslands. Some familiar animals such as rabbits and -deer lived in the area, but many other animals that have become extinct -in North America, were also common then. Included were the camel, giant -armadillo, short-faced bear, long-horned bison, mastodon, tapir, ground -sloth, saber-toothed tiger, mammoth, dire wolf, and horse (the horse was -later reintroduced by the Spanish). - -The earliest Indians in Louisiana, called Paleo-Indians, hunted these -animals with spears tipped with stone points. The points were two to six -inches long, and lanceolate, with bases that were either straight or -rounded inward. The Paleo-Indians in Louisiana made their points from -carefully selected varieties of stones that appear to have come from -neighboring regions in Texas and Arkansas. - -The first step in making a point was to strike a selected stone from a -strategic angle with another stone, detaching a relatively large, flat, -oval piece called a flake. The second step was to shape the large flake -by chipping off smaller flakes with a rock, bone fragment, or antler -tip. The final steps were to remove the delicate finishing flakes by -firmly pressing against the edge of the point with an antler or bone -tool, and then to grind the base of the point smooth with a stone. The -point then was fastened directly to a wooden shaft with hide, fiber or -an adhesive substance, or it was attached to a bone section that was -connected to the spear shaft. - - [Illustration: (actual size)] - -To pierce the skin of one of the large animals, such as a mastodon or -mammoth, the hunters had to be close to the powerful beast. They hurled -or jabbed their spears at the animal, and tried to confuse and -immobilize their prey. Perhaps several hunters surrounded an isolated -animal waving their arms and distracting it while one or two others -speared it. If the animal was wounded, the hunters would have tracked it -until it became very weak or went to water to drink. Even a mastodon, -wounded and exhausted, or mired in the mud of a shallow lake, would have -been relatively easy game for a small group of experienced hunters. - -Men and older boys almost certainly were the hunters for the -Paleo-Indian groups. Women and children collected fruits, seeds, roots, -and other plant foods to supplement their diet. - -Paleo-Indians lived in small nomadic groups that remained in one area -only as long as the animals and plant foods were plentiful. The evidence -indicates that they camped near streams in temporary shelters made of -branches, grass and hides. At other times, they preferred high ground -where they could see the countryside to watch for animals. The camp may -have had a central area for group activities surrounded by living areas -where families cooked and slept. These people probably used animal skins -for clothing and as blankets, and may have had dogs as pets. They did -not raise other animals or grow crops. They used no metal and made no -pottery. - - [Illustration: Mastodon hunt] - -Louisiana Paleo-Indian sites (areas where remains are found) are not -common, because the small groups of nomadic Indians left very few -artifacts at any location. High rainfall and humidity then led to decay -and erosion of many ancient sites while changing geography led to the -disappearance of others. The sea level has risen, so any Paleo-Indian -coastal remains are now on the ocean floor. Sites once along the -Mississippi River have been washed away or deeply buried as the river -shifted its course and deposited silt. Most Paleo-Indian spear points -found in Louisiana have been collected from ridges, hills and salt -domes. Generally, these areas have not been affected by stream changes -and sea level fluctuations that have occurred since the Ice Age. - -As the Ice Age drew to a close, Louisiana began to change. The climate -gradually became warmer and wetter and many large Ice Age animals became -extinct. The way of life of the Paleo-Indians began to change, too. They -started hunting smaller game and collecting and eating more plant foods. - -The late Paleo-Indians fashioned a variety of stone tools that could be -used for butchering game, preparing hides, and working bone and wood. -They also manufactured many kinds of stone points that were generally -smaller than the earlier points. These late Paleo-Indian tools were made -from Louisiana stone, a change from the earlier time. - -Sites of the late Paleo-Indian period are more numerous than early -Paleo-Indian sites. This suggests that the population increased and that -these people camped longer in one place. Their sites are characterized -by more artifacts, and more varieties of artifacts, than earlier -Paleo-Indian sites. - - - - - [Illustration: John Pearce Site] - -Both early and late Paleo-Indian Period materials have been found at the -John Pearce Site in Caddo Parish, Louisiana. At the lowest (oldest) -level, two early Paleo-Indian stone points were uncovered. A wide -variety of later materials were excavated from higher levels. The site -was used by small groups of people who camped there temporarily. The -groups used the site as a base camp for hunting, butchering, and -hideworking activities. - - [Illustration: Stone tools] - - Early Paleo-Indian: - a-c, Stone Points - (¾ actual size) - - [Illustration: Stone tools] - - Late Paleo-Indian: - d-e, Stone Scrapers - f-h, Stone Points - (¾ actual size) - - - - - MESO-INDIAN - - -The gradual transition from the late Paleo-Indian to the early -Meso-Indian Period had occurred by 5000 B.C. Meso-Indians, also called -Archaic Indians, lived in small nomadic groups. Unlike their -predecessors, however, they remained longer in each camp location and -exploited smaller geographical areas. Whereas a Paleo-Indian might roam -from Texas to Mississippi in his lifetime, returning rarely to the same -place, a Meso-Indian might spend his whole life in a six-parish area, -returning each season to favored campsites. - -The seasonal movements of the Meso-Indians were determined by the best -times to hunt and gather certain foods. Clams, fish and deer were -available year-round, so Meso-Indians often stayed near streams, where -these were plentiful. This strategy was especially critical in the -winter months when plant foods were least available. The Indians camped -where they could collect tender, young plants in the spring; fruits in -the summer; and pecans and walnuts in the fall. Meso-Indians had a -varied diet, eating seeds, roots, nuts, fruits, fish, clams, reptiles, -game birds and mammals. - -As Meso-Indian family groups traveled, they met other hunting groups, -and sometimes camped together. These were important times for social and -ceremonial activities. They probably smoked pipes together and shared -information about good hunting, fishing, and plant collecting areas. -They exchanged gifts of tools, food, stone, and shell. Sometimes these -large groups camped together for a season or more, near rivers or near -the coast where dependable food resources could support many families. - - - - - [Illustration: Banana Bayou Site] - -The Banana Bayou Site, located on the Avery Island salt dome in Iberia -Parish, consists of a low, man-made earthen mound, 80 feet in diameter. -Charcoal from the mound gives the radiocarbon date of 2490 ± 260 years -B.C. Nut shells and fish, deer and turtle bones have been found in the -mound as well as two stone points that are characteristic of the -Meso-Indian Period. These findings lead archaeologists to conclude that -the site is one of the earliest mounds in the United States. - -Dogs may have been kept as pets, and may have helped in hunting. -Meso-Indians developed many new hunting and fishing techniques. They -used fishhooks, traps, and nets for catching fish and other small -animals, and they used a new weapon called the atlatl (pronounced -at′lat′l) to help kill their most important prey, deer. - -An atlatl was made from a flattish, two-foot long piece of wood and was -used as a spear-thrower. It had a hook, made of bone or antler, attached -on one end and a hand grip carved on the other end. A stone, clay, or -shell weight was sometimes attached toward the hooked end to increase -the force of the throw, or perhaps only for decoration. A spear was -rested on the atlatl with the end of the spear shaft inserted into the -atlatl hook. The hunter held the atlatl grip and the middle of the spear -in the same hand, then he hurled the spear from the atlatl (see cover -illustration). The atlatl acted as an extension of his arm, giving extra -power and accuracy to the throw. - -The Meso-Indian spears used with the atlatl differed from those used by -Paleo-Indians. They were shorter, and the stone points were different. -Meso-Indian spear points were chipped from local stone, and they were -slightly larger and not as artistically made as late Paleo-Indian -points. Beyond these general trends, however, many Meso-Indian points -found in Louisiana have little in common with each other. The sides of -some are curved, others are straight, and some are serrated. Some are -wider at the base, some are narrower, and others have notches in the -base. The variations in shape seem almost unlimited. - - [Illustration: (¾ actual size)] - -In contrast to the changes in styles of points, Meso-Indians continued -making their stone butchering and hideworking tools in much the same way -as the Paleo-Indians. Meso-Indians also fabricated non-stone tools and -ornaments. They made bone needles, awls, fishhooks, beads, and hairpins; -and antler atlatl hooks, handles, and spear points. Less common objects -were tortoise shell rattles and shell ornaments. - -Meso-Indians developed new tools as they increased their knowledge of -plant resources. They made baskets to carry and store seeds, roots, -fruits and nuts. They cracked nuts with specially shaped stones, and -ground nuts and seeds into flour with grinding stones. - - [Illustration: Meso-Indian: Grinding Stones (½ actual size)] - -The Meso-Indians also made axes and chopping tools for cutting down -trees and hollowing out tree trunks. Like the atlatl weights, grinding -stones, pipes, and stone ornaments, some of these axes were made using a -new technique. Instead of being flaked, these stone tools were roughly -pecked into desired shapes with a hard hammerstone, then ground smooth -with sandstone or sand and water. When completed, some of these ground -stone tools had a highly polished surface. - - [Illustration: (½ actual size)] - -Although the methods of hunting, gathering plants, and making tools -remained relatively unchanged throughout the Meso-Indian Period, some -things were changing. Gradually the population expanded. Groups began to -move less frequently, and to travel over smaller areas. They learned -more about their environment as they began living, from one season to -another, in the same general area. Apparently some Louisiana -Meso-Indians remained in one place long enough to build earthen mounds. -If the dates for these mounds are correct, then they are the earliest -known mounds in the United States. - - - - - NEO-INDIAN - - -During the Neo-Indian Period the population expanded and some groups -became sedentary, staying in one place for several years or more. Most -Meso-Indian tools continued to be used by Neo-Indians, but added to -these were stone and pottery vessels, baked clay balls, and many -decorative or ceremonial objects. Also, for the first time, shell and -earthen mounds were regularly built. - -The Neo-Indian Period lasted from 2000 B.C. to A.D. 1600 and included -the following cultures: Poverty Point, Tchefuncte, Marksville, -Troyville-Coles Creek, Caddo and Plaquemine-Mississippian. These groups -differed from one another in when and where they lived, as well as in -the objects and earthworks they made. - - - Poverty Point - -The Poverty Point Culture flourished from approximately 2000 B.C. to 700 -B.C. The culture is named for the famous Poverty Point Site where the -largest earthworks of the period were built. During this time, Poverty -Point people lived in Louisiana, Mississippi and Arkansas, and they -usually settled near major rivers, junctions of lakes and rivers, or in -coastal marshes. These locations supported a wide variety of plants and -animals that could be used for food. - - - - - [Illustration: Poverty Point Site] - -The Poverty Point Site is near Epps, Louisiana, in the northeastern -corner of the state. The site is now a State Commemorative Area that can -be visited by the public. It covers more than a square mile, and when -the ridges and mounds were built they were the largest earthworks in the -Western Hemisphere. Although the exact function of the ridges is as yet -unknown, it is speculated that the aisles may have been used in -astronomical observations because two of them line up with the summer -and winter solstice sunsets. - -Like Meso-Indians, some Poverty Point Indians lived in small dispersed -groups, but others established regional centers where large populations -lived throughout the year. Oval or horseshoe-shaped structures of earth -or shell were usually built at these centers. The reason for the -construction is unknown, but it is likely that the Poverty Point leaders -lived at such sites and that the sites functioned as ceremonial, -political and trading centers. - -The Poverty Point Site in northeastern Louisiana was the largest -regional center. It was built between the Mississippi and the Arkansas -rivers. Using these rivers, as well as land routes, Poverty Point -Indians traded with other Indians as far away as Illinois, Virginia and -Florida. - -At the Poverty Point Site, the Indians built earthen ridges that form -six semicircles, one inside the other. The ridges are interrupted by -four aisles that radiate out from the inner area. The outer ridge of -these earthworks measures nearly three-quarters of a mile across. -Immediately to the west is an earthen mound 70 feet high and just north -of it is another mound, 21 feet high. - -The ridges and mounds were built by hand. Workers loosened dirt with -shells or stones used like hoes, then filled baskets and animal hides -with soil and carried them to the construction area. It took -approximately 30 million 50-pound loads to build the earthen ridges and -the two large mounds at Poverty Point. The construction must have taken -many generations to complete. - -Poverty Point Indians probably had a ruling class, perhaps with a chief, -to direct earthwork construction and long-distance trade. The leadership -also may have helped organize food collecting and hunting activities. - -People living at the regional center relied on hunting, fishing, and -plant collecting to supply their food, just as Meso-Indians had. They -may also have sown seeds of favorite wild plants in cleared garden -areas. There are indications that the Poverty Point Indians grew -pigweed, marsh elder, knotweed, lamb’s quarters and sunflowers using -this cultivation technique. This gardening, though helpful, would not -have been essential to feed the people in the rich natural environments -where they lived. - -Poverty Point Indians continued to use the tools that Meso-Indians had -used for hunting, collecting, and food preparation. They were likely, -however, to get some of the stone for these tools through long-distance -trade. The Neo-Indians also made new tools that were added to the -Meso-Indian ones. - -They made oval-shaped stone plummets that were used as weights on bolas -or nets. A bola could be flung so that it wrapped around the feet of -wild game. Weighted nets could have trapped both fish and small game. -Stone for the plummets used by Louisiana Indians was magnetite and -hematite from Missouri and northern Arkansas. - -The Poverty Point Indians cooked their food in a new way. They made clay -cooking balls that probably were used like charcoal briquettes for -roasting and baking. They rolled clay in their hands, then squeezed or -shaped it into one of many forms. These were dried and heated in a fire -until hot, then up to 200 were placed in a roasting pit. The different -shapes may simply indicate the maker’s design preference or may have -controlled temperature and cooking time. - -Another change in food preparation was the introduction of stone, and -later, pottery vessels. The stone cooking or storage bowls were made -from steatite (soapstone), or less commonly from sandstone. Later in the -period, the first Louisiana pottery vessels were made, and these -probably were modeled after the earlier stone bowls. - -In addition to these practical goods, Indians of this period made many -exotic ornamental objects including stone and clay figurines, beads, and -pendants. The figurines were about 2.5 inches tall and represented -seated females, but usually the heads were removed. This may indicate -that the clay figurines were used in some kind of ceremony. The beads -were made from copper and clay, as well as gems and other stones. -Pendants, also made from clay and stone, were in the shape of birds, -insects, miniature tools, and geometrical shapes. - -The Indians may have cut and drilled stones to make pendants and beads -with small stone tools usually less than an inch in length. These tools, -called microtools, were also used for cutting, scraping, sawing and -engraving bone, antler, and wood. - -Many distinctive traits of the Poverty Point Culture were shared by -people living in Mexico and Central America at that time and even -earlier. These traits included earthwork construction, planned villages, -clay figurines, stone beads and pendants, and microtools. These southern -Indians almost certainly influenced the development of certain aspects -of Poverty Point culture, either by direct contact or by descriptions -shared by travelers. - - [Illustration: Poverty Point: a, Plummet; b, Atlatl Weight; c-f, - Clay Cooking Balls; g, Clay Female Figurine; h, Stone Point; i, - Gorget; j-n, Stone Beads and Pendants; o, Microtools (½ actual - size)] - -The Poverty Point Culture that flourished for over 1,000 years had -virtually disappeared by 500 B.C. There is no evidence of warfare or -conflict with another group, so perhaps internal political or religious -changes caused the decline. In any event, people gradually abandoned the -regional centers and returned to living in small scattered settlements. -Never again in Louisiana did the Indian people build such massive -earthworks or trade over such an extensive area. - - - Tchefuncte - -The simplified lifestyle that developed at the end of the Poverty Point -Period continued throughout the next cultural period. During the time of -the Tchefuncte (pronounced Che-funk′tuh) Culture, from 500 B.C. until -A.D. 200, people lived in small scattered settlements. Long distance -trade was much less important, yet people in Louisiana were in contact -with people in western Mississippi, coastal Alabama, eastern Texas, -Arkansas, and southeastern Missouri. - -In Louisiana, most Tchefuncte people seem to have lived in coastal areas -and in lowlands near slow-moving streams. In these areas, they camped on -natural levees, terraces, salt domes, cheniers and ridges that provided -dry ground in this wet environment. Here they built their houses, -probably temporary circular shelters having a frame of light poles -covered with thatch or grass mixed with mud. - - - - - [Illustration: Tchefuncte Site] - -The Tchefuncte Site, on the north shore of Lake Pontchartrain, was so -named because it was situated inside Tchefuncte State Park (renamed -Fountainebleau State Park). The site had two shell middens, one that -measured 100 feet by 250 feet and another 100 feet by 150 feet. Both -were excavated, and archaeologists found 50,000 pieces of pottery, as -well as artifacts made from bone, shell and stone. Forty-three human -burials were recovered, none of which had objects buried with them. - - [Illustration: Building a circular shelter] - -They continued to depend on wild game and collected plant foods. In the -coastal areas, they ate tens of thousands of brackish water clams and -oysters, leaving behind piles of shells called shell middens. Because of -the number of shells, it once was thought that clams provided the major -protein source for Tchefuncte people. However, clam meat is actually low -in protein and also in other nutrients and calories. Clams were probably -eaten because they were always available, but they were not very -important in nourishing the people. Surprisingly, Tchefuncte people -apparently never ate crabs or crawfish, which also were plentiful. - -Tchefuncte Indians obtained most of their protein from deer, raccoons, -alligators, and fish, but many other animals, especially small animals -and migratory birds were also eaten. The Indians used atlatls to kill -large game like deer and bear. For smaller mammals and birds, they -preferred traps, nets and bolas. They probably had several techniques -for fishing including netting, spearing, and fishing with hook and line. -Like the Meso-Indians before them, they gathered plant foods, including -grapes, plums, persimmons, acorns, and hickory nuts. They also grew -squash and gourds in small gardens. - -Tchefuncte people were the first Indians in Louisiana to make large -amounts of pottery. They rolled coils of clay into shape and then -smoothed them to form a container. Many shapes of pots were made, but -characteristically they had “footed” bases. The Indians often decorated -the vessels by pressing fingernails, twigs or tools into the surface or -by rocking a small tool across the wet clay. After decorating the pots, -they fired them by slow baking. - -Later Indians almost always kneaded the clay thoroughly and mixed it -with a small amount of another substance, called temper. These two steps -strengthened the clay and helped prevent it from shrinking unevenly and -cracking. Tchefuncte potters often omitted these steps, perhaps because -they were unaware of their importance, or perhaps because clay was -available and they could easily make another vessel if one cracked. - -The introduction of pottery was an important improvement in food -storage. When these pots were kept covered, they provided a relatively -dry and animal-proof container that was portable. This made it easier to -store food in times of plenty for use in leaner times. The Tchefuncte -pots also meant that stewing and other new cooking techniques could be -experimented with and developed for the first time. - - [Illustration: Tchefuncte: a-d, Vessel Rim Sherds; e-f, Vessel - Footed Bases; g, Clay Pipe; h, Stone Point; i, Stone Axe; j, Bone - Fishhook; k, Antler Point (½ actual size)] - -Most of the other utensils and tools that Tchefuncte Indians used were -very similar to those that Poverty Point Indians made. These included -smoking pipes; stone, bone, and antler spear points; ground stone atlatl -weights; mortars; bone fishhooks; clay cooking balls; and other -butchering, hideworking, and woodworking tools. - -In contrast to Poverty Point Indians, the Tchefuncte Indians did not -specialize in making stone beads, pendants, or microtools, and they did -not usually import materials to make tools and ornaments. Although some -innovations from the Poverty Point Culture were carried over, most -Tchefuncte tools and most Tchefuncte settlement patterns resemble those -of the Meso-Indians. - -The majority of the information about this era comes from coastal -regions of the state. Archaeologists are not sure how Indians in the -rest of Louisiana were living at this same time, but it is likely that -their culture somewhat resembled that of the Tchefuncte Indians. - - - Marksville - -Sometime after 200 B.C., Indians of the highly influential Hopewell -Culture, centered in Ohio and Illinois, sent representatives throughout -the eastern United States. By at least the first century A.D., groups of -Louisiana Indians had met these travelers and had learned about their -culture. Hopewell people had powerful leaders who supervised a cult -centered around lavish burial rituals. Leaders organized construction of -large mounds in which certain high-status people were buried along with -exquisitely crafted objects made of copper, stone, bone, shell, pottery, -and rare minerals. - -The Hopewell representatives may have been sent south in search of a -valued raw material or may have been sent as “evangelists” whose mission -it was to explain the virtues of Hopewell ceremonial life. Intentionally -or not, they introduced some Louisiana Indians to Hopewell practices. -The Louisiana manifestation of Hopewell life is called the Marksville -Culture. - - - - - [Illustration: Marksville Site] - -The Marksville Site, in Avoyelles Parish, was the first scientifically -excavated site of the Marksville Culture. Burial mounds at the site are -encompassed by a horseshoe-shaped earthen embankment almost 3,000 feet -long. The site is now a State Commemorative Area open to the public. A -museum at the park houses an exhibit describing the site and the people -who lived there. - -Indians of the Marksville Culture began living in larger, more permanent -settlements, building burial mounds, and making Hopewell-styled pottery, -pipes, and ornaments. They most likely had leaders who directed -craftsmen, organized community life, and officiated at burial -ceremonies. - -Burial rituals must have been a very important part of the Marksville -Culture. Large mounds were constructed in several stages over many -years. The first stage usually was a flat low platform approximately -three feet high and 40 feet in diameter. Burial ceremonies were held -months or perhaps years apart and those who had died between ceremonies -were buried together. Some remains had been temporarily interred in -other areas, so these were reburied along with primary burials, and even -cremations. - -A pit was dug into the mound surface, and sometimes lined with logs and -matting. Human remains were placed in the pit with pottery, pipes, stone -points, shells, asphaltum, quartz crystals, and other valuable objects. -The bodies might be ornamented with jewelry such as copper beads, -earspools, bracelets, and necklaces of shell, pearls, or stone. -Occasionally, a dog was placed in the grave. The pit was filled with -dirt. Later, other pits might be dug for another occasion or burials -might be made by placing remains on the mound surface and covering them -with a layer of earth. Eventually, more construction increased the -overall size of the mound and shaped it into a dome. - -The people buried in the mounds may have been high status individuals -who lived in villages near the mounds, while ordinary people lived in -scattered villages away from the ceremonial centers. Marksville Indians -in the coastal areas lived far from the elaborate burial mounds, but -they still practiced new styles of making pottery and other objects. - - [Illustration: (¼ actual size)] - -The new Marksville pottery was made from local clay, but it was quite -similar in shape and decoration to pottery of the Hopewell Culture in -Illinois and Ohio. A typical Hopewell vessel would be a bowl three to -six inches tall. The rim would have cross-hatched lines on the exterior -at the top and the design on the rest of the pot would be outlined with -bold lines cut in the clay. Quite often the designs were geometric -shapes and stylized birds. The background would be textured by rocking -or stamping a small, toothed tool across the wet clay. These decorated -pots were made primarily for ceremonial uses. - -The Marksville people also made other Hopewell-like objects including -copper and stone jewelry, platform pipes and figurines. The pipes had -relatively broad flat bases (platforms) approximately three inches long. -At one end was a hole for a wooden or reed pipe stem and in the center -was a bowl. Sometimes an animal figure was on the platform, with the -bowl formed in the animal’s back. Animal and human figurines were also -made. Most of these Hopewell-like objects were buried in mounds as -religious or burial offerings. - - [Illustration: Marksville: a-c, Vessel Rim Sherds; d, Clay Effigy - Pipe; e, Copper Ear Spool; f, Asphaltum Effigy; g, Ceremonial Stone - Point (½ actual size)] - -In contrast, Marksville people made most of their utilitarian objects -the same way as Tchefuncte people before them. Marksville people hunted -with atlatls, bolas and nets, and fished with hooks and line. They -gathered wild plants and shellfish, and probably grew a few domesticated -plants in small gardens. They stored food in pots and baskets, and -cooked in pots. - -It seems that despite the Hopewellian influence, much of the culture was -unaffected by contact with the northerners. Through time, Hopewellian -influence diminished. Louisiana Indians built fewer burial mounds, -developed their own distinctive pottery, and began a new way of hunting. - - [Illustration: Fishing] - - - Troyville-Coles Creek - -The Troyville-Coles Creek Period lasted from approximately A.D. 400 to -A.D. 1100. By the beginning of this period, influence from the -Ohio-Illinois Hopewell people had ceased, and pottery styles, mound -building, and ceremonial life had gradually changed. - -The Troyville-Coles Creek people continued building ceremonial centers -with mounds, but these mounds differed from earlier ones. They were -larger, shaped differently, and more numerous. They also served a new -purpose. Instead of being primarily for burials, these mounds were -constructed to support temples or civic buildings. Pyramidal mounds with -flat tops, and sometimes with stepped ramps leading up one side, came -into style. They were constructed over hundreds of years, and usually -were enlarged one or more times. Although the total height might reach -only 20 feet, the base might eventually be enlarged to more than 200 -feet on each side. At certain sites, three to nine mounds eventually -were built, all around an open, central plaza. - -A temple and one or more other buildings were usually built on a mound -summit. These buildings were either circular or rectangular with walls -of wattle and daub. Wattle is a construction technique whereby branches, -twigs, cane, or vines are interlaced around upright posts that have been -sunk in the ground. These are then plastered with mud or clay daub. The -Troyville-Coles Creek people probably used grass thatch or palmetto -fronds for the roof. - - - - - [Illustration: Greenhouse Site] - -The Greenhouse Site, in Avoyelles Parish, is the most extensively -excavated site that is typical of the Troyville-Coles Creek Period. -Seven earthen mounds there surround an open plaza that measures 200 feet -by 350 feet. No village or campsite remains were found in the plaza or -outside the mound area. This leads archaeologists to conclude that the -mound group was used for ceremonial activities only, and that villagers -lived elsewhere. - -Some people were buried in the mounds, but in contrast to Marksville -burials, the bodies were not accompanied by a rich assortment of -objects. One or more bodies were buried in pits, or simply laid upon the -mound summit and covered with dirt. People were also buried in village -areas away from the mounds. Why some were buried in the mounds and some -were not, remains a mystery. It may be that people associated with mound -construction, with temple activities, or those of significant social -status were buried in the mounds. Alternatively, if many people died -from illness, famine, or disaster, that might have signaled a time for -special ceremonies and mound enlargement. Those victims might have been -buried in a mound. - -Villages and campsites were often a mile or more from these ceremonial -centers. There, daily life was more focused on maintaining a stable food -supply than on ceremonial activities. During the Troyville-Coles Creek -Period, important changes in hunting techniques and garden crops helped -guarantee this food supply. - -It was during this period that the bow and arrow came into use in -Louisiana. First invented in Europe thousands of years before, bows and -arrows were gradually adopted by people in Asia and eventually by people -in North America. The introduction of the bow and arrow meant hunters -could shoot further, more accurately, and with more firepower than -before. The arrow points were generally smaller than those used on -spears. These then, were the first true arrowheads made in Louisiana. - - [Illustration: (¾ actual size)] - -Troyville-Coles Creek people also continued using the atlatl, as well as -the traditional butchering and hideworking tools that had been made -since Meso-Indian times. There was no dramatic change in the types of -animals hunted during this time. The Indians killed game such as deer, -bear, small mammals, and game birds. They also ate fish and mollusks as -had their ancestors. - -The Troyville-Coles Creek people continued collecting wild seeds, -fruits, roots, and other plant foods. They cultivated squash, gourds, -and native plants such as sunflowers and lamb’s quarters, but a most -important addition to these garden crops was corn, which had been -domesticated earlier in Mexico. The Indians no doubt experimented with -it for many generations, developing strains and cultivation techniques -best suited to Louisiana conditions. Certain plant foods were still -ground with mealing stones and probably stored in pottery vessels. - - [Illustration: Tending corn] - -In this period, pottery styles changed, producing more durable pots with -more diversified uses. The Troyville-Coles Creek Indians tempered their -clay with particles of dried clay before coiling it to shape the pot. -They specialized in rounded or barrel-shaped jars and in deep or shallow -bowls. The potters removed coil marks by patting the surface with a -smooth wooden paddle. - -Sometimes they used a carved wooden paddle to stamp designs onto the -entire outer surface of the vessel. At other times they decorated only -the top half of the pot with designs formed by incising lines or -pressing tools into the damp clay. The colors of the clay were usually -tan, brown, gray or black. On rare occasions vessels were colored red on -the outside or shaped into human effigies. - - [Illustration: Troyville-Coles Creek: a-e, Vessel Rim Sherds; f-h, - Stone Points (½ actual size)] - -Late in the Troyville-Coles Creek Period, changes began to occur. -Indians in the northwestern part of the state developed close ties with -people living north and west of them, while those in the east became -more closely aligned with people to their east. Descendants of the -Troyville-Coles Creek people were Indians of the Caddo and of the -Plaquemine-Mississipian cultures. - - - Caddo - -By about A.D. 800, descendants of the Troyville-Coles Creek people -living in northwestern Louisiana had developed close ties with people in -southeastern Oklahoma, northeastern Texas and southern Arkansas. From -this region emerged the Caddo Culture. These Indians developed a fine, -new style of pottery, and used special ornaments and objects made from -imported materials. They also performed elaborate burials of upper class -people. - -There was little change in the daily life of the ordinary Indians. Most -people spent their lives in small villages and hamlets near streams or -lakes. Many trends established in earlier generations persisted. New -garden crops such as beans were introduced and were added to the corn, -squash, gourds and native plants already grown. It seems that people -from these small settlements were governed by high status individuals -living at the ceremonial centers. Common people were probably required -to help build mounds, to supply food, or to make tools or special -objects for their rulers. They gathered at the centers when they were -needed or when special ceremonies or festivals were celebrated. - - - - - [Illustration: Gahagan Site] - -At the Gahagan Site, in Red River Parish, early Caddo Indians built -mounds and a village around a large open plaza. One mound had three deep -shaft burials, each with three to six bodies and 200 to 400 burial -offerings. Some of the unusual burial objects from this site are two -clay human effigy pipes, two copper cutouts of human hands, two copper -long-nosed mask ear ornaments, two frog effigy pipes, and numerous -triangular stone blades called “Gahagan knives.” - -Early Caddo people continued the Troyville-Coles Creek custom of -constructing ceremonial centers with mounds around a central plaza. They -built temples or special buildings on top of the mounds and also dug -graves into the mounds for burials of important people. - -These mound burials, however, differed somewhat from those of earlier -cultures. To bury an honored priest or chief, Caddo people dug a large -deep shaft, often all the way from the top of the mound to the ground -level. Then they placed the chief’s body, and other bodies (possibly of -sacrificed servants or family members) in the grave side by side. -Special objects were piled in the corner or along the wall of the pit. - -Burial offerings included well-made tools, ceremonial objects and -jewelry designated only for high status people. Typical objects were -fine pottery, carefully flaked stone knives, arrow points, bows, turtle -shell rattles, polished stone axes, rare minerals, stone or clay smoking -pipes, animal teeth pendants, bone hairpins, ear ornaments of bone, -shell, or copper, and beads of copper, shell, and stone. Unusual objects -were pipes in the form of humans and frogs, sheets of copper cut in the -shape of hands, and ear ornaments resembling small copper masks. The -face of each “mask” was an oval about three inches long, but the nose -was seven inches long. Interestingly, at the same time, identical masks -were also used by Indians as far away as Missouri, Wisconsin and -Florida. - -Caddo potters made special new shapes such as bottles, and bowls with -sharply angled rims. They fired the pieces in a new way so they would be -black or dark mahogany in color, then polished the dark surfaces to make -them glossy. Some common ornamental designs were curved lines cut into -the surface and sometimes highlighted with red or green-colored pigment -rubbed into the engraved lines. Not surprisingly, much of the -utilitarian pottery remained quite similar in appearance to the late -Troyville-Coles Creek pottery. Caddo Indians probably still used it for -daily chores, while they saved more ornate wares for special occasions. - -The ordinary Caddo Culture people lived in villages away from the mound -center. Their lives were centered around hunting, fishing, collecting, -and gardening activities. When a commoner died, he or she was buried in -a simple grave without objects. Although this way of life seems totally -separate from the elaborate life of the elite, the two worlds overlapped -at ceremonial occasions, when everyone gathered at the mound centers. - - [Illustration: Caddo: a-c, Clay Vessels; d-e, Clay Pipes; f, - Engraved Shell Cup; g, Shell Pendant; h, Stone Points (⅓ actual - size)] - -Between A.D. 1100 and A.D. 1400, Caddo ceremonial life seems to have -been less important. All burials were simple, with only one person in a -grave. Fewer imported stones and minerals were used to make high status -objects, and more ordinary pottery was made. - -After A.D. 1400, there was a return to Caddo ceremonialism. Many early -Caddo customs were revived, but new practices were also added. Mound -construction resumed, with temples, lodges, or chiefs’ houses being -built on top. These structures characteristically were built of wattle -and daub and had thatched roofs. They were used for a time, then they -were burned, probably when the leader or an important person died. -Workers covered the ruins with sand or clay, and eventually replaced the -old building with a new one. Sometimes graves were dug through the floor -of standing buildings or through the rubble of burned ones. As many as -seven people have been found buried together in these graves, along with -food offerings and large numbers of objects. - -As in earlier times, important people had special customs and belongings -that ordinary people did not have. One custom was that of binding an -infant’s head to a cradleboard so that as the person grew to maturity -the head was noticeably flattened and therefore distinguished the high -class person from people of the lower class. Upper class people used -ornate clay pipes, conch shell cups, ceremonial objects, fine pottery, -and jewelry. Their jewelry included anklets, necklaces, bone hairpins, -and bone pottery and shell discs that were worn through the ears. Some -pendants were fashioned from mammal teeth or shells, and occasionally a -large sea shell pendant had a lizard or salamander engraved on it. - -Caddo leaders of this late period probably used the most delicate and -decorated pottery. Pots ranged in size from miniatures to large -wide-mouthed storage vessels. Many shapes were made, but special vessels -were formed to resemble birds and turtles, or to act as rattles. Popular -designs were circles, scrolls, and crosses engraved into the vessel -after firing. Engraved designs were often highlighted with red, white or -green pigments. - -Daily life of ordinary people was much different than that of the elite. -As far as we know, the former continued to live as they had during the -earlier part of the period. They lived in circular houses in small -villages located near their gardens and buried their dead in simple -graves with few goods. - -By the time the first Europeans reached Caddo villages in the mid-1500s, -Caddo Indians were divided into several distinct groups. In Louisiana, -these were the Adaes, Doustioni, Natchitoches, Ouachita and Yatasi. The -Indians supplied the Europeans with salt, horses, and food in exchange -for glass beads, kettles, guns, ammunition, knives, ceramics, bells and -bracelets. Contact with the Spanish and French explorers ended the -prehistoric era, and led to rapid and devastating changes in the -traditional life. - - - Plaquemine-Mississippian - -While Caddo Indians flourished in northwestern Louisiana, those in the -rest of the state by approximately A.D. 1000 had a slightly different -way of life. Many of the latter were part of the Plaquemine Culture, who -like the Caddo, were descendants of Troyville-Coles Creek Indians. In -keeping with the patterns established by their ancestors, Plaquemine -people built large ceremonial centers with two or more large mounds -facing an open plaza. The flat-topped, pyramidal mounds were constructed -in several stages, and eventually measured more than 100 feet on a side -and 10 feet high. Sometimes they were topped by one or two smaller -mounds. - - - - - [Illustration: Medora Site] - -The Plaquemine Culture was so named because the Medora Site, typical of -the period, is near Plaquemine, Louisiana, in West Baton Rouge Parish. -The site had two mounds approximately 400 feet apart with a plaza in -between. One was a flat-topped pyramid 125 feet on a side 13 feet high -with a small domed mound three feet high and 25 feet in diameter on top. -The other one was two feet high and 100 feet in diameter. Eighteen -thousand pieces of broken pottery were found at Medora, along with a few -stone tools. - -Plaquemine Indians often built the mounds on top of the ruins of a house -or temple, and constructed similar buildings on top of the mound. In -earlier times, buildings were usually circular, but later they were -likely to be rectangular. They were constructed with wattle and daub, -and sometimes with wall posts sunk into foot-deep wall trenches. - -At times, the Indians dug shallow, oval or rectangular graves in the -mounds. These might be for primary burials of individuals, but more -frequently they were for the reburial of remains originally interred -elsewhere. Some graves contained only skulls, and one of these had 66 -skulls. Burial offerings included pottery, pipes, stone points, and axes -made of ground stone. - -One type of pottery occasionally placed in the graves is called “killed” -pottery. This type has a hole in the base of the vessel that was cut -while the pot was being made, usually before it was fired. The -Plaquemine Indians also decorated their pots in other characteristic -ways. They sometimes added small solid handles called lugs, and textured -the surface by brushing clumps of grass over the vessel before it was -fired. They often cut designs into the surface of the wet clay, and like -their Caddo contemporaries, the Plaquemine Indians engraved designs on -pots after they were fired. Plaquemine Indians also had undecorated pots -which they used for ordinary daily tasks. - - [Illustration: (⅓ actual size)] - -Not surprisingly, the ordinary people lived much as the average Caddo -Indians. They participated in festivals and ceremonies at the mound -centers, but spent most of their time with families and neighbors -collecting and producing food, or participating in village activities. - -During the early part of the period some hunters still used atlatls, but -soon bows and arrows predominated. The Indians hunted deer, bear, -rabbit, squirrel, raccoon, turkey and duck; fished for gar and drum; and -collected mussels. Although the Plaquemine Indians tended gardens of -corn, squash, pumpkins and beans, they still collected many wild seeds, -roots, nuts and fruits. - -At approximately the same time as Caddo and Plaquemine Indians were -living in Louisiana, Mississippian Culture people in the St. Louis area -had developed the largest prehistoric center in the United States. This -was a ceremonial, residential, and trading center with a population of -35,000-40,000 people. The Mississippian Culture spread throughout the -southeastern United States, and was characterized by huge earthen temple -mounds, widespread trading networks, and a ceremonial complex -represented by elaborately shaped pottery and stone, bone, shell and -copper objects. - - [Illustration: Plaquemine: a. Clay Pipe; b, Stone Gaming Piece; c, - Stone Celt; d-g, Stone Points; h-j, Clay Ornaments (½ actual size)] - - [Illustration: Mississippian: a, Vessel Rim Sherd; b, Effigy Vessel - (⅓ actual size)] - -As far as we know, no major Mississippian centers developed in -Louisiana, although ones were established in Georgia at Etowah and in -Alabama at Moundville. There is evidence that sometime between A.D. 1000 -and A.D. 1600 small groups of people from the eastern Mississippian -centers made their way to Louisiana. They came to the Avery Island area -to collect and refine salt, and to other parts of the state to search -for other materials. Perhaps through repeated contacts, a few groups of -Louisiana Indians learned classic Mississippian techniques of making -pottery and other ceremonial objects. Some Indians in the southeastern -and northeastern parts of Louisiana may even have established close ties -with their eastern neighbors and added Mississippian customs to the -Plaquemine Culture. Louisiana groups that may have descended from those -Mississippian groups are those who speak the Tunican, Chitimachan, and -Muskogean languages. Those who probably descended from Plaquemine -Culture Indians are the Taensa and Natchez. - - - - - EUROPEAN TRAVELERS DESCRIBE INDIANS - - -Early European descriptions of the Natchez and Taensa Indians help us -understand their life, and give an idea of the way many of the late -prehistoric Indians throughout Louisiana lived. European travelers -reported that some Indians lived near the ceremonial centers that had -mounds surrounding a central plaza. The two most important buildings, -the temple and the chief’s house, were at the center. - -The temple was on the summit of one of the mounds, or was in a prominent -place facing the plaza. It had thick wattle and daub walls and a -thatched roof with carved and painted wooden animal effigies on top. -Inside, a sacred fire was tended by several Indians, whose job it was to -keep the fire always burning. Bones of past chiefs, and servants who had -died with them, were stored in baskets or on a low clay altar. Also, -valued objects such as clay figurines, crystals, and carved wooden -objects were kept in the temple. - -The temple faced a plaza that was the scene of community feasts and -rituals, as well as games, such as chunkey. In chunkey, opponents hurled -long poles after a rolling disc. The one whose pole landed closest to -the place where the disc stopped rolling won a point, or valued -possessions, if bets had been made. - -The chief’s house, situated on top of a mound, overlooked the plaza -area. The chief used the house as his living quarters as well as a -reception area for visitors and subjects. The furnishings of the house -included wooden beds covered with matting, and perhaps a wooden stump -used as a stool. Reed or cane torches provided light. Servants waited on -the chief, always keeping a respectful distance, and quickly meeting all -of his needs. No one ever used the chief’s belongings or walked in front -of him. - -The chief was a highly honored and respected person, and his death was a -time for great mourning. Ceremonies, dancing, and processions were part -of the burial rituals that continued for several days. The chief’s wife, -servants, and others who volunteered for the honor, were sedated and -ritually strangled as part of the ceremonies. The bodies were placed on -special raised tombs covered with branches and mud. After many weeks, -the bones were removed and placed in baskets that were stored in the -temple. Eventually, the bones were buried in a platform in the temple, -or were buried in the mound when it was expanded. The deceased chief’s -house was usually burned and might be covered with another layer of -earth before the new chief’s house was built. The son of the dead -chief’s sister would become the next ruler. - - [Illustration: Mound ceremony] - -People from miles around came to participate in the burial ceremonies, -after which they returned to their villages and resumed their normal -lives. Some lived in small communities near the mounds, but others lived -in scattered settlements miles away. - -Their clothing was very simple. The men wore only a cloth or deerskin -breechcloth, unless the weather was cold. Then they added long deerskin -shirts and leggings. Women wore skirts of skin or of cloth woven from -tree bark, and in cold weather they also wore a skin wrap. - -Women usually wore their hair long, sometimes tying it back, or braiding -it. Men wore theirs short, and in many styles. Sometimes they even -completely removed the hair from one side of their head. Women often -decorated themselves by blackening their teeth with ashes and by rubbing -red pigment on their faces, shoulders, and stomachs. Men decorated -themselves, too, especially on ceremonial occasions when they painted -themselves with red, white or black markings and tied feathers in their -hair. Both men and women wore earrings in their pierced ears and large -pendants or strings of shells or seeds around their neck. Honored -warriors and upper class people wore red and black tattoos on their -faces and other parts of their bodies. - -The men and women had very different daily tasks. Women took care of the -young children; planted, tended and harvested the crops; cooked the -meals; and made the pottery, baskets, mats and clothing. Men’s work -consisted of housebuilding, canoe-making, and clearing land for gardens, -along with defense, hunting, woodcutting, and making the tools for these -chores. The men also had primary responsibilities for ritual and -political activities. - -The European explorers traded with the men. Europeans provided guns, -ammunition, metal kettles, iron tools, glass beads, and metal ornaments. -These were sometimes given as gifts to hosts, guides, or to the chief -and they were also exchanged for pearls or baskets, and for necessities -such as meat, oil, salt, skins and horses. - - - - - ARCHAEOLOGY AND LOUISIANA’S PAST - - -Upon the arrival of Europeans in Louisiana and their written -descriptions of the Indians, the prehistoric period came to an end. -However, our understanding of this prehistory is still incomplete. -Hundreds of major questions remain, including very basic ones: When did -the first Indians reach Louisiana? What sparked the development of the -Poverty Point Culture? Where and how were the Mexican plants of corn, -beans and squash introduced to Louisiana? Which prehistoric groups were -the ancestors of each of Louisiana’s historic Indian tribes? The answers -to these and many other questions remain buried in archaeological sites -throughout the state. If enough sites can be studied before they are -destroyed, there is hope that the story of the state’s prehistory can be -better explained. - -The importance of archaeology in understanding Louisiana’s past does not -stop with the end of the prehistoric era. Historic archaeologists also -study Indian sites that date after the contact with Europeans. In this -way, archaeologists can document the many dramatic changes in Indian -culture during historic times. Archaeologists also excavate sites -associated with African-American and European-American life in -Louisiana. These archaeological investigations supplement, and often -correct, the written documents that describe the state’s history. - -With the cooperation and participation of Louisiana’s citizens, the -archaeological study of our state will continue. Through the protection -of sites and the funding of scientific excavations, we can discover more -about the past. Then the story of Louisiana’s prehistory and early -historic development can be retold, more accurately and more completely. - - - - - OTHER BOOKS AND ARTICLES - - - Louisiana Geography: - Kniffen, Fred B. - 1968 _Louisiana, its land and people._ Louisiana State University - Press, Baton Rouge. - - Louisiana Prehistory: - Haag, William G. - 1971 Louisiana in North American prehistory. _Museum of - Geoscience, Louisiana State University, Mélanges_ 1. - - Neuman, Robert W. - 1984 _An introduction to Louisiana archaeology._ Louisiana State - University Press, Baton Rouge. - - Poverty Point: - Webb, Clarence H. - 1982 The Poverty Point Culture (second edition). _School of - Geoscience, Louisiana State University, Geoscience and Man_ - 17. - - Tchefuncte: - Ford, James A. and George I. Quimby, Jr. - 1945 The Tchefuncte Culture, an early occupation of the Lower - Mississippi Valley. _Memoirs of the Society for American - Archaeology_ 2. - - Marksville: - Toth, Alan - 1974 Archaeology and ceramics at the Marksville Site. _Museum of - Anthropology, University of Michigan, Anthropological Papers_ - 56. - - Troyville-Coles Creek: - Ford, James A. - 1951 Greenhouse: a Troyville-Coles Creek Period site in Avoyelles - Parish, Louisiana. _Anthropological Papers of the American - Museum of Natural History_ 44: Part 1. - - Caddo: - Webb, Clarence H. and Hiram F. Gregory - 1978 The Caddo Indians of Louisiana. _Louisiana Anthropological - Survey and Antiquities Commission Anthropological Study_ 2. - - Plaquemine: - Quimby, George I., Jr. - 1951 The Medora Site, West Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana. - _Anthropological Series, Field Museum of Natural History_ 24: - 81-135. - - Mississippian: - Brown, Ian W. - 1981 The role of salt in eastern North American prehistory. - _Louisiana Archaeological Survey and Antiquities Commission - Anthropological Study_ 3. - - Early Descriptions of Louisiana Indians: - Swanton, John R. - 1911 Indian tribes of the Lower Mississippi Valley and adjacent - coast of the Gulf of Mexico. _Bureau of American Ethnology, - Bulletin_ 43, Smithsonian Institution. - - Other References: - Neuman, Robert W. and Lanier A. Simmons - 1969 A bibliography relative to Indians of the State of Louisiana, - _Department of Conservation, Louisiana Geological Survey, - Anthropological Study_ 4. - - - - - Anthropological Study Series - - - No. 1 On the Tunica Trail - by Jeffrey P. Brain - - No. 2 The Caddo Indians of Louisiana, second edition - by Clarence H. Webb & Hiram F. Gregory - - No. 3 The Role of Salt in Eastern North American Prehistory - by Ian Brown - - No. 4 El Nuevo Constante - by Charles E. Pearson, et al. - - No. 5 Preserving Louisiana’s Legacy - by Nancy W. Hawkins - - No. 6 Louisiana Prehistory - by Robert W. Neuman & Nancy W. Hawkins - - No. 7 Poverty Point - by Jon L. Gibson - - No. 8 Bailey’s Dam - by Steven D. Smith and George J. Castille III - - These publications can be obtained by writing: - - Division of Archaeology - P. O. Box 44247 - Baton Rouge, LA 70804 - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is a government public document, and can be freely copied and - distributed. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Louisiana Prehistory, by -Robert W. Neuman and Nancy W. Hawkins Neuman - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 62189 *** diff --git a/old/62189-h/62189-h.htm b/old/62189-h/62189-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index aae4b31..0000000 --- a/old/62189-h/62189-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1502 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> -<head> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> -<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" /> -<title>Louisiana Prehistory, by Robert W. Neuman and Nancy W. Hawkins—a Project Gutenberg eBook</title> -<meta name="author" content="Robert W. Neuman and Nancy W. 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text-indent:0em; } -.fnblock div.fncont { margin-left:1.5em; text-indent:0em; margin-top:1em; text-align:justify; } -.fnblock dl { margin-top:0; margin-left:4em; text-indent:-2em; } -.fnblock dt { text-align:justify; } -dl.catalog dd { font-style:italic; } -dl.catalog dt { margin-top:1em; } -.author { text-align:right; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em; display:block; } - -dl.biblio dt { margin-top:.6em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt div { display:block; float:left; margin-left:-6em; width:6em; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt.center { margin-left:0em; text-align:center; text-indent:0; } -dl.biblio dd { margin-top:.3em; margin-left:3em; text-align:justify; font-size:90%; } -p.biblio { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -.clear { clear:both; } -p.book { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -p.review { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; } -p.pcap { margin-left:0em; text-indent:0; text-align:center; margin-top:0; } -p.pcapc { margin-left:4.7em; text-indent:0em; text-align:justify; } -span.attr { font-size:80%; font-family:sans-serif; } -span.pn { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; } -</style> -</head> -<body> -<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 62189 ***</div> - -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Louisiana Prehistory" width="500" height="749" /> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<p class="center">Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism -<br />Louisiana Archaeological Survey and Antiquities Commission -<br />Anthropological Study No. 6</p> -<h1>LOUISIANA PREHISTORY</h1> -<div class="img" id="fig1"> -<img src="images/p00.jpg" alt="" width="476" height="328" /> -<p class="pcap">A hunter using an atlatl.</p> -</div> -<p class="center">Baton Rouge, Louisiana</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_i">i</div> -<h2><span class="small">STATE OF LOUISIANA</span></h2> -<p class="center">Edwin W. Edwards -<br /><i>Governor</i></p> -<p class="center"><b>DEPARTMENT OF CULTURE, RECREATION AND TOURISM</b></p> -<p class="center">Noelle LeBlanc -<br /><i>Secretary</i></p> -<p class="center"><b>ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY AND ANTIQUITIES COMMISSION</b></p> -<p class="center">Ex-Officio Members</p> -<p class="center">Dr. Kathleen Byrd <span class="hst"><i>State Archaeologist</i></span> -<br />Mr. Robert B. DeBlieux <span class="hst"><i>Assistant Secretary</i>, Office of Cultural Development</span> -<br />Mr. B. Jim Porter <span class="hst"><i>Secretary</i>, Department of Natural Resources</span> -<br />Ms. V. Elaine Boyle <span class="hst"><i>Secretary</i>, Department of Urban and Community Affairs</span></p> -<p class="center"><i>Appointed Members</i></p> -<p class="center">Dr. Charles E. Orser, Jr. -<br />Mr. Brian J. Duhe -<br />Mr. Marc Dupuy, Jr. -<br />Dr. Lorraine Heartfield -<br />Dr. J. Richard Shenkel -<br />Mrs. Lanier Simmons -<br />Dr. Clarence H. Webb</p> -<table class="center" summary=""> -<tr><td class="l">First Printing </td><td class="r">June 1982</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Second Printing, with revision </td><td class="r">April 1987</td></tr> -</table> -<blockquote> -<p>This public document was published at a total cost of $7,520.00. 8,800 copies -of this public document were published in this second printing at a cost -of $3,419.25. The total cost of all printings of this document including reprints -is $7,520.00. This document was published for the Division of Archaeology -by Bourque Printing, Inc., P.O. Box 45070, Baton Rouge, LA -70895-4070 to make available to the citizens of Louisiana information -about prehistoric and historic archaeology under authorization of La. R.S. -41:1601-1613. This material was printed in accordance with standards for -printing by state agencies established pursuant to R.S. 43:31. Printing of -this material was purchased in accordance with the provisions of Title 43 of -the Louisiana Revised Statutes. This publication has been funded in part -by the Department of the Interior, National Park Service Historic Preservation -Fund.</p> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_ii">ii</div> -<h1 title="">LOUISIANA PREHISTORY</h1> -<div class="img" id="fig2"> -<img src="images/p01.jpg" alt="" width="350" height="334" /> -<p class="pcap">Replica of a Mississippian effigy pipe.</p> -</div> -<p class="center"><b>Robert W. Neuman</b> -<br />Museum of Geoscience, Louisiana State University</p> -<p class="center"><b>Nancy W. Hawkins</b> -<br />Division of Archaeology</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_iv">iv</div> -<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">Editor’s Note</span></h2> -<p>Louisiana’s cultural heritage dates back to approximately 10,000 B.C. -when man first entered this region. Since that time, many other Indian -groups have settled here. Each of these groups has left evidence of its -presence in the archaeological record. The Anthropological Study series -published by the Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism provides -a readable account of various activities of these cultural groups.</p> -<p>Robert W. Neuman, Curator of Anthropology at the Museum of -Geoscience, Louisiana State University, and Nancy W. Hawkins, outreach -coordinator for the State Division of Archaeology, coauthored this -volume. It is the result of the realization that relatively few Louisiana -residents are aware of the state’s rich archaeological heritage. Furthermore, -there is little introductory information available to them about Louisiana’s -past. <i>Louisiana Prehistory</i> was written to meet this need. It is a -short summary of the state’s prehistory and is meant to be a person’s first -exposure to the state’s prehistoric archaeology. For this reason theoretical -and technical discussions are kept at a minimum.</p> -<p><b>Louisiana Prehistory</b> tells the story of man’s occupation of the state -during its first 11,600 years. It begins with the big game hunters of 10,000 -B.C. and describes the changing life styles brought about by the end of the -Ice Age. It relates the influences of various people moving into and out of -Louisiana and their effects on Louisiana cultures. Finally it recounts the -development of mound building which culminated in the large ceremonial -centers described by the early European explorers.</p> -<p>I trust that the reader will enjoy this introduction to Louisiana’s -prehistoric Indian heritage.</p> -<p><span class="lr">Kathleen Byrd</span> -<span class="lr"><i>State Archaeologist</i></span></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_v">v</div> -<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS</span></h2> -<p>Although many individuals have contributed to the development of -this volume, special appreciation goes to Dr. Clarence H. Webb of -Shreveport for allowing us the use of artifacts from his private collection. -Mr. George A. Foster, Chairman of the Board of Guaranty Corporation, -assisted us greatly by providing photographs of drawings from the Corporation’s -lobby Indian displays for use in this publication. We also thank Dr. -Judith A. Schiebout, Director of the Museum of Geoscience, Louisiana -State University, who provided continuous cooperation in the development -of this project, and Mr. Daniel S. Peace, photographer of the -Museum of Geoscience, for his efforts in photographing the artifacts used -in this booklet.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_vi">vi</div> -<div class="img" id="fig3"> -<img src="images/p02.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="696" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">INDIANS OF PREHISTORIC LOUISIANA</span></p> -</div> -<dl class="undent"><dt><span class="ss">NEO-INDIAN</span></dt> -<dd>1,500</dd> -<dd>1,000 <span class="hst"><span class="ssn">CADDO/PLAQUEMINE-MISSISSIPPIAN</span></span></dd> -<dd>500 <span class="hst"><span class="ssn">TROYVILLE-COLES CREEK</span></span></dd> -<dd>A.D. <span class="hst"><span class="ssn">MARKSVILLE</span></span></dd> -<dd>B.C.</dd> -<dd>500 <span class="hst"><span class="ssn">TCHEFUNCTE</span></span></dd> -<dd>1,000 <span class="hst"><span class="ssn">POVERTY POINT</span></span></dd> -<dd>1,500</dd> -<dd>2,000</dd> -<dt><span class="ss">MESO-INDIAN</span></dt> -<dd>2,500</dd> -<dd>3,000</dd> -<dd>3,500</dd> -<dd>4,000</dd> -<dd>4,500</dd> -<dd>5,000</dd> -<dt><span class="ss">PALEO-INDIAN</span></dt> -<dd>5,500</dd> -<dd>6,000</dd> -<dd>6,500</dd> -<dd>7,000</dd> -<dd>7,500</dd> -<dd>8,000</dd> -<dd>8,500</dd> -<dd>9,000</dd> -<dd>9,500</dd> -<dd>10,000</dd> -<dd>10,500</dd> -<dt><span class="ss">?</span></dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div> -<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">INTRODUCTION</span></h2> -<p>Tens of thousands of years ago, when the world was in the midst of -the Ice Age, the first humans made their way into North America. At that -time, thick sheets of ice covering the polar regions had tied up so much of -the earth’s water that the oceans were approximately 400 feet lower than -they are today. All around the world sections of land that are now underwater -were then above sea level. An extensive land bridge connected -Siberia to Alaska across what is now the Bering Strait and people from -Asia used this route for their passage into North America.</p> -<p>The land bridge between the two continents was clear of ice for -thousands of years, and vegetation from both sides intermixed. Grazing -animals, and the people who hunted them, gradually wandered from Asia -into North America, probably without ever realizing they were moving -into a new region. Although the earliest immigrants may have reached -North America over 40,000 years ago, most of the present evidence dates -from between 23,000 and 8,000 years ago.</p> -<p>Much of Canada was covered with ice during this time, but periodically, -ice-free corridors of land connected Alaska with the Great Plains of -the United States. Over hundreds of generations nomadic people spread -throughout southern North America, Central America, and South -America. At least by 12,000 years ago, the first Indians lived in the southeastern -United States. The prehistoric era in Louisiana begins with these -first inhabitants and concludes with the arrival of the Europeans. The -chart at the left outlines the long, rich prehistory of Louisiana.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div> -<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">PALEO-INDIAN</span></h2> -<p>Twelve thousand years ago, the average temperature in the southeastern -United States was five to 10 degrees cooler than it is now, and the -climate was drier. The landscape was covered with oak and pine forests -mixed with open grasslands. Some familiar animals such as rabbits and -deer lived in the area, but many other animals that have become extinct in -North America, were also common then. Included were the camel, giant -armadillo, short-faced bear, long-horned bison, mastodon, tapir, ground -sloth, saber-toothed tiger, mammoth, dire wolf, and horse (the horse was -later reintroduced by the Spanish).</p> -<p>The earliest Indians in Louisiana, called -Paleo-Indians, hunted these animals with spears -tipped with stone points. The points were two to six -inches long, and lanceolate, with bases that were -either straight or rounded inward. The Paleo-Indians -in Louisiana made their points from carefully -selected varieties of stones that appear to have -come from neighboring regions in Texas and Arkansas.</p> -<p>The first step in making a point was to strike a -selected stone from a strategic angle with another -stone, detaching a relatively large, flat, oval piece -called a flake. The second step was to shape the -large flake by chipping off smaller flakes with a -rock, bone fragment, or antler tip. The final steps -were to remove the delicate finishing flakes by -firmly pressing against the edge of the point with an -antler or bone tool, and then to grind the base of the -point smooth with a stone. The point then was fastened -directly to a wooden shaft with hide, fiber or -an adhesive substance, or it was attached to a bone -section that was connected to the spear shaft.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig4"> -<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="599" /> -<p class="pcap">(actual size)</p> -</div> -<p>To pierce the skin of one of the large animals, such as a mastodon or -mammoth, the hunters had to be close to the powerful beast. They hurled -or jabbed their spears at the animal, and tried to confuse and immobilize -their prey. Perhaps several hunters surrounded an isolated animal waving -their arms and distracting it while one or two others speared it. If the -<span class="pb" id="Page_3">3</span> -animal was wounded, the hunters would have tracked it until it became -very weak or went to water to drink. Even a mastodon, wounded and -exhausted, or mired in the mud of a shallow lake, would have been relatively -easy game for a small group of experienced hunters.</p> -<p>Men and older boys almost certainly were the hunters for the Paleo-Indian -groups. Women and children collected fruits, seeds, roots, and -other plant foods to supplement their diet.</p> -<p>Paleo-Indians lived in small nomadic groups that remained in one area -only as long as the animals and plant foods were plentiful. The evidence -indicates that they camped near streams in temporary shelters made of -branches, grass and hides. At other times, they preferred high ground -where they could see the countryside to watch for animals. The camp may -have had a central area for group activities surrounded by living areas -where families cooked and slept. These people probably used animal skins -for clothing and as blankets, and may have had dogs as pets. They did not -raise other animals or grow crops. They used no metal and made no -pottery.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p03a.jpg" alt="Mastodon hunt" width="500" height="364" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div> -<p>Louisiana Paleo-Indian sites (areas where remains are found) are not -common, because the small groups of nomadic Indians left very few artifacts -at any location. High rainfall and humidity then led to decay and -erosion of many ancient sites while changing geography led to the disappearance -of others. The sea level has risen, so any Paleo-Indian coastal -remains are now on the ocean floor. Sites once along the Mississippi River -have been washed away or deeply buried as the river shifted its course -and deposited silt. Most Paleo-Indian spear points found in Louisiana have -been collected from ridges, hills and salt domes. Generally, these areas -have not been affected by stream changes and sea level fluctuations that -have occurred since the Ice Age.</p> -<p>As the Ice Age drew to a close, Louisiana began to change. The -climate gradually became warmer and wetter and many large Ice Age -animals became extinct. The way of life of the Paleo-Indians began to -change, too. They started hunting smaller game and collecting and eating -more plant foods.</p> -<p>The late Paleo-Indians fashioned a variety of stone tools that could be -used for butchering game, preparing hides, and working bone and wood. -They also manufactured many kinds of stone points that were generally -smaller than the earlier points. These late Paleo-Indian tools were made -from Louisiana stone, a change from the earlier time.</p> -<p>Sites of the late Paleo-Indian period are more numerous than early -Paleo-Indian sites. This suggests that the population increased and that -these people camped longer in one place. Their sites are characterized by -more artifacts, and more varieties of artifacts, than earlier Paleo-Indian -sites.</p> -<div class="box"> -<div class="img" id="fig5"> -<img src="images/p04.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="277" /> -<p class="pcap">John Pearce Site</p> -</div> -<p>Both early and late Paleo-Indian -Period materials have been found at the -John Pearce Site in Caddo Parish, Louisiana. -At the lowest (oldest) level, two early -Paleo-Indian stone points were uncovered. -A wide variety of later materials were excavated -from higher levels. The site was -used by small groups of people who camped -there temporarily. The groups used the site -as a base camp for hunting, butchering, and -hideworking activities.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p04a.jpg" alt="Stone tools" width="600" height="383" /> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Early Paleo-Indian:</dt> -<dd>a-c, Stone Points</dd> -<dd>(¾ actual size)</dd></dl> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p04b.jpg" alt="Stone tools" width="600" height="417" /> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Late Paleo-Indian:</dt> -<dd>d-e, Stone Scrapers</dd> -<dd>f-h, Stone Points</dd> -<dd>(¾ actual size)</dd></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_6">6</div> -<h2 id="c5"><span class="small">MESO-INDIAN</span></h2> -<p>The gradual transition from the late Paleo-Indian to the early Meso-Indian -Period had occurred by 5000 B.C. Meso-Indians, also called Archaic -Indians, lived in small nomadic groups. Unlike their predecessors, -however, they remained longer in each camp location and exploited smaller -geographical areas. Whereas a Paleo-Indian might roam from Texas to -Mississippi in his lifetime, returning rarely to the same place, a Meso-Indian -might spend his whole life in a six-parish area, returning each -season to favored campsites.</p> -<p>The seasonal movements of the Meso-Indians were determined by the -best times to hunt and gather certain foods. Clams, fish and deer were -available year-round, so Meso-Indians often stayed near streams, where -these were plentiful. This strategy was especially critical in the winter -months when plant foods were least available. The Indians camped where -they could collect tender, young plants in the spring; fruits in the summer; -and pecans and walnuts in the fall. Meso-Indians had a varied diet, eating -seeds, roots, nuts, fruits, fish, clams, reptiles, game birds and mammals.</p> -<p>As Meso-Indian family groups traveled, they met other hunting -groups, and sometimes camped together. These were important times for -social and ceremonial activities. They probably smoked pipes together and -shared information about good hunting, fishing, and plant collecting areas. -They exchanged gifts of tools, food, stone, and shell. Sometimes these -large groups camped together for a season or more, near rivers or near the -coast where dependable food resources could support many families.</p> -<div class="box"> -<div class="img" id="fig6"> -<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="282" /> -<p class="pcap">Banana Bayou Site</p> -</div> -<p>The Banana Bayou Site, located on the -Avery Island salt dome in Iberia Parish, -consists of a low, man-made earthen -mound, 80 feet in diameter. Charcoal from -the mound gives the radiocarbon date of -2490 ± 260 years B.C. Nut shells and fish, -deer and turtle bones have been found in -the mound as well as two stone points that -are characteristic of the Meso-Indian -Period. These findings lead archaeologists -to conclude that the site is one of the earliest -mounds in the United States.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_7">7</div> -<p>Dogs may have been kept as pets, and may have helped in hunting. -Meso-Indians developed many new hunting and fishing techniques. They -used fishhooks, traps, and nets for catching fish and other small animals, -and they used a new weapon called the atlatl (pronounced at′lat′l) to help -kill their most important prey, deer.</p> -<p>An atlatl was made from a flattish, two-foot long piece of wood and -was used as a spear-thrower. It had a hook, made of bone or antler, -attached on one end and a hand grip carved on the other end. A stone, -clay, or shell weight was sometimes attached toward the hooked end to -increase the force of the throw, or perhaps only for decoration. A spear -was rested on the atlatl with the end of the spear shaft inserted into the -atlatl hook. The hunter held the atlatl grip and the middle of the spear in -the same hand, then he hurled the spear from the atlatl (see cover illustration). -The atlatl acted as an extension of his arm, giving extra power and -accuracy to the throw.</p> -<p>The Meso-Indian spears used with the atlatl differed from those used -by Paleo-Indians. They were shorter, and the stone points were different. -Meso-Indian spear points were chipped from local stone, and they were -slightly larger and not as artistically made as late Paleo-Indian points. -Beyond these general trends, however, many Meso-Indian points found in -Louisiana have little in common with each other. The sides of some are -curved, others are straight, and some are serrated. Some are wider at the -base, some are narrower, and others have notches in the base. The variations -in shape seem almost unlimited.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig7"> -<img src="images/p05a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="278" /> -<p class="pcap">(¾ actual size)</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_8">8</div> -<p>In contrast to the changes in styles of points, Meso-Indians continued -making their stone butchering and hideworking tools in much the same -way as the Paleo-Indians. Meso-Indians also fabricated non-stone tools -and ornaments. They made bone needles, awls, fishhooks, beads, and -hairpins; and antler atlatl hooks, handles, and spear points. Less common -objects were tortoise shell rattles and shell ornaments.</p> -<p>Meso-Indians developed new tools as they increased their knowledge -of plant resources. They made baskets to carry and store seeds, roots, -fruits and nuts. They cracked nuts with specially shaped stones, and -ground nuts and seeds into flour with grinding stones.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig8"> -<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="465" /> -<p class="pcap">Meso-Indian: Grinding Stones -(½ actual size)</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div> -<p>The Meso-Indians also made axes and -chopping tools for cutting down trees and -hollowing out tree trunks. Like the atlatl -weights, grinding stones, pipes, and stone -ornaments, some of these axes were made -using a new technique. Instead of being -flaked, these stone tools were roughly -pecked into desired shapes with a hard -hammerstone, then ground smooth with -sandstone or sand and water. When completed, -some of these ground stone tools -had a highly polished surface.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig9"> -<img src="images/p06a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="195" /> -<p class="pcap">(½ actual size)</p> -</div> -<p>Although the methods of hunting, gathering plants, and making tools -remained relatively unchanged throughout the Meso-Indian Period, some -things were changing. Gradually the population expanded. Groups began -to move less frequently, and to travel over smaller areas. They learned -more about their environment as they began living, from one season to -another, in the same general area. Apparently some Louisiana Meso-Indians -remained in one place long enough to build earthen mounds. If the -dates for these mounds are correct, then they are the earliest known -mounds in the United States.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div> -<h2 id="c6"><span class="small">NEO-INDIAN</span></h2> -<p>During the Neo-Indian Period the population expanded and some -groups became sedentary, staying in one place for several years or more. -Most Meso-Indian tools continued to be used by Neo-Indians, but added to -these were stone and pottery vessels, baked clay balls, and many decorative -or ceremonial objects. Also, for the first time, shell and earthen -mounds were regularly built.</p> -<p>The Neo-Indian Period lasted from 2000 B.C. to A.D. 1600 and included -the following cultures: Poverty Point, Tchefuncte, Marksville, -Troyville-Coles Creek, Caddo and Plaquemine-Mississippian. These -groups differed from one another in when and where they lived, as well as -in the objects and earthworks they made.</p> -<h3 id="c7">Poverty Point</h3> -<p>The Poverty Point Culture flourished from approximately 2000 B.C. -to 700 B.C. The culture is named for the famous Poverty Point Site where -the largest earthworks of the period were built. During this time, Poverty -Point people lived in Louisiana, Mississippi and Arkansas, and they -usually settled near major rivers, junctions of lakes and rivers, or in -coastal marshes. These locations supported a wide variety of plants and -animals that could be used for food.</p> -<div class="box"> -<div class="img" id="fig10"> -<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="281" /> -<p class="pcap">Poverty Point Site</p> -</div> -<p>The Poverty Point Site is near Epps, -Louisiana, in the northeastern corner of the -state. The site is now a State Commemorative -Area that can be visited by the public. -It covers more than a square mile, and -when the ridges and mounds were built -they were the largest earthworks in the -Western Hemisphere. Although the exact -function of the ridges is as yet unknown, it -is speculated that the aisles may have been -used in astronomical observations because -two of them line up with the summer and -winter solstice sunsets.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_11">11</div> -<p>Like Meso-Indians, some Poverty Point Indians lived in small dispersed -groups, but others established regional centers where large populations -lived throughout the year. Oval or horseshoe-shaped structures of -earth or shell were usually built at these centers. The reason for the -construction is unknown, but it is likely that the Poverty Point leaders -lived at such sites and that the sites functioned as ceremonial, political and -trading centers.</p> -<p>The Poverty Point Site in northeastern Louisiana was the largest -regional center. It was built between the Mississippi and the Arkansas -rivers. Using these rivers, as well as land routes, Poverty Point Indians -traded with other Indians as far away as Illinois, Virginia and Florida.</p> -<p>At the Poverty Point Site, the Indians built earthen ridges that form -six semicircles, one inside the other. The ridges are interrupted by four -aisles that radiate out from the inner area. The outer ridge of these -earthworks measures nearly three-quarters of a mile across. Immediately -to the west is an earthen mound 70 feet high and just north of it is another -mound, 21 feet high.</p> -<p>The ridges and mounds were built by hand. Workers loosened dirt -with shells or stones used like hoes, then filled baskets and animal hides -with soil and carried them to the construction area. It took approximately -30 million 50-pound loads to build the earthen ridges and the two large -mounds at Poverty Point. The construction must have taken many generations -to complete.</p> -<p>Poverty Point Indians probably had a ruling class, perhaps with a -chief, to direct earthwork construction and long-distance trade. The leadership -also may have helped organize food collecting and hunting activities.</p> -<p>People living at the regional center relied on hunting, fishing, and -plant collecting to supply their food, just as Meso-Indians had. They may -also have sown seeds of favorite wild plants in cleared garden areas. There -are indications that the Poverty Point Indians grew pigweed, marsh elder, -knotweed, lamb’s quarters and sunflowers using this cultivation technique. -This gardening, though helpful, would not have been essential to -feed the people in the rich natural environments where they lived.</p> -<p>Poverty Point Indians continued to use the tools that Meso-Indians -had used for hunting, collecting, and food preparation. They were likely, -<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span> -however, to get some of the stone for these tools through long-distance -trade. The Neo-Indians also made new tools that were added to the -Meso-Indian ones.</p> -<p>They made oval-shaped stone plummets that were used as weights on -bolas or nets. A bola could be flung so that it wrapped around the feet of -wild game. Weighted nets could have trapped both fish and small game. -Stone for the plummets used by Louisiana Indians was magnetite and -hematite from Missouri and northern Arkansas.</p> -<p>The Poverty Point Indians cooked their food in a new way. They -made clay cooking balls that probably were used like charcoal briquettes -for roasting and baking. They rolled clay in their hands, then squeezed or -shaped it into one of many forms. These were dried and heated in a fire -until hot, then up to 200 were placed in a roasting pit. The different shapes -may simply indicate the maker’s design preference or may have controlled -temperature and cooking time.</p> -<p>Another change in food preparation was the introduction of stone, and -later, pottery vessels. The stone cooking or storage bowls were made from -steatite (soapstone), or less commonly from sandstone. Later in the -period, the first Louisiana pottery vessels were made, and these probably -were modeled after the earlier stone bowls.</p> -<p>In addition to these practical goods, Indians of this period made many -exotic ornamental objects including stone and clay figurines, beads, and -pendants. The figurines were about 2.5 inches tall and represented seated -females, but usually the heads were removed. This may indicate that the -clay figurines were used in some kind of ceremony. The beads were made -from copper and clay, as well as gems and other stones. Pendants, also -made from clay and stone, were in the shape of birds, insects, miniature -tools, and geometrical shapes.</p> -<p>The Indians may have cut and drilled stones to make pendants and -beads with small stone tools usually less than an inch in length. These -tools, called microtools, were also used for cutting, scraping, sawing and -engraving bone, antler, and wood.</p> -<p>Many distinctive traits of the Poverty Point Culture were shared by -people living in Mexico and Central America at that time and even earlier. -These traits included earthwork construction, planned villages, clay -figurines, stone beads and pendants, and microtools. These southern Indians -almost certainly influenced the development of certain aspects of -Poverty Point culture, either by direct contact or by descriptions shared -by travelers.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_13">13</div> -<div class="img" id="fig11"> -<img src="images/p08.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="752" /> -<p class="pcap">Poverty Point: a, Plummet; b, Atlatl Weight; c-f, Clay Cooking Balls; g, Clay Female -Figurine; h, Stone Point; i, Gorget; j-n, Stone Beads and Pendants; o, Microtools (½ -actual size)</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div> -<p>The Poverty Point Culture that flourished for over 1,000 years had -virtually disappeared by 500 B.C. There is no evidence of warfare or -conflict with another group, so perhaps internal political or religious -changes caused the decline. In any event, people gradually abandoned the -regional centers and returned to living in small scattered settlements. -Never again in Louisiana did the Indian people build such massive earthworks -or trade over such an extensive area.</p> -<h3 id="c8">Tchefuncte</h3> -<p>The simplified lifestyle that developed at the end of the Poverty Point -Period continued throughout the next cultural period. During the time of -the Tchefuncte (pronounced Che-funk′tuh) Culture, from 500 B.C. until -A.D. 200, people lived in small scattered settlements. Long distance trade -was much less important, yet people in Louisiana were in contact with -people in western Mississippi, coastal Alabama, eastern Texas, Arkansas, -and southeastern Missouri.</p> -<p>In Louisiana, most Tchefuncte people seem to have lived in coastal -areas and in lowlands near slow-moving streams. In these areas, they -camped on natural levees, terraces, salt domes, cheniers and ridges that -provided dry ground in this wet environment. Here they built their -houses, probably temporary circular shelters having a frame of light poles -covered with thatch or grass mixed with mud.</p> -<div class="box"> -<div class="img" id="fig12"> -<img src="images/p09.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="282" /> -<p class="pcap">Tchefuncte Site</p> -</div> -<p>The Tchefuncte Site, on the north -shore of Lake Pontchartrain, was so named -because it was situated inside Tchefuncte -State Park (renamed Fountainebleau State -Park). The site had two shell middens, one -that measured 100 feet by 250 feet and another -100 feet by 150 feet. Both were excavated, -and archaeologists found 50,000 -pieces of pottery, as well as artifacts made -from bone, shell and stone. Forty-three -human burials were recovered, none of -which had objects buried with them.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p09a.jpg" alt="Building a circular shelter" width="500" height="700" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div> -<p>They continued to depend on wild game and collected plant foods. In -the coastal areas, they ate tens of thousands of brackish water clams and -oysters, leaving behind piles of shells called shell middens. Because of the -number of shells, it once was thought that clams provided the major -protein source for Tchefuncte people. However, clam meat is actually low -in protein and also in other nutrients and calories. Clams were probably -eaten because they were always available, but they were not very important -in nourishing the people. Surprisingly, Tchefuncte people apparently -never ate crabs or crawfish, which also were plentiful.</p> -<p>Tchefuncte Indians obtained most of their protein from deer, raccoons, -alligators, and fish, but many other animals, especially small animals -and migratory birds were also eaten. The Indians used atlatls to kill -large game like deer and bear. For smaller mammals and birds, they -preferred traps, nets and bolas. They probably had several techniques for -fishing including netting, spearing, and fishing with hook and line. Like -the Meso-Indians before them, they gathered plant foods, including -grapes, plums, persimmons, acorns, and hickory nuts. They also grew -squash and gourds in small gardens.</p> -<p>Tchefuncte people were the first Indians in Louisiana to make large -amounts of pottery. They rolled coils of clay into shape and then smoothed -them to form a container. Many shapes of pots were made, but characteristically -they had “footed” bases. The Indians often decorated the vessels -by pressing fingernails, twigs or tools into the surface or by rocking a -small tool across the wet clay. After decorating the pots, they fired them -by slow baking.</p> -<p>Later Indians almost always kneaded the clay thoroughly and mixed -it with a small amount of another substance, called temper. These two -steps strengthened the clay and helped prevent it from shrinking unevenly -and cracking. Tchefuncte potters often omitted these steps, -perhaps because they were unaware of their importance, or perhaps because -clay was available and they could easily make another vessel if one -cracked.</p> -<p>The introduction of pottery was an important improvement in food -storage. When these pots were kept covered, they provided a relatively -dry and animal-proof container that was portable. This made it easier to -store food in times of plenty for use in leaner times. The Tchefuncte pots -also meant that stewing and other new cooking techniques could be experimented -with and developed for the first time.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_17">17</div> -<div class="img" id="fig13"> -<img src="images/p10.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="593" /> -<p class="pcap">Tchefuncte: a-d, Vessel Rim Sherds; e-f, Vessel Footed Bases; g, Clay Pipe; h, Stone -Point; i, Stone Axe; j, Bone Fishhook; k, Antler Point (½ actual size)</p> -</div> -<p>Most of the other utensils and tools that Tchefuncte Indians used -were very similar to those that Poverty Point Indians made. These included -smoking pipes; stone, bone, and antler spear points; ground stone -atlatl weights; mortars; bone fishhooks; clay cooking balls; and other -butchering, hideworking, and woodworking tools.</p> -<p>In contrast to Poverty Point Indians, the Tchefuncte Indians did not -specialize in making stone beads, pendants, or microtools, and they did not -usually import materials to make tools and ornaments. Although some -<span class="pb" id="Page_18">18</span> -innovations from the Poverty Point Culture were carried over, most -Tchefuncte tools and most Tchefuncte settlement patterns resemble those -of the Meso-Indians.</p> -<p>The majority of the information about this era comes from coastal -regions of the state. Archaeologists are not sure how Indians in the rest of -Louisiana were living at this same time, but it is likely that their culture -somewhat resembled that of the Tchefuncte Indians.</p> -<h3 id="c9">Marksville</h3> -<p>Sometime after 200 B.C., Indians of the highly influential Hopewell -Culture, centered in Ohio and Illinois, sent representatives throughout -the eastern United States. By at least the first century A.D., groups of -Louisiana Indians had met these travelers and had learned about their -culture. Hopewell people had powerful leaders who supervised a cult centered -around lavish burial rituals. Leaders organized construction of large -mounds in which certain high-status people were buried along with exquisitely -crafted objects made of copper, stone, bone, shell, pottery, and rare -minerals.</p> -<p>The Hopewell representatives may have been sent south in search of -a valued raw material or may have been sent as “evangelists” whose -mission it was to explain the virtues of Hopewell ceremonial life. Intentionally -or not, they introduced some Louisiana Indians to Hopewell practices. -The Louisiana manifestation of Hopewell life is called the Marksville -Culture.</p> -<div class="box"> -<div class="img" id="fig14"> -<img src="images/p11.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="281" /> -<p class="pcap">Marksville Site</p> -</div> -<p>The Marksville Site, in Avoyelles Parish, -was the first scientifically excavated -site of the Marksville Culture. Burial -mounds at the site are encompassed by a -horseshoe-shaped earthen embankment -almost 3,000 feet long. The site is now a -State Commemorative Area open to the -public. A museum at the park houses an -exhibit describing the site and the people -who lived there.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div> -<p>Indians of the Marksville Culture began living in larger, more permanent -settlements, building burial mounds, and making Hopewell-styled -pottery, pipes, and ornaments. They most likely had leaders who directed -craftsmen, organized community life, and officiated at burial ceremonies.</p> -<p>Burial rituals must have been a very important part of the Marksville -Culture. Large mounds were constructed in several stages over many -years. The first stage usually was a flat low platform approximately three -feet high and 40 feet in diameter. Burial ceremonies were held months or -perhaps years apart and those who had died between ceremonies were -buried together. Some remains had been temporarily interred in other -areas, so these were reburied along with primary burials, and even cremations.</p> -<p>A pit was dug into the mound surface, and sometimes lined with logs -and matting. Human remains were placed in the pit with pottery, pipes, -stone points, shells, asphaltum, quartz crystals, and other valuable objects. -The bodies might be ornamented with jewelry such as copper beads, -earspools, bracelets, and necklaces of shell, pearls, or stone. Occasionally, -a dog was placed in the grave. The pit was filled with dirt. Later, other -pits might be dug for another occasion or burials might be made by placing -remains on the mound surface and covering them with a layer of earth. -Eventually, more construction increased the overall size of the mound and -shaped it into a dome.</p> -<p>The people buried in the mounds may have been high status individuals -who lived in villages near the mounds, while ordinary people lived in -scattered villages away from the ceremonial centers. Marksville Indians in -the coastal areas lived far from the elaborate burial mounds, but they still -practiced new styles of making pottery and other objects.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig15"> -<img src="images/p11a.jpg" alt="" width="357" height="465" /> -<p class="pcap">(¼ actual size)</p> -</div> -<p>The new Marksville pottery was made -from local clay, but it was quite similar in -shape and decoration to pottery of the -Hopewell Culture in Illinois and Ohio. A typical -Hopewell vessel would be a bowl three to -six inches tall. The rim would have cross-hatched -lines on the exterior at the top and the -design on the rest of the pot would be outlined -with bold lines cut in the clay. Quite often the -<span class="pb" id="Page_20">20</span> -designs were geometric shapes and stylized birds. The background would -be textured by rocking or stamping a small, toothed tool across the wet -clay. These decorated pots were made primarily for ceremonial uses.</p> -<p>The Marksville people also made other Hopewell-like objects including -copper and stone jewelry, platform pipes and figurines. The pipes had -relatively broad flat bases (platforms) approximately three inches long. At -one end was a hole for a wooden or reed pipe stem and in the center was a -bowl. Sometimes an animal figure was on the platform, with the bowl -formed in the animal’s back. Animal and human figurines were also made. -Most of these Hopewell-like objects were buried in mounds as religious or -burial offerings.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig16"> -<img src="images/p12.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="522" /> -<p class="pcap">Marksville: a-c, Vessel Rim Sherds; d, Clay Effigy Pipe; e, Copper Ear Spool; f, Asphaltum -Effigy; g, Ceremonial Stone Point (½ actual size)</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div> -<p>In contrast, Marksville people made most of their utilitarian objects -the same way as Tchefuncte people before them. Marksville people hunted -with atlatls, bolas and nets, and fished with hooks and line. They gathered -wild plants and shellfish, and probably grew a few domesticated plants in -small gardens. They stored food in pots and baskets, and cooked in pots.</p> -<p>It seems that despite the Hopewellian influence, much of the culture -was unaffected by contact with the northerners. Through time, Hopewellian -influence diminished. Louisiana Indians built fewer burial mounds, -developed their own distinctive pottery, and began a new way of hunting.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p12a.jpg" alt="Fishing" width="500" height="582" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div> -<h3 id="c10">Troyville-Coles Creek</h3> -<p>The Troyville-Coles Creek Period lasted from approximately A.D. -400 to A.D. 1100. By the beginning of this period, influence from the -Ohio-Illinois Hopewell people had ceased, and pottery styles, mound -building, and ceremonial life had gradually changed.</p> -<p>The Troyville-Coles Creek people continued building ceremonial centers -with mounds, but these mounds differed from earlier ones. They were -larger, shaped differently, and more numerous. They also served a new -purpose. Instead of being primarily for burials, these mounds were constructed -to support temples or civic buildings. Pyramidal mounds with flat -tops, and sometimes with stepped ramps leading up one side, came into -style. They were constructed over hundreds of years, and usually were -enlarged one or more times. Although the total height might reach only 20 -feet, the base might eventually be enlarged to more than 200 feet on each -side. At certain sites, three to nine mounds eventually were built, all -around an open, central plaza.</p> -<p>A temple and one or more other buildings were usually built on a -mound summit. These buildings were either circular or rectangular with -walls of wattle and daub. Wattle is a construction technique whereby -branches, twigs, cane, or vines are interlaced around upright posts that -have been sunk in the ground. These are then plastered with mud or clay -daub. The Troyville-Coles Creek people probably used grass thatch or -palmetto fronds for the roof.</p> -<div class="box"> -<div class="img" id="fig17"> -<img src="images/p13.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="277" /> -<p class="pcap">Greenhouse Site</p> -</div> -<p>The Greenhouse Site, in Avoyelles -Parish, is the most extensively excavated -site that is typical of the Troyville-Coles -Creek Period. Seven earthen mounds there -surround an open plaza that measures 200 -feet by 350 feet. No village or campsite remains -were found in the plaza or outside -the mound area. This leads archaeologists -to conclude that the mound group was used -for ceremonial activities only, and that -villagers lived elsewhere.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div> -<p>Some people were buried in the mounds, but in contrast to Marksville -burials, the bodies were not accompanied by a rich assortment of objects. -One or more bodies were buried in pits, or simply laid upon the mound -summit and covered with dirt. People were also buried in village areas -away from the mounds. Why some were buried in the mounds and some -were not, remains a mystery. It may be that people associated with -mound construction, with temple activities, or those of significant social -status were buried in the mounds. Alternatively, if many people died from -illness, famine, or disaster, that might have signaled a time for special -ceremonies and mound enlargement. Those victims might have been -buried in a mound.</p> -<p>Villages and campsites were often a mile or more from these ceremonial -centers. There, daily life was more focused on maintaining a stable -food supply than on ceremonial activities. During the Troyville-Coles -Creek Period, important changes in hunting techniques and garden crops -helped guarantee this food supply.</p> -<p>It was during this period that the bow and -arrow came into use in Louisiana. First invented in -Europe thousands of years before, bows and arrows -were gradually adopted by people in Asia and eventually -by people in North America. The introduction -of the bow and arrow meant hunters could shoot -further, more accurately, and with more firepower -than before. The arrow points were generally -smaller than those used on spears. These then, -were the first true arrowheads made in Louisiana.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig18"> -<img src="images/p13a.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="264" /> -<p class="pcap">(¾ actual size)</p> -</div> -<p>Troyville-Coles Creek people also continued using the atlatl, as well -as the traditional butchering and hideworking tools that had been made -since Meso-Indian times. There was no dramatic change in the types of -animals hunted during this time. The Indians killed game such as deer, -bear, small mammals, and game birds. They also ate fish and mollusks as -had their ancestors.</p> -<p>The Troyville-Coles Creek people continued collecting wild seeds, -fruits, roots, and other plant foods. They cultivated squash, gourds, and -native plants such as sunflowers and lamb’s quarters, but a most important -addition to these garden crops was corn, which had been domesticated -earlier in Mexico. The Indians no doubt experimented with it for -many generations, developing strains and cultivation techniques best -suited to Louisiana conditions. Certain plant foods were still ground with -mealing stones and probably stored in pottery vessels.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_24">24</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p14.jpg" alt="Tending corn" width="500" height="721" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_25">25</div> -<p>In this period, pottery styles changed, producing more durable pots -with more diversified uses. The Troyville-Coles Creek Indians tempered -their clay with particles of dried clay before coiling it to shape the pot. -They specialized in rounded or barrel-shaped jars and in deep or shallow -bowls. The potters removed coil marks by patting the surface with a -smooth wooden paddle.</p> -<p>Sometimes they used a carved wooden paddle to stamp designs onto -the entire outer surface of the vessel. At other times they decorated only -the top half of the pot with designs formed by incising lines or pressing -tools into the damp clay. The colors of the clay were usually tan, brown, -gray or black. On rare occasions vessels were colored red on the outside or -shaped into human effigies.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig19"> -<img src="images/p14b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="467" /> -<p class="pcap">Troyville-Coles Creek: a-e, Vessel Rim Sherds; f-h, Stone Points (½ actual size)</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div> -<p>Late in the Troyville-Coles Creek Period, changes began to occur. -Indians in the northwestern part of the state developed close ties with -people living north and west of them, while those in the east became more -closely aligned with people to their east. Descendants of the Troyville-Coles -Creek people were Indians of the Caddo and of the Plaquemine-Mississipian -cultures.</p> -<h3 id="c11">Caddo</h3> -<p>By about A.D. 800, descendants of the Troyville-Coles Creek people -living in northwestern Louisiana had developed close ties with people in -southeastern Oklahoma, northeastern Texas and southern Arkansas. -From this region emerged the Caddo Culture. These Indians developed a -fine, new style of pottery, and used special ornaments and objects made -from imported materials. They also performed elaborate burials of upper -class people.</p> -<p>There was little change in the daily life of the ordinary Indians. Most -people spent their lives in small villages and hamlets near streams or -lakes. Many trends established in earlier generations persisted. New garden -crops such as beans were introduced and were added to the corn, -squash, gourds and native plants already grown. It seems that people -from these small settlements were governed by high status individuals -living at the ceremonial centers. Common people were probably required -to help build mounds, to supply food, or to make tools or special objects for -their rulers. They gathered at the centers when they were needed or -when special ceremonies or festivals were celebrated.</p> -<div class="box"> -<div class="img" id="fig20"> -<img src="images/p15.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="281" /> -<p class="pcap">Gahagan Site</p> -</div> -<p>At the Gahagan Site, in Red River -Parish, early Caddo Indians built mounds -and a village around a large open plaza. One -mound had three deep shaft burials, each -with three to six bodies and 200 to 400 burial -offerings. Some of the unusual burial objects -from this site are two clay human effigy -pipes, two copper cutouts of human -hands, two copper long-nosed mask ear ornaments, -two frog effigy pipes, and numerous -triangular stone blades called “Gahagan -knives.”</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_27">27</div> -<p>Early Caddo people continued the Troyville-Coles Creek custom of -constructing ceremonial centers with mounds around a central plaza. They -built temples or special buildings on top of the mounds and also dug graves -into the mounds for burials of important people.</p> -<p>These mound burials, however, differed somewhat from those of earlier -cultures. To bury an honored priest or chief, Caddo people dug a large -deep shaft, often all the way from the top of the mound to the ground -level. Then they placed the chief’s body, and other bodies (possibly of -sacrificed servants or family members) in the grave side by side. Special -objects were piled in the corner or along the wall of the pit.</p> -<p>Burial offerings included well-made tools, ceremonial objects and -jewelry designated only for high status people. Typical objects were fine -pottery, carefully flaked stone knives, arrow points, bows, turtle shell -rattles, polished stone axes, rare minerals, stone or clay smoking pipes, -animal teeth pendants, bone hairpins, ear ornaments of bone, shell, or -copper, and beads of copper, shell, and stone. Unusual objects were pipes -in the form of humans and frogs, sheets of copper cut in the shape of -hands, and ear ornaments resembling small copper masks. The face of -each “mask” was an oval about three inches long, but the nose was seven -inches long. Interestingly, at the same time, identical masks were also -used by Indians as far away as Missouri, Wisconsin and Florida.</p> -<p>Caddo potters made special new shapes such as bottles, and bowls -with sharply angled rims. They fired the pieces in a new way so they -would be black or dark mahogany in color, then polished the dark surfaces -to make them glossy. Some common ornamental designs were curved lines -cut into the surface and sometimes highlighted with red or green-colored -pigment rubbed into the engraved lines. Not surprisingly, much of the -utilitarian pottery remained quite similar in appearance to the late -Troyville-Coles Creek pottery. Caddo Indians probably still used it for -daily chores, while they saved more ornate wares for special occasions.</p> -<p>The ordinary Caddo Culture people lived in villages away from the -mound center. Their lives were centered around hunting, fishing, collecting, -and gardening activities. When a commoner died, he or she was -buried in a simple grave without objects. Although this way of life seems -totally separate from the elaborate life of the elite, the two worlds overlapped -at ceremonial occasions, when everyone gathered at the mound -centers.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_28">28</div> -<div class="img" id="fig21"> -<img src="images/p16.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="727" /> -<p class="pcap">Caddo: a-c, Clay Vessels; d-e, Clay Pipes; f, Engraved Shell Cup; g, Shell Pendant; h, -Stone Points (⅓ actual size)</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_29">29</div> -<p>Between A.D. 1100 and A.D. 1400, Caddo ceremonial life seems to -have been less important. All burials were simple, with only one person in -a grave. Fewer imported stones and minerals were used to make high -status objects, and more ordinary pottery was made.</p> -<p>After A.D. 1400, there was a return to Caddo ceremonialism. Many -early Caddo customs were revived, but new practices were also added. -Mound construction resumed, with temples, lodges, or chiefs’ houses -being built on top. These structures characteristically were built of wattle -and daub and had thatched roofs. They were used for a time, then they -were burned, probably when the leader or an important person died. -Workers covered the ruins with sand or clay, and eventually replaced the -old building with a new one. Sometimes graves were dug through the floor -of standing buildings or through the rubble of burned ones. As many as -seven people have been found buried together in these graves, along with -food offerings and large numbers of objects.</p> -<p>As in earlier times, important people had special customs and belongings -that ordinary people did not have. One custom was that of binding an -infant’s head to a cradleboard so that as the person grew to maturity the -head was noticeably flattened and therefore distinguished the high class -person from people of the lower class. Upper class people used ornate clay -pipes, conch shell cups, ceremonial objects, fine pottery, and jewelry. -Their jewelry included anklets, necklaces, bone hairpins, and bone pottery -and shell discs that were worn through the ears. Some pendants were -fashioned from mammal teeth or shells, and occasionally a large sea shell -pendant had a lizard or salamander engraved on it.</p> -<p>Caddo leaders of this late period probably used the most delicate and -decorated pottery. Pots ranged in size from miniatures to large wide-mouthed -storage vessels. Many shapes were made, but special vessels -were formed to resemble birds and turtles, or to act as rattles. Popular -designs were circles, scrolls, and crosses engraved into the vessel after -firing. Engraved designs were often highlighted with red, white or green -pigments.</p> -<p>Daily life of ordinary people was much different than that of the elite. -As far as we know, the former continued to live as they had during the -earlier part of the period. They lived in circular houses in small villages -located near their gardens and buried their dead in simple graves with few -goods.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_30">30</div> -<p>By the time the first Europeans reached Caddo villages in the mid-1500s, -Caddo Indians were divided into several distinct groups. In Louisiana, -these were the Adaes, Doustioni, Natchitoches, Ouachita and Yatasi. -The Indians supplied the Europeans with salt, horses, and food in exchange -for glass beads, kettles, guns, ammunition, knives, ceramics, bells -and bracelets. Contact with the Spanish and French explorers ended the -prehistoric era, and led to rapid and devastating changes in the traditional -life.</p> -<h3 id="c12">Plaquemine-Mississippian</h3> -<p>While Caddo Indians flourished in northwestern Louisiana, those in -the rest of the state by approximately A.D. 1000 had a slightly different -way of life. Many of the latter were part of the Plaquemine Culture, who -like the Caddo, were descendants of Troyville-Coles Creek Indians. In -keeping with the patterns established by their ancestors, Plaquemine -people built large ceremonial centers with two or more large mounds -facing an open plaza. The flat-topped, pyramidal mounds were constructed -in several stages, and eventually measured more than 100 feet on a side -and 10 feet high. Sometimes they were topped by one or two smaller -mounds.</p> -<div class="box"> -<div class="img" id="fig22"> -<img src="images/p17.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="281" /> -<p class="pcap">Medora Site</p> -</div> -<p>The Plaquemine Culture was so named -because the Medora Site, typical of the -period, is near Plaquemine, Louisiana, in -West Baton Rouge Parish. The site had -two mounds approximately 400 feet apart -with a plaza in between. One was a flat-topped -pyramid 125 feet on a side 13 feet -high with a small domed mound three feet -high and 25 feet in diameter on top. The -other one was two feet high and 100 feet in -diameter. Eighteen thousand pieces of broken -pottery were found at Medora, along -with a few stone tools.</p> -</div> -<p>Plaquemine Indians often built the mounds on top of the ruins of a -house or temple, and constructed similar buildings on top of the mound. In -earlier times, buildings were usually circular, but later they were likely to -<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span> -be rectangular. They were constructed with wattle and daub, and sometimes -with wall posts sunk into foot-deep wall trenches.</p> -<p>At times, the Indians dug shallow, oval or rectangular graves in the -mounds. These might be for primary burials of individuals, but more -frequently they were for the reburial of remains originally interred -elsewhere. Some graves contained only skulls, and one of these had 66 -skulls. Burial offerings included pottery, pipes, stone points, and axes -made of ground stone.</p> -<p>One type of pottery occasionally placed -in the graves is called “killed” pottery. This -type has a hole in the base of the vessel that -was cut while the pot was being made, usually -before it was fired. The Plaquemine Indians -also decorated their pots in other -characteristic ways. They sometimes added -small solid handles called lugs, and textured -the surface by brushing clumps of grass over -the vessel before it was fired. They often cut -designs into the surface of the wet clay, and -like their Caddo contemporaries, the Plaquemine -Indians engraved designs on pots after -they were fired. Plaquemine Indians also had -undecorated pots which they used for ordinary -daily tasks.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig23"> -<img src="images/p17a.jpg" alt="" width="395" height="601" /> -<p class="pcap">(⅓ actual size)</p> -</div> -<p>Not surprisingly, the ordinary people lived much as the average -Caddo Indians. They participated in festivals and ceremonies at the -mound centers, but spent most of their time with families and neighbors -collecting and producing food, or participating in village activities.</p> -<p>During the early part of the period some hunters still used atlatls, but -soon bows and arrows predominated. The Indians hunted deer, bear, -rabbit, squirrel, raccoon, turkey and duck; fished for gar and drum; and -collected mussels. Although the Plaquemine Indians tended gardens of -corn, squash, pumpkins and beans, they still collected many wild seeds, -roots, nuts and fruits.</p> -<p>At approximately the same time as Caddo and Plaquemine Indians -were living in Louisiana, Mississippian Culture people in the St. Louis -area had developed the largest prehistoric center in the United States. -This was a ceremonial, residential, and trading center with a population of -35,000-40,000 people. The Mississippian Culture spread throughout the -southeastern United States, and was characterized by huge earthen temple -mounds, widespread trading networks, and a ceremonial complex represented -by elaborately shaped pottery and stone, bone, shell and copper -objects.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_32">32</div> -<div class="img" id="fig24"> -<img src="images/p18.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="813" /> -<p class="pcap">Plaquemine: a. Clay Pipe; b, Stone Gaming Piece; c, Stone Celt; d-g, Stone Points; h-j, -Clay Ornaments (½ actual size)</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_33">33</div> -<div class="img" id="fig25"> -<img src="images/p18a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="298" /> -<p class="pcap">Mississippian: a, Vessel Rim Sherd; b, Effigy Vessel (⅓ actual size)</p> -</div> -<p>As far as we know, no major Mississippian centers developed in Louisiana, -although ones were established in Georgia at Etowah and in -Alabama at Moundville. There is evidence that sometime between A.D. -1000 and A.D. 1600 small groups of people from the eastern Mississippian -centers made their way to Louisiana. They came to the Avery Island area -to collect and refine salt, and to other parts of the state to search for other -materials. Perhaps through repeated contacts, a few groups of Louisiana -Indians learned classic Mississippian techniques of making pottery and -other ceremonial objects. Some Indians in the southeastern and northeastern -parts of Louisiana may even have established close ties with their -eastern neighbors and added Mississippian customs to the Plaquemine -Culture. Louisiana groups that may have descended from those Mississippian -groups are those who speak the Tunican, Chitimachan, and Muskogean -languages. Those who probably descended from Plaquemine Culture -Indians are the Taensa and Natchez.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_34">34</div> -<h2 id="c13"><span class="small">EUROPEAN TRAVELERS DESCRIBE INDIANS</span></h2> -<p>Early European descriptions of the Natchez and Taensa Indians help -us understand their life, and give an idea of the way many of the late -prehistoric Indians throughout Louisiana lived. European travelers reported -that some Indians lived near the ceremonial centers that had -mounds surrounding a central plaza. The two most important buildings, -the temple and the chief’s house, were at the center.</p> -<p>The temple was on the summit of one of the mounds, or was in a -prominent place facing the plaza. It had thick wattle and daub walls and a -thatched roof with carved and painted wooden animal effigies on top. -Inside, a sacred fire was tended by several Indians, whose job it was to -keep the fire always burning. Bones of past chiefs, and servants who had -died with them, were stored in baskets or on a low clay altar. Also, valued -objects such as clay figurines, crystals, and carved wooden objects were -kept in the temple.</p> -<p>The temple faced a plaza that was the scene of community feasts and -rituals, as well as games, such as chunkey. In chunkey, opponents hurled -long poles after a rolling disc. The one whose pole landed closest to the -place where the disc stopped rolling won a point, or valued possessions, if -bets had been made.</p> -<p>The chief’s house, situated on top of a mound, overlooked the plaza -area. The chief used the house as his living quarters as well as a reception -area for visitors and subjects. The furnishings of the house included -wooden beds covered with matting, and perhaps a wooden stump used as a -stool. Reed or cane torches provided light. Servants waited on the chief, -always keeping a respectful distance, and quickly meeting all of his needs. -No one ever used the chief’s belongings or walked in front of him.</p> -<p>The chief was a highly honored and respected person, and his death -was a time for great mourning. Ceremonies, dancing, and processions -were part of the burial rituals that continued for several days. The chief’s -wife, servants, and others who volunteered for the honor, were sedated -and ritually strangled as part of the ceremonies. The bodies were placed -on special raised tombs covered with branches and mud. After many -weeks, the bones were removed and placed in baskets that were stored in -the temple. Eventually, the bones were buried in a platform in the temple, -or were buried in the mound when it was expanded. The deceased chief’s -house was usually burned and might be covered with another layer of -earth before the new chief’s house was built. The son of the dead chief’s -sister would become the next ruler.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p19.jpg" alt="Mound ceremony" width="500" height="638" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_36">36</div> -<p>People from miles around came to participate in the burial ceremonies, -after which they returned to their villages and resumed their -normal lives. Some lived in small communities near the mounds, but -others lived in scattered settlements miles away.</p> -<p>Their clothing was very simple. The men wore only a cloth or -deerskin breechcloth, unless the weather was cold. Then they added long -deerskin shirts and leggings. Women wore skirts of skin or of cloth woven -from tree bark, and in cold weather they also wore a skin wrap.</p> -<p>Women usually wore their hair long, sometimes tying it back, or -braiding it. Men wore theirs short, and in many styles. Sometimes they -even completely removed the hair from one side of their head. Women -often decorated themselves by blackening their teeth with ashes and by -rubbing red pigment on their faces, shoulders, and stomachs. Men decorated -themselves, too, especially on ceremonial occasions when they -painted themselves with red, white or black markings and tied feathers in -their hair. Both men and women wore earrings in their pierced ears and -large pendants or strings of shells or seeds around their neck. Honored -warriors and upper class people wore red and black tattoos on their faces -and other parts of their bodies.</p> -<p>The men and women had very different daily tasks. Women took care -of the young children; planted, tended and harvested the crops; cooked the -meals; and made the pottery, baskets, mats and clothing. Men’s work -consisted of housebuilding, canoe-making, and clearing land for gardens, -along with defense, hunting, woodcutting, and making the tools for these -chores. The men also had primary responsibilities for ritual and political -activities.</p> -<p>The European explorers traded with the men. Europeans provided -guns, ammunition, metal kettles, iron tools, glass beads, and metal ornaments. -These were sometimes given as gifts to hosts, guides, or to the -chief and they were also exchanged for pearls or baskets, and for necessities -such as meat, oil, salt, skins and horses.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_37">37</div> -<h2 id="c14"><span class="small">ARCHAEOLOGY AND LOUISIANA’S PAST</span></h2> -<p>Upon the arrival of Europeans in Louisiana and their written descriptions -of the Indians, the prehistoric period came to an end. However, our -understanding of this prehistory is still incomplete. Hundreds of major -questions remain, including very basic ones: When did the first Indians -reach Louisiana? What sparked the development of the Poverty Point -Culture? Where and how were the Mexican plants of corn, beans and -squash introduced to Louisiana? Which prehistoric groups were the ancestors -of each of Louisiana’s historic Indian tribes? The answers to these and -many other questions remain buried in archaeological sites throughout the -state. If enough sites can be studied before they are destroyed, there is -hope that the story of the state’s prehistory can be better explained.</p> -<p>The importance of archaeology in understanding Louisiana’s past -does not stop with the end of the prehistoric era. Historic archaeologists -also study Indian sites that date after the contact with Europeans. In this -way, archaeologists can document the many dramatic changes in Indian -culture during historic times. Archaeologists also excavate sites associated -with African-American and European-American life in Louisiana. -These archaeological investigations supplement, and often correct, the -written documents that describe the state’s history.</p> -<p>With the cooperation and participation of Louisiana’s citizens, the -archaeological study of our state will continue. Through the protection of -sites and the funding of scientific excavations, we can discover more about -the past. Then the story of Louisiana’s prehistory and early historic development -can be retold, more accurately and more completely.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_38">38</div> -<h2 id="c15"><span class="small">OTHER BOOKS AND ARTICLES</span></h2> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Louisiana Geography:</b></dt> -<dd>Kniffen, Fred B.</dd> -<dd class="t">1968 <i>Louisiana, its land and people.</i> Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Louisiana Prehistory:</b></dt> -<dd>Haag, William G.</dd> -<dd class="t">1971 Louisiana in North American prehistory. <i>Museum of Geoscience, Louisiana State University, Mélanges</i> 1.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dd>Neuman, Robert W.</dd> -<dd class="t">1984 <i>An introduction to Louisiana archaeology.</i> Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Poverty Point:</b></dt> -<dd>Webb, Clarence H.</dd> -<dd class="t">1982 The Poverty Point Culture (second edition). <i>School of Geoscience, Louisiana State University, Geoscience and Man</i> 17.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Tchefuncte:</b></dt> -<dd>Ford, James A. and George I. Quimby, Jr.</dd> -<dd class="t">1945 The Tchefuncte Culture, an early occupation of the Lower Mississippi Valley. <i>Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology</i> 2.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Marksville:</b></dt> -<dd>Toth, Alan</dd> -<dd class="t">1974 Archaeology and ceramics at the Marksville Site. <i>Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Anthropological Papers</i> 56.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Troyville-Coles Creek:</b></dt> -<dd>Ford, James A.</dd> -<dd class="t">1951 Greenhouse: a Troyville-Coles Creek Period site in Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana. <i>Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History</i> 44: Part 1.</dd></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_39">39</div> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Caddo:</b></dt> -<dd>Webb, Clarence H. and Hiram F. Gregory</dd> -<dd class="t">1978 The Caddo Indians of Louisiana. <i>Louisiana Anthropological Survey and Antiquities Commission Anthropological Study</i> 2.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Plaquemine:</b></dt> -<dd>Quimby, George I., Jr.</dd> -<dd class="t">1951 The Medora Site, West Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana. <i>Anthropological Series, Field Museum of Natural History</i> 24: 81-135.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Mississippian:</b></dt> -<dd>Brown, Ian W.</dd> -<dd class="t">1981 The role of salt in eastern North American prehistory. <i>Louisiana Archaeological Survey and Antiquities Commission Anthropological Study</i> 3.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Early Descriptions of Louisiana Indians:</b></dt> -<dd>Swanton, John R.</dd> -<dd class="t">1911 Indian tribes of the Lower Mississippi Valley and adjacent coast of the Gulf of Mexico. <i>Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin</i> 43, Smithsonian Institution.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Other References:</b></dt> -<dd>Neuman, Robert W. and Lanier A. Simmons</dd> -<dd class="t">1969 A bibliography relative to Indians of the State of Louisiana, <i>Department of Conservation, Louisiana Geological Survey, Anthropological Study</i> 4.</dd></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_40">40</div> -<h2 id="c16"><span class="small">Anthropological Study Series</span></h2> -<p class="center">No. 1 On the Tunica Trail -<br />by Jeffrey P. Brain</p> -<p class="center">No. 2 The Caddo Indians of Louisiana, second edition -<br />by Clarence H. Webb & Hiram F. Gregory</p> -<p class="center">No. 3 The Role of Salt in Eastern North American Prehistory -<br />by Ian Brown</p> -<p class="center">No. 4 El Nuevo Constante -<br />by Charles E. Pearson, et al.</p> -<p class="center">No. 5 Preserving Louisiana’s Legacy -<br />by Nancy W. Hawkins</p> -<p class="center">No. 6 Louisiana Prehistory -<br />by Robert W. Neuman & Nancy W. Hawkins</p> -<p class="center">No. 7 Poverty Point -<br />by Jon L. Gibson</p> -<p class="center">No. 8 Bailey’s Dam -<br />by Steven D. Smith and George J. Castille III</p> -<p class="center">These publications can be obtained by writing:</p> -<p class="center">Division of Archaeology -<br />P. O. Box 44247 -<br />Baton Rouge, LA 70804</p> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul> -<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li> -<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is a government public document, and can be freely copied and distributed.</li> -<li>In the text versions only, text in <i>italics</i> is delimited by _underscores_.</li> -</ul> - -<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 62189 ***</div> -</body> -</html> diff --git a/old/62189-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/62189-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 694483e..0000000 --- a/old/62189-h/images/cover.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/62189-h/images/p00.jpg b/old/62189-h/images/p00.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3dd7b95..0000000 --- a/old/62189-h/images/p00.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/62189-h/images/p01.jpg b/old/62189-h/images/p01.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index fa9f43a..0000000 --- a/old/62189-h/images/p01.jpg +++ 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by -Robert W. Neuman and Nancy W. Hawkins Neuman - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Louisiana Prehistory - -Author: Robert W. Neuman - Nancy W. Hawkins Neuman - -Release Date: May 21, 2020 [EBook #62189] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LOUISIANA PREHISTORY *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism - Louisiana Archaeological Survey and Antiquities Commission - Anthropological Study No. 6 - - - - - LOUISIANA PREHISTORY - - - [Illustration: A hunter using an atlatl.] - - Baton Rouge, Louisiana - - - - - STATE OF LOUISIANA - - - Edwin W. Edwards - _Governor_ - - DEPARTMENT OF CULTURE, RECREATION AND TOURISM - - Noelle LeBlanc - _Secretary_ - - ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY AND ANTIQUITIES COMMISSION - - Ex-Officio Members - - Dr. Kathleen Byrd _State Archaeologist_ - Mr. Robert B. DeBlieux _Assistant Secretary_, Office of Cultural - Development - Mr. B. Jim Porter _Secretary_, Department of Natural Resources - Ms. V. Elaine Boyle _Secretary_, Department of Urban and Community - Affairs - - _Appointed Members_ - - Dr. Charles E. Orser, Jr. - Mr. Brian J. Duhe - Mr. Marc Dupuy, Jr. - Dr. Lorraine Heartfield - Dr. J. Richard Shenkel - Mrs. Lanier Simmons - Dr. Clarence H. Webb - - First Printing June 1982 - Second Printing, with revision April 1987 - - This public document was published at a total cost of $7,520.00. 8,800 - copies of this public document were published in this second printing - at a cost of $3,419.25. The total cost of all printings of this - document including reprints is $7,520.00. This document was published - for the Division of Archaeology by Bourque Printing, Inc., P.O. Box - 45070, Baton Rouge, LA 70895-4070 to make available to the citizens of - Louisiana information about prehistoric and historic archaeology under - authorization of La. R.S. 41:1601-1613. This material was printed in - accordance with standards for printing by state agencies established - pursuant to R.S. 43:31. Printing of this material was purchased in - accordance with the provisions of Title 43 of the Louisiana Revised - Statutes. This publication has been funded in part by the Department - of the Interior, National Park Service Historic Preservation Fund. - - - - - LOUISIANA PREHISTORY - - - [Illustration: Replica of a Mississippian effigy pipe.] - - Robert W. Neuman - Museum of Geoscience, Louisiana State University - - Nancy W. Hawkins - Division of Archaeology - - - - - Editor’s Note - - -Louisiana’s cultural heritage dates back to approximately 10,000 B.C. -when man first entered this region. Since that time, many other Indian -groups have settled here. Each of these groups has left evidence of its -presence in the archaeological record. The Anthropological Study series -published by the Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism provides -a readable account of various activities of these cultural groups. - -Robert W. Neuman, Curator of Anthropology at the Museum of Geoscience, -Louisiana State University, and Nancy W. Hawkins, outreach coordinator -for the State Division of Archaeology, coauthored this volume. It is the -result of the realization that relatively few Louisiana residents are -aware of the state’s rich archaeological heritage. Furthermore, there is -little introductory information available to them about Louisiana’s -past. _Louisiana Prehistory_ was written to meet this need. It is a -short summary of the state’s prehistory and is meant to be a person’s -first exposure to the state’s prehistoric archaeology. For this reason -theoretical and technical discussions are kept at a minimum. - -Louisiana Prehistory tells the story of man’s occupation of the state -during its first 11,600 years. It begins with the big game hunters of -10,000 B.C. and describes the changing life styles brought about by the -end of the Ice Age. It relates the influences of various people moving -into and out of Louisiana and their effects on Louisiana cultures. -Finally it recounts the development of mound building which culminated -in the large ceremonial centers described by the early European -explorers. - -I trust that the reader will enjoy this introduction to Louisiana’s -prehistoric Indian heritage. - - Kathleen Byrd - _State Archaeologist_ - - - - - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - - -Although many individuals have contributed to the development of this -volume, special appreciation goes to Dr. Clarence H. Webb of Shreveport -for allowing us the use of artifacts from his private collection. Mr. -George A. Foster, Chairman of the Board of Guaranty Corporation, -assisted us greatly by providing photographs of drawings from the -Corporation’s lobby Indian displays for use in this publication. We also -thank Dr. Judith A. Schiebout, Director of the Museum of Geoscience, -Louisiana State University, who provided continuous cooperation in the -development of this project, and Mr. Daniel S. Peace, photographer of -the Museum of Geoscience, for his efforts in photographing the artifacts -used in this booklet. - - [Illustration: INDIANS OF PREHISTORIC LOUISIANA] - - NEO-INDIAN - 1,500 - 1,000 CADDO/PLAQUEMINE-MISSISSIPPIAN - 500 TROYVILLE-COLES CREEK - A.D. MARKSVILLE - B.C. - 500 TCHEFUNCTE - 1,000 POVERTY POINT - 1,500 - 2,000 - MESO-INDIAN - 2,500 - 3,000 - 3,500 - 4,000 - 4,500 - 5,000 - PALEO-INDIAN - 5,500 - 6,000 - 6,500 - 7,000 - 7,500 - 8,000 - 8,500 - 9,000 - 9,500 - 10,000 - 10,500 - ? - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - -Tens of thousands of years ago, when the world was in the midst of the -Ice Age, the first humans made their way into North America. At that -time, thick sheets of ice covering the polar regions had tied up so much -of the earth’s water that the oceans were approximately 400 feet lower -than they are today. All around the world sections of land that are now -underwater were then above sea level. An extensive land bridge connected -Siberia to Alaska across what is now the Bering Strait and people from -Asia used this route for their passage into North America. - -The land bridge between the two continents was clear of ice for -thousands of years, and vegetation from both sides intermixed. Grazing -animals, and the people who hunted them, gradually wandered from Asia -into North America, probably without ever realizing they were moving -into a new region. Although the earliest immigrants may have reached -North America over 40,000 years ago, most of the present evidence dates -from between 23,000 and 8,000 years ago. - -Much of Canada was covered with ice during this time, but periodically, -ice-free corridors of land connected Alaska with the Great Plains of the -United States. Over hundreds of generations nomadic people spread -throughout southern North America, Central America, and South America. -At least by 12,000 years ago, the first Indians lived in the -southeastern United States. The prehistoric era in Louisiana begins with -these first inhabitants and concludes with the arrival of the Europeans. -The chart at the left outlines the long, rich prehistory of Louisiana. - - - - - PALEO-INDIAN - - -Twelve thousand years ago, the average temperature in the southeastern -United States was five to 10 degrees cooler than it is now, and the -climate was drier. The landscape was covered with oak and pine forests -mixed with open grasslands. Some familiar animals such as rabbits and -deer lived in the area, but many other animals that have become extinct -in North America, were also common then. Included were the camel, giant -armadillo, short-faced bear, long-horned bison, mastodon, tapir, ground -sloth, saber-toothed tiger, mammoth, dire wolf, and horse (the horse was -later reintroduced by the Spanish). - -The earliest Indians in Louisiana, called Paleo-Indians, hunted these -animals with spears tipped with stone points. The points were two to six -inches long, and lanceolate, with bases that were either straight or -rounded inward. The Paleo-Indians in Louisiana made their points from -carefully selected varieties of stones that appear to have come from -neighboring regions in Texas and Arkansas. - -The first step in making a point was to strike a selected stone from a -strategic angle with another stone, detaching a relatively large, flat, -oval piece called a flake. The second step was to shape the large flake -by chipping off smaller flakes with a rock, bone fragment, or antler -tip. The final steps were to remove the delicate finishing flakes by -firmly pressing against the edge of the point with an antler or bone -tool, and then to grind the base of the point smooth with a stone. The -point then was fastened directly to a wooden shaft with hide, fiber or -an adhesive substance, or it was attached to a bone section that was -connected to the spear shaft. - - [Illustration: (actual size)] - -To pierce the skin of one of the large animals, such as a mastodon or -mammoth, the hunters had to be close to the powerful beast. They hurled -or jabbed their spears at the animal, and tried to confuse and -immobilize their prey. Perhaps several hunters surrounded an isolated -animal waving their arms and distracting it while one or two others -speared it. If the animal was wounded, the hunters would have tracked it -until it became very weak or went to water to drink. Even a mastodon, -wounded and exhausted, or mired in the mud of a shallow lake, would have -been relatively easy game for a small group of experienced hunters. - -Men and older boys almost certainly were the hunters for the -Paleo-Indian groups. Women and children collected fruits, seeds, roots, -and other plant foods to supplement their diet. - -Paleo-Indians lived in small nomadic groups that remained in one area -only as long as the animals and plant foods were plentiful. The evidence -indicates that they camped near streams in temporary shelters made of -branches, grass and hides. At other times, they preferred high ground -where they could see the countryside to watch for animals. The camp may -have had a central area for group activities surrounded by living areas -where families cooked and slept. These people probably used animal skins -for clothing and as blankets, and may have had dogs as pets. They did -not raise other animals or grow crops. They used no metal and made no -pottery. - - [Illustration: Mastodon hunt] - -Louisiana Paleo-Indian sites (areas where remains are found) are not -common, because the small groups of nomadic Indians left very few -artifacts at any location. High rainfall and humidity then led to decay -and erosion of many ancient sites while changing geography led to the -disappearance of others. The sea level has risen, so any Paleo-Indian -coastal remains are now on the ocean floor. Sites once along the -Mississippi River have been washed away or deeply buried as the river -shifted its course and deposited silt. Most Paleo-Indian spear points -found in Louisiana have been collected from ridges, hills and salt -domes. Generally, these areas have not been affected by stream changes -and sea level fluctuations that have occurred since the Ice Age. - -As the Ice Age drew to a close, Louisiana began to change. The climate -gradually became warmer and wetter and many large Ice Age animals became -extinct. The way of life of the Paleo-Indians began to change, too. They -started hunting smaller game and collecting and eating more plant foods. - -The late Paleo-Indians fashioned a variety of stone tools that could be -used for butchering game, preparing hides, and working bone and wood. -They also manufactured many kinds of stone points that were generally -smaller than the earlier points. These late Paleo-Indian tools were made -from Louisiana stone, a change from the earlier time. - -Sites of the late Paleo-Indian period are more numerous than early -Paleo-Indian sites. This suggests that the population increased and that -these people camped longer in one place. Their sites are characterized -by more artifacts, and more varieties of artifacts, than earlier -Paleo-Indian sites. - - - - - [Illustration: John Pearce Site] - -Both early and late Paleo-Indian Period materials have been found at the -John Pearce Site in Caddo Parish, Louisiana. At the lowest (oldest) -level, two early Paleo-Indian stone points were uncovered. A wide -variety of later materials were excavated from higher levels. The site -was used by small groups of people who camped there temporarily. The -groups used the site as a base camp for hunting, butchering, and -hideworking activities. - - [Illustration: Stone tools] - - Early Paleo-Indian: - a-c, Stone Points - (¾ actual size) - - [Illustration: Stone tools] - - Late Paleo-Indian: - d-e, Stone Scrapers - f-h, Stone Points - (¾ actual size) - - - - - MESO-INDIAN - - -The gradual transition from the late Paleo-Indian to the early -Meso-Indian Period had occurred by 5000 B.C. Meso-Indians, also called -Archaic Indians, lived in small nomadic groups. Unlike their -predecessors, however, they remained longer in each camp location and -exploited smaller geographical areas. Whereas a Paleo-Indian might roam -from Texas to Mississippi in his lifetime, returning rarely to the same -place, a Meso-Indian might spend his whole life in a six-parish area, -returning each season to favored campsites. - -The seasonal movements of the Meso-Indians were determined by the best -times to hunt and gather certain foods. Clams, fish and deer were -available year-round, so Meso-Indians often stayed near streams, where -these were plentiful. This strategy was especially critical in the -winter months when plant foods were least available. The Indians camped -where they could collect tender, young plants in the spring; fruits in -the summer; and pecans and walnuts in the fall. Meso-Indians had a -varied diet, eating seeds, roots, nuts, fruits, fish, clams, reptiles, -game birds and mammals. - -As Meso-Indian family groups traveled, they met other hunting groups, -and sometimes camped together. These were important times for social and -ceremonial activities. They probably smoked pipes together and shared -information about good hunting, fishing, and plant collecting areas. -They exchanged gifts of tools, food, stone, and shell. Sometimes these -large groups camped together for a season or more, near rivers or near -the coast where dependable food resources could support many families. - - - - - [Illustration: Banana Bayou Site] - -The Banana Bayou Site, located on the Avery Island salt dome in Iberia -Parish, consists of a low, man-made earthen mound, 80 feet in diameter. -Charcoal from the mound gives the radiocarbon date of 2490 ± 260 years -B.C. Nut shells and fish, deer and turtle bones have been found in the -mound as well as two stone points that are characteristic of the -Meso-Indian Period. These findings lead archaeologists to conclude that -the site is one of the earliest mounds in the United States. - -Dogs may have been kept as pets, and may have helped in hunting. -Meso-Indians developed many new hunting and fishing techniques. They -used fishhooks, traps, and nets for catching fish and other small -animals, and they used a new weapon called the atlatl (pronounced -at′lat′l) to help kill their most important prey, deer. - -An atlatl was made from a flattish, two-foot long piece of wood and was -used as a spear-thrower. It had a hook, made of bone or antler, attached -on one end and a hand grip carved on the other end. A stone, clay, or -shell weight was sometimes attached toward the hooked end to increase -the force of the throw, or perhaps only for decoration. A spear was -rested on the atlatl with the end of the spear shaft inserted into the -atlatl hook. The hunter held the atlatl grip and the middle of the spear -in the same hand, then he hurled the spear from the atlatl (see cover -illustration). The atlatl acted as an extension of his arm, giving extra -power and accuracy to the throw. - -The Meso-Indian spears used with the atlatl differed from those used by -Paleo-Indians. They were shorter, and the stone points were different. -Meso-Indian spear points were chipped from local stone, and they were -slightly larger and not as artistically made as late Paleo-Indian -points. Beyond these general trends, however, many Meso-Indian points -found in Louisiana have little in common with each other. The sides of -some are curved, others are straight, and some are serrated. Some are -wider at the base, some are narrower, and others have notches in the -base. The variations in shape seem almost unlimited. - - [Illustration: (¾ actual size)] - -In contrast to the changes in styles of points, Meso-Indians continued -making their stone butchering and hideworking tools in much the same way -as the Paleo-Indians. Meso-Indians also fabricated non-stone tools and -ornaments. They made bone needles, awls, fishhooks, beads, and hairpins; -and antler atlatl hooks, handles, and spear points. Less common objects -were tortoise shell rattles and shell ornaments. - -Meso-Indians developed new tools as they increased their knowledge of -plant resources. They made baskets to carry and store seeds, roots, -fruits and nuts. They cracked nuts with specially shaped stones, and -ground nuts and seeds into flour with grinding stones. - - [Illustration: Meso-Indian: Grinding Stones (½ actual size)] - -The Meso-Indians also made axes and chopping tools for cutting down -trees and hollowing out tree trunks. Like the atlatl weights, grinding -stones, pipes, and stone ornaments, some of these axes were made using a -new technique. Instead of being flaked, these stone tools were roughly -pecked into desired shapes with a hard hammerstone, then ground smooth -with sandstone or sand and water. When completed, some of these ground -stone tools had a highly polished surface. - - [Illustration: (½ actual size)] - -Although the methods of hunting, gathering plants, and making tools -remained relatively unchanged throughout the Meso-Indian Period, some -things were changing. Gradually the population expanded. Groups began to -move less frequently, and to travel over smaller areas. They learned -more about their environment as they began living, from one season to -another, in the same general area. Apparently some Louisiana -Meso-Indians remained in one place long enough to build earthen mounds. -If the dates for these mounds are correct, then they are the earliest -known mounds in the United States. - - - - - NEO-INDIAN - - -During the Neo-Indian Period the population expanded and some groups -became sedentary, staying in one place for several years or more. Most -Meso-Indian tools continued to be used by Neo-Indians, but added to -these were stone and pottery vessels, baked clay balls, and many -decorative or ceremonial objects. Also, for the first time, shell and -earthen mounds were regularly built. - -The Neo-Indian Period lasted from 2000 B.C. to A.D. 1600 and included -the following cultures: Poverty Point, Tchefuncte, Marksville, -Troyville-Coles Creek, Caddo and Plaquemine-Mississippian. These groups -differed from one another in when and where they lived, as well as in -the objects and earthworks they made. - - - Poverty Point - -The Poverty Point Culture flourished from approximately 2000 B.C. to 700 -B.C. The culture is named for the famous Poverty Point Site where the -largest earthworks of the period were built. During this time, Poverty -Point people lived in Louisiana, Mississippi and Arkansas, and they -usually settled near major rivers, junctions of lakes and rivers, or in -coastal marshes. These locations supported a wide variety of plants and -animals that could be used for food. - - - - - [Illustration: Poverty Point Site] - -The Poverty Point Site is near Epps, Louisiana, in the northeastern -corner of the state. The site is now a State Commemorative Area that can -be visited by the public. It covers more than a square mile, and when -the ridges and mounds were built they were the largest earthworks in the -Western Hemisphere. Although the exact function of the ridges is as yet -unknown, it is speculated that the aisles may have been used in -astronomical observations because two of them line up with the summer -and winter solstice sunsets. - -Like Meso-Indians, some Poverty Point Indians lived in small dispersed -groups, but others established regional centers where large populations -lived throughout the year. Oval or horseshoe-shaped structures of earth -or shell were usually built at these centers. The reason for the -construction is unknown, but it is likely that the Poverty Point leaders -lived at such sites and that the sites functioned as ceremonial, -political and trading centers. - -The Poverty Point Site in northeastern Louisiana was the largest -regional center. It was built between the Mississippi and the Arkansas -rivers. Using these rivers, as well as land routes, Poverty Point -Indians traded with other Indians as far away as Illinois, Virginia and -Florida. - -At the Poverty Point Site, the Indians built earthen ridges that form -six semicircles, one inside the other. The ridges are interrupted by -four aisles that radiate out from the inner area. The outer ridge of -these earthworks measures nearly three-quarters of a mile across. -Immediately to the west is an earthen mound 70 feet high and just north -of it is another mound, 21 feet high. - -The ridges and mounds were built by hand. Workers loosened dirt with -shells or stones used like hoes, then filled baskets and animal hides -with soil and carried them to the construction area. It took -approximately 30 million 50-pound loads to build the earthen ridges and -the two large mounds at Poverty Point. The construction must have taken -many generations to complete. - -Poverty Point Indians probably had a ruling class, perhaps with a chief, -to direct earthwork construction and long-distance trade. The leadership -also may have helped organize food collecting and hunting activities. - -People living at the regional center relied on hunting, fishing, and -plant collecting to supply their food, just as Meso-Indians had. They -may also have sown seeds of favorite wild plants in cleared garden -areas. There are indications that the Poverty Point Indians grew -pigweed, marsh elder, knotweed, lamb’s quarters and sunflowers using -this cultivation technique. This gardening, though helpful, would not -have been essential to feed the people in the rich natural environments -where they lived. - -Poverty Point Indians continued to use the tools that Meso-Indians had -used for hunting, collecting, and food preparation. They were likely, -however, to get some of the stone for these tools through long-distance -trade. The Neo-Indians also made new tools that were added to the -Meso-Indian ones. - -They made oval-shaped stone plummets that were used as weights on bolas -or nets. A bola could be flung so that it wrapped around the feet of -wild game. Weighted nets could have trapped both fish and small game. -Stone for the plummets used by Louisiana Indians was magnetite and -hematite from Missouri and northern Arkansas. - -The Poverty Point Indians cooked their food in a new way. They made clay -cooking balls that probably were used like charcoal briquettes for -roasting and baking. They rolled clay in their hands, then squeezed or -shaped it into one of many forms. These were dried and heated in a fire -until hot, then up to 200 were placed in a roasting pit. The different -shapes may simply indicate the maker’s design preference or may have -controlled temperature and cooking time. - -Another change in food preparation was the introduction of stone, and -later, pottery vessels. The stone cooking or storage bowls were made -from steatite (soapstone), or less commonly from sandstone. Later in the -period, the first Louisiana pottery vessels were made, and these -probably were modeled after the earlier stone bowls. - -In addition to these practical goods, Indians of this period made many -exotic ornamental objects including stone and clay figurines, beads, and -pendants. The figurines were about 2.5 inches tall and represented -seated females, but usually the heads were removed. This may indicate -that the clay figurines were used in some kind of ceremony. The beads -were made from copper and clay, as well as gems and other stones. -Pendants, also made from clay and stone, were in the shape of birds, -insects, miniature tools, and geometrical shapes. - -The Indians may have cut and drilled stones to make pendants and beads -with small stone tools usually less than an inch in length. These tools, -called microtools, were also used for cutting, scraping, sawing and -engraving bone, antler, and wood. - -Many distinctive traits of the Poverty Point Culture were shared by -people living in Mexico and Central America at that time and even -earlier. These traits included earthwork construction, planned villages, -clay figurines, stone beads and pendants, and microtools. These southern -Indians almost certainly influenced the development of certain aspects -of Poverty Point culture, either by direct contact or by descriptions -shared by travelers. - - [Illustration: Poverty Point: a, Plummet; b, Atlatl Weight; c-f, - Clay Cooking Balls; g, Clay Female Figurine; h, Stone Point; i, - Gorget; j-n, Stone Beads and Pendants; o, Microtools (½ actual - size)] - -The Poverty Point Culture that flourished for over 1,000 years had -virtually disappeared by 500 B.C. There is no evidence of warfare or -conflict with another group, so perhaps internal political or religious -changes caused the decline. In any event, people gradually abandoned the -regional centers and returned to living in small scattered settlements. -Never again in Louisiana did the Indian people build such massive -earthworks or trade over such an extensive area. - - - Tchefuncte - -The simplified lifestyle that developed at the end of the Poverty Point -Period continued throughout the next cultural period. During the time of -the Tchefuncte (pronounced Che-funk′tuh) Culture, from 500 B.C. until -A.D. 200, people lived in small scattered settlements. Long distance -trade was much less important, yet people in Louisiana were in contact -with people in western Mississippi, coastal Alabama, eastern Texas, -Arkansas, and southeastern Missouri. - -In Louisiana, most Tchefuncte people seem to have lived in coastal areas -and in lowlands near slow-moving streams. In these areas, they camped on -natural levees, terraces, salt domes, cheniers and ridges that provided -dry ground in this wet environment. Here they built their houses, -probably temporary circular shelters having a frame of light poles -covered with thatch or grass mixed with mud. - - - - - [Illustration: Tchefuncte Site] - -The Tchefuncte Site, on the north shore of Lake Pontchartrain, was so -named because it was situated inside Tchefuncte State Park (renamed -Fountainebleau State Park). The site had two shell middens, one that -measured 100 feet by 250 feet and another 100 feet by 150 feet. Both -were excavated, and archaeologists found 50,000 pieces of pottery, as -well as artifacts made from bone, shell and stone. Forty-three human -burials were recovered, none of which had objects buried with them. - - [Illustration: Building a circular shelter] - -They continued to depend on wild game and collected plant foods. In the -coastal areas, they ate tens of thousands of brackish water clams and -oysters, leaving behind piles of shells called shell middens. Because of -the number of shells, it once was thought that clams provided the major -protein source for Tchefuncte people. However, clam meat is actually low -in protein and also in other nutrients and calories. Clams were probably -eaten because they were always available, but they were not very -important in nourishing the people. Surprisingly, Tchefuncte people -apparently never ate crabs or crawfish, which also were plentiful. - -Tchefuncte Indians obtained most of their protein from deer, raccoons, -alligators, and fish, but many other animals, especially small animals -and migratory birds were also eaten. The Indians used atlatls to kill -large game like deer and bear. For smaller mammals and birds, they -preferred traps, nets and bolas. They probably had several techniques -for fishing including netting, spearing, and fishing with hook and line. -Like the Meso-Indians before them, they gathered plant foods, including -grapes, plums, persimmons, acorns, and hickory nuts. They also grew -squash and gourds in small gardens. - -Tchefuncte people were the first Indians in Louisiana to make large -amounts of pottery. They rolled coils of clay into shape and then -smoothed them to form a container. Many shapes of pots were made, but -characteristically they had “footed” bases. The Indians often decorated -the vessels by pressing fingernails, twigs or tools into the surface or -by rocking a small tool across the wet clay. After decorating the pots, -they fired them by slow baking. - -Later Indians almost always kneaded the clay thoroughly and mixed it -with a small amount of another substance, called temper. These two steps -strengthened the clay and helped prevent it from shrinking unevenly and -cracking. Tchefuncte potters often omitted these steps, perhaps because -they were unaware of their importance, or perhaps because clay was -available and they could easily make another vessel if one cracked. - -The introduction of pottery was an important improvement in food -storage. When these pots were kept covered, they provided a relatively -dry and animal-proof container that was portable. This made it easier to -store food in times of plenty for use in leaner times. The Tchefuncte -pots also meant that stewing and other new cooking techniques could be -experimented with and developed for the first time. - - [Illustration: Tchefuncte: a-d, Vessel Rim Sherds; e-f, Vessel - Footed Bases; g, Clay Pipe; h, Stone Point; i, Stone Axe; j, Bone - Fishhook; k, Antler Point (½ actual size)] - -Most of the other utensils and tools that Tchefuncte Indians used were -very similar to those that Poverty Point Indians made. These included -smoking pipes; stone, bone, and antler spear points; ground stone atlatl -weights; mortars; bone fishhooks; clay cooking balls; and other -butchering, hideworking, and woodworking tools. - -In contrast to Poverty Point Indians, the Tchefuncte Indians did not -specialize in making stone beads, pendants, or microtools, and they did -not usually import materials to make tools and ornaments. Although some -innovations from the Poverty Point Culture were carried over, most -Tchefuncte tools and most Tchefuncte settlement patterns resemble those -of the Meso-Indians. - -The majority of the information about this era comes from coastal -regions of the state. Archaeologists are not sure how Indians in the -rest of Louisiana were living at this same time, but it is likely that -their culture somewhat resembled that of the Tchefuncte Indians. - - - Marksville - -Sometime after 200 B.C., Indians of the highly influential Hopewell -Culture, centered in Ohio and Illinois, sent representatives throughout -the eastern United States. By at least the first century A.D., groups of -Louisiana Indians had met these travelers and had learned about their -culture. Hopewell people had powerful leaders who supervised a cult -centered around lavish burial rituals. Leaders organized construction of -large mounds in which certain high-status people were buried along with -exquisitely crafted objects made of copper, stone, bone, shell, pottery, -and rare minerals. - -The Hopewell representatives may have been sent south in search of a -valued raw material or may have been sent as “evangelists” whose mission -it was to explain the virtues of Hopewell ceremonial life. Intentionally -or not, they introduced some Louisiana Indians to Hopewell practices. -The Louisiana manifestation of Hopewell life is called the Marksville -Culture. - - - - - [Illustration: Marksville Site] - -The Marksville Site, in Avoyelles Parish, was the first scientifically -excavated site of the Marksville Culture. Burial mounds at the site are -encompassed by a horseshoe-shaped earthen embankment almost 3,000 feet -long. The site is now a State Commemorative Area open to the public. A -museum at the park houses an exhibit describing the site and the people -who lived there. - -Indians of the Marksville Culture began living in larger, more permanent -settlements, building burial mounds, and making Hopewell-styled pottery, -pipes, and ornaments. They most likely had leaders who directed -craftsmen, organized community life, and officiated at burial -ceremonies. - -Burial rituals must have been a very important part of the Marksville -Culture. Large mounds were constructed in several stages over many -years. The first stage usually was a flat low platform approximately -three feet high and 40 feet in diameter. Burial ceremonies were held -months or perhaps years apart and those who had died between ceremonies -were buried together. Some remains had been temporarily interred in -other areas, so these were reburied along with primary burials, and even -cremations. - -A pit was dug into the mound surface, and sometimes lined with logs and -matting. Human remains were placed in the pit with pottery, pipes, stone -points, shells, asphaltum, quartz crystals, and other valuable objects. -The bodies might be ornamented with jewelry such as copper beads, -earspools, bracelets, and necklaces of shell, pearls, or stone. -Occasionally, a dog was placed in the grave. The pit was filled with -dirt. Later, other pits might be dug for another occasion or burials -might be made by placing remains on the mound surface and covering them -with a layer of earth. Eventually, more construction increased the -overall size of the mound and shaped it into a dome. - -The people buried in the mounds may have been high status individuals -who lived in villages near the mounds, while ordinary people lived in -scattered villages away from the ceremonial centers. Marksville Indians -in the coastal areas lived far from the elaborate burial mounds, but -they still practiced new styles of making pottery and other objects. - - [Illustration: (¼ actual size)] - -The new Marksville pottery was made from local clay, but it was quite -similar in shape and decoration to pottery of the Hopewell Culture in -Illinois and Ohio. A typical Hopewell vessel would be a bowl three to -six inches tall. The rim would have cross-hatched lines on the exterior -at the top and the design on the rest of the pot would be outlined with -bold lines cut in the clay. Quite often the designs were geometric -shapes and stylized birds. The background would be textured by rocking -or stamping a small, toothed tool across the wet clay. These decorated -pots were made primarily for ceremonial uses. - -The Marksville people also made other Hopewell-like objects including -copper and stone jewelry, platform pipes and figurines. The pipes had -relatively broad flat bases (platforms) approximately three inches long. -At one end was a hole for a wooden or reed pipe stem and in the center -was a bowl. Sometimes an animal figure was on the platform, with the -bowl formed in the animal’s back. Animal and human figurines were also -made. Most of these Hopewell-like objects were buried in mounds as -religious or burial offerings. - - [Illustration: Marksville: a-c, Vessel Rim Sherds; d, Clay Effigy - Pipe; e, Copper Ear Spool; f, Asphaltum Effigy; g, Ceremonial Stone - Point (½ actual size)] - -In contrast, Marksville people made most of their utilitarian objects -the same way as Tchefuncte people before them. Marksville people hunted -with atlatls, bolas and nets, and fished with hooks and line. They -gathered wild plants and shellfish, and probably grew a few domesticated -plants in small gardens. They stored food in pots and baskets, and -cooked in pots. - -It seems that despite the Hopewellian influence, much of the culture was -unaffected by contact with the northerners. Through time, Hopewellian -influence diminished. Louisiana Indians built fewer burial mounds, -developed their own distinctive pottery, and began a new way of hunting. - - [Illustration: Fishing] - - - Troyville-Coles Creek - -The Troyville-Coles Creek Period lasted from approximately A.D. 400 to -A.D. 1100. By the beginning of this period, influence from the -Ohio-Illinois Hopewell people had ceased, and pottery styles, mound -building, and ceremonial life had gradually changed. - -The Troyville-Coles Creek people continued building ceremonial centers -with mounds, but these mounds differed from earlier ones. They were -larger, shaped differently, and more numerous. They also served a new -purpose. Instead of being primarily for burials, these mounds were -constructed to support temples or civic buildings. Pyramidal mounds with -flat tops, and sometimes with stepped ramps leading up one side, came -into style. They were constructed over hundreds of years, and usually -were enlarged one or more times. Although the total height might reach -only 20 feet, the base might eventually be enlarged to more than 200 -feet on each side. At certain sites, three to nine mounds eventually -were built, all around an open, central plaza. - -A temple and one or more other buildings were usually built on a mound -summit. These buildings were either circular or rectangular with walls -of wattle and daub. Wattle is a construction technique whereby branches, -twigs, cane, or vines are interlaced around upright posts that have been -sunk in the ground. These are then plastered with mud or clay daub. The -Troyville-Coles Creek people probably used grass thatch or palmetto -fronds for the roof. - - - - - [Illustration: Greenhouse Site] - -The Greenhouse Site, in Avoyelles Parish, is the most extensively -excavated site that is typical of the Troyville-Coles Creek Period. -Seven earthen mounds there surround an open plaza that measures 200 feet -by 350 feet. No village or campsite remains were found in the plaza or -outside the mound area. This leads archaeologists to conclude that the -mound group was used for ceremonial activities only, and that villagers -lived elsewhere. - -Some people were buried in the mounds, but in contrast to Marksville -burials, the bodies were not accompanied by a rich assortment of -objects. One or more bodies were buried in pits, or simply laid upon the -mound summit and covered with dirt. People were also buried in village -areas away from the mounds. Why some were buried in the mounds and some -were not, remains a mystery. It may be that people associated with mound -construction, with temple activities, or those of significant social -status were buried in the mounds. Alternatively, if many people died -from illness, famine, or disaster, that might have signaled a time for -special ceremonies and mound enlargement. Those victims might have been -buried in a mound. - -Villages and campsites were often a mile or more from these ceremonial -centers. There, daily life was more focused on maintaining a stable food -supply than on ceremonial activities. During the Troyville-Coles Creek -Period, important changes in hunting techniques and garden crops helped -guarantee this food supply. - -It was during this period that the bow and arrow came into use in -Louisiana. First invented in Europe thousands of years before, bows and -arrows were gradually adopted by people in Asia and eventually by people -in North America. The introduction of the bow and arrow meant hunters -could shoot further, more accurately, and with more firepower than -before. The arrow points were generally smaller than those used on -spears. These then, were the first true arrowheads made in Louisiana. - - [Illustration: (¾ actual size)] - -Troyville-Coles Creek people also continued using the atlatl, as well as -the traditional butchering and hideworking tools that had been made -since Meso-Indian times. There was no dramatic change in the types of -animals hunted during this time. The Indians killed game such as deer, -bear, small mammals, and game birds. They also ate fish and mollusks as -had their ancestors. - -The Troyville-Coles Creek people continued collecting wild seeds, -fruits, roots, and other plant foods. They cultivated squash, gourds, -and native plants such as sunflowers and lamb’s quarters, but a most -important addition to these garden crops was corn, which had been -domesticated earlier in Mexico. The Indians no doubt experimented with -it for many generations, developing strains and cultivation techniques -best suited to Louisiana conditions. Certain plant foods were still -ground with mealing stones and probably stored in pottery vessels. - - [Illustration: Tending corn] - -In this period, pottery styles changed, producing more durable pots with -more diversified uses. The Troyville-Coles Creek Indians tempered their -clay with particles of dried clay before coiling it to shape the pot. -They specialized in rounded or barrel-shaped jars and in deep or shallow -bowls. The potters removed coil marks by patting the surface with a -smooth wooden paddle. - -Sometimes they used a carved wooden paddle to stamp designs onto the -entire outer surface of the vessel. At other times they decorated only -the top half of the pot with designs formed by incising lines or -pressing tools into the damp clay. The colors of the clay were usually -tan, brown, gray or black. On rare occasions vessels were colored red on -the outside or shaped into human effigies. - - [Illustration: Troyville-Coles Creek: a-e, Vessel Rim Sherds; f-h, - Stone Points (½ actual size)] - -Late in the Troyville-Coles Creek Period, changes began to occur. -Indians in the northwestern part of the state developed close ties with -people living north and west of them, while those in the east became -more closely aligned with people to their east. Descendants of the -Troyville-Coles Creek people were Indians of the Caddo and of the -Plaquemine-Mississipian cultures. - - - Caddo - -By about A.D. 800, descendants of the Troyville-Coles Creek people -living in northwestern Louisiana had developed close ties with people in -southeastern Oklahoma, northeastern Texas and southern Arkansas. From -this region emerged the Caddo Culture. These Indians developed a fine, -new style of pottery, and used special ornaments and objects made from -imported materials. They also performed elaborate burials of upper class -people. - -There was little change in the daily life of the ordinary Indians. Most -people spent their lives in small villages and hamlets near streams or -lakes. Many trends established in earlier generations persisted. New -garden crops such as beans were introduced and were added to the corn, -squash, gourds and native plants already grown. It seems that people -from these small settlements were governed by high status individuals -living at the ceremonial centers. Common people were probably required -to help build mounds, to supply food, or to make tools or special -objects for their rulers. They gathered at the centers when they were -needed or when special ceremonies or festivals were celebrated. - - - - - [Illustration: Gahagan Site] - -At the Gahagan Site, in Red River Parish, early Caddo Indians built -mounds and a village around a large open plaza. One mound had three deep -shaft burials, each with three to six bodies and 200 to 400 burial -offerings. Some of the unusual burial objects from this site are two -clay human effigy pipes, two copper cutouts of human hands, two copper -long-nosed mask ear ornaments, two frog effigy pipes, and numerous -triangular stone blades called “Gahagan knives.” - -Early Caddo people continued the Troyville-Coles Creek custom of -constructing ceremonial centers with mounds around a central plaza. They -built temples or special buildings on top of the mounds and also dug -graves into the mounds for burials of important people. - -These mound burials, however, differed somewhat from those of earlier -cultures. To bury an honored priest or chief, Caddo people dug a large -deep shaft, often all the way from the top of the mound to the ground -level. Then they placed the chief’s body, and other bodies (possibly of -sacrificed servants or family members) in the grave side by side. -Special objects were piled in the corner or along the wall of the pit. - -Burial offerings included well-made tools, ceremonial objects and -jewelry designated only for high status people. Typical objects were -fine pottery, carefully flaked stone knives, arrow points, bows, turtle -shell rattles, polished stone axes, rare minerals, stone or clay smoking -pipes, animal teeth pendants, bone hairpins, ear ornaments of bone, -shell, or copper, and beads of copper, shell, and stone. Unusual objects -were pipes in the form of humans and frogs, sheets of copper cut in the -shape of hands, and ear ornaments resembling small copper masks. The -face of each “mask” was an oval about three inches long, but the nose -was seven inches long. Interestingly, at the same time, identical masks -were also used by Indians as far away as Missouri, Wisconsin and -Florida. - -Caddo potters made special new shapes such as bottles, and bowls with -sharply angled rims. They fired the pieces in a new way so they would be -black or dark mahogany in color, then polished the dark surfaces to make -them glossy. Some common ornamental designs were curved lines cut into -the surface and sometimes highlighted with red or green-colored pigment -rubbed into the engraved lines. Not surprisingly, much of the -utilitarian pottery remained quite similar in appearance to the late -Troyville-Coles Creek pottery. Caddo Indians probably still used it for -daily chores, while they saved more ornate wares for special occasions. - -The ordinary Caddo Culture people lived in villages away from the mound -center. Their lives were centered around hunting, fishing, collecting, -and gardening activities. When a commoner died, he or she was buried in -a simple grave without objects. Although this way of life seems totally -separate from the elaborate life of the elite, the two worlds overlapped -at ceremonial occasions, when everyone gathered at the mound centers. - - [Illustration: Caddo: a-c, Clay Vessels; d-e, Clay Pipes; f, - Engraved Shell Cup; g, Shell Pendant; h, Stone Points (⅓ actual - size)] - -Between A.D. 1100 and A.D. 1400, Caddo ceremonial life seems to have -been less important. All burials were simple, with only one person in a -grave. Fewer imported stones and minerals were used to make high status -objects, and more ordinary pottery was made. - -After A.D. 1400, there was a return to Caddo ceremonialism. Many early -Caddo customs were revived, but new practices were also added. Mound -construction resumed, with temples, lodges, or chiefs’ houses being -built on top. These structures characteristically were built of wattle -and daub and had thatched roofs. They were used for a time, then they -were burned, probably when the leader or an important person died. -Workers covered the ruins with sand or clay, and eventually replaced the -old building with a new one. Sometimes graves were dug through the floor -of standing buildings or through the rubble of burned ones. As many as -seven people have been found buried together in these graves, along with -food offerings and large numbers of objects. - -As in earlier times, important people had special customs and belongings -that ordinary people did not have. One custom was that of binding an -infant’s head to a cradleboard so that as the person grew to maturity -the head was noticeably flattened and therefore distinguished the high -class person from people of the lower class. Upper class people used -ornate clay pipes, conch shell cups, ceremonial objects, fine pottery, -and jewelry. Their jewelry included anklets, necklaces, bone hairpins, -and bone pottery and shell discs that were worn through the ears. Some -pendants were fashioned from mammal teeth or shells, and occasionally a -large sea shell pendant had a lizard or salamander engraved on it. - -Caddo leaders of this late period probably used the most delicate and -decorated pottery. Pots ranged in size from miniatures to large -wide-mouthed storage vessels. Many shapes were made, but special vessels -were formed to resemble birds and turtles, or to act as rattles. Popular -designs were circles, scrolls, and crosses engraved into the vessel -after firing. Engraved designs were often highlighted with red, white or -green pigments. - -Daily life of ordinary people was much different than that of the elite. -As far as we know, the former continued to live as they had during the -earlier part of the period. They lived in circular houses in small -villages located near their gardens and buried their dead in simple -graves with few goods. - -By the time the first Europeans reached Caddo villages in the mid-1500s, -Caddo Indians were divided into several distinct groups. In Louisiana, -these were the Adaes, Doustioni, Natchitoches, Ouachita and Yatasi. The -Indians supplied the Europeans with salt, horses, and food in exchange -for glass beads, kettles, guns, ammunition, knives, ceramics, bells and -bracelets. Contact with the Spanish and French explorers ended the -prehistoric era, and led to rapid and devastating changes in the -traditional life. - - - Plaquemine-Mississippian - -While Caddo Indians flourished in northwestern Louisiana, those in the -rest of the state by approximately A.D. 1000 had a slightly different -way of life. Many of the latter were part of the Plaquemine Culture, who -like the Caddo, were descendants of Troyville-Coles Creek Indians. In -keeping with the patterns established by their ancestors, Plaquemine -people built large ceremonial centers with two or more large mounds -facing an open plaza. The flat-topped, pyramidal mounds were constructed -in several stages, and eventually measured more than 100 feet on a side -and 10 feet high. Sometimes they were topped by one or two smaller -mounds. - - - - - [Illustration: Medora Site] - -The Plaquemine Culture was so named because the Medora Site, typical of -the period, is near Plaquemine, Louisiana, in West Baton Rouge Parish. -The site had two mounds approximately 400 feet apart with a plaza in -between. One was a flat-topped pyramid 125 feet on a side 13 feet high -with a small domed mound three feet high and 25 feet in diameter on top. -The other one was two feet high and 100 feet in diameter. Eighteen -thousand pieces of broken pottery were found at Medora, along with a few -stone tools. - -Plaquemine Indians often built the mounds on top of the ruins of a house -or temple, and constructed similar buildings on top of the mound. In -earlier times, buildings were usually circular, but later they were -likely to be rectangular. They were constructed with wattle and daub, -and sometimes with wall posts sunk into foot-deep wall trenches. - -At times, the Indians dug shallow, oval or rectangular graves in the -mounds. These might be for primary burials of individuals, but more -frequently they were for the reburial of remains originally interred -elsewhere. Some graves contained only skulls, and one of these had 66 -skulls. Burial offerings included pottery, pipes, stone points, and axes -made of ground stone. - -One type of pottery occasionally placed in the graves is called “killed” -pottery. This type has a hole in the base of the vessel that was cut -while the pot was being made, usually before it was fired. The -Plaquemine Indians also decorated their pots in other characteristic -ways. They sometimes added small solid handles called lugs, and textured -the surface by brushing clumps of grass over the vessel before it was -fired. They often cut designs into the surface of the wet clay, and like -their Caddo contemporaries, the Plaquemine Indians engraved designs on -pots after they were fired. Plaquemine Indians also had undecorated pots -which they used for ordinary daily tasks. - - [Illustration: (⅓ actual size)] - -Not surprisingly, the ordinary people lived much as the average Caddo -Indians. They participated in festivals and ceremonies at the mound -centers, but spent most of their time with families and neighbors -collecting and producing food, or participating in village activities. - -During the early part of the period some hunters still used atlatls, but -soon bows and arrows predominated. The Indians hunted deer, bear, -rabbit, squirrel, raccoon, turkey and duck; fished for gar and drum; and -collected mussels. Although the Plaquemine Indians tended gardens of -corn, squash, pumpkins and beans, they still collected many wild seeds, -roots, nuts and fruits. - -At approximately the same time as Caddo and Plaquemine Indians were -living in Louisiana, Mississippian Culture people in the St. Louis area -had developed the largest prehistoric center in the United States. This -was a ceremonial, residential, and trading center with a population of -35,000-40,000 people. The Mississippian Culture spread throughout the -southeastern United States, and was characterized by huge earthen temple -mounds, widespread trading networks, and a ceremonial complex -represented by elaborately shaped pottery and stone, bone, shell and -copper objects. - - [Illustration: Plaquemine: a. Clay Pipe; b, Stone Gaming Piece; c, - Stone Celt; d-g, Stone Points; h-j, Clay Ornaments (½ actual size)] - - [Illustration: Mississippian: a, Vessel Rim Sherd; b, Effigy Vessel - (⅓ actual size)] - -As far as we know, no major Mississippian centers developed in -Louisiana, although ones were established in Georgia at Etowah and in -Alabama at Moundville. There is evidence that sometime between A.D. 1000 -and A.D. 1600 small groups of people from the eastern Mississippian -centers made their way to Louisiana. They came to the Avery Island area -to collect and refine salt, and to other parts of the state to search -for other materials. Perhaps through repeated contacts, a few groups of -Louisiana Indians learned classic Mississippian techniques of making -pottery and other ceremonial objects. Some Indians in the southeastern -and northeastern parts of Louisiana may even have established close ties -with their eastern neighbors and added Mississippian customs to the -Plaquemine Culture. Louisiana groups that may have descended from those -Mississippian groups are those who speak the Tunican, Chitimachan, and -Muskogean languages. Those who probably descended from Plaquemine -Culture Indians are the Taensa and Natchez. - - - - - EUROPEAN TRAVELERS DESCRIBE INDIANS - - -Early European descriptions of the Natchez and Taensa Indians help us -understand their life, and give an idea of the way many of the late -prehistoric Indians throughout Louisiana lived. European travelers -reported that some Indians lived near the ceremonial centers that had -mounds surrounding a central plaza. The two most important buildings, -the temple and the chief’s house, were at the center. - -The temple was on the summit of one of the mounds, or was in a prominent -place facing the plaza. It had thick wattle and daub walls and a -thatched roof with carved and painted wooden animal effigies on top. -Inside, a sacred fire was tended by several Indians, whose job it was to -keep the fire always burning. Bones of past chiefs, and servants who had -died with them, were stored in baskets or on a low clay altar. Also, -valued objects such as clay figurines, crystals, and carved wooden -objects were kept in the temple. - -The temple faced a plaza that was the scene of community feasts and -rituals, as well as games, such as chunkey. In chunkey, opponents hurled -long poles after a rolling disc. The one whose pole landed closest to -the place where the disc stopped rolling won a point, or valued -possessions, if bets had been made. - -The chief’s house, situated on top of a mound, overlooked the plaza -area. The chief used the house as his living quarters as well as a -reception area for visitors and subjects. The furnishings of the house -included wooden beds covered with matting, and perhaps a wooden stump -used as a stool. Reed or cane torches provided light. Servants waited on -the chief, always keeping a respectful distance, and quickly meeting all -of his needs. No one ever used the chief’s belongings or walked in front -of him. - -The chief was a highly honored and respected person, and his death was a -time for great mourning. Ceremonies, dancing, and processions were part -of the burial rituals that continued for several days. The chief’s wife, -servants, and others who volunteered for the honor, were sedated and -ritually strangled as part of the ceremonies. The bodies were placed on -special raised tombs covered with branches and mud. After many weeks, -the bones were removed and placed in baskets that were stored in the -temple. Eventually, the bones were buried in a platform in the temple, -or were buried in the mound when it was expanded. The deceased chief’s -house was usually burned and might be covered with another layer of -earth before the new chief’s house was built. The son of the dead -chief’s sister would become the next ruler. - - [Illustration: Mound ceremony] - -People from miles around came to participate in the burial ceremonies, -after which they returned to their villages and resumed their normal -lives. Some lived in small communities near the mounds, but others lived -in scattered settlements miles away. - -Their clothing was very simple. The men wore only a cloth or deerskin -breechcloth, unless the weather was cold. Then they added long deerskin -shirts and leggings. Women wore skirts of skin or of cloth woven from -tree bark, and in cold weather they also wore a skin wrap. - -Women usually wore their hair long, sometimes tying it back, or braiding -it. Men wore theirs short, and in many styles. Sometimes they even -completely removed the hair from one side of their head. Women often -decorated themselves by blackening their teeth with ashes and by rubbing -red pigment on their faces, shoulders, and stomachs. Men decorated -themselves, too, especially on ceremonial occasions when they painted -themselves with red, white or black markings and tied feathers in their -hair. Both men and women wore earrings in their pierced ears and large -pendants or strings of shells or seeds around their neck. Honored -warriors and upper class people wore red and black tattoos on their -faces and other parts of their bodies. - -The men and women had very different daily tasks. Women took care of the -young children; planted, tended and harvested the crops; cooked the -meals; and made the pottery, baskets, mats and clothing. Men’s work -consisted of housebuilding, canoe-making, and clearing land for gardens, -along with defense, hunting, woodcutting, and making the tools for these -chores. The men also had primary responsibilities for ritual and -political activities. - -The European explorers traded with the men. Europeans provided guns, -ammunition, metal kettles, iron tools, glass beads, and metal ornaments. -These were sometimes given as gifts to hosts, guides, or to the chief -and they were also exchanged for pearls or baskets, and for necessities -such as meat, oil, salt, skins and horses. - - - - - ARCHAEOLOGY AND LOUISIANA’S PAST - - -Upon the arrival of Europeans in Louisiana and their written -descriptions of the Indians, the prehistoric period came to an end. -However, our understanding of this prehistory is still incomplete. -Hundreds of major questions remain, including very basic ones: When did -the first Indians reach Louisiana? What sparked the development of the -Poverty Point Culture? Where and how were the Mexican plants of corn, -beans and squash introduced to Louisiana? Which prehistoric groups were -the ancestors of each of Louisiana’s historic Indian tribes? The answers -to these and many other questions remain buried in archaeological sites -throughout the state. If enough sites can be studied before they are -destroyed, there is hope that the story of the state’s prehistory can be -better explained. - -The importance of archaeology in understanding Louisiana’s past does not -stop with the end of the prehistoric era. Historic archaeologists also -study Indian sites that date after the contact with Europeans. In this -way, archaeologists can document the many dramatic changes in Indian -culture during historic times. Archaeologists also excavate sites -associated with African-American and European-American life in -Louisiana. These archaeological investigations supplement, and often -correct, the written documents that describe the state’s history. - -With the cooperation and participation of Louisiana’s citizens, the -archaeological study of our state will continue. Through the protection -of sites and the funding of scientific excavations, we can discover more -about the past. Then the story of Louisiana’s prehistory and early -historic development can be retold, more accurately and more completely. - - - - - OTHER BOOKS AND ARTICLES - - - Louisiana Geography: - Kniffen, Fred B. - 1968 _Louisiana, its land and people._ Louisiana State University - Press, Baton Rouge. - - Louisiana Prehistory: - Haag, William G. - 1971 Louisiana in North American prehistory. _Museum of - Geoscience, Louisiana State University, Mélanges_ 1. - - Neuman, Robert W. - 1984 _An introduction to Louisiana archaeology._ Louisiana State - University Press, Baton Rouge. - - Poverty Point: - Webb, Clarence H. - 1982 The Poverty Point Culture (second edition). _School of - Geoscience, Louisiana State University, Geoscience and Man_ - 17. - - Tchefuncte: - Ford, James A. and George I. Quimby, Jr. - 1945 The Tchefuncte Culture, an early occupation of the Lower - Mississippi Valley. _Memoirs of the Society for American - Archaeology_ 2. - - Marksville: - Toth, Alan - 1974 Archaeology and ceramics at the Marksville Site. _Museum of - Anthropology, University of Michigan, Anthropological Papers_ - 56. - - Troyville-Coles Creek: - Ford, James A. - 1951 Greenhouse: a Troyville-Coles Creek Period site in Avoyelles - Parish, Louisiana. _Anthropological Papers of the American - Museum of Natural History_ 44: Part 1. - - Caddo: - Webb, Clarence H. and Hiram F. Gregory - 1978 The Caddo Indians of Louisiana. _Louisiana Anthropological - Survey and Antiquities Commission Anthropological Study_ 2. - - Plaquemine: - Quimby, George I., Jr. - 1951 The Medora Site, West Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana. - _Anthropological Series, Field Museum of Natural History_ 24: - 81-135. - - Mississippian: - Brown, Ian W. - 1981 The role of salt in eastern North American prehistory. - _Louisiana Archaeological Survey and Antiquities Commission - Anthropological Study_ 3. - - Early Descriptions of Louisiana Indians: - Swanton, John R. - 1911 Indian tribes of the Lower Mississippi Valley and adjacent - coast of the Gulf of Mexico. _Bureau of American Ethnology, - Bulletin_ 43, Smithsonian Institution. - - Other References: - Neuman, Robert W. and Lanier A. Simmons - 1969 A bibliography relative to Indians of the State of Louisiana, - _Department of Conservation, Louisiana Geological Survey, - Anthropological Study_ 4. - - - - - Anthropological Study Series - - - No. 1 On the Tunica Trail - by Jeffrey P. Brain - - No. 2 The Caddo Indians of Louisiana, second edition - by Clarence H. Webb & Hiram F. Gregory - - No. 3 The Role of Salt in Eastern North American Prehistory - by Ian Brown - - No. 4 El Nuevo Constante - by Charles E. Pearson, et al. - - No. 5 Preserving Louisiana’s Legacy - by Nancy W. Hawkins - - No. 6 Louisiana Prehistory - by Robert W. Neuman & Nancy W. Hawkins - - No. 7 Poverty Point - by Jon L. Gibson - - No. 8 Bailey’s Dam - by Steven D. Smith and George J. Castille III - - These publications can be obtained by writing: - - Division of Archaeology - P. O. Box 44247 - Baton Rouge, LA 70804 - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is a government public document, and can be freely copied and - distributed. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Louisiana Prehistory, by -Robert W. Neuman and Nancy W. 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text-indent:0em; } -.fnblock div.fncont { margin-left:1.5em; text-indent:0em; margin-top:1em; text-align:justify; } -.fnblock dl { margin-top:0; margin-left:4em; text-indent:-2em; } -.fnblock dt { text-align:justify; } -dl.catalog dd { font-style:italic; } -dl.catalog dt { margin-top:1em; } -.author { text-align:right; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em; display:block; } - -dl.biblio dt { margin-top:.6em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt div { display:block; float:left; margin-left:-6em; width:6em; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt.center { margin-left:0em; text-align:center; text-indent:0; } -dl.biblio dd { margin-top:.3em; margin-left:3em; text-align:justify; font-size:90%; } -p.biblio { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -.clear { clear:both; } -p.book { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -p.review { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; } -p.pcap { margin-left:0em; text-indent:0; text-align:center; margin-top:0; } -p.pcapc { margin-left:4.7em; text-indent:0em; text-align:justify; } -span.attr { font-size:80%; font-family:sans-serif; } -span.pn { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; } -</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Louisiana Prehistory, by -Robert W. Neuman and Nancy W. Hawkins Neuman - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Louisiana Prehistory - -Author: Robert W. Neuman - Nancy W. Hawkins Neuman - -Release Date: May 21, 2020 [EBook #62189] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LOUISIANA PREHISTORY *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Louisiana Prehistory" width="500" height="749" /> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<p class="center">Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism -<br />Louisiana Archaeological Survey and Antiquities Commission -<br />Anthropological Study No. 6</p> -<h1>LOUISIANA PREHISTORY</h1> -<div class="img" id="fig1"> -<img src="images/p00.jpg" alt="" width="476" height="328" /> -<p class="pcap">A hunter using an atlatl.</p> -</div> -<p class="center">Baton Rouge, Louisiana</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_i">i</div> -<h2><span class="small">STATE OF LOUISIANA</span></h2> -<p class="center">Edwin W. Edwards -<br /><i>Governor</i></p> -<p class="center"><b>DEPARTMENT OF CULTURE, RECREATION AND TOURISM</b></p> -<p class="center">Noelle LeBlanc -<br /><i>Secretary</i></p> -<p class="center"><b>ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY AND ANTIQUITIES COMMISSION</b></p> -<p class="center">Ex-Officio Members</p> -<p class="center">Dr. Kathleen Byrd <span class="hst"><i>State Archaeologist</i></span> -<br />Mr. Robert B. DeBlieux <span class="hst"><i>Assistant Secretary</i>, Office of Cultural Development</span> -<br />Mr. B. Jim Porter <span class="hst"><i>Secretary</i>, Department of Natural Resources</span> -<br />Ms. V. Elaine Boyle <span class="hst"><i>Secretary</i>, Department of Urban and Community Affairs</span></p> -<p class="center"><i>Appointed Members</i></p> -<p class="center">Dr. Charles E. Orser, Jr. -<br />Mr. Brian J. Duhe -<br />Mr. Marc Dupuy, Jr. -<br />Dr. Lorraine Heartfield -<br />Dr. J. Richard Shenkel -<br />Mrs. Lanier Simmons -<br />Dr. Clarence H. Webb</p> -<table class="center" summary=""> -<tr><td class="l">First Printing </td><td class="r">June 1982</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Second Printing, with revision </td><td class="r">April 1987</td></tr> -</table> -<blockquote> -<p>This public document was published at a total cost of $7,520.00. 8,800 copies -of this public document were published in this second printing at a cost -of $3,419.25. The total cost of all printings of this document including reprints -is $7,520.00. This document was published for the Division of Archaeology -by Bourque Printing, Inc., P.O. Box 45070, Baton Rouge, LA -70895-4070 to make available to the citizens of Louisiana information -about prehistoric and historic archaeology under authorization of La. R.S. -41:1601-1613. This material was printed in accordance with standards for -printing by state agencies established pursuant to R.S. 43:31. Printing of -this material was purchased in accordance with the provisions of Title 43 of -the Louisiana Revised Statutes. This publication has been funded in part -by the Department of the Interior, National Park Service Historic Preservation -Fund.</p> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_ii">ii</div> -<h1 title="">LOUISIANA PREHISTORY</h1> -<div class="img" id="fig2"> -<img src="images/p01.jpg" alt="" width="350" height="334" /> -<p class="pcap">Replica of a Mississippian effigy pipe.</p> -</div> -<p class="center"><b>Robert W. Neuman</b> -<br />Museum of Geoscience, Louisiana State University</p> -<p class="center"><b>Nancy W. Hawkins</b> -<br />Division of Archaeology</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_iv">iv</div> -<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">Editor’s Note</span></h2> -<p>Louisiana’s cultural heritage dates back to approximately 10,000 B.C. -when man first entered this region. Since that time, many other Indian -groups have settled here. Each of these groups has left evidence of its -presence in the archaeological record. The Anthropological Study series -published by the Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism provides -a readable account of various activities of these cultural groups.</p> -<p>Robert W. Neuman, Curator of Anthropology at the Museum of -Geoscience, Louisiana State University, and Nancy W. Hawkins, outreach -coordinator for the State Division of Archaeology, coauthored this -volume. It is the result of the realization that relatively few Louisiana -residents are aware of the state’s rich archaeological heritage. Furthermore, -there is little introductory information available to them about Louisiana’s -past. <i>Louisiana Prehistory</i> was written to meet this need. It is a -short summary of the state’s prehistory and is meant to be a person’s first -exposure to the state’s prehistoric archaeology. For this reason theoretical -and technical discussions are kept at a minimum.</p> -<p><b>Louisiana Prehistory</b> tells the story of man’s occupation of the state -during its first 11,600 years. It begins with the big game hunters of 10,000 -B.C. and describes the changing life styles brought about by the end of the -Ice Age. It relates the influences of various people moving into and out of -Louisiana and their effects on Louisiana cultures. Finally it recounts the -development of mound building which culminated in the large ceremonial -centers described by the early European explorers.</p> -<p>I trust that the reader will enjoy this introduction to Louisiana’s -prehistoric Indian heritage.</p> -<p><span class="lr">Kathleen Byrd</span> -<span class="lr"><i>State Archaeologist</i></span></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_v">v</div> -<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS</span></h2> -<p>Although many individuals have contributed to the development of -this volume, special appreciation goes to Dr. Clarence H. Webb of -Shreveport for allowing us the use of artifacts from his private collection. -Mr. George A. Foster, Chairman of the Board of Guaranty Corporation, -assisted us greatly by providing photographs of drawings from the Corporation’s -lobby Indian displays for use in this publication. We also thank Dr. -Judith A. Schiebout, Director of the Museum of Geoscience, Louisiana -State University, who provided continuous cooperation in the development -of this project, and Mr. Daniel S. Peace, photographer of the -Museum of Geoscience, for his efforts in photographing the artifacts used -in this booklet.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_vi">vi</div> -<div class="img" id="fig3"> -<img src="images/p02.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="696" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">INDIANS OF PREHISTORIC LOUISIANA</span></p> -</div> -<dl class="undent"><dt><span class="ss">NEO-INDIAN</span></dt> -<dd>1,500</dd> -<dd>1,000 <span class="hst"><span class="ssn">CADDO/PLAQUEMINE-MISSISSIPPIAN</span></span></dd> -<dd>500 <span class="hst"><span class="ssn">TROYVILLE-COLES CREEK</span></span></dd> -<dd>A.D. <span class="hst"><span class="ssn">MARKSVILLE</span></span></dd> -<dd>B.C.</dd> -<dd>500 <span class="hst"><span class="ssn">TCHEFUNCTE</span></span></dd> -<dd>1,000 <span class="hst"><span class="ssn">POVERTY POINT</span></span></dd> -<dd>1,500</dd> -<dd>2,000</dd> -<dt><span class="ss">MESO-INDIAN</span></dt> -<dd>2,500</dd> -<dd>3,000</dd> -<dd>3,500</dd> -<dd>4,000</dd> -<dd>4,500</dd> -<dd>5,000</dd> -<dt><span class="ss">PALEO-INDIAN</span></dt> -<dd>5,500</dd> -<dd>6,000</dd> -<dd>6,500</dd> -<dd>7,000</dd> -<dd>7,500</dd> -<dd>8,000</dd> -<dd>8,500</dd> -<dd>9,000</dd> -<dd>9,500</dd> -<dd>10,000</dd> -<dd>10,500</dd> -<dt><span class="ss">?</span></dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div> -<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">INTRODUCTION</span></h2> -<p>Tens of thousands of years ago, when the world was in the midst of -the Ice Age, the first humans made their way into North America. At that -time, thick sheets of ice covering the polar regions had tied up so much of -the earth’s water that the oceans were approximately 400 feet lower than -they are today. All around the world sections of land that are now underwater -were then above sea level. An extensive land bridge connected -Siberia to Alaska across what is now the Bering Strait and people from -Asia used this route for their passage into North America.</p> -<p>The land bridge between the two continents was clear of ice for -thousands of years, and vegetation from both sides intermixed. Grazing -animals, and the people who hunted them, gradually wandered from Asia -into North America, probably without ever realizing they were moving -into a new region. Although the earliest immigrants may have reached -North America over 40,000 years ago, most of the present evidence dates -from between 23,000 and 8,000 years ago.</p> -<p>Much of Canada was covered with ice during this time, but periodically, -ice-free corridors of land connected Alaska with the Great Plains of -the United States. Over hundreds of generations nomadic people spread -throughout southern North America, Central America, and South -America. At least by 12,000 years ago, the first Indians lived in the southeastern -United States. The prehistoric era in Louisiana begins with these -first inhabitants and concludes with the arrival of the Europeans. The -chart at the left outlines the long, rich prehistory of Louisiana.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div> -<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">PALEO-INDIAN</span></h2> -<p>Twelve thousand years ago, the average temperature in the southeastern -United States was five to 10 degrees cooler than it is now, and the -climate was drier. The landscape was covered with oak and pine forests -mixed with open grasslands. Some familiar animals such as rabbits and -deer lived in the area, but many other animals that have become extinct in -North America, were also common then. Included were the camel, giant -armadillo, short-faced bear, long-horned bison, mastodon, tapir, ground -sloth, saber-toothed tiger, mammoth, dire wolf, and horse (the horse was -later reintroduced by the Spanish).</p> -<p>The earliest Indians in Louisiana, called -Paleo-Indians, hunted these animals with spears -tipped with stone points. The points were two to six -inches long, and lanceolate, with bases that were -either straight or rounded inward. The Paleo-Indians -in Louisiana made their points from carefully -selected varieties of stones that appear to have -come from neighboring regions in Texas and Arkansas.</p> -<p>The first step in making a point was to strike a -selected stone from a strategic angle with another -stone, detaching a relatively large, flat, oval piece -called a flake. The second step was to shape the -large flake by chipping off smaller flakes with a -rock, bone fragment, or antler tip. The final steps -were to remove the delicate finishing flakes by -firmly pressing against the edge of the point with an -antler or bone tool, and then to grind the base of the -point smooth with a stone. The point then was fastened -directly to a wooden shaft with hide, fiber or -an adhesive substance, or it was attached to a bone -section that was connected to the spear shaft.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig4"> -<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="599" /> -<p class="pcap">(actual size)</p> -</div> -<p>To pierce the skin of one of the large animals, such as a mastodon or -mammoth, the hunters had to be close to the powerful beast. They hurled -or jabbed their spears at the animal, and tried to confuse and immobilize -their prey. Perhaps several hunters surrounded an isolated animal waving -their arms and distracting it while one or two others speared it. If the -<span class="pb" id="Page_3">3</span> -animal was wounded, the hunters would have tracked it until it became -very weak or went to water to drink. Even a mastodon, wounded and -exhausted, or mired in the mud of a shallow lake, would have been relatively -easy game for a small group of experienced hunters.</p> -<p>Men and older boys almost certainly were the hunters for the Paleo-Indian -groups. Women and children collected fruits, seeds, roots, and -other plant foods to supplement their diet.</p> -<p>Paleo-Indians lived in small nomadic groups that remained in one area -only as long as the animals and plant foods were plentiful. The evidence -indicates that they camped near streams in temporary shelters made of -branches, grass and hides. At other times, they preferred high ground -where they could see the countryside to watch for animals. The camp may -have had a central area for group activities surrounded by living areas -where families cooked and slept. These people probably used animal skins -for clothing and as blankets, and may have had dogs as pets. They did not -raise other animals or grow crops. They used no metal and made no -pottery.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p03a.jpg" alt="Mastodon hunt" width="500" height="364" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div> -<p>Louisiana Paleo-Indian sites (areas where remains are found) are not -common, because the small groups of nomadic Indians left very few artifacts -at any location. High rainfall and humidity then led to decay and -erosion of many ancient sites while changing geography led to the disappearance -of others. The sea level has risen, so any Paleo-Indian coastal -remains are now on the ocean floor. Sites once along the Mississippi River -have been washed away or deeply buried as the river shifted its course -and deposited silt. Most Paleo-Indian spear points found in Louisiana have -been collected from ridges, hills and salt domes. Generally, these areas -have not been affected by stream changes and sea level fluctuations that -have occurred since the Ice Age.</p> -<p>As the Ice Age drew to a close, Louisiana began to change. The -climate gradually became warmer and wetter and many large Ice Age -animals became extinct. The way of life of the Paleo-Indians began to -change, too. They started hunting smaller game and collecting and eating -more plant foods.</p> -<p>The late Paleo-Indians fashioned a variety of stone tools that could be -used for butchering game, preparing hides, and working bone and wood. -They also manufactured many kinds of stone points that were generally -smaller than the earlier points. These late Paleo-Indian tools were made -from Louisiana stone, a change from the earlier time.</p> -<p>Sites of the late Paleo-Indian period are more numerous than early -Paleo-Indian sites. This suggests that the population increased and that -these people camped longer in one place. Their sites are characterized by -more artifacts, and more varieties of artifacts, than earlier Paleo-Indian -sites.</p> -<div class="box"> -<div class="img" id="fig5"> -<img src="images/p04.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="277" /> -<p class="pcap">John Pearce Site</p> -</div> -<p>Both early and late Paleo-Indian -Period materials have been found at the -John Pearce Site in Caddo Parish, Louisiana. -At the lowest (oldest) level, two early -Paleo-Indian stone points were uncovered. -A wide variety of later materials were excavated -from higher levels. The site was -used by small groups of people who camped -there temporarily. The groups used the site -as a base camp for hunting, butchering, and -hideworking activities.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p04a.jpg" alt="Stone tools" width="600" height="383" /> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Early Paleo-Indian:</dt> -<dd>a-c, Stone Points</dd> -<dd>(¾ actual size)</dd></dl> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p04b.jpg" alt="Stone tools" width="600" height="417" /> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Late Paleo-Indian:</dt> -<dd>d-e, Stone Scrapers</dd> -<dd>f-h, Stone Points</dd> -<dd>(¾ actual size)</dd></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_6">6</div> -<h2 id="c5"><span class="small">MESO-INDIAN</span></h2> -<p>The gradual transition from the late Paleo-Indian to the early Meso-Indian -Period had occurred by 5000 B.C. Meso-Indians, also called Archaic -Indians, lived in small nomadic groups. Unlike their predecessors, -however, they remained longer in each camp location and exploited smaller -geographical areas. Whereas a Paleo-Indian might roam from Texas to -Mississippi in his lifetime, returning rarely to the same place, a Meso-Indian -might spend his whole life in a six-parish area, returning each -season to favored campsites.</p> -<p>The seasonal movements of the Meso-Indians were determined by the -best times to hunt and gather certain foods. Clams, fish and deer were -available year-round, so Meso-Indians often stayed near streams, where -these were plentiful. This strategy was especially critical in the winter -months when plant foods were least available. The Indians camped where -they could collect tender, young plants in the spring; fruits in the summer; -and pecans and walnuts in the fall. Meso-Indians had a varied diet, eating -seeds, roots, nuts, fruits, fish, clams, reptiles, game birds and mammals.</p> -<p>As Meso-Indian family groups traveled, they met other hunting -groups, and sometimes camped together. These were important times for -social and ceremonial activities. They probably smoked pipes together and -shared information about good hunting, fishing, and plant collecting areas. -They exchanged gifts of tools, food, stone, and shell. Sometimes these -large groups camped together for a season or more, near rivers or near the -coast where dependable food resources could support many families.</p> -<div class="box"> -<div class="img" id="fig6"> -<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="282" /> -<p class="pcap">Banana Bayou Site</p> -</div> -<p>The Banana Bayou Site, located on the -Avery Island salt dome in Iberia Parish, -consists of a low, man-made earthen -mound, 80 feet in diameter. Charcoal from -the mound gives the radiocarbon date of -2490 ± 260 years B.C. Nut shells and fish, -deer and turtle bones have been found in -the mound as well as two stone points that -are characteristic of the Meso-Indian -Period. These findings lead archaeologists -to conclude that the site is one of the earliest -mounds in the United States.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_7">7</div> -<p>Dogs may have been kept as pets, and may have helped in hunting. -Meso-Indians developed many new hunting and fishing techniques. They -used fishhooks, traps, and nets for catching fish and other small animals, -and they used a new weapon called the atlatl (pronounced at′lat′l) to help -kill their most important prey, deer.</p> -<p>An atlatl was made from a flattish, two-foot long piece of wood and -was used as a spear-thrower. It had a hook, made of bone or antler, -attached on one end and a hand grip carved on the other end. A stone, -clay, or shell weight was sometimes attached toward the hooked end to -increase the force of the throw, or perhaps only for decoration. A spear -was rested on the atlatl with the end of the spear shaft inserted into the -atlatl hook. The hunter held the atlatl grip and the middle of the spear in -the same hand, then he hurled the spear from the atlatl (see cover illustration). -The atlatl acted as an extension of his arm, giving extra power and -accuracy to the throw.</p> -<p>The Meso-Indian spears used with the atlatl differed from those used -by Paleo-Indians. They were shorter, and the stone points were different. -Meso-Indian spear points were chipped from local stone, and they were -slightly larger and not as artistically made as late Paleo-Indian points. -Beyond these general trends, however, many Meso-Indian points found in -Louisiana have little in common with each other. The sides of some are -curved, others are straight, and some are serrated. Some are wider at the -base, some are narrower, and others have notches in the base. The variations -in shape seem almost unlimited.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig7"> -<img src="images/p05a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="278" /> -<p class="pcap">(¾ actual size)</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_8">8</div> -<p>In contrast to the changes in styles of points, Meso-Indians continued -making their stone butchering and hideworking tools in much the same -way as the Paleo-Indians. Meso-Indians also fabricated non-stone tools -and ornaments. They made bone needles, awls, fishhooks, beads, and -hairpins; and antler atlatl hooks, handles, and spear points. Less common -objects were tortoise shell rattles and shell ornaments.</p> -<p>Meso-Indians developed new tools as they increased their knowledge -of plant resources. They made baskets to carry and store seeds, roots, -fruits and nuts. They cracked nuts with specially shaped stones, and -ground nuts and seeds into flour with grinding stones.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig8"> -<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="465" /> -<p class="pcap">Meso-Indian: Grinding Stones -(½ actual size)</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div> -<p>The Meso-Indians also made axes and -chopping tools for cutting down trees and -hollowing out tree trunks. Like the atlatl -weights, grinding stones, pipes, and stone -ornaments, some of these axes were made -using a new technique. Instead of being -flaked, these stone tools were roughly -pecked into desired shapes with a hard -hammerstone, then ground smooth with -sandstone or sand and water. When completed, -some of these ground stone tools -had a highly polished surface.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig9"> -<img src="images/p06a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="195" /> -<p class="pcap">(½ actual size)</p> -</div> -<p>Although the methods of hunting, gathering plants, and making tools -remained relatively unchanged throughout the Meso-Indian Period, some -things were changing. Gradually the population expanded. Groups began -to move less frequently, and to travel over smaller areas. They learned -more about their environment as they began living, from one season to -another, in the same general area. Apparently some Louisiana Meso-Indians -remained in one place long enough to build earthen mounds. If the -dates for these mounds are correct, then they are the earliest known -mounds in the United States.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div> -<h2 id="c6"><span class="small">NEO-INDIAN</span></h2> -<p>During the Neo-Indian Period the population expanded and some -groups became sedentary, staying in one place for several years or more. -Most Meso-Indian tools continued to be used by Neo-Indians, but added to -these were stone and pottery vessels, baked clay balls, and many decorative -or ceremonial objects. Also, for the first time, shell and earthen -mounds were regularly built.</p> -<p>The Neo-Indian Period lasted from 2000 B.C. to A.D. 1600 and included -the following cultures: Poverty Point, Tchefuncte, Marksville, -Troyville-Coles Creek, Caddo and Plaquemine-Mississippian. These -groups differed from one another in when and where they lived, as well as -in the objects and earthworks they made.</p> -<h3 id="c7">Poverty Point</h3> -<p>The Poverty Point Culture flourished from approximately 2000 B.C. -to 700 B.C. The culture is named for the famous Poverty Point Site where -the largest earthworks of the period were built. During this time, Poverty -Point people lived in Louisiana, Mississippi and Arkansas, and they -usually settled near major rivers, junctions of lakes and rivers, or in -coastal marshes. These locations supported a wide variety of plants and -animals that could be used for food.</p> -<div class="box"> -<div class="img" id="fig10"> -<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="281" /> -<p class="pcap">Poverty Point Site</p> -</div> -<p>The Poverty Point Site is near Epps, -Louisiana, in the northeastern corner of the -state. The site is now a State Commemorative -Area that can be visited by the public. -It covers more than a square mile, and -when the ridges and mounds were built -they were the largest earthworks in the -Western Hemisphere. Although the exact -function of the ridges is as yet unknown, it -is speculated that the aisles may have been -used in astronomical observations because -two of them line up with the summer and -winter solstice sunsets.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_11">11</div> -<p>Like Meso-Indians, some Poverty Point Indians lived in small dispersed -groups, but others established regional centers where large populations -lived throughout the year. Oval or horseshoe-shaped structures of -earth or shell were usually built at these centers. The reason for the -construction is unknown, but it is likely that the Poverty Point leaders -lived at such sites and that the sites functioned as ceremonial, political and -trading centers.</p> -<p>The Poverty Point Site in northeastern Louisiana was the largest -regional center. It was built between the Mississippi and the Arkansas -rivers. Using these rivers, as well as land routes, Poverty Point Indians -traded with other Indians as far away as Illinois, Virginia and Florida.</p> -<p>At the Poverty Point Site, the Indians built earthen ridges that form -six semicircles, one inside the other. The ridges are interrupted by four -aisles that radiate out from the inner area. The outer ridge of these -earthworks measures nearly three-quarters of a mile across. Immediately -to the west is an earthen mound 70 feet high and just north of it is another -mound, 21 feet high.</p> -<p>The ridges and mounds were built by hand. Workers loosened dirt -with shells or stones used like hoes, then filled baskets and animal hides -with soil and carried them to the construction area. It took approximately -30 million 50-pound loads to build the earthen ridges and the two large -mounds at Poverty Point. The construction must have taken many generations -to complete.</p> -<p>Poverty Point Indians probably had a ruling class, perhaps with a -chief, to direct earthwork construction and long-distance trade. The leadership -also may have helped organize food collecting and hunting activities.</p> -<p>People living at the regional center relied on hunting, fishing, and -plant collecting to supply their food, just as Meso-Indians had. They may -also have sown seeds of favorite wild plants in cleared garden areas. There -are indications that the Poverty Point Indians grew pigweed, marsh elder, -knotweed, lamb’s quarters and sunflowers using this cultivation technique. -This gardening, though helpful, would not have been essential to -feed the people in the rich natural environments where they lived.</p> -<p>Poverty Point Indians continued to use the tools that Meso-Indians -had used for hunting, collecting, and food preparation. They were likely, -<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span> -however, to get some of the stone for these tools through long-distance -trade. The Neo-Indians also made new tools that were added to the -Meso-Indian ones.</p> -<p>They made oval-shaped stone plummets that were used as weights on -bolas or nets. A bola could be flung so that it wrapped around the feet of -wild game. Weighted nets could have trapped both fish and small game. -Stone for the plummets used by Louisiana Indians was magnetite and -hematite from Missouri and northern Arkansas.</p> -<p>The Poverty Point Indians cooked their food in a new way. They -made clay cooking balls that probably were used like charcoal briquettes -for roasting and baking. They rolled clay in their hands, then squeezed or -shaped it into one of many forms. These were dried and heated in a fire -until hot, then up to 200 were placed in a roasting pit. The different shapes -may simply indicate the maker’s design preference or may have controlled -temperature and cooking time.</p> -<p>Another change in food preparation was the introduction of stone, and -later, pottery vessels. The stone cooking or storage bowls were made from -steatite (soapstone), or less commonly from sandstone. Later in the -period, the first Louisiana pottery vessels were made, and these probably -were modeled after the earlier stone bowls.</p> -<p>In addition to these practical goods, Indians of this period made many -exotic ornamental objects including stone and clay figurines, beads, and -pendants. The figurines were about 2.5 inches tall and represented seated -females, but usually the heads were removed. This may indicate that the -clay figurines were used in some kind of ceremony. The beads were made -from copper and clay, as well as gems and other stones. Pendants, also -made from clay and stone, were in the shape of birds, insects, miniature -tools, and geometrical shapes.</p> -<p>The Indians may have cut and drilled stones to make pendants and -beads with small stone tools usually less than an inch in length. These -tools, called microtools, were also used for cutting, scraping, sawing and -engraving bone, antler, and wood.</p> -<p>Many distinctive traits of the Poverty Point Culture were shared by -people living in Mexico and Central America at that time and even earlier. -These traits included earthwork construction, planned villages, clay -figurines, stone beads and pendants, and microtools. These southern Indians -almost certainly influenced the development of certain aspects of -Poverty Point culture, either by direct contact or by descriptions shared -by travelers.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_13">13</div> -<div class="img" id="fig11"> -<img src="images/p08.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="752" /> -<p class="pcap">Poverty Point: a, Plummet; b, Atlatl Weight; c-f, Clay Cooking Balls; g, Clay Female -Figurine; h, Stone Point; i, Gorget; j-n, Stone Beads and Pendants; o, Microtools (½ -actual size)</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div> -<p>The Poverty Point Culture that flourished for over 1,000 years had -virtually disappeared by 500 B.C. There is no evidence of warfare or -conflict with another group, so perhaps internal political or religious -changes caused the decline. In any event, people gradually abandoned the -regional centers and returned to living in small scattered settlements. -Never again in Louisiana did the Indian people build such massive earthworks -or trade over such an extensive area.</p> -<h3 id="c8">Tchefuncte</h3> -<p>The simplified lifestyle that developed at the end of the Poverty Point -Period continued throughout the next cultural period. During the time of -the Tchefuncte (pronounced Che-funk′tuh) Culture, from 500 B.C. until -A.D. 200, people lived in small scattered settlements. Long distance trade -was much less important, yet people in Louisiana were in contact with -people in western Mississippi, coastal Alabama, eastern Texas, Arkansas, -and southeastern Missouri.</p> -<p>In Louisiana, most Tchefuncte people seem to have lived in coastal -areas and in lowlands near slow-moving streams. In these areas, they -camped on natural levees, terraces, salt domes, cheniers and ridges that -provided dry ground in this wet environment. Here they built their -houses, probably temporary circular shelters having a frame of light poles -covered with thatch or grass mixed with mud.</p> -<div class="box"> -<div class="img" id="fig12"> -<img src="images/p09.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="282" /> -<p class="pcap">Tchefuncte Site</p> -</div> -<p>The Tchefuncte Site, on the north -shore of Lake Pontchartrain, was so named -because it was situated inside Tchefuncte -State Park (renamed Fountainebleau State -Park). The site had two shell middens, one -that measured 100 feet by 250 feet and another -100 feet by 150 feet. Both were excavated, -and archaeologists found 50,000 -pieces of pottery, as well as artifacts made -from bone, shell and stone. Forty-three -human burials were recovered, none of -which had objects buried with them.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p09a.jpg" alt="Building a circular shelter" width="500" height="700" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div> -<p>They continued to depend on wild game and collected plant foods. In -the coastal areas, they ate tens of thousands of brackish water clams and -oysters, leaving behind piles of shells called shell middens. Because of the -number of shells, it once was thought that clams provided the major -protein source for Tchefuncte people. However, clam meat is actually low -in protein and also in other nutrients and calories. Clams were probably -eaten because they were always available, but they were not very important -in nourishing the people. Surprisingly, Tchefuncte people apparently -never ate crabs or crawfish, which also were plentiful.</p> -<p>Tchefuncte Indians obtained most of their protein from deer, raccoons, -alligators, and fish, but many other animals, especially small animals -and migratory birds were also eaten. The Indians used atlatls to kill -large game like deer and bear. For smaller mammals and birds, they -preferred traps, nets and bolas. They probably had several techniques for -fishing including netting, spearing, and fishing with hook and line. Like -the Meso-Indians before them, they gathered plant foods, including -grapes, plums, persimmons, acorns, and hickory nuts. They also grew -squash and gourds in small gardens.</p> -<p>Tchefuncte people were the first Indians in Louisiana to make large -amounts of pottery. They rolled coils of clay into shape and then smoothed -them to form a container. Many shapes of pots were made, but characteristically -they had “footed” bases. The Indians often decorated the vessels -by pressing fingernails, twigs or tools into the surface or by rocking a -small tool across the wet clay. After decorating the pots, they fired them -by slow baking.</p> -<p>Later Indians almost always kneaded the clay thoroughly and mixed -it with a small amount of another substance, called temper. These two -steps strengthened the clay and helped prevent it from shrinking unevenly -and cracking. Tchefuncte potters often omitted these steps, -perhaps because they were unaware of their importance, or perhaps because -clay was available and they could easily make another vessel if one -cracked.</p> -<p>The introduction of pottery was an important improvement in food -storage. When these pots were kept covered, they provided a relatively -dry and animal-proof container that was portable. This made it easier to -store food in times of plenty for use in leaner times. The Tchefuncte pots -also meant that stewing and other new cooking techniques could be experimented -with and developed for the first time.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_17">17</div> -<div class="img" id="fig13"> -<img src="images/p10.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="593" /> -<p class="pcap">Tchefuncte: a-d, Vessel Rim Sherds; e-f, Vessel Footed Bases; g, Clay Pipe; h, Stone -Point; i, Stone Axe; j, Bone Fishhook; k, Antler Point (½ actual size)</p> -</div> -<p>Most of the other utensils and tools that Tchefuncte Indians used -were very similar to those that Poverty Point Indians made. These included -smoking pipes; stone, bone, and antler spear points; ground stone -atlatl weights; mortars; bone fishhooks; clay cooking balls; and other -butchering, hideworking, and woodworking tools.</p> -<p>In contrast to Poverty Point Indians, the Tchefuncte Indians did not -specialize in making stone beads, pendants, or microtools, and they did not -usually import materials to make tools and ornaments. Although some -<span class="pb" id="Page_18">18</span> -innovations from the Poverty Point Culture were carried over, most -Tchefuncte tools and most Tchefuncte settlement patterns resemble those -of the Meso-Indians.</p> -<p>The majority of the information about this era comes from coastal -regions of the state. Archaeologists are not sure how Indians in the rest of -Louisiana were living at this same time, but it is likely that their culture -somewhat resembled that of the Tchefuncte Indians.</p> -<h3 id="c9">Marksville</h3> -<p>Sometime after 200 B.C., Indians of the highly influential Hopewell -Culture, centered in Ohio and Illinois, sent representatives throughout -the eastern United States. By at least the first century A.D., groups of -Louisiana Indians had met these travelers and had learned about their -culture. Hopewell people had powerful leaders who supervised a cult centered -around lavish burial rituals. Leaders organized construction of large -mounds in which certain high-status people were buried along with exquisitely -crafted objects made of copper, stone, bone, shell, pottery, and rare -minerals.</p> -<p>The Hopewell representatives may have been sent south in search of -a valued raw material or may have been sent as “evangelists” whose -mission it was to explain the virtues of Hopewell ceremonial life. Intentionally -or not, they introduced some Louisiana Indians to Hopewell practices. -The Louisiana manifestation of Hopewell life is called the Marksville -Culture.</p> -<div class="box"> -<div class="img" id="fig14"> -<img src="images/p11.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="281" /> -<p class="pcap">Marksville Site</p> -</div> -<p>The Marksville Site, in Avoyelles Parish, -was the first scientifically excavated -site of the Marksville Culture. Burial -mounds at the site are encompassed by a -horseshoe-shaped earthen embankment -almost 3,000 feet long. The site is now a -State Commemorative Area open to the -public. A museum at the park houses an -exhibit describing the site and the people -who lived there.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div> -<p>Indians of the Marksville Culture began living in larger, more permanent -settlements, building burial mounds, and making Hopewell-styled -pottery, pipes, and ornaments. They most likely had leaders who directed -craftsmen, organized community life, and officiated at burial ceremonies.</p> -<p>Burial rituals must have been a very important part of the Marksville -Culture. Large mounds were constructed in several stages over many -years. The first stage usually was a flat low platform approximately three -feet high and 40 feet in diameter. Burial ceremonies were held months or -perhaps years apart and those who had died between ceremonies were -buried together. Some remains had been temporarily interred in other -areas, so these were reburied along with primary burials, and even cremations.</p> -<p>A pit was dug into the mound surface, and sometimes lined with logs -and matting. Human remains were placed in the pit with pottery, pipes, -stone points, shells, asphaltum, quartz crystals, and other valuable objects. -The bodies might be ornamented with jewelry such as copper beads, -earspools, bracelets, and necklaces of shell, pearls, or stone. Occasionally, -a dog was placed in the grave. The pit was filled with dirt. Later, other -pits might be dug for another occasion or burials might be made by placing -remains on the mound surface and covering them with a layer of earth. -Eventually, more construction increased the overall size of the mound and -shaped it into a dome.</p> -<p>The people buried in the mounds may have been high status individuals -who lived in villages near the mounds, while ordinary people lived in -scattered villages away from the ceremonial centers. Marksville Indians in -the coastal areas lived far from the elaborate burial mounds, but they still -practiced new styles of making pottery and other objects.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig15"> -<img src="images/p11a.jpg" alt="" width="357" height="465" /> -<p class="pcap">(¼ actual size)</p> -</div> -<p>The new Marksville pottery was made -from local clay, but it was quite similar in -shape and decoration to pottery of the -Hopewell Culture in Illinois and Ohio. A typical -Hopewell vessel would be a bowl three to -six inches tall. The rim would have cross-hatched -lines on the exterior at the top and the -design on the rest of the pot would be outlined -with bold lines cut in the clay. Quite often the -<span class="pb" id="Page_20">20</span> -designs were geometric shapes and stylized birds. The background would -be textured by rocking or stamping a small, toothed tool across the wet -clay. These decorated pots were made primarily for ceremonial uses.</p> -<p>The Marksville people also made other Hopewell-like objects including -copper and stone jewelry, platform pipes and figurines. The pipes had -relatively broad flat bases (platforms) approximately three inches long. At -one end was a hole for a wooden or reed pipe stem and in the center was a -bowl. Sometimes an animal figure was on the platform, with the bowl -formed in the animal’s back. Animal and human figurines were also made. -Most of these Hopewell-like objects were buried in mounds as religious or -burial offerings.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig16"> -<img src="images/p12.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="522" /> -<p class="pcap">Marksville: a-c, Vessel Rim Sherds; d, Clay Effigy Pipe; e, Copper Ear Spool; f, Asphaltum -Effigy; g, Ceremonial Stone Point (½ actual size)</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div> -<p>In contrast, Marksville people made most of their utilitarian objects -the same way as Tchefuncte people before them. Marksville people hunted -with atlatls, bolas and nets, and fished with hooks and line. They gathered -wild plants and shellfish, and probably grew a few domesticated plants in -small gardens. They stored food in pots and baskets, and cooked in pots.</p> -<p>It seems that despite the Hopewellian influence, much of the culture -was unaffected by contact with the northerners. Through time, Hopewellian -influence diminished. Louisiana Indians built fewer burial mounds, -developed their own distinctive pottery, and began a new way of hunting.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p12a.jpg" alt="Fishing" width="500" height="582" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div> -<h3 id="c10">Troyville-Coles Creek</h3> -<p>The Troyville-Coles Creek Period lasted from approximately A.D. -400 to A.D. 1100. By the beginning of this period, influence from the -Ohio-Illinois Hopewell people had ceased, and pottery styles, mound -building, and ceremonial life had gradually changed.</p> -<p>The Troyville-Coles Creek people continued building ceremonial centers -with mounds, but these mounds differed from earlier ones. They were -larger, shaped differently, and more numerous. They also served a new -purpose. Instead of being primarily for burials, these mounds were constructed -to support temples or civic buildings. Pyramidal mounds with flat -tops, and sometimes with stepped ramps leading up one side, came into -style. They were constructed over hundreds of years, and usually were -enlarged one or more times. Although the total height might reach only 20 -feet, the base might eventually be enlarged to more than 200 feet on each -side. At certain sites, three to nine mounds eventually were built, all -around an open, central plaza.</p> -<p>A temple and one or more other buildings were usually built on a -mound summit. These buildings were either circular or rectangular with -walls of wattle and daub. Wattle is a construction technique whereby -branches, twigs, cane, or vines are interlaced around upright posts that -have been sunk in the ground. These are then plastered with mud or clay -daub. The Troyville-Coles Creek people probably used grass thatch or -palmetto fronds for the roof.</p> -<div class="box"> -<div class="img" id="fig17"> -<img src="images/p13.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="277" /> -<p class="pcap">Greenhouse Site</p> -</div> -<p>The Greenhouse Site, in Avoyelles -Parish, is the most extensively excavated -site that is typical of the Troyville-Coles -Creek Period. Seven earthen mounds there -surround an open plaza that measures 200 -feet by 350 feet. No village or campsite remains -were found in the plaza or outside -the mound area. This leads archaeologists -to conclude that the mound group was used -for ceremonial activities only, and that -villagers lived elsewhere.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div> -<p>Some people were buried in the mounds, but in contrast to Marksville -burials, the bodies were not accompanied by a rich assortment of objects. -One or more bodies were buried in pits, or simply laid upon the mound -summit and covered with dirt. People were also buried in village areas -away from the mounds. Why some were buried in the mounds and some -were not, remains a mystery. It may be that people associated with -mound construction, with temple activities, or those of significant social -status were buried in the mounds. Alternatively, if many people died from -illness, famine, or disaster, that might have signaled a time for special -ceremonies and mound enlargement. Those victims might have been -buried in a mound.</p> -<p>Villages and campsites were often a mile or more from these ceremonial -centers. There, daily life was more focused on maintaining a stable -food supply than on ceremonial activities. During the Troyville-Coles -Creek Period, important changes in hunting techniques and garden crops -helped guarantee this food supply.</p> -<p>It was during this period that the bow and -arrow came into use in Louisiana. First invented in -Europe thousands of years before, bows and arrows -were gradually adopted by people in Asia and eventually -by people in North America. The introduction -of the bow and arrow meant hunters could shoot -further, more accurately, and with more firepower -than before. The arrow points were generally -smaller than those used on spears. These then, -were the first true arrowheads made in Louisiana.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig18"> -<img src="images/p13a.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="264" /> -<p class="pcap">(¾ actual size)</p> -</div> -<p>Troyville-Coles Creek people also continued using the atlatl, as well -as the traditional butchering and hideworking tools that had been made -since Meso-Indian times. There was no dramatic change in the types of -animals hunted during this time. The Indians killed game such as deer, -bear, small mammals, and game birds. They also ate fish and mollusks as -had their ancestors.</p> -<p>The Troyville-Coles Creek people continued collecting wild seeds, -fruits, roots, and other plant foods. They cultivated squash, gourds, and -native plants such as sunflowers and lamb’s quarters, but a most important -addition to these garden crops was corn, which had been domesticated -earlier in Mexico. The Indians no doubt experimented with it for -many generations, developing strains and cultivation techniques best -suited to Louisiana conditions. Certain plant foods were still ground with -mealing stones and probably stored in pottery vessels.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_24">24</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p14.jpg" alt="Tending corn" width="500" height="721" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_25">25</div> -<p>In this period, pottery styles changed, producing more durable pots -with more diversified uses. The Troyville-Coles Creek Indians tempered -their clay with particles of dried clay before coiling it to shape the pot. -They specialized in rounded or barrel-shaped jars and in deep or shallow -bowls. The potters removed coil marks by patting the surface with a -smooth wooden paddle.</p> -<p>Sometimes they used a carved wooden paddle to stamp designs onto -the entire outer surface of the vessel. At other times they decorated only -the top half of the pot with designs formed by incising lines or pressing -tools into the damp clay. The colors of the clay were usually tan, brown, -gray or black. On rare occasions vessels were colored red on the outside or -shaped into human effigies.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig19"> -<img src="images/p14b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="467" /> -<p class="pcap">Troyville-Coles Creek: a-e, Vessel Rim Sherds; f-h, Stone Points (½ actual size)</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div> -<p>Late in the Troyville-Coles Creek Period, changes began to occur. -Indians in the northwestern part of the state developed close ties with -people living north and west of them, while those in the east became more -closely aligned with people to their east. Descendants of the Troyville-Coles -Creek people were Indians of the Caddo and of the Plaquemine-Mississipian -cultures.</p> -<h3 id="c11">Caddo</h3> -<p>By about A.D. 800, descendants of the Troyville-Coles Creek people -living in northwestern Louisiana had developed close ties with people in -southeastern Oklahoma, northeastern Texas and southern Arkansas. -From this region emerged the Caddo Culture. These Indians developed a -fine, new style of pottery, and used special ornaments and objects made -from imported materials. They also performed elaborate burials of upper -class people.</p> -<p>There was little change in the daily life of the ordinary Indians. Most -people spent their lives in small villages and hamlets near streams or -lakes. Many trends established in earlier generations persisted. New garden -crops such as beans were introduced and were added to the corn, -squash, gourds and native plants already grown. It seems that people -from these small settlements were governed by high status individuals -living at the ceremonial centers. Common people were probably required -to help build mounds, to supply food, or to make tools or special objects for -their rulers. They gathered at the centers when they were needed or -when special ceremonies or festivals were celebrated.</p> -<div class="box"> -<div class="img" id="fig20"> -<img src="images/p15.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="281" /> -<p class="pcap">Gahagan Site</p> -</div> -<p>At the Gahagan Site, in Red River -Parish, early Caddo Indians built mounds -and a village around a large open plaza. One -mound had three deep shaft burials, each -with three to six bodies and 200 to 400 burial -offerings. Some of the unusual burial objects -from this site are two clay human effigy -pipes, two copper cutouts of human -hands, two copper long-nosed mask ear ornaments, -two frog effigy pipes, and numerous -triangular stone blades called “Gahagan -knives.”</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_27">27</div> -<p>Early Caddo people continued the Troyville-Coles Creek custom of -constructing ceremonial centers with mounds around a central plaza. They -built temples or special buildings on top of the mounds and also dug graves -into the mounds for burials of important people.</p> -<p>These mound burials, however, differed somewhat from those of earlier -cultures. To bury an honored priest or chief, Caddo people dug a large -deep shaft, often all the way from the top of the mound to the ground -level. Then they placed the chief’s body, and other bodies (possibly of -sacrificed servants or family members) in the grave side by side. Special -objects were piled in the corner or along the wall of the pit.</p> -<p>Burial offerings included well-made tools, ceremonial objects and -jewelry designated only for high status people. Typical objects were fine -pottery, carefully flaked stone knives, arrow points, bows, turtle shell -rattles, polished stone axes, rare minerals, stone or clay smoking pipes, -animal teeth pendants, bone hairpins, ear ornaments of bone, shell, or -copper, and beads of copper, shell, and stone. Unusual objects were pipes -in the form of humans and frogs, sheets of copper cut in the shape of -hands, and ear ornaments resembling small copper masks. The face of -each “mask” was an oval about three inches long, but the nose was seven -inches long. Interestingly, at the same time, identical masks were also -used by Indians as far away as Missouri, Wisconsin and Florida.</p> -<p>Caddo potters made special new shapes such as bottles, and bowls -with sharply angled rims. They fired the pieces in a new way so they -would be black or dark mahogany in color, then polished the dark surfaces -to make them glossy. Some common ornamental designs were curved lines -cut into the surface and sometimes highlighted with red or green-colored -pigment rubbed into the engraved lines. Not surprisingly, much of the -utilitarian pottery remained quite similar in appearance to the late -Troyville-Coles Creek pottery. Caddo Indians probably still used it for -daily chores, while they saved more ornate wares for special occasions.</p> -<p>The ordinary Caddo Culture people lived in villages away from the -mound center. Their lives were centered around hunting, fishing, collecting, -and gardening activities. When a commoner died, he or she was -buried in a simple grave without objects. Although this way of life seems -totally separate from the elaborate life of the elite, the two worlds overlapped -at ceremonial occasions, when everyone gathered at the mound -centers.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_28">28</div> -<div class="img" id="fig21"> -<img src="images/p16.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="727" /> -<p class="pcap">Caddo: a-c, Clay Vessels; d-e, Clay Pipes; f, Engraved Shell Cup; g, Shell Pendant; h, -Stone Points (⅓ actual size)</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_29">29</div> -<p>Between A.D. 1100 and A.D. 1400, Caddo ceremonial life seems to -have been less important. All burials were simple, with only one person in -a grave. Fewer imported stones and minerals were used to make high -status objects, and more ordinary pottery was made.</p> -<p>After A.D. 1400, there was a return to Caddo ceremonialism. Many -early Caddo customs were revived, but new practices were also added. -Mound construction resumed, with temples, lodges, or chiefs’ houses -being built on top. These structures characteristically were built of wattle -and daub and had thatched roofs. They were used for a time, then they -were burned, probably when the leader or an important person died. -Workers covered the ruins with sand or clay, and eventually replaced the -old building with a new one. Sometimes graves were dug through the floor -of standing buildings or through the rubble of burned ones. As many as -seven people have been found buried together in these graves, along with -food offerings and large numbers of objects.</p> -<p>As in earlier times, important people had special customs and belongings -that ordinary people did not have. One custom was that of binding an -infant’s head to a cradleboard so that as the person grew to maturity the -head was noticeably flattened and therefore distinguished the high class -person from people of the lower class. Upper class people used ornate clay -pipes, conch shell cups, ceremonial objects, fine pottery, and jewelry. -Their jewelry included anklets, necklaces, bone hairpins, and bone pottery -and shell discs that were worn through the ears. Some pendants were -fashioned from mammal teeth or shells, and occasionally a large sea shell -pendant had a lizard or salamander engraved on it.</p> -<p>Caddo leaders of this late period probably used the most delicate and -decorated pottery. Pots ranged in size from miniatures to large wide-mouthed -storage vessels. Many shapes were made, but special vessels -were formed to resemble birds and turtles, or to act as rattles. Popular -designs were circles, scrolls, and crosses engraved into the vessel after -firing. Engraved designs were often highlighted with red, white or green -pigments.</p> -<p>Daily life of ordinary people was much different than that of the elite. -As far as we know, the former continued to live as they had during the -earlier part of the period. They lived in circular houses in small villages -located near their gardens and buried their dead in simple graves with few -goods.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_30">30</div> -<p>By the time the first Europeans reached Caddo villages in the mid-1500s, -Caddo Indians were divided into several distinct groups. In Louisiana, -these were the Adaes, Doustioni, Natchitoches, Ouachita and Yatasi. -The Indians supplied the Europeans with salt, horses, and food in exchange -for glass beads, kettles, guns, ammunition, knives, ceramics, bells -and bracelets. Contact with the Spanish and French explorers ended the -prehistoric era, and led to rapid and devastating changes in the traditional -life.</p> -<h3 id="c12">Plaquemine-Mississippian</h3> -<p>While Caddo Indians flourished in northwestern Louisiana, those in -the rest of the state by approximately A.D. 1000 had a slightly different -way of life. Many of the latter were part of the Plaquemine Culture, who -like the Caddo, were descendants of Troyville-Coles Creek Indians. In -keeping with the patterns established by their ancestors, Plaquemine -people built large ceremonial centers with two or more large mounds -facing an open plaza. The flat-topped, pyramidal mounds were constructed -in several stages, and eventually measured more than 100 feet on a side -and 10 feet high. Sometimes they were topped by one or two smaller -mounds.</p> -<div class="box"> -<div class="img" id="fig22"> -<img src="images/p17.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="281" /> -<p class="pcap">Medora Site</p> -</div> -<p>The Plaquemine Culture was so named -because the Medora Site, typical of the -period, is near Plaquemine, Louisiana, in -West Baton Rouge Parish. The site had -two mounds approximately 400 feet apart -with a plaza in between. One was a flat-topped -pyramid 125 feet on a side 13 feet -high with a small domed mound three feet -high and 25 feet in diameter on top. The -other one was two feet high and 100 feet in -diameter. Eighteen thousand pieces of broken -pottery were found at Medora, along -with a few stone tools.</p> -</div> -<p>Plaquemine Indians often built the mounds on top of the ruins of a -house or temple, and constructed similar buildings on top of the mound. In -earlier times, buildings were usually circular, but later they were likely to -<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span> -be rectangular. They were constructed with wattle and daub, and sometimes -with wall posts sunk into foot-deep wall trenches.</p> -<p>At times, the Indians dug shallow, oval or rectangular graves in the -mounds. These might be for primary burials of individuals, but more -frequently they were for the reburial of remains originally interred -elsewhere. Some graves contained only skulls, and one of these had 66 -skulls. Burial offerings included pottery, pipes, stone points, and axes -made of ground stone.</p> -<p>One type of pottery occasionally placed -in the graves is called “killed” pottery. This -type has a hole in the base of the vessel that -was cut while the pot was being made, usually -before it was fired. The Plaquemine Indians -also decorated their pots in other -characteristic ways. They sometimes added -small solid handles called lugs, and textured -the surface by brushing clumps of grass over -the vessel before it was fired. They often cut -designs into the surface of the wet clay, and -like their Caddo contemporaries, the Plaquemine -Indians engraved designs on pots after -they were fired. Plaquemine Indians also had -undecorated pots which they used for ordinary -daily tasks.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig23"> -<img src="images/p17a.jpg" alt="" width="395" height="601" /> -<p class="pcap">(⅓ actual size)</p> -</div> -<p>Not surprisingly, the ordinary people lived much as the average -Caddo Indians. They participated in festivals and ceremonies at the -mound centers, but spent most of their time with families and neighbors -collecting and producing food, or participating in village activities.</p> -<p>During the early part of the period some hunters still used atlatls, but -soon bows and arrows predominated. The Indians hunted deer, bear, -rabbit, squirrel, raccoon, turkey and duck; fished for gar and drum; and -collected mussels. Although the Plaquemine Indians tended gardens of -corn, squash, pumpkins and beans, they still collected many wild seeds, -roots, nuts and fruits.</p> -<p>At approximately the same time as Caddo and Plaquemine Indians -were living in Louisiana, Mississippian Culture people in the St. Louis -area had developed the largest prehistoric center in the United States. -This was a ceremonial, residential, and trading center with a population of -35,000-40,000 people. The Mississippian Culture spread throughout the -southeastern United States, and was characterized by huge earthen temple -mounds, widespread trading networks, and a ceremonial complex represented -by elaborately shaped pottery and stone, bone, shell and copper -objects.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_32">32</div> -<div class="img" id="fig24"> -<img src="images/p18.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="813" /> -<p class="pcap">Plaquemine: a. Clay Pipe; b, Stone Gaming Piece; c, Stone Celt; d-g, Stone Points; h-j, -Clay Ornaments (½ actual size)</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_33">33</div> -<div class="img" id="fig25"> -<img src="images/p18a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="298" /> -<p class="pcap">Mississippian: a, Vessel Rim Sherd; b, Effigy Vessel (⅓ actual size)</p> -</div> -<p>As far as we know, no major Mississippian centers developed in Louisiana, -although ones were established in Georgia at Etowah and in -Alabama at Moundville. There is evidence that sometime between A.D. -1000 and A.D. 1600 small groups of people from the eastern Mississippian -centers made their way to Louisiana. They came to the Avery Island area -to collect and refine salt, and to other parts of the state to search for other -materials. Perhaps through repeated contacts, a few groups of Louisiana -Indians learned classic Mississippian techniques of making pottery and -other ceremonial objects. Some Indians in the southeastern and northeastern -parts of Louisiana may even have established close ties with their -eastern neighbors and added Mississippian customs to the Plaquemine -Culture. Louisiana groups that may have descended from those Mississippian -groups are those who speak the Tunican, Chitimachan, and Muskogean -languages. Those who probably descended from Plaquemine Culture -Indians are the Taensa and Natchez.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_34">34</div> -<h2 id="c13"><span class="small">EUROPEAN TRAVELERS DESCRIBE INDIANS</span></h2> -<p>Early European descriptions of the Natchez and Taensa Indians help -us understand their life, and give an idea of the way many of the late -prehistoric Indians throughout Louisiana lived. European travelers reported -that some Indians lived near the ceremonial centers that had -mounds surrounding a central plaza. The two most important buildings, -the temple and the chief’s house, were at the center.</p> -<p>The temple was on the summit of one of the mounds, or was in a -prominent place facing the plaza. It had thick wattle and daub walls and a -thatched roof with carved and painted wooden animal effigies on top. -Inside, a sacred fire was tended by several Indians, whose job it was to -keep the fire always burning. Bones of past chiefs, and servants who had -died with them, were stored in baskets or on a low clay altar. Also, valued -objects such as clay figurines, crystals, and carved wooden objects were -kept in the temple.</p> -<p>The temple faced a plaza that was the scene of community feasts and -rituals, as well as games, such as chunkey. In chunkey, opponents hurled -long poles after a rolling disc. The one whose pole landed closest to the -place where the disc stopped rolling won a point, or valued possessions, if -bets had been made.</p> -<p>The chief’s house, situated on top of a mound, overlooked the plaza -area. The chief used the house as his living quarters as well as a reception -area for visitors and subjects. The furnishings of the house included -wooden beds covered with matting, and perhaps a wooden stump used as a -stool. Reed or cane torches provided light. Servants waited on the chief, -always keeping a respectful distance, and quickly meeting all of his needs. -No one ever used the chief’s belongings or walked in front of him.</p> -<p>The chief was a highly honored and respected person, and his death -was a time for great mourning. Ceremonies, dancing, and processions -were part of the burial rituals that continued for several days. The chief’s -wife, servants, and others who volunteered for the honor, were sedated -and ritually strangled as part of the ceremonies. The bodies were placed -on special raised tombs covered with branches and mud. After many -weeks, the bones were removed and placed in baskets that were stored in -the temple. Eventually, the bones were buried in a platform in the temple, -or were buried in the mound when it was expanded. The deceased chief’s -house was usually burned and might be covered with another layer of -earth before the new chief’s house was built. The son of the dead chief’s -sister would become the next ruler.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p19.jpg" alt="Mound ceremony" width="500" height="638" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_36">36</div> -<p>People from miles around came to participate in the burial ceremonies, -after which they returned to their villages and resumed their -normal lives. Some lived in small communities near the mounds, but -others lived in scattered settlements miles away.</p> -<p>Their clothing was very simple. The men wore only a cloth or -deerskin breechcloth, unless the weather was cold. Then they added long -deerskin shirts and leggings. Women wore skirts of skin or of cloth woven -from tree bark, and in cold weather they also wore a skin wrap.</p> -<p>Women usually wore their hair long, sometimes tying it back, or -braiding it. Men wore theirs short, and in many styles. Sometimes they -even completely removed the hair from one side of their head. Women -often decorated themselves by blackening their teeth with ashes and by -rubbing red pigment on their faces, shoulders, and stomachs. Men decorated -themselves, too, especially on ceremonial occasions when they -painted themselves with red, white or black markings and tied feathers in -their hair. Both men and women wore earrings in their pierced ears and -large pendants or strings of shells or seeds around their neck. Honored -warriors and upper class people wore red and black tattoos on their faces -and other parts of their bodies.</p> -<p>The men and women had very different daily tasks. Women took care -of the young children; planted, tended and harvested the crops; cooked the -meals; and made the pottery, baskets, mats and clothing. Men’s work -consisted of housebuilding, canoe-making, and clearing land for gardens, -along with defense, hunting, woodcutting, and making the tools for these -chores. The men also had primary responsibilities for ritual and political -activities.</p> -<p>The European explorers traded with the men. Europeans provided -guns, ammunition, metal kettles, iron tools, glass beads, and metal ornaments. -These were sometimes given as gifts to hosts, guides, or to the -chief and they were also exchanged for pearls or baskets, and for necessities -such as meat, oil, salt, skins and horses.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_37">37</div> -<h2 id="c14"><span class="small">ARCHAEOLOGY AND LOUISIANA’S PAST</span></h2> -<p>Upon the arrival of Europeans in Louisiana and their written descriptions -of the Indians, the prehistoric period came to an end. However, our -understanding of this prehistory is still incomplete. Hundreds of major -questions remain, including very basic ones: When did the first Indians -reach Louisiana? What sparked the development of the Poverty Point -Culture? Where and how were the Mexican plants of corn, beans and -squash introduced to Louisiana? Which prehistoric groups were the ancestors -of each of Louisiana’s historic Indian tribes? The answers to these and -many other questions remain buried in archaeological sites throughout the -state. If enough sites can be studied before they are destroyed, there is -hope that the story of the state’s prehistory can be better explained.</p> -<p>The importance of archaeology in understanding Louisiana’s past -does not stop with the end of the prehistoric era. Historic archaeologists -also study Indian sites that date after the contact with Europeans. In this -way, archaeologists can document the many dramatic changes in Indian -culture during historic times. Archaeologists also excavate sites associated -with African-American and European-American life in Louisiana. -These archaeological investigations supplement, and often correct, the -written documents that describe the state’s history.</p> -<p>With the cooperation and participation of Louisiana’s citizens, the -archaeological study of our state will continue. Through the protection of -sites and the funding of scientific excavations, we can discover more about -the past. Then the story of Louisiana’s prehistory and early historic development -can be retold, more accurately and more completely.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_38">38</div> -<h2 id="c15"><span class="small">OTHER BOOKS AND ARTICLES</span></h2> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Louisiana Geography:</b></dt> -<dd>Kniffen, Fred B.</dd> -<dd class="t">1968 <i>Louisiana, its land and people.</i> Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Louisiana Prehistory:</b></dt> -<dd>Haag, William G.</dd> -<dd class="t">1971 Louisiana in North American prehistory. <i>Museum of Geoscience, Louisiana State University, Mélanges</i> 1.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dd>Neuman, Robert W.</dd> -<dd class="t">1984 <i>An introduction to Louisiana archaeology.</i> Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Poverty Point:</b></dt> -<dd>Webb, Clarence H.</dd> -<dd class="t">1982 The Poverty Point Culture (second edition). <i>School of Geoscience, Louisiana State University, Geoscience and Man</i> 17.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Tchefuncte:</b></dt> -<dd>Ford, James A. and George I. Quimby, Jr.</dd> -<dd class="t">1945 The Tchefuncte Culture, an early occupation of the Lower Mississippi Valley. <i>Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology</i> 2.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Marksville:</b></dt> -<dd>Toth, Alan</dd> -<dd class="t">1974 Archaeology and ceramics at the Marksville Site. <i>Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Anthropological Papers</i> 56.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Troyville-Coles Creek:</b></dt> -<dd>Ford, James A.</dd> -<dd class="t">1951 Greenhouse: a Troyville-Coles Creek Period site in Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana. <i>Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History</i> 44: Part 1.</dd></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_39">39</div> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Caddo:</b></dt> -<dd>Webb, Clarence H. and Hiram F. Gregory</dd> -<dd class="t">1978 The Caddo Indians of Louisiana. <i>Louisiana Anthropological Survey and Antiquities Commission Anthropological Study</i> 2.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Plaquemine:</b></dt> -<dd>Quimby, George I., Jr.</dd> -<dd class="t">1951 The Medora Site, West Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana. <i>Anthropological Series, Field Museum of Natural History</i> 24: 81-135.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Mississippian:</b></dt> -<dd>Brown, Ian W.</dd> -<dd class="t">1981 The role of salt in eastern North American prehistory. <i>Louisiana Archaeological Survey and Antiquities Commission Anthropological Study</i> 3.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Early Descriptions of Louisiana Indians:</b></dt> -<dd>Swanton, John R.</dd> -<dd class="t">1911 Indian tribes of the Lower Mississippi Valley and adjacent coast of the Gulf of Mexico. <i>Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin</i> 43, Smithsonian Institution.</dd></dl> -<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Other References:</b></dt> -<dd>Neuman, Robert W. and Lanier A. Simmons</dd> -<dd class="t">1969 A bibliography relative to Indians of the State of Louisiana, <i>Department of Conservation, Louisiana Geological Survey, Anthropological Study</i> 4.</dd></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_40">40</div> -<h2 id="c16"><span class="small">Anthropological Study Series</span></h2> -<p class="center">No. 1 On the Tunica Trail -<br />by Jeffrey P. Brain</p> -<p class="center">No. 2 The Caddo Indians of Louisiana, second edition -<br />by Clarence H. Webb & Hiram F. Gregory</p> -<p class="center">No. 3 The Role of Salt in Eastern North American Prehistory -<br />by Ian Brown</p> -<p class="center">No. 4 El Nuevo Constante -<br />by Charles E. Pearson, et al.</p> -<p class="center">No. 5 Preserving Louisiana’s Legacy -<br />by Nancy W. Hawkins</p> -<p class="center">No. 6 Louisiana Prehistory -<br />by Robert W. Neuman & Nancy W. Hawkins</p> -<p class="center">No. 7 Poverty Point -<br />by Jon L. Gibson</p> -<p class="center">No. 8 Bailey’s Dam -<br />by Steven D. Smith and George J. Castille III</p> -<p class="center">These publications can be obtained by writing:</p> -<p class="center">Division of Archaeology -<br />P. O. Box 44247 -<br />Baton Rouge, LA 70804</p> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul> -<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li> -<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is a government public document, and can be freely copied and distributed.</li> -<li>In the text versions only, text in <i>italics</i> is delimited by _underscores_.</li> -</ul> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Louisiana Prehistory, by -Robert W. Neuman and Nancy W. 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