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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9aec1c8 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #62117 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/62117) diff --git a/old/62117-0.txt b/old/62117-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index e785b49..0000000 --- a/old/62117-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1907 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Water Power for the Farm and Country Home, by -David R. Cooper - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: Water Power for the Farm and Country Home - -Author: David R. Cooper - -Release Date: May 14, 2020 [EBook #62117] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WATER POWER *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Marshall and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - - Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold= - in the original text. - Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals. - Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs. - Typographical errors have been silently corrected. - - - - - STATE OF NEW YORK - STATE WATER SUPPLY COMMISSION - - HENRY H. PERSONS, =President=. - MILO M. ACKER, - CHARLES DAVIS, - JOHN A. SLEICHER, - ROBERT H. FULLER, - =COMMISSIONERS= - - DAVID R. COOPER, - =Engineer-Secretary=. - - WALTER MCCULLOH, - =Consulting Engineer=. - - LYON BLOCK, ALBANY, N. Y. - - - - - Water Power - FOR THE - Farm and Country Home - - BY DAVID R. COOPER - Engineer-Secretary - - New York State Water Supply Commission - - Second Edition - - PRINTED FOR THE STATE WATER SUPPLY COMMISSION - BY J. B. LYON COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS - ALBANY - -[Illustration] - - - - -WATER POWER FOR THE FARM AND COUNTRY HOME - - -BY DAVID R. COOPER - -In the course of its general investigations of the water powers -of the State, the Water Supply Commission has heretofore confined -its attention to the possibilities for large developments, and the -regulation of the flow of rivers and large creeks. No previous or -general investigation of small creeks and brooks and their power -possibilities has been made, not because they were considered -unimportant, but because the Commission believes that if the State -decides to take an active part in the regulation of the flow of streams -and the development and conservation of water powers, it should -confine its first activities to the larger units, leaving the smaller -opportunities for later examination and for private and individual -development. However, no comprehensive system of conservation can meet -with universal favor unless it contemplates the prevention of waste, -great or small, and wherever found. - -Accordingly, the Commission desires to call attention to the -valuable power which is now running to waste in thousands of small -creeks and brooks in all sections of the State. Many of these minor -streams present possibilities for small individual developments of -power sufficient to supply all the requirements of the owner at a -comparatively small cost. Numerous farms in the State have on them -brooks or creeks capable of supplying power sufficient to furnish -electric light for all the buildings. Others would also furnish power -enough to drive a feed grinder, a churn or cream separator, or to run a -wood saw, sewing machine or other machines and implements requiring a -small amount of power for their operation. In short, there are numerous -small streams now tumbling over ledges in barnyards or pastures whose -wasted energy might readily be transformed and applied to useful work -by the installation of small and inexpensive water-power plants. If the -power of more of these were developed and substituted for manual labor, -a great saving of time and energy would be accomplished, and financial -profit would result. - -[Illustration: Modern Application of Hydro-electric Power Vacuum -Milking Machines] - -After the initial expense of installing the plant is paid, the cost -of a small water power is inconsiderable, the plant requiring little -personal attention and small expense for supplies and repairs. However, -while the power of some streams may be developed at an amazingly -small cost, in other instances the cost may be prohibitive. In this -connection, one fact that is perhaps not fully appreciated is that -the power of a waterfall is comparatively permanent, only its rate of -availability being limited. While the stream may shrink in the dry -summer and fall, it is quite certain to swell again in the spring and -to continue the process, year after year, as the source of supply is -continually renewed. But the power which might have been, but was not -developed in the year 1910, cannot be reclaimed in 1911 or ever after. -Much of the power that is wasted by inequality of the flow of the -stream may be saved by conservation through water storage; but this -sometimes involves a large outlay and therefore, generally speaking, -the fullest use of the power of a small stream can best be obtained by -using the stream as it runs, or at best after temporary storage behind -inexpensive dams. - -[Illustration: “Luminous” Electric Radiator] - -The Water Supply Commission believes that the possibilities for small -water powers should be pointed out to the people of the State in order -that there may be a better realization of the usefulness and value of -this remarkable natural resource and that the farmers and residents of -rural districts may take advantage of the opportunities to conserve and -utilize them. It is believed that some facts relating to the utility -of power in general and small water powers in particular, together -with descriptions of some typical small water-power developments -that are now in actual operation, and brief notes as to how such a -power may be developed and applied, will suffice to bring the subject -forcibly to the attention of those most interested, and furnish at -least a beginning for observations in this comparatively new field, -and stimulate a tendency to a more general utilization of this source -of power, and a consequent saving of much energy now secured from -coal, wood and other exhaustible producers of power. Accordingly, the -following discussion of the many and varied uses for power on the -modern farm, together with descriptions of developments now in use, and -notes on developing a small water power, are submitted in the hope that -they may be of interest and service to those who have chosen farming -for their livelihood or pleasure, especially by assisting them in the -consideration as to whether or not it may be worth while to develop the -power of any particular stream. These discussions and descriptions are -not intended to suffice as a practical handbook for laying out a power -plant, but merely to point the way to an intelligent consideration of -the possibilities, by showing what others have done and laying down -a few fundamental principles, which should properly be taken into -consideration in determining upon the development of a small water -power. - - - - -USES FOR POWER ON THE FARM - - -The impossibility of securing a sufficient number of capable and -satisfactory farm hands in these days, when the majority of young men -are turning to the populous centers for their livelihood, is perhaps -the most compelling reason why machines which can be substituted for -manual labor are a decided advantage to the up-to-date farmer. Their -adoption as a part of the permanent equipment for the farm should -render their owner comparatively independent of some of the problems of -supply and demand for farm labor, the solution of which problems is -an important factor in determining the success or failure of the -farmer who disposes of his produce in open market. This condition is -supplemented by a commendable tendency for farmers to live better, to -place the home life of the farm on a higher plane, and to make farming -a means of pleasurable livelihood rather than the mere eking out of -a bare subsistence from the products of the soil. These conditions, -together with the greatly improved quality of illumination and -convenience which electricity affords, are creating a growing demand -for a reliable and reasonably economical source of energy with which to -supply both light and power on the larger estates and farms. - -[Illustration: Motor Lifting a Ton of Hay, Hydro-electric Power] - -[Illustration: Electric Toaster] - -That electric light is much cleaner and more convenient than kerosene -lamps must, of course, be admitted by all. It must also be admitted -that a kerosene lamp of any considerable illuminating power has also -certain heating propensities which render it an unpleasant companion -on a warm summer evening. However, when it comes to a consideration -of mere dollars and cents, there seems to be a widespread belief that -kerosene as a source of illumination is cheaper than electricity. -Statements to this effect are too often allowed to go uncontradicted, -and too many people accept this view without taking the trouble to -investigate. - -It is a comparatively simple matter to compare the cost of the two -kinds of light, knowing as we do exactly how much current an electric -lamp of a certain filament and candle-power will consume. Such a -comparison will frequently result in a choice of electricity as the -cheaper light. In many cases the selection of electricity to supplant -kerosene lamps would result in no considerable saving of money, but -would do away with considerable inconvenience and furnish much better -illumination. If cost is the controlling consideration, the comparison -cannot always be so much in favor of electricity. An important -consideration, often overlooked, is that with electric lights the -interiors of living rooms do not require such frequent repapering or -refinishing as they would require with kerosene illumination. - -[Illustration: Motor-driven Sewing Machine] - -However, the convenience and cleanliness of electricity are fairly well -known and appreciated, but the means by which electric currents may be -generated economically, and by which this form of energy may be applied -to bring about sufficient returns, financial and otherwise, to warrant -the installation of an isolated plant for a farm or country home, are -not so generally understood. - -Electric current may be generated by means of a dynamo, or generator, -with any kind of a power-producing plant. All that the dynamo requires -to enable it to produce electric current is power of some kind that -may be applied in such manner and quantity as will cause the armature, -or “interior core,” of the machine to rotate at a sufficiently high -and uniform rate of speed. There are various kinds of power generators -which will perform this work satisfactorily for isolated plants. Within -the last few years the small internal combustion engine, supplemented -by the electric storage battery, for stationary service, have been so -much improved and simplified as to cause them to compare very favorably -with the better-known types of power-producing apparatus in first cost -and in reliability of operation. The extreme simplicity of both this -type of engine and of the storage battery, together with the great -economy in fuel consumption of these engines, the low price of fuel, -and the efficiency of the battery as a device for storing the energy -and delivering it in the form of electric current when needed and in -the quantity required, result in a low operating cost. The advent of -tax-free alcohol into the field of available fuels for use in internal -combustion engines, and the growing demand for this class of fuel, -indicate that it will become, in time, a strong competitor of kerosene -and gasolene. At present, gasolene is the fuel most generally used for -engines of this type and small-size gas engines are now manufactured by -many firms. - -Steam power is probably the best understood of all classes of power. In -many cases, especially where the fuel is very cheap, this is the best -power for a farmer to have. Steam-power plants, as well as gasolene, -kerosene and alcohol plants, all require personal attendance during -operation and necessitate more or less frequent applications of fuel. -Wind power is also a source of energy which may well be considered by -the farmer who needs a small amount of power. - -Perhaps the most promising source of power for farmers in New York -State is the power that may be developed from falling water. This kind -of a power plant requires comparatively little personal attention -while in operation, and needs no replenishing of fuel except such as -Nature herself provides in the flowing brook. Not only are there many -of these powers that are undeveloped as yet, but there are many others -which have been developed at some previous time and have recently been -allowed to fall into disuse for various reasons. Many old sawmills were -abandoned when the surrounding hills were all lumbered off. A small -investment would enable many such old powers to be revived and applied -to some useful purpose. Such a water-power plant could frequently be -made to serve the owner or a group of users of electric current at very -small first cost for each individual, and at an operating cost which -would be inconsiderable. - -It should be borne in mind, however, that much depends on the choice of -the best power for any particular purpose, and a careful consideration -of what is needed, and the conditions under which the power must be -supplied, is essential to insure satisfaction with a power plant. -In any particular instance a manufacturer of small waterwheels will -cheerfully submit an estimate for a water-power plant, while the -makers of steam and gasolene engines will quite as readily furnish any -information to be based on data furnished by the intending purchaser. - -[Illustration: Motor-driven Ice Cream Freezer] - -The extent of the applications of power to practical purposes on the -farm is very broad. While perhaps electric lighting is the use most -frequently thought of, it is, however, in the application of electric -current or power to the operation of labor-saving devices that the -greatest gain is to be derived on the large farm or country place. Feed -grinders, root cutters, fodder cutters, fanning mills, grindstones, -circular saws, corn shellers, drill presses, ensilage cutters and -elevators, horse clippers, milking machines, grain separators, -threshing machines, cream separators, churns, vacuum cleaners, -ice cream freezers, dough mixers, feed mixers, chicken hatchers, -and numerous other machines and implements operated by power, are -obtainable in these days of labor-saving devices. The amount of power -required to operate many of these is small. The presence of a plant of -sufficient capacity to operate one or two particular machines often -makes it possible to use the power for many of the other purposes. -The amount of work that a small power will do may be judged from the -following brief statements of what is actually being done: - -[Illustration: Motor-driven Cream Separator - -Note small size of motor] - -Six horsepower will drive a grain separator and thresh 2500 bushels of -oats in ten hours. - -Three horsepower furnishes all power needed to make 6000 pounds of milk -into cheese in one day. - -Six horsepower will run a feed mill grinding twenty bushels of corn an -hour. - -Five horsepower grinds twenty-five to forty bushels of feed, or ten to -twelve bushels of ear corn, an hour. - -Seven horsepower drives an eighteen-inch separator, burr mill and corn -and cob crusher and corn sheller, grinding from twelve to fifteen -bushels of feed an hour, and five to eight bushels of good, fine meal. - -Six horsepower runs a heavy apple grater, grinding and pressing 200 to -250 bushels of apples an hour. - -Five horsepower will drive a thirty-inch circular saw, sawing from -fifty to seventy-five cords of stovewood from hard oak in ten hours. - -[Illustration: Electric Ironing] - -Six horsepower saws all the wood four men can pile in cords. - -Twelve horsepower will drive a fifty-inch circular saw, sawing 4000 -feet of oak, or 5000 feet of poplar, in a day. - -Ten horsepower will run a sixteen-inch ensilage cutter and blower, and -elevate the ensilage into a silo thirty feet high at the rate of seven -tons per hour. - -One horsepower will pump water from a well of ordinary depth in -sufficient quantity to supply an ordinary farmhouse and all the -buildings with water for all the ordinary uses. - -In determining the size of power plant required in any particular -instance the use requiring the largest amount of power must be -considered. It follows that there will then be plenty of power for the -smaller requirements. In considering a water power it should also be -borne in mind that the full theoretical amount of a water power can -never be realized, a certain portion being taken up in friction in the -waterwheel and in losses in the electric generator, transmission lines, -motors, etc. The question as to how much may be made available will be -discussed hereinafter. - -Following are descriptions of some typical water-power developments in -use in this State at the present time. - - - - -FARM WATER-POWER DEVELOPMENT IN ONEIDA COUNTY - - -[Illustration: Electric Hot Plate] - -On the outskirts of the village of Oriskany Falls, in Oneida county, -N. Y., is a farm of about 100 acres, belonging to Mr. E. Burdette -Miner. This community was at one time one of the principal hop-raising -districts of the State. Mr. Miner has been engaged in raising hops for -fifty years, and raised 10,000 pounds of hops on seven acres the past -season. In recent years he has divided his attention between mixed -farming and dairying, keeping from twenty to twenty-five cows. - -Before the installation of his water power, not the least of the -irksome tasks about the farmhouse was the daily filling and cleaning -of kerosene lamps and lanterns; and the wood was sawed, and the cream -separator and churn in the dairy room were operated, by hand. Five sons -contributed in no small measure to the prompt disposal of the daily -tasks. But the boys went forth into the world and acquired lines of -activity and interest of their own. Only the oldest son remained to -live on the farm. Another son studied electrical engineering, a third -chose mechanical pursuits, a fourth became a civil engineer, and a -fifth took up commercial work. - -[Illustration: Electric Coffee Percolator] - -After coming in touch with the outer world and the great modern -achievements of science and invention, especially of a mechanical or -engineering character, the boys quite naturally set their wits to work -to devise some way in which the daily labors of those at home might be -made less burdensome. - -Through the farm flows Oriskany creek, which ripples over its gravelly -bed in a channel from twenty to thirty feet wide. The boys said to -their father, “Why not harness the creek and make it do some of the -work?” There was no precipitous fall of the creek on the farm, but -the boys proposed to concentrate at least a portion of the fall by -constructing a dam. This they intended to do primarily for the purpose -of developing enough power to light the homestead and farm buildings -with electricity and to saw the wood and do away with some of the other -tiresome farm tasks. - -The elder Miner was not enthusiastic at first, but was finally -persuaded by the boys, who made surveys and plans for a water-power -development, and in October, 1905, with the assistance of three of his -boys and two day laborers, Mr. Miner began the construction of a dam -across the creek. This was to be no ordinary structure. The creek, -while peaceful enough at most times, had a habit, well known to Mr. -Miner, of bursting its bounds every spring and rushing through the farm -in a torrent. So the dam was built in such a way that, while it would -raise the water to a certain height during periods of ordinary flow, it -would not cause the floods to rise perceptibly higher than before the -dam was built. Accordingly, it was designed so that a part of it could -be lowered at flood times to allow free passage for the swollen stream. - -[Illustration: Dam of E. B. Miner, Oriskany Falls, N. Y. - -Main dam at left; flood spillway at right] - -The bed of the stream at the site selected for the dam is composed of -solidly packed gravel. It was not considered advisable to lay timbers -on such a foundation, so a ditch about two feet deep and one and -one-half feet wide was dug across the creek bed and filled with -concrete, to which a heavy timber was securely bolted, to form the -upstream sill for the super-structure. The downstream side was -supported on a sill of heavy timber whose ends were embedded in the -concrete walls, or abutments, at either end of the dam and whose middle -portion was supported by posts, spaced six feet apart, which in turn -rested on large blocks of concrete placed in the bed of the creek. -This downstream sill was about two and one-half feet higher than the -upstream sill. A horizontal floor of double plank extending twelve -feet downstream from the upstream sill and supported by the concrete -foundations under the downstream sill formed an apron for the water to -fall on. This prevents back-washing under the dam. A double layer of -heavy plank was then fastened on the two sills, forming a sloping face -on the water side of the dam. On the upper edge of this plank-facing, -at the crest of the dam, are placed flashboards, one foot high and -extending the full length of the dam, thirty-six feet, but divided into -six sections, each six feet long. Each of these sections is hinged by -the lower edge to the crest of the dam, while the upper edge is held -from tipping over by chains fastened to cast-iron lugs located about -halfway down the planking. The chain is held in these lugs by pins -which are connected by rod and chain to a capstan, or spindle, located -at one end of the dam, and are so arranged that by turning the spindle -the pins will be drawn successively, thereby letting the flashboards -down one at a time. The idea of this arrangement is that, when a flood -is rising, the capstan may be turned with a heavy lever crank, winding -up the chain and pulling down the flashboards one at a time, to give -more space for the flood to pass through so as to prevent the water -upstream from the dam from rising too high. This plan has prevented the -washing away of Mr. Miner’s power house on several occasions. - -[Illustration: Farm Power House on Oriskany Creek - -Dam in left background; tail-race in right foreground] - -The sloping face of the dam receives the direct pressure of the water -and transfers it to the sills, which in turn transfer it to the -concrete foundation. The reason for sloping the upstream face of the -dam is that the pressure of water is always normal, or perpendicular, -to the surface against which it presses; therefore, if the face of the -dam is sloping, the pressure is downward, rather than outward, as would -be the case with a vertical face. This results in greater stability for -the dam, due to the lessened tendency to tip over. With a dam of this -type the higher the water rises against or over it, the more nearly -vertical is the line of pressure, and the dam is held tightly down on -its foundation instead of tending to tip over. It follows that the -flatter the face of the dam the more stable it will be. Mr. Miner’s dam -raised the water about four feet. - -But in spite of his provision for floods, Mr. Miner did not want to be -under the necessity of letting down his dam for every freshet, so he -provided an additional permanent spillway. This is a simple concrete -barrier, or wall, which flanks one end of the dam. In plan it was -built at an angle with the dam proper, and extends downstream along -the side of the natural bank. It was built with its crest a few inches -higher than the main dam, so that during periods of ordinary flow the -surplus water all passes over the main dam, but as soon as the creek -rises a few inches over the main dam, water begins to flow over this -extra spillway, which, being about forty feet long, will discharge a -considerable volume although the water flowing over it is only a few -inches in depth. - -This spillway is strengthened on the downstream end by a concrete -abutment, which consists of a simple heavy block of concrete extending -above the top of the spillway. A similar abutment flanks the upstream -end and also constitutes an abutment for one end of the main dam. The -other end of the main dam is set against the opposite bank of the creek -and is protected from washing and is strengthened by a similar concrete -abutment. - -It was considered desirable to place the little power house away from -the main channel of the stream, so an earth embankment was built, -extending from the downstream end of the flood spillway, a distance of -about sixty feet. This embankment, or dyke, is curved in such manner -as to divert the water behind it across a low place to a safe distance -from the main channel. Some excavating had to be done behind this -embankment in order to secure a channel of sufficient depth to prevent -the water from freezing to the bottom and to provide a smooth channel -of approach to the power house. This diversion of the water to one side -from the main channel prevents the accumulation of debris and silt, -which is a hindrance to the proper operation of a waterwheel. The pool -thus formed is called a “forebay” and is very quiet water. The velocity -of the water flowing through it is so slight that it will not carry -much debris. - -At the downstream end of the forebay the diverting embankment -approaches a steep bank. At this point Mr. Miner built a small power -house. Under the power house is the wheel-box, which consists of a -box-like compartment having one side open to the forebay. This opening -is covered with a coarse screen to prevent leaves or other debris from -entering the wheel, but the water flows through it readily. In the -wheel-box a waterwheel, of the type known as a turbine, was placed. -This revolves on a vertical shaft, or axle, which is guided by bearings -in a metal case surrounding the wheel and resting on the bottom of the -box-like compartment. The wheel-case is open at the bottom to allow the -free escape of the water after it has passed through the wheel. The -construction of the turbines is such that the pressure of the water on -the curved vanes causes the wheel to revolve, just as the pressure of -wind causes a windmill to revolve. The water must have a free escape -from the opening in the bottom of the wheel-case and wheel-pit and to -provide for this a channel, called a “tail-race,” was excavated to -carry the water back to the creek. Natural conditions were favorable -here and a tail-race joining the main channel about 100 feet below the -power house was constructed with little difficulty. At the point where -the tail-race joins the creek the elevation is two feet lower than the -power house, so that there is little tendency for water to back up from -the creek into the tail-race. There is a certain amount of back-water -during freshets but the increased height of the water in the forebay at -such times partially offsets it. - -[Illustration: Interior of E. B. Miner’s Power House] - -The vertical shaft of the turbine extends up through and about two feet -above the floor near one end of the power house, where it is supported -on ball-bearings which enable it to be revolved with very little -friction. - -At the other end of the power house, which is twelve feet by sixteen -feet in plan and seven feet high to the eaves, was placed an electric -generator, or dynamo, rated at 12½ kilowatts, which is equivalent to -about 17 horsepower. This machine is intended to operate at about 1100 -revolutions per minute. The waterwheel, under the pressure of about -six feet, would not revolve at such a high rate of speed. It was, -therefore, impracticable to connect the generator shaft directly to the -waterwheel shaft and it became necessary to magnify the revolutions by -connecting the two shafts by belt, using different-sized pulleys. A -large wooden pulley, seventy-six inches in diameter, was keyed on -the end of the waterwheel shaft. A much smaller pulley, about eight -inches in diameter, was placed on the driving shaft of the generator. -A leather belt connects the two, and since the wheel shaft is vertical -and the generator shaft is horizontal, it is necessary to pass the -belt over an intermediate pulley, or “idler.” This idler is set with -its axis at an angle with both the horizontal and vertical, so that -the transition of the belt from the horizontal to vertical is made -gradually. Since the driving pulley on the generator shaft is so much -smaller than the pulley on the wheel shaft, there are about nine -revolutions of the generator shaft for every revolution of the wheel -shaft. - -The amount of power which this equipment will generate depends to a -considerable extent upon the amount of water flowing. Oriskany creek -at this point has a tributary drainage area of about fourteen square -miles, and the flow required to drive the turbine to full capacity is -about 2900 cubic feet per minute. This volume is probably available -during most of the year, but is not available in the driest seasons, -at which times the flow is probably reduced to about 600 cubic feet -per minute. The waterwheel probably has an efficiency of about eighty -per cent, that is, it will probably develop about eighty per cent of -the theoretical energy of the falling water. The remainder is lost -in friction in the wheel-box at the entrance to the wheel and in the -velocity still remaining in the water after it leaves the wheel. Five -per cent of the power generated on the wheel shaft is probably lost by -friction of the belting, so that, at rated load, about seventy-six per -cent of the theoretical power of the water is probably delivered to the -shaft of the generator. - -Mr. Miner realized that there would be times when he would not require -all or any of the power which would be produced. At the same time the -pond formed by the dam was not large enough to store any considerable -amount of water, and he had all the power he would require at any one -time, so it was not considered necessary to provide storage batteries -to store the electricity. On the other hand he did not wish to be -compelled to turn the water on and off at frequent intervals, as would -be necessary unless some auxiliary regulating apparatus were provided. -Therefore, it was decided to provide for the plant to run continuously -and to devise some means to consume the electric current when not -in use. A series of resistance coils were mounted on a frame in the -power house, and connected with the generator. When the demand for -electric current is less than the capacity of the generator, a small -electric device automatically throws one or more of these coils into -the circuit, and the surplus current is converted into heat by the -resistance of the coils. By means of this arrangement it was planned -to run the plant continuously, so that whenever electric current was -wanted it could be had simply by turning a switch at the house or barns. - -The power plant, including the dam and all the features thus far -described, was completed and in operation before Christmas of the year -in which the construction was begun. - -We have thus far seen how Mr. Miner developed his water power and -transformed it into electricity. It remains to see how he gets it to -his house and farm buildings, and how he uses it after he gets it there. - -The power house is situated about 1700 feet from the house, where the -electric current was most wanted. This necessitated the construction of -a transmission line. For this purpose a double line of bare aluminum -wire was stretched on a row of poles about twenty feet high and about -one hundred feet apart. The poles are provided with ordinary crossarms -at the top on which are mounted the insulators carrying the wires. -As the transmission line leaves the power house it crosses a highway -and runs in a perfectly straight line to the house. Over the highway -insulated wires were used as a safety precaution, but bare aluminum -wire was used for the remainder because it was cheaper. - -The buildings are all in a cluster and a branch from the transmission -line runs into each one where the current is used. All the wires which -are inside of any of the buildings, or are close to the woodwork, are -covered with insulation, and, where concealed, are further protected by -being placed in twisted metal tubes. - -The first actual use of this hydro-electric power was for lighting. The -house was illuminated with electric lights, as were also the barn and -other buildings, there being ultimately about seventy 16-candle-power -lamps in use. Even the pig sty has its electric light, and there is no -more groping in the dark anywhere about the Miner farm buildings. - -[Illustration: Lathe in E. B. Miner’s Machine Shop] - -But there was more power in the creek than was necessary to run the -electric lights. A circular saw was brought into use, belted to a -motor, and the supply of firewood was cut in a fraction of the time -previously required. The same motor is used to drive a lathe and a -drill in a machine shop which the Miner boys built and equipped. This -motor is belted to a countershaft from which additional machine tools -can be driven. One of the Miner boys has developed this machine shop as -a combined means of pleasure and profit. In addition to a considerable -amount of experimental machine work, he does all the farm repairs and a -considerable amount of machine work for neighboring knitting mills, as -well as general and automobile repair work, all of which has been made -possible by the harnessing of the creek. - -Another motor, two-horsepower, driven by the electric current, is -belted to a vacuum pump, which is connected with a one-inch pipe -running to the house and the barn. In the house there are two taps, one -on each floor, to which the hose of a vacuum cleaner may be attached, -and Oriskany creek does the rest; the floors are cleaned in the most -modern, sanitary and thorough manner. In the barn the pipe from the -vacuum pump runs above the cow stanchions with a tap at alternate -stanchions. The tubes of the milking machines are attached and the -creek milks twenty or twenty-five cows twice each day. - -[Illustration: Drill in E. B. Miner’s Machine Shop - -Note the electric motor in background belted to countershaft near the -ceiling] - -In the dairy room is a one-half-horsepower motor, which may be belted -to the cream separator or churn, and on the hot summer days it is -frequently belted to the ice cream freezer. An ingenious float device -in the separator turns off the power when the cream is all separated -from the milk and trips a can of clear water into the heavy, revolving -bowl of the separator, which still retains enough momentum to rinse -itself thoroughly before coming to rest. - -In a similar manner other applications of the power have followed from -time to time, and one at a time most of the hand cranks on the Miner -farm have been relegated to the scrap heap; even the grindstone is -operated by a long, narrow belt running from the little motor in the -dairy out through the door to an adjoining compartment. - -In the Miner residence are five electrical heaters, which Mr. Miner -states will raise the temperature to 75 degrees when it is zero -outside. Since these heaters were installed there has not been much use -for the wood saw. There are also in the house some electric fans which -stir up a breeze on the hot days. An electric ventilator fan in the -attic insures good ventilation at all times. In the kitchen the Miners -cook for a family of from five to ten with an electric range, and iron -with an electric iron attached by a cord to an ordinary electric lamp -socket. A smaller motor operates the egg beater and cream whipper; -another small motor drives the sewing machine. - -[Illustration: E. B. Miner’s Dairy Room - -Vacuum milking machines in background; also small motor which drives -the cream separator and churn in the foreground] - -The little motor in the dairy room also drives a single-acting plunger -pump, which forces water up to a galvanized iron tank in the attic -of the house, whence water is piped and furnished by gravity to the -bathroom and kitchen. An electric heater in the kitchen heats the water -for the bath and kitchen. - -[Illustration: Electric Cooking Outfit, E. B. Miner’s Home] - -Other miscellaneous uses are made of the never-failing power of -the creek, such as filling the silo, and the power plant requires -practically no attention. Self-oiling devices on the waterwheel -and generator, and the use of the resistance coils to consume the -superfluous electricity, obviate the necessity for attention, except to -fill the oil cups every few weeks. Practically no trouble has been -experienced in the operation, the only interruption so far being due -to the formation of anchor ice in the forebay, which causes a little -trouble on extremely cold days. The waterwheel is run continuously, -night and day, summer and winter, and electric light or current is -always available at the touch of a button or by throwing a switch. - -As to the cost of his plant Mr. Miner would give no figures. His motto -seems to be, “Not how cheap, but how good,” and he states that it would -require several times the cost to induce him to give up his water-power -plant. Engineers estimate the cost of reproducing his plant, including -the dam, power house, waterwheel, generator and transmission line, at -about $1800. - - - - -SUMMER HOME POWER PLANT, NORTHWEST BAY, LAKE GEORGE - - -Among the attractive summer homes on the shores of Lake George is -that of Mr. Stephen Loines of Brooklyn, located at the upper end of -Northwest bay, about four miles above Bolton Landing. On his property -there was a small lake known as Wing pond, having an area of about -seven acres and situated at an elevation of about 180 feet above Lake -George. The outlet was a small brook, which runs through Mr. Loines’ -property and flows into Northwest bay. - -In the summer of 1902, Mr. Loines built a dam across the outlet of Wing -pond, raising its surface about two feet. He ran a galvanized iron pipe -line from the dam, down the side of the hill and along the brook. It -was four inches in diameter for a short distance, then reduced to three -inches and finally to two inches, and was about 1200 feet long in all, -with a fall of about 110 feet. A twenty-four-inch waterwheel of the -impulse type was installed in a small power house to which the pipe -line was run. The waterwheel developed about three horsepower and was -belted to an electric generator. - -[Illustration: Dam at Outlet of Wing Pond] - -The power was found to be insufficient to supply Mr. Loines’ needs -at that time. He desired to burn thirty-five 16-candle-power carbon -filament lamps and to charge a 40-cell battery for an electric launch. - -Accordingly, in the fall of 1908, Mr. Loines raised his dam two feet -higher and installed a six-inch spiral riveted steel pipe line, running -from the dam down a gulley on the surface of the ground, for about -1600 feet, to a point a short distance from the place where the creek -flows into Lake George. At this point he built a small power house and -installed a twenty-four-inch waterwheel of the impulse type. This wheel -operates under a head of 165 feet and is directly connected by a -shaft to a six and one-half kilowatt generator, which operates at 500 -revolutions per minute. This generator supplies a 60-cell house battery -(45 lamps), an 84-cell battery for a 35-foot cabin launch, a 48-cell -battery for a 20-foot open launch and a 40-cell battery for an electric -roadster, all of which are in pretty continuous use from about the -first of June to the first of November of each year. - -[Illustration: Power Transmission Line, Northwest Bay, Lake George] - -As this new development superseded the older one and proved entirely -adequate for the needs of Mr. Loines’ country place, the old -development was made over so that it could be utilized for sawing -firewood to supply the superintendent’s cottage and the other buildings -during the winter. A countershaft was erected on the wall of the old -power house, which is a building 7 feet by 10 feet in plan and about -8 feet high. This countershaft has three counterpulleys, by means of -which the speed of the waterwheel may be doubled or trebled. For the -purpose of sawing firewood a leather belt is placed on one of the -pulleys of the countershaft and run through a small aperture in the -side of the power house to the driving pulley of a circular saw, which -stands on a small porch at one end of the power house building. - -Mr. Loines’ superintendent stated that by operating the saw -continuously for eight hours it would be possible to saw twelve cords -of wood, which he estimated to be sufficient to supply his cottage, and -such other of the buildings as need wood, for the entire winter. This -illustrates very aptly the large amount of work that a small power is -capable of doing in a short time. - -In addition to lighting his house and buildings by means of the power -developed at his new power house, Mr. Loines also has a rather unusual -application of power on his summer place. He is an enthusiastic student -of astronomy and has built a small but elaborately equipped observatory -on the hillside above the cottage. The observatory is so constructed -that the roof can be removed entirely from the building to a support -at the back of the observatory. The roof is mounted on wheels and Mr. -Loines uses his electric power to do the work of moving the roof when -he wishes to make astronomical observations with his telescope. This is -accomplished by means of a small 1½-horsepower motor which operates at -1275 revolutions per minute and is connected by belt to a countershaft, -which in turn is connected by a worm gear and a chain drive to the -carriage on which the roof is supported. In this manner the roof may be -moved the required distance in two or three minutes by simply throwing -the switch which is inside the observatory building. - -[Illustration: Stephen Loines’ Power House, Northwest Bay, Lake George - -At left, 4-in. water pipe; at right, transmission line connection] - -Mr. Loines’ new power house is a stone masonry building, the masonry -being uncoursed rubble, constructed in a very artistic and attractive -manner. The building is 9½ feet by 15½ feet in plan and is about 9 feet -high to the eaves. It has a concrete foundation and the floor is of -first-class concrete. A concrete foundation, about 3 feet by 5 feet, -provides a permanent support for the water motor and the generator. -This foundation projects 6 inches above the level of the concrete -floor. On one end of the foundation stands the waterwheel, there being -an opening about 8 inches by 18 inches through the concrete base under -the water motor to carry off the water after it has passed through -the wheel. The supply pipe for the waterwheel enters the side of the -building on a level about one foot above the floor. Just inside, the -pipe reduces to a diameter of about 2½ inches and is fitted with a -gate valve by means of which the water may be turned on or off. The -nozzle of the waterwheel is also equipped with an adjusting device -by means of which the size of the jet issuing from the nozzle may be -varied in order to secure various speeds or the maximum efficiency -of the waterwheel. The setting required to give the desired speed is -determined by experiment by the operator. - - - - -FARM POWER DEVELOPMENT IN SCHOHARIE COUNTY - - -At the entrance to the driveway approach to the farmhouse of Jared Van -Wagenen, Jr., at Lawyersville, Schoharie county, N. Y., stand two large, -stone gateway posts. On the capstone of one of these posts is engraved, -“Agriculture the Oldest Occupation,” and on the other, “Agriculture -the Greatest Science.” In keeping with the latter sentiment, Mr. Van -Wagenen has conducted his agricultural operations in such a manner -that he is looked upon as one of the most scientific and progressive -agriculturists in the State. He takes an active interest in such -affairs as farmers’ institutes and is considered an authority on the -science of agriculture. His farm and buildings are equipped with the -most modern conveniences and labor-saving devices. - -There is a small stream which runs through the farm and flows into the -Cobleskill. This stream is so small that one may easily step across it -in the summer-time. About half a mile from the farmhouse is an old mill -dam which forms a pond with an area of more than an acre. The dam was -built long ago when small sawmills dotted that section of the State. -The timber having been practically all cut off, this mill, along with -hundreds of others, was long since abandoned. Mr. Van Wagenen conceived -the idea of harnessing its wasting energy and making it do some of his -farm work for him. The story of how he accomplished this is best given -in his own words, as follows: - -“About eight years ago I began to figure on how to get this power to -the house where it could do a little work. My first thought was to -carry it there by belt cables, but figures proved that the friction -would eat up the five horsepower available. Electric power, easily -transmitted with little loss, was the only solution. I talked with many -who understood electricity and its engineering features and most of -them laughed at the idea of such a small installation. Had I wanted to -construct a million-dollar plant there would have been whole libraries -of advice; but a small plant to run entirely alone and be controlled by -a seven-hundred-foot-wire was evidently a novelty. After a good deal of -studying and feeling my way the plans were made and the work begun. - -“The stream being so small, the most rigid economy of water had to be -observed, so I installed a nine-inch upright turbine in an upright -wooden case, building the case myself, where it would get the most -benefit of the fifteen-foot head. This turbine, furnishing about five -horsepower, I belted to a three-kilowatt, or four-horsepower, one -hundred and twenty-five volt direct current generator, which would -easily take care of seventy-five metal filament incandescent lamps. -I next installed a waterwheel governor to insure a steady flow of -electricity. It took about seventy-four hundred feet of weatherproof -copper wire, strung on wooden poles, which were cut on the farm, to -carry the electricity to my home and the farm buildings and to the -house of a neighbor. As it is more than half a mile from the house to -the plant it is out of the question to go there every night and morning -to stop and start the machinery. Of course it is possible to let this -plant run night and day during the wet season, but in dry times it is -best to save the water when the power is not needed. A neighbor living -about seven hundred feet from the power station kindly starts and stops -the machinery with a wire stationed at his bedroom window. This wire -controls a valve and counterweight. At five o’clock in the morning he -pulls the wire and the lights come on and at a certain hour of the -night he releases the wire and they go out. In payment for this service -I light his house and barns free of charge. - -“Our maintenance charges are very small; almost negligible. I think our -waterwheel behaves better every year. Carbon brushes for the generator -last a long while and oil is a very small item. Each year I am -improving the plant, and very soon I expect to install a motor-driven -washing machine and wringer to prepare the clothes for the electric -iron and to put a vacuum cleaning outfit in the house. - -“Although I consider the cost of our plant about $500, it was installed -under the most rigid economy in every respect and mainly by my own -hands. The dam was already built and needed only some trifling repairs. -The gate control is my own get-up, and, while the cost is trifling, -it took considerable study to get it to work right. I did most of the -house wiring, using concealed knob and tube for the living rooms of the -house; moulding and open wiring for the other rooms and for the barns. -This material cost me about $40. Of course, I do not in any instance -figure in my own labor, as the work was all done at odd times.” - -This small power development, using the dam already built, cost Mr. Van -Wagenen about $500 as follows: - - Dynamo, 3 k.w. (second-hand) $50 - Waterwheel, 4 h.p. (naked wheel) 55 - Governor (new) 75 - Wire (7400 feet) 210 - Labor (installing waterwheel) 40 - Fixtures (lamps and the like) 38 - One small motor, 2 h.p. (new) 50 - ---- - Total $518 - ==== - -The plant furnishes power sufficient to light the farmhouse and all -of the buildings with electricity, as well as those of the neighbor -who turns the water on and off. In the dairy a small electric motor of -about 3 horsepower, actuated by the electric current, drives the cream -separator and also furnishes power for running the grindstone, feed -cutters, hay fork and fanning mill, in addition to which the power is -also used to milk the cows and cut the ensilage and to do numerous -other bits of work about the place. Mr. Van Wagenen states that his -water power does work equivalent to that of a hired man the year round -and does away with numerous chores and laborious duties about the place. - -The arrangement which Mr. Van Wagenen devised to turn on the water -at his plant and to shut it off again is unique and interesting. It -consists of a triangular frame lever about two feet wide and seven feet -high, hinged at one of the bottom corners. The other bottom corner -is connected to a sliding gate which fits over the feed pipe for the -waterwheel. At the top are fastened two wires, one of which runs to the -house of Mr. Van Wagenen’s accommodating neighbor, and the other runs -over a pulley and has a counterweight attached to it. When the water -is to be turned on, the neighbor pulls the wire and the gate is raised -by the leverage of the frame; when the water is to be shut off, he -releases the wire and the counterweight pulls the lever back, allowing -the gate to fall in place again. - -[Illustration: Washing Machine, Driven by Electric Motor] - - - - -OTHER SMALL POWER DEVELOPMENTS - - -Mr. John T. McDonald, who has a farm about five miles from Delhi, -Delaware county, N. Y., some ten years ago began making good use of a -power development from a small stream on his farm. He lights his house -and buildings, runs saws, grinders and various machines in a little -shop on rainy days and in the winter. His dam was made from stone and -earth from the nearby fields and cost very little. It forms a pond, -covering, when full, about four and one-half acres of land. The pond is -well stocked with trout and other fish, and each winter Mr. McDonald -cuts about 500 tons of ice from it. Mr. McDonald turns on the water -at his dam by means of an electric switch at the house and regulates -the voltage also in a similar manner. From the pond the water is led -through a hydraulic race, or canal, about 900 feet long, to one of the -farm buildings where the waterwheels are installed. The head, or fall, -at this point is about 15 feet and there are three waterwheels of the -turbine type: one that develops 25 horsepower, another that develops -6 horsepower and a third that develops about 3 horsepower. The large -wheel is used to run a sawmill and feed mill. The 6-horsepower wheel -drives an electric generator, or dynamo, which furnishes the electric -lights, and also electricity for driving the small motors about the -place. The 3-horsepower wheel runs the small saws, machine tools, etc., -in Mr. McDonald’s shop. - -A few miles east from Mr. Van Wagenen’s farm in Schoharie county is -another small power development owned by Mr. Frank Caspar. He has -installed two waterwheels on a small creek and uses the power from -them to drive the machinery in a table and furniture factory. He has -another small waterwheel of the turbine type driving a little dynamo -which generates electricity for electric light. Mr. Caspar lights his -factory buildings, his home, a neighboring church and the main street -in the village with electricity from this little dynamo. An ingenious -device of his own invention makes it possible to start and stop the -power from the house by simply pulling a wire which operates a valve -in a small water pipe, from which water under pressure is let into a -hydraulic cylinder. This causes the piston of the cylinder to rise, -and the piston being directly connected to a gate in the water pipe -inlet, allows the water to flow into the waterwheel. When it is desired -to stop the plant, a pull on the companion wire causes the reverse -operation to take place and the power is shut off. - -[Illustration: Farm Power Development of John T. McDonald, Delaware Co., -N. Y.] - -Near the village of Berlin, in eastern Rensselaer county, N. Y., there -is a small power development owned by Mr. Arthur Cowee. His source of -power is a small trout brook which flows through the farm. Mr. Cowee is -a producer of fancy gladiolus bulbs, on a large scale. His principal -power development, consisting of a 36-inch impulse waterwheel, under -a pressure due to a fall of about 210 feet, is used mostly for the -purpose of operating a circular saw and other machinery connected with -a sawmill. The water is diverted from the natural channel of the brook -at a considerable distance from the place where the waterwheel is -installed and is carried in an artificial channel, about four feet wide -and three feet deep, around the side of the hill, where it runs into -a shallow basin which has been excavated by Mr. Cowee at a suitable -location. By means of this basin, or artificial pond, practically all -of the flow of the brook may be stored during the night and used to -operate the waterwheel during the day. In this manner the full power -value of the brook is realized. There is a ten-inch, cast-iron pipe -line, about 1680 feet long, which runs from the pond down the side of -the hill to the waterwheel. This pipe line was placed under ground from -three to four feet in order to avoid freezing in the winter. Mr. Cowee -estimates that the development, including the diverting dam and canal, -pond, pipe line, waterwheel, circular saw and accessories, cost him -a total of about $7000. He states that he can saw about 4000 feet of -lumber in a day with this power. - -In addition to this development, Mr. Cowee also has a small impulse -waterwheel in his bulb house. This wheel is operated by water furnished -from the system of the local water company. It is directly connected -to a small electric generator which furnishes electricity sufficient -for 157 sixteen-candle-power carbon-filament lamps which are installed -throughout the bulb house. The generator does not produce enough -electric current to run all of these lights at the same time, but it -will operate as many as forty-five or fifty lights at one time, which -is all that is necessary to meet the requirements. - -Mr. D. F. Paine of Wadhams, Essex county, N. Y., has a dam at the -outlet of Lincoln pond. The water surface, when the pond is full, is -about twelve feet above the normal and spreads over an extensive tract -of low, marshy land. The pond thus formed is about three miles long -and from one-quarter to three-quarters of a mile wide. The water is -conducted from the dam to the penstock, a distance of about a mile -and a half, securing a fall of 320 feet. At this point Mr. Paine has -constructed a power house, where he generates electricity which he -transmits to Mineville for use in the mines. This power is transmitted -a distance of about eight miles. - -At Chazy, N. Y., near the western shore of Lake Champlain and at a -point about fifteen miles north of the city of Plattsburg, there -is located a modern stock and dairy farm which, in its operation, -exemplifies the manifold advantages to be derived from the use of -hydro-electric power for electric lighting and for the various power -requirements of the farm. This farm, which is owned by Mr. W. H. -Miner and is called “Heart’s Delight,” covers an area of 5160 acres. -About 1200 acres are cultivated, 1200 acres are in pasture and the -remainder in woodland. The output consists of live stock and dairy -products, all crops grown on the farm being fed to the stock and only -finished products being shipped out. The live stock includes registered -Percheron and Belgian horses, pure-bred, short-horn Durham and Guernsey -cattle, Dorset sheep and high-grade hogs for the production of sausage, -hams and bacon. There are also poultry and squabs, and a fish hatchery -for the propagation of trout. The entire output goes directly to -high-grade hotels in New York, Washington and Chicago. - -[Illustration: Power House, “Heart’s Delight” Farm] - -Two streams pass through the southern portion of the farm, the smaller -one being known as Tracy brook and the larger one as Chazy river. It -was decided to provide the farm with electricity for light and power. -Enough water power was found in these streams to furnish a cheap and -reliable source of energy. Accordingly, a hydro-electric plant was -installed several years ago and has given such satisfaction that -the equipment has been increased from time to time, and some novel -applications have resulted. Three small concrete dams were built across -Tracy brook to form storage reservoirs. A concrete penstock, or pipe, -44 inches in diameter and 670 feet long, carries the water from the -downstream reservoir to a concrete power house, where a fall of 19 feet -is secured. - -[Illustration: Alternating Current Transmission Line, “Heart’s Delight” -Farm] - -The power house equipment consists of two water turbines automatically -governed and directly connected respectively to one 30-kilowatt and -one 12½-kilowatt, 220-volt, direct current generators. The current is -transmitted over a pole line, a mile and a quarter long, to a central -station in the main group of farm buildings. - -[Illustration: Electric Cooking Outfit] - -Another dam was built across the Chazy river. This is of concrete, and, -after passing through screens at the intake gate house, built into the -dam, the water flows through a concrete penstock, 48 inches wide by 60 -inches high and 630 feet long, to the power house where a fall of -30 feet is obtained. There are two turbines here, belt connected to -alternating current generators, and the current is transmitted over a -pole line, nearly three miles long, to the central station. - -An auxiliary to the water-power development consists of two hydraulic -rams, pumping water from one of the Tracy brook reservoirs to a -60,000-gallon tank, 100 feet above the ground, for fire protection for -the buildings. - -There are in all about twenty-five motors installed in the various -buildings. The electric current actuates these motors, which are used -to drive or operate numerous machines and labor-saving devices. - -[Illustration: Motor-driven Vacuum Pump - -For milking machines and vacuum cleaners] - -An entire load of hay is lifted from the wagon and stored in the mow -by a ten-horsepower motor. A root-cutting machine is operated by -a two-horsepower motor mounted on the ceiling. A one and one-half -horsepower motor drives a vacuum pump, which operates the milking -machines; five machines are used, each of which will milk two cows -simultaneously. A one and one-half horsepower motor runs the cream -separator, and a three-horsepower motor drives the big churn; -and motors are used for driving the water pumps, as well as the -brine-circulating pumps in the ice-making plant. A grist mill, -driven by electric motor, is part of the farm equipment, and the -sausage-chopping and mixing machines are driven by a four-horsepower -motor. Roots for the sheep are cut by a machine driven by motors of -one and one-half and two horsepower, and food for the fish is prepared -by a grinding machine driven by a two-horsepower motor. Wood-working -machines and machine tools are driven by motors in the carpenter and -machine shops. In addition to the uses already mentioned, the electric -power is also used to pump water, shear the sheep, clip the horses, -wash, dry and iron the clothes, heat the house, cook the food, freeze -the ice cream, cool the house in the summer, curl the ladies’ hair and -play the piano. - -The “Heart’s Delight” farm power equipment is much more extensive than -would be warranted on a farm of ordinary size, but the installation -serves to illustrate the extent to which the application of power may -be carried, on an unusually large produce farm. In many instances a -community of farmers could develop such a water power and distribute -the power among themselves to mutual advantage and profit. - - - - -DEVELOPING A SMALL WATER POWER - - -The prime requisite to the creation of a water power is the existence -of falling or flowing water. The amount of power which may be available -varies; first, with the amount of water flowing, and second, with the -amount of fall. It requires about one cubic foot of water per second, -falling through a height of ten feet, to make available one theoretical -horsepower. The fall may be either naturally concentrated at one point -in a cascade or it may be artificially concentrated, for the purpose -of development, by combining the fall of several cascades or a series -of rapids. This may be accomplished by either of two methods; first, -by building a dam at the downstream end of the rapids to impound the -water so that the entire fall is concentrated at the dam, or second, -by building a dam at the upstream end of the rapids and conducting -the water through a closed pipe to the lower end of the rapids, where -the resulting water pressure will be exactly the same as in the first -instance. A variation of the latter method consists of diverting the -water from the natural channel at the head of the rapids and carrying -it in a canal, on a slight down grade, along the side of a hill to a -suitable point at which the water is turned into penstocks which run -directly down the slope to the stream, where the power development may -be made. The latter method, involving the construction of a canal, is -open to the objection that considerable trouble is usually experienced -from the accumulation of ice in the winter time. The first two methods -described are the most common. - -[Illustration: Cascade on Indian Creek, Warren Co., N. Y. Typical -Example of Undeveloped Water Power] - -The amount of water which flows in a stream, in New York State, whether -large or small, is subject to remarkable variation. Only one who has -observed very carefully and continuously, by actual measurement, the -extremes of fluctuation to which a flowing stream is subject, is in a -position fully to appreciate this. Some of the larger rivers of New -York State are subject to such fluctuations of flow that the amount -of water discharged during flood periods is several hundred times as -much as the amount that flows in the extreme dry period. Also in many -instances from one-half to three-fourths of the total runoff of the -stream during the year occurs during a period of a few weeks in the -spring months, when the accumulated snow and ice is melted and runs off -in conjunction with the warm spring rains. Unfortunately, reliable data -relating to the fluctuations of small streams in this State are very -meager. It is, however, a matter of record that the smaller streams for -which records are available are subject to greater fluctuations per -unit of tributary watershed area than are the larger streams. It seems -logical, therefore, to assume that the very small creeks and brooks -are subject to fluctuations relatively greater than those recorded for -streams of only relatively small size. This fact must be borne in mind -by any one who proposes to develop the power on a stream, for if it is -overlooked the project is not so assured of success. For most purposes -power is required in about the same amount for all seasons of the year, -while, as previously stated, the streams run off most of their waters -in the spring. Therefore, in developing the power of any particular -stream, if the power is required to be fairly constant at all seasons -of the year as is usually the case, there are two considerations which -must not be overlooked: - -First—Will the minimum flow of the stream—that is, the flow which -occurs in the driest season of a dry year—be sufficient to furnish the -amount of power required? - -Second—If the minimum flow is not sufficient, what means are available -for storing the surplus water from the wet season until the dry season? - -The subject of equalizing stream flow throughout the year by means of -storage reservoirs has been so thoroughly discussed in the reports of -the Commission that further discussion in this connection does not seem -warranted. - -Taking a general average throughout the State of New York, large -streams may be depended upon to produce from one-twentieth to -one-quarter of a cubic foot of water per second per square mile of -tributary drainage area, during the driest period. Streams having -only one or two square miles of drainage frequently dry up entirely -in the dry seasons. If a power development is proposed of such a -character that some considerable sacrifice of power might be made -in the dry seasons with no serious loss, most small streams may be -developed to provide for as much as one-quarter to one-half of a cubic -foot per second per square mile. On the other hand it is often found -practicable to provide a small auxiliary power plant, such as gasolene -or kerosene, to fall back upon in dry weather, or to supply extra power -occasionally, in which case the water-power development need not be -limited to the minimum flow of the stream. - -The power of falling water may be applied to practical purposes in -several ways. One of the simplest ways, should it be desired to use -the power of the stream to pump water, is by means of what is known as -a hydraulic ram. This is a device which operates on the principle of -the impact due to the sudden stoppage of flow of a column of water. By -means of this device, or engine, water falling through a very small -height may be used to raise a portion of the same, or a comparatively -small amount of other water, to an elevation considerably higher -than the supply. The mechanical efficiency of the hydraulic ram is -comparatively high under certain conditions but generally is very low, -useful work which manufacturers claim may be realized varying from -38 per cent to 80 per cent. The minimum fall under which a ram will -effectively elevate water is about two feet. This fall will elevate -about one-thirteenth of the supply to a height of twenty feet. Under -the most favorable conditions and a fair amount of fall, a ram may -elevate water as high as 120 feet. The proportion of water which may be -elevated varies from one-twentieth to two-sevenths of the total -supplied; and, accordingly, the proportion of water which must be -wasted at the impetus valve of the ram varies from five-sevenths to -nineteen-twentieths. These proportions both depend upon the ratio of -the amount of supply to the amount to be elevated, that is, a small -proportion may be elevated to a considerable height and vice versa. In -cases where a small brook of suitable quality is available for domestic -water supply, it is often entirely practicable to install a hydraulic -ram which will pump a sufficient proportion of the amount of supply to -furnish a household with all the water necessary for ordinary domestic -purposes, in spite of the fact that the brook may be on a lower level -than the house. Owing to the fact that a hydraulic ram may be applied -only to the purposes of elevating water, it is not generally considered -as a means of developing water power, although in the broadest sense it -does constitute such a development. - -On the other hand, the purposes for which power is usually required -are not only for the elevation of water for a water supply, but for -many other and varied requirements. In such cases the power must be -developed in such manner that it may be utilized to operate machinery -near the site of the development, or transmitted for some distance, and -there used to operate machinery or for lighting or heating. To develop -water power in this manner requires some kind of a waterwheel. - -There are several types of waterwheels, the principal ones being known -as “undershot,” “overshot,” “breastwheel,” “turbine” and “impulse.” The -overshot wheel is a type very familiar to most readers, being usually -of home manufacture. It consists, usually, of a wooden wheel with water -compartments arranged at regular intervals around the periphery. The -water is fed into the wheel at the top, just off the center. It flows -into the compartment at the top and the weight being exerted on one -side of the supporting axle causes the wheel to revolve, the water -spilling out when the compartment, or water pocket, reaches the bottom. -This type of wheel depends entirely for its power upon the weight of -the water which causes the wheel to revolve. - -The undershot wheel is very similar in construction to the overshot -type but depends more for its power on the velocity of the flowing -water which strikes the blades, or buckets, on the under side of the -wheel. - -[Illustration: Turbine Type of Waterwheel - -Phantom view of wheel-case] - -The breastwheel is also similar in construction but is in reality an -improvement upon the overshot and undershot types. It depends for its -power on a combination of the action of gravity and the impulse of -the water striking the blades, or buckets. The water is fed into the -wheel a little below the height of the axle and usually enters with -considerable velocity, a part of which is transformed into useful work -by the wheel. - -The turbine is a type of wheel which is very extensively used. It is -usually constructed of metal and consists primarily of a series of -curved vanes, or runners, whose arrangement is similar to a screw. The -action of the water flowing through these curved vanes causes the vanes -and shaft to revolve, the vanes being solidly connected to the shaft, -which may be either horizontal or vertical. - -The fundamental working principle of an impulse waterwheel is the -turning into useful work of the impulse due to the velocity of a jet of -water issuing from a contracted orifice. This is accomplished usually -by conveying the water from the dam or other source of supply to the -waterwheel in a pipe of comparatively large size and then gradually -reducing the size of the pipe immediately in front of the wheel to a -comparatively small size by means of a reducer section, which is fitted -with a nozzle the opening of which may or may not be regulated in size. -This contraction of the stream of flowing water causes a spouting of -the water under pressure and the water issues in a jet with very high -velocity. The jet thus issuing from the nozzle strikes the cups of -the impulse wheel which are arranged at regular intervals around the -circumference of a metallic disc which is centered on an axle. The cups -transfer the velocity of the jet to the wheel, and the water drops from -them with very little velocity left in it. - -[Illustration: Impulse Type of Waterwheel - -Showing jet of water striking cups. Wheel illustrated is very powerful, -but principle of small wheels is the same] - -In general, the turbine type of wheel is best adapted to low heads, or -falls, and the use of comparatively large volumes of water, and the -impulse wheel is best adapted to the use of a comparatively high head, -or fall, and a comparatively small amount of water. There are certain -intermediate conditions for which the manufacturers of each type claim -their wheel is best suited and in such instance a study of local -conditions is always necessary to determine which type of wheel is best -adapted. - -The development of a water power by means of any kind of a waterwheel -results in the conversion of the energy of the falling water into -mechanical power which is exerted in a more or less rapidly revolving -shaft. In order to apply this power of the revolving shaft to some -useful purpose, there are several methods which may be used. The shaft -may be directly connected to the shaft of an electric generator, or -dynamo, to generate electric current, or it may be directly connected -to a machine which it is desired to operate, provided the machine, -or dynamo, is required to operate at the same speed as that of the -wheel shaft. This is frequently not the case, so that under ordinary -conditions the shaft of the wheel is fitted with a pulley, which in -turn is connected by belt to another pulley on the machine which is to -be driven. - -[Illustration: Motor-driven Mangle] - -By using pulleys of different diameters on the shaft of the waterwheel -and the shaft of the machinery to be driven, the speed of the machine -may be several times more or less than the speed of the waterwheel. -For instance, if the waterwheel revolves 200 revolutions per minute -and it is desired to operate a machine, connected by belt, at a speed -of 1000 revolutions per minute, a pulley of comparatively small size, -say four inches in diameter, is placed on the shaft to be driven, and -a pulley of five times the diameter, or twenty inches, is placed on -the shaft of the waterwheel. This causes the shaft of the machine to -revolve at a speed five times as great as the waterwheel. If the speed -of the waterwheel is greater than that required for the machinery to -be operated, then the reverse operation is followed out, placing a -small pulley on the shaft of the waterwheel and a larger one on the -shaft of the machinery to be driven. If the speed of the waterwheel -is to be magnified more than about six times, it usually requires the -installation of a countershaft and another series of pulleys in order -to avoid the use of very large and very small pulleys. A pulley which -has a very small diameter does not operate satisfactorily without -considerable loss of power, and a very large pulley is objectionable on -account of the space which it requires. - -When a water power is once developed it may be applied to practical use -either near the place of development or at a considerable distance. -If it is to be used for power only, and not for lighting, and can be -used where it is developed, there is no need of converting it into -electricity. But if it is to be used for lighting, or for power to -be applied at a considerable distance from the water-power site, -then it becomes necessary to convert the power into electricity, in -which form it may be most conveniently transmitted from one place to -another. This requires an electric generator, or dynamo, to be driven -by the waterwheel, and a transmission line, preferably of copper or -aluminum wire, to carry the current where it is to be used. In order to -reconvert the current into power at the end of the transmission line, -where the power is to be used, it is necessary to run the current into -an electric motor, the shaft of which is made to revolve by the action -of the electric current. This motor may then be connected directly, or -by belt, gears or chain drive, to the machine to be driven. - -It should be borne in mind that in each of these steps of changing from -water power to electric current, in transmitting the current over the -wires, in reconverting it into power, and in transferring this power -from a motor to a power-operated machine, there are losses of energy. -These losses vary considerably in different instances. Assuming, for -illustration, that a water power, whose theoretical power is ten -horsepower, is required to drive a power machine at a distance, the -efficiencies and losses will be somewhat as follows: - - Waterwheel, efficiency 80%, Loss 20%, generates 8.0 horsepower. - Connections, “ 95%, “ 5%, transfers 7.6 “ - Dynamo, “ 90%, “ 10%, generates 6.8 “ - Transmission, “ 90%, “ 10%, transmits 6.2 “ - Motor, “ 90%, “ 10%, develops 5.5 “ - Connections, “ 95%, “ 5%, delivers 5.0 “ - -Therefore, only five horsepower would be actually delivered to the -machine to be driven. This amounts to only half of the theoretical -power of the falling water which is actually realized in useful work -of the machine being driven. If the power from the waterwheel is to -be applied directly without generating electricity a much higher -efficiency will be realized. - - -ACKNOWLEDGMENT - -On behalf of the State Water Supply Commission and the writer, grateful -acknowledgment is made to the following named persons who have extended -courtesies to me by furnishing information or illustrations for use in -connection with the preparation of this pamphlet: - - Mr. E. Burdette Miner, Oriskany Falls, N. Y. - Mr. R. K. Miner, Little Falls, N. Y. - Mr. Jared Van Wagenen, Jr., Lawyersville, N. Y. - Mr. John T. McDonald, Delhi, N. Y. - Mr. Edward R. Taylor, Penn Yan, N. Y. - Mr. John Liston, General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y. - Mr. R. E. Strickland, General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y. - Mr. Stephen Loines, Brooklyn, N. Y. - Mr. George E. Dunham, Utica, N. Y. - Pelton Water Wheel Company, New York and San Francisco. - James Leffel & Company, Springfield, Ohio. - D. R. COOPER. - ALBANY, JANUARY 25, 1911. - - - - - PUBLICATIONS OF - STATE WATER SUPPLY COMMISSION - STATE OF NEW YORK - - REPORTS - - =First Annual Report= Published February 1, 1906. - Includes Commission’s annual report on applications - for approval of plans for public water supplies; also - summarized statistics of public water supplies and - sewage disposal in New York State. - Edition exhausted. - - =Second Annual Report= Published February 1, 1907. - Includes Commission’s annual report and decisions - on applications for approval of plans for public - water supplies; also summarized statistics of public - water supplies and sewage disposal in New York State, - supplementary to statistics published in First Annual - Report; also report on River Improvements for the - benefit of public health and safety. - Edition exhausted. - - =Third Annual Report= Published February 1, 1908. - Includes Commission’s annual report and decisions on - applications for approval of plans for public water - supplies; also report on River Improvements for the - benefit of public health and safety; also contains - Commission’s first Progress Report on Water Power and - Water Storage Investigations made under chapter 569 of - Laws of 1907, including details of Sacandaga and Genesee - river studies. - Edition exhausted. - - =Progress Report on Water Power Development= - Published March 1, 1908. - This is a revised reprint of the part of the - Commission’s regular Third Annual Report relating to - Water Power and Water Storage Investigations, showing - results of engineering studies up to date of publication. - - =Fourth Annual Report= Published February 1, 1909. - Includes Commission’s annual report and decisions on - applications for approval of plans for public water - supplies; also report on River Improvements for the - benefit of public health and safety; also contains - Commission’s second Progress Report on Water Power and - Water Storage Investigations, with special details of - Raquette and Delaware river studies and supplementary - studies on Upper Hudson and Genesee, also a census of - water power developments in the State. - - =Fifth Annual Report= Published February 1, 1910. - Includes Commission’s annual report and decisions on - applications for approval of plans for public water - supplies; also summarized statistics relating to public - water supplies approved by the Commission in New York - State; also report on River Improvements for the benefit - of public health and safety; also contains Commission’s - third Progress Report on Water Power and Water Storage - Investigations, with details of reconnaissance studies - of Ausable, Saranac, Black, Oswegatchie and other - rivers, and a draft of a proposed Water Storage Law. - - =Sixth Annual Report= Published February 1, 1911. - Includes Commission’s annual report and decisions on - applications for approval of plans for public water - supplies; also report on River Improvements for the - benefit of public health and safety; also contains - Commission’s Fourth Progress Report on Water Power - and Water Storage Investigations, with details of - investigations of Black and Oswego river watersheds, - and a revised draft of a proposed Water Storage Law. - - MISCELLANEOUS - Published September, 1909. - =Pamphlet—“New York State Water Supply Commission”= - Issued for distribution at State Fair at Syracuse, 1909. - - Published September, 1910. - =Pamphlet—“New York’s Water Supply and Its Conservation, - Distribution and Uses”= - Issued for distribution at State Fair at Syracuse, 1910. - - Published September, 1910. - =Pamphlet—“Water Resources of the State of New York”= - By Henry H. Persons, President of the State Water Supply - Commission. - Issued for distribution at National Conservation Congress - at St. Paul, Minnesota, 1910. - - Published January, 1911. - =Pamphlet—“Water Power for the Farm and Country Home”= - By David R. Cooper, Engineer-Secretary to State Water - Supply Commission. - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Water Power for the Farm and Country -Home, by David R. 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Cooper - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: Water Power for the Farm and Country Home - -Author: David R. Cooper - -Release Date: May 14, 2020 [EBook #62117] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WATER POWER *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Marshall and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="f150">STATE OF NEW YORK<br />STATE WATER SUPPLY COMMISSION</p> -<hr class="chap" /> -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Personnel" cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Henry H. Persons</span>,</td> - <td class="tdr"> <big><b>President</b></big>.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Milo M. Acker</span>,</td> - <td class="tdr"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Charles Davis</span>,</td> - <td class="tdr"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">John A. Sleicher</span>,</td> - <td class="tdr"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Robert H. Fuller</span>,</td> - <td class="tdr"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr" colspan="2"><small><b>COMMISSIONERS</b></small></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1"><span class="smcap">David R. Cooper</span>,</td> - <td class="tdr"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr" colspan="2"><b>Engineer-Secretary</b>.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1"><span class="smcap">Walter McCulloh</span>,</td> - <td class="tdr"></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr" colspan="2"><b>Consulting Engineer</b>.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="f120 space-above2">LYON BLOCK, ALBANY, N. Y.</p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> -<h1>Water Power<br /><span class="smallfont">FOR THE</span><br />Farm and Country Home</h1> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="f120">BY DAVID R. COOPER</p> -<p class="center">Engineer-Secretary<br />New York State Water Supply Commission</p> - -<p class="center space-above3 space-below3">Second Edition</p> - -<p class="f80">PRINTED FOR THE STATE WATER SUPPLY COMMISSION<br /> -BY J. B. LYON COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS<br />ALBANY -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a name="FRONTIS" id="FRONTIS"> - <img src="images/i_003.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="602" /></a> -</div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - <h2 class="nobreak">WATER POWER FOR THE FARM<br /> AND COUNTRY HOME</h2> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="f120">BY DAVID R. COOPER</p> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>In the course of its general investigations of the water powers -of the State, the Water Supply Commission has heretofore confined -its attention to the possibilities for large developments, and the -regulation of the flow of rivers and large creeks. No previous or -general investigation of small creeks and brooks and their power -possibilities has been made, not because they were considered -unimportant, but because the Commission believes that if the State -decides to take an active part in the regulation of the flow of streams -and the development and conservation of water powers, it should -confine its first activities to the larger units, leaving the smaller -opportunities for later examination and for private and individual -development. However, no comprehensive system of conservation can meet -with universal favor unless it contemplates the prevention of waste, -great or small, and wherever found.</p> - -<p class="space-below1">Accordingly, the Commission desires to call -attention to the valuable power which is now running to waste in -thousands of <a href="#FRONTIS">small creeks and brooks</a> in all sections of -the State. Many of these minor streams present possibilities for small individual -developments of power sufficient to supply all the requirements of -the owner at a comparatively small cost. Numerous farms in the State -have on them brooks or creeks capable of supplying power sufficient to -furnish electric light for all the buildings. Others would also furnish -power enough to drive a feed grinder, a churn or cream separator, or -to run a wood saw, sewing machine or other machines and implements -requiring a small amount of power for their operation. In short, there -are numerous small streams now tumbling over ledges in barnyards or -pastures whose wasted energy might readily be transformed and applied -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> -to useful work by the installation of small and inexpensive water-power -plants. If the power of more of these were developed and substituted -for manual labor, a great saving of time and energy would be -accomplished, and financial profit would result.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="I005" id="I005"> - <img src="images/i_005.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="409" /></a> - <p class="center space-below1">Modern Application of Hydro-electric - Power Vacuum Milking Machines</p> -</div> - -<p>After the initial expense of installing the plant is paid, the cost -of a small water power is inconsiderable, the plant requiring little -personal attention and small expense for supplies and repairs. However, -while the power of some streams may be developed at an amazingly -small cost, in other instances the cost may be prohibitive. In this -connection, one fact that is perhaps not fully appreciated is that -the power of a waterfall is comparatively permanent, only its rate of -availability being limited. While the stream may shrink in the dry -summer and fall, it is quite certain to swell again in the spring and -to continue the process, year after year, as the source of supply is -continually renewed. But the power which might have been, but was not -developed in the year 1910, cannot be reclaimed in 1911 or ever after. -Much of the power that is wasted by inequality of the flow of the -stream may be saved by conservation through water storage; but this -sometimes involves a large outlay and therefore, generally speaking, -the fullest use of the power of a small stream can best be obtained by -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> -using the stream as it runs, or at best after temporary storage behind -inexpensive dams.</p> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_006.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="279" /> - <p class="center">“Luminous” Electric Radiator</p> -</div> - -<p>The Water Supply Commission believes that the possibilities for small -water powers should be pointed out to the people of the State in order -that there may be a better realization of the usefulness and value of -this remarkable natural resource and that the farmers and residents of -rural districts may take advantage of the opportunities to conserve and -utilize them. It is believed that some facts relating to the utility -of power in general and small water powers in particular, together -with descriptions of some typical small water-power developments -that are now in actual operation, and brief notes as to how such a -power may be developed and applied, will suffice to bring the subject -forcibly to the attention of those most interested, and furnish at -least a beginning for observations in this comparatively new field, -and stimulate a tendency to a more general utilization of this source -of power, and a consequent saving of much energy now secured from -coal, wood and other exhaustible producers of power. Accordingly, the -following discussion of the many and varied uses for power on the -modern farm, together with descriptions of developments now in use, and -notes on developing a small water power, are submitted in the hope that -they may be of interest and service to those who have chosen farming -for their livelihood or pleasure, especially by assisting them in the -consideration as to whether or not it may be worth while to develop the -power of any particular stream. These discussions and descriptions are -not intended to suffice as a practical handbook for laying out a power -plant, but merely to point the way to an intelligent consideration of -the possibilities, by showing what others have done and laying down -a few fundamental principles, which should properly be taken into -consideration in determining upon the development of a small water power.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - <h2 class="nobreak">USES FOR POWER ON THE FARM</h2> -</div> - -<p>The impossibility of securing a sufficient number of capable and -satisfactory farm hands in these days, when the majority of young men -are turning to the populous centers for their livelihood, is perhaps -the most compelling reason why machines which can be substituted for -manual labor are a decided advantage to the up-to-date farmer. Their -adoption as a part of the permanent equipment for the farm should -render their owner comparatively independent of some of the problems of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> -supply and demand for farm labor, the solution of which problems is -an important factor in determining the success or failure of the -farmer who disposes of his produce in open market. This condition is -supplemented by a commendable tendency for farmers to live better, to -place the home life of the farm on a higher plane, and to make farming -a means of pleasurable livelihood rather than the mere eking out of -a bare subsistence from the products of the soil. These conditions, -together with the greatly improved quality of illumination and -convenience which electricity affords, are creating a growing demand -for a reliable and reasonably economical source of energy with which to -supply both light and power on the larger estates and farms.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_007.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="640" /> - <p class="center space-below1">Motor Lifting a Ton of Hay, - Hydro-electric Power</p> -</div> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_008.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="389" /> - <p class="center">Electric Toaster</p> -</div> - -<p>That electric light is much cleaner and more convenient than kerosene -lamps must, of course, be admitted by all. It must also be admitted -that a kerosene lamp of any considerable illuminating power has also -certain heating propensities which render it an unpleasant companion -on a warm summer evening. However, when it comes to a consideration -of mere dollars and cents, there seems to be a widespread belief that -kerosene as a source of illumination is cheaper than electricity. -Statements to this effect are too often allowed to go uncontradicted, -and too many people accept this view without taking the trouble to -investigate.</p> - -<p>It is a comparatively simple matter to compare the cost of the two -kinds of light, knowing as we do exactly how much current an electric -lamp of a certain filament and candle-power will consume. Such a -comparison will frequently result in a choice of electricity as the -cheaper light. In many cases the selection of electricity to supplant -kerosene lamps would result in no considerable saving of money, but -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> -would do away with considerable inconvenience and furnish much better -illumination. If cost is the controlling consideration, the comparison -cannot always be so much in favor of electricity. An important -consideration, often overlooked, is that with electric lights the -interiors of living rooms do not require such frequent repapering or -refinishing as they would require with kerosene illumination.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> - <img src="images/i_009.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="402" /> - <p class="center">Motor-driven Sewing Machine</p> -</div> - -<p>However, the convenience and cleanliness of electricity are fairly well -known and appreciated, but the means by which electric currents may be -generated economically, and by which this form of energy may be applied -to bring about sufficient returns, financial and otherwise, to warrant -the installation of an isolated plant for a farm or country home, are -not so generally understood.</p> - -<p>Electric current may be generated by means of a dynamo, or generator, -with any kind of a power-producing plant. All that the dynamo requires -to enable it to produce electric current is power of some kind that -may be applied in such manner and quantity as will cause the armature, -or “interior core,” of the machine to rotate at a sufficiently high -and uniform rate of speed. There are various kinds of power generators -which will perform this work satisfactorily for isolated plants. Within -the last few years the small internal combustion engine, supplemented -by the electric storage battery, for stationary service, have been so -much improved and simplified as to cause them to compare very favorably -with the better-known types of power-producing apparatus in first cost -and in reliability of operation. The extreme simplicity of both this -type of engine and of the storage battery, together with the great -economy in fuel consumption of these engines, the low price of fuel, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> -and the efficiency of the battery as a device for storing the energy -and delivering it in the form of electric current when needed and in -the quantity required, result in a low operating cost. The advent of -tax-free alcohol into the field of available fuels for use in internal -combustion engines, and the growing demand for this class of fuel, -indicate that it will become, in time, a strong competitor of kerosene -and gasolene. At present, gasolene is the fuel most generally used for -engines of this type and small-size gas engines are now manufactured by -many firms.</p> - -<p>Steam power is probably the best understood of all classes of power. -In many cases, especially where the fuel is very cheap, this is the best -power for a farmer to have. Steam-power plants, as well as gasolene, -kerosene and alcohol plants, all require personal attendance during -operation and necessitate more or less frequent applications of fuel. -Wind power is also a source of energy which may well be considered by -the farmer who needs a small amount of power.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the most promising source of power for farmers in New York -State is the power that may be developed from falling water. This kind -of a power plant requires comparatively little personal attention -while in operation, and needs no replenishing of fuel except such as -Nature herself provides in the flowing brook. Not only are there many -of these powers that are undeveloped as yet, but there are many others -which have been developed at some previous time and have recently been -allowed to fall into disuse for various reasons. Many old sawmills were -abandoned when the surrounding hills were all lumbered off. A small -investment would enable many such old powers to be revived and applied -to some useful purpose. Such a water-power plant could frequently be -made to serve the owner or a group of users of electric current at very -small first cost for each individual, and at an operating cost which -would be inconsiderable.</p> - -<p>It should be borne in mind, however, that much depends on the choice of -the best power for any particular purpose, and a careful consideration -of what is needed, and the conditions under which the power must be -supplied, is essential to insure satisfaction with a power plant. -In any particular instance a manufacturer of small waterwheels will -cheerfully submit an estimate for a water-power plant, while the -makers of steam and gasolene engines will quite as readily furnish any -information to be based on data furnished by the intending purchaser. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figleft"> - <a name="I011A" id="I011A"> - <img src="images/i_011a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="344" /></a> - <p class="center">Motor-driven Ice Cream Freezer</p> -</div> - -<p>The extent of the applications of power to practical purposes on the -farm is very broad. While perhaps electric lighting is the use most -frequently thought of, it is, however, in the application of electric -current or power to the operation of labor-saving devices that the -greatest gain is to be derived on the large farm or country place. Feed -grinders, root cutters, fodder cutters, fanning mills, grindstones, -circular saws, corn shellers, <a href="#I022">drill presses</a>, ensilage cutters and -elevators, horse clippers, <a href="#I005">milking machines</a>, grain separators, -threshing machines, <a href="#I011B">cream separators</a>, churns, vacuum cleaners, -<a href="#I011A">ice cream freezers</a>, dough mixers, feed mixers, chicken hatchers, -and numerous other machines and implements operated by power, are -obtainable in these days of labor-saving devices. The amount of power -required to operate many of these is small. The presence of a plant of -sufficient capacity to operate one or two particular machines often -makes it possible to use the power for many of the other purposes. -The amount of work that a small power will do may be judged from the -following brief statements of what is actually being done:</p> - -<div class="figright"> -<a name="I011B" id="I011B"> - <img src="images/i_011b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="365" /></a> - <p class="center">Motor-driven Cream Separator</p> - <p class="f80">Note small size of motor</p> -</div> - -<p>Six horsepower will drive a grain separator and thresh 2500 bushels of -oats in ten hours.</p> - -<p>Three horsepower furnishes all power needed to make 6000 pounds of milk -into cheese in one day.</p> - -<p>Six horsepower will run a feed mill grinding twenty bushels of corn an -hour.</p> - -<p>Five horsepower grinds twenty-five to forty bushels of feed, or ten to -twelve bushels of ear corn, an hour. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p> - -<p>Seven horsepower drives an eighteen-inch separator, burr mill and corn -and cob crusher and corn sheller, grinding from twelve to fifteen -bushels of feed an hour, and five to eight bushels of good, fine meal.</p> - -<p>Six horsepower runs a heavy apple grater, grinding and pressing 200 to -250 bushels of apples an hour.</p> - -<p>Five horsepower will drive a thirty-inch circular saw, sawing from -fifty to seventy-five cords of stovewood from hard oak in ten hours.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> - <img src="images/i_012.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="368" /> - <p class="center">Electric Ironing</p> -</div> - -<p>Six horsepower saws all the wood four men can pile in cords.</p> - -<p>Twelve horsepower will drive a fifty-inch circular saw, sawing 4000 -feet of oak, or 5000 feet of poplar, in a day.</p> - -<p>Ten horsepower will run a sixteen-inch ensilage cutter and blower, and -elevate the ensilage into a silo thirty feet high at the rate of seven -tons per hour.</p> - -<p>One horsepower will pump water from a well of ordinary depth in -sufficient quantity to supply an ordinary farmhouse and all the -buildings with water for all the ordinary uses.</p> - -<p>In determining the size of power plant required in any particular -instance the use requiring the largest amount of power must be -considered. It follows that there will then be plenty of power for the -smaller requirements. In considering a water power it should also be -borne in mind that the full theoretical amount of a water power can -never be realized, a certain portion being taken up in friction in the -waterwheel and in losses in the electric generator, transmission lines, -motors, etc. The question as to how much may be made available will be -discussed hereinafter.</p> - -<p>Following are descriptions of some typical water-power developments in -use in this State at the present time.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - <h2 class="nobreak">FARM WATER-POWER DEVELOPMENT<br /> IN ONEIDA COUNTY</h2> -</div> - -<div class="figleft"> - <img src="images/i_013a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="161" /> - <p class="center">Electric Hot Plate</p> -</div> - -<p>On the outskirts of the village of Oriskany Falls, in Oneida county, -N. Y., is a farm of about 100 acres, belonging to Mr. E. Burdette -Miner. This community was at one time one of the principal hop-raising -districts of the State. Mr. Miner has been engaged in raising hops for -fifty years, and raised 10,000 pounds of hops on seven acres the past -season. In recent years he has divided his attention between mixed -farming and dairying, keeping from twenty to twenty-five cows.</p> - -<p>Before the installation of his water power, not the least of the -irksome tasks about the farmhouse was the daily filling and cleaning -of kerosene lamps and lanterns; and the wood was sawed, and the cream -separator and churn in the dairy room were operated, by hand. Five sons -contributed in no small measure to the prompt disposal of the daily -tasks. But the boys went forth into the world and acquired lines of -activity and interest of their own. Only the oldest son remained to -live on the farm. Another son studied electrical engineering, a third -chose mechanical pursuits, a fourth became a civil engineer, and a -fifth took up commercial work.</p> - -<div class="figright"> - <img src="images/i_013b.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="451" /> - <p class="center">Electric Coffee Percolator</p> -</div> - -<p>After coming in touch with the outer world and the great modern -achievements of science and invention, especially of a mechanical or -engineering character, the boys quite naturally set their wits to work -to devise some way in which the daily labors of those at home might be -made less burdensome.</p> - -<p>Through the farm flows Oriskany creek, which ripples over its gravelly -bed in a channel from twenty to thirty feet wide. The boys said to -their father, “Why not harness the creek and make it do some of the -work?” There was no precipitous fall of the creek on the farm, but -the boys proposed to concentrate at least a portion of the fall by -<a href="#I014">constructing a dam</a>. This they intended to do primarily for the purpose -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> -of developing enough power to light the homestead and farm buildings -with electricity and to saw the wood and do away with some of the other -tiresome farm tasks.</p> - -<p>The elder Miner was not enthusiastic at first, but was finally -persuaded by the boys, who made surveys and plans for a water-power -development, and in October, 1905, with the assistance of three of his -boys and two day laborers, Mr. Miner began the construction of a dam -across the creek. This was to be no ordinary structure. The creek, -while peaceful enough at most times, had a habit, well known to Mr. -Miner, of bursting its bounds every spring and rushing through the farm -in a torrent. So the dam was built in such a way that, while it would -raise the water to a certain height during periods of ordinary flow, it -would not cause the floods to rise perceptibly higher than before the -dam was built. Accordingly, it was designed so that a part of it could -be lowered at flood times to allow free passage for the swollen stream.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="I014" id="I014"> - <img src="images/i_014.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="408" /></a> - <p class="center">Dam of E. B. Miner, Oriskany Falls, N. Y.</p> - <p class="f80 space-below1">Main dam at left; flood spillway at right</p> -</div> - -<p>The bed of the stream at the site selected for the dam is composed of -solidly packed gravel. It was not considered advisable to lay timbers -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> -on such a foundation, so a ditch about two feet deep and one and -one-half feet wide was dug across the creek bed and filled with -concrete, to which a heavy timber was securely bolted, to form the -upstream sill for the super-structure. The downstream side was -supported on a sill of heavy timber whose ends were embedded in the -concrete walls, or abutments, at either end of the dam and whose middle -portion was supported by posts, spaced six feet apart, which in turn -rested on large blocks of concrete placed in the bed of the creek. -This downstream sill was about two and one-half feet higher than the -upstream sill. A horizontal floor of double plank extending twelve -feet downstream from the upstream sill and supported by the concrete -foundations under the downstream sill formed an apron for the water to -fall on. This prevents back-washing under the dam. A double layer of -heavy plank was then fastened on the two sills, forming a sloping face -on the water side of the dam. On the upper edge of this plank-facing, -at the crest of the dam, are placed flashboards, one foot high and -extending the full length of the dam, thirty-six feet, but divided into -six sections, each six feet long. Each of these sections is hinged by -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> -the lower edge to the crest of the dam, while the upper edge is held -from tipping over by chains fastened to cast-iron lugs located about -halfway down the planking. The chain is held in these lugs by pins -which are connected by rod and chain to a capstan, or spindle, located -at one end of the dam, and are so arranged that by turning the spindle -the pins will be drawn successively, thereby letting the flashboards -down one at a time. The idea of this arrangement is that, when a flood -is rising, the capstan may be turned with a heavy lever crank, winding -up the chain and pulling down the flashboards one at a time, to give -more space for the flood to pass through so as to prevent the water -upstream from the dam from rising too high. This plan has prevented the -washing away of Mr. Miner’s power house on several occasions.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="I015" id="I015"> - <img src="images/i_015.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="404" /></a> - <p class="center">Farm Power House on Oriskany Creek</p> - <p class="f80 space-below1">Dam in left background; tail-race in right foreground</p> -</div> - -<p>The sloping face of the dam receives the direct pressure of the water -and transfers it to the sills, which in turn transfer it to the -concrete foundation. The reason for sloping the upstream face of the -dam is that the pressure of water is always normal, or perpendicular, -to the surface against which it presses; therefore, if the face of the -dam is sloping, the pressure is downward, rather than outward, as would -be the case with a vertical face. This results in greater stability for -the dam, due to the lessened tendency to tip over. With a dam of this -type the higher the water rises against or over it, the more nearly -vertical is the line of pressure, and the dam is held tightly down on -its foundation instead of tending to tip over. It follows that the -flatter the face of the dam the more stable it will be. Mr. Miner’s dam -raised the water about four feet.</p> - -<p>But in spite of his provision for floods, Mr. Miner did not want to be -under the necessity of letting down his dam for every freshet, so he -provided an additional permanent spillway. This is a simple concrete -barrier, or wall, which flanks one end of the dam. In plan it was -built at an angle with the dam proper, and extends downstream along -the side of the natural bank. It was built with its crest a few inches -higher than the main dam, so that during periods of ordinary flow the -surplus water all passes over the main dam, but as soon as the creek -rises a few inches over the main dam, water begins to flow over this -extra spillway, which, being about forty feet long, will discharge a -considerable volume although the water flowing over it is only a few -inches in depth. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p> - -<p>This spillway is strengthened on the downstream end by a concrete -abutment, which consists of a simple heavy block of concrete extending -above the top of the spillway. A similar abutment flanks the upstream -end and also constitutes an abutment for one end of the main dam. The -other end of the main dam is set against the opposite bank of the creek -and is protected from washing and is strengthened by a similar concrete -abutment.</p> - -<p>It was considered desirable to place the <a href="#I015">little power house</a> -away from the main channel of the stream, so an earth embankment was built, -extending from the downstream end of the flood spillway, a distance of -about sixty feet. This embankment, or dyke, is curved in such manner -as to divert the water behind it across a low place to a safe distance -from the main channel. Some excavating had to be done behind this -embankment in order to secure a channel of sufficient depth to prevent -the water from freezing to the bottom and to provide a smooth channel -of approach to the power house. This diversion of the water to one side -from the main channel prevents the accumulation of debris and silt, -which is a hindrance to the proper operation of a waterwheel. The pool -thus formed is called a “forebay” and is very quiet water. The velocity -of the water flowing through it is so slight that it will not carry -much debris.</p> - -<p>At the downstream end of the forebay the diverting embankment -approaches a steep bank. At this point Mr. Miner built a small power -house. Under the power house is the wheel-box, which consists of a -box-like compartment having one side open to the forebay. This opening -is covered with a coarse screen to prevent leaves or other debris from -entering the wheel, but the water flows through it readily. In the -wheel-box a waterwheel, of the type known as a turbine, was placed. -This revolves on a vertical shaft, or axle, which is guided by bearings -in a metal case surrounding the wheel and resting on the bottom of the -box-like compartment. The wheel-case is open at the bottom to allow the -free escape of the water after it has passed through the wheel. The -construction of the turbines is such that the pressure of the water on -the curved vanes causes the wheel to revolve, just as the pressure of -wind causes a windmill to revolve. The water must have a free escape -from the opening in the bottom of the wheel-case and wheel-pit and to -provide for this a channel, called a “tail-race,” was excavated to -carry the water back to the creek. Natural conditions were favorable -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> -here and a tail-race joining the main channel about 100 feet below the -power house was constructed with little difficulty. At the point where -the tail-race joins the creek the elevation is two feet lower than the -power house, so that there is little tendency for water to back up from -the creek into the tail-race. There is a certain amount of back-water -during freshets but the increased height of the water in the forebay at -such times partially offsets it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="I018" id="I018"> - <img src="images/i_018.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="418" /></a> - <p class="center space-below1">Interior of E. B. Miner’s Power House</p> -</div> - -<p>The vertical shaft of the turbine extends up through and about two feet -above the floor near one end of the power house, where it is supported -on ball-bearings which enable it to be revolved with very little -friction.</p> - -<p>At the other end of the <a href="#I018">power house</a>, which is twelve feet -by sixteen feet in plan and seven feet high to the eaves, was placed an electric -generator, or dynamo, rated at 12½ kilowatts, which is equivalent to -about 17 horsepower. This machine is intended to operate at about 1100 -revolutions per minute. The waterwheel, under the pressure of about -six feet, would not revolve at such a high rate of speed. It was, -therefore, impracticable to connect the generator shaft directly to the -waterwheel shaft and it became necessary to magnify the revolutions by -connecting the two shafts by belt, using different-sized pulleys. A -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> -large wooden pulley, seventy-six inches in diameter, was keyed on -the end of the waterwheel shaft. A much smaller pulley, about eight -inches in diameter, was placed on the driving shaft of the generator. -A leather belt connects the two, and since the wheel shaft is vertical -and the generator shaft is horizontal, it is necessary to pass the -belt over an intermediate pulley, or “idler.” This idler is set with -its axis at an angle with both the horizontal and vertical, so that -the transition of the belt from the horizontal to vertical is made -gradually. Since the driving pulley on the generator shaft is so much -smaller than the pulley on the wheel shaft, there are about nine revolutions -of the generator shaft for every revolution of the wheel shaft.</p> - -<p>The amount of power which this equipment will generate depends to a -considerable extent upon the amount of water flowing. Oriskany creek -at this point has a tributary drainage area of about fourteen square -miles, and the flow required to drive the turbine to full capacity is -about 2900 cubic feet per minute. This volume is probably available -during most of the year, but is not available in the driest seasons, -at which times the flow is probably reduced to about 600 cubic feet -per minute. The waterwheel probably has an efficiency of about eighty -per cent, that is, it will probably develop about eighty per cent of -the theoretical energy of the falling water. The remainder is lost -in friction in the wheel-box at the entrance to the wheel and in the -velocity still remaining in the water after it leaves the wheel. Five -per cent of the power generated on the wheel shaft is probably lost by -friction of the belting, so that, at rated load, about seventy-six per -cent of the theoretical power of the water is probably delivered to the -shaft of the generator.</p> - -<p>Mr. Miner realized that there would be times when he would not require -all or any of the power which would be produced. At the same time the -pond formed by the dam was not large enough to store any considerable -amount of water, and he had all the power he would require at any one -time, so it was not considered necessary to provide storage batteries -to store the electricity. On the other hand he did not wish to be -compelled to turn the water on and off at frequent intervals, as would -be necessary unless some auxiliary regulating apparatus were provided. -Therefore, it was decided to provide for the plant to run continuously -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> -and to devise some means to consume the electric current when not -in use. A series of resistance coils were mounted on a frame in the -power house, and connected with the generator. When the demand for -electric current is less than the capacity of the generator, a small -electric device automatically throws one or more of these coils into -the circuit, and the surplus current is converted into heat by the -resistance of the coils. By means of this arrangement it was planned -to run the plant continuously, so that whenever electric current was -wanted it could be had simply by turning a switch at the house or barns.</p> - -<p>The power plant, including the dam and all the features thus far -described, was completed and in operation before Christmas of the year -in which the construction was begun.</p> - -<p>We have thus far seen how Mr. Miner developed his water power and -transformed it into electricity. It remains to see how he gets it to -his house and farm buildings, and how he uses it after he gets it there.</p> - -<p>The power house is situated about 1700 feet from the house, where the -electric current was most wanted. This necessitated the construction of -a transmission line. For this purpose a double line of bare aluminum -wire was stretched on a row of poles about twenty feet high and about -one hundred feet apart. The poles are provided with ordinary crossarms -at the top on which are mounted the insulators carrying the wires. -As the transmission line leaves the power house it crosses a highway -and runs in a perfectly straight line to the house. Over the highway -insulated wires were used as a safety precaution, but bare aluminum -wire was used for the remainder because it was cheaper.</p> - -<p>The buildings are all in a cluster and a branch from the transmission -line runs into each one where the current is used. All the wires which -are inside of any of the buildings, or are close to the woodwork, are -covered with insulation, and, where concealed, are further protected by -being placed in twisted metal tubes.</p> - -<p>The first actual use of this hydro-electric power was for lighting. The -house was illuminated with electric lights, as were also the barn and -other buildings, there being ultimately about seventy 16-candle-power -lamps in use. Even the pig sty has its electric light, and there is no -more groping in the dark anywhere about the Miner farm buildings. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="I021" id="I021"> - <img src="images/i_021.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="674" /></a> - <p class="center space-below1">Lathe in E. B. Miner’s Machine Shop</p> -</div> - -<p>But there was more power in the creek than was necessary to run the -electric lights. A circular saw was brought into use, belted to a -motor, and the supply of firewood was cut in a fraction of the time -previously required. The same motor is used to drive a <a href="#I021">lathe</a> -and a <a href="#I022">drill</a> in a machine shop which the Miner boys built and -equipped. This motor is belted to a countershaft from which additional machine -tools can be driven. One of the Miner boys has developed this machine shop as -a combined means of pleasure and profit. In addition to a considerable -amount of experimental machine work, he does all the farm repairs and a -considerable amount of machine work for neighboring knitting mills, as -well as general and automobile repair work, all of which has been made -possible by the harnessing of the creek.</p> - -<p>Another motor, two-horsepower, driven by the electric current, is -belted to a <a href="#I023">vacuum pump</a>, which is connected with a one-inch -pipe running to the house and the barn. In the house there are two taps, one -on each floor, to which the hose of a vacuum cleaner may be attached, -and Oriskany creek does the rest; the floors are cleaned in the most -modern, sanitary and thorough manner. In the barn the pipe from the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> -vacuum pump runs above the cow stanchions with a tap at alternate -stanchions. The tubes of the milking machines are attached and the -creek milks twenty or twenty-five cows twice each day.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="I022" id="I022"> - <img src="images/i_022.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="673" /></a> - <p class="center">Drill in E. B. Miner’s Machine Shop</p> - <p class="f80 space-below1">Note the electric motor in background belted<br /> - to countershaft near the ceiling</p> -</div> - -<p>In the dairy room is a one-half-horsepower motor, which may be belted -to the cream separator or churn, and on the hot summer days it is -frequently belted to the ice cream freezer. An ingenious float device -in the separator turns off the power when the cream is all separated -from the milk and trips a can of clear water into the heavy, revolving -bowl of the separator, which still retains enough momentum to rinse -itself thoroughly before coming to rest.</p> - -<p>In a similar manner other applications of the power have followed from -time to time, and one at a time most of the hand cranks on the Miner -farm have been relegated to the scrap heap; even the grindstone is -operated by a long, narrow belt running from the little motor in the -dairy out through the door to an adjoining compartment.</p> - -<p>In the Miner residence are five electrical heaters, which Mr. Miner -states will raise the temperature to 75 degrees when it is zero -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> -outside. Since these heaters were installed there has not been much use -for the wood saw. There are also in the house some electric fans which -stir up a breeze on the hot days. An electric ventilator fan in the -attic insures good ventilation at all times. In the kitchen the Miners -cook for a family of from five to ten with an electric range, and iron -with an electric iron attached by a cord to an ordinary electric lamp -socket. A smaller motor operates the egg beater and cream whipper; -another small motor drives the sewing machine.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="I023" id="I023"> - <img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="404" /></a> - <p class="center">E. B. Miner’s Dairy Room</p> - <p class="f80 space-below1">Vacuum milking machines in background; also small motor which<br /> - drives the cream separator and churn in the foreground</p> -</div> - -<p>The little motor in the dairy room also drives a single-acting plunger -pump, which forces water up to a galvanized iron tank in the attic -of the house, whence water is piped and furnished by gravity to the -bathroom and kitchen. An electric heater in the kitchen heats the water -for the bath and kitchen.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_024.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="656" /> - <p class="center">Electric Cooking Outfit, E. B. Miner’s Home</p> -</div> - -<p>Other miscellaneous uses are made of the never-failing power of -the creek, such as filling the silo, and the power plant requires -practically no attention. Self-oiling devices on the waterwheel -and generator, and the use of the resistance coils to consume the -superfluous electricity, obviate the necessity for attention, except to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> -fill the oil cups every few weeks. Practically no trouble has been -experienced in the operation, the only interruption so far being due -to the formation of anchor ice in the forebay, which causes a little -trouble on extremely cold days. The waterwheel is run continuously, -night and day, summer and winter, and electric light or current is -always available at the touch of a button or by throwing a switch.</p> - -<p>As to the cost of his plant Mr. Miner would give no figures. His motto -seems to be, “Not how cheap, but how good,” and he states that it would -require several times the cost to induce him to give up his water-power -plant. Engineers estimate the cost of reproducing his plant, including -the dam, power house, waterwheel, generator and transmission line, at -about $1800.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"> - <h2 class="nobreak">SUMMER HOME POWER PLANT,<br /> NORTHWEST BAY,<br /> LAKE GEORGE</h2> -</div> - -<p>Among the attractive summer homes on the shores of Lake George is -that of Mr. Stephen Loines of Brooklyn, located at the upper end of -Northwest bay, about four miles above Bolton Landing. On his property -there was a small lake known as Wing pond, having an area of about -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> -seven acres and situated at an elevation of about 180 feet above Lake -George. The outlet was a small brook, which runs through Mr. Loines’ -property and flows into Northwest bay.</p> - -<p>In the summer of 1902, <a href="#I025">Mr. Loines built a dam</a> across the -outlet of Wing pond, raising its surface about two feet. He ran a galvanized iron -pipe line from the dam, down the side of the hill and along the brook. It -was four inches in diameter for a short distance, then reduced to three -inches and finally to two inches, and was about 1200 feet long in all, -with a fall of about 110 feet. A twenty-four-inch waterwheel of the -impulse type was installed in a small power house to which the pipe -line was run. The waterwheel developed about three horsepower and was -belted to an electric generator.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="I025" id="I025"> - <img src="images/i_025.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="342" /></a> - <p class="center space-below1">Dam at Outlet of Wing Pond</p> -</div> - -<p>The power was found to be insufficient to supply Mr. Loines’ needs -at that time. He desired to burn thirty-five 16-candle-power carbon -filament lamps and to charge a 40-cell battery for an electric launch.</p> - -<p>Accordingly, in the fall of 1908, Mr. Loines raised his dam two feet -higher and installed a six-inch spiral riveted steel pipe line, running -from the dam down a gulley on the surface of the ground, for about -1600 feet, to a point a short distance from the place where the creek -flows into Lake George. At this point he built a small power house and -installed a twenty-four-inch waterwheel of the impulse type. This wheel -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> -operates under a head of 165 feet and is directly connected by a -shaft to a six and one-half kilowatt generator, which operates at 500 -revolutions per minute. This generator supplies a 60-cell house battery -(45 lamps), an 84-cell battery for a 35-foot cabin launch, a 48-cell -battery for a 20-foot open launch and a 40-cell battery for an electric -roadster, all of which are in pretty continuous use from about the -first of June to the first of November of each year.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_026.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="343" /> - <p class="center space-below1">Power Transmission Line,<br />Northwest Bay, Lake George</p> -</div> - -<p>As this new development superseded the older one and proved entirely -adequate for the needs of Mr. Loines’ country place, the old -development was made over so that it could be utilized for sawing -firewood to supply the superintendent’s cottage and the other buildings -during the winter. A countershaft was erected on the wall of the old -power house, which is a building 7 feet by 10 feet in plan and about -8 feet high. This countershaft has three counterpulleys, by means of -which the speed of the waterwheel may be doubled or trebled. For the -purpose of sawing firewood a leather belt is placed on one of the -pulleys of the countershaft and run through a small aperture in the -side of the power house to the driving pulley of a circular saw, which -stands on a small porch at one end of the power house building.</p> - -<p>Mr. Loines’ superintendent stated that by operating the saw -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> -continuously for eight hours it would be possible to saw twelve cords -of wood, which he estimated to be sufficient to supply his cottage, and -such other of the buildings as need wood, for the entire winter. This -illustrates very aptly the large amount of work that a small power is -capable of doing in a short time.</p> - -<p>In addition to lighting his house and buildings by means of the power -developed at his new <a href="#I027">power house</a>, Mr. Loines also has a rather -unusual application of power on his summer place. He is an enthusiastic student -of astronomy and has built a small but elaborately equipped observatory -on the hillside above the cottage. The observatory is so constructed -that the roof can be removed entirely from the building to a support -at the back of the observatory. The roof is mounted on wheels and Mr. -Loines uses his electric power to do the work of moving the roof when -he wishes to make astronomical observations with his telescope. This is -accomplished by means of a small 1½-horsepower motor which operates at -1275 revolutions per minute and is connected by belt to a countershaft, -which in turn is connected by a worm gear and a chain drive to the -carriage on which the roof is supported. In this manner the roof may be -moved the required distance in two or three minutes by simply throwing -the switch which is inside the observatory building.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="I027" id="I027"> - <img src="images/i_027.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="342" /></a> - <p class="center space-below1">Stephen Loines’ Power House,<br />Northwest Bay, Lake George</p> - <p class="f80 space-below1">At left, 4-in. water pipe; at right,<br />transmission line connection</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> -Mr. Loines’ new power house is a stone masonry building, the masonry -being uncoursed rubble, constructed in a very artistic and attractive -manner. The building is 9½ feet by 15½ feet in plan and is about 9 feet -high to the eaves. It has a concrete foundation and the floor is of -first-class concrete. A concrete foundation, about 3 feet by 5 feet, -provides a permanent support for the water motor and the generator. -This foundation projects 6 inches above the level of the concrete -floor. On one end of the foundation stands the waterwheel, there being -an opening about 8 inches by 18 inches through the concrete base under -the water motor to carry off the water after it has passed through -the wheel. The supply pipe for the waterwheel enters the side of the -building on a level about one foot above the floor. Just inside, the -pipe reduces to a diameter of about 2½ inches and is fitted with a -gate valve by means of which the water may be turned on or off. The -nozzle of the waterwheel is also equipped with an adjusting device -by means of which the size of the jet issuing from the nozzle may be -varied in order to secure various speeds or the maximum efficiency -of the waterwheel. The setting required to give the desired speed is -determined by experiment by the operator.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"> - <h2 class="nobreak">FARM POWER DEVELOPMENT IN<br />SCHOHARIE COUNTY</h2> -</div> - -<p>At the entrance to the driveway approach to the farmhouse of Jared Van -Wagenen, Jr., at Lawyersville, Schoharie county, N. Y., stand two large, -stone gateway posts. On the capstone of one of these posts is engraved, -“Agriculture the Oldest Occupation,” and on the other, “Agriculture -the Greatest Science.” In keeping with the latter sentiment, Mr. Van -Wagenen has conducted his agricultural operations in such a manner -that he is looked upon as one of the most scientific and progressive -agriculturists in the State. He takes an active interest in such -affairs as farmers’ institutes and is considered an authority on the -science of agriculture. His farm and buildings are equipped with the -most modern conveniences and labor-saving devices.</p> - -<p>There is a small stream which runs through the farm and flows into the -Cobleskill. This stream is so small that one may easily step across it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> -in the summer-time. About half a mile from the farmhouse is an old mill -dam which forms a pond with an area of more than an acre. The dam was -built long ago when small sawmills dotted that section of the State. -The timber having been practically all cut off, this mill, along with -hundreds of others, was long since abandoned. Mr. Van Wagenen conceived -the idea of harnessing its wasting energy and making it do some of his -farm work for him. The story of how he accomplished this is best given -in his own words, as follows:</p> - -<p>“About eight years ago I began to figure on how to get this power to -the house where it could do a little work. My first thought was to -carry it there by belt cables, but figures proved that the friction -would eat up the five horsepower available. Electric power, easily -transmitted with little loss, was the only solution. I talked with many -who understood electricity and its engineering features and most of -them laughed at the idea of such a small installation. Had I wanted to -construct a million-dollar plant there would have been whole libraries -of advice; but a small plant to run entirely alone and be controlled by -a seven-hundred-foot-wire was evidently a novelty. After a good deal of -studying and feeling my way the plans were made and the work begun.</p> - -<p>“The stream being so small, the most rigid economy of water had to be -observed, so I installed a nine-inch upright turbine in an upright -wooden case, building the case myself, where it would get the most -benefit of the fifteen-foot head. This turbine, furnishing about five -horsepower, I belted to a three-kilowatt, or four-horsepower, one -hundred and twenty-five volt direct current generator, which would -easily take care of seventy-five metal filament incandescent lamps. -I next installed a waterwheel governor to insure a steady flow of -electricity. It took about seventy-four hundred feet of weatherproof -copper wire, strung on wooden poles, which were cut on the farm, to -carry the electricity to my home and the farm buildings and to the -house of a neighbor. As it is more than half a mile from the house to -the plant it is out of the question to go there every night and morning -to stop and start the machinery. Of course it is possible to let this -plant run night and day during the wet season, but in dry times it is -best to save the water when the power is not needed. A neighbor living -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> -about seven hundred feet from the power station kindly starts and stops -the machinery with a wire stationed at his bedroom window. This wire -controls a valve and counterweight. At five o’clock in the morning he -pulls the wire and the lights come on and at a certain hour of the -night he releases the wire and they go out. In payment for this service -I light his house and barns free of charge.</p> - -<p>“Our maintenance charges are very small; almost negligible. I think our -waterwheel behaves better every year. Carbon brushes for the generator -last a long while and oil is a very small item. Each year I am -improving the plant, and very soon I expect to install a motor-driven -washing machine and wringer to prepare the clothes for the electric -iron and to put a vacuum cleaning outfit in the house.</p> - -<p>“Although I consider the cost of our plant about $500, it was installed -under the most rigid economy in every respect and mainly by my own -hands. The dam was already built and needed only some trifling repairs. -The gate control is my own get-up, and, while the cost is trifling, -it took considerable study to get it to work right. I did most of the -house wiring, using concealed knob and tube for the living rooms of the -house; moulding and open wiring for the other rooms and for the barns. -This material cost me about $40. Of course, I do not in any instance -figure in my own labor, as the work was all done at odd times.”</p> - -<p>This small power development, using the dam already built, -cost Mr. Van Wagenen about $500 as follows:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Small Power Development Costs" cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Dynamo, 3 k.w. (second-hand)</td> - <td class="tdr">$ 50</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Waterwheel, 4 h.p. (naked wheel)  </td> - <td class="tdr">55</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Governor (new)</td> - <td class="tdr">75</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Wire (7400 feet)</td> - <td class="tdr">210</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Labor (installing waterwheel)</td> - <td class="tdr">40</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Fixtures (lamps and the like)</td> - <td class="tdr">38</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">One small motor, 2 h.p. (new)</td> - <td class="tdr bb">50</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">Total</td> - <td class="tdr bb2">$518</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>The plant furnishes power sufficient to light the farmhouse and all -of the buildings with electricity, as well as those of the neighbor -who turns the water on and off. In the dairy a small electric motor of -about 3 horsepower, actuated by the electric current, drives the cream -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> -separator and also furnishes power for running the grindstone, feed -cutters, hay fork and fanning mill, in addition to which the power is -also used to milk the cows and cut the ensilage and to do numerous -other bits of work about the place. Mr. Van Wagenen states that his -water power does work equivalent to that of a hired man the year round -and does away with numerous chores and laborious duties about the place.</p> - -<p>The arrangement which Mr. Van Wagenen devised to turn on the water -at his plant and to shut it off again is unique and interesting. It -consists of a triangular frame lever about two feet wide and seven feet -high, hinged at one of the bottom corners. The other bottom corner -is connected to a sliding gate which fits over the feed pipe for the -waterwheel. At the top are fastened two wires, one of which runs to the -house of Mr. Van Wagenen’s accommodating neighbor, and the other runs -over a pulley and has a counterweight attached to it. When the water -is to be turned on, the neighbor pulls the wire and the gate is raised -by the leverage of the frame; when the water is to be shut off, he -releases the wire and the counterweight pulls the lever back, allowing -the gate to fall in place again.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_031.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="384" /> - <p class="center space-below1">Washing Machine, Driven by Electric Motor</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"> - <h2 class="nobreak">OTHER SMALL POWER DEVELOPMENTS</h2> -</div> - -<p>Mr. John T. McDonald, who has a farm about five miles from Delhi, -Delaware county, N. Y., some ten years ago began making good use of a -power development from a small stream on his farm. He lights his house -and buildings, runs saws, grinders and various machines in a little -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> -shop on rainy days and in the winter. His <a href="#I033">dam was made from -stone and earth</a> from the nearby fields and cost very little. It forms a -pond, covering, when full, about four and one-half acres of land. The pond -is well stocked with trout and other fish, and each winter Mr. McDonald -cuts about 500 tons of ice from it. Mr. McDonald turns on the water -at his dam by means of an electric switch at the house and regulates -the voltage also in a similar manner. From the pond the water is led -through a hydraulic race, or canal, about 900 feet long, to one of the -farm buildings where the waterwheels are installed. The head, or fall, -at this point is about 15 feet and there are three waterwheels of the -turbine type: one that develops 25 horsepower, another that develops -6 horsepower and a third that develops about 3 horsepower. The large -wheel is used to run a sawmill and feed mill. The 6-horsepower wheel -drives an electric generator, or dynamo, which furnishes the electric -lights, and also electricity for driving the small motors about the -place. The 3-horsepower wheel runs the small saws, machine tools, etc., -in Mr. McDonald’s shop.</p> - -<p>A few miles east from Mr. Van Wagenen’s farm in Schoharie county is -another small power development owned by Mr. Frank Caspar. He has -installed two waterwheels on a small creek and uses the power from -them to drive the machinery in a table and furniture factory. He has -another small waterwheel of the turbine type driving a little dynamo -which generates electricity for electric light. Mr. Caspar lights his -factory buildings, his home, a neighboring church and the main street -in the village with electricity from this little dynamo. An ingenious -device of his own invention makes it possible to start and stop the -power from the house by simply pulling a wire which operates a valve -in a small water pipe, from which water under pressure is let into a -hydraulic cylinder. This causes the piston of the cylinder to rise, -and the piston being directly connected to a gate in the water pipe -inlet, allows the water to flow into the waterwheel. When it is desired -to stop the plant, a pull on the companion wire causes the reverse -operation to take place and the power is shut off. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="I033" id="I033"> - <img src="images/i_033.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="369" /></a> - <p class="center space-below1">Farm Power Development of John T. McDonald,<br /> - Delaware Co., N. Y.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> -Near the village of Berlin, in eastern Rensselaer county, N. Y., there -is a small power development owned by Mr. Arthur Cowee. His source of -power is a small trout brook which flows through the farm. Mr. Cowee is -a producer of fancy gladiolus bulbs, on a large scale. His principal -power development, consisting of a 36-inch impulse waterwheel, under -a pressure due to a fall of about 210 feet, is used mostly for the -purpose of operating a circular saw and other machinery connected with -a sawmill. The water is diverted from the natural channel of the brook -at a considerable distance from the place where the waterwheel is -installed and is carried in an artificial channel, about four feet wide -and three feet deep, around the side of the hill, where it runs into -a shallow basin which has been excavated by Mr. Cowee at a suitable -location. By means of this basin, or artificial pond, practically all -of the flow of the brook may be stored during the night and used to -operate the waterwheel during the day. In this manner the full power -value of the brook is realized. There is a ten-inch, cast-iron pipe -line, about 1680 feet long, which runs from the pond down the side of -the hill to the waterwheel. This pipe line was placed under ground from -three to four feet in order to avoid freezing in the winter. Mr. Cowee -estimates that the development, including the diverting dam and canal, -pond, pipe line, waterwheel, circular saw and accessories, cost him -a total of about $7000. He states that he can saw about 4000 feet of -lumber in a day with this power.</p> - -<p>In addition to this development, Mr. Cowee also has a small impulse -waterwheel in his bulb house. This wheel is operated by water furnished -from the system of the local water company. It is directly connected -to a small electric generator which furnishes electricity sufficient -for 157 sixteen-candle-power carbon-filament lamps which are installed -throughout the bulb house. The generator does not produce enough -electric current to run all of these lights at the same time, but it -will operate as many as forty-five or fifty lights at one time, which -is all that is necessary to meet the requirements.</p> - -<p>Mr. D. F. Paine of Wadhams, Essex county, N. Y., has a dam at the -outlet of Lincoln pond. The water surface, when the pond is full, is -about twelve feet above the normal and spreads over an extensive tract -of low, marshy land. The pond thus formed is about three miles long -and from one-quarter to three-quarters of a mile wide. The water is -conducted from the dam to the penstock, a distance of about a mile -and a half, securing a fall of 320 feet. At this point Mr. Paine has -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> -constructed a power house, where he generates electricity which he -transmits to Mineville for use in the mines. This power is transmitted -a distance of about eight miles.</p> - -<p>At Chazy, N. Y., near the western shore of Lake Champlain and at a -point about fifteen miles north of the city of Plattsburg, there -is located a modern stock and dairy farm which, in its operation, -exemplifies the manifold advantages to be derived from the use of -hydro-electric power for electric lighting and for the various power -requirements of the farm. This farm, which is owned by Mr. W. H. -Miner and is called “Heart’s Delight,” covers an area of 5160 acres. -About 1200 acres are cultivated, 1200 acres are in pasture and the -remainder in woodland. The output consists of live stock and dairy -products, all crops grown on the farm being fed to the stock and only -finished products being shipped out. The live stock includes registered -Percheron and Belgian horses, pure-bred, short-horn Durham and Guernsey -cattle, Dorset sheep and high-grade hogs for the production of sausage, -hams and bacon. There are also poultry and squabs, and a fish hatchery -for the propagation of trout. The entire output goes directly to -high-grade hotels in New York, Washington and Chicago.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="I035" id="I035"> - <img src="images/i_035.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="398" /></a> - <p class="center space-below1">Power House, “Heart’s Delight” Farm</p> -</div> - -<p>Two streams pass through the southern portion of the farm, the smaller -one being known as Tracy brook and the larger one as Chazy river. It -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> -was decided to provide the farm with electricity for light and power. -Enough water power was found in these streams to furnish a cheap and -reliable source of energy. Accordingly, a hydro-electric plant was -installed several years ago and has given such satisfaction that -the equipment has been increased from time to time, and some novel -applications have resulted. Three small concrete dams were built across -Tracy brook to form storage reservoirs. A concrete penstock, or pipe, -44 inches in diameter and 670 feet long, carries the water from the -downstream reservoir to a concrete power house, where a fall of 19 feet -is secured.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="I036" id="I036"> - <img src="images/i_036.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="493" /></a> - <p class="center space-below1">Alternating Current Transmission Line,<br />“Heart’s Delight” Farm</p> -</div> - -<p>The power house equipment consists of two water turbines automatically -governed and directly connected respectively to one 30-kilowatt and -one 12½-kilowatt, 220-volt, direct current generators. The current is -transmitted over a pole line, a mile and a quarter long, to a central -station in the main group of farm buildings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_037a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="529" /> - <p class="center space-below1">Electric Cooking Outfit</p> -</div> - -<p>Another dam was built across the Chazy river. This is of concrete, and, -after passing through screens at the intake gate house, built into the -dam, the water flows through a concrete penstock, 48 inches wide by 60 -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> -inches high and 630 feet long, to the <a href="#I035">power house</a> where -a fall of 30 feet is obtained. There are two turbines here, belt connected to -alternating current generators, and the current is <a href="#I036">transmitted -over a pole line</a>, nearly three miles long, to the central station.</p> - -<p>An auxiliary to the water-power development consists of two hydraulic -rams, pumping water from one of the Tracy brook reservoirs to a -60,000-gallon tank, 100 feet above the ground, for fire protection for -the buildings.</p> - -<p>There are in all about twenty-five motors installed in the various -buildings. The electric current actuates these motors, which are used -to drive or operate numerous machines and labor-saving devices.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_037b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="371" /> - <p class="center">Motor-driven Vacuum Pump</p> - <p class="f80 space-below1">For milking machines and vacuum cleaners</p> -</div> - -<p>An entire load of hay is lifted from the wagon and stored in the mow -by a ten-horsepower motor. A root-cutting machine is operated by -a two-horsepower motor mounted on the ceiling. A one and one-half -horsepower motor drives a vacuum pump, which operates the milking -machines; five machines are used, each of which will milk two cows -simultaneously. A one and one-half horsepower motor runs the cream -separator, and a three-horsepower motor drives the big churn; -and motors are used for driving the water pumps, as well as the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> -brine-circulating pumps in the ice-making plant. A grist mill, -driven by electric motor, is part of the farm equipment, and the -sausage-chopping and mixing machines are driven by a four-horsepower -motor. Roots for the sheep are cut by a machine driven by motors of -one and one-half and two horsepower, and food for the fish is prepared -by a grinding machine driven by a two-horsepower motor. Wood-working -machines and machine tools are driven by motors in the carpenter and -machine shops. In addition to the uses already mentioned, the electric -power is also used to pump water, shear the sheep, clip the horses, -wash, dry and iron the clothes, heat the house, cook the food, freeze -the ice cream, cool the house in the summer, curl the ladies’ hair and -play the piano.</p> - -<p>The “Heart’s Delight” farm power equipment is much more extensive than -would be warranted on a farm of ordinary size, but the installation -serves to illustrate the extent to which the application of power may -be carried, on an unusually large produce farm. In many instances a -community of farmers could develop such a water power and distribute -the power among themselves to mutual advantage and profit.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"> - <h2 class="nobreak">DEVELOPING A SMALL WATER POWER</h2> -</div> - -<p>The prime requisite to the creation of a water power is the existence -of <a href="#I039">falling or flowing water</a>. The amount of power which may -be available varies; first, with the amount of water flowing, and second, with -the amount of fall. It requires about one cubic foot of water per second, -falling through a height of ten feet, to make available one theoretical -horsepower. The fall may be either naturally concentrated at one point -in a cascade or it may be artificially concentrated, for the purpose -of development, by combining the fall of several cascades or a series -of rapids. This may be accomplished by either of two methods; first, -by building a dam at the downstream end of the rapids to impound the -water so that the entire fall is concentrated at the dam, or second, -by building a dam at the upstream end of the rapids and conducting -the water through a closed pipe to the lower end of the rapids, where -the resulting water pressure will be exactly the same as in the first -instance. A variation of the latter method consists of diverting the -water from the natural channel at the head of the rapids and carrying -it in a canal, on a slight down grade, along the side of a hill to a -suitable point at which the water is turned into penstocks which run -directly down the slope to the stream, where the power development may -be made. The latter method, involving the construction of a canal, is -open to the objection that considerable trouble is usually experienced -from the accumulation of ice in the winter time. The first two methods -described are the most common. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="I039" id="I039"> - <img src="images/i_039.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="363" /></a> - <p class="center">Cascade on Indian Creek, Warren Co., N. Y.</p> - <p class="f80 space-below1">Typical Example of Undeveloped Water Power</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> -The amount of water which flows in a stream, in New York State, whether -large or small, is subject to remarkable variation. Only one who has -observed very carefully and continuously, by actual measurement, the -extremes of fluctuation to which a flowing stream is subject, is in a -position fully to appreciate this. Some of the larger rivers of New -York State are subject to such fluctuations of flow that the amount -of water discharged during flood periods is several hundred times as -much as the amount that flows in the extreme dry period. Also in many -instances from one-half to three-fourths of the total runoff of the -stream during the year occurs during a period of a few weeks in the -spring months, when the accumulated snow and ice is melted and runs off -in conjunction with the warm spring rains. Unfortunately, reliable data -relating to the fluctuations of small streams in this State are very -meager. It is, however, a matter of record that the smaller streams for -which records are available are subject to greater fluctuations per -unit of tributary watershed area than are the larger streams. It seems -logical, therefore, to assume that the very small creeks and brooks -are subject to fluctuations relatively greater than those recorded for -streams of only relatively small size. This fact must be borne in mind -by any one who proposes to develop the power on a stream, for if it is -overlooked the project is not so assured of success. For most purposes -power is required in about the same amount for all seasons of the year, -while, as previously stated, the streams run off most of their waters -in the spring. Therefore, in developing the power of any particular -stream, if the power is required to be fairly constant at all seasons -of the year as is usually the case, there are two considerations which -must not be overlooked: -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>First—Will the minimum flow of the stream—that is, the flow which -occurs in the driest season of a dry year—be sufficient to furnish the -amount of power required?</p> - -<p>Second—If the minimum flow is not sufficient, what means are available -for storing the surplus water from the wet season until the dry season?</p> -</div> - -<p>The subject of equalizing stream flow throughout the year by means of -storage reservoirs has been so thoroughly discussed in the reports of -the Commission that further discussion in this connection does not seem -warranted.</p> - -<p>Taking a general average throughout the State of New York, large -streams may be depended upon to produce from one-twentieth to -one-quarter of a cubic foot of water per second per square mile of -tributary drainage area, during the driest period. Streams having -only one or two square miles of drainage frequently dry up entirely -in the dry seasons. If a power development is proposed of such a -character that some considerable sacrifice of power might be made -in the dry seasons with no serious loss, most small streams may be -developed to provide for as much as one-quarter to one-half of a cubic -foot per second per square mile. On the other hand it is often found -practicable to provide a small auxiliary power plant, such as gasolene -or kerosene, to fall back upon in dry weather, or to supply extra power -occasionally, in which case the water-power development need not be -limited to the minimum flow of the stream.</p> - -<p>The power of falling water may be applied to practical purposes in -several ways. One of the simplest ways, should it be desired to use -the power of the stream to pump water, is by means of what is known as -a hydraulic ram. This is a device which operates on the principle of -the impact due to the sudden stoppage of flow of a column of water. By -means of this device, or engine, water falling through a very small -height may be used to raise a portion of the same, or a comparatively -small amount of other water, to an elevation considerably higher -than the supply. The mechanical efficiency of the hydraulic ram is -comparatively high under certain conditions but generally is very low, -useful work which manufacturers claim may be realized varying from -38 per cent to 80 per cent. The minimum fall under which a ram will -effectively elevate water is about two feet. This fall will elevate -about one-thirteenth of the supply to a height of twenty feet. Under -the most favorable conditions and a fair amount of fall, a ram may -elevate water as high as 120 feet. The proportion of water which may be -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> -elevated varies from one-twentieth to two-sevenths of the total -supplied; and, accordingly, the proportion of water which must be -wasted at the impetus valve of the ram varies from five-sevenths to -nineteen-twentieths. These proportions both depend upon the ratio of -the amount of supply to the amount to be elevated, that is, a small -proportion may be elevated to a considerable height and vice versa. In -cases where a small brook of suitable quality is available for domestic -water supply, it is often entirely practicable to install a hydraulic -ram which will pump a sufficient proportion of the amount of supply to -furnish a household with all the water necessary for ordinary domestic -purposes, in spite of the fact that the brook may be on a lower level -than the house. Owing to the fact that a hydraulic ram may be applied -only to the purposes of elevating water, it is not generally considered -as a means of developing water power, although in the broadest sense it -does constitute such a development.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, the purposes for which power is usually required -are not only for the elevation of water for a water supply, but for -many other and varied requirements. In such cases the power must be -developed in such manner that it may be utilized to operate machinery -near the site of the development, or transmitted for some distance, and -there used to operate machinery or for lighting or heating. To develop -water power in this manner requires some kind of a waterwheel.</p> - -<p>There are several types of waterwheels, the principal ones being known -as “undershot,” “overshot,” “breastwheel,” “<a href="#I043">turbine</a>” -and “<a href="#I044">impulse</a>.” The overshot wheel is a type very -familiar to most readers, being usually of home manufacture. It -consists, usually, of a wooden wheel with water compartments arranged -at regular intervals around the periphery. The water is fed into the -wheel at the top, just off the center. It flows into the compartment -at the top and the weight being exerted on one side of the supporting -axle causes the wheel to revolve, the water spilling out when the -compartment, or water pocket, reaches the bottom. This type of wheel -depends entirely for its power upon the weight of the water which -causes the wheel to revolve.</p> - -<p>The undershot wheel is very similar in construction to the overshot -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> -type but depends more for its power on the velocity of the flowing water -which strikes the blades, or buckets, on the under side of the wheel.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="I043" id="I043"> - <img src="images/i_043.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="665" /></a> - <p class="center">Turbine Type of Waterwheel</p> - <p class="f80 space-below1">Phantom view of wheel-case</p> -</div> - -<p>The breastwheel is also similar in construction but is in reality an -improvement upon the overshot and undershot types. It depends for its -power on a combination of the action of gravity and the impulse of -the water striking the blades, or buckets. The water is fed into the -wheel a little below the height of the axle and usually enters with -considerable velocity, a part of which is transformed into useful work -by the wheel.</p> - -<p>The turbine is a type of wheel which is very extensively used. It is -usually constructed of metal and consists primarily of a series of -curved vanes, or runners, whose arrangement is similar to a screw. The -action of the water flowing through these curved vanes causes the vanes -and shaft to revolve, the vanes being solidly connected to the shaft, -which may be either horizontal or vertical.</p> - -<p>The fundamental working principle of an impulse waterwheel is the -turning into useful work of the impulse due to the velocity of a jet of -water issuing from a contracted orifice. This is accomplished usually -by conveying the water from the dam or other source of supply to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> -waterwheel in a pipe of comparatively large size and then gradually -reducing the size of the pipe immediately in front of the wheel to a -comparatively small size by means of a reducer section, which is fitted -with a nozzle the opening of which may or may not be regulated in size. -This contraction of the stream of flowing water causes a spouting of -the water under pressure and the water issues in a jet with very high -velocity. The jet thus issuing from the nozzle strikes the cups of -the impulse wheel which are arranged at regular intervals around the -circumference of a metallic disc which is centered on an axle. The cups -transfer the velocity of the jet to the wheel, and the water drops from -them with very little velocity left in it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="I044" id="I044"> - <img src="images/i_044.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="363" /></a> - <p class="center">Impulse Type of Waterwheel</p> - <p class="f80 space-below1">Showing jet of water striking cups. Wheel illustrated is<br /> - very powerful, but principle of small wheels is the same</p> -</div> - -<p>In general, the turbine type of wheel is best adapted to low heads, or -falls, and the use of comparatively large volumes of water, and the -impulse wheel is best adapted to the use of a comparatively high head, -or fall, and a comparatively small amount of water. There are certain -intermediate conditions for which the manufacturers of each type claim -their wheel is best suited and in such instance a study of local conditions -is always necessary to determine which type of wheel is best adapted. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p> - -<p>The development of a water power by means of any kind of a waterwheel -results in the conversion of the energy of the falling water into -mechanical power which is exerted in a more or less rapidly revolving -shaft. In order to apply this power of the revolving shaft to some -useful purpose, there are several methods which may be used. The shaft -may be directly connected to the shaft of an electric generator, or -dynamo, to generate electric current, or it may be directly connected -to a machine which it is desired to operate, provided the machine, -or dynamo, is required to operate at the same speed as that of the -wheel shaft. This is frequently not the case, so that under ordinary -conditions the shaft of the wheel is fitted with a pulley, which in -turn is connected by belt to another pulley on the machine which is to -be driven.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_045.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="213" /> - <p class="center">Motor-driven Mangle</p> -</div> - -<p>By using pulleys of different diameters on the shaft of the waterwheel -and the shaft of the machinery to be driven, the speed of the machine -may be several times more or less than the speed of the waterwheel. -For instance, if the waterwheel revolves 200 revolutions per minute -and it is desired to operate a machine, connected by belt, at a speed -of 1000 revolutions per minute, a pulley of comparatively small size, -say four inches in diameter, is placed on the shaft to be driven, and -a pulley of five times the diameter, or twenty inches, is placed on -the shaft of the waterwheel. This causes the shaft of the machine to -revolve at a speed five times as great as the waterwheel. If the speed -of the waterwheel is greater than that required for the machinery to -be operated, then the reverse operation is followed out, placing a -small pulley on the shaft of the waterwheel and a larger one on the -shaft of the machinery to be driven. If the speed of the waterwheel -is to be magnified more than about six times, it usually requires the -installation of a countershaft and another series of pulleys in order -to avoid the use of very large and very small pulleys. A pulley which -has a very small diameter does not operate satisfactorily without -considerable loss of power, and a very large pulley is objectionable on -account of the space which it requires. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p> - -<p>When a water power is once developed it may be applied to practical use -either near the place of development or at a considerable distance. -If it is to be used for power only, and not for lighting, and can be -used where it is developed, there is no need of converting it into -electricity. But if it is to be used for lighting, or for power to -be applied at a considerable distance from the water-power site, -then it becomes necessary to convert the power into electricity, in -which form it may be most conveniently transmitted from one place to -another. This requires an electric generator, or dynamo, to be driven -by the waterwheel, and a transmission line, preferably of copper or -aluminum wire, to carry the current where it is to be used. In order to -reconvert the current into power at the end of the transmission line, -where the power is to be used, it is necessary to run the current into -an electric motor, the shaft of which is made to revolve by the action -of the electric current. This motor may then be connected directly, or -by belt, gears or chain drive, to the machine to be driven.</p> - -<p>It should be borne in mind that in each of these steps of changing from -water power to electric current, in transmitting the current over the -wires, in reconverting it into power, and in transferring this power -from a motor to a power-operated machine, there are losses of energy. -These losses vary considerably in different instances. Assuming, for -illustration, that a water power, whose theoretical power is ten -horsepower, is required to drive a power machine at a distance, the -efficiencies and losses will be somewhat as follows:</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Energy Losses" cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Waterwheel,</td> - <td class="tdc"> efficiency </td> - <td class="tdc">80%,</td> - <td class="tdc"> Loss </td> - <td class="tdc">20%,</td> - <td class="tdc"> generates </td> - <td class="tdc">8.0</td> - <td class="tdc"> horsepower.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Connections,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">95%,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc"> 5%,</td> - <td class="tdc">transfers</td> - <td class="tdc">7.6</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Dynamo,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">90%,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">10%,</td> - <td class="tdc">generates</td> - <td class="tdc">6.8</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Transmission,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">90%,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">10%,</td> - <td class="tdc">transmits</td> - <td class="tdc">6.2</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Motor,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">90%,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">10%,</td> - <td class="tdc">develops</td> - <td class="tdc">5.5</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Connections,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">95%,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc"> 5%,</td> - <td class="tdc">delivers </td> - <td class="tdc">5.0</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p>Therefore, only five horsepower would be actually delivered to the -machine to be driven. This amounts to only half of the theoretical -power of the falling water which is actually realized in useful work -of the machine being driven. If the power from the waterwheel is to -be applied directly without generating electricity a much higher -efficiency will be realized.</p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="f120"><b>ACKNOWLEDGMENT</b></p> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="blockquot">On behalf of the State Water Supply Commission -and the writer, grateful acknowledgment is made to the following named -persons who have extended courtesies to me by furnishing information -or illustrations for use in connection with the preparation of this -pamphlet:</p> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="isub3">Mr. E. Burdette Miner, Oriskany Falls, N. Y.</li> -<li class="isub3">Mr. R. K. Miner, Little Falls, N. Y.</li> -<li class="isub3">Mr. Jared Van Wagenen, Jr., Lawyersville, N. Y.</li> -<li class="isub3">Mr. John T. McDonald, Delhi, N. Y.</li> -<li class="isub3">Mr. Edward R. Taylor, Penn Yan, N. Y.</li> -<li class="isub3">Mr. John Liston, General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y.</li> -<li class="isub3">Mr. R. E. Strickland, General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y.</li> -<li class="isub3">Mr. Stephen Loines, Brooklyn, N. Y.</li> -<li class="isub3">Mr. George E. Dunham, Utica, N. Y.</li> -<li class="isub3">Pelton Water Wheel Company, New York and San Francisco.</li> -<li class="isub3">James Leffel & Company, Springfield, Ohio.</li> -</ul> - -<div class="blockquot"> - <p class="author">D. R. COOPER.</p> - <p><span class="smcap">Albany, January 25, 1911.</span></p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="f110">PUBLICATIONS OF</p> -<p class="f150">STATE WATER SUPPLY COMMISSION</p> -<p class="f110">STATE OF NEW YORK</p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="f150 space-below1">REPORTS</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Water Supply Commission Reports" cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><b>First Annual Report</b></td> - <td class="tdr">Published February 1, 1906.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3"><p class="blockquot">Includes Commission’s annual report on applications for approval of - plans for public water supplies; also summarized statistics of public - water supplies and sewage disposal in New York State.</p></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr" colspan="3">Edition exhausted.<br /> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><b>Second Annual Report</b></td> - <td class="tdr">Published February 1, 1907.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3"><p class="blockquot">Includes Commission’s annual report and decisions on applications - for approval of plans for public water supplies; also summarized - statistics of public water supplies and sewage disposal in New York - State, supplementary to statistics published in First Annual Report; - also report on River Improvements for the benefit of public health and - safety.</p></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr" colspan="3">Edition exhausted.<br /> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><b>Third Annual Report</b></td> - <td class="tdr">Published February 1, 1908.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3"><p class="blockquot">Includes Commission’s annual report and decisions on applications for - approval of plans for public water supplies; also report on River - Improvements for the benefit of public health and safety; also contains - Commission’s first Progress Report on Water Power and Water Storage - Investigations made under chapter 569 of Laws of 1907, including - details of Sacandaga and Genesee river studies.</p></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr" colspan="3">Edition exhausted.<br /> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><b>Progress Report on Water Power Development</b></td> - <td class="tdr">Published March 1, 1908.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3"><p class="blockquot">This is a revised reprint of the part of the Commission’s regular Third - Annual Report relating to Water Power and Water Storage Investigations, - showing results of engineering studies up to date of publication.</p></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr" colspan="3"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><b>Fourth Annual Report</b></td> - <td class="tdr">Published February 1, 1909.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3"><p class="blockquot">Includes Commission’s annual report and decisions on applications for - approval of plans for public water supplies; also report on River - Improvements for the benefit of public health and safety; also contains - Commission’s second Progress Report on Water Power and Water Storage - Investigations, with special details of Raquette and Delaware river - studies and supplementary studies on Upper Hudson and Genesee, also a - census of water power developments in the State.</p></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr" colspan="3"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><b>Fifth Annual Report</b></td> - <td class="tdr">Published February 1, 1910.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3"><p class="blockquot">Includes Commission’s annual report and decisions on applications for - approval of plans for public water supplies; also summarized statistics - relating to public water supplies approved by the Commission in New - York State; also report on River Improvements for the benefit of - public health and safety; also contains Commission’s third Progress - Report on Water Power and Water Storage Investigations, with details - of reconnaissance studies of Ausable, Saranac, Black, Oswegatchie and - other rivers, and a draft of a proposed Water Storage Law.</p></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr" colspan="3"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><b>Sixth Annual Report</b></td> - <td class="tdr">Published February 1, 1911.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3"><p class="blockquot">Includes Commission’s annual report and decisions on applications for - approval of plans for public water supplies; also report on River - Improvements for the benefit of public health and safety; also contains - Commission’s Fourth Progress Report on Water Power and Water Storage - Investigations, with details of investigations of Black and Oswego - river watersheds, and a revised draft of a proposed Water Storage Law.</p></td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="f120 space-above2 space-below1">MISCELLANEOUS</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Water Supply Commission Pamphletss" cellpadding="0" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><b>Pamphlet—“New York State Water Supply Commission”</b></td> - <td class="tdr"> Published September, 1909.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Issued for distribution at State Fair at Syracuse, 1909.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><b>Pamphlet—“New York’s Water Supply and Its Conservation, Distribution and Uses”</b></td> - <td class="tdr"> Published September, 1910.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Issued for distribution at State Fair at Syracuse, 1910.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><b>Pamphlet—“Water Resources of the State of New York”</b></td> - <td class="tdr"> Published September, 1910.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><p class="blockquot">By Henry H. Persons, President of the State Water Supply Commission. - Issued for distribution at National Conservation Congress at St. Paul, Minnesota, 1910.</p></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><b>Pamphlet—“Water Power for the Farm and Country Home”</b></td> - <td class="tdr"> Published January, 1911.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><p class="blockquot">By David R. Cooper, - Engineer-Secretary to State Water Supply Commission.</p></td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="transnote bbox"> -<p class="f120 space-above1">Transcriber’s Notes:</p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="indent">The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up - paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p> -<p class="indent">Typographical errors have been silently corrected.</p> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Water Power for the Farm and Country -Home, by David R. 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