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diff --git a/old/62011-h/62011-h.htm b/old/62011-h/62011-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 651d704..0000000 --- a/old/62011-h/62011-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25944 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> - <title> - The Sea and its Living Wonders, by Dr. G. Hartwig, a Project Gutenberg eBook. - </title> - <style type="text/css"> - -body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} - -p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1.5em;} - -hr {width: 33%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} - -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-top: 2em;} -hr.tb {width: 45%;} - -table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; border-collapse: collapse;} -table td.hanging {padding: 0 2.5em 0 4em; margin-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em; text-align: left;} - -.pagenum {position: absolute; right: 3.5%; font-style: normal; /* prevent italics, etc. */ - font-size: small; text-align: right; color: #808080;} /* page numbers */ -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} -.center {text-align: center; margin:0; text-indent: 0;} -.vsmall {font-size: 0.5em;} -.smaller {font-size: 0.8em;} -.gesspert {letter-spacing: 0.125em;} -.tdl {text-align: left;} -.tdr {text-align: right;} -.tdl2 {text-align: left; padding-left:2em;} -.tdl4 {text-align: left; padding-left:4em;} -.p0 {text-indent: 0;} -h1, h2, .caption2, .caption3 {font-weight: bold; text-align: center; text-indent:0;} -h1 {font-size:2.00em; margin-top: 1.5em;} -h2, .caption2 {font-size:1.50em; margin-top: 1.0em;} -.caption3 {font-size:1.25em; margin-top: 0.5em;} -.pmt4 {margin-top: 4em;} -.pmt2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.pmb2 {margin-bottom: 2em;} -.pmb4 {margin-bottom: 4em;} - -/* Images */ - -.fig_center {margin: auto; text-align: center;} - -.fig_left {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; - margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} - -.fig_right {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} - -.fig_caption {font-size: 0.8em; margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; text-align: center;} - -.blockquot {margin: 0 auto; width: 600px;} -.blockquot1 {margin: 0 auto; width: 400px;} -.blockquot2 {margin: 0 4em; text-indent: -2em; text-align: left;} -.vtop {vertical-align: top;} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.trans_notes {background-color: #e6e6fa; color: black; padding:1.5em; - margin-bottom:5em;} - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} -.fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} - -/* Poetry */ -.poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} -/* .poem br {display: none;} */ -.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} -.poem span.i1 {display: block; margin-left: 1.5em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} -.poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} -.poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 3em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - -sup {font-size: .6em; position: relative; top: 0.2em; left: 0.3em;} - - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's The Sea and its Living Wonders, by George Hartwig - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: The Sea and its Living Wonders - A Popular Account of the Marvels of the Deep and of the - Progress of Martime Discovery from the Earliest Ages to - the Present Time - -Author: George Hartwig - -Release Date: May 3, 2020 [EBook #62011] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SEA AND ITS LIVING WONDERS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Sharon Joiner, Tom Cosmas and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 295px;"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="295" height="445" alt="cover" /> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 536px;"><a id="frontispiece" name="frontispiece"></a> -<a href="images/frontispiecelg.png"><img src="images/frontispiece.png" width="418" height="603" alt="" /></a> -<div class="fig_caption">ARCTIC SLEDGE-JOURNEY.<br /> -<span class="smaller">Click on image to view larger version.</span></div> -</div> - - - - -<h1>THE SEA<br /> - -<span class="vsmall">AND</span><br /> - -<span class="gesspert">ITS LIVING WONDERS</span><br /> - -<span class="vsmall">A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF</span><br /> - -<span class="smaller">THE MARVELS OF THE DEEP</span><br /> - -<span class="vsmall">AND OF THE</span><br /> - -<span class="smaller">PROGRESS OF MARITIME DISCOVERY<br /> -FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME</span></h1> - -<p class="center">BY</p> - -<h2 class="pmb2">DR. G. HARTWIG<br /><br /> - -<span class="vsmall">AUTHOR OF "THE TROPICAL WORLD" "THE HARMONIES OF NATURE"<br /> -"THE POLAR WORLD" AND "THE SUBTERRANEAN WORLD"</span></h2> - -<p class="center smaller pmt2">SEVENTH EDITION</p> - -<p class="center smaller pmt4"><i>WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS AND PLATES</i></p> - -<p class="center pmb4"><span class="smaller">LONDON</span><br /> -<span class="gesspert">LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.</span><br /> -<span class="smaller">AND NEW YORK: 15 EAST 16<sup>th</sup> STREET<br /> -1892</span><br /> -</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<h2><a name="NOTICE" id="NOTICE">NOTICE</a></h2> - - -<p><i>The right of translation into French is reserved by the Author. All necessary -steps for securing the Copyright have been taken.</i></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">« v »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>PREFACE<br /> - -<span style="font-size:0.5em;">TO</span><br /> - -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">THE THIRD AND FOURTH EDITIONS.</span></h2> - - -<p>Nothing can be more agreeable to an author anxious to -merit the suffrages of the public, than the opportunity -afforded him, by a new edition, of correcting past errors -or adding improvements to his work. Should any one of -my readers think it worth his while to compare 'The -Sea,' such as it now is, with what it formerly was, I have -no doubt he will do me the justice to say that I have -conscientiously striven to deserve his approbation.</p> - -<p>Two new chapters—one on Marine Constructions, the -other on Marine Caves—have been added; those on the -Molluscs and Cœlenterata (Jelly-fishes, Polyps) almost -entirely re-written; and those on Fishes, Crustaceans, -Microscopic Animals, the Geographical Distribution of -Marine Life, and the Phosphorescence of the Sea, considerably -enlarged; not to mention a number of minor -improvements dispersed throughout the volume.</p> - -<p>Great attention has also been paid to the Illustrations, -many of questionable value having been omitted in the -present edition, to make room for a number of others, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">« vi »</a></span> -which will be found of great use for the better understanding -of the text.</p> - -<p>In one word, I have done my best to raise my work -to the standard of the actual state of science, and to -render it, as far as my humble abilities go, a complete -epitome of all that the <i>general</i> reader <i>cares</i> to know -about the marvels of the deep.</p> - -<p class="tdr"> -<span class="smcap">G. Hartwig.</span><br /> -</p> - -<p class="p0"> -<span class="smcap">Salon Villas, Ludwigsburg</span>:<br /> -<span class="tdl2"><i>June 30, 1873</i>.</span><br /> -</p> - - - - -<h2>PREFACE<br /> - -<span style="font-size:0.5em;">TO</span><br /> - -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">THE FIRST TWO EDITIONS.</span></h2> - - -<p>For years my daily walks have been upon the beach, and -I have learnt to love the ocean as the Swiss mountaineer -loves his native Alps, or the Highlander the heath-covered -hills of Caledonia. May these feelings have imparted -some warmth to the following pages, and serve to render -the reader more indulgent to their faults!</p> - -<p class="tdr"> -<span class="smcap">G. Hartwig.</span><br /> -</p> - -<p class="p0"><span class="smcap">Göttingen</span>: <i>July 17, 1860</i>.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">« vii »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</a></h2> - - -<h2> -<a href="#PART_I">PART I.</a><br /> -<br /> -THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA.</h2> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 90px;"> -<img src="images/bar_diamond.png" width="90" height="9" alt="" /> -</div> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">THE MAGNITUDE OF THE SEA.</span><br /> -</h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><span class="smaller">Page</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">Extent of the Ocean.—Length of its Coast-Line.—Mural, Rocky, and Flat Coasts.—How -deep is the Sea?—Average Depth of the Atlantic Ocean.—The Telegraphic -Plateau between Newfoundland and Ireland.—Measurement of Depth -by the Rapidity of the Tide-Wave.—Progressive Changes in the Limits of the -Ocean.—Alluvial Deposits.—Upheaving.—Subsidence.—Does the Level of the -Sea remain unchanged, and is it everywhere the same?—Composition and -Temperature of Sea-Water.—Its intrinsic Colour.—The Azure Grotto at Capri.—Modification -of Colour owing to Animals and Plants.—Submarine Landscapes -viewed through the Clear Waters</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_II">CHAPTER II.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">THE WAVES OF THE OCEAN.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">Waves and the Mode of their Formation.—Height and Velocity of Storm-Waves, -on the High Seas, according to the Calculations of Scoresby, Arago, Sir James -Ross, and Wilkes.—Their Height and Power on Coasts.—Their Destructive -Effects along the British Shore.—Dunwich.—Reculver.—Shakspeare's Cliff.</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_III">CHAPTER III.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">THE TIDES.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">Description of the Phenomenon.—Devastation of Storm-Floods on Flat Coasts.—What -did the Ancients know of the Tides?—Their Fundamental Causes revealed -by Kepler and Newton.—Development of their Theory by La Place, Euler, and -Whewell.—Vortices caused by the Tides.—The Maelstrom.—Charybdis.—The -<i>Barre</i> at the mouth of the Seine.—The Euripus</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">« viii »</a></span></p> - - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">MARINE CAVES.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">Effects of the Sea on Rocky Shores.—Fingal's Cave.—Beautiful Lines of Sir -Walter Scott.—The Antro di Nettuno.—The Cave of Hunga.—Legend of its -Discovery.—Marine Fountains.—The Skerries.—The Souffleur in Mauritius.—The -Buffadero on the Mexican Coast</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_V">CHAPTER V.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">OCEAN CURRENTS.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">Causes of the Oceanic Currents.—The Equatorial Stream.—The Gulf Stream.—Its -Influence on the Climate of the West European Coasts.—The Cold Peruvian -Stream.—The Japanese Stream</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">THE AËRIAL AND TERRESTRIAL MIGRATIONS OF THE WATERS.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">Movements of the Waters through Evaporation.—Origin of Winds.—Trade-Winds.—Calms.—Monsoons.—Typhoons.—Tornadoes.—Water-Spouts.—The Formation -of Atmospherical Precipitations.—Dew.—Its Origin.—Fog.—Clouds.—Rain.—Snow.—Hail.—Sources.—The -Quantities of Water which the Rivers pour into -the Ocean.—Glaciers and their Progress.—Icebergs.—Erratic Blocks.—Influence -of Forests on the Formation and Retention of Atmospherical Precipitations.—Consequences -of their excessive Destruction.—The Power of Man over Climate.—How -has it been used as yet?</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">MARINE CONSTRUCTIONS.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">Lighthouses.—The Eddystone.—Winstanley's Lighthouse, 1696.—The Storm of -1703.—Rudyerd's Lighthouse destroyed by Fire in 1755.—Singular Death of -one of the Lighthouse Men.—Anecdote of Louis XIV.—Smeaton.—Bell Rock -Lighthouse.—History of the Erection of Skerryvore Lighthouse.—Illumination -of Lighthouses.—The Breakwater at Cherbourg.—Liverpool Docks.—The -Tubular Bridge over the Menai Straits.—The Sub-oceanic Mine of Botallack.</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#PART_II">PART II.</a><br /> -<br /> -THE INHABITANTS OF THE SEA.</h2> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">THE CETACEANS.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">General Remarks on the Organisation of the Cetaceans.—The Large Greenland -Whale.—His Food and Enemies.—The Fin-Back or Rorqual.—The Antarctic -Whale.—The Sperm-Whale.—The Unicorn Fish.—The Dolphin.—Truth and -Fable.—The Porpoise.—The Grampus.—History of the Whale Fishery</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">« ix »</a></span></p> - - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">SEALS AND WALRUSES.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">The Manatees and the Dugongs.—The Seals and the Esquimaux.—King Menelaus -in a Seal's Skin.—Barbarous Persecutions of the Seals in Behring's Sea and the -Pacific.—Adventures of a Sealer from Geneva.—The Sea Calf.—The Sea Bear.—His -Parental Affection.—The Sea Lions.—The Sea Elephant.—The Arctic -Walrus.—The Boats of the "Trent" fighting with a Herd of Walruses.—The -White Bear.—Touching Example of its Love for its Young.—Chase of the Sea -Otter</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_X">CHAPTER X.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">SEA-BIRDS.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">Their Vast Numbers.—Strand-Birds.—Artifices of the Sea-Lark to protect its -Young.—Migrations of the Strand-Birds.—The Sea-Birds in General.—The -Anatidæ.—The Eider Duck.—The Sheldrake.—The Loggerheaded Duck.—Auks -and Penguins.—The Cormorant.—Its Use by the Chinese for Fish-catching.—The -Frigate Bird.—The Soland Goose.—The Gulls.—The Petrels.—The -Albatross.—Bird-catching on St. Kilda.—The Guano of the Chincha -Islands</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">THE REPTILES OF THE OCEAN.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">The Saurians of the Past Seas.—The Anatomical Structure of the Turtles.—Their -Size.—Their Visits to the Shores.—The Dangers that await their Young.—Turtles -on the Brazilian Coast.—Prince Maximilian of Neuwied and the -Turtle.—Conflicts of the Turtles with Wild Dogs and Tigers on the Coast -of Java.—Turtle-catching on Ascension Island.—Tortoise-shell.—The Amblyrhynchus -cristatus.—Marine Snakes.—The Great Sea-Snake</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_XII">CHAPTER XII.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">THE MARINE FISHES.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">General Observations on Fishes.—Their Locomotive Organs.—Tail.—Fins.—Classification -of Fishes by Cuvier.—Air-Bladder.—Scales.—Beauty of the -Tropical Fishes.—The Gills.—Terrestrial Voyages of the Anabas and the -Hassar.—Examples of Parental Affection.—Organs of Sense.—Offensive -Weapons of Fishes.—The Sea-Wolf.—The Shark.—The Saw-Fish.—The Sword-Fish.—The -Torpedo.—The Star-Gazer.—The Angler.—The Chætodon Rostratus.—The -Remora, used for catching Turtles.—Defensive Weapons of -Fishes.—The Weever.—The Stickleback.—The Sun-Fish.—The Flying-Fish.—The -numerous Enemies of the Fishes.—Importance and History of the Herring -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">« x »</a></span> -Fishery.—The Pilchard.—The Sprat.—The Anchovy.—The Cod.—The Sturgeons.—The -Salmon.—The Tunny.—The Mackerel Family.—The Eel.—The -Murey.—The Conger.—The Sand-Launce.—The Plectognaths.—The Sea-Horse.—The -Pipe-Fish.—The Flat-Fishes.—The Rays.—The Fecundity of -Fishes</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">CRUSTACEA.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.5em;">CRABS—LOBSTERS.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">How are they distinguished from the Insects?—Barnacles and Acorn-shells.—Siphonostomata.—Entomostraca.—King-Crab.—Edriophthalmia.—Sandhoppers.—Thoracostraca.—Compound -Eye of the higher Crustaceans.—Respiratory -Apparatus of the Decapods.—Digestive Organs.—Chelæ or Pincers.—Distribution -of Crabs.—Land Crabs.—The Calling Crab.—Modifications of the Legs in -different species.—The Pinna and Pinnotheres.—Hermit Crabs.—The Lobster.—The -Cocoa-nut Crab.—The Shrimp.—Moulting Process.—Metamorphoses of -Crabs.—Victims and Enemies of the Crustaceans.—Their Fecundity.—Marine -Spiders and Insects</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">MARINE ANNELIDES.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">The Annelides in general.—The Eunice sanguinea.—Beauty of the Marine Annelides.—The -Giant Nemertes.—The Food and Enemies of the Annelides.—The -Tubicole Annelides.—The Rotifera.—Their Wonderful Organisation.—The -Synchæta Baltica</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_XV">CHAPTER XV.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">MOLLUSCS.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">The Molluscs in general.—The Cephalopods.—Dibranchiates and Tetrabranchiates—Arms -and Tentacles.—Suckers.—Hooked Acetabula of the Onychoteuthis.—Mandibles.—Ink -Bag.—Numbers of the Cephalopods.—Their Habits.—Their -Enemies.—Their Use to Man.—Their Eggs.—Enormous size of several species.—The -fabulous Kraken.—The Argonaut.—The Nautili.—The Cephalopods of -the Primitive Ocean.—The Gasteropods.—Their Subdivisions.—Gills of the -Nudibranchiates.—The Pleurobranchus plumula.—The Sea-Hare.—The Chitons.—The -Patellæ.—The Haliotis or Sea-Ear.—The Carinariæ.—The Pectinibranchiates.—Variety -and Beauty of their Shells.—Their Mode of Locomotion.—Foot -of the Tornatella and Cyelostoma.—The Ianthinæ.—Sedentary Gasteropods.—The -Magilus.—Proboscis of the Whelk.—Tongue of the Limpet.—Stomach -of the Bulla, the Scyllæa, and the Sea-Hare.—Organs of Sense in the -Gasteropods.—Their Caution.—Their Enemies.—Their Defences.—Their Use to -Man.—Shell-Cameos.—The Pteropods.—Their Organisation and Mode of Life.—The -Butterflies of the Ocean.—The Lamellibranchiate Acephala.—Their -Organisation.—Siphons.—The Pholades.—Foot of the Lamellibranchiates.—The -Razor-Shells.—The Byssus of the Pinnæ.—Defences of the Bivalves.—Their -Enemies.—The common Mussel.—Mussel Gardens.—The Oyster.—Oyster -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">« xi »</a></span> -Parks.—Oyster Rearing in the Lago di Fusaro.—Formation of new -Oyster Banks.—Pearl-fishing in Ceylon.—How are Pearls formed?—The -Tridacna gigas.—The Teredo navalis.—The Brachiopods.—The Terebratulæ.—The -Polyzoa.—The Sea-Mats.—The Escharæ.—The Lepraliæ.—Bird's Head -Processes.—The Tunicata.—The Sea-Squirts.—The Chelyosoma.—The Botrylli.—The -Pyrosomes.—The Salpæ.—Interesting Points in the Organisation of the -Tunicata</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">ECHINODERMATA.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.5em;">STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, AND SEA-CUCUMBERS.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">The Star-Fishes.—Their Feet or Suckers.—Voracity of the Asterias.—The Rosy -Feather-Star.—Brittle and Sand-Stars.—The real Sea-Stars of the British -Waters.—The Sea-Urchins.—The Pedicellariæ.—The Shell and the Dental Apparatus -of the Sea-Urchins.—The Sea-Cucumbers.—Their strange Dismemberments.—Trepang-fishing -on the Coast of North Australia.—In the Feejee<br /> -Islands</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">CŒLENTERATA.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.5em;">POLYPS AND JELLY-FISHES.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">Thread-cells or Urticating Organs.—Sertulariæ.—Campanulariadæ.—Hydrozoic -Acalephæ.—Medusidæ.—Lucernariadæ.—Calycophoridæ.—The Velella.—The -Portuguese Man-of-war.—Anecdote of a Prussian Sailor.—Alternating Fixed -and Free-swimming Generations of Hydrozoa.—Actinozoa.—Ctenophora.—Their -Beautiful Construction.—Sea-anemones.—Dead Man's Toes.—Sea-pens.—Sea-rods.—Red -Coral.—Coral Fishery.—Isis hippuris.—Tropical Lithophytes.—History -of the Coral Islands.—Darwin's Theory of their Formation.—The -progress of their Growth above the level of the Sea</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_345">345</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">PROTOZOA.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">The Foraminifera.—The Amœbæ.—Their Wonderful Simplicity of Structure.—The -Polycystina.—Marine Infusoria.—Sponges.—Their Pores.—Fibres and Spiculæ.—The -Common Sponge of Commerce</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_378">378</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_XIX">CHAPTER XIX.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">MARINE PLANTS.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">The Algæ.—Zostera marina.—The Ulvæ and Enteromorphæ.—The Fuci.—The -Laminariæ.—Macrocystis pyrifera.—Description of the Submarine Thickets at -Tierra del Fuego.—Nereocystis lutkeana.—The Sargasso Sea.—The Gathering -of edible Birds'-nests in the marine Caves of Java.—Agar-Agar.—The Florideæ.—The -Diatomaceæ.—Their importance in the economy of the Seas</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_390">390</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">« xii »</a></span></p> - - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_XX">CHAPTER XX.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE LIFE.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">The Dependence of all created Beings upon Space and Time.—The Influences -which regulate the Distribution of Marine Life.—The four Bathymetrical Zones -of Marine Life on the British Coasts, according to the late Professor Edward -Forbes of Edinburgh.—Abyssal Animals.—<i>Bathybius Haeckelii.</i>—Deep-Sea -Sponges and Shell-Fish.—Vivid Phosphorescence of Deep-Sea Animals.—Deep-Sea -Shark Fishery—The "Challenger."</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_405">405</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_XXI">CHAPTER XXI.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">THE PHOSPHORESCENCE OF THE SEA.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">Its Causes.—Noctiluca miliaris.—Phosphorescent Annelides and Beroës.—Intense -Phosphorescence of the Pyrosoma atlantica.—Luminous Pholades.—The -luminous Shark.—Phosphorescent Algæ.—Citations from Byron, Coleridge, -Crabbe, and Scott.</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_423">423</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_XXII">CHAPTER XXII.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">THE PRIMITIVE OCEAN.</span></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">The Giant-Book of the Earth-rind.—The Sea of Fire.—Formation of a solid -Earth-crust by cooling.—The Primitive Waters.—First awakening of Life -in the Bosom of the Ocean.—The Reign of the Saurians.—The future -Ocean.</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_433">433</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#PART_III">PART III.</a><br /> -<br /> -THE PROGRESS OF MARITIME DISCOVERY.</h2> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII.</a></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">Maritime Discoveries of the Phœnicians.—Expedition of Hanno.—Circumnavigation -of Africa under the Pharaoh Necho.—Colæus of Samos.—Pytheas of -Massilia.—Expedition of Nearchus.—Circumnavigation of Hindostan under -the Ptolemies.—Voyages of Discovery of the Romans.—Consequences of the -Fall of the Roman Empire.—Amalfi.—Pisa.—Venice.—Genoa.—Resumption -of Maritime Intercourse between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.—Discovery -of the Mariner's Compass.—Marco Polo</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_443">443</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV.</a></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">Prince Henry of Portugal.—Discovery of Porto Santo and Madeira.—Doubling of -Cape Bojador.—Discovery of the Cape Verde Islands.—Bartholomew Diaz.—Vasco -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">« xiii »</a></span> -de Gama.—Columbus.—His Predecessors.—Discovery of Greenland by -Günnbjorn.—Bjorne Herjulfson.—Leif.—John Vaz Cortereal.—John and -Sebastian Cabot.—Retrospective View of the Beginnings of English Navigation.—Ojeda -and Amerigo Vespucci.—Vincent Yañez Pinson.—Cortez.—Verazzani.—Cartier.—The -Portuguese in the Indian Ocean</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_454">454</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_XXV">CHAPTER XXV.</a></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">Vasco Nuñez de Balboa.—His Discovery of the Pacific, and subsequent Fate.—Ferdinand -Magellan.—Sebastian el Cano, the first Circumnavigator of the -Globe.—Discoveries of Pizarro and Cortez.—Urdaneta.—Juan Fernandez.—Mendoza.—Drake.—Discoveries -of the Portuguese and Dutch in the Western -Pacific.—Attempts of the Dutch and English to discover North-East and North-West -Passages to India.—Sir Hugh Willoughby and Chancellor.—Frobisher.—Davis.—Barentz.—His -Wintering in Nova Zembla.—Quiros.—Torres.—Schouten.—Le -Maire.—Abel Tasman.—Hudson.—Baffin.—Dampier.—Anson.—Byron.—Wallis -and Carteret.—Bougainville</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_464">464</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_XXVI">CHAPTER XXVI.</a></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">What had Cook's Predecessors left him to discover?—His first Voyage.—Discovery -of the Society Islands, and of the East Coast of New Holland.—His second -Voyage.—Discovery of the Hervey Group.—Researches in the South Sea.—The -New Hebrides.—Discovery of New Caledonia and of South Georgia.—His -third Voyage.—The Sandwich Islands.—New Albion.—West Georgia.—Cook's -Murder.—Vancouver.—La Peyrouse</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_485">485</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<h2> -<a href="#CHAP_XXVII">CHAPTER XXVII.</a></h2> - -<table summary="Chapter"> -<tr> - <td class="hanging">Scoresby.—The Arctic Navigators.—Ross.—Parry.—Sufferings of Franklin and -his Companions on his Overland Expedition in 1821.—Parry's Sledge-journey -to the North Pole.—Sir John Franklin.—M'Clure.—Kane.—M'Clintock.—South -Polar Expeditions.—Bellinghausen.—Weddell.—Biscoe.—Balleny.—Dumont -d'Urville.—Wilkes.—Sir James Ross.—Recent Scientific Voyages of -Circumnavigation</td> - <td class="tdr vtop"><a href="#Page_496">496</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">« xiv »</a><br /><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">« xv »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">Description of the Frontispiece.</span></p> - -<p class="caption2">ARCTIC SLEDGE-JOURNEY.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">The sledge plays a very conspicuous part in the history of arctic discovery, as it -enables the bold investigators of the icy wildernesses of the North to penetrate to -many places, impervious to navigation, to establish dépôts of provisions for future -emergencies, or even becomes the means of saving their lives when their ship has -been lost or hopelessly blocked up. Whenever dogs can be had, these useful -animals are made use of for the transport. Our plate represents one of these -sledging parties threading its way through blocks of ice, and gives a good idea of -the difficulties they have to encounter.</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">« xvi »</a><br /><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">« xvii »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</a></h2> - - -<p class="caption3">PLATES.</p> - -<table summary="Plates"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Arctic Sledge-Journey</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece.</i></a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><span class="smaller">FACING PAGE</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Souffleur Rock, Mauritius</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FPage_52">52</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Lighthouse and Waterspout</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FPage_65">65</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Australian Sea-Bears</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FPage_117">117</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Boats of H.M.S. "Trent" attacked by Walruses</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FPage_131">131</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Penguins</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FPage_142">142</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Subaqueous Life—Sticklebacks and Nest</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FPage_195">195</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Russian Official collecting Algæ</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FPage_392">392</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p class="caption3">MAP.</p> - -<p class="center p0">Map of the Globe, showing the direction of the Ocean Currents, Cotidal Lines, &c. -<i>facing <a href="#Page_2">page 3</a></i>.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">WOODCUTS.</p> - -<table summary="Plates"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Annelidans:—</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Aphrodita, or Sea-Mouse,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_264">264</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Nereis,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Serpula, attached to a Shell,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_266">266</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Beachy Head,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Bell Rock Lighthouse,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Birds:—</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Albatross, Wandering,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Auk,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl4">Great,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Avoset,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Barnacle Goose,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Cormorant, common,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_154">155</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Curlew,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Eider Duck,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Flamingo,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Gannet, common,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Great Crested Grebe,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Guillemot, Black,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl4">(winter plumage),</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Herring Gulls,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Hooded Merganser,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_404">404</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Pelican,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Penguins,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Petrel, Broad-billed,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl4">Fork-tailed,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl4">Stormy,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Plover,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Puffins,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Red-breasted Merganser,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Scissor-bill (Rhynchops nigra),</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Sheldrake,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Skimmer, Black,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Snow Goose,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">« xviii »</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Speckled Diver,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Tailor-bird,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Birds of Passage,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Bones of the Anterior Fin of a Whale,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cœlenterata:—</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Alcyonidium elegans,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_363">363</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Astræa,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_373">373</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Caryophyllia,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_370">370</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Chrysaora hysoscella,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_357">357</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Coryniadæ,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_358">358</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Ctenophora,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_360">360</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Diphyes appendiculata,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_353">353</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Grey Sea-Pen,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_365">365</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Isis hippuris,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Jelly Fishes,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Lucernalia auricula,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_352">352</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Medusæ,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Physalia caravella,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_355">355</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Physophora Philippii,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_356">356</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Red Coral,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_367">367</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Sertularia tricuspidata, </td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Stone Corals,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Tubipora Musica,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_370">370</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Velella,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_354">354</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Virgularia mirabilis,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_365">365</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Vogtia pentacantha,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_353">353</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Compound Foraminiferous Protozoon, magnified,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_380">380</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Crustaceans:—</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">American Sand-Crab,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Balanus ovularis, and group of, 2</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Barnacle,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Calling-Crab of Ceylon,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Chelura tenebrans,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Diogenes Hermit-Crab,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Dromia vulgaris,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Jamaica Land-Crab,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">King Crab,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Large-clawed Calling-Crab,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Limnoria lignorum,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Metamorphosis of Carcinus Mœnas,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Pea-Crab,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Phyllosoma,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Pinna Augustana,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Sandhopper,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Seyllarus equinoxialis,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl4">square facets of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Spotted Fin-Crab,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Spotted Mantis-Crab,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Stenopus hispidus,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Whale-Louse,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Crustaceans and Oysters,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dental Apparatus of the Sea-Urchin, viewed from above,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ear, Human,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ear of the Perch,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Echinodermata:—</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Cross-Fish, common,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Eatable Trepang,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Goniaster,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_336">336</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Lily-Encrinite,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Sand-Star,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Sea-Urchin,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl4">Edible,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_338">338</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl4">Mammillated,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_338">338</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Warted Euryale,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_333">333</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Eddystone Lighthouse,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Esquimaux in his Kayak,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Fingal's Cave,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fishes:—</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Ammodyte, or Launce,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Anabas of the dry tanks,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Anchovy,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Angler,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Bonito,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Cod,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Conger Eel,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Diodon,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Dory,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Electric Eel,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">European Sly,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Fierasfer,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">File-Fish,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Flounder,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Flying Fish,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Frog-Fish,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Gar-Fish,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Globe-Fish,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Gurnard,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Haddock,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Halibut,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Herring,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Lamprey,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Ling,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Mackerel,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Mullet, Grey,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_415">415</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl4">Red,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Myxine,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Perch, internal ear of the,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Picked Dog-Fish, - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">« xix »</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Pilchard,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Pilot-Fish,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Plaice,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Porcupine-Fish,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Salmo Rossii,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Salmon,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_415">415</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Sand-Eel,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_415">415</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Saw-Fish,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Sea-Horse,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Shark, Blue,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Hammer-headed,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl4">White,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Short Sun-Fish,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Sole,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl4">portion of skin of, highly magnified,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Sturgeon, common,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Surgeon-Fish,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Swimming Pegasus,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Sword-Fish,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Thornback,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Torpedo,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Toxotes Jaculator,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Trunk-Fish,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Tunny,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Turbot,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Wolf-Fish,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Foraminifera, various forms of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_381">381</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fossils:—</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Ammonite,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_437">437</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Belemnite,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_437">437</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Ichthyosaurus communis,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Pentacrinus Briareus, portion of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Plesiosaurus,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_438">438</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Trilobite,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_436">436</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Hill at the Rapid on Bear Lake River (North-West Territory, North America),</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">H.M.S. "Resolute" lying to in the North Atlantic,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ice-Bear approaching the "Dorothea" and "Trent",</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Japan Junks,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Licmophora flabellata,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_403">403</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mammals:—</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Dolphin,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Dugong,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl4">female, of Ceylon,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Manatee,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus),</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Porpoise,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Rorqual,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Sea-Otter,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Seal,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl4">Greenland,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Walrus, 129,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Whale, common,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Whale, Spermaceti,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mollusks:—</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Argonaut,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Ascidia mammillata,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Banded Dipper,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Bivalve deprived of its shell, to show its various openings,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Botryllus,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_324">324</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Bulla,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Calamary,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Carinaria,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_287">287</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Cellularia,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_319">319</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Chelyosoma Macleayanum,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Chinese Wentle-trap (Scalaria pretiosa),</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Chiton squamosus,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Clavellina producta,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Clio borealis,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Cockle, common,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Cuttle-Fish (Sepia),</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Diazona violacea,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_324">324</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Donax,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Edible Mussel,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Edible Oyster,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Eolis,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_284">284</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Eschara cervicornis,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_318">318</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Gorgeous Doris,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Haliotis,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_287">287</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Harp-shell,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Hippopus maculatus,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Ianthina communis,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Leaf-like Sea-mat,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Limpet and Shell,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Magilus antiquus,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Mitre-shells,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Murex haustellum,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Oliva hispidula,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Onychoteuthis,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_273">274</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Orange Cone-shell,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Pearl-Oyster,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_312">312</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Pearly Nautilus,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Periwinkle,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_411">411</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Petunculus, - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">« xx »</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_302">302</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Pholas striata,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_302">302</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Pinna,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Poulp (Octopus),</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_271">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Pteroceras scorpio,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Retepora cellularis,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_318">318</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Salpa,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Scyllæa,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Sea-Hare, compound stomach of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Sepia,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Solen, or Razor-Shell,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_304">304</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Strombus pes pelicani,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Syllæa, gizzard of,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Tiara,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Tridacna gigas,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Whelk,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_413">413</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Worm-shell,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Muscles and Electric Batteries of the Torpedo,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Nervous Axis of an Annelidan,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Noctiluca miliaris,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_425">425</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ova of the Cuttle-Fish,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Protozoa:—</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Amœba,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_379">379</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Foraminifera,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_381">381</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Halina papillaris,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_386">386</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Infusoria, marine,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_384">384</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Nummulina discoidalis,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_378">378</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Polycistina,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_383">383</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Sponges,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_385">385</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Tethea,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Reptiles:—</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Alligator Lucius,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Tortoise,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Turtle, Green,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Hawk's Bill,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_180">180</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Loggerhead,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Water-Snake,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Rocky Mountains at the bend of the Bear Lake River,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rotifera:—</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Conochilus volvox,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Philodina roseola,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_269">269</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">Ptygura melicerta,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Saw of the Saw-Fish,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Sea-Fowl Shooting,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Skeleton of the Dugong,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">of the Perch,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">of the Seal,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2">of the Tortoise,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Skerryvore Lighthouse,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Skull and Head of Walrus,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Skull of Whale, with the Baleen,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Sockets with teeth, of Echinus esculentus,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Surirella constricta,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_402">402</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Theoretic representation of the Circulation in Fishes,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Theoretic representation of the Circulation in Mammals and Birds,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Theoretic representation of the Circulation in Reptiles,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Torso Rock, near Point Deas Thomson, in the Arctic Ocean,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Urticating organs of Cœlenterata,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_346">346</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Water-Sports,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">« 1 »</a></span></p> - - -<h2> -<a id="PART_I"></a>PART I.<br /> -<br /> -<span style="font-size:0.5em;">THE</span><br /> -PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA.<br /> -</h2> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">« 2 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 678px;"> -<a href="images/world_map_lg.png"><img src="images/world_map_sm.png" width="600" height="360" alt="" /></a><br /> -<span class="smaller">Click on image to view larger version.</span> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">« 3 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a><br /> - -THE MAGNITUDE OF THE SEA.</h2> - -<div class="blockquot2">>Extent of the Ocean.—Length of its Coast-Line.—Mural, Rocky, and Flat Coasts.—How -deep is the Sea?—Average Depth of the Atlantic Ocean.—The Telegraphic -Plateau between Newfoundland and Ireland.—Measurement of Depth -by the Rapidity of the Tide-Wave.—Progressive Changes in the Limits of the -Ocean.—Alluvial Deposits.—Upheaving.—Subsidence.—Does the Level of the -Sea remain unchanged, and is it everywhere the same?—Composition and -Temperature of Sea-Water.—Its intrinsic Colour.—The Azure Grotto at Capri.—Modification -of Colour owing to Animals and Plants.—Submarine Landscapes -viewed through the Clear Waters.</div> - - -<p>Of all the gods that divide the empire of the earth, Neptune -rules over the widest realms. If a giant-hand were to uproot the -Andes and cast them into the sea, they would be engulphed in -the abyss, and scarcely raise the general level of the waters.</p> - -<p>The South American Pampas, bounded on the north by -tropical palm-trees, and on the south by wintry firs, are no -doubt of magnificent dimensions, yet these vast deserts seem -insignificant when compared with the boundless plains of earth-encircling -ocean. Nay! a whole continent, even America or -Asia, appears small against the immensity of the sea, which -covers with its rolling waves nearly three-fourths of the entire -surface of the globe.</p> - -<p>A single glance over the map shows us at once how very unequally -water and land are distributed. In one part we see -continents and islands closely grouped together, while in another -the sea widely spreads in one unbroken plain; here vast peninsulas -stretch far away into the domains of ocean, while there -immense gulfs plunge deeply into the bosom of the land. At -first sight it might appear as if blind chance had presided over -this distribution, but a nearer view convinces us that providential -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">« 4 »</a></span> -laws have established the existing relations between the -solid and fluid surfaces of the earth. If the sea had been much -smaller, or if the greatest mass of land had been concentrated -in the tropical zone, all the meteorological phenomena on which -the existence of actual organic life depends would have been so -different, that it is <i>doubtful</i> whether man could then have -existed, and <i>certain</i> that, under those altered circumstances, -he never would have attained his present state of civilisation. -The dependence of our intellectual development upon the existing -configuration of the earth, convinces us that Divine wisdom -and not chaotic anarchy has from all eternity presided over the -destinies of our planet.</p> - -<p>The length of all the coasts which form the boundary between -sea and land can only be roughly estimated, for who has -accurately measured the numberless windings of so many -shores? The entire coast line of deeply indented Europe and -her larger isles measures about 21,600 miles, equal to the circumference -of the earth; while the shores of compact Africa -extend to a length of only 14,000 miles. I need hardly point out -how greatly Europe's irregular outlines have contributed to the -early development of her superior civilisation and political predominance. -The coasts of America measure about 45,000 miles, -those of Asia 40,000, while those of Australia and Polynesia -may safely be estimated at 16,000. Thus the entire coast-line -of the globe amounts to about 136,000 miles, which it would -take the best pedestrian full twenty-five years to traverse from -end to end.</p> - -<p>How different is the aspect of these shores along which -the ever-restless sea continually rises or falls! Here steep -rock-walls tower up from the deep, while there a low sandy -beach extends its flat profile as far as the eye can reach. While -some coasts are scorched by the vertical sunbeam, others are -perpetually blocked up with ice. Here the safe harbour bids -welcome to the weather-beaten sailor, the lighthouse greets him -from afar with friendly ray; the experienced pilot hastens to guide -him to the port, and all along the smiling margin of the land -rise the peaceful dwellings of civilised man. There, on the contrary, -the roaring breakers burst upon the shore of some dreary -wilderness, the domain of the savage or the brute. What a -wonderful variety of scenes unrolls itself before our fancy as it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">« 5 »</a></span> -roams along the coasts of ocean from zone to zone! what -changes, as it wanders from the palm-girt coral island of the -tropical seas to the melancholy strands where, verging towards -the poles, all vegetable life expires! and how magnificently grand -does the idea of ocean swell out in our imagination, when we -consider that its various shores witness at one and the same -time the rising and the setting of the sun, the darkness of night -and the full blaze of day, the rigour of winter and the smiling -cheerfulness of spring!</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 451px;"> -<img src="images/005.png" width="451" height="285" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Beachy Head.</div> -</div> - -<p>The different formation of sea-coasts has necessarily a great -influence on commercial intercourse. Bold mural coasts, rising -precipitously from the deep sea, generally possess the best -harbours. Rocky shores also afford many good ports, but -most frequently only for smaller vessels, and of difficult access, -on account of the many isolated cliffs and reefs which characterise -this species of coast formation.</p> - -<p>In places where high lands reach down to the coast, the immediate -depth of the sea is proportionably great; but wherever -the surface rises gently landwards, the sea-bed continues with a -corresponding slope downwards. On these flat coasts the tides -roll over a sandy or shingly beach; and here the aid of human -industry is frequently required to create artificial ports, or to -prevent those already existing from being choked with sand.</p> - -<p>On many flat coasts the drift-sand has raised <i>dunes</i>, wearying -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">« 6 »</a></span> -the eye by their monotonous uniformity; on others, where these -natural bulwarks are wanting, artificial embankments, or dykes -protect the lowlands against the encroachments of the sea, or else -the latter forms vast salt-marshes and lagunes. On some coasts -these submerged or half-drowned lands have been transformed -by the industry of man into fertile meadows and fields, of which -the Dutch Netherlands afford the most celebrated example; while -in other countries, such as Egypt, large tracts of land once cultivated -have been lost to the sea, in consequence of long misrule -and tyranny.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>How deep is the sea? How is its bottom formed? Does -life still exist in its abyssal depths? These mysteries of ocean, -which no doubt floated indistinctly before the mind of many an -inquisitive mariner and philosopher of ancient times, have only -recently been subjected to a more accurate investigation. Their -solution is of the highest importance, both to the physical -geographer, whose knowledge must necessarily remain incomplete -until he can fully trace the deep-sea path of oceanic -currents, and to the zoologist, to whom it affords a wider insight -into the laws which govern the development of the -innumerable forms of life with which our globe is peopled.</p> - -<p>The ordinary system of sounding by means of a weight attached -to a graduated line, and "armed" at its lower end with -a thick coating of soft tallow, so as to bring up evidence of its -having reached the bottom in a sample of mud, shells, sand, -gravel, or ooze, answers perfectly well for comparatively shallow -water, and for the ordinary purposes of navigation, but it -breaks down for depths much over 1000 fathoms. The weight -is not sufficient to carry the line rapidly and vertically to the -bottom; and if a heavier weight be used, ordinary sounding -line is unable to draw up its own weight along with that of the -lead from great depths, and gives way, so that by this means no -information can be gained as to the nature of the sea-bottom. -To obviate this difficulty, several ingenious instruments have -been invented, such as the "Bull-dog" sounding machine, which -is so contrived that on touching the bottom the weight becomes -detached, while at the same time a pair of scoops, closing upon -one another scissorwise on a hinge, and permanently attached -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">« 7 »</a></span> -to the sounding-line, retain and are able to bring up a sample -of the bottom.</p> - -<p>With the aid of steam, dredging has also been successfully -carried down to 2,435 fathoms, so that the ocean bed may become -in time as well known to us as the bed of the Mersey or -the Thames.</p> - -<p>Both sounding and dredging at great depths are, however, -difficult and laborious tasks, which can only be performed under -very favourable circumstances, and require a vessel specially -fitted at considerable expense.</p> - -<p>Many of the early deep soundings in the Atlantic, which -reported the astonishing depths of 46,000 or even 50,000 feet, -are now known to have been greatly exaggerated. In some -cases bights of the line seem to be carried along by submarine -currents, and in others it is found that the line has been -running out by its own weight only, and coiling itself in a -tangled mass directly over the lead. These sources of error -vitiate very deep soundings; and consequently, in the last chart -of the North Atlantic, published on the authority of Rear-Admiral -Richards in November 1870, none are entered beyond -4000 fathoms, and very few beyond 3000.</p> - -<p>"The general result," says Professor Wyville Thomson,<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> "to -which we are led by the careful and systematic deep-sea soundings -which have been undertaken of late years is that the depth -of the sea is not so great as was at one time supposed, and does -not appear to average more than 2000 fathoms (12,000 feet), -about equal to the mean height of the elevated table-lands of -Asia.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> "The Depths of the Sea," p. 228.</p></div> - -<p>"The thin shell of water which covers so much of the face of -the earth occupies all the broad general depressions in its crust, -and it is only limited by the more abrupt prominences which -project above its surface, as masses of land with their crowning -plateaux and mountain ranges. The Atlantic Ocean covers -30,000,000 of square miles, and the Arctic Sea 3,000,000, and -taken together they almost exactly equal the united areas of -Europe, Asia, and Africa—the whole of the Old World—and yet -there seem to be few depressions on its bed to a greater depth -than 15,000 or 20,000 feet—a little more than the height of -Mont Blanc; and, except in the neighbourhood of the shores, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">« 8 »</a></span> -there is only one very marked mass of mountains, the volcanic -group of the Açores."</p> - -<p>Accurate soundings are as yet much too distant to justify -a detailed description of the bed of the Atlantic. I will merely -state that after sloping gradually to a depth of 500 fathoms to -the westward of the coast of Ireland, in lat. 52° N., the bottom -suddenly dips to 1700 fathoms, at the rate of from about 15 to -19 feet in the 100. From this point to within about 200 -miles of the coast of Newfoundland, where it begins to shoal -again, there is a vast undulating plain averaging about 2000 -fathoms in depth below the surface—the "telegraph plateau" -on which now rest the cables through which the electric power -transmits its marvellous messages from one world to another.</p> - -<p>Our information about the beds of the Indian, the Antarctic, -and the Pacific Oceans is still more incomplete, but the few -trustworthy observations which have hitherto been made seem -to indicate that neither the depth nor the nature of the bottom -of these seas differs greatly from what we find nearer home.</p> - -<p>The inclosed and land-locked European seas are very shallow -when compared with the high ocean: the Mediterranean, however, -has in some parts a depth of more than 6000 feet; and -even in the Black Sea, the plummet sometimes descends to -more than 3000 feet; while the waters of the Adriatic everywhere -roll over a shallow bed.</p> - -<p>The researches of Mr. Russell on the swiftness of the tide-wave, -showing that the rapidity of its progress increases with the -depth of the waters over which it passes, afford us another means, -besides the sounding line, of determining approximately the -distance of the sea-bottom from its surface. According to this -method, the depth of the Channel between Plymouth and -Boulogne has been calculated at 180 feet; and the enormous -rapidity of the flood wave over the great open seas (300 miles -an hour and more) gives us for the mean depth of the Atlantic -14,400 feet, and for that of the Pacific 19,500.</p> - -<p>Natural philosophers have endeavoured to calculate the -quantity of the waters contained within the vast bosom of the -ocean; but as we are still very far from accurately knowing the -mean depth of the sea, such estimates are evidently based upon -a very unsubstantial foundation.</p> - -<p>So much at least is certain, that the volume of the waters of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">« 9 »</a></span> -the ocean as much surpasses all conception, as the number of -their inhabitants, or of the sands that line their shores.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 471px;"> -<img src="images/009.png" width="471" height="321" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Torso Rock, near Point Deas Thomson, in the Arctic Ocean.</div> -</div> - -<p>The boundaries of the ocean are not invariable; while in -some parts it encroaches upon the land, in others it retreats -from the expanding coast. In many places we find the sea -perpetually gnawing and undermining cliffs and rocks; and -sometimes swelling with sudden rage, it devours a broad expanse -of plain, and changes fertile meads into a dreary waste of -waters. The Goodwin Sands, notorious for the loss of many a -noble vessel, were once a large tract of low ground belonging to -Earl Goodwin, father of Harold, the last of our Saxon kings; and -being afterwards enjoyed by the monastery of St. Augustine at -Canterbury, the whole surface was drowned by the abbot's -neglect to repair the wall which defended it from the sea. In -spite of the endeavours of the Dutch to protect their flat land -by dykes against the inundatory waters, the storm-flood has -more than once burst through these artificial boundaries, and -converted large districts into inland seas.</p> - -<p>But the spaces which in this manner the dry land has gradually -or suddenly lost, or still loses, to the chafing ocean are -largely compensated for in other places, by the vast accumulations -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">« 10 »</a></span> -of mud and sand, which so many rivers continually carry along -with them into the sea. Thus at the mouths of the Nile, of the -Ganges, and of the Mississippi, large alluvial plains have been -deposited, which now form some of the most fruitful portions of -the globe. The whole Delta of Egypt, Bengal, and Louisiana, -have thus gradually emerged from the waters.</p> - -<p>The volcanic powers, which once caused the highest mountain -chains to rise from the glowing bosom of the earth, are still -uninterruptedly active in changing its surface, and are gradually -displacing the present boundaries of sea and land, upheaving -some parts and causing others to subside.</p> - -<p>On the coast of Sweden, it has been ascertained that iron -rings fixed to rocks which formerly served for the fastening of -boats are at present much too high. Flat cliffs on which, according -to ancient documents, seals used to be clubbed while -enjoying the warm sunbeam, are now quite out of the reach of -these amphibious animals. In the years 1731, 1752, and 1755, -marks were hewn in some conspicuous rocks, which after the -lapse of half a century were found to have risen about two feet -higher above the level of the sea. This phenomenon is confined -to part of the coast, so that it is clearly the result of a local and -slowly progressive upheaving.</p> - -<p>Whilst a great part of Scandinavia is thus slowly but steadily -rising, the shores of Chili have been found to rise convulsively -under the influence of mighty volcanic shocks. Thus after the -great earthquake of 1822, the whole coast, for the length of a -hundred miles, was found to be three or four feet higher than -before, and a further elevation was observed after the earthquake -of Feb. 21st, 1835.</p> - -<p>While to the north of Wolstenholme Sound, Kane remarked -signs of elevation, a converse depression was observed as he -proceeded southwards along the coast of Greenland, Esquimaux -huts being seen washed by the sea. The axis of oscillation -must be somewhere about 77° N. lat.</p> - -<p>At Keeling Island, in the Indian Ocean, Mr. Darwin found -evidence of subsidence. On every side of the lagoon, in which -the water is as tranquil as in the most sheltered lake, old cocoa-nut -trees were undermined and falling. The foundation-posts -of a store-house on the beach, which the inhabitants had said -stood seven years before just above high-water mark, were now -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">« 11 »</a></span> -daily washed by the tide. Earthquakes had been repeatedly -remarked by the inhabitants, so that Darwin no longer doubted -concerning the cause which made the trees to fall, and the -store-house to be washed by the daily tide.</p> - -<p>On the columns of the temple of Serapis, near Puzzuoli, the -astonished naturalist sees holes scooped out by Pholades and -Lithodomas, twenty-four feet above the present level of the sea. -These animals are marine testacea, that have the power of -burying themselves in stone, and cannot live beyond the reach -of low-water. How then have they been able to scoop out those -hieroglyphic marks so far above the level of their usual abodes? -for surely marble originally defective was never used for the -construction of so proud an edifice. Alternate depressions and -elevations of the soil afford us the only key to the enigma. -Earthquakes and oscillations, so frequent in that volcanic region, -must first have lowered the temple into the sea, where it was -acted upon by the sacrilegious molluscs, and then again their -upheaving powers must have raised it to its present elevation. -Thus, even the solid earth changes its features, and reminds -us of the mutability of all created things.</p> - -<p>There can be no doubt that, in consequence of the perpetual -increase of alluvial deposits, and of the volcanic processes I have -mentioned, the present boundaries of ocean must undergo great -alterations in the course of centuries, and the general level of -the sea must either rise or fall; but the evidence of history proves -to us that, for the last 2000 years at least, there has been no -notable change in this respect.</p> - -<p>The baths hewn out in the rocks of Alexandria, and the stones -of its harbour, have remained unaltered ever since the foundation -of the city by the Macedonian conqueror; and the ancient -port of Marseilles shows no more signs of a change of level than the -old sea-walls of Cadiz. Thus, all the elevations and depressions -that have occurred in the bed of ocean, or along its margin, -and all the mud and sand that thousands of rivers continually -carry along with them into the sea, have left its general level -unaltered, at least within the historic ages. However great their -effects may appear to the eye that confines itself to local changes, -their influence, as far as the evidence of history reaches, has -been but slight upon the immensity of the sea.</p> - -<p>Geodesical operations have proved that the level of the ocean, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">« 12 »</a></span> -with the exception of certain enclosed seas of limited extent, -is everywhere the same. The accurate measurements of Corabœuf -and Delcros show no perceptible difference between the -level of the Channel and that of the Mediterranean. In the -course of the operations for measuring the meridian in France, -M. Delambre calculated the height of Rodez above the level -of the Mediterranean at Barcelona, and its height above the ocean -which washes the foot of the tower of Dunkirk, and found the -difference to be equal to a fraction of a yard.</p> - -<p>The measurements which, at Humboldt's suggestion, General -Bolivar caused to be executed by Messrs. Lloyd and Filmore, -prove that the Pacific is, at the utmost, only a few feet higher -than the Caribbean Sea, and even that the relative height of the -two seas changes with the tides.</p> - -<p>The long and narrow inlet of the Red Sea, which, according -to former measurements, was said to be twenty-four or thirty -feet higher than the Mediterranean seems, from more recent and -accurate investigations, to be of the same level, and thus to -form no exception to the general rule.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The salts contained in sea water, and to which it owes its peculiar -bitter and unpleasant taste, form about three and a half per cent. -of its weight, and consist principally of common table salt (chloride -of sodium), and the sulphates and carbonates of magnesia and -lime. But, besides these chief ingredients, there is scarcely a -single elementary body of which traces are not to be found in -that universal solvent. Wilson has pointed out fluoric combinations -in sea water, and Malaguti and Durocher (Annales de -Chimie, 1851) detected lead, copper, and silver in its composition. -Tons of this precious metal are dissolved in the vast -volume of the ocean, and it contains arsenic sufficient to poison -every living thing.</p> - -<p>Animal mucus, the product of numberless creatures, is mixed -up with the sea water, and it constantly absorbs carbonic acid -and atmospheric air, which are as indispensable to the marine -animals and plants as to the denizens of the atmospheric -ocean.</p> - -<p>In inclosed seas, communicating with the ocean only by -narrow straits, the quantity of saline particles varies from that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">« 13 »</a></span> -of the high seas. Thus the Mediterranean, when evaporation is -favoured by heat, contains about one half per cent. more salt -than the ocean; while the Baltic, which, on account of its -northern position, is not liable to so great a loss, and receives -vast volumes of fresh water from a number of considerable -rivers, is scarcely half so salt as the neighbouring North Sea.</p> - -<p>In the open ocean, the perpetual circulation of the waters -produces an admirable equality of composition: yet Dr. Lenz, -who accompanied Kotzebue in his second voyage round the -world, and devoted great attention to the subject, found that -the Atlantic, particularly in its western part, contains a somewhat -larger proportion of salts than the Pacific; and that the -Indian Ocean, which connects those vast volumes of water, is -more salt towards the former than towards the latter.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>As water is a bad conductor of caloric, the temperature of the -seas is in general more constant than that of the air.</p> - -<p>The equinoctial ocean seldom attains the maximum warmth of -83°, and has never been known to rise above 87°; while the surface -of the land between the tropics is frequently heated to -129°. In the neighbourhood of the line, the temperature of the -surface-water oscillates all the year round only between 82° and -85°, and scarce any difference is perceptible at different times of -the day.</p> - -<p>The wonderful sameness and equability of the temperature of -the tropical ocean over spaces covering thousands of square -miles, particularly between 10° N. and 10° S. lat., far from the -coasts, and where it is not intersected by pelagic streams, -affords, according to Arago, the best means of solving a very -important, and as yet unanswered question, concerning the -physics of the globe. "Without troubling itself," says that -great natural philosopher, "about mere local influences, each -century might leave to succeeding generations, by a few easy -thermometrical measurements, the means of ascertaining whether -the sun, at present almost the only source of warmth upon the -surface of the earth, changes his physical constitution, and varies -in his splendour like most stars, or whether he has attained a -permanent condition. Great and lasting revolutions in his -shining orb would reflect themselves more accurately in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">« 14 »</a></span> -altered mean temperature of those ocean plains than in the -changed medium warmth of the dry land."</p> - -<p>The warmest part of the ocean does not coincide with the -Equator, but seems to form two not quite parallel bands to the -north and south.</p> - -<p>In the northern Atlantic, the line of greatest temperature (87° -F.) which on the African coast is found but a little to the north of -the Equator, rises on the north coast of South America as high -as 12° N. lat., and in the Gulf of Mexico ranges even beyond the -tropic. The influence of the warmth-radiating land on inclosed -waters is still more remarkable in the Mediterranean (between -30° and 44° N. lat.) where during the summer months a temperature -of 84° and 85° is found, three degrees higher than the -medium warmth of the open tropical seas.</p> - -<p>While in the torrid zone the temperature of the ocean is -generally inferior to that of the atmosphere, the contrary takes -place in the Polar seas. Near Spitzbergen, even under 80° N. -lat., Gaimard never found the temperature of the water below -+33°. Between Norway and Spitzbergen the mean warmth of -the water in summer was +39°, while that of the air only -attained +37°.</p> - -<p>In the enclosed seas of the Arctic Ocean, the enormous accumulation -of ice, which the warmth of a short summer is unable -totally to dissolve, naturally produces a very low temperature of -the waters. Thus, in Baffin's Bay, Sir John Ross found during -the summer months only thirty-one days on which the temperature -of the water rose above freezing point.</p> - -<p>In the depths of the sea, even in the tropical zone, the water -is found of a frigid temperature, and this circumstance first led -to the knowledge of the submarine polar ocean currents; "for -without these, the deep sea temperature in the tropics could -never have been lower than the maximum of cold, which the -heat-radiating particles attain at the surface."<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> Humboldt's "Kosmos."</p></div> - -<p>It was formerly believed that while the surface temperature—which -depended upon direct solar radiation, the direction of -currents, the temperature of winds, and other temporary causes—might -vary to any amount, at a certain depth the temperature -was permanent at 4° C., the temperature of the greatest density -of fresh water. Late investigations, however, have led to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">« 15 »</a></span> -conclusion that instead of there being a permanent deep layer -of water at 4° C., the average temperature of the deep sea in -temperate and tropical regions is about 0° C., the freezing point -of fresh water.</p> - -<p>In the atmospheric ocean, aeronauts not seldom meet with -warm air currents flowing above others of a colder temperature; -while, according to a general law, the warmth of the air constantly -diminishes as its elevation above the surface of the sea -increases.</p> - -<p>Similar exceptions to the general rule are met with in the -ocean. In moderate depths sometimes the whole mass of water -from the surface to the bottom is abnormally warm, owing to -the movement in a certain direction of a great body of warm -water, as in the "warm area" to the north-west of the Hebrides, -where, at a depth of 500 fathoms, the minimum temperature was -found to be 6° C. On the other hand, the whole body of -water is sometimes abnormally cold, as in the "cold area," between -Scotland and Faeroe, where, at a depth of 500 fathoms, -the bottom temperature is found to average -1° C.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> The only -feasible explanation of these enormous differences of temperature, -amounting to nearly 13° F. in two areas freely communicating -with one another, and in close proximity, is that in the area -to the north-west of the Hebrides a body of water warmed even -above the normal temperature of the latitude flows northwards -from some southern source, and occupies the whole depth of that -comparatively shallow portion of the Atlantic, while an arctic -stream of frigid water creeps from the north-eastward into the -trough between Faeroe and the Shetland Islands, and fills its -deeper part in consequence of its higher specific gravity. There -can be no doubt that similar phenomena occur in various parts -of the ocean, and that the deep seas are frequently intersected -by streams differing in temperature from the surrounding -waters.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> "The Depths of the Sea," by Professor Wyville Thomson, p. 307.</p></div> - -<p>In some places, owing to the conformation of the neighbouring -land or of the sea-bottom, superficial warm and cold currents -are circumscribed and localised, thereby occasioning the -singular phenomenon of a patch or stripe of warm and a patch -of cold sea meeting in an invisible but well-defined line.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">« 16 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The temperature of the sea apparently never sinks at any -depth below -3·5° C. This is about the temperature of the -maximum density of sea water, which contracts steadily till just -above its freezing point (-3·67° C.), when kept perfectly still.</p> - -<p>If we include in the tropical seas all that part of the ocean -where the surface temperature never falls below 68° F., and -where consequently living coral reefs may occur, we find that it -nearly equals in size the temperate and cold ocean-regions -added together. This distribution of the waters over the surface -of the globe is of the highest importance to mankind; for the -immense extent of the tropical ocean, where, of course, the -strongest evaporation takes place, furnishes our temperate zone -with the necessary quantity of rain, and tends by its cooling -influence to diminish the otherwise unbearable heat of the -equatorial lands.</p> - -<p>The circumstance of ice being lighter than water also contributes -to the habitability of our earth. Ice is a bad conductor -of heat; consequently it shields the subjacent waters -from the influence of frost, and prevents its penetrating to -considerable depths. If ice had been heavier than water, -the sea-bottom, in higher latitudes, would have been covered -with solid crystal at the very beginning of the cold season; -and during the whole length of the polar winter, the perpetually -consolidating surface-waters would have been constantly -precipitated, till finally the whole sea, far within the -present temperate zone, would have formed one solid mass of -ice. The sun would have been as powerless to melt this prodigious -body, as it is to dissolve the glaciers of the Alps, and -the cold radiating from its surface would have rendered all the -neighbouring lands uninhabitable.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The mixture of the water of rivers with that of the sea presents -some hydrostatic phenomena which it is curious enough -to observe. Fresh water being lighter, ought to keep at the -surface, while the salt water, from its weight, should form the -deepest strata. This, in fact, is what Mr. Stephenson observed -in 1818 in the harbour of Aberdeen at the mouth of the Dee, -and also in the Thames near London and Woolwich. By taking -up water from different depths with an instrument invented for -the purpose, Mr. Stephenson found that at a certain distance -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">« 17 »</a></span> -from the mouth the water is fresh in the whole depth, even -during the flow of the tide, but that a little nearer the sea fresh -water is found on the surface, while the lower strata consist of -sea water. According to his observations it is between London -and Woolwich that the saltness of the bottom begins to be perceptible. -Thus, below Woolwich the Thames, instead of flowing -over a solid bed, in reality flows upon a liquid bottom formed -by the water of the sea, with which no doubt it is more or less -mixed.</p> - -<p>Mr. Stephenson is of opinion that, at the flow of the tide, the -fresh water is raised as it were in a single mass by the salt water -which flows in, and which ascends the bed of the river, while -the fresh water continues to flow towards the sea.</p> - -<p>Where the Amazon, the La Plata, the Orinoco, and other -giant streams pour out their vast volumes of water into -the ocean, the surface of the sea is fresh for many miles from -the shore; but this is only superficial, for below, even in the bed -of the rivers, the bitterness of salt water is found.</p> - -<p>It is a curious fact, that in many parts of the ocean, fresh-water -springs burst from the bottom of the sea. Thus, in the -Gulf of Spezzia, and in the port of Syracuse, large jets of fresh -water mingle with the brine; and Humboldt mentions a still -more remarkable submarine fountain on the southern coast of -Cuba, in the Gulf of Xagua, a couple of sea miles from the shore, -which gushes through the salt water with such vehemence, that -boats approaching the spot are obliged to use great caution. -Trading vessels are said sometimes to visit this spring, in order -to provide themselves in the midst of the ocean with a supply -of fresh water.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The sea is not colourless; its crystal mirror not only reflects -the bright sky or the passing cloud, but naturally possesses a pure -bluish tint, which is only rendered visible to the eye when the -light penetrates through a stratum of water of considerable -depth. This may be easily ascertained by experiment. Take a -glass tube, two inches wide and two yards long, blacken it internally -with lamp-black and wax to within half an inch of the end, -the latter being closed by a cork. Throw a few pieces of white -porcelain into this tube, which, after being filled with pure -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">« 18 »</a></span> -sea-water, must be set vertically on a white plate, and then, -looking through the open end, you will see the white of the -porcelain changed into a light blue tint.</p> - -<p>In the Gulf of Naples, we find the inherent colour of the -water exhibited to us by Nature on a most magnificent scale. -The splendid "Azure cave," at Capri, might almost be said to -have been created for the purpose. For many centuries its -beauties had been veiled from man, as the narrow entrance is -only a few feet above the level of the sea, and it was only -discovered in the year 1826, by two Prussian artists accidentally -swimming in the neighbourhood. Having passed the portal, -the cave widens to grand proportions, 125 feet long, and 145 -feet broad, and except a small landing place on a projecting rock -at the farther end, its precipitous walls are on all sides bathed -by the influx of the waters, which in that sea are most remarkably -clear, so that the smallest objects may be distinctly seen on the -light bottom at a depth of several hundred feet. All the light -that enters the grotto must penetrate the whole depth of the -waters, probably several hundred feet, before it can be reflected -into the cave from the clear bottom, and it thus -acquires so deep a tinge from the vast body of water through -which it has passed, that the dark walls of the cavern are -illumined by a radiance of the purest azure, and the most -differently coloured objects below the surface of the water are -made to appear bright blue. Had Byron known of the existence -of this magic cave, Childe Harold would surely have sung -its beauties in some of his most brilliant stanzas.</p> - -<p>All profound and clear seas are more or less of a deep blue -colour, while, according to seamen, a green colour indicates -soundings. The bright blue of the Mediterranean, so often -vaunted by poets, is found all over the deep pure ocean, not -only in the tropical and temperate zones, but also in the regions -of eternal frost. Scoresby speaks with enthusiasm of the splendid -blue of the Greenland seas, and all along the great ice-barrier -which under 77° S. lat. obstructed the progress of Sir James -Ross towards the pole, that illustrious navigator found the waters -of as deep a blue as in the classical Mediterranean. The North -Sea is green, partly from its water not being so clear, and partly -from the reflection of its sandy bottom mixing with the essentially -blue tint of the water. In the Bay of Loanga the sea has -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">« 19 »</a></span> -the colour of blood, and Captain Tuckey discovered that this -results from the reflection of the red ground-soil.</p> - -<p>But the essential colour of the sea undergoes much more -frequent changes over large spaces, from enormous masses of -minute <i>algæ</i>, and countless hosts of small sea-worms, floating -or swimming on its surface.</p> - -<p>"A few days after leaving Bahia," says Mr. Darwin, "not far -from the Abrolhos islets, the whole surface of the water, as it -appeared under a weak lens, seemed as if covered by chipped -bits of hay with their ends jagged. Each bundle consisted of -from twenty to sixty filaments, divided at regular intervals by -transverse septa, containing a brownish-green flocculent matter. -The ship passed several bands of them, one of which was about -ten yards wide, and, judging from the mud-like colour of the -water, at least two and a half miles long. Similar masses of floating -vegetable matter are a very common appearance near Australia. -During two days preceding our arrival at the Keeling Islands, -I saw in many parts masses of flocculent matter of a brownish -green colour, floating in the ocean. They were from half to -three inches square, and consisted of two kinds of microscopical -confervæ. Minute cylindrical bodies, conical at each extremity, -were involved in large numbers in a mass of fine threads."</p> - -<p>"On the coast of Chili," says the same author, "a few leagues -north of Conception, the 'Beagle' one day passed through great -bands of muddy water; and again, a degree south of Valparaiso, -the same appearance was still more extensive. Mr. Sulivan, -having drawn up some water in a glass, distinguished by the -aid of a lens moving points. The water was slightly stained, as -if by red dust, and after leaving it for sometime quiet, a cloud -collected at the bottom. With a slightly magnifying lens, small -hyaline points could be seen darting about with great rapidity, -and frequently exploding. Examined with a much higher -power, their shape was found to be oval, and contracted by a -ring round the middle, from which line curved little setæ proceeded -on all sides, and these were the organs of motion. Their -minuteness was such that they were individually quite invisible -to the naked eye, each covering a space equal only to the one-thousandth -of an inch, and their number was infinite, for the -smallest drop of water contained very many. In one day we -passed through two spaces of water thus stained, one of which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">« 20 »</a></span> -alone must have extended over several square miles. The -colour of the water was like that of a river which has flowed -through a red clay district, and a strictly defined line separated -the red stream from the blue water."</p> - -<p>In the neighbourhood of Callao, the Pacific has an olive-green -colour, owing to a greenish matter which is also found at the -bottom of the sea, in a depth of 800 feet. In its natural state -it has no smell, but when cast on the fire, it emits the odour of -burnt animal substances.</p> - -<p>Near Cape Palmas, on the coast of Guinea, Captain Tuckey's -ship seemed to sail through milk, a phenomenon which was -owing to an immense number of little white animals swimming on -the surface, and concealing the natural tint of the water.</p> - -<p>The peculiar colouring of the Red Sea, from which it has -derived its name, is owing to the presence of a microscopic alga, -<i>sui generis</i>, floating at the surface of the sea and even less -remarkable for its beautiful red colour than for its prodigious -fecundity.</p> - -<p>I could add many more examples, where, either from minute -algæ or from small animals, the deep blue sea suddenly appeared -in stripes of white, yellow, green, brown, orange or red. For -fear, however, of tiring the reader's patience, I shall merely -mention the <i>olive-green</i> water, which covers a considerable part -of the Greenland seas. It is found between 74° and 80° N. lat., -but its position varies with the currents, often forming isolated -stripes, and sometimes spreading over two or three degrees of -latitude. Small yellowish Medusæ, of from one-thirtieth to one-twentieth -of an inch in diameter are the principal agents that -change the pure ultramarine of the Arctic Ocean into a muddy -green. According to Scoresby, they are about one-fourth of -an inch asunder, and in this proportion a cubic inch of -water must contain 64, a cubic foot 110,592, a cubic fathom -23,887,872, and a cubic mile nearly twenty-four thousand -billions! From soundings made in the situation where these -animals were found, the sea is probably more than a mile deep; -but whether these substances occupy the whole depth is uncertain. -Provided, however, the depth to which they extend -be about 250 fathoms, the immense number of one species -mentioned above may occur in a space of two miles square; -and what a stupendous idea must we form of the infinitude of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">« 21 »</a></span> -marine life, when we consider that those vast numbers, beyond -all human conception, occupy after all only a small part of the -green-coloured ocean which extends over twenty or thirty -thousand square miles! It is here that the giant whale of the -north finds his richest pasture-grounds, which at the same time -invite man to follow on his track. A small red crustacean -(<i>Cetochilus australis</i>) which forms very extensive banks in the -Pacific, and in the middle of the Atlantic about 40° S. lat., affords -a similar supply of food to the whales frequenting those seas, -and exposes them to the same dangers.</p> - -<p>When the sea is perfectly clear and transparent, it allows the -eye to distinguish objects at a very great depth. Near Mindora, -in the Indian Ocean, the spotted corals are plainly visible under -twenty-five fathoms of water. The crystalline clearness of the -Caribbean sea excited the admiration of Columbus, who in the -pursuit of his great discoveries ever retained an open eye for -the beauties of nature. "In passing over these splendidly adorned -grounds," says Schöpf, "where marine life shows itself in an -endless variety of forms, the boat, suspended over the purest -crystal, seems to float in the air, so that a person unaccustomed -to the scene easily becomes giddy. On the clear sandy bottom -appear thousands of sea-stars, sea-urchins, molluscs, and fishes -of a brilliancy of colour unknown in our temperate seas. Fiery -red, intense blue, lively green, and golden yellow perpetually -vary; the spectator floats over groves of sea-plants, gorgonias, -corals, alcyoniums, flabellums, and sponges, that afford no less -delight to the eye, and are no less gently agitated by the heaving -waters, than the most beautiful garden on earth when a gentle -breeze passes through the waving boughs."</p> - -<p>With equal enthusiasm De Quatrefages expatiates on the -beauties of the submarine landscapes on the coast of Sicily. -"The surface of the waters, smooth and even like a mirror, -enabled the eye to penetrate to an incredible depth, and to -recognise the smallest objects. Deceived by this wonderful -transparency, it often occurred during my first excursions, that I -wished to seize some annelide or medusa, which seemed to swim -but a few inches from the surface. Then the boatman smiled, -took a net fastened to a long pole, and, to my great astonishment, -plunged it deep into the water before it could attain the object -which I had supposed to be within my reach. The admirable -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">« 22 »</a></span> -clearness of the waters produced another deception of a most -agreeable kind. Leaning over the boat, we glided over plains, -dales, and hillocks, which, in some places naked and in others -carpeted with green or with brownish shrubbery, reminded us of -the prospects of the land. Our eye distinguished the smallest -inequalities of the piled-up rocks, plunged more than a hundred -feet deep into their cavernous hollows, and everywhere the -undulations of the sand, the abrupt edges of the stone-blocks, -and the tufts of algæ were so sharply defined, that the wonderful -illusion made us forget the reality of the scene. Between us -and those lovely pictures we saw no more the intervening -waters that enveloped them as in an atmosphere and carried our -boat upon their bosom. It was as if we were hanging in a -vacant space, or looking down like birds hovering in the air -upon a charming prospect. Strangely formed animals peopled -these submarine regions, and lent them a peculiar character. -Fishes, sometimes isolated like the sparrows of our groves, or -uniting in flocks like our pigeons or swallows, roamed among -the crags, wandered through the thickets of the sea-plants, -and shot away like arrows as our boat passed over them. -Caryophyllias, Gorgonias, and a thousand other zoophytes -unfolded their sensitive petals, and could hardly be distinguished -from the real plants with whose fronds their branches intertwined. -Enormous dark blue Holothurias crept along upon the sandy -bottom, or slowly climbed the rocks, on which crimson sea-stars -spread out immoveably their long radiating arms. Molluscs -dragged themselves lazily along, while crabs, resembling huge -spiders, ran against them in their oblique and rapid progress, or -attacked them with their formidable claws. Other crustaceans, -analogous to our lobsters or shrimps, gambolled among the fuci, -sought for a moment the surface waters to enjoy the light of -heaven, and then by one mighty stroke of their muscular tail, -instantly disappeared again in the obscure recesses of the deep. -Among these animals whose shapes reminded us of familiar -forms appeared other species, belonging to types unknown in -our colder latitudes: <i>Salpæ</i>, strange molluscs of glassy transparency, -that, linked together, form swimming chains; great -<i>Beroës</i>, similar to living enamel; <i>Diphyæ</i> hardly to be distinguished -from the pure element in which they move, and -finally, <i>Stephanomiæ</i>, animated garlands woven of crystal and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">« 23 »</a></span> -flowers, and which, still more delicate than the latter, disappear -as they wither, and do not even leave a cloud behind them -in the vase, which a few moments before their glassy bodies had -nearly entirely filled."</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 472px;"> -<img src="images/023.png" width="472" height="303" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Hill at the Rapid on Bear Lake River. (North-West Territory, -North America.)</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">« 24 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_II" id="CHAP_II">CHAP. II.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">THE WAVES OF THE OCEAN.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">Waves and the Mode of their Formation.—Height and Velocity of Storm-Waves, -on the High Seas, according to the Calculations of Scoresby, Arago, Sir James -Ross, and Wilkes.—Their Height and Power on Coasts.—Their Destructive -Effects along the British Shore.—Dunwich.—Reculver.—Shakspeare's Cliff.</div> - - -<p>After having admired the sea in the grandeur of its expanse, -and the profundity of its depths, I shall, in this and the two -following chapters, examine in what manner the perpetual circulation -of its waters is maintained.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 460px;"> -<img src="images/024.png" width="460" height="366" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">H.M.S. "Resolute" lying to in the North Atlantic.</div> -</div> - -<p>"The movements of the sea," says Humboldt, "are of a three-fold -description: partly irregular and transitory, depending -upon the winds, and occasioning waves; partly regular and -periodical, resulting from the attraction of the sun and the moon -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">« 25 »</a></span> -(ebb and flood); and partly permanent, though of unequal -strength and rapidity at different periods (oceanic currents)."</p> - -<p>Who has ever sojourned on the coast, or crossed the seas, and -has not been delighted by the aspect of the waves, so graceful -when a light breeze curls the surface of the waters, so sublime -when a raging storm disturbs the depths of the ocean?</p> - -<p>But it is easier to admire the beauty of a wave than clearly -to explain its nature, so as to convey an accurate or sufficiently -general conception of its formation to the reader's mind. Those -who are placed for the first time on a stormy sea, discover with -wonder that the large waves which they see rushing along with -a velocity of many miles an hour do not carry the floating body -along with them, but seem to pass under the bottom of the ship -with scarcely a perceptible effect in carrying the vessel out of -its course.</p> - -<p>In like manner, the observer near the shore perceives that -floating pieces of wood are not carried towards the shore with -the rapidity of the waves, but are left nearly in the same place -after the wave has passed them as before. Nay, if the tide be -ebbing, the waves may even be observed rushing with great -velocity towards the shore, while the body of water is actually -receding, and any object floating in it is carried in the opposite -direction to the waves out to sea.</p> - -<p>What, then, is wave-motion as distinct from water-motion? -The force of the wind, pushing a given mass of water out of its -place into another, dislodges the original occupant, which is -again pushed forward on the occupant of the next place, and -so on. As the water-particles crowd upon one another, in the -act of going out of their old places into the new, the crowd -forms a temporary heap visible on the surface of the fluid, and -as each successive mass is displacing the one before it, the undulation -or oscillatory movement spreads farther and farther -over the waters. Wave-motion is, in fact, the transference of -motion without the transference of matter: of form without the -substance, of force without the agent.</p> - -<p>The strongest storm cannot suddenly raise high waves, they -require time for their development. Fancy the wind blowing -over an even sea, and it will set water-particles in motion -all over the surface, and thus give the first impulse to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">« 26 »</a></span> -formation of small waves. Numberless oscillations unite their -efforts, and create visible elevations and depressions. Meanwhile, -the wind is constantly setting new particles in motion; -long before the first oscillations have lost their effect, countless -others are perpetually arising, and thus the sum of the propelling -powers is constantly increasing, and gradually raising -mountain-waves, until their growth is finally limited by the -counterbalancing power of the earth's attraction.</p> - -<p>As the strength of the waves only gradually rises, it also loses -itself only by degrees, and many hours after the tornado has -ceased to rage, mighty billows continue to remind the mariner -of its extinguished fury. The turmoil of waters awakened by -the storm propagates itself hundreds of miles beyond the space -where its howling voice was heard, and often, during the most -tranquil weather, the agitated sea proclaims the distant war of -the elements.</p> - -<p>The velocity of waves depends not only on the power of the -impulse, but also on the depth of the subjacent waters, as I have -already mentioned in the preceding chapter.</p> - -<p>For this reason, as increased velocity augments the power of -the impulse, the waves in the Atlantic or Pacific, the mean -depth of which may be estimated at 12,000 or 18,000 feet, -attain a much greater height than in the comparatively shallow -North Sea.</p> - -<p>The breaking of the waves against the shore arises from their -velocity diminishing with their depth. As the small flat wave -rolls up the beach, its front part, retarded by the friction of -the ground, is soon overtaken by its back, moving in swifter -progression, and thus arises its graceful swelling, the toppling -of its snow-white crest, and finally its pleasant prattle among -the shingles of the strand. This is one of those pictures of -nature which Homer describes with such inimitable truth in -various places of his immortal poems: he paints with admirable -colours the slow rising of the advancing wave, how it bends -forward with a graceful curve, and, crowning itself with a -diadem of foam, spreads like a white veil over the beach, -leaving sea-weeds and shells behind, as it rustles back again -into the sea.</p> - -<p>The height which waves may attain on the open sea has -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">« 27 »</a></span> -been accurately investigated by the late Rev. Dr. Scoresby, -during two passages across the Atlantic in 1847 and 1848.</p> - -<p>"In the afternoon of March 5th, 1848," says that eminent -philosopher, "I stood during a hard gale upon the cuddy-roof -or saloon deck of the 'Hibernia:' a height, with the addition of -that of the eye, of 23 feet 3 inches above the line of flotation -(the ship's course being similar to that of the waves). I am not -aware that I ever saw the sea more terribly magnificent; the -great majority of the rolling masses of water was more than 24 -feet high, (including depression as well as altitude, or reckoning -above the mean-level, more than 12 feet). I then went to the -larboard paddle-box, about 7 feet higher (30 feet 2 inches up -to the eye), and found that one half of the waves rose above -the level of the view obtained.</p> - -<p>"Frequently I observed long ranges (200 yards), which rose so -high above the visible horizon, as to form an angle estimated at -two or three degrees when the distance of the wave's summit was -about 100 yards from the observer. This would add near 13 -feet to the level of the eye, and at least one in half-a-dozen -waves attained this altitude. Sometimes peaks or crests of -breaking seas would shoot upward, at least 10 or 15 feet higher.</p> - -<p>"The average wave was, I believe, fully equal to that of my -sight on the paddle-box, or more than 15 feet, and the <i>mean -highest waves</i>, not including the broken or acuminated crests, -rose about 43 feet above the level of the hollow occupied at the -moment by the ship. It was a grand storm-scene, and nothing -could exceed the pictorial effect of the partial sunbeams breaking -through the heavy masses of clouds." From the time -taken by a regular wave to pass from stern to stem, Dr. Scoresby -calculated its velocity at 2875 feet in each minute, or 32·67 -English statute miles in an hour. The mean length of the -wave-ridges, was from a quarter to a third of a mile.</p> - -<p>To those who might be inclined to doubt the accuracy of these -measurements, the remark may suffice that our celebrated -countryman had been for years engaged in the northern whale-fishery, -where he had ample opportunities for practising his eye -in measuring distances. Besides, the conclusions of many other -trustworthy observers coincide with the evaluations of Dr. -Scoresby.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">« 28 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Thus Captain Wilkes, commander of the U. S. Exploring -Expedition, found the height of the waves near Orange Harbour, -where they rose higher and more regular than at any -other time during the cruise, to be thirty-two feet (depression -and altitude), and their apparent progressive motion about -twenty-six and a half miles in an hour.</p> - -<p>Sir James Ross calculated the height of the waves on a strongly -agitated sea at twenty-two feet, and, according to the French -naturalists who sailed in the frigate "La Venus," on her voyage -round the world, the highest waves they met with never exceeded -that measure.</p> - -<p>Thus, according to the joint testimony of the most eminent -nautical authorities, the waves in the open sea never attain the -mountain-height ascribed to them by the exuberant fancy of -poets or exaggerating travellers. But when the tempest surge -beats against steep crags or rocky coasts it rises to a much -more considerable height. The lighthouse of Bell Rock, though -112 feet high, is literally buried in foam and spray to the very -top during ground-swells, even when there is no wind. On the -20th November, 1827, the spray rose to the height of 117 feet -above the foundation or low-water mark, which, deducting -eleven feet for the tide that day, leaves 106 feet for the height -of the wave. The strength of that remarkable edifice may be -estimated from the fact, that the power of such a giant billow -is equivalent to a pressure of three tons per square foot.</p> - -<p>In the Shetland Islands, which are continually exposed to the -full fury of the Atlantic surge (for no land intervenes between -their western shores and America), every year witnesses the -removal of huge blocks of stone from their native beds by the -terrific action of the waves. "In the winter of 1802," says -Dr. Hibbert, in his description of that northern archipelago, "a -tabular-shaped mass, eight feet two inches by seven feet, was -dislodged from its bed and removed to a distance of from -eighty to ninety feet. I measured the recent bed from which a -block had been carried away the preceding winter (<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1818), -and found it to be seventeen feet and a half by seven feet, and -the depth two feet eight inches. The removed mass had been -borne to a distance of thirty feet, when it was shivered into -thirteen or more lesser fragments, some of which were carried -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">« 29 »</a></span> -still farther from 30 to 120 feet. A block nine feet two inches -by six feet and a half, and four feet thick, was hurried up the -acclivity to a distance of 150 feet."</p> - -<p>The great storm of 1824, which carried away part of the -breakwater at Plymouth, lifted huge masses of rock, from two -to five tons in weight, from the bottom of the weatherside and -rolled them fairly to the top of the pile. One block of limestone -weighing seven tons was washed round the western extremity -of the breakwater, and swept to a distance of 150 feet. -In 1807, during the erection of the Bell Rock lighthouse, six -large blocks of granite which had been landed on the reef were -removed by the force of the sea and thrown over a rising -ledge to the distance of twelve or fifteen paces, and an anchor -weighing about twenty-two hundredweight was cast upon the -surface of the rock.</p> - -<p>With such examples before our eyes, we cannot wonder that -in the course of centuries all shores exposed to the full shock -of the waves, lashing against them with every returning tide, -should gradually be wasted and worn away. One kind of stone -stands the brunt of the elements longer than another, but -ultimately even the hardest rock must yield to the rage of the -billows, which when provoked by wintry gales, batter against -them with all the force of artillery.</p> - -<p>Thus, all along our coasts we find innumerable instances of -their destructive power. Tynemouth Castle now overhangs the -sea, although formerly separated from it by a strip of land, and -in the old maps of Yorkshire we find spots, now sand-banks in -the sea, marked as the ancient sites of the towns and villages -of Auburn, Hartburn, and Hyde. The cliffs of Norfolk and -Suffolk are subject to incessant and rapid decay. At Sherringham, -Sir Charles Lyell ascertained, in 1829, some facts which -throw light on the rate at which the sea gains upon the land. -There was then a depth of twenty feet (sufficient to float a -frigate) at one point in the harbour of that port, where only -forty-eight years ago there stood a cliff fifty feet high with -houses upon it! "If once in half a century," remarks the great -geologist, "an equal amount of change were produced suddenly -by the momentary shock of an earthquake, history would be -filled with records of such wonderful revolutions of the earth's -surface; but if the conversion of high land into deep sea be -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">« 30 »</a></span> -gradual, it excites only local attention." On the same coast, -the ancient villages of Shipden, Wimpwell, and Eccles have -disappeared, several manors and large portions of neighbouring -parishes having gradually been swallowed up; nor has -there been any intermission, from time immemorial, in the -ravages of the sea along a line of coast twenty miles in -length in which these places stood. Dunwich, once the most -considerable sea-port on the coast of Suffolk, is now but a -small village with about one hundred inhabitants. From the -time of Edward the Confessor, the ocean has devoured, piece -after piece, a monastery, seven churches, the high road, the -town-hall, the gaol, and many other buildings. In the sixteenth -century not one-fourth of the ancient town was left standing, -yet, the inhabitants retreating inland, the name has been preserved,—</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i1">"Stat magni nominis umbra,"—<br /></span> -</div></div> - -<p class="p0">as has been the case with many other ports, when their ancient -site has been blotted out.</p> - -<p>The Isle of Sheppey is subject to such rapid decay, that the -church at Minster, now near the coast, is said to have been in -the middle of the island fifty years ago, and it has been conjectured -that at the present rate of destruction, the whole isle -will be annihilated before the end of the century.</p> - -<p>Another remarkable instance of the destructive action of -the tidal surge is that of Reculver, on the Kentish coast, an -important military station in the time of the Romans, now -nothing but a ruin and a name. So late as the reign of -Henry VIII., Reculver was still a mile distant from the sea; -but, in 1780, the encroaching waves had already reached the -site of the ancient camp, the walls of which, cemented as they -were into one solid mass by the unrivalled masonry of the -Romans, continued for several years after they were undermined -to overhang the sea. In 1804, part of the churchyard -with the adjoining houses was washed away, and then the -ancient church with its two lofty spires, a well-known landmark, -was dismantled and abandoned as a place of worship.</p> - -<p>Shakspeare's Cliff at Dover has also suffered greatly from the -waves, and continually diminishes in height, the slope of the -hill being towards the land. About the year 1810, there was -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">« 31 »</a></span> -an immense landslip from this cliff, by which Dover was shaken -as if by an earthquake, and a still greater one in 1772.</p> - -<p>Thus the fame of the poet is likely to outlive for many -centuries the proud rock, the memory of which will always -be entwined with his immortal verse:—</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i1"><span style="margin-left: 9em;">"How</span> fearful,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">And dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low!<br /></span> -<span class="i2">The crows, and choughs, that wing the midway air,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Show scarce so gross as beetles: half way down<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Hangs one that gathers samphire; dreadful trade!<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Methinks, he seems no bigger than his head.<br /></span> -<span class="i2">The fishermen, that walk upon the beach,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Appear like mice; and yon tall anchoring bark,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Diminish'd to her cock; her cock, a buoy<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Almost too small for sight. The murmuring surge,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">That on th' unnumber'd idle pebbles chafes,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Cannot be heard so high."<br /></span> -</div></div> - -<p>The peninsulas of Purbeck and Portland, the cliffs of Devonshire -and Cornwall, the coasts of Pembroke and Cardigan, the -stormy Hebrides, Shetland and Orcadia, all tell similar tales of -destruction, a mere summary of which would swell into a -volume.</p> - -<p>During the most violent gales the bottom of the sea is said -by different authors to be disturbed to a depth of 300, 350, or -even 500 feet, and Sir Henry de la Bêche remarks that when -the depth is fifteen fathoms, the water is very evidently discoloured -by the action of the waves on the mud and sand of -the bottom. But in the deep caves of ocean all is tranquil, all -is still, and the most dreadful hurricanes that rage over the -surface leave those mysterious recesses undisturbed.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">« 32 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_III" id="CHAP_III">CHAP. III.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">THE TIDES.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">Description of the Phenomenon.—Devastations of Storm-Floods on Flat Coasts.—What -did the Ancients know of the Tides?—Their Fundamental Causes revealed -by Kepler and Newton.—Development of their Theory by La Place, Euler, and -Whewell.—Vortices caused by the Tides.—The Maelstrom.—Charybdis.—The -<i>Barre</i> at the mouth of the Seine.—The Euripus.</div> - - -<p>Living on the sea-coast would undoubtedly be deprived of one of -its greatest attractions, without the phenomenon of the tides, -which, although of daily recurrence, never loses the charm of -novelty, and gives constant occupation to the fancy by the life, -movement, and perpetual change it brings along with it. How -wonderful to see the sandy plain on which, but a few hours ago, -we enjoyed a delightful walk, transformed into a vast sheet of -water through which large vessels plough their way! How -agreeable to trace the margin of the rising flood, and listen to -its murmurs! Those of the rustling grove or waving cornfield -are not more melodious. And then the variety of interesting -objects which the reflux of the tide leaves behind it on the -beach—the elegantly formed shell, the feathery sertularia, the -delicate fucoid, and so many other strange or beautiful marine -productions, that may well challenge the attention of the most -listless lounger.</p> - -<p>But the spectacle of the tides is not merely pleasing to the -eye, or attractive to the imagination; it serves also to rouse the -spirit of scientific inquiry. It is indeed hardly possible to witness -their regular succession without feeling curious to know by -what causes they are produced, and when we learn that they are -governed by the attraction of distant celestial bodies, and that -their mysteries have been so completely solved by man, that he -is able to calculate their movements for months and years to -come, then indeed the pleasure and admiration we feel at their -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">« 33 »</a></span> -aspect must increase, for we cannot walk upon the beach without -being constantly reminded that all the shining worlds that -stud the heavens are linked together by one Almighty power, -and that our spirit, which has been made capable of unveiling -and comprehending so many of the secrets of creation, must -surely possess something of a divine nature!</p> - -<p>On all maritime coasts, except such as belong to mediterranean -seas not communicating freely with the ocean, the waters -are observed to be constantly changing their level. They regularly -rise during about six hours, remain stationary for a few -minutes, and then again descend during an equal period of time, -when after having fallen to the lowest ebb, they are shortly -after seen to rise again, and so on in regular and endless succession. -In this manner twelve hours twenty-four minutes elapse -on an average from one flood to another, so that the sea twice -rises and falls in the course of a day, or rather twice during the -time from one passage of the moon through the meridian to the -next, a period equivalent on an average to 1-35/1000 day, or nearly -twenty-five hours. Thus the tides retard from one day to -another; least at new and full moon, when our more active satellite -accomplishes her apparent diurnal motion round the earth -in twenty-four hours, thirty-seven minutes; and most at half-moon, -when, sailing more leisurely through the skies, she takes -full twenty-five hours and twenty-seven minutes to perform her -daily journey.</p> - -<p>As the retarding of the tides regularly corresponds with the -retarding of the moon, they always return at the same hour -after the lapse of fourteen days, so that at the end of each of -her monthly revolutions, the moon always finds them in the -same position. The knowledge of this fact is extremely useful -to navigators, as it is easy to calculate the time of any tide in a -port by knowing when it is high-water on the days of new and -full moon.</p> - -<p>The height of the tides in the same place is as unequal and -changing as the period of their intervals, and is equally dependent -on the phases of the moon, increasing with her growth, and -diminishing with her decrease. New and full moon always -cause a higher rising of the flood (spring-tide), followed by a -deeper ebb, while at half-moon the change of level is much less -considerable (neap-tide). Thus in Plymouth, for instance, the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">« 34 »</a></span> -neap-tides are only twelve feet high, while the ordinary spring-tides -rise to more than twenty feet.</p> - -<p>The highest tides take place during the equinoxes; and -eclipses of the sun and moon are also invariably accompanied -by considerable floods, a circumstance which cannot fail to add -to the terror of the ignorant and superstitious when a mysterious -obscurity suddenly veils the great luminaries of the sky. It -has also been remarked that the tides are stronger or weaker, -according as the moon is at a greater or smaller distance from -the earth.</p> - -<p>Thus as the height of the floods is always regulated by the -relative position of the sun and moon, and the movements of -these heavenly bodies can be calculated a long time beforehand, -our nautical calendars are able to tell us the days when the -highest spring-tides may be expected.</p> - -<p>This however can only be foretold to a certain extent, as the -tidal height not only depends upon the attraction of the heavenly -bodies, but also upon the casual influences of the wind, which -defies all calculation, and of the pressure of the air. Thus Mr. -Walker observed on the coasts of Cornwall and Devonshire that -when the barometer falls an inch, the level of the sea rises -sixteen inches higher than would otherwise have been the case.</p> - -<p>When a strong and continuous wind blows in an opposite -direction to the tide-wave, and at the same time the barometer -is high, the curious spectators will therefore be deceived in their -expectations, however promising the position of the attracting -luminaries may be; while an ordinary spring-tide, favoured by -a low state of the barometer and chased by a violent storm -against the coast, may attain more than double the usual -height. When all favourable circumstances combine, an event -which fortunately but rarely occurs, those dreadful <i>storm-tides</i> -take place, as menacing to the flat coasts of the Netherlands as -an eruption of Etna to the towns and hamlets scattered along -its base, for here also a vast elementary power is let loose -which bids defiance to human weakness. It is then that the -rebel sea affords a spectacle of appalling magnificence. The -whole surface seethes and boils in endless confusion. Gigantic -waves rear their monstrous heads like mighty Titans, and hurl -their whole colossal power against the dunes and dykes, as if, -impelled by a wild lust of conquest, they were burning to devour -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">« 35 »</a></span> -the rich alluvial plains which once belonged to their domain. -Far inland, the terrified peasant hears the roar of the tumultuous -waters, and well may he tremble when the mountain-waves -come thundering against the artificial barriers, that separate his -fields from the raging floods, for the annals of his country relate -many sad examples of their fury, and tell him that numerous -villages and extensive meads, once flourishing and fertile, now -lie buried fathom-deep under the waters of the sea.</p> - -<p>Thus, on the first of November, 1170, the storm-flood, bursting -through the dykes, submerged all the land between the Texel, -Medenblik, and Stavoren, formed the island of Wieringen, and -enlarged the openings by which the Zuiderzee communicated -with the ocean. The inundations of 1232 and 1242 caused, each -of them, the death of more than 100,000 persons, and that of -1287 swept away more than 80,000 victims in Friesland alone. -The irruption of 1395 considerably widened the channels between -the Flie and the Texel, and allowed large vessels to sail as far -as Amsterdam and Enkhuizen, which had not been the case -before. Whilst reading these accounts, we are led to compare -the inhabitants of the Dutch lowlands with those of the fertile -fields and vineyards that clothe the sides of Vesuvius: both -exposed to sudden and irretrievable ruin from the rage of -two different elements, and yet both contented and careless -of the future; the first behind the dykes that have often given -way to the ocean, the latter on the very brink of a menacing -volcano.</p> - -<p>The tides which sometimes cause such dreadful devastations -on the shores of the North Sea are, as is well known, inconsiderable, -or even hardly perceptible in the Mediterranean, and -thus many years passed ere the Greeks and Romans first witnessed -the grand phenomenon. The Phœnicians, the merchant -princes of antiquity, who at a very early period of history -visited the isolated Britons,—</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">"Penitus toto divisos orbe Britannos,"—<br /></span> -</div></div> - -<p>and sailed far away into the Indian Ocean, were of course well -acquainted with it; but it first became known to the Greeks -through the voyage of Colæus, a mariner of Samos, who, according -to Herodotus, was driven by a storm through the Straits of -Hercules into the wide Atlantic 600 years before Christ. About -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">« 36 »</a></span> -seventy years after this involuntary discovery, the Phoceans of -Massilia, or Marseilles, first ventured to follow on the track of -Colæus for the purpose of trading with Tartessus, the present -Cadiz; and from that time remained in constant commercial -intercourse with that ancient Phœnician colony.</p> - -<p>With what eager attention may their countrymen have -listened to the wondrous tale of the alternate rising and sinking -of the ocean! Such must have been the astonishment of our -forefathers when the first Arctic voyagers told them of the -floating icebergs, and of the perpetually circling sun of the -high northern summer.</p> - -<p>Thus the tides became known to the Massilians about five -centuries before Christ, but in those times of limited international -intercourse, knowledge travelled but slowly from place to -place; so that it was not before the conquests of Alexander, -which first opened the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf to Grecian -trade, that the great marine phenomenon began to attract the -general attention of philosophers and naturalists.</p> - -<p>The flux and reflux of the sea is evidently so closely connected -with the movements and changes of the moon, that the intimate -relations between both could not possibly escape the penetrating -sagacity of the Greeks. Thus we read in Plutarch, that Pytheas -of Marseilles, the great traveller who sailed to the north as far as -the Ultima Thule, and lived in the times of Alexander the Great, -ascribed to the moon an influence over the tides. Aristotle expressed -the same opinion, and Cæsar says positively (Commentaries, -<i>De Bel. Gal.</i> book iv. 29,) that the full-moon causes -the tides of the ocean to swell to their utmost height. Strabo -distinguishes a three-fold periodicity of the tides according to -the daily, monthly, and annual position of the moon, and Pliny -expresses himself still more to the point, by saying that the -waters move as if obeying the thirsty orb which causes them -to follow its course.</p> - -<p>This vague notion of obedience or servitude was first raised -by Kepler to the clear and well defined idea of an attractive -power. According to this great and self-taught genius, all -bodies strive to unite in proportion to their masses. "The earth -and moon would mutually approach and meet together at a -point, so much nearer to the earth as her mass is superior to -that of the moon, if their motion did not prevent it. The moon -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">« 37 »</a></span> -attracts the ocean, and thus tides arise in the larger seas. If -the earth ceased to attract the waters, they would rise and flow -up to the moon."</p> - -<p>The general notion of a mutual attraction, however, did no -more than point out the way for the solution of the problem, -and it was reserved to our great Newton to accomplish the -prophecy of his great predecessor, "that the discovery of the true -laws of gravitation would be accomplished in a future generation, -when it should please the Almighty Creator of nature to reveal -her mysteries to man."</p> - -<p>Newton was the first who proved that the tide-generating -power of a celestial body arises from the difference of the attraction -it exerts on the centre and the surface of the earth. -Thus it was at once made clear how the water not only rises on -the surface facing the moon, but also on the opposite side of the -earth, as in the latter case the moon acts more strongly on the -mass of the earth than on the waters which cover the hemisphere -most distant from her. The evident consequence is that the -earth <i>sinks</i> (so to say), on the surface turned from the moon, -whereby a deepening of the waters, or, in other words, a rising of -the tide, is occasioned.</p> - -<p>It now also became clear how the moon, whose attractive -power upon the earth is 160 times smaller than that of the -sun, is yet able to occasion a stronger tide, since, from her -proximity to the earth, she attracts the surface more forcibly -than the centre with the thirtieth part of her power, while the -distant sun occasions a difference of attraction on these two -points equal only to one twelve-thousandth part of her attractive -force.</p> - -<p>Now also a full explanation was first given why the highest -tides take place at new and full moon: that is, when the moon -stands between the sun and the earth; or the latter between the -sun and the moon; as then the two celestial bodies unite their -powers; while at half-moon the solar tide corresponding with -the lunar ebb, or the lunar tide with the solar ebb, counteract -each other.</p> - -<p>But even Newton explained the true theory of the tides only -in its more prominent and general features, and the labours of -other mathematicians, such as MacLaurin, Bernoulli, Euler, -La Place, and Whewell, were required for its further development, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">« 38 »</a></span> -so as fully to explain all the particulars of the sublime phenomenon.</p> - -<p>The reproach has often been made to science, that she -banishes poetry from nature, and disenchants the forest and -the field; but this surely is not the case in the present instance, -for what poetical fiction can fill the soul with a grander image -than that of the eternal restlessly-progressing tide-wave, which, -following the triumphant march of the sun and moon, began as -soon as the primeval ocean was formed, and shall last uninterruptedly -as long as our solar system exists!</p> - -<p>Were the whole earth covered with one sea of equal depth, -the tides would regularly move onwards from east to west, and -everywhere attain the same height under the same latitude. -But the direction and the force of the tide-wave are modified by -many obstacles on its way, such as coast-lines and groups of -islands, and it has to traverse seas of very unequal depth and -form. Flat coasts impede its current by friction, while it rolls -faster along deep mural coasts. From all these causes the -strength of the tides is very unequal in different places.</p> - -<p>They are generally low on the wide and open ocean. Thus -the highest tides at Otaheiti do not exceed eleven inches, three -feet at St. Helena, one foot and a half at Porto Rico.</p> - -<p>But when considerable obstructions oppose the progress of the -tide-waves, such as vast promontories, long and narrow channels, -or bays of diminishing width, and mouths of rivers directly facing -its swell, it rises to a very great height. Thus, at the bottom of -Fundy Bay, which stretches its long arm between Nova Scotia -and New Brunswick, the spring-tides rise to sixty, seventy, or -even one hundred feet, while at its entrance they do not exceed -nine feet, and their swell is so rapid as frequently to sweep -away cattle feeding on the shore.</p> - -<p>The Bristol Channel and the bay of St. Malo in Brittany, are -also renowned for their high tides. Near Chepstow, the flux -is said sometimes to reach the surprising height of seventy feet, -and at St. Malo the floods frequently rise to forty and fifty feet. -When the water is low, this small sea-port town appears surrounded -on all sides by fantastically shaped cliffs covered with sea-weeds -and barnacles. Pools of salt water interspersed here and -there among the hollowed stones, or on the even ground between -them, and harbouring many curious varieties of marine animals, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">« 39 »</a></span> -are the only visible signs of the vicinity of the ocean, whose hoarse -murmurs are heard resounding from afar. But an astonishing -change takes place a few hours after, when the town, surrounded -by the sea, would be a complete island, but for a long, narrow -causeway called "<i>the Sillon</i>," which connects it with the mainland. -On the side fronting the open sea, the tide breaks with -tremendous rage against the strong buttresses that have been -raised to oppose its fury, rises foamingly to a height of thirty or -forty feet, and threatens the tardy wanderer as he loiters on the -narrow causeway. The cliffs that erewhile were seen to surround -the town are now hidden under the waters, some few -excepted, that raise their rugged heads like minute islands above -the circumambient floods. The opposite side of the causeway -is also washed by the sea: but here its motions are less -tumultuous, for after having broken against numberless rocks and -made a vast circuit, it scarce retains a vestige of its primitive -strength. On this side lies the vast, but deserted harbour of -St. Malo, completely dry at ebb-tide; a wide sea during the -flood.</p> - -<p>Two eminent French authors, Chateaubriand and Lamennais, -were born at St. Malo, and there can be no doubt that the -imposing spectacle I have briefly described must have greatly -contributed to the widening of their intellectual horizon. Daily -witnesses from their early childhood of one of the grandest phenomena -of nature in all its wild sublimity, the boundless and -the infinite soon grew familiar to their mind, enriching it with -splendid imagery and bold conceptions.</p> - -<p>Although the sun and the moon exert some attraction upon -the smaller and inclosed seas, yet the development of a powerful -flood-wave necessarily requires that the moon should act -upon a sufficiently wide and deep expanse of ocean. Even the -Atlantic is not broad enough for this purpose, as its equatorial -width measures no more than one eighth of the earth's circumference: -and the Pacific itself, notwithstanding its vast area, is -so studded with islands and shallows, that it presents a much -more obstructed basin for the action of the tide-wave than -might be expected, from its apparent dimensions and equatorial -position.</p> - -<p>Thus it is in the Southern Ocean, where the greatest uninterrupted -surface of deep water is exposed to the influence -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">« 40 »</a></span> -of the moon, that we must look for the "<i>chief cradle of the -tides</i>." From this starting point they flow on all sides to the -northward, progressing like any other wave that arises on a -small scale in a pond from a gust of wind, the throwing of -a stone, or any other cause capable of producing an undulating -movement on the surface of the waters.</p> - -<p>The tide-wave, which ultimately reaches our shores, arrives -at the Cape of Good Hope thirteen hours after it has left -Van Diemen's Land, and thence rolls onward in fourteen or -fifteen hours to the coasts of Spain, France, and Ireland. It -penetrates into the North Sea by two different ways. One of -its ramifications turns round Scotland and thence flows onwards -to the south, taking nineteen or twenty hours for the passage -from Galway to the mouth of the Thames. A tide-wave, for -instance, which appears at five in the afternoon on the west -coast of Ireland, arrives at eight near the Shetland Islands, -reaches Aberdeen at midnight, Hull at five in the morning, and -Margate at noon.</p> - -<p>The other ramification of the same tide-wave, taking the -shorter route through the Channel, had meanwhile preceded -it by twelve hours, having reached Brest about five o'clock of -the afternoon (at the same time that the northern branch -appeared at Galway), Cherbourg at seven, Brighton at nine, -Calais at eleven, and the mouth of the Thames at midnight.</p> - -<p>Thus, in this southern corner of the North Sea, two tide-waves -unite that belong to two successive floods; the Scotch -branch having started twelve hours sooner from the great -Southern Ocean than the Channel branch, which thus results -from the next following tide. The meeting of the two branches -naturally gives rise to a more considerable rising of the waters, -so that this circumstance, by allowing large ships to sail up -the Thames, may be considered as one of the fundamental -causes of the grandeur of London.</p> - -<p>In other parts of the North Sea, where the two tide-waves -appear at different times, the contrary takes place, for the -ebb of the one coinciding with the rising of the other, they -naturally weaken or even neutralise each other. This occasions -the low tides on the coast of Jutland, in Denmark, where they -are scarcely higher than in the Mediterranean, and explains -the otherwise startling fact of there being a space in the North -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">« 41 »</a></span> -Sea where no periodical rise and fall of the waters whatsoever -takes place.</p> - -<p>Thus we see that the relations of the tides in the North Sea, -with regard to height and time, are of a somewhat complicated -nature, which could only be explained after the numerous -observations (amounting to more than 40,000) made by order -of the British Government in all parts of the world, under -the direction of Professor Whewell, had proved that all the -floods of the seas chiefly proceed from the great tide-wave of -the Southern Ocean, which, by its numerous ramifications in -narrow seas or through groups of islands and by the unequal -rapidity of its progress, according to the depth or shallowness -of the waters it traverses, occasions all the seeming anomalies -which were quite inexplicable by the simple Newtonian theory.</p> - -<p>As every twelve hours a new tidal-wave originates in the -Southern Ocean which regularly follows in the same track as -its predecessor, the tides everywhere succeed each other in -regular and equal periods, and can thus everywhere be calculated -beforehand.</p> - -<p>In narrow straits or in the intricate channels which wind -through clusters of islands, different tidal-waves meeting from -opposite directions give rise to more or less dangerous whirlpools. -One of the most famous of these vortices, though inconsiderable -in itself, is the renowned Charybdis, which gave so -much trouble to Ulysses on his passing through the strait -which separates Sicily from Italy, but is at present an object -of fear scarcely even to the poor fisherman's boat.</p> - -<p>A much grander whirlpool, owing its celebrity, not to the -fictions of poetry, but to the magnificent scale on which it has -been constructed by nature, is the renowned Maelstrom, situated -on the Norwegian coast in 68° N. lat., and near the island of -Moskoe, from whence it also takes the name of Moskoestrom. -It is four geographical miles in diameter, and in tempestuous -weather its roar, like that of Niagara, is said to be heard several -miles off. John Ramus gives us a terrible description of its -fury, and mentions that in the year 1645 it raged with such -noise and impetuosity, that on the island of Moskoe, the very -stones of the houses fell to the ground. He tells us also that -whales frequently come too near the stream, and, notwithstanding -their giant strength, are overpowered by its violence, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">« 42 »</a></span> -but, unfortunately adds, that it is impossible to describe their -howlings and bellowings in their fruitless struggles to disengage -themselves—impossible, no doubt, as whales happen to -have no voice at all!</p> - -<p>According to more modern travellers, such as the celebrated -geologist Leopold von Buch, the Maelstrom is far from being -so terrible as depicted by Ramus and other friends of the -marvellous; so that, except during storms and spring-tides, -large ships may constantly cross it without danger. The -Norwegian fishermen are even said frequently to assemble on -the field of the Maelstrom on account of the great abundance -of fishes congregating in those troubled waters, and fearlessly -to pursue their avocations, while the whirlpool moves their -boats in a circular direction.</p> - -<p>Sir Robert Sibbald describes a very remarkable marine whirlpool -among the Orkney islands, which would prove dangerous -to strangers, though it is of no consequence to the people who -are used to it. It is not fixed to any particular place, but arises -in various parts of the limits of the sea among these islands. -Wherever it appears, it is very furious, and boats would inevitably -be drawn in and perish with it, but the people who -navigate them are prepared for it and always carry a bundle of -straw or some such matter in the boat with them. This they -fling into the vortex which immediately swallows it up, and, -seemingly pleased with this propitiatory offering, subsides into -smoothness, but soon after re-appears in another place.</p> - -<p>A remarkable and sudden rising of the spring-tide takes -place at the mouth of several rivers, for instance, the Indus -(where the surprising phenomenon nearly caused the destruction -of the fleet of Alexander the Great), the Hooghly, the Dordogne, -&c. In the Seine it is observed on a scale of great magnitude. -While the tide gradually rises near Havre and Harfleur, a giant -wave is suddenly seen to surge near Quillebœuf, spanning the -whole width of the river (from 30,000 to 36,000 feet). After -this mighty billow has struck against the quay of Quillebœuf, -it enters a more narrow bed and flows stream-upwards with -the rapidity of a race horse, overflowing the banks on both -sides, and not seldom causing considerable loss of property by -its unexpected appearance. The astonishment it causes is increased -when it takes place during serene weather, and without -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">« 43 »</a></span> -any signs of wind or storm. A deafening noise announces and -accompanies this sudden swelling of the waters, which owes its -first origin to the silent action of gravitation, and is the result -of the diminishing velocity of the tide-wave over a shallow -bottom.</p> - -<p>While the tide-wave advances over the deep and open seas -with an astonishing rapidity, its progress up the channel of a -river is comparatively very slow, partly on account of the reason -just mentioned, and partly from its meeting a current flowing -in an opposite direction.</p> - -<p>Thus, the tide takes no less than twelve hours for its progress -from the mouth of the Thames to London, about the time it -requires to travel all the way from Van Diemen's Land to -the Cape of Good Hope. Consequently, when it is high-water -at the mouth of the Thames at three o'clock in the afternoon, -for instance, we have not high-water at London Bridge before -three o'clock in the following morning, when it is again high -water at the Nore. But, in the mean time, there has been low -water at the Nore and high water about half-way to London, -and while the high water is proceeding to London, it is ebbing -at the intermediate places, and is low water there when it is -high water at London and at the Nore. If the tide extended -as far beyond London as London is from the Nore, we should -have three high waters with two low waters interposed. The -most remarkable instance of this kind is afforded by the gigantic -river of the Amazons, as it appears by the observations -of Condamine and others, that, between Para, at the mouth of -the colossal stream, and the conflux of the Madera and Marañon, -there are no less than seven simultaneous high waters with six -low waters between them. Thus, four days after the tide-wave -was first raised in the Southern Ocean, its last undulations -expire deep in the bosom of the South American wilds.</p> - -<p>The Mediterranean is generally supposed to be tideless, but -this opinion is erroneous; and in the Adriatic, the flux of the -sea is far from being inconsiderable, for, at Venice, the difference -between high and low water is sometimes no less than -six or even nine feet. Mr. W. Trevelyan, during a summer -residence in the old port of Antium, on the Roman coast, found -from a series of accurate observations, that the tides regularly -succeed each other and attain a height of fourteen inches. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">« 44 »</a></span> -In the eastern Mediterranean new measurements have proved -that they are still more considerable, while in the western part -of that inclosed sea they are almost imperceptible.</p> - -<p>The differences of level caused by the Mediterranean tides, -are indeed too inconsiderable to attract the general notice of the -inhabitants on the coast, but in the famed Euripus, the narrow -channel which separates the island of Eubœa or Negropont from -continental Greece, the tide produces the striking phenomenon -of very irregular fluctuations of the waters, from one end of the -channel to the other.</p> - -<p>This phenomenon was of course completely inexplicable to -the ancient philosophers, and Aristotle is even said to have -drowned himself in the Euripus in a fit of despair, since, with -all his prodigious sagacity, he could not possibly solve the -mystery. For us, who know that peculiar formations of the -sea-bed and coasts are capable of considerably augmenting the -force of the floods, and that tidal waves rushing into a narrow -channel in opposite directions, and at different times, must -necessarily produce irregular fluctuations of the waters, the -phenomenon of the Euripus has ceased to be a mystery.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">« 45 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_IV" id="CHAP_IV">CHAP. IV.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">MARINE CAVES.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">Effects of the Sea on Rocky Shores.—Fingal's Cave.—Beautiful Lines of Sir -Walter Scott.—The Antro di Nettuno.—The Cave of Hunga.—Legend of its -Discovery.—Marine Fountains.—The Skerries.—The Souffleur in Mauritius.—The -Buffadero on the Mexican Coast.</div> - - -<p>Whoever has only observed the swelling of the tide on the flat -coasts of the North Sea, has but a faint idea of the Titanic -power which it develops on the rocky shores of the wide ocean. -Even in fair weather, the growing flood, oscillating over the -boundless expanse of waters, rises in tremendous breakers, so -that it is impossible to behold their fury without feeling a conviction -that the hardest rock must ultimately be ground to -atoms by such irresistible forces.</p> - -<p>Day after day, year after year, they renew their fierce attacks, -and as in the high Alpine valleys the tumultuous torrents rushing -from the glaciers tear deep furrows in the flanks of the -mountains, thus it is here the sea which stamps the seal of its -might on the vanquished rocks, corrodes them into fantastic -shapes, scoops out wide portals in their projecting promontories, -and hollows out deep caverns in their bosoms.</p> - -<p>Here, also, water appears as the beautifying element, decorating -inanimate nature with picturesque forms, and the sea -nowhere exhibits more romantic scenes than on the rocky shores -against which her waves have been beating for many a millennium. -How manifold the shapes into which the rocky shores -are worn! how numberless the changes which each varying -season, nay, every hour of the day with its constant alternations -of ebb and flood, of cloud and sunshine, of storm or calm, -produces in their physiognomy! Our coasts abound in beauties -such as these; but pre-eminent above all other specimens of -Ocean's fantastic architecture is Fingal's Cave, which may well -challenge the world to show its equal.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">« 46 »</a></span></p> - -<p>From afar, the small island of Staffa, rising precipitously from -the sea, seems destitute of all romantic interest, but on approaching, -the traveller is struck with the remarkable basaltic -columns of which it is chiefly composed. Most of them rest -upon a substratum of solid shapeless rock, and generally form -colonnades upwards of fifty feet high, following the contours of -the inlets or promontories, and overtopped with smaller hillocks. -Along the west coast of the island they are tolerably irregular, -but on the south side Staffa appears as an immense Gothic -edifice, or rather as a forest of gigantic pillars seemingly arranged -with all the regularity of art. The admiration they -cause is, however, soon effaced when the vast cave to which the -remote islet owes its world-wide celebrity bursts upon the view. -Fancy a grotto measuring 250 feet in length by 53 in width at -the entrance, and spanned by an arch 117 feet high, which, -though gradually sloping towards the interior, still maintains a -height of 70 feet at the farthest end of the cavern! The walls -consist of rows of huge hexagonal basaltic pillars, which seem -regularly to diminish according to the rules of perspective. -The roof of the vault is formed of the remnants of similar -columns, whose shafts have beyond a doubt been torn away by -the sea, which, destroying them one after the other, has gradually -excavated this magnificent temple of Nature. All their -interstices, like those of the pillars, are cemented with a kind of -pale yellow spar, which brings out all the angles and sides of -their surfaces, and forms a pleasing contrast with the dark -purple colour of the basalt.</p> - -<p>The whole floor of the cave is occupied by the sea, the depth -of which, even at its farthest end, is above six feet, during ebb-tide; -but it is only in perfectly calm weather that a boat is able -to venture into the interior, for when the sea is any way turbulent -(and this is generally the case among the stormy Hebrides) -it is in danger of being hurled against the walls of the grot and -dashed to pieces. Under these circumstances, the only access -into the cave is by a narrow dyke or ledge running along its -eastern wall, about fifteen feet above the water. It is formed of -truncated basaltic pillars, over which it is necessary to clamber -with great caution and dexterity, as they are always moist and -slippery from the dashing spray. Frequently there is only -room enough for one foot, and while the left hand grasps that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">« 47 »</a></span> -of the guide, it is necessary to hold fast with the right to a -pillar of the wall. As this difficult path is most dangerous in -the darkest part of the cave, but few tourists are bold enough -to trust themselves to it, for the least false step must infallibly -precipitate the adventurous explorer into the seething caldron -below. Sometimes a cormorant, fearless of any accident of this -kind, has built his nest upon the top of one of the truncated -pillars, which form the pavement of the pathway, and betrays -by a peevish hissing his ill humour at being disturbed in his -solitary retreat by the intrusion of man.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 509px;"> -<img src="images/047.png" width="509" height="516" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fingal's Cave.</div> -</div> - -<p>The narrow path ultimately widens into a more roomy and -slanting space formed of the remains of more than a thousand -perpendicular truncated shafts. The back wall consists of a -range of unequally sized pillars, arranged somewhat like the -tubes of an organ. When the waves rush with tumultuous fury -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">« 48 »</a></span> -into the cave and dash their flakes of snow-white foam against -its wall, it seems as if the gigantic instrument, touched by an -invisible hand, were loudly singing the triumphs of ocean.</p> - -<p>Among the beauties of this matchless cave, the clear light -must not be forgotten, which, penetrating through the wide -portal, produces an agreeable chiaro-oscuro even at its farthest -end, so that the eye is able to seize at one glance the full -majesty of the splendid hall; nor the pure air which, constantly -renewed by the perpetual alternations of the tides, is very -different from the chilly dampness which generally reigns in -subterranean caverns.</p> - -<p>When we consider the resemblance which from its regularity -this magnificent work of nature bears to a production of human -art, we cannot wonder at its having been ascribed to mortal -architecture. But as men of ordinary stature seemed too weak -for so colossal an enterprise, it was attributed to a race of -giants, who constructed it for their chief and leader, Fingal, -so renowned in Gaelic mythology. This belief still lingers -among the primitive people of the neighbourhood, though -some, being averse to pagan Goliahs, ascribe its workmanship -to St. Columban.</p> - -<p>The patriotic muse of Walter Scott, who visited the cave in -1810, rises to more than ordinary warmth while describing</p> - -<div class="poem" style="width:400px;"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2" style="margin-left: 9em;">"That wondrous dome,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Where, as to shame the temples deck'd<br /></span> -<span class="i2">By skill of earthly architect,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Nature herself, it seemed, would raise<br /></span> -<span class="i2">A minster to her Maker's praise!<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Not for a meaner use ascend<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Her columns, or her arches bend;<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Nor of a theme less solemn, tells<br /></span> -<span class="i2">That mighty surge that ebbs and swells,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">And still between each awful pause<br /></span> -<span class="i2">From the high vault an answer draws<br /></span> -<span class="i2">In varied tones, prolonged and high,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">That mocks the organ's melody.<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Nor doth its entrance front in vain<br /></span> -<span class="i2">To old Iona's holy fane,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">That Nature's voice might seem to say,<br /></span> -<span class="i1">'Well hast thou done, frail child of clay,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Thy humble powers that stately shrine<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Task'd high and hard—but witness mine!'"<br /></span> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"><i>Lord of the Isles</i>, canto iv. stanza 10.<br /></p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">« 49 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The Mediterranean has likewise its marine grottoes of world-wide -celebrity, its azure cave of Capri,<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a> which I have previously -described, and its Antro di Nettuno, in the island of Sardinia, -about twelve miles from the small sea-port of Alghero. Unfortunately -this superb grotto is very difficult of access, for any wind -between the north-west and the south prevents an entry, so that -the Algherese assert that 300 out of the 365 days it is impossible -to enter it. The first vaulted cavern, forming an antechamber -about thirty feet high, has no peculiar beauty, but on crossing a -second cavern, in which are about twenty feet of beautifully clear -water, and then turning to the left, one finds oneself in an -intricate navigation among stalactites with surrounding walls -and passages of stalagmites of considerable height. Having -passed them and proceeding westerly, one reaches another -cavern with a natural column in its centre, the shaft and capital -of which, supporting the immense and beautifully fretted roof, -reminds one of those in the chapter-house of the cathedral at -Wells, and the staircase of the hall at Christ Church, Oxford. -It stands, the growing monument of centuries, in all its massive -and elegant simplicity with comparatively speaking few other -stalagmites to destroy the effects of its noble solitude. In -parts of the grotto are corridors and galleries, some 300 and -400 feet long, reminding one of the Moorish architecture of the -Alhambra. One of them terminates abruptly in a deep cavern -into which it is impossible to descend; but among many other -interesting objects is a small chamber the access to which is -through a very narrow aperture. After climbing and scrambling -through it, one finds oneself in a room the ceiling of -which is entirely covered with delicate stalactites, and the sides -with fretted open work, so fantastical that one might almost -imagine that it was a boudoir of the Oceanides, where they -amused themselves with making lime lace. Some of the -columns in different parts of the grotto are from seventy to -eighty feet in circumference, and the masses of drapery drooping -in exquisite elegance are of equally grand proportions.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> Chap. i. <a href="#Page_18">p. 18</a>.</p></div> - -<p>If a rare chance was required to discover the narrow opening -in the cliffs of Capri, behind which one of the loveliest spectacles -of nature lies concealed, we well may wonder how the -famous cave of Hunga in the Tonga Archipelago ever became -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">« 50 »</a></span> -known, as its entrance even at low water is completely hidden -under the surface of the sea. Mariner, to whom we owe our -first knowledge of this wonderful play of nature, relates that -while he was one day <i>rat-hunting</i><a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[E]</a> in the island of Hunga with -king Finow, who at that time reigned over Tonga, the barbarian -monarch took a fancy to drink his <i>kawa</i><a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[F]</a> in the cave. Mariner, -who had absented himself for a few moments from the company, -was very much astonished when, returning to the strand, he saw -one chieftain after another dive and disappear. He had but -just time to ask the last of them what they were about. -"Follow me," answered the chieftain, "and I will show thee a -place where thou hast never been before, and where Finow and -his chieftains are at present assembled." Mariner immediately -guessed that this must be the celebrated cave of which he had -frequently heard, and, anxious to see it, he immediately followed -the diving chieftain, and swimming close after him under the -water, safely reached the opening in the rock through which he -emerged into the cave. On ascending to the surface, he immediately -heard the voices of the company, and still following his -guide, climbed upon a projecting ledge on which he sat down. -All the light of the cave was reflected from the sea beneath, -but yet it was sufficient, as soon as the eye had become accustomed -to the twilight, to distinguish the surrounding objects. -A clearer light being, however, desirable, Mariner once more -dived, swam to the strand, fetched his pistol, poured a good -quantity of powder on the pan, wrapped it carefully up in tapa-cloth -and leaves, and, providing himself with a torch, returned -as quickly as possible to the cave. Here he removed the cloth, -a great part of which was still quite dry, and igniting it by the -flame of the powder made use of it to light his torch. This -was probably the very first time since its creation that the cave -had ever been illumined by artificial light. Its chief compartment, -which on one side branched out into two smaller cavities, -seemed to be about forty feet wide and the mean height above -the water amounted to as much. The roof was ornamented in -a remarkable manner by stalactites resembling the arches and -fantastic ornaments of a Gothic hall. According to a popular -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">« 51 »</a></span> -tradition, the chieftain who first discovered this remarkable cave -while diving after a turtle, used it subsequently as a place of -refuge for his mistress to screen her from the persecutions of -the reigning despot. The sea faithfully guarded his secret: -after a few weeks of seclusion, he fled with his beloved to the -Feejee Islands, and on his returning to his native home after -the death of the tyrant, his countrymen heard with astonishment -of the wonderful asylum that had been revealed to him -by the beneficent sea-gods. Lord Byron adopted this graceful -tale as the subject of his poem "The Island, or Christian and -his Comrades," and has thus described the cave, no doubt -largely adorning it from the stores of his brilliant fancy:</p> - -<div class="poem" style="width:400px;"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i1">"Around she pointed to a spacious cave,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Whose only portal was the keyless wave<br /></span> -<span class="i2">(A hollow archway, by the sun unseen,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Save through the billows' glassy veil of green,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">On some transparent ocean holiday,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">When all the finny people are at play).<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2" style="margin-left: 9em;">"Wide it was and high;<br /></span> -<span class="i2">And showed a self-born Gothic canopy.<br /></span> -<span class="i2">The arch upreared by Nature's architect,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">The architrave some earthquake might erect;<br /></span> -<span class="i2">The buttress from some mountain's bosom hurl'd,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">When the poles crash'd and water was the world;<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Or harden'd from some earth-absorbing fire,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">While yet the globe reek'd from its funeral pyre.<br /></span> -<span class="i2">The fretted pinnacle, the aisle, the nave,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Were there, all scoop'd by darkness from her cave.<br /></span> -<span class="i2">There, with a little tinge of fantasy,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Fantastic faces mopp'd and mow'd on high;<br /></span> -<span class="i2">And then a mitre or a shrine would fix<br /></span> -<span class="i2">The eye upon its seeming crucifix.<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Thus Nature played with the stalactites,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">And built herself a chapel of the seas."<br /></span> -</div></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> A favourite pastime of the Polynesian chiefs.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[F]</span></a> An intoxicating beverage extracted from the Piper methysticum, a species of -pepper plant.</p></div> - -<p>On many rocky shores the ocean has worn out subterraneous -channels in the cliffs against which it has been beating for ages, -and then frequently emerges in water-spouts or fountains from -the opposite end. Thus, in the Skerries, one of the Shetland -Islands, a deep chasm or inlet, which is open overhead, is continued -under ground and then again opens to the sky in the -middle of the island. When the water is high, the waves rise -up through this aperture like the blowing of a whale in noise -and appearance.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">« 52 »</a></span></p> - -<p>A similar phenomenon is exhibited on the south side of the -Mauritius, at a point called "The Souffleur," or "The Blower." -"A large mass of rock," says Lieutenant Taylor,<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[G]</a> "runs out -into the sea from the mainland, to which it is joined by a neck -of rock not two feet broad. The constant beating of the tremendous -swell, which rolls in, has undermined it in every direction, -till it has exactly the appearance of a Gothic building with -a number of arches. In the centre of the rock, which is about -thirty-five or forty feet above the sea, the water has forced two -passages vertically upwards, which are worn as smooth and -cylindrical as if cut by a chisel. When a heavy sea rolls in, -it of course fills in an instant the hollow caverns underneath, -and finding no other egress, and being borne in with tremendous -violence, it rushes up these chimneys and flies, roaring -furiously, to a height of full sixty feet. The moment the wave -recedes, the vacuum beneath causes the wind to rush into the -two apertures with a loud humming noise, which is heard at -a considerable distance. My companion and I arrived there -before high water, and, having climbed across the neck of rock, -we seated ourselves close to the chimneys, where I proposed -making a sketch, and had just begun when in came a thundering -sea, which broke right over the rock itself and drove us -back much alarmed.</p> - -<p>"Our negro guide now informed us that we must make haste -to recross our narrow bridge, as the sea would get up as the -tide rose. We lost no time and got back dry enough; and I -was obliged to make my sketches from the mainland. In about -three-quarters of an hour the sight was truly magnificent. I -do not exaggerate in the least when I say that the waves rolled -in, long and unbroken, full twenty-five feet high, till, meeting the -headland, they broke clear over it, sending the spray flying over -to the mainland; while from the centre of this mass of foam, -the Souffleur shot up with a noise, which we afterwards heard -distinctly between two and three miles. Standing on the main -cliff, more than a hundred feet above the sea, we were quite -wet. All we wanted to complete the picture was a large ship -going ashore."</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[G]</span></a> Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, vol. iii. 1833.</p></div> - -<p class="caption2"><a name="FPage_52" id="FPage_52">THE SOUFFLEUR.</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p>This plate shows the sea beating against some hollow rocks on the coast of the -Mauritius, and producing the remarkable phenomenon called "The Souffleur," or -"The Blower," water-spouts issuing from the wave-worn cavities of the cliff to a -considerable height, and with a noise distinctly audible at a distance of three -miles.</p></div> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 577px;"> -<a href="images/052fplg.png"><img src="images/052fp.png" width="577" height="390" alt="" /></a> -<div class="fig_caption">THE SOUFFLEUR ROCK, MAURITIUS.<br /> -<span class="smaller">Click on image to view larger version.</span></div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">« 53 »</a></span></p> - -<p>A similar phenomenon, on a still more grand and majestic -scale, occurs near Huatulco, a small Mexican village on the -coast of the Pacific. On sailing into the bay one hears a distant -noise, which might be taken for the spouting of a gigantic -whale, or the dying groans of a bull struck by the sharp steel -of the matador, or the rolling of thunder. Anxious to know -the cause, "It is the Buffadero," answer the boatmen, pointing -to a fantastically-shaped rock towards which they are rowing. -On approaching, a truly magnificent spectacle reveals itself; for -a colossal fountain springs from an aperture in the rock to a -height of 150 feet, and after having dissolved in myriads of gems, -returns to the foaming element which gave it birth. This -beautiful sight renews itself as often as the breakers rush -against the rock, and must be of unequalled splendour when a -tornado sweeps across the ocean and rolls its giant billows into -the hollowed bosom of the cliff.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">« 54 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_V" id="CHAP_V">CHAP. V.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">OCEAN CURRENTS.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">Causes of the Oceanic Currents.—The Equatorial Stream.—The Gulf Stream.—Its -Influence on the Climate of the West European Coasts.—The Cold Peruvian -Stream.—The Japanese Stream.</div> - - -<p>Perpetual motion and change is the grand law, to which the -whole of the created universe is subject, and immutable stability -is nowhere to be found, but in the Eternal mind that rules and -governs all things. The stars, which were supposed to be <i>fixed</i> -to the canopy of heaven, are restless wanderers through the -illimitable regions of space. The hardest rocks melt away -under the corroding influence of time, for the elements never -cease gnawing at their surface, and dislocating the atoms of -which they are composed. Our body appears to us unchanged -since yesterday, and yet how many of the particles which formed -its substance, have within these few short hours, been cast off -and replaced by others. We fancy ourselves at rest, and yet a -torrent of blood, propelled by an indefatigable heart, is constantly -flowing through all our arteries and veins.</p> - -<p>A similar external appearance of tranquillity might deceive -the superficial observer, when sailing over the vast expanse of -ocean, at a time when the winds are asleep, and its surface is -unruffled by a wave. But how great would be his error! For -every atom of the boundless sea is constantly moving and -changing its place; from the depth to the surface, or from the -surface to the depth; from the frozen pole to the burning -equator, or from the torrid zone to the arctic ocean; now rising -in the air in the form of invisible vapours, and then again descending -upon our fields in fertilising showers.</p> - -<p>The waters are, in fact, the greatest travellers on earth; they -know all the secrets of the submarine world; climb the peaks -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">« 55 »</a></span> -of inaccessible mountains, shame the flight of the condor as he -towers over the summit of the Andes, and penetrate deeper into -the bowels of the earth than the miner has ever sunk his shaft.</p> - -<p>Leaving their wanderings through the regions of air to the -next chapter, I shall now describe the principal ocean currents, -the simple, but powerful agencies by which they are set in -motion, their importance in the economy of nature, and their -influence on the climate of different countries.</p> - -<p>Even in the torrid zone, the waters of the ocean, like a false -friend, are warm merely on the surface, and of an almost icy coldness -at a considerable depth. This low temperature cannot be -owing to any refrigerating influence at the bottom of the sea, -as the internal warmth of the earth increases in proportion to its -depth, and the waters of profound lakes, in a southern climate, -never show the same degree of cold as those of the vast ocean.</p> - -<p>The phenomenon can thus only arise from a constant submarine -current of cold water from the poles to the line, and -strange as it may seem, its primary cause is to be sought for in -the <i>warming</i> rays of the <i>sun</i>, which, as we all know, distributes -heat in a very unequal manner over the surface of the globe.</p> - -<p>Heat expands all liquid bodies, and renders them lighter; -cold increases their weight by condensation. In consequence of -this physical law, the waters of the tropical seas, rendered -buoyant by the heat of a vertical sun, must necessarily rise and -spread over the surface of the ocean to the north and south, -whilst colder and heavier streams from the higher latitudes -flow towards the equator along the bottom of the ocean, to replace -them as they ascend.</p> - -<p>In this manner, the unequal action of the sun calls forth a -general and constant movement of the waters from the poles to -the equator, and from the equator to the poles; and this perpetual -migration is one of the chief causes by which their purity -is maintained. These opposite currents would necessarily flow -direct to the north or south, were they not deflected from their -course by the rotation of the earth, which gradually gives them -a westerly or easterly direction.</p> - -<p>The unequal influence of the sun in different parts of the -globe, and the rotation of the earth, are, however, not the only -causes by which the course of ocean-currents is determined.</p> - -<p>Violent storms move the waters to a considerable depth, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">« 56 »</a></span> -retard the flow of rivers, and thus it is to be expected that continuous -winds, even of moderate strength, must have a tendency -to impel the waters in the same direction.</p> - -<p>The steady trade-winds of the tropical zone, and the prevailing -westerly winds in higher latitudes, consequently unite their -influence with that of the above mentioned causes, in driving -the waters of the tropical seas to the west, and those of the -temperate zones to the east.</p> - -<p>The tides also, which on the high seas generally move from -east to west, promote the flow of the ocean in the same -direction, and thus contribute to the westerly current of the -tropical seas.</p> - -<p>Nor must we forget that the obstacles which the ocean-currents -meet on their way; such as intervening lines of coast, -sand banks, submarine ridges, or mountain chains, have a great -influence upon their course, and may even give them a diametrically -opposite direction to that which they would otherwise -have followed.</p> - -<p>Having thus briefly mentioned the origin and causes of the -currents, which intersect the seas like huge rivers, I shall now -describe such of them as are most important and interesting in -a geographical point of view.</p> - -<p>In the northern part of the Atlantic, between Europe, North -Africa, and the New World, the waters are constantly performing -a vast circular or rotatory movement. Under the tropics -they proceed like the trade-winds from east to west, assisting -the progress of the ships that sail from the Canaries to South -America, and rendering navigation in a straight line from Carthagena -de Indias to Cumana (stream upwards) next to impossible. -This westerly current receives a considerable addition -from the <i>Mozambique</i> stream, which, flowing from north to -south between Madagascar and the coast of Caffraria, proceeds -round the southern extremity of Africa, and after rapidly advancing -to the north, along the western coast of that continent, -as far as the island of St. Thomas, unites its waters with those -of the equatorial current, and continues its course right across -the Atlantic. In this manner the combined tropical streams -reach the eastern extremity of South America (Cape Roque), -where they divide into two arms. The one flowing to the south -follows the south-eastern coast, and gradually takes a south-easterly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">« 57 »</a></span> -direction, between the tropic of Capricorn and the -mouth of the La Plata river, beyond the limits of the trade-winds. -Its traces show themselves to the south-east of the Cape -of Good Hope, and are finally lost far in the Indian Ocean.</p> - -<p>The northern arm of the equatorial stream flows along the -north-eastern coast of South America; constantly raising its -temperature under the influence of a tropical sun, and progressing -with a rapidity of a hundred miles in twenty-four hours (six -feet and a half in a second), after having been joined by the -waters of the Amazon river. Thus it continues to flow to the -east, until the continent of Central America opposes an invincible -barrier to its farther progress in this direction, and -compels it to follow the windings of the coast of Costa Rica, -Mosquitos, Campeche, and Tabasco. It then performs a vast -circuit along the shores of the Mexican Gulf, and finally -emerges through the Straits of Bahama into the open ocean.</p> - -<p>Here it assumes a new name, and forms what navigators call -the <i>Gulf-stream</i>, a rapid current of tepid water, which, flowing -in a diagonal direction, recedes farther and farther from the -coast of North America as it advances to the north-east. Under -the forty-first degree of latitude it suddenly bends to the east, -gradually diminishing in swiftness, and at the same time increasing -in width.</p> - -<p>Thus it flows across the Atlantic, to the south of the great -bank of Newfoundland, where Humboldt found the temperature -of its stream several degrees higher than that of the neighbouring -and tranquil waters, which form, as it were, the banks of the -warm oceanic current. Ere it reaches the western Azores, it -divides into two arms, one of which is driven, partly by the -natural impulse of its stream, but principally by the prevailing -westerly and north-westerly winds, towards the coasts of -Europe; while the other, flowing towards the Canary Islands and -the western coast of Africa, finally returns into the equatorial -current.</p> - -<p>In this manner the waters are brought back to the point from -which they came, after having performed a vast circuit of 20,000 -miles, which it took them nearly three years to accomplish. -According to Humboldt's calculations, a boat left to the current, -and moving along without any other assistance, would require -about thirteen months to float from the Canary Islands to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">« 58 »</a></span> -Caribbean Sea as far as Caraccas. From Caraccas to the -Straits of Florida, it would remain another ten months on the -way, for though the direct distance is but short, the current has -to perform an enormous circuit of 2500 miles, and flows but -slowly in those confined seas. But the accumulated waters -having now to force their passage through the narrow channel -between Cuba and the Bahama Islands on one side, and Florida -on the other, attain so considerable a velocity, that the whole -distance from the Havannah to the Bank of Newfoundland, is -traversed in forty days. During this passage the Gulf-stream -particularly deserves its name, and is easily distinguished from -the surrounding waters by its higher temperature and its vivid -dark blue colour. Numerous marine animals of the tropical -seas,—the flying fish, the neat velella, the purple ianthina, the -crosier nautilus, accompany it to latitudes which otherwise would -prove fatal to their existence; and, trusting its tepid stream, -float or swim along to the north or the north-east.</p> - -<p>At the extremity of the Bank of Newfoundland, it becomes -broader, wavers more or less in its course, according to the -prevailing winds, and at the same time decreases in rapidity, so -that the boat would most likely still require from ten to eleven -months for this last station of its journey, ere it once more -reached the Canary Islands.</p> - -<p>The direction of the Gulf-stream explains to us how the productions -of tropical America are so frequently found on the -shores of the Eastern Atlantic. Humboldt relates that the -main-mast of the "Tilbury," a ship of the line, wrecked during -the seven years' war on the coast of San Domingo, was carried -by the Gulf-stream to the North of Scotland; and cites the still -more remarkable fact, that casks of palm oil belonging to the -cargo of an English vessel, which foundered on a rock near Cape -Lopez, likewise found their way to Scotland, having thus twice -traversed the wide Atlantic; first borne from east to west by the -equatorial current, and then carried from west to east, between -45° and 55° N. latitude, by means of the Gulf-stream.</p> - -<p>Major Rennell ("Investigation of Currents") relates the peregrinations -of a bottle, thrown overboard from the "Newcastle," -on the 20th of January, 1819, in lat. 38° 52″, and long. 66° 20″, -and ultimately found on the 2nd of June, 1820, on the shore -of the Island of Arran.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">« 59 »</a></span></p> - -<p>On the 16th of April, 1853, another bottle cast into the -waters in the vicinity of the Bank of Newfoundland, on the -15th of March, 1852, was found near Bayonne, not far from the -mouth of the Adour.</p> - -<p>On the coasts of Orcadia, a sort of fruit, commonly known by -the name of <i>Molucca</i>, or Orkney beans, are found in large -quantities, particularly after storms of westerly wind.</p> - -<p>These beans are the produce of West Indian trees (<i>Anacardium -occidentale</i>), and find their way from the woods of Cuba -and Jamaica, to the Ultima Thule of the ancients, by means of -the Gulf-stream.</p> - -<p>Large quantities of American drift-wood are transported by -the same current to the dreary shores of Iceland,—a welcome gift -to the inhabitants of a region where the highest tree is but a -dwarfish shrub, and cabbages of the size of an apple are raised, -as a great rarity, in the governor's garden.</p> - -<p>A short time before Humboldt visited the island of Teneriffe, -the sea had thrown out the trunk of a North American cedar-tree -(<i>Cedrela odorata</i>), covered with the mosses and lichens that had -grown upon it in the virgin forest.</p> - -<p>The Gulf-stream has even contributed to the discovery of -America, for it is well known that Columbus was strengthened -in his belief in the existence of a western continent, by the -stranding on the Azores of bamboos of an enormous size, of -artificially carved pieces of wood, of trunks of a species of -Mexican pine, and of the dead bodies of two men, whose features, -resembling neither those of the inhabitants of Europe nor of -Africa, indicated a hitherto unknown race. But not only lifeless -and inanimate objects find their way across the wide Atlantic -by means of the Gulf-stream and its spreading waters; -the living aborigines of the distant regions of America have also -sometimes been driven towards the coasts of Europe by the -combined action of the currents and the winds. Thus, James -Wallace tells us that, in the year 1682, a Greenlander in his -boat was seen by many people near the south point of the -island of Eda, but escaped pursuit. In 1684 another Greenland -fisherman appeared near the island of Wistram. An Esquimaux -canoe, which the current and the storm had cast ashore, -is still to be seen in the church of Burra. In Cardinal Bembo's -"History of Venice," it is related that, in the year 1508, a small -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">« 60 »</a></span> -boat with seven strange-featured men, was captured by a French -vessel in the North Sea. The description given of them corresponds -exactly with the appearance of the Esquimaux; they -were of a middle-size, of a dark colour, and had a broad face with -spreading features, marked with a violet scar. No one understood -their language. They were clothed in seal-skins. They -ate raw flesh, and drank blood as we do wine. Six of these -men died on the journey; the seventh, a youth, was presented -to the King of France, who at that time was residing at Orleans.</p> - -<p>The appearance of so-called Indians on the coast of the -German Sea, under the Othos and Frederic Barbarossa, or even, -as Cornelius Nepos, Pomponius Melas, and Pliny relate, at the -time when Quintus Metellus Celer was proconsul in Gaul, -may be explained by similar effects of the current and continuous -north-easterly winds. A king of the Boians made a present -of the stranded dark-coloured men to Metellus Celer. Gomara, -in his "General History of the Indies," expresses a belief that -these Indians were natives of Labrador, which would be doubly -interesting as the first instance recorded in history of the natives -of the Old and the New World having been brought into contact -with each other. We can easily account for the appearance of -Esquimaux on the North European coasts in former times; as -during the eleventh and twelve centuries, their race was much -more numerous than at present, and extended, as we know, -from the researches of Rask and Finn Magnussen, from Labrador -to the good Winland, or the shores of the present State of -Massachusetts and Connecticut.</p> - -<p>If we compare the climates on the opposite coasts of the -Northern Atlantic, we find a remarkable difference in favour of -the Old World. The frozen regions of Labrador, lie under the -same degree of latitude as Plymouth, where the myrtle and -laurel remain perpetually verdant in the open air. In New -York, which has a more southern situation than Rome, the -winter is colder than at Bergen in Norway, which lies 20° -farther to the north. While on the northern coasts of the old -continent, the waters remain open a great part of the year, -even beyond the latitude of 80°, the ice never completely thaws -on the opposite shores of Greenland. What a contrast between -the Feroë islands, where the harbours are never frozen, where -fertile meadows afford pasturage to numerous flocks of sheep, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">« 61 »</a></span> -and even crops of barley reward the labours of the husbandman, -and the frightful wildernesses on the shores of Hudson's Straits!—and -yet both are situated under the same latitude of 62°.</p> - -<p>The milder winter and earlier spring which characterise the -north-west coast of Europe, are due, in some measure, to the -prevailing westerly winds; but there can be no doubt that they -are mainly owing to the influence of the Gulf-stream, which, as -we have seen, conveys the heated waters of the Mexican Gulf -far to the north-east, and thus imparts warmth to the climate -of our native isle. In both seas, on the contrary, which bound -the peninsula or island of Greenland, icy currents descend, and -continue their course to the south, along the coasts of North -America. Near Newfoundland their temperature, in May, is -found to be 14° lower than that of the air, and even in spring -and the early summer they carry along with them immense ice-blocks, -which are frequently drifted as far south as the latitude -of New York, and finally disappear in the Gulf-stream.</p> - -<p>It is evident that the cold of winter must be increased, and -the spring retarded along the North American coasts by these -cold streams, just as the coasts of Europe are favoured by -streams of a contrary nature; and thus the ocean-currents go a -great way to explain the remarkable differences of climate -between the opposite shores of the Northern Atlantic.</p> - -<p>On this occasion I cannot omit directing the reader's attention -to the influence which the far-distant barrier of Central -America has upon the climate of Great Britain. Supposing yon -narrow belt of land to be suddenly whelmed under the ocean, -then instead of circuitously winding round the Gulf of Mexico, -the heated waters of the equatorial current would naturally -flow into the Pacific, and the Gulf-stream no longer exist. We -should not only lose the benefit of its warm current, but cold -polar streams, descending farther to the south would take its -place, and be ultimately driven by the westerly winds against -our coasts. Our climate would then resemble that of Newfoundland, -and our ports be blocked up during many months, -by enormous masses of ice. Under these altered circumstances, -England would no longer be the grand emporium of trade and -industry, and would finally dwindle down from her imperial -station to an insignificant dependency of some other country -more favoured by Nature.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">« 62 »</a></span></p> - -<p>On examining other coast-lands, in different parts of the -globe, we shall everywhere find the influence of the reigning -currents producing analogous effects to those I have already -mentioned.</p> - -<p>The Southern Atlantic is not warmed like the European seas -by tepid streams, it is exposed on all sides to the free afflux of -the cold waters of the Antarctic Ocean, and during the summer -months to the influence of drift ice. Thus, the southern extremity -of America, Terra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, -South Georgia, Sandwich Land, and other isles of the southern -ocean, have a much colder climate than the European coasts -and islands situated under the same latitude.</p> - -<p>Let us for instance compare the temperature of the Falkland -Islands and of Port Famine in the Straits of Magellan, with -that of Dublin, which is situated at an equal distance from the -line.</p> - -<table summary="temps"> -<tr> - <td rowspan="2"></td> - <td></td> - <td colspan="6">Mean Temperature.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl2" style="width:6em;">Latitude.</td> - <td style="width:4em;" colspan="2">Winter.</td> - <td style="width:4em;" colspan="2">Summer.</td> - <td style="width:4em;" colspan="2">Annual.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dublin</td> - <td class="tdl2">53° 21′ N.</td> - <td class="tdr">+4·</td> - <td class="tdl">0° R.</td> - <td class="tdr">15·</td> - <td class="tdl">3°</td> - <td class="tdr">9·</td> - <td class="tdl">6°</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Port Famine</td> - <td class="tdl2">53° 38′ S.</td> - <td class="tdr">+0·</td> - <td class="tdl">6</td> - <td class="tdr">10·</td> - <td class="tdl">0</td> - <td class="tdr">5·</td> - <td class="tdl">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Falkland Islands</td> - <td class="tdl2">52° 0′ S.</td> - <td class="tdr">4·</td> - <td class="tdl">36</td> - <td class="tdr">11·</td> - <td class="tdl">8</td> - <td class="tdr">8·</td> - <td class="tdl">24</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Feroë Islands</td> - <td class="tdl2">62° 2′ N.</td> - <td class="tdr">3·</td> - <td class="tdl">9</td> - <td class="tdr">11·</td> - <td class="tdl">6</td> - <td class="tdr">7·</td> - <td class="tdl">1</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Thus the climate of the Falkland Islands is, as we see, not -very different from that of the Feroë Islands, although the -latter lie ten degrees farther from the equator.</p> - -<p>In the Pacific Ocean, as well as in the Atlantic, we find a -westerly current filling the whole breadth of the tropical zone, -from the coast of America to that of Australia and the Indian -Archipelago. The best known of its affluxes is the cold Peruvian -stream, which, emerging from the Polar Sea, flows with -great rapidity along the shores of Chili and Peru, and does not -take a westerly direction, before reaching the neighbourhood of -the line. It has everywhere a remarkably low temperature, -comparatively to the latitude, and this sufficiently accounts for -the equal and temperate climate on the coasts of Chili and Peru. -Thus, the mean temperature of Callao (12° S. lat.) is only 20° R. -while in Rio Janeiro (23° S. lat.), though so much farther from -the line, the annual warmth rises to 23·2° R.</p> - -<p>In the beginning of November, Humboldt found at Callao -the temperature of the sea within the current not higher than -15·5°, while outside the stream it rose to 26° or even 28·5° R.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">« 63 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Even in the vicinity of the equator, after the current has -already assumed a westerly direction, its mean temperature does -not exceed 20·5°. But as it advances towards the west, its temperature -gradually rises to 27° or 28°.</p> - -<p>On the western banks of the Pacific the equatorial stream -divides into several branches. Part of its waters flow to the -south, a greater quantity penetrates through the channels of -the south Asiatic Archipelago into the Indian Ocean, the remainder -turns to the north-east, on the confines of the Chinese -Sea, leaves the eastern coast of the Japanese Islands, and then -spreads its warm waters under the influence of north-westerly -winds over the northern part of the Pacific. Thus the Japanese -stream plays here the same part as the Gulf-stream in the -Atlantic, and exerts a similar, though less mighty influence -over the climate of the west coast of America, as it is neither so -large nor so warm, and, having to traverse a wider ocean, in -higher latitudes, naturally loses more of its heat during the -passage.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 432px;"> -<img src="images/063.png" width="432" height="298" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Japan Junks.</div> -</div> - -<p>It is owing to this stream that Sitcha enjoys a mean annual -temperature of +7° R., while Nain in Labrador, situated under -the same latitude, is indebted to the Greenland current for a -summer of +7·8°, a winter of -18·5°, and a miserable annual -temperature of -3·6°. On the west coast of North America -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">« 64 »</a></span> -the analogous trees grow 3° or 4° nearer to the pole, and the -aboriginal tribes go naked as far to the north as 52°, a simplicity -of toilet that would but ill suit the Esquimaux of Labrador.</p> - -<p>Besides their beneficial influence on different climates the -ocean-currents tend to equalise, or to maintain the equilibrium -of the saline composition of sea-water, and thus secure the -existence of numberless marine animals. Their movements -also contribute to the formation of sand-banks, where at certain -seasons legions of fishes deposit their spawn and invite the persecutions -of man.</p> - -<p>The rapidity of currents is very different, but always important -enough to be taken into account by navigators. The well-informed -seaman makes use of them to traverse wide spaces -with greater rapidity, and, after an apparently circuitous course, -arrives sooner and more safely at his journey's end than the -ignorant steersman, who vainly endeavours to strive against -their power.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 167px;"> -<img src="images/064.png" width="167" height="168" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Pavonia lactuca, with Polypes -in Natural Position.</div> -</div> - - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 389px;"> -<a href="images/065fplg.png"><img src="images/065fp.png" width="343" height="500" alt="" /></a> -<div class="fig_caption">LIGHTHOUSE AND WATER-SPOUTS.<br /> -<span class="smaller">Click on image to view larger version.</span></div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption2"><a name="FPage_65" id="FPage_65">LIGHTHOUSE AND WATER-SPOUTS.</a></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p>A Lighthouse on a rocky shore is represented as just lighted, the twilight -having become darkened by a sudden storm, during which the phenomena of -"water-spouts" occur, which are represented to the left of the Lighthouse.</p></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">« 65 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_VI" id="CHAP_VI">CHAP. VI.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">THE AËRIAL AND TERRESTRIAL MIGRATIONS OF THE WATERS.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">Movements of the Waters through Evaporation.—Origin of Winds.—Trade-Winds.—Calms.—Monsoons.—Typhoons.—Tornadoes.—Water-Spouts.—The -Formation -of Atmospherical Precipitations.—Dew.—Its Origin.—Fog.—Clouds.—Rain.—Snow.—Hail -Sources.—The Quantities of Water which the Rivers pour into the -Ocean.—Glaciers and their Progress.—Icebergs.—Erratic Blocks.—Influence of -Forests on the Formation and Retention of Atmospherical Precipitations.—Consequences -of their excessive Destruction.—The Power of Man over Climate.—How -has it been used as yet?</div> - - -<p>Neither storms nor ocean-currents, nor ebb and flood, however -great their influence, cause such considerable movements of the -waters, or force them to wander so restlessly from place to place -as the silent and imperceptible action of the warming sunbeam. -In every zone evaporation is constantly active in impregnating -the atmosphere with moisture, but the chief seat of its power is -evidently in the equatorial regions, where the vertical rays of -the great parent of light and heat plunge, day after day, into -the bosom of ocean, and perpetually saturate the burning air -with aqueous vapours.</p> - -<p>In this chapter I intend following these invisible agents of -fertility and life, as they lightly ascend from the tropical seas, -and accompanying them in their various transformations, until -they once more return to the bosom of their great parent. A -cursory view of the benefits they confer on the vegetable -and animal world, as they wander over the surface of the land, -will, I hope, agreeably occupy the reader, and serve to increase -his admiration for that deep and dark blue ocean without -which all organic life would soon be extinct upon earth.</p> - -<p>I begin with a few words on the winged carriers of marine exhalations, -the <i>winds</i>, which, although now and then detrimental or -fatal to individuals by their violence, largely compensate for these -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">« 66 »</a></span> -local injuries, by the constant and inestimable benefits they -confer on the whole body of mankind.</p> - -<p>On taking a comprehensive view of their origin, we find -that, like the oceanic currents, they are chiefly caused by the -unequal influence of solar warmth upon the atmosphere under -the line and at the poles. In the torrid zone, the air, rarefied -by intense heat, ascends in perpendicular columns high above -the surface of the earth, and there flows off towards the poles, in -the same manner as in a vase filled with cold water and placed -over the flame of a lamp, the warmed liquid rises from the -bottom and spreads over the surface.</p> - -<p>But cold air-currents must naturally come flowing in an -opposite direction from the poles to the equator to fill up the -void, as in the example I have cited, colder and consequently -heavier water comes streaming down the sides of the vase to -replace the liquid which is rising in the centre under the -influence of heat.</p> - -<p>Thus the unequal distribution of solar warmth over the -surface of the earth evidently generates a constant circulation -of air from the equator to the poles, and from the icy regions to -the tropics, and by this means the purity of the atmosphere is -chiefly maintained. The sun is not only the great fountain of -warmth, he is also the universal ventilator; he not only calls -forth animal life, but at the same time, by a simple and admirable -mechanism, provides for its health by constantly renewing the air, -which is essential to its existence.</p> - -<p>If caloric were the sole agent which influences the direction -of the winds, or if the earth were one uniform plain, the opposite -air-currents I have mentioned would naturally flow straight to the -north and south; but their course is modified or diverted in the -same manner as that of the ocean-currents by the rotation of -the globe. Thus, the cold air-current (polar-stream) which -comes rushing upon us from the Arctic regions, is felt in our -latitude as the biting east or north-east wind, so trying to our -nerves and organs of respiration, while we enjoy the warm -air-current from the tropics as the mild western or south-western -breeze.</p> - -<p>But besides the rotation of the earth, there are many other -local influences by which the winds are deflected from their -course, or by whose agency partial air-currents are called forth. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">« 67 »</a></span> -Among these we particularly notice high chains of mountains, -the unequal capacity of sea and land in absorbing and retaining -heat, which gives rise to sea and land breezes; the -increasing or diminishing power of the sun in different seasons -by which the equilibrium of the air is modified in many countries, -the difference of radiation from a sandy desert or a forest, -electrical discharges from clouds, &c. &c.</p> - -<p>Although subject to many of these local disturbances, the -winds generally blow with an astonishing regularity in the -tropical zone; while in our variable climate the polar and -equatorial stream are engaged in a perpetual strife, now bringing -us warmth and moisture from the south and west, now cold -and dryness from the north and east.</p> - -<p>Thus, in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean we find the trade-winds -perpetually blowing from the east, the north-east trade-wind -between 9° and 27° N. lat., and the south-east trade-wind -between 3° N. lat. and 25° S. lat. It was by their assistance that -Columbus was enabled to discover America, and that the wretched -barks of Magellan traversed the wide deserts of the Pacific from -end to end.</p> - -<p>Between these two regions of the trade-winds lies the dreaded -zone or girdle of the equatorial calms (doldrums), where long -calms alternate with dreadful storms, and the sultry air weighs -heavily upon the spirits.</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i1">"Down dropt the breeze, the sails dropt down,<br /></span> -<span class="i4">'Twas sad as sad could be;<br /></span> -<span class="i2">And we did speak, only to break<br /></span> -<span class="i4">The silence of the sea.<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i1">"Day after day, day after day,<br /></span> -<span class="i4">We stuck, nor breath, nor motion,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">As idle as a painted ship<br /></span> -<span class="i4">Upon a painted ocean."<br /></span> -</div></div> - -<p>On their polar limits, the trade-wind zones are again girdled -with calm belts, the <i>horse latitudes</i>, whose mean breadth is -from ten to twelve degrees. The boundaries of these alternating -regions of winds and calms are not invariably the same, on the -contrary, they are perpetually moving to the north or south, -according to the position of the sun.</p> - -<p>From 40° N. lat. to the pole, westerly winds begin to be -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">« 68 »</a></span> -prevalent, and in the Atlantic Ocean their proportion to the -easterly winds is as two to one.</p> - -<p>In the Northern Indian Ocean and in the Chinese Sea we also -find the trade-wind, which is there called the <i>north-east monsoon</i>; -here, however, it only blows from October to April, as during -the summer terrestrial influences prevail which completely divert -it from its course.</p> - -<p>From the wide plains of central Asia glowing with the -rays of a perpetually unclouded sun, the rarefied air rises -into the higher regions. Other columns of air rush from the -equator to fill up the void, and cause the trade-wind to vary -its course, and change into the <i>south-western monsoons</i> of the -Indian Ocean, which blow from May to September. The -regularly alternating monsoons materially contributed to the -early development of navigation in the Indian seas, and conducted -the Greeks and Romans as far as Ceylon, Malacca, and -the Gulf of Siam. Similar monsoons, or deflections from the -ordinary course of the trade-winds, occur also in the Mexican -Gulf, in the Gulf of Guinea, and in that part of the Pacific -which borders on Central America, through the influence of -the heated plains of Africa, Utah, Texas, and New Mexico.</p> - -<p>The passage from one monsoon to the other is of course only -gradual, since the land also is only gradually heated and cooled. -Thus at the change of the monsoon, an atmospheric war of -several weeks' continuance occurs, during which the trade-wind -and the monsoon measure their strength, and calms alternate -with dreadful storms (typhoons, cyclones, tornadoes).</p> - -<p>According to the researches and observations of Franklin, -Cooper, Redfield, Reid, &c. &c., these storms are great rotatory -winds, that move along a curved line in increasing circles. In -the northern hemisphere, the rotatory movement follows a direction -contrary to that of the hands of a clock; while the opposite -takes place in the southern hemisphere. The knowledge of the -laws which regulate the movements of storms is of great importance -to the mariner, since it points out to him the direction he -has to give his ship to gain the external limits of the tornado, -and thus to remove it from danger.</p> - -<p><i>Water-spouts</i> are formed by two winds blowing in opposite -directions, and raising or sucking up the water in their vortex. -They generally form a double cone; the superior part with its -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">« 69 »</a></span> -apex downwards, consisting of a dense cloud, while the inferior -cone, the apex of which is turned upwards, consists of water, -which is thus sometimes raised to a height of several hundred -feet.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 380px;"> -<img src="images/069a.png" width="380" height="325" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 375px;"> -<img src="images/069b.png" width="375" height="312" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Water-spouts seldom last longer than half-an-hour. Their -course and movements are irregular; straight forwards; in zig-zag -lines; alternately rising and falling; stationary; slow; or -progressing with the rapidity of thirty miles an hour. The rotatory -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">« 70 »</a></span> -movement is also variable; its power is often very great, -but sometimes water-spouts pass over small vessels without injuring -them. They are more frequent near the coast than on -the high seas; and are more commonly seen in warm climates. -They seem to occur particularly in regions where calms frequently -alternate with storms, which is not to be wondered at, since they -owe their origin to miniature storms or whirlwinds.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 427px;"> -<img src="images/070.png" width="427" height="330" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>How do the aqueous vapours with which evaporation impregnates -the atmosphere, again descend upon the surface of the -earth?</p> - -<p>Everybody knows that when in summer a bottle filled with -cold water is brought into the room, it soon gets covered with -thick dew-drops, which presently trickle down its sides, although -it was perfectly dry on entering. Whence does this moisture -come from? Not from the inside of the bottle as ignorant -people might imagine, but from the surrounding atmosphere; in -consequence of the capacity of the air to absorb and retain moisture, -increasing or diminishing, as its temperature grows warmer -or colder.</p> - -<p>Thus when the cold bottle is introduced into the room, the -warm sheet of air, which is in immediate contact with its surface, -immediately cools, and being no longer able to retain all the -moisture with which it was impregnated, is obliged to deposit it -on the sides of the vessel. This familiar example suffices to -explain the formation of dew, rain, hail, snow, hoar-frost, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">« 71 »</a></span> -all other atmospherical precipitations. They all result from the -influence of some refrigerating cause upon the air; such as the -passage of a warm current into a cooler region; the influx of a -cold wind; a cold-radiating chain of high mountains; a forest, -and so forth.</p> - -<p>The very name of dew is refreshing, and calls forth a host of -pleasing ideas, associated as it is with the memory of serene skies -and sunny mornings. How beautiful are its diamonds glittering -in all the colours of the rainbow, on verdant meads, or on the -blushing petals of the rose. How suggestive of all that is lovely, -pure, and innocent!</p> - -<p>Poetry is of older date than prose, and bards have sung long -before philosophers inquired. Thus, although the children of -song from Homer and Theocritus to Byron and Wordsworth so -frequently mention dew in their immortal strains, it is only in -our time that its formation has been fully explained by -Dr. Wells, who in a very ingenious and masterly essay on this -subject, first proved that it results from the ground radiating or -projecting heat into free space, and consequently becoming -colder than the neighbouring air. During calm and clear -nights, the upper surfaces of grass-blades, for instance, radiate -their caloric into the serene sky, from which they receive -none in return. The lower parts of the plant, being slow -conductors of heat, can only transmit to them a small portion -of terrestrial warmth, and their temperature consequently -falling below that of the circumambient atmosphere, they condense -its aqueous vapours. Clouds on the contrary compensate -for the loss of heat the grass sustains from radiation, by reflecting -or throwing back again upon the terrestrial surface, the -caloric which would else have been dissipated in a clear sky, and -this is the reason why dew does not fall, or but slightly falls -during clouded nights. It is easy to conceive why none is formed -in windy weather, as then the air in contact with the ground is -constantly removed ere it has time to cool so far as to compel it -to part with its moisture. We can also understand why dew is -more abundant in autumn and spring than at any other season; -as then very cold nights frequently follow upon warm days; and -why it is most copious in the torrid zone, as in those sultry regions -the air is more saturated with moisture than anywhere else, and -the comparatively cold nights are almost constantly serene and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">« 72 »</a></span> -calm. Hoar-frost is nothing but congealed dew, and owes its -formation to the same causes.</p> - -<p>When warmer air-currents are cooled by being transported -into colder regions, or from any other refrigerating cause, a great -part of their moisture generally condenses into small vesicles, -but very little heavier than the surrounding atmosphere, -which then becomes visible under the form of clouds, those -great beautifiers of our changing skies, that frequently trace -such picturesque, gorgeous, or singular groups and landscapes -in the aërial regions. The inhabitants of countries where the -heavens are monotonously serene, may well envy us the charms -of a phenomenon which in some measure affords us compensation -for so many disagreeable vicissitudes of the weather. Who -that has admired at sunset the light clouds so beautifully fringed -with silver and gold, or glowing with the richest purple, and -loves to follow them in all their wonderful and fantastic transformations, -will deny that they are the poesy and life of the skies, -the awakeners of pleasing fancies and delightful reveries?</p> - -<p>Thin wreaths of clouds have been observed, by travellers that -have ascended the most elevated mountains, floating high above -the peak of Chimborazo or Dhawalagiri, and thus shows us to -what an amazing altitude the emanations of ocean are carried -by the ascending air-current.</p> - -<p>Sometimes when light clouds pass into a warmer atmosphere, -they gradually dissolve and vanish; more frequently the accumulating -moisture, too heavy to continue floating in the air, or -condensed by electrical explosions, descends upon the earth in -rain, which, with few exceptions, visits every part of the globe, -either in its liquid form or congealed to snow or hail. But the -quantity of rain which annually falls in different regions is very -unequal, and strange to say, it is not most considerable in those -countries whose climate enjoys an unenviable notoriety for its -clouded atmosphere and the great number of its rainy days. -In the tropical regions it is generally only about the time of the -summer solstice that abundant showers of rain fall regularly every -afternoon, while the rest of the year, the sky is uninterruptedly -serene; but during the short period of the rainy season, a far -greater quantity of water is precipitated upon the earth, than -in the temperate zones.</p> - -<p>While on the island of Guadaloupe, the annual quantity of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">« 73 »</a></span> -rain amounts to 274·2 French inches, and to 283·3 at Mahabuleshwar, -on the western declivity of the Ghauts, which, as far -as has hitherto been ascertained, is the place where most rain -descends; only from 35 to 40 inches fall on the western coast -of England, where the skies are chronically weeping.</p> - -<p>It is a remarkable circumstance that the annual quantity of -rain which falls in the same place remains about the same from -year to year; so that by an admirable balancing of conflicting -influences, nature seems to have provided for stability in a province -which of all others might be supposed most open to the -caprices of chance.</p> - -<p>Having thus followed the exhalations of ocean to the end of -what may be called the first stage of their journey, and seen -them descend in a condensed form upon the surface of the dry -land, I will now accompany them in their ulterior progress to -the bosom of the seas. A great part of them have many transformations -and changes to undergo ere they can accomplish -their return; repeatedly rising in vapours from the solid earth, -and falling in showers upon its surface; or circulating through -the tissues of organic life: but after all these intermediate stages -and delays, they ultimately find their way into rivulets or -streams, which after many a meander restore them to the vast -reservoir from which they arose.</p> - -<p>The waters that descend upon solid rocks, or fall in large -quantities upon abrupt declivities, immediately flow into the -brooks or rivers; but when they gently and gradually alight -upon a porous soil, they are absorbed by the earth, and, displacing -in virtue of capillary attraction, and of their superior -weight, the air which fills the interstices between its solid -particles, sink deeper and deeper until they meet with a solid -and impenetrable stratum. If this forms a hollow basin, they -naturally settle in the cavity; whence they are slowly displaced -by fresh accessions and evaporation; but if its deepest declivity -lies somewhere near the surface, they gradually gush forth -under the form of sources or springs, having unequal distances -to perform before they can reach the orifice. If no fresh supply -of water falls, ere the most distant particles have reached their -journey's end, the source dries up: but if new atmospheric -precipitations continually take place, the source is perennial, -although naturally of unequal strength at different times.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">« 74 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The temperature of springs varies from icy coldness to boiling -heat. Cold springs arise when the waters, by which they are -fed, descend from high mountains or do not penetrate a great -way into the bowels of the earth; but if the filtering waters -reach a depth which is constantly of a higher temperature, they -then gush forth in the form of warm or even boiling springs.</p> - -<p>A crowd of agreeable associations attaches itself to the idea -of sources and springs, for they are generally both pleasing and -useful to man. How we long in summer for the refreshing -waters of the cool fountain issuing from the mountain side, and -murmuring through the woods. The lover of nature spends -hours near some solitary spring, and forgets the flow of time, as -he observes the bubbling and listens to the sweet music of its -crystal waters. A luxuriant vegetation marks their progress, -though all around be burnt up by the scorching sun. Along -their margin many a wild flower blooms, and herbs and shrubs -and trees rejoice in a more vivid green, and statelier growth. -There also congregate such members of the finny race, as -delight in cooler streams of untainted purity, and birds love to -build their nests among the sheltering foliage. Thus a little -world forms around the gushing spring, and shows on a diminutive -scale, how all that lives and breathes depends upon the -liquid element for its existence.</p> - -<p>While the waters filter through the earth they naturally -dissolve a variety of substances, and all springs are more or -less mixed with extraneous particles. But many of them, particularly -such as are of a higher temperature and consequently -arise from deeper strata, contain either a larger quantity or -so peculiar a combination of mineral substances as to acquire -medicinal virtues of the highest order, and to become objects -of importance to a large portion of mankind. Numberless -invalids annually flock to the hygeian fountains which nature -unceasingly pours forth from her mysterious laboratory, and -are by them restored to the enjoyments of a pleasurable existence.</p> - -<p>How truly wonderful is the chain of processes which first -raises vapours from the deep, and eventually causes them to -gush forth from the entrails of the earth, laden with blessings -and enriched with treasures more inestimable than those the -miner toils for!</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">« 75 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Although a river generally has its source in mountainous -regions, it must be remembered that all the waters that descend -upon the territory of which it forms the lowest level, gradually -find their way into its current. Thus, the monarch of all -streams, the Amazon River, is the natural drain of a territory -thirty times larger than England. Thousands of rivulets and -brooks, fed by the waters which descend from the slopes of -thousands of glens and valleys, or filter through the vast forest-plains -that rise but a few feet above their surface, all contribute -to swell the majesty of its current. Its sources are in reality -wherever, on that vast extent of land, water descends and drains -into any one of its innumerable affluents. When we hear that -on an average the river of the Amazons alone restores every -minute half a million of tons of water to the ocean, and then -consider the countless number of streams all alike active, that -are scattered over the globe, we may form a faint idea of the -vast quantity of vapours which are constantly rising from the -deep, and of the magnitude of these silent operations of nature. -Yet such is the immensity of ocean, that supposing all the waters -it constantly loses, never to return again into its bosom, it -would require thousands of years of evaporation to exhaust the -immensity of its reservoirs!</p> - -<p>It might be supposed that the waters which congeal on the -sides of mountains covered with perennial snow, or fill -Alpine valleys in the form of glaciers, were eternally fixed on -earth—but there also we are deceived by delusive appearances -of immobility. Every year the glacier slowly but restlessly -makes a step forwards into the valley, and while its lower end -dissolves, new supplies of snow constantly feed it from above. -It has been calculated by Agassiz that the ice masses of the -Aar glacier require 133 years to perform their descent from its -summit to its inferior extremity—a distance of ten miles—so -that their sojourn in that chilled valley far surpasses that of the -oldest patriarch of the mountains. How great must be their -delight when they at last are liberated from the spell which so -long enchained them, and freely bound along on their way to -Ocean! How they must shudder at the idea of once more -returning to their desolate prison, and long for the perpetual -warmth of spicy groves and tropical gardens!</p> - -<p>In the colder regions of the earth, in Greenland or Spitzbergen, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">« 76 »</a></span> -immense glaciers frequently fill the valleys that open on -the sea, descend even beyond the water's edge, and, as they -move along, their overhanging masses separate from their base -and plunge into the deep with a crash louder than thunder. -The icebergs that drift about the Arctic seas, and are annually -conveyed by the currents into lower latitudes, are formed in -this manner. Huge blocks of granite, detached by atmospherical -vicissitudes from the higher mountains and precipitated -on the surface of the glaciers, frequently float on the broad back -of an iceberg far away from the spot where they seemed rooted -for eternity. As their crystal support melts away in its progress -to warmer climes, these rocky fragments, which have been -appropriately named <i>erratic blocks</i>, fall to the bottom of the sea -hundreds or even thousands of miles from the starting point of -their journey. Thus the great bank of Newfoundland is covered -with stones from distant Greenland, raised high in the air by -volcanic power myriads of years ago, and now condemned to an -equally long repose below the surface of ocean. When will -they rise again above the waters, and what further changes will -they have to undergo ere their compacted atoms resolve themselves -into dust and assume new forms? But, however remote -their dissolution, it will inevitably come, for Time is all-powerful, -and has an eternity to work out his changes.</p> - -<p>The large blocks of stone that so wonderfully migrate on the -wandering iceberg form but a small and insignificant portion of -the terrestrial spoils which are transported to ocean by the -returning waters. Every river is more or less laden with -earthy particles which its current carries onwards to the sea -and deposits at its mouth. In course of time their accumulation, -as I have already mentioned, forms large tracts of fertile -territory encroaching upon the maritime domains.</p> - -<p>I shall end with a few words on the influence of forests in -attracting or retaining the atmospherical moisture, as it is a -subject of great importance in the economy of nations, and -shows us how much it is in the power of man to improve or to -defeat the provisions of nature in his favour.</p> - -<p>Forests always cool the neighbouring atmosphere, for their -foliage offers an immense warmth-radiating surface, so that the -vapours readily condense above them and descend in frequent -showers. At the same time their roots loosen the soil, and the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">« 77 »</a></span> -successive falling of their leaves forms a thick layer of humus, -which has an uncommon power in attracting and retaining -moisture. Their thick canopy of verdure also prevents the -rays of the sun from penetrating to the ground, and absorbing -its humidity. Thus the soil on which forests stand is constantly -saturated with water, and becomes the parent of perennial -sources and rills, that spread fertility and plenty far from the -spot where they originated.</p> - -<p>The rain-attractive influence of forests did not escape the attention -of Columbus, who ascribed the frequent showers which -refreshed and cooled the air, as he sailed along the coasts of -Jamaica, to the vast extent and density of the woods that -covered the mountains of that island. On this occasion he -mentions in his journal that formerly rain had been equally -abundant on Madeira, the Canaries, and the Azores, before their -shady forests were felled or burnt by the improvident settlers.</p> - -<p>The wanton destruction of woods has entailed barrenness on -countries renowned in former times for their fertility. The -mountains of Greece were covered with trees during the great -epoch of her history, and the well-watered land bore abundant -fruits, and sustained a numerous population. But man recklessly -laid waste the sources of his prosperity. Along with the -woods, many brooks and rivulets disappeared, and ceased to -water the parched plains. The rain gradually washed the -vegetable earth from the sides of the naked hills, and condemned -them to sterility. When the snow of the mountains began to thaw -under the warm breath of spring, it was now no longer retained -by the spongy soil of the forests, and gradually dissolved under -their cover; but, rapidly melting, filled with its impetuous -torrents the bed of the rivers, and overflowing their banks, -spread ruin and devastation far around.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately, forests when once destroyed are not so easily -restored, and it requires many centuries ere the bared mountain -side reassumes its pristine vesture of shady woods. First -lichens, mosses, and other thrifty herbs, content to feed upon -nothing, have to prepare a scanty humus for the reception of -more pretentious guests. In course of time some small stunted -shrub makes its appearance here and there in some peculiarly -favoured spot, and after all requires vast powers of endurance -to maintain itself on the niggard soil, exposed to the full enmity -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">« 78 »</a></span> -of wind and weather. This paves the way for a more vigorous -and fortunate offspring; and as every year adds something to -the vegetation on the mountain's side, and opposes increasing -obstacles to the winds, the falling leaves and decaying herbage -accumulate more and more, until dwarfish trees first find a -sufficiency of soil to root upon, and finally, the proud monarch -of the forest spreads out his powerful arms and raises his -majestic summit to the skies.</p> - -<p>While Greece and Asia Minor have seen their fertility decrease -or vanish with the trees that once covered their hills, -other countries have improved as their vast woods have been -thinned by the axe of the husbandman. In the time of the -Romans all Germany formed one vast and continuous forest, -and its climate was consequently much more rigorous than it -is at present. All the low grounds were covered with impervious -morasses, and the winter is described by historians in -terms like those we should employ to paint the cold of Siberia.</p> - -<p>But the scene gradually changed as tillage usurped the sylvan -domain. The excessive humidity of the soil diminished, the swamps -disappeared, and the heat of the sea, penetrating into the bosom of -the earth, developed its productive powers. Thus the chestnut -and the vine now thrive and ripen their fruits on the banks of -the Rhine and the Danube, where 2000 years ago they could not -possibly have existed. But Germany would also see her fertility -decline, if the destruction of the forests which still crown the -brow of many of her hills should continue in a considerable -degree. Numerous rivulets would then be dried up during the -warm season, in consequence of the more rapid descent and -thaw of vernal rains and wintry snows, and most likely, refreshing -summer showers would be far less frequent. Even now -the inundations which almost annually desolate the banks of -the Elbe, the Oder, and the Rhine, are ascribed by competent -judges to the excessive clearing of the forests in the mountainous -countries where those rivers originate. These few examples -suffice to prove to us the power of man in modifying the climates -of the earth, and the vast importance of the study of terrestrial -physics. By planting or destroying woods, he is able to compel -nature to a more equitable distribution of her gifts. In marshy -and low countries, he may remove the superfluous waters by -drainage, and increase the productiveness of arid plains by -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">« 79 »</a></span> -judicious irrigation. Thus man is the lord and master of the -earth; but hitherto he has done but little to reap all the advantages -he might have obtained from his dominion, or even used -it to his own detriment. Drainage, irrigation, and a judicious -management of forest-lands, are only beginning to be understood -even among the most enlightened nations. A great part -of our damp island still remains undrained, and we allow the -rivers of India to pour their waters into the sea, instead of -diverting them upon her thirsty plains. But there can be no -doubt that as knowledge increases, man will gradually learn to -provide every soil with the exact measure of humidity that is -requisite to make it bring forth its fruits in the greatest abundance. -Views such as these teach us, that, far from having attained -the summit of civilisation, we are still on the threshold -of her temple, and that most likely our descendants will look -down upon our present condition as we do upon that of our -barbarous ancestors.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 485px;"> -<img src="images/079.png" width="485" height="335" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Rocky Mountains at the bend of Bear Lake River.</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">« 80 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_VII" id="CHAP_VII">CHAP. VII.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">MARINE CONSTRUCTIONS.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">Lighthouses.—The Eddystone.—Winstanley's Lighthouse, 1696.—The Storm of -1703.—Rudyerd's Lighthouse destroyed by Fire in 1755.—Singular Death of -one of the Lighthouse Men.—Anecdote of Louis XIV.—Smeaton.—Bell Rock -Lighthouse.—History of the Erection of Skerryvore Lighthouse.—Illumination -Lighthouses.—The Breakwater at Cherbourg.—Liverpool Docks.—The Tubular -Bridge over the Menai Straits.—The Sub-oceanic Mine of Botallack.</div> - - -<p>In one of the finest passages of "Childe Harold," Byron contrasts -the gigantic power of the sea with the weakness of man. He -describes the resistless billows contemptuously playing with the -impotent mariner—now heaving him to the skies, now whelming -him deep in the bosom of the tumultuous waters; he mocks -the vain pride of our armadas, which are but the playthings of -ocean, and points with a bitter sneer at the wrecks with which he -strews his shores. A less misanthropic mood or a more truthful -view of things might have prompted the wayward poet to celebrate -the triumphs of man over the brute strength of the winds and -waves; how, guided by the compass, he boldly steers through -the vast waste of waters, how he excavates the artificial harbour, -or piles up the breakwater to protect his bark against the destructive -agencies of the billow and the storm, or how he erects the -lighthouse to point out the neighbourhood of dangerous shoals -or the entrance of the friendly port.</p> - -<p>The various constructions planned and executed by man to -disarm the turbulent or perfidious seas of a great part of their -terrors, are indeed among the noblest monuments of his architectural -genius, nor are any more deserving of universal applause -and gratitude. Who has ever performed a winter voyage -homewards over the wide Atlantic and not felt a thrill of delight -when the first bright flash of light beamed over the dark waters -and welcomed him back to his native isle? or what generous -mind has ever experienced this feeling without devoting the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">« 81 »</a></span> -tribute of its thanks to the wise and beneficent men whose -energy and perseverance have succeeded in lighting every headland -or estuary of our rugged coast? So completely has this -been done, that in the dark and stormy night, almost as well -as in the brightest day, the homeward-bound ship need not -approach danger without receiving friendly warning, for her -pathway is illuminated by gigantic fire-beacons so thickly set -that when one fades to the sight a new one rises to the view.</p> - -<p>Among the numerous lighthouses with which the genius of -humanity has encircled our native shores, the Eddystone, the -Bell Rock, and the Skerryvore, are pre-eminent for the vast difficulties -that had to be surmounted in their construction, situated -as they are upon solitary rocks, exposed to the full fury of the -insurgent waves; and should by some revolution all other monuments -erected by man be swept away from the surface of our -land, and these alone remain, they would suffice to testify to -future ages that these islands were once inhabited by a highly -civilised and energetic race, one well worthy to lay claim to the -dominion of the seas.</p> - -<p>At the distance of about twelve miles and a half from Plymouth -Sound, and intercepting, as it were, the entrance of the Channel, -the Eddystone rocks had been for ages a perpetual menace to -the mariner. The number of vessels wrecked on these perfidious -shoals must have been terrible indeed, it being even now a common -thing in foggy weather for homeward-bound ships to make -the Eddystone Lighthouse as the first point of land of Great -Britain, so that in the night and nearly at high water, when the -whole range of the rocks is covered, the most careful pilot might -run his ship upon them, if nothing was placed there by way of -warning. As the trade of England increased, the number of -fatal accidents naturally augmented, rendering it more and more -desirable to crest the Eddystone with a tutelary beacon; yet years -elapsed before an architect appeared bold enough to undertake -the task. At length, in 1696, Mr. Winstanley, a country gentleman -and amateur engineer, made the first attempt of raising a -lighthouse on those sea-beaten rocks, but as he was possessed -of more enterprise than solid knowledge, the structure he erected -was deficient in every element of stability. Yet such was the -presumption of the man that he was known to express a wish -that the fiercest storm that ever blew might arise to test the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">« 82 »</a></span> -solidity of the fabric. The elements took him at his word, for -while on a visit of inspection to his lighthouse the dreadful -storm of November 26, 1703, arose, the only storm which in -our latitude has equalled the rage of a tropical hurricane. -"No other tempest," says Macaulay in his Essay on Addison, -"was ever in this country the occasion of a Parliamentary -address or of a public fast. Whole fleets had been cast away. -Large mansions had been blown down. One Prelate had been -buried beneath the ruins of his palace. London and Bristol had -presented the appearance of cities just sacked. Hundreds of -families were still in mourning. The prostrate trunks of large -trees and the ruins of houses still attested in all the southern -counties the fury of the blast." No wonder that a tempest -like this swept away the ill-constructed lighthouse like the -"unsubstantial fabric of a vision," and that neither poor Mr. -Winstanley nor any of his companions survived to recount the -terrors of that dreadful night.</p> - -<p>Strange to say, the task of rebuilding the Eddystone lighthouse, -which was now felt as a national necessity, once more -devolved, not upon a professed architect, but upon a Mr. -Rudyerd, a linendraper of Ludgate Hill, the son of a Cornish -vagrant, who had raised himself by his talents and industry from -rags and mendicancy to a station of honourable competence. -The choice, however, was not ill made, for, with the assistance of -two competent shipwrights, the London tradesman constructed -an edifice which, though mainly of timber, was so firmly bolted -to the rock with iron branches that for nearly half a century it -resisted the fury of the billows, and might have withstood them -for many a year to come had it not been rapidly and completely -destroyed by fire. This catastrophe, which happened on -December 2, 1755, was marked by a strange accident, for while -one of the light-keepers was engaged in throwing up water -four yards higher than himself, a quantity of lead, dissolved -by the heat of the flames, suddenly rushed like a torrent from -the roof, and falling upon his head, face, and shoulders, -burnt him in a dreadful manner. Having been conveyed -to the hospital at Plymouth, he invariably told the surgeon -who attended him, that he had swallowed part of the lead -while looking upward; the reality of the assertion seemed -quite incredible, for who could suppose it possible that any -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">« 83 »</a></span> -human being could exist after receiving melted lead into the -stomach, much less that he should afterwards be able to bear the -hardships and inconvenience from the length of time he was -in getting on shore before any remedies could be applied. On -the twelfth day, however, the man died, and having been opened -a solid piece of lead, which weighed above seven ounces, was -found in his stomach.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[H]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[H]</span></a> A full account of this extraordinary circumstance was sent to the Royal -Society, and printed in vol. xlix. of their Transactions, p. 477.</p></div> - -<p>Another interesting anecdote is attached to the history of -Rudyerd's lighthouse. Louis XIV. being at war with England -while it was being built, a French privateer took the men at -work upon it and carried them to France, expecting, no doubt, a -good reward for the achievement. His hopes, however, were -doomed to a grievous disappointment, for while the captives -lay in prison, the transaction reached the ears of the monarch, -who immediately ordered them to be released and the captors -to be put in their place; declaring that though he was at war -with England, he was not at war with mankind. He therefore -directed the men to be sent back to their work with presents; -observing that the Eddystone lighthouse was so situated as to -be of equal service to all nations navigating the Channel. It -is gratifying to meet with this trait of natural generosity in -a mind long since obscured by the bigotry which prompted -the revocation of the Edit de Nantes.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 520px;"> -<img src="images/084.png" width="520" height="527" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Eddystone Lighthouse.</div> -</div> - -<p>After these repeated disasters, the rebuilding of Eddystone -lighthouse, in a more substantial manner than had hitherto been -effected, was now no longer confided to amateur ingenuity, but -to John Smeaton, an eminent civil engineer, one of those men -who by originality of genius and strength of character are so well -entitled to rank among the worthies of England. From his -early infancy Smeaton (born May 28, 1724) gave tokens of the -extraordinary abilities which were one day to render his name -illustrious. Before he attained his sixth year his playthings -were not the playthings of children but the tools which men employ: -before he was fifteen he made for himself an engine for -turning, forged his iron and steel, and had self-made tools of -every sort for working in wood, ivory, and metals. At eighteen -he by the strength of his genius acquired the art of working -in most of the mechanical trades, and such was his untiring zeal -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">« 84 »</a></span> -that a part of every day was generally occupied in forming some -ingenious piece of mechanism. In 1753, his various inventions -and improvements had already attracted such notice that he was -elected member of the Royal Society; and when, a few years -later, the accident happened which burnt down the Eddystone -lighthouse to the ground, he was at once fixed upon as the person -most proper to rebuild it. A better choice could not possibly -have been made, for Smeaton's lighthouse, firm as the rock on -which it stands, has now already braved the storms of more than -a century, and will no doubt continue to brave them for many -ages to come. Of him it may well be said "exegit monumentum -ære perennius," for to him is due the honour of having fixed the -<i>best form</i> to be given to a marine lighthouse, and even now the -Eddystone beacon-tower remains a model which has hardly been -surpassed by the taller and more graceful edifices of Bell Rock -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">« 85 »</a></span> -and Skerryvore. Nothing could exceed the patient ingenuity, -the sagacity, and forethought with which that great engineer -mortised his tall tower to the wave-worn rock, and then dove-tailed -the whole together, so as to make rock and tower practically -one stone, and that of the very best form for deadening -the action of the wave. Nor must we forget that our great marine -lighthouses, of which Smeaton gave the model, are as remarkable -from an artistic as from a utilitarian point of view, as -pleasing to the man of taste as to the friend of humanity. "It is -to be regretted," says, with perfect justice, the author of an excellent -article in the Quarterly Review,<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[I]</a> "that these structures are -placed so far at sea that they are very little seen, for they are, -taken altogether, perhaps the most perfect specimens of modern -architecture which exist. Tall and graceful as the minar of an -Eastern mosque, they possess far more solidity and beauty of construction; -and, in addition to this, their form is as appropriate -to the purposes for which it was designed as anything ever done -by the Greeks, and consequently meets the requirements of -good architecture quite as much as a column of the Parthenon."</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[I]</span></a> No. 228.</p></div> - -<p>Covered to the height of fifteen feet at spring tide, and -little more than a hundred yards in its extent, the famous -Bell Rock, or Inchcape, facing the Frith of Tay at a distance of -twelve miles at sea, was as dangerous to the navigation of the -eastern coast of Scotland as the Eddystone had been to the -entrance of the Channel. To erect a tower on a spot like this -was an undertaking of no common boldness, but, fired by -Smeaton's example, Mr. Robert Stevenson no less gloriously -succeeded in converting what for ages had been a source of -danger into a beacon of safety.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">« 86 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 524px;"> -<img src="images/086.png" width="524" height="520" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Bell Rock Lighthouse.</div> -</div> - -<p>On the opposite coast of Scotland, and placed in the same -parallel of latitude as Bell Rock, the Skerryvore Reef had a name -equally dreaded by the mariner. Situated considerably farther -from the mainland than the Bell Rock, it is less entirely submerged, -some of its summits rising above the level of high water, though -the surf dashes over them; but the extent of foul ground is much -greater, and hidden dangers, even in fine weather, beset the intervening -passage between its eastern extremity and Tyree, from -which island it is distant some eleven miles. In rough weather -the sea which rises there is described as one in which no ship -could live. This terrible reef, so fatal to many a gallant bark, -rendered the erection of a lighthouse most desirable, yet such -was the difficulty of the case that although so long ago as 1814 -an Act was obtained for a light on Skerryvore, it was not before -1837 that Mr. Alan Stevenson, son of the famous architect of -the Bell Rock sea-tower, was authorised to commence the work. -That difficulty was not confined to the position and character -of the reef itself, as the neighbouring island of Tyree afforded -no resource, and all the materials for the building, even the stone -itself, had to be transported from distant quarters. At length, -all preliminary arrangements being settled, the engineer reached -the rock and commenced his work, in June 1838, by erecting a -barrack-house upon stilts—a sort of dovecot perched on poles—high -out of the water on the reef, close to the proposed site of -the lighthouse. The erection of this barrack fully occupied the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">« 87 »</a></span> -first summer; and, lest it might be supposed that this was but -little work for so long a time, it may be as well to remark that, -such was the turbulence of the sea that between August 7 and -September 11, it had only been possible to be 165 hours on the -rock. Much inconvenience was occasioned by the hard and -slippery nature of the volcanic formation of the Skerryvore, to -which the action of the sea had given the appearance and the -smoothness of a mass of dark-coloured glass, so that the foreman -of the masons compared the operation of landing on it to that of -climbing up the neck of a bottle. When we consider how often, -by how many persons, and under what circumstances of swell -and motion, this operation was repeated, we must look upon -this feature of the spot as an obstacle of no slight amount.</p> - -<p>At length, after much danger and difficulty, the barrack was -completed, but the first November storm swept it away and -utterly annihilated the work of the season. Iron stancheons -had been drawn, broken, and twisted like the wires of a -champagne bottle; the smith's iron anvil had been transported -eight yards from where it was left; and a stone three-fourths -of a ton was lifted out from the bottom of a hole and sent -towards the top of the rock.</p> - -<p>Mortified, but nothing daunted by this disaster, which gave -him a warning of the tremendous power he had to contend with, -Mr. Stevenson prepared during the winter for the labours of -1839, which, besides the re-erection of the barrack on an improved -plan, chiefly consisted in the levelling or blasting of a flat -surface of forty-two feet diameter on the top of the rock from -which the lighthouse was to arise. This foundation pit was in -itself a work of no small magnitude, as it required for its excavation -the labours of 20 men for 217 days, the firing of 296 -shots, and the removal into deep water of 2,000 tons of material. -The blasting, from the absence of all cover and the impossibility -of retiring to a distance farther in any case than thirty feet, and -often reduced to twelve, demanded all possible carefulness.</p> - -<p>The only precautions available were a skilful appointment of -the charge and the covering the mines with mats and coarse netting -made of old rope. Every charge was fired by or with the -assistance of the architect in person, and no mischief occurred.</p> - -<p>The year 1840 had now arrived, and the construction of the -lighthouse was about to begin. Quarriers and labourers had been -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">« 88 »</a></span> -busily employed in cutting blocks of stone in the quarries. -Carpenters were diligently engaged in making wooden moulds -for each lighthouse block wherewith to gauge its exact mathematical -figure. In April, a reinforcement of thirty-seven masons -from Aberdeen arrived at Tyree—men expert in the difficult -work of dressing granite—and, on April 30, the first visit was -made to the rock. To the great joy of all, the barrack constructed -in the previous season was found uninjured, though a -mass of rock weighing about five tons had been detached from -its bed and carried right across the foundation pit by the -violence of the waves. In this barrack the architect and his -party now took up their quarters, which from the frequent flooding -of the apartments with water and from the heavy spray that -washed the walls were anything but agreeable. "Once," says the -gallant engineer,<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[J]</a> "we were fourteen days without communication -with the shore or the steamer, and during the greater part -of that time we saw nothing but white fields of foam as far as -the eye could reach; and heard nothing but the whistling of the -wind and the thunder of the waves, which was at times so loud as -to make it almost impossible to hear anyone speak. Such a scene, -with the ruins of the former barrack not twenty yards from us, -was calculated to inspire the most desponding anticipations; and -I well remember the undefined sense of dread that flashed on my -mind, on being awakened one night by a heavy sea which struck -the barrack and made my cot swing inwards from the wall, and -was immediately followed by a cry of terror from the men in the -apartment above me, most of whom, startled by the <i>sound and -the tremor</i>, sprang from their berths to the floor, impressed with -the idea that the whole fabric had been washed into the sea."</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[J]</span></a> Account of Skerryvore Lighthouse, by Alan Stevenson, Engineer to the -Northern Lighthouse Board. Edinburgh, 1848.</p></div> - -<p>This spell of bad weather, though in summer, well-nigh outlasted -their provisions; and when at length they were able to -make the signal that a landing would be practicable, scarcely -twenty-four hours' stock remained on the rock. The landing of -the heavy stones from the lighters was a work of no small difficulty, -considering the slippery nature of the rock, and as the -loss of one dressed stone would frequently have delayed the -whole progress of the building, the anxiety was incessant. On -July 4, the building of the tower really commenced. Six courses -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">« 89 »</a></span> -of masonry carried the building to the height of 8 feet 2 inches -before the autumnal gales terminated the work of 1840, and an -excellent year's work it was. The saying that "what is well -begun is half done" was illustrated here. Next year's work was -comparatively easy—so that in 1842 the tower rose to its full -height of 138 feet; and the year after the light was shedding its -beneficent rays over the thirty miles of watery waste that surround -the hidden rocks of Skerryvore.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 531px;"> -<img src="images/089.png" width="531" height="517" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">The Skerryvore Lighthouse.</div> -</div> - -<p>Well may we be proud of men like Smeaton and the -Stevensons; but, while justly admiring their architectural skill, -their perseverance, and their courage, we must not forget to -offer the just tribute of our gratitude to the eminent natural -philosophers without whose ingenious optical inventions the -most splendid sea-towers would be comparatively useless. The -Pharus or lighthouse of Alexandria was, probably with justice, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">« 90 »</a></span> -reckoned among the seven wonders of the world, and its several -stories, rising on marble columns to the height of 400 feet, -must have presented an imposing spectacle, but I strongly -suspect that the rude brazier on the summit of the majestic -pile bore the same proportion to the lighthouse lanterns of our -time as the wretched coasting-craft of the ancient Greeks to the -ocean steamers of the present day. Among the names of those -who have contributed most effectually to the progress of marine -illumination Argand, Borda, and Fresnel are conspicuous. The -hollow cylindrical wick of the first was a sudden and immense advance -in the art of economical and effective illumination. The -second, by his invention of the parabolic mirror, multiplied the -effect of the unassisted flame by 450, and the refracting lens of -Fresnel so admirably concentrates the light as to project its warning -beams to the wonderful distance of thirty or thirty-five miles.</p> - -<p>In former ages the efforts of man to provide a refuge to the -mariner from the fury of the raging gale were feeble and insignificant. -Content with the harbours that nature had provided, -it was then thought quite sufficient to line a river-bank with -quays or to enclose a natural pond by walls. The idea of raising -colossal breakwaters by casting whole quarries into the deep, or -of extending artificial promontories far into the bosom of the -ocean, is of modern date, and would have appeared chimerical -not only to the ancients but to our fathers not a century ago. -The first great work of this description is the famous breakwater -planned by De Cessart in 1783, and terminated in -1853, which has converted the open roadstead of Cherbourg -into a land-locked harbour. Rising from a depth of 40 feet -at low spring tides, on a coast where the floods attain a height -of 19 feet, it opposes a front of 12,700 feet to the fury of the -storm, and carries 250 pieces of the heaviest cannon on its formidable -brow.</p> - -<p>It far surpasses in extent and boldness of construction the -breakwater at Plymouth, nor will it be eclipsed by the moles now -forming at Portland, Holyhead, and Alderney; but although -it is a more impressive spectacle to see man struggling with the -ocean and producing calmness and shelter in the midst of the -raging storm, than to contemplate his operations where he has -no such adversaries to subdue, still such buildings as those just -described are neither the largest nor the most expensive works -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">« 91 »</a></span> -required for the accommodation of shipping. Witness the -Cyclopean grandeur of the Liverpool docks or of the Great Float -at Birkenhead, which alone covers an area of water of 121 acres, -and whose portals, with a clear opening of 100 feet, will admit -the largest screw-steamer or sailing ship the wildest imagination -has yet conceived. Six millions of money is the cost of this -one work alone—more than would be required to raise a pyramid -like that of Cheops—and even this sum is a trifle when compared -with what has been spent on the harbours of Liverpool, -London, and other great commercial cities.</p> - -<p>Not satisfied with erecting his lighthouses on wave-worn rocks -or defying the waves with his colossal breakwaters, man spans -bridges over arms of the sea and excavates mines under the -abysses of the deep. The locomotive now rolls full speed 100 -feet above high water over the strait which separates Anglesea -from the mainland; and in Botallack and several other Cornish -mines the workman, while resting from his subterranean labours, -hears the awful voice of the ocean rolling over his head.</p> - -<p>"In all these submarine mines," says Mr. Henwood, "I have -heard the dashing of the billows and the grating of the shingle -when in calm weather. I was once, however, underground in -Wheal Cock during a storm. At the extremity of the level -seaward some eighty or one hundred fathoms from the shore, -little could be heard of its effects, except at intervals, when the -reflux of some unusually large wave projected a pebble outward, -bounding and rolling over the rocky bottom. But when standing -beneath the base of the cliff, and in that part of the mine where -but nine feet of rock stood between us and the ocean, the heavy -roll of the large boulders, the ceaseless grinding of the pebbles, -the fierce thundering of the billows, with the crackling and -boiling as they rebounded, placed a tempest in its most appalling -form too vividly before me ever to be forgotten. More than -once doubting the protection of our rocky shield, we retreated -in affright, and it was only after repeated trials that we had -confidence to pursue our investigations." Yet the miners, -accustomed from their early youth to the fierce and threatening -roaring of the stormy sea, pursue their work from year to year, -never doubting that the thin roof which separates them from a -watery grave will continue to protect them, as it has shielded -their fathers before them.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">« 92 »</a><br /><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">« 93 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II">PART II.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">THE INHABITANTS OF THE SEA.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">« 94 »</a><br /><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">« 95 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_VIII" id="CHAP_VIII">CHAP. VIII.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">THE CETACEANS.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">General Remarks on the Organisation of the Cetaceans.—The Large Greenland -Whale.—His Food and Enemies.—The Fin-Back or Rorqual.—The Antarctic -Whale.—The Sperm-Whale.—The Unicorn Fish.—The Dolphin.—Truth and -Fable.—The Porpoise.—The Grampus.—History of the Whale Fishery.</div> - - -<p>Of all the living creatures that people the immensity of ocean, -the cetaceans, or the whale family, are the most perfect. Their -anatomical construction renders them in many respects similar -to man, and their heart is susceptible of a warmth of feeling -unknown to the cold-blooded fishes; for the mother shows signs -of attachment to her young, and forgets her own safety when -some danger menaces her offspring. Like man, the cetaceans -breathe through lungs, and possess a double heart, receiving and -propelling streams of <i>warm</i> red blood. The anatomical structure -of their pectoral fins bears great resemblance to that of the -human arm, as the bony structure of those organs equally consists -of a shoulder-blade, an upper arm, a radius and ulna, and five -fingers.</p> - -<p>But the arm, which in man moves freely, is here chained to the -body as far as the hand, and the latter, which, in obedience to -human volition and intellect, executes such miracles of industry -and art, is here covered with a thick skin, and appears as a broad -undivided fin or flapper. Yet still it is destined for higher -service than that of a mere propelling oar, as it serves the -mother to guide and shield her young. The lower extremities -are of course wanting, but their functions are performed by the -mighty <i>horizontal</i> tail, by whose powerful strokes the unwieldy -animal glides rapidly through the waters.</p> - -<p>The cetaceans distinguish themselves, moreover, from the fishes -by the bringing forth of living young, by a greater quantity of -blood, by the smoothness of their skin, under which is found a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">« 96 »</a></span> -thick layer of fat, and by their simple or double blow-hole, which -is situated at the top of the head, and corresponds to the nostrils -of the quadrupeds, though not for -the purpose of smelling, but -merely as an organ of respiration.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 260px;"> -<img src="images/096.png" width="260" height="678" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Bones of the Anterior Fin of a Whale.</div> -</div> - -<p>Our knowledge of the cetaceans -is still very incomplete; and -this is not to be wondered at, when -we consider that they chiefly dwell -in the most inaccessible parts of -the ocean, and that when met with, -the swiftness of their movements -rarely allows more than a flighty -view of their external form. Thus -their habits and mode of living -are mostly enveloped in obscurity; -and while doubtless many cetaceans -are to the present day unknown, -one and the same species -has not seldom been described -under different names, to the no -small confusion of the naturalist.</p> - -<p>The cetaceans are either without -a dental apparatus, or provided -with teeth. The former, or -the whalebone whales, have two -blow-holes on the top of the head, -in the form of two longitudinal -fissures; while in the latter, -(sperm-whales, unicorn-fish, dolphins,) -which comprise by far the -greater number of species, there -is but one transversal spout-hole. -In all whales the larynx is continued -to the spouting canal, and deeply inserted or closely -imbricated within its tube. Thus no tones approaching to a -voice can be emitted except through the spiracles, which are -encumbered with valves, and evidently badly adapted for the -transmission of sound. Scoresby assures us that the Greenland -whale has no voice, and Bennett frequently noticed sperm-whales -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">« 97 »</a></span> -suffering from extreme alarm and injury, but never -heard any sound from them beyond that attending an ordinary -respiration.</p> - -<p>The whalebone whales are either <i>smooth-backs</i> (Balænæ), or -<i>fin-backs</i> (Balænopteræ), having a vertical fin rising from the -lower part of the back. To the former belongs the mighty -Greenland Whale (<i>Balæna mysticetus</i>), the most bulky of -living animals, and of all cetaceans the most useful and important -to man. Its greatest length, according to Scoresby, is -from sixty to seventy feet, and round the thickest part of its -body it measures from thirty to forty feet, but the incessant -persecutions to which it is subjected scarcely ever allow it to -attain its full growth.</p> - -<p>The whale being somewhat lighter than the medium in which it -swims, its weight may be ascertained with tolerable accuracy; -and Scoresby tells us that a stout animal of sixty feet weighs -about seventy tons, allowing thirty to the blubber, eight or ten -to the bones, and thirty or thirty-two to the carcase. The lightness -of the whale, which enables it to keep its <i>crown</i>, in which -the blow-hole is situated, and a considerable extent of back -above the water, without any effort or motion, is not only owing -to its prodigious case of fat, but also to the lightness of its -bones, most of which are very porous and contain large quantities -of fine oil; an admirable provision of nature for the wants of a -creature destined to breathe the atmospheric air, and to skim its -food from the surface of the waters.</p> - -<p>The unsightly animal shows disproportion in all its organs. -While the tail fin measures twenty-four feet across, the pectoral -fins or paddles are no more than six feet long. The monstrous -head forms about the third of the whole body, and is furnished -with an equally monstrous mouth, which on opening exhibits a -cavity about the size of an ordinary ship's cabin. The leviathans -of the dry land, the elephant, the rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus, -are provided with tusks and teeth corresponding to their -size—huge weapons fit for eradicating trees or crushing the bone-harnessed -crocodile; but the masticatory implements of the giant -of the seas are scarcely capable of dividing the smallest food. -Instead of teeth, its enormous upper jaw is beset with about 500 -laminæ of whalebone, ranged side by side, two-thirds of an inch -apart, the thickness of blade included, and resembling a frame -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">« 98 »</a></span> -of saws in a saw-mill. Their interior edges are covered with -fringes of hair; externally they are -curved and flattened down, so as to -present a smooth surface to the lips. -The largest laminæ, situated on both -sides of the jaw, attain a length of -fifteen feet, and measure from twelve -to fifteen inches at their base; in -front and towards the back of the -mouth they are much shorter.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 205px;"> -<img src="images/098a.png" width="205" height="113" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Skull of Whale, with the Baleen.</div> -</div> - -<p>Besides these, there are suspended from the palate many other -small laminæ of the thickness of a quill, a few inches long, and -likewise terminating in a fringe. Thus the whole roof of the -mouth resembles a shaggy fur, under which lies the soft and -spongy tongue, a monstrous mass often ten feet broad and -eighteen feet long.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 131px;"> -<img src="images/098b.png" width="131" height="136" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Clio borealis.</div> -</div> - -<p>This whole formation is beautifully adapted to the peculiar -nourishment of the whale, which does not consist, as one might -suppose, of the larger fishes, but of the minute animals, (<i>Medusæ</i>, -<i>Entomostraca</i>, <i>Clio borealis</i>, and other -pteropod molluscs,) with which its pasture-grounds -in the northern seas abound. -To gather food, it swims rapidly with open -mouth over the surface; and on closing -the wide gates, and expelling the foaming -streams, the little creatures remain entangled -by thousands in the fringy thicket -as in a net; there to be crushed and bruised -by the tongue into a savoury pulp. Fancy the vast numbers -requisite to keep a monster of seventy tons in good condition.</p> - -<p>The back of the whale is usually of a fine glossy black, marked -with whitish rays, which have some resemblance to the veins of -wood. This mixture of colours presents an agreeable appearance, -especially when the back of the fish is illuminated with the rays -of the sun. The under part of the trunk and of the lower jaw -is of a dead white. The skin is about an inch thick, and covers -a layer of fat of fifteen inches; a most excellent coat for keeping -the whale warm and increasing its buoyancy, but at the same -time the chief cause which induces man to pursue it with the -deadly harpoon.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">« 99 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The usual march of the whale over the waters is rarely more -than four miles an hour, but its speed increases to an astonishing -rapidity when terror or the agonies of pain drive it madly through -the sea.</p> - -<p>In its sportive humours it is sometimes seen to spring out of -the water, and to remain suspended for a moment in the air. -On falling back again into the sea, high foam-crested fountains -spout forth on all sides, and mighty waves propagate the tumult -in widening circles over the troubled ocean. Or else it raises its -bulky head vertically on high, so that the deceived mariner -fancies he sees some black rock looming out of the distant waters. -But suddenly the fancied cliff turns round and brandishes playfully -its enormous flukes in the air, or lashes the waters with -such prodigious power, that the sound rolls far away like thunder -over the deserts of the ocean.</p> - -<p>Strange to say, the giant is of so cowardly a nature, that the -sight of a sea-bird often fills him with the greatest terror, and -causes him to avoid the imaginary danger by a sudden plunge -into the deep.</p> - -<p>Besides man, a vast number of enemies, great and small, -persecute the whale and embitter his life.</p> - -<p>The Sword-fish (<i>Xiphias Gladius</i>) and the Thresher or Sea-fox, -a species of shark (<i>Carcharias Vulpes</i>), often attack him -conjointly and in packs. As soon as his back appears above -the water, the threshers, springing several yards into the air, -descend with great violence upon the object of their rancour, -and inflict upon him the most severe slaps with their long tails, -the sound of which resembles the report of distant musketry. -The sword-fish, in their turn, attack the distressed whale, -stabbing from below; and thus beset on all sides, and bleeding -from countless wounds, the huge animal, though dealing the -most dreadful blows with its enormous tail, and lashing the -crimsoned waters into foam, is obliged to succumb at last.</p> - -<p>The Greenland Shark (<i>Squalus borealis</i>) is also one of the -bitterest enemies of the whale, biting and annoying it while -living, and feeding on it when dead. It scoops hemispherical -pieces out of its body nearly as big as a man's head, and continues -scooping and gorging lump after lump, until the whole cavity of -its belly is filled. It is so insensible of pain, that, though it has -been run through the body, and escaped, yet after a while -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">« 100 »</a></span> -Scoresby has seen it return to banquet again on the whale at the -very spot where it received its wounds. The heart, as is frequently -the case with gluttons, bears no proportion to its vast -capacity of stomach; for it is very small, and performs only six -or eight pulsations in a minute, continuing its beating for some -hours after having been taken out of the body. The body also, -though separated into any number of parts, gives evidence of life -for a similar length of time. It is therefore so difficult to kill, -that it is actually unsafe to trust the hand in its mouth though -the head be separated from the body.</p> - -<p>Strange to say, though the whale-fishers frequently slip into -the water where sharks abound, Scoresby never heard an instance -of their having been attacked by one of these voracious monsters. -Perhaps they are loth to attack man, looking upon him as their -best purveyor.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 383px;"> -<img src="images/100.png" width="383" height="120" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Saw of the Saw-fish.</div> -</div> - -<p>Fishermen relate that the whale and saw-fish, whenever they -come together, engage in deadly combat; the latter invariably -making the attack with inconceivable fury.</p> - -<p> -"The meeting of these champions proud<br /> -Seems like the bursting thunder cloud."<br /> -</p> - -<p>The whale, whose only defence is his tail, endeavours to strike -his enemy with it; and a single blow would prove mortal. But the -saw-fish, with astonishing agility, shuns the tremendous stroke, -bounds into the air, and returns upon his huge adversary, plunging -the rugged weapon with which he is furnished into his back. -The whale is still more irritated by this wound, which only -becomes fatal when it penetrates the fat; and thus pursuing and -pursued, striking and stabbing, the engagement only ends with -the death of one of the unwieldy combatants.</p> - -<p>Even the white-bear is said to attack the whale, watching his -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">« 101 »</a></span> -approach to the sea-shore; but the enmity of the narwhal is -evidently fabulous, as both cetaceans may frequently be seen -together in perfect harmony.</p> - -<p>Besides these formidable attacks of what may be considered -as more or less noble foes, the whale is constantly harassed by -the bites of the vilest insects. A large species -of louse adheres by thousands to its back, and -gnaws this animated pasture-ground, so as to -cover it frequently with one vast sore. In the -summer, when this plague is greatest, numbers -of aquatic birds accompany the whale, and settle -on his back, as soon as it appears above the -water, in order to feed upon these disgusting parasites.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 90px;"> -<img src="images/101.png" width="90" height="117" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Whale Louse.</div> -</div> - -<p>Barnacles often cover the whale in such masses, that his -black skin disappears under a whitish mantle, and even sea-weeds -attach themselves to his vast jaws, floating like a beard, -and reminding one of Birnam's wandering forest.</p> - -<p>As its name testifies, the home of the Greenland whale is -confined to the high northern seas, where it has been met with -in the open waters or along every ice-bound shore as far as man -has penetrated towards the Pole. The southern limit of its -excursions seems to be about 60° N. lat. It never visits the -North Sea, and is seldom found within 200 miles of the British -coasts. Its favourite resorts are the so-called whale-grounds,<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[K]</a> -between 74° and 80° N. lat., where the warmth, imparted to the -water by the Gulf-stream, favours the multiplication of the -small marine animals which form the nourishment of the -Leviathan of the seas.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[K]</span></a> See <a href="#Page_20">page 20</a>.</p></div> - -<p>Sometimes open spaces in the ice, abounding in minute -crustaceans and medusæ, attract a larger number of whales, but -the huge creature cannot be said to live in larger herds or associations.</p> - -<p>The Fin-fish or northern Rorqual (<i>Balænoptera boops</i>, <i>musculus</i>) -attains a greater length than the sleek-backed Greenland -whale, but does not equal it in bulk, having a more elongated -form and a more tapering head. Its whalebone is much shorter -and coarser, being adapted to a different kind of food, for, despising -the minute medusæ and crustaceans which form the food -of its huge relation, the more nimble rorqual pursues the herring -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">« 102 »</a></span> -and the mackerel on their wandering path. Like the blubber-whale, -the fin-back is black above, white below, but distinguishes -itself by long and numerous blood-red streaks or furrows, running -under the lower jaw and breast as far as the middle of the -belly. This is the species of whale which not unfrequently -strands on our shores, for though an inhabitant of the Arctic -seas, it wanders farther to the south than the Greenland whale. -It is seldom harpooned, for the produce of oil is not equivalent -to the expense, the risk, and the danger attending its capture.</p> - -<p>In the southern hemisphere, the Antarctic Smooth-backed -Whale (<i>B. antarctica</i>), a species similar to the Greenland whale, -though of less bulk, is the chief object of the fisherman's pursuit. -It hangs much about the coasts in the temperate latitudes, -and loves the neighbouring seas, where the discoloured -waters afford the richest repasts, but is not known in the central -parts of the Pacific. In the spring it resorts to the bays on the -coasts of Chili, South Africa, the Brazils, Australia, New Zealand, -Van Diemen's Land, &c. &c., where it is attacked either -by stationary fishermen, or by whalers, who at that time leave -the high seas.</p> - -<p>Farther towards the pole <i>Hump-backs</i> and <i>Fin-backs</i> abound; -but these are far from equalling the former in value. When -Dumont d'Urville, returning from his expedition to the south -pole, told the whalers whom he found in the Bay of Talcahuano -of the great number of cetaceans he had seen in the higher -latitudes, their eyes glistened at the pleasing prospect; but when -he added that they were only hump-backs and fin-backs, they -did not conceal their disappointment; for the hump-back is -meagre, and not worth the boiling, and the fin-back dives with -such rapidity, that he snaps the harpoon line, or drags the boat -along with him into the water.</p> - -<p>The Sperm-Whale, or Cachalot (<i>Physeter macrocephalus</i>), -rivals the great smooth-backed whales both in its various utility -to man and the colossal dimensions of its unwieldy body. The -largest authentically recorded size of the uncouth animal is -seventy-six feet by thirty-eight in girth; but whalers are well -contented to consider fifty-five or sixty feet the average length -of the largest examples they commonly obtain. The male, however, -alone attains these ample proportions; the adult female -does not exceed thirty or at most thirty-five feet, so that there -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">« 103 »</a></span> -is a greater disproportion of size between sexes than in any -other known species of cetaceans.</p> - -<p>The form of the beast is without symmetry, and from the -general absence of other prominent organs than the tail or -pectoral fins, can be compared to little else than a dark rock or -the bole of some giant tree. The prevailing colour is a dull black, -occasionally marked with white, especially on the abdomen and -tail. The summit of the head and trunk presents a plane surface, -until about the posterior third of the back, whence arises a -hump or spurious fin of pyramidal form, and entirely composed -of fat. From this embossed appendage an undulating series of -six or eight similar, but smaller elevations, occupies the upper -margin or ridge of the tail to the commencement of the caudal -fin. The pectoral fins or paddles are placed a short distance -behind the head; they are triangular in shape, diminutive as -compared with the size of the whale, and being connected to -the trunk by a ball and socket joint, possess free movement, -either vertical or horizontal.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 339px;"> -<img src="images/104.png" width="339" height="211" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Cuttle-fish (Sepia).</div> -</div> - -<p>Owing to the flexibility of the tail, the movements of the tail-fin, -or "flukes," which sometimes measures eighteen feet across, -are exceedingly extensive, whilst its power may be estimated by -the gigantic bundles of round tendons, which pass on either side -the loins, to be inserted into its base. Whether wielded in -sportive mood or in anger, its action is marked by rapidity and -ease, and when struck forcibly on the surface of the ocean, produces -a report which may be heard at a considerable distance. -In progression, the action of this organ is precisely the reverse -of that of the tail of the lobster, for whilst the latter animal -swims backward by striking the water with its tail from behind -forwards, the cachalot and other cetaceans swim forward by -striking with their flukes in the contrary direction, the fin being -brought beneath the body by an oblique and unresisting movement; -while the act of springing it back and straightening the -tail propels the animal ahead with an undulating or leaping -gait. When employed offensively the tail is curved in a direction -contrary to that of the object aimed at, and the blow is -inflicted by the force of the recoil. The lower jaw appears -diminutive, slender, and not unlike the lower mandible of a -bird. When the mouth is closed it is received within the soft -parts pendent from the border of the upper jaw, and is nearly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">« 104 »</a></span> -concealed by them. True and serviceable teeth are situated only -in the lower jaw, and are received into corresponding sockets -in the upper jaw. In aged males they are of great solidity and -size, attaining a weight of from two to four pounds each; their -entire structure is ivory. This powerful armament shows us at -once that the food of the cachalot must be very different from -that of the whalebone cetaceans; it generally consists of cuttle-fish, -many kinds of which are ejected from its stomach when it -is attacked by the boats, as well as after death. Owing to the -great projection of the snout beyond the lower jaw, it may be -requisite for this whale to turn on its side or back to seize its -more bulky prey; a supposition strengthened by the fact that, -when the animal attacks a boat with its mouth, it invariably -assumes a reversed posture, carrying the lower jaw above the -object it is attempting to bite. As long as it continues on the -surface of the sea, the cachalot casts from its nostril a constant -succession of spouts, at intervals of ten or fifteen seconds. As -in all whales, the jets are not, as frequently imagined, water-columns, -but a thick white mist ejected by one continual effort -to the height of six or eight feet, and rushing forth with a sound -resembling a moderate surf upon a smooth beach. The peculiar -fat or sperm which renders the cachalot so valuable, is chiefly -situated in the head. <i>Junk</i> is the name given by the fishermen -to a solid mass of soft, yellow, and oily fat, weighing between -two and three tons, based on the upper jaw, and forming the -front and lower part of the snout; while the cavity called <i>case</i> -is situated beneath and to the right of the spouting canal, and -corresponds to nearly the entire length of that tube. It is -filled with a very delicate web of cellular tissue, containing in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">« 105 »</a></span> -large cells a limpid and oily fluid, which is liberated by the -slightest force. The quantity, chiefly spermaceti, contained in -this singular receptacle, is often very considerable, nearly 500 -gallons having been obtained from the case of one whale. So -vast an accumulation of fat has obviously been intended to -insure a correct position in swimming, to facilitate the elevation -of the spiracle above the surface of the sea, and to counteract -the weight of the bony and other ponderous textures of the -head; objects which in the Greenland whale are sufficiently -attained by a similar accumulation of fat in the lips and tongue, -and by the more elevated situation of the spout-hole.</p> - -<p>While the large whalebone whales generally roam about in -solitary couples, the cachalot forms large societies. <i>Schools</i>, -consisting of from twenty to fifty individuals, are composed of -females attended by their young, and associated with at least one -adult male of the largest size, who generally takes a defensive -position in the rear when the school is flying from danger.</p> - -<p><i>Pods</i> are smaller congregations of young or half-grown males, -which have been driven from the maternal schools. Two or -more schools occasionally coalesce to a "<i>body of whales</i>," so -that Bennett<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[L]</a> sometimes saw the ocean for several miles around -the ship swarming with sperm leviathans, and strewn with a -constant succession of spouts. These large assemblies sometimes -proceed at a rapid pace in one determinate direction, and -are then soon lost sight of; at other times they bask and sleep -upon the surface, spouting leisurely, and exhibiting every indication -of being <i>at home</i>, or on their feeding ground. Like -most gregarious animals, the cachalots are naturally timid. A -shoal of dolphins leaping in their vicinity is sufficient to put a -whole school to flight: yet occasionally fighting individuals are -met with; particularly among those morose solitary animals -that most likely from their intolerable character have been -turned out of the society of their kind. The central deserts of -ocean, or the neighbourhood of the steepest coasts, are the chief -resort of the cachalot; and so great is the difference of his -<i>habitat</i> from that of the smooth-backed whales, that during the -whole time Bennett was cruising in quest of cachalots, he in no -single instance saw an example of the true whale. The cachalot -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">« 106 »</a></span> -is more especially found on the <i>line-currents</i>, which extend -from the equator to about the seventh degree of north and south -latitudes, yet it has been noticed in the Mediterranean, and one -individual, a stray sheep indeed, has even been captured in the -Thames.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[L]</span></a> Narrative of a Whaling Voyage round the Globe.</p></div> - -<p>The Narwal, or Unicorn-fish, attains a length of from twenty to -twenty-five feet. He is of a grey-white colour, punctured with -many white spots, and as his head is not disproportionate to the -length of his body, may rank among the handsomest cetaceans. -He distinguishes himself, as is well known, from all other -members of the family by the long twisted tooth or horn projecting -horizontally from the upper jaw. This mighty weapon, -the true use of which has not yet been fully ascertained, was -formerly sold at a very high price, as proceeding from the fabulous -unicorn; at present, it is only paid according to the -worth of its excellent ivory, which is harder, heavier, and less -liable to turn yellow than that of the elephant. The whalers -are therefore highly delighted when they can pick up a chance -narwal, but this only succeeds in narrow bays; for the unicorn-fish -is an excellent swimmer, and extremely watchful. In spite -of his menacing appearance, he is a harmless sociable creature, -fond of gambolling and crossing swords playfully with his compeers. -It is remarkable that the opening of the mouth of so -huge an animal is scarcely large enough to admit the hand of a -man. Scoresby found in the stomach of a narwal remains of -cuttle fishes, which seem to form his chief aliment, besides -pieces of skates and plaice. The narwal is frequent about -Davis' Straits and Disco Bay, but is nowhere found in the -Pacific, having most likely not yet discovered the north-western -passage. He rarely wanders into the temperate seas, yet one -was caught, in 1800, near Boston in Lincolnshire, and two others, -in 1736, on the German coast of the North Sea.</p> - -<p>The Dolphin tribe is distinguished from the cachalot by a -more proportionate head; from the narwal by the absence of -the long horn; and generally possesses sharp teeth in both jaws, -all of one form. The number of species is very great; Linnæus -distinguished four sperm-whales and three dolphins; now many -naturalists acknowledge but one species of the former, while the -dolphins have increased to more than thirty, and many are as -yet unknown.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">« 107 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 221px;"> -<img src="images/107.png" width="221" height="92" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Delphinus Delphis.</div> -</div> - -<p>The most famous member of this numerous family is undoubtedly -the classical Dolphin of the ancients (<i>Delphinus delphis</i>) -which attains a length of from -nine to ten feet, and is, according to -Pliny, the swiftest of all animals, so -as to merit the appellation of the -"arrow of the sea." His lively -troops often accompany for days the -track of a ship, and agreeably interrupt the monotony of a long -sea-voyage. As if in mockery of the most rapid sailer, they -shoot past so as to vanish from the eye, and then return again -with the same lightning-like velocity. Their spirits are so -brisk that they frequently leap into the air, as if longing to expatiate -in a lighter fluid. Hence, dolphins are the favourites of -the mariner and the poet, who have vied in embellishing their -history with the charms of fiction.</p> - -<p>Everybody knows the wonderful story of Arion, who having -been forced by pirates to leap into the sea, proceeded merrily -to his journey's end on the back of a dolphin:—</p> - -<div class="poem"> -<span class="i1">"Secure he sits, and with harmonious strains<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Requites his bearer for his friendly pains.<br /></span> -<span class="i2">The gods approve, the dolphin heaven adorns,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">And with nine stars a constellation forms."<br /></span> -</div> - -<p>Pliny relates the no less astonishing tale of a boy at Baiæ, who -by feeding it with bread, gained the affections of a dolphin, -so that the thankful creature used to convey him every morning -to school across the sea to Puteoli, and back again. When the -boy died, the poor disconsolate dolphin returned every morning -to the spot where he had been accustomed to meet his friend, -and soon fell a victim to his grief. The same naturalist tells us -also that the dolphins at Narbonne rendered themselves very -useful to the fishermen by driving the fish into their nets, and -were generously rewarded for their assistance with "bread soaked -in wine." A king of Caria having chained a dolphin in the -harbour, its afflicted associates appeared in great numbers, testifying -their anxiety for its deliverance by such unequivocal -signs of sorrow, that the king, touched with compassion, restored -the prisoner to liberty.</p> - -<p>Such, and similar fables, which were believed by the naturalists -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">« 108 »</a></span> -of antiquity, are laughed at even by the old women of -our times. The dolphin is in no respects superior to the other -cetaceans; his musical taste is as low as zero, and if, like the -bonito and albacore, he follows a ship for days together, it is -most surely not out of affection for man, but on account of the -offal that is thrown overboard. But do not many human -friendships repose on similar selfish motives?</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 364px;"> -<img src="images/108.png" width="364" height="116" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">The Porpoise.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Porpoise (<i>Delphinus Phocœna</i>), which only attains a -length of five or six feet, and seems to be the smallest of all -cetaceans, is frequently confounded with the dolphin. It is at -home in the whole Northern Atlantic, in the Mediterranean, and -the Euxine. While the dolphin prefers the high sea, the porpoise -loves tranquil bays and cliff-sheltered shores, and often -swims up the rivers, so that individuals have been caught in -the Elbe and Seine as high up as Dessau and Paris. The -porpoise is a no less excellent swimmer than the dolphin, -making at least fifteen miles an hour. His rapidity and sharp -teeth render him a most dangerous enemy to all the lesser fry -of the ocean, whose sole refuge lies in the shallowest waters. -When he rises to the surface to draw breath, the back only -appears, the head and tail are kept under water. At the entrance -of harbours, where he is frequently seen gambolling, his -undulatory or leaping movements, now rising with a grunt, -now sinking to reappear again at some distance, afford an entertaining -spectacle.</p> - -<p>A much more formidable animal, the largest of the whole dolphin -tribe, is the ravenous Grampus, (<i>Delphinus Orca</i>,) which measures -no less than twenty-five feet in length, and twelve or thirteen in -girth. The upper part of the body is black, the lower white: -the dorsal fin rises in the shape of a cone, to the height of -three feet or more.</p> - -<p>All naturalists agree in describing the grampus as the most -voracious of the dolphin family. Its ordinary food is the seal -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">« 109 »</a></span> -and some species of flat-fish, but it also frequently gives chase -to the porpoise, and perhaps the whale would consider the -grampus as his most formidable enemy, were it not for -the persecutions of man. Pliny gives us a fine description of -the conflicts which arise between these monsters of the deep. -At the time when the whale resorts to the bays to cast its young, -it is attacked by the grampus, who either lacerates it with his -dreadful jaws, or in rapid onset endeavours to strike in its ribs, -as with a catapult. The terrified whale knows no other way to -escape from these furious attacks, than by interposing a whole -sea between him and his enemy. But the grampus, equally -wary and active, cuts off his retreat, and drives the whale into -narrower and narrower waters, forcing him to bruise himself on -the sharp rocks, or to strand upon the shelving sands, nor -ceases his efforts until he has gained a complete victory. -During this fight the sea seems to rage against itself, for though -no wind may be stirring the surface, waves, such as no storm -creates, rise under the strokes of the infuriated combatants.</p> - -<p>While the Emperor Claudius was visiting the harbour of -Ostium, a grampus stranded in the shallow waters. The back -appeared above the surface of the sea, and resembled a ship with -its keel turned upwards. The Emperor caused nets to be stretched -across the mouth of the harbour to prevent the animal's escape, -and then attacked it in person with his prætorian guards. The -soldiers surrounding the monster in boats, and hurling their inglorious -spears, exhibited an amusing spectacle to the populace.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>That man ventures to pursue the leviathans of the deep -among the fogs and icebergs of the Arctic seas, and is generally -successful in their capture, may surely be considered as one of -the proudest triumphs of his courage and his skill.</p> - -<p>The breast of the first navigator, says Horace, was cased with -triple steel; but of what adamantine materials must that man's -heart have been formed, whose steadfast hand hurled the first -harpoon against the colossal whale?</p> - -<p>History has not preserved his name; like the great warriors -that lived before Agamemnon, he sank into an obscure grave -for want of a Homer to celebrate his exploits. We only know that -the Biscayans were the first <i>civilised</i> people that in the fourteenth -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">« 110 »</a></span> -and fifteenth century fitted out ships for the whale -fishery. At first the bold men of Bayonne and Santander contented -themselves with pursuing their prey, (most likely rorquals) -in the neighbouring seas, but as the persecuted whales -diminished in frequency, they followed them farther to the -north, until they came to the haunts of the real whale, whose -greater abundance of fat rewarded their intrepidity with a richer -spoil.</p> - -<p>Their success naturally roused the emulation and avidity of other -seafaring nations, and thus, towards the end of the sixteenth century, -we see the English, and soon after the Dutch, enter the lists -as their competitors. At first our countrymen were obliged to -send to "Biskaie for men skilful in catching the whale, and -ordering of the oil, and one cooper, skilful to set up the staved -casks," (Hakluyt's <i>Voyages</i>, i. 414); but soon, by their skill, -their industry and perseverance, together with the aid and encouragement -granted by the legislature, they learnt to carry on the -whale fishery on more advantageous terms than the original adventurers, -whose efforts became less enterprising as their success -was more precarious.</p> - -<p>The first attempts of the English date as far back as the year -1594, when some ships were sent out to Cape Breton for morse -and whale fishing. The fishing proved unsuccessful, but they -found in an island 800 whale fins or whalebone, part of the -cargo of a Biscayan ship wrecked there three years before, -which they put on board and brought home. This was the -first time this substance was imported into England.</p> - -<p>Hull took the lead in the Greenland whale fishery in 1598, -thirteen years after the first company for that purpose had been -formed in Amsterdam, and as both maritime nations gave it -every encouragement, not only on account of its profits, but -also from considering it as one of the best nurseries for their -seamen, it gradually grew to a very important branch of -business. Some idea may be formed of the extent to which -the Dutch engaged in the whale fishery during the last century, -by stating that for a period of forty-six years preceding 1722, -5886 ships were employed in it, and captured 32,907 whales.</p> - -<p>In the year 1788, 222 English vessels were employed in the -northern fishery.</p> - -<p>The earliest period at which we find the pursuit of the sperm-whale -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">« 111 »</a></span> -conducted upon a scientific plan is about 1690, when it -was commenced by the American colonists. In 1775, ships were -first sent out from ports of Great Britain, but for some years it -was necessary to appoint an American commander and harpooner -until competent officers could be reared. At the same -early date the sperm fishery was chiefly prosecuted in the -Atlantic, but Messrs. Enderby's ship "Emilia" having rounded -Cape Horn in 1788, first carried the sperm-whale fishery into -the Pacific, where its success opened a wide and fruitful field -for future exertions. As our whalers became better acquainted -with the South Sea, many valuable resorts were discovered. In -1819 the "Syren" (British) first carried on the fishery in the -western parts of that great ocean, and in the year 1848 the -American whaler "Superior," Captain Roys, penetrated through -Behring's Straits into the Icy Sea, and opened the fishery in -those remote waters. The year after no less than 154 vessels -followed upon his track, and the number has been increasing -ever since. At present the Americans are the people which -carries on the whale fishery with the greatest energy and good -fortune. While of late years only thirty or forty British sail -have been employed in the Pacific, our cousins "across the -Atlantic" numbered in the year 1841 no less than 650 whalers, -manned by 13,500 seamen. One of the causes of their success -may be, that while the whale fishery in England is carried on -by men of large capital, who are the sole proprietors of the ship, -the American interest in one vessel is held by many men of -small capital, and not unfrequently by the commander and -officers. It must, however, not be forgotten that the Australian -colonies, being more conveniently situated than the mother -country, fit out many ships for the whale fishery, which is -besides conducted in several permanent stations along the coasts -of New Zealand, &c.</p> - -<p>Whale charts have of late years been drawn, on which the -best fishing grounds at different seasons are delineated. These -maps are not only useful guides for the fishermen, but promise -the future solution of the still undecided question of the migration -of whales. While some naturalists are of opinion that the -cetaceans, flying from the pursuit of man, abandon their old -haunts for more sequestered regions, others, like M. Jacquinot -(<i>Zoologie, Voyage de l'Astrolabe et de la Zèlée</i>) believe that if -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">« 112 »</a></span> -the whaler is continually obliged to look out for more productive -seas, it is not because the whale has migrated, but because he -has been nearly extirpated in one place and left unmolested in -another.</p> - -<p>The Greenland whale fishery was for more than a hundred -years confined to the seas between Spitzbergen and Greenland; -the entrance and east shore of Davis' Straits not being frequented -before the beginning of the last century. Since then the expeditions -of Ross and Parry have made the whalers acquainted -with a number of admirable stations on the farther side of Davis' -Straits and in the higher latitudes of Baffin's Bay. The vessels -destined for that quarter sail usually in March, though some -delay their departure till the middle or even the end of April. -They proceed first to the northern parts of the coast of Labrador, -or to the mouth of Cumberland Strait, carrying on what is -called the south-west fishery. After remaining there till about -the beginning of May, they cross to the eastern shore of the -strait and fish upwards along the coast, particularly in South-east -Bay, North-east Bay, Kingston Bay, or Horn Sound.</p> - -<p>About the month of July they usually cross Baffin's Bay to -Lancaster Sound, which they sometimes enter, and occasionally -even ascend Barrow's Strait twenty or thirty miles. In returning, -they fish down the western shore, where their favourite -stations are Pond's Bay, Agnes' Monument, Home Bay, and -Cape Searle, and sometimes persevere till late in October. The -casualties are generally very great, the middle of Baffin's Bay -being filled with a compact and continuous barrier, through -which, till a very advanced period of the season, it is impossible -for the navigator to penetrate. Between this central body and -that attached to the land, there intervenes a narrow and precarious -passage, where many a vessel has been crushed or pressed -out of the water and laid upon the ice. In 1819 ten ships were -lost out of sixty-three, and in 1821 eleven out of seventy-nine. -Fortunately the loss of lives is seldom to be deplored, as the -weather is generally calm and the crew has time enough to -escape in another vessel.</p> - -<p>Whale fishing is not only a very dangerous and laborious -pursuit, it is also extremely precarious and uncertain in its -results. Sometimes a complete cargo of oil and whalebone is -captured in a short time, but it also happens that after a long -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">« 113 »</a></span> -cruise not a single fish is caught—a result equally unfortunate -for the ship owner and the crew, who look to a share of the -profits for their pay.</p> - -<p>How much the whale fishery depends upon chance is shown -by the following facts. In the year 1718 the Dutch Greenland -fleet, consisting of 108 ships, captured 1291 fish, worth at least -650,000<i>l.</i>, while in the year 1710, 137 ships took no more than -62. Various meteorological circumstances—the prevalence of -particular winds, the character of the summer or preceding -winter—are probably the causes of the extraordinary failure and -success of the fishery in different years. The Pacific is as fallacious -as the Arctic seas. Thus Dumont d'Urville met in the -Bay of Talcahuano with several whalers, one of whom had -rapidly filled half his ship, while the others had cruised more -than a year without having harpooned a single fish. In such -cases the captains have the greatest trouble in preventing their -men from deserting, who, being disappointed in their hopes, -naturally enough look out for a better chance elsewhere.</p> - -<p>The method of whale catching has been so often and so -minutely described, that it is doubtless familiar to the reader. -As soon as a whale is in sight, boats are got out with all speed, -and row or sail as silently and quietly as possible towards the -monster. One of the crew—the man of unflinching eye and -nervous arm—stands upright, harpoon in hand, ready to hurl -the murderous spear into the animal's side, as soon as the -proper moment shall have come. When struck the whale dives -down perpendicularly with fearful velocity, or goes off horizontally -with lightning speed, at a short distance from the -surface, dragging after him the line to which the barbed instrument -of his agony is fixed. But soon the necessity of respiration -forces him to rise again above the waters, when a second -harpoon, followed by a third or fourth at every reappearance, -plunges into his flank. Maddened with pain and terror, he -lashes the crimsoned waters into foam, but all his efforts to cast -off the darts that lacerate his flesh are vain, and his gaping -wounds, though not "as deep as wells, nor as wide as church-doors," -are still large enough to let out sufficient blood even -to exhaust a whale. His movements become more and more -languid and slow, his gasping and snorting more and more -oppressed, a few convulsive heavings agitate the mighty mass, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">« 114 »</a></span> -and then it floats inert and lifeless on the waters. As soon as -death is certain—for to the last moment a convulsive blow of -the mighty tail might dash the overhasty boat to pieces—the -whale is lashed by chains to the vessel's side, stripped of his -valuable fat, and then left to float, a worthless carcase, on the -heaving ocean.</p> - -<p>And now, man having taken his share, there begins a magnificent -feast for birds and fishes. Crowds of fulmars, snow -birds, or kittiwakes, flock together from all sides to enjoy the -delicious repast; but their delight, so rare is perfect felicity -on earth, is but too often disturbed by their terrible rival the -blue gull (<i>Larus glaucus</i>), which, while it rivals them in rapacity, -surpasses them all in strength, and forces them to disgorge -the daintiest morsels. Meanwhile sharks, saw-fishes, and whatever -else possesses sharp teeth and boldness enough to mix -among such formidable company, are busy biting, hacking, -scooping, and cutting below the water line, so that in a short -time, notwithstanding its vast bulk, the carrion disappears.</p> - -<p>The catching of the whale does not always end so fortunately -as I have just described. Sometimes the line becomes entangled, -and drags the boat into the abyss; or the tail of the -animal, sweeping rapidly through the air, either descends upon -the shallop, cutting it down to the water's edge, or encounters -in its course some of the crew standing up (such as the headsman -or harpooner), who are carried away and destroyed. -Thus Mr. Young, chief mate of the "Tuscan," was seen flying -through the air at a considerable height, and to the distance of -nearly forty yards from the boat, ere he fell into the water, -where he remained floating motionless on the surface for a few -moments, and then sank and was seen no more.</p> - -<p>Sometimes, particularly among the sperm-whales, desperate -characters are found, that without waiting for the attack, rush -furiously against the boats sent out against them, and seem -to love fighting for its own sake. Bennett describes an encounter -of this kind which he witnessed in the South Sea. The -first effort of the whale was to rush against the boat with his -head. Having been baffled by the crew steering clear, he next -attempted to crush it with his jaws; failing again, through the -unaccommodating position of his mouth, he remedied this defect -with much sagacity, for approaching impetuously from a distance -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">« 115 »</a></span> -of forty yards, he turned upon his back, raising his lower jaw -to grasp the boat from above. A lance-wound, however, applied -in time, caused him to close his mouth; but continuing to -advance, he struck the boat with such force that he nearly overturned -it, and concluded by again turning on his back and -thrusting his lower jaw through the planks. Fortunately the -other boats came up to the rescue, and an addition of many -tons of sperm to the ship's cargo made up for the damaged -boat.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 437px;"> -<img src="images/115.png" width="437" height="253" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Sperm-Whale.</div> -</div> - -<p>Although generally only the greater cetaceans are objects of -pursuit at sea, yet man does not disdain the capture of the -several dolphin-species when they approach his shores, and surrender -themselves as it were into his hands. The intelligence -that a shoal of ca'ing whales (<i>Delphinus melas</i>) has been seen -approaching the coast, operates like an electric shock upon the -inhabitants of the Feroë Islands. The whole village, old and -young, is instantly in motion, and soon numerous boats push off -from shore to surround the unsuspecting herd. Slowly and -steadily they are driven into a bay, the phalanx of their enemies -draws closer and closer together; terrified by stones and blows, -they run ashore, and lie gasping as the flood recedes. Then -begins the work of death, amid the loud rejoicings of the happy -islanders. The visits of the ca'ing whale are extremely uncertain. -From 1754 till 1776 scarce one was caught, but on -the 16th of August of the last-named year more than 800 were -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">« 116 »</a></span> -driven on the strand, and changed dearth into abundance. -During the four summer months that Langbye sojourned on -the islands in the year 1817, 623 of these large dolphins, mostly -from eight to ten yards long, were caught, and served to pay one -half of the imported corn. The division of spoil is made in -presence of the "<i>Amtmann</i>." Each fish is measured, and its -size marked on its skin in Roman characters. The largest -whale is given to the boat which first discovered the shoal; -then others for the poor and clergyman are selected, and the -remainder divided, according to stated rules, between the proprietor -of the ground and the persons who drove them on shore. -The flesh is either eaten fresh, or cut into slices and hung up to -dry; whilst the blubber is partly converted into train oil, or -salted in casks and barrels. The fat on the sides of the fish, -when hung for a week or two, will keep for years, and is used -instead of bacon by the natives.</p> - -<p>The ca'ing whale, remarkable from following a leader and -swimming in large herds, also strands from time to time on the -coasts of Iceland and on the Shetland and Orkney Islands, where -his appearance is hailed with universal pleasure.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 225px;"> -<img src="images/116.png" width="225" height="156" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Pelican.</div> -</div> - - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 417px;"> -<a href="images/117fplg.png"><img src="images/117fp.png" width="417" height="609" alt="" /></a> -<div class="fig_caption">AUSTRALIAN SEA-BEARS.<br /> -<span class="smaller">Click on image to view larger version.</span></div> -</div> - -<p class="caption2"><a name="FPage_117" id="FPage_117">AUSTRALIAN SEA-BEARS.</a></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 56px;"> -<img src="images/bardot.png" width="56" height="7" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -The group of Australian sea-bears is taken from the "Zoology of the voyage of -H.M.S. Erebus and Terror." This animal, <i>Arctocephalus lobatus</i>, is among the -largest of the Seal family. It is occasionally found congregating in vast numbers -upon various portions of the coast of Australia.</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">« 117 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_IX" id="CHAP_IX">CHAP. IX.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">SEALS AND WALRUSES.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">The Manatees and the Dugongs.—The Seals and the Esquimaux.—King Menelaus -in a Seal's Skin.—Barbarous Persecutions of the Seals in Behring's Sea and the -Pacific.—Adventures of a Sealer from Geneva.—The Sea Calf.—The Sea Bear.—His -Parental Affection.—The Sea Lions.—The Sea Elephant.—The Arctic -Walrus.—The Boats of the "Trent" fighting with a Herd of Walruses.—The -White Bear.—Touching Example of its Love for its Young.—Chase of the Sea -Otter.</div> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 159px;"> -<img src="images/118.png" width="159" height="615" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Skeleton of the Dugong.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Manatees or Lamantins of the Atlantic Ocean, and the now -nearly extinct Dugongs of the Indian seas, form the connecting -link between the real whales and the seals and walruses. Like -the whales, these animals have no hind feet, and a powerful -tail, which is their chief instrument of locomotion; they are -distinguishable, however, from them by less fin-like, more -flexibly-jointed anterior extremities, on which they lean while -cropping the sea-weeds on the shallow shores. When they raise -themselves with the front part of their body out of the water, a -lively fancy might easily be led to imagine that a human shape, -though certainly none of the most beautiful, was surging from -the deep. Hence they have been named sea-sirens, mermaids, -and mermen, and have given rise to many extravagant fictions. -Their intelligence is very obtuse, but their stolid calf-like -countenance indicates great mildness of temper.</p> - -<p>They live at peace with all other animals, and seem to be -solely intent upon satisfying their voracious appetite. Like the -hippopotamus, they swallow at once large masses of sea-plants -or of juicy grasses growing beyond the water's edge on the -borders of rivers.</p> - -<p>The Manatees, or Sea-cows, as they are familiarly called, -inhabit the coasts and streams of the Atlantic between 19° -S. lat. and 25° N. lat., and attain a length of from eight to -ten feet. Humboldt compares the flesh to ham, and Von -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">« 118 »</a></span> -Martius says he never tasted better -meat in the Brazils. The -South American monks, who have -their own ideas on the classification -of animals, consider it as -fish, and fare sumptuously upon it -during Lent. Besides its flesh, -one single animal gives as much -as 4000 bottles of oil, which is -used both in cookery and for -lighting. The thick hide is cut -into stripes, from which straps or -whips are made, to flog the unfortunate -negroes. Useful in -many respects, defenceless and -easy to kill, particularly during -the time of the inundations, when -it ascends the great rivers, the manatee -or sea-cow has been nearly -extirpated in many parts where it -formerly abounded, a fate which -it partakes with the East Indian -dugong. These animals might -easily be enclosed and tamed, in -the lagoons and bays of the tropical -streams; but it is to be feared -that they will have vanished from -the face of the earth before the -industry of man endeavours to -introduce them, as it were, among -the domestic animals.</p> - -<p>The Seal family forms a still -nearer approach to the land -quadrupeds, as here hind feet -begin to make their appearance. -The shortness of these extremities -renders their movements upon -land generally awkward and slow, -but they make up for this deficiency -by an uncommon activity -in the water. Their body, tapering -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">« 119 »</a></span> -fish-like from the shoulders to the tail, their abundance of -fat, the lightness of which is so favourable to swimming, the -position of their feet, admirably -formed for rowing, paddling, and -steering, their whole economy, in a -word, is calculated for the sea. Although -citizens of two worlds, their -real element is evidently the water, -from which their food is exclusively -derived.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 533px;"> -<img src="images/119a.png" width="533" height="298" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Female Dugong of Ceylon. (From Sir J. Emerson Tennent's Work on Ceylon.)</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 221px;"> -<img src="images/119b.png" width="221" height="124" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Skeleton of Seal.</div> -</div> - -<p>Seals are found in almost all seas, but they particularly abound -on the coasts of the colder regions of the earth, and diminish in -size and numbers as they -approach the torrid zone. -Small seals are found near -Surinam, but the giants of -the family, the huge, sea-elephant, -the sea-lion, the -sea-bear, belong exclusively -to those higher latitudes -which the sun visits only -with slanting rays, or where -the winter forms a dreary and continuous night.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 282px;"> -<img src="images/119c.png" width="282" height="173" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">The Seal.</div> -</div> - -<p>How wonderful to see the desolate coasts of the icy seas -peopled by such herds of great warm-blooded mammalia! But -there, where the dry land produces only the scantiest vegetation, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">« 120 »</a></span> -the bountiful sea teems with fishes, affording abundance to the -hungry seals. The <i>Merlangus polaris</i> and the <i>Ophidium -Parryii</i> in the northern hemisphere, as well as the <i>Nothothenia -phocæ</i>, which Dr. Richardson discovered off Kerguelen's Land, -seek in vain to escape from the pursuit of the seals in the -hollows and crevices of the pack-ice; and these small fish, in -turn, fare sumptuously upon the minute crustaceans and molluscs -with which those cold waters abound. Thus animal life, -but sparingly diffused over the barren land, luxuriates in the -sea, where we find one species preying upon the other, until at -last, at the bottom of the scale, we come to creatures so small -as to be invisible to the naked eye.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 386px;"> -<img src="images/120.png" width="386" height="175" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Esquimaux in his Kayak.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Greenland Esquimaux, whose ice-bound fatherland affords -no food but berries, is also obliged to look to the sea for his -subsistence; and the seal plays as important a part in his -humble existence as the reindeer among the Laplanders, or the -camel among the Bedouins of the desert. Its flesh and fat -form his principal food; from its skin he makes his boat, his -tent, his dress; from its sinews and bones, his thread and -needles, his fishing line, and his bow-strings. Thus on the -frozen confines of the Polar Sea, as in many other parts of the -world, we find the existence of man almost entirely depending -upon that of a single class of animals. But the Bedouin who -tends the patient dromedary, or the Laplander who feeds on -the flesh and milk of the domesticated reindeer, enjoys an easy -life when compared to the Esquimaux, who, to satisfy the cravings -of his sharp appetite, is in all seasons obliged to brave all the -perils of the Arctic Ocean. Sometimes he waits patiently for -hours in the cold fog until a seal rises to the surface, or else he -warily approaches a herd basking or sleeping on the ice blocks, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">« 121 »</a></span> -for the least noise awakens the watchful animals. Sometimes he -has recourse to stratagem, covers himself with a seal skin, and, -imitating the movements and gestures of the deceived phocæ, -introduces himself into the midst of the unsuspecting troop.</p> - -<p>We read in the <i>Odyssey</i> how the "dark-featured hero," Menelaus, -deigned to conceal his royal limbs under a fresh seal-skin, -in order to surprise Proteus, the infallible seer; and what sufferings -his olfactory organs underwent from the</p> - -<p class="i2"> -"Unsavoury stench of oil and brackish ooze,"<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p0">until the fair sea-nymph Eidothea, whom the gallant chief -implored in his distress,</p> - -<p class="i2"> -"With nectar'd drops the sickening sense restor'd."<br /> -</p> - -<p>Fortunately for the Esquimaux, his nose is less sensitive than -that of the son of Atreus, and without ambrosia, he willingly -dons a disguise which affords his unsophisticated taste the -pleasure of a theatrical entertainment, combined with the profit -of a savoury prize. Physical strength, dexterity, caution, -quickness of eye, and acuteness of hearing, are the indispensable -qualities of the Esquimaux, and require to be exercised and -developed from his tenderest years. The boy of fifteen must -be as perfect a seal-catcher as his father, and be able to make -all the instruments necessary for the chase. In these inhospitable -regions, every one is obliged to rely upon himself alone; -there, where all the powers of the body and mind are tasked to -the utmost for the mere sustenance of life, weakness and want -of dexterity must inevitably succumb.</p> - -<p>Besides the savages of the north, the civilised nations also -give chase to the seals, or rather wage a barbarous war of extermination -against these helpless creatures. Thus, from the year -1786 to 1833, more than 3,000,000 sea-bears were killed on -the Pribilow Islands, in Behring's Sea. At Unalaschka, the chief -staple-place of the Russian Fur Company, 700,000 skins were -cast into the water in the year 1803, on the same principle as -that which induced the Dutch to burn their superfluous nutmegs, -viz. "not to glut the market." As a well-merited punishment -for this stupid slaughter, the products of the chase diminished -rapidly from that time until within the last few years, when a -better husbandry has again increased the number of the sea-bears.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">« 122 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Unfortunately, our own countrymen and the Americans have -done no better in the southern seas. Thousands of sea-lions -used formerly to be killed on the South American coast, while -at present the number of the animals is so much diminished as -scarce to reward the sealer's trouble. Sir James Ross informs -us that the sea elephant was formerly found in great numbers -on Kerguelen's Land, and yearly attracted many vessels to those -desert islands. But at present, after such incessant persecution, -the animals have either migrated, or been almost totally extirpated. -English and American captains often set some men -ashore on the uninhabited coasts and islands of the southern seas, -for the purpose of catching seals, boiling their oil, and stripping -their skins. After a few months the ship generally returns to -fetch the produce of their labours, or to bring a fresh supply of -provisions to the seal catchers, who often remain several years -in their solitary hunting grounds. But sometimes the poor -wretches are abandoned by their associates, and then their -despair may be imagined when week after week elapses without -the expected sail appearing! Dumont d'Urville found one of -these adventurers in the Straits of Magellan among a horde of -Patagonians, who, though hospitably inclined, were themselves -so poor as hardly to be able to keep body and soul together. -He was a watchmaker from Geneva, who, having emigrated to -New York, and finding himself disappointed, had listened to the -fair promises of a skipper, who carried him out to Tierra del -Fuego, and not finding the business answer, had left him to his -fate. The French navigator took the poor man on board, and -gave him a passage to Talcahuano in Chili.</p> - -<p>On the east coast of North America seal catching is still -carried on with considerable success. Newfoundland intercepts -many of the immense fields and islands of ice which in the -spring move south from the Arctic Sea. The interior parts, -with the openings or lakes interspersed, remain serene and -unbroken, and form the transitory abodes of myriads of seals. -In the month of March upwards of three hundred small vessels, -fitted out for the seal fishery, are extricated from the icy -harbours on the east coast of Newfoundland; the fields are now -all in motion, and the vessels plunge directly into the edges -of such as appear to have seals on them; the crews, armed with -firelocks and heavy bludgeons, there <i>land</i>, and in the course -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">« 123 »</a></span> -of a few weeks destroy nearly 300,000 of these animals. The -Greenland winter, it would appear, is too severe for these luckless -wanderers, and when -it sets in, they accompany -the field-ice, and remain on -it until it is scattered and -dissolved. Old and young -being then deserted in the -ocean, nature points out to -them the course to their favourite icy haunts, and thither -their herds hurry over the deep to pass an arctic summer. -Winter returns, and with it commences again their annual -migration from latitude to latitude. The Scotch ports, particularly -Aberdeen, fit out ships for the spring seal-catching on -the American coast, and are generally successful in their undertakings.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 280px;"> -<img src="images/123a.png" width="280" height="115" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Greenland Seal.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 285px;"> -<img src="images/123b.png" width="285" height="110" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Seal.</div> -</div> - -<p>According to the different numbers and forms of their canine -teeth and grinders, and to the deficiency or presence of an <i>outward</i> -ear, the seal tribe is divided into many families, genera, -and species, among which I shall select a few of the most remarkable -for further notice. The Common Seal or Sea-calf, -(<i>Calocephalus vitulinus</i>), -which owes the latter name -to the unharmonious accents -of its voice, attains a -length of from five to six -feet. It has a large round -head, small short neck, and -several strong bristles on each side of its mouth, large eyes, no -external ears, and a forked tongue. It has six fore teeth in the -upper jaw, four in the lower, a strong pointed canine tooth on -each side in both jaws, and a goodly row of sharp and jagged -grinders. Woe to the poor herring whose evil star leads him -between these engines of destruction—he is irrevocably lost! -Different species of common seals inhabit the Northern seas, -from Greenland and Spitzbergen to the mouth of the Scheldt, -and from the White Sea to the eastern coast of America. -Others are found in the Antarctic seas. An excellent swimmer, -the seal dives like a shot, and rises at fifty yards' distance, often -remaining full a quarter of an hour under the water—three -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">« 124 »</a></span> -times longer than the most strong-breasted and expert pearl -fisher. Yet he is seldom seen more than thirty miles from -land, where he sleeps and reposes, choosing rocks surrounded by -the sea or the less accessible cliffs, left dry by the ebb of the -tide, so that, if disturbed by an enemy, he may be able to -plunge immediately into the sea. In the summer he will come -out of the water to bask or sleep in the sun on the top of large -stones and ledges of rocks; and this affords our countrymen the -opportunity of shooting him. If he chances to escape, he -hastens towards his proper element, flinging dirt or stones -behind him as he scrambles along, at the same time expressing -his fears by piteous moans; but if he happens to be overtaken, -he will make a vigorous defence with his feet and teeth till he -is killed. His flesh, which is tender, juicy, and fat, was formerly, -like that of the porpoise, served up at the tables of the -great, as appears from the bill of fare of a magnificent feast that -Archbishop Neville gave in the reign of Edward the Fourth. -Seals commonly bring forth two young ones at a time, which they -suckle for about a fortnight, and then carry them out to sea to -instruct them in swimming. When taken young, they may be -domesticated, and will follow their master like a dog, coming to -him when called by name. According to Pliny, no animal -enjoys a deeper sleep,—"nullum animal graviore somno premitur." -This assertion is, however, contradicted by general -observation, for it is well known that seals are extremely watchful, -seldom sleeping longer than a minute without moving their -heads to ascertain whether anything suspicious is going on.</p> - -<p>Although without external ears, seals appear to hear well -both above and under the water. Music or whistling will -draw them to the surface and induce them to stretch their necks -to the utmost extent—a curiosity which often proves a snare for -their destruction. The most effectual way of shooting seals is -by firing small shot into their eyes; for when killed with a -bullet they generally sink and are lost. They are often seen in -very large shoals on their passage from one situation to another. -In such cases, all appear every now and then at the surface -together for the sake of respiration, springing up so as to run -their heads, necks, and often their whole bodies out of the -water. They shuffle along, especially over the ice, with a surprising -speed considering the shortness of their legs. They are -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">« 125 »</a></span> -very tenacious of life, and able to survive even when shockingly -mangled. According to Dr. Scoresby, the island of Jan Mayen -affords excellent seal fishing in March and April. When on -detached pieces of drift ice, they are captured by the use of -boats, each boat making a descent upon a different herd. When -the seals observe the boat, they endeavour to escape before it -reaches the ice; the sailors, however, raise a long-continued -shout, which frequently causes the amazed animals to delay -their retreat until arrested by blows. When seals are abundant, -the boat immediately pushes off after the slaughter is finished, -and proceeds to another piece of ice for the increase of its -harvest, leaving one man to flay off the skins and fat. But in -situations where boats cannot navigate, the seal fishers have to -pursue them over the ice, leaping from piece to piece until the -capture is made; every man then flenses his own, and drags the -skins and blubber to his boat or ship. Ships fitted out for -seal fishing have occasionally procured cargoes of four or five -thousand, yielding nearly a hundred tons of oil; but such enterprises -are very hazardous, from the exposed nature of that dreary -island, and the liability to heavy and sudden storms.</p> - -<p>The Sea-Elephant (<i>Cystophora proboscidea</i>) deserves his -name, not only from his immense size, attaining a length of -twenty, twenty-five, or even thirty feet, but also from the singular -structure of his elongated nostrils, which hang down when -he is in a state of repose, but swell out to a foot-long proboscis -when he is enraged. Then the beast has a most formidable -appearance, which, along with its gaping jaws and dreadful -roar, might strike terror into the boldest huntsman. But total -helplessness and weakness conceal themselves behind this terrible -mask, for a single blow upon the snout with a club suffices to -fell the giant. Between 35° and 55° S. lat. is the home -of the sea-elephant, where he frequents desert islands and -uninhabited coasts. But even here, as I have already mentioned, -he could not escape the rapacity of man, for his tough hide and -the thick layer of blubber beneath were too tempting to remain -unnoticed.</p> - -<p>The Hooded Seal of the northern seas, (<i>Cystophora borealis</i>,) -enjoys the same faculty of inflating a folding, skinny crest extending -on each side from the snout to the eyes. But in -spite of the menacing appearance of these wind-bags, the seal -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">« 126 »</a></span> -fisher knocks him on the head, draws, without ceremony, his -skin over his ears, and throws his blubber into the oil-kettle.</p> - -<p>The <i>Otarias</i>, or seals furnished with an external ear, and whose -longer and more developed feet allow them to move more freely -on land, rank in point of organisation at the head of the whole -tribe. The most important and valuable of all is the Sea-Bear -(<i>Arctocephalus ursinus</i>), of which there are probably two -species; the one inhabiting the Antarctic seas, while the other -roams about the coasts and islands of the Northern Pacific, and -selects St. Paul, one of the Pribilow group in Behring's Sea, as -its favourite summer haunt. The fine-haired, black, curly -skin of the younger animals, of from four months to one year -old, is particularly esteemed, so as to be classed among the finer -furs which find a ready sale in the Chinese market, and serve -to decorate the persons of the higher rank of mandarins. The -chase, which on the latter island was formerly a promiscuous -massacre, is now reduced to the slaughter of a limited number -of victims. It begins in the latter part of September, on a cold -foggy day when the wind blows from the side where the animals -are assembled on the rocky shore. The boldest huntsmen, accustomed -to clamber over stones and cliffs, open the way; then -follow their less experienced comrades, and the chief personage -of the band comes last, to be the better able to direct and survey -the movements of his men, who are all armed with clubs. The -main object is to cut off the herd as quickly as possible from -the sea. All the grown-up males and females are spared, but -the younger animals are all driven landwards, sometimes to the -distance of a couple of miles, and then partly clubbed to death. -Those which are only four months old are doomed without exception; -while of the others only a certain number of the -males are killed, and the females allowed to return again to the -coast, when they soon betake themselves to the water. For -several days after the massacre, the bereaved mothers swim -about the island, seeking and loudly wailing for their young.</p> - -<p>From the 5th of October, St. Paul is gradually deserted by the -sea bears, who then migrate to the south, and reappear towards -the end of April,—the males arriving first. Each seeks the -same spot on the shore which he occupied during the preceding -year, and lies down among the large stone blocks with which the -flat beach is covered. About the middle of May the far more -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">« 127 »</a></span> -numerous females begin to make their appearance, and Otarian -life takes full possession of the strand. The full-grown sea-bear -is from eight to nine feet long, measures five in girth, -and acquires a weight of from eight to nine hundred pounds. -He owes his name to his shaggy blackish fur, and not to his -disposition, which is far from being cruel or savage. He indulges -in polygamy like a Turk or a Mormon, and has often -as many as fifty wives. The young are generally lively, fond of -play and fight. When one of them has thrown another down, -the father approaches with a growl, caresses the victor, tries to -overturn him, and shows increasing fondness the better he defends -himself. Lazy and listless youngsters are objects of his -dislike, and these hang generally about their mother. The -male is very much attached to his wives, but treats them with -all the severity of an oriental despot. When a mother neglects -to carry away her young, and allows it to be taken, she is made -to feel his anger. He seizes her with his teeth, and strikes her -several times, not over gently, against a cliff. As soon as she -recovers from the stunning effects of these blows, she approaches -her lord in the most humble attitudes, crawls to his feet, -caresses him, and even sheds tears, as Steller, the companion of -Behring's second voyage, informs us. Meanwhile the male -crawls about to and fro, gnashes his teeth, rolls his eyes, and -throws his head from side to side. But when he sees that his young -is irrevocably lost, he then, like the mother, begins to cry so -bitterly, that the tears trickle down upon his breast. In his -old age the ursine seal is abandoned by his wives, and spends -the remainder of his life in solitude, fasting, and sleeping; an -indolence from which he can only be roused by the intrusion of -another animal, when a tremendous battle is the consequence. -Though extremely irascible, the sea-bears are lovers of fair -play, so that when two are fighting, the others form a ring, and -remain spectators until the contest is decided. Then, however, -they take the part of the weaker, which so enrages the victor -that he immediately attacks the peace-makers. These in turn -fall out, the dreadful roaring attracts new witnesses, and the -whole ends, like an Irish wedding, with a general fight.</p> - -<p>Ursine seals are also found in the southern hemisphere, on -desert coasts analogous to their residences in the north. Common -seals and sea-otters stand in great awe of these animals, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">« 128 »</a></span> -and shun their haunts. They again are in equal fear of the -Leonine seals, and do not care to begin a quarrel in their -presence, dreading the intervention of such formidable arbitrators, -who likewise possess the first place on the shore.</p> - -<p>Steller's Sea-Lion, (<i>Otaria Stelleri</i>,) is about as large again as -the sea-bear, but its tawny hide, covered with short bristles, is -without value in the fur trade. To the Aleut, however, the -animal is of great use, for he covers his boat with its skin, -makes his water-tight <i>kamleika</i> with its intestines, the soles of -his shoes with the webs of its feet, ornaments his cap with its -long beard hair, and feasts upon its flesh. On all the coasts and -islands of the Pacific this sea-lion is found, from 61° N. lat. -to unknown southern limits, but nowhere in such numbers as -on the Pribilow Island, St. George, where its countless herds -afford a wonderful spectacle. The shapeless gigantic fat and -flesh-masses, awkward and unwieldy on land, cover, as far as -the eye can reach, a broad, rocky, naked strand-belt, blackened -with oil. The sea-birds occupy the empty places between -the herds of the sea-lions, and fly fearlessly before the gaping -jaws of the huge monsters, without caring about their hideous -bellowing. In countless numbers they build their nests in the -caves of the surf-beaten cliffs, and among the large boulders on -the shore, whose tops are whitened with their dung. A thick fog -generally spreads over the desolate scene, and the hollow roaring -of the breakers unites, with the screaming of the birds and -the bellowing of the sea-lions, to form a wild and melancholy -concert.</p> - -<p>Steller's sea-lion is furnished only with an erect and curly -hair-tuft at his neck, while a complete mane flows round the -breast of the sea-lion of the southern hemisphere, (<i>Otaria jubata</i>). -The remainder of the body is covered with short smooth hairs, -or bristles. The sea-lioness has no mane, and is darker than the -male. The fore-fins have the appearance of large pieces of black -tough leather, showing, instead of nails, slight horny elevations; -the hind-fins, which are likewise black, have a closer resemblance -to feet, and the five toes are furnished with small nails. A formidable-looking -beast, eleven feet long! and well may the -naturalist start, when, walking through the high tussack grass -of the Falkland Islands, he suddenly stumbles over a huge sea-lion, -stretched along the ground, and blocking up his path.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">« 129 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 210px;"> -<img src="images/129a.png" width="210" height="150" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Walrus, or Morse.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 205px;"> -<img src="images/129b.png" width="205" height="185" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Skull and Head of Walrus.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Arctic Walrus forms the nearest approach to the seals in -the scale of creation, and is likewise better adapted for a marine -life than for existence on dry land. -But he is completely without fore-teeth, -and his grinders have a broad -furrowed crown, like those of the -herbivorous animals. This difference -of dentition points to a different -food, and while the phocæ -are such voracious fish-eaters that -Sir James Ross found no less than -twenty-eight pounds of undigested fish in the stomach of a -southern seal, the walrus principally lives on sea-weeds and -molluscs. The Arctic walrus or sea-horse (<i>Trichechus rosmarus</i>) -is one of the largest mammals known, as he sometimes grows -to the length of eighteen feet, and so thick as to measure twelve -feet about the middle of the body. His form is very clumsy, -having a small head, a strong elongated neck, a thick body, and -short legs, the hind feet uniting to a broad fin. With such a -form, no one can wonder at the clumsiness of its movements on -land. Admiral Beechey describes the gallop of a sea-horse as -probably the most awkward motion exhibited by the animal -tribe, for, like a large caterpillar, the unwieldly creature alternately -lowers and raises its head, in order to facilitate the -bringing up of the hinder parts of the body;—no easy task, -when we consider the immense weight of the animal, and the -great disproportion between the length of its body and its legs. -The upper lip, which is very thick, -and indented or cleft into two large -rounded lobes, furnished with thick -yellow bristles, contributes also but -little to its external beauty. From -under this formidable-looking inflation -protrude two large and long -tusks, growing, like those of the elephant, -from the upper jaw, but bent -downwards, not outward and upwards, -as is the case with the latter. -Their uses are also very different, for while the elephant employs -his tusks in digging up roots, the walrus raises by their assistance -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">« 130 »</a></span> -his unwieldy body upon the ice-blocks and precipitous shores, -where he loves to bask in the sun. Both animals use them, -moreover, as formidable weapons, the former against the bounding -tiger, the latter against the hungry ice-bear or the voracious -shark.</p> - -<p>In fine weather the walruses, like the seals, gather on the ice, -where they may be seen in herds consisting occasionally of -upwards of 100 animals each. In these situations they appear -greatly to enjoy themselves, rolling and sporting about, and -frequently making the air resound with their bellowing, which -bears some resemblance to that of a bull. These diversions -generally end in sleep, during which these wary animals appear -always to take the precaution of having a sentinel to warn them -of any danger to which they may be liable. So universal seems -the observance of this precaution amongst their species, that -Beechey, who had many opportunities of observing them in -Spitzbergen, scarcely ever saw a herd, however small, in which -he did not notice one of the party on the watch, stretching his -long neck in the air every half-minute, to the utmost extent of -its muscles, to survey the ground about him. In the event of -any alarming appearances, the sentinel begins by seeking his -own safety; and as these animals always lie huddled upon one -another, the motion of one is immediately communicated to the -whole group, which is instantly in motion towards the water. -When the herd is large, and an alarm is given, the consequences -are most ludicrous. From the unwieldy nature of the animals, -the state of fear into which they are thrown, and their being so -closely packed together, at first they tumble over one another, -get angry, and in their endeavour to regain their feet flounder -about in each other's way, till having at last scrambled to the -edge of the ice, they tumble into the water, head first, if possible, -but otherwise, in any position in which chance may have placed -them, occasioning one of the most laughable scenes it is possible -to conceive.</p> - -<p>Though the first movement of the walruses at the approach -of danger is to seek the water, yet here, enraged by an unprovoked -attack, they often become most formidable assailants; of -which Beechey recounts a remarkable instance.</p> - - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 608px;"> -<a href="images/131fplg.png"><img src="images/131fp.png" width="608" height="415" alt="" /></a> -<div class="fig_caption">THE BOATS OF H.M.S. TRENT ATTACKED BY WALRUSES.<br /> -<span class="smaller">Click on image to view larger version.</span></div> -</div> - -<p class="caption2"><a name="FPage_131" id="FPage_131">THE BOATS OF H.M.S. TRENT ATTACKED BY -WALRUSES.</a></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 56px;"> -<img src="images/bardot.png" width="56" height="7" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p>This plate is taken from an incident narrated in the account of the voyage of -H.M. ships Dorothea and Trent. The boat belonging to the Trent was attacked -by a shoal of walruses, which were near swamping it; and were not driven -off till a gigantic walrus, which appeared to be the captain of the shoal, was -destroyed by a shot fired into its throat as represented in the engraving, the -original of which, as published in the account of the voyage, was taken from -a sketch by an officer present in the singular conflict.</p></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">« 131 »</a></span></p> - -<p>One evening, while the Dorothea and Trent were at anchor -in Magdalena Bay, Spitzbergen, several herds of these animals -had crawled upon the ice, to enjoy the fine weather and rest -themselves. The boats, properly equipped, and manned with -some of the officers and seamen, pushed off in pursuit of them. -The first herd which was selected disappointed the sportsmen, -but another was so intent upon its gambols, that the sentinel -absolutely forgot his duty, and several of the crew managed to -effect a landing upon the ice without any alarm being given to -the animals; as soon, however, as the first musket was fired, -the affrighted group made such a desperate rush towards the -edge of the ice that they nearly overturned the whole of the -assailing party, purposely stationed there to intercept them. -The seamen, finding this charge more formidable than they -expected, were obliged to separate to allow their opponents to -pass through their ranks; and being thus in their turn taken by -surprise, they suffered them, almost unmolested, to perform -their somersaults towards the sea. What with their uncertain -movements, the extreme toughness of their skin, and the -respectful distance at which the men were obliged to keep, to -avoid the lashing of the head and tusks of the animals, it was -indeed no easy task to inflict any serious injury upon them. -One, however, was desperately wounded in the head with a ball, -and the mate of the brig, being determined if possible to secure -his prey, resolutely struck his tomahawk into his skull; but the -enraged animal, with a twist of its head, sent the weapon whirling -in the air, and then lashing his neck, as though he would -destroy with his immense tusks everything that came in his way, -effected his escape to the water. The seamen followed and -pushed off in their boats; but the walruses, finding themselves -more at home now than on the ice, in their turn became the -assailants. They rose in great numbers about the boats, snorting -with rage, and rushing at the boats, and it was with the -utmost difficulty they were prevented upsetting or staving them -by placing their tusks upon the gunwales, or by striking at -them with their heads. It was the opinion of the seamen that -in this assault the walruses were led on by one animal in particular, -a much larger and more formidable beast than any of -the others, and they directed their efforts more particularly -towards him; but he withstood all the blows of their tomahawks -without flinching, and his tough hide resisted the entry of the -whale lances, which were unfortunately not very sharp, and soon -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">« 132 »</a></span> -bent double. The herd was so numerous, and their attacks so -incessant, that there was not time to load a musket, which indeed -was the only effectual mode of seriously injuring them. The -purser fortunately had his gun loaded, and the whole now being -nearly exhausted with chopping and striking at their assailants, -he snatched it up, and thrusting the muzzle down the throat of -the leader, fired into his bowels. The wound proved mortal and -the animal fell back amongst his companions, who immediately -desisted from the attack, assembled round him, and in a moment -quitted the boat, swimming away as hard as they could with -their leader, whom they actually bore up with their tusks, and -assiduously preserved from sinking. Whether this singular and -compassionate conduct, which in all probability was done to -prevent suffocation, arose from the sagacity of the animals, it is -difficult to say; but there is every probability of it, and the fact -must form an interesting trait in the history of the habits of the -species. After the discharge of the purser's gun, there remained -of all the herd only one little assailant, which the seamen, out -of compassion, were unwilling to molest. This young animal had -been observed fighting by the side of the leader, and from the -protection which was afforded it by its courageous patron, was -imagined to be one of its young. This little animal had no -tusks, but it swam violently against the boat, and struck her -with its head, and indeed would have stove her, had it not been -kept off by whale lances, some of which made deep incisions in -its young sides. These, however, had not any immediate effect; -the attack was continued, and the enraged little animal, though -disfigured with wounds, even crawled upon the ice in pursuit of -the seamen, who had <i>relanded</i> there, until one of them, out of -compassion, put an end to its sufferings.</p> - -<p>The valuable ivory of its tusks, which is more solid, finer -grained, and whiter than that of the elephant, exposes the -walrus to the attacks of man, no less than his thick hide, from -which a strong elastic leather is made, and his abundance of -flesh and blubber. The former are sought by civilised nations, -while the latter forms the chief food of the northern Esquimaux -and of the Tschutchi on the western shore of Behring's Straits.</p> - -<p>Every year a troop of Aleuts land on the northern coast -of the peninsula of Aliaska, where the young walruses assemble -in great numbers during the summer, having most -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">« 133 »</a></span> -likely been driven away by the older males from their more -northern haunts. The walruses herd on the lowest edge of -the coast which is within reach of the high spring-tides. When -the Aleuts prepare to attack the animals, they take leave of -each other as if they were going to face death, being no less -afraid of the mighty tusks of the walruses than of the awkwardness -of their own companions. Armed with lances and heavy -axes, they stealthily approach the walruses, and having disposed -their ranks, suddenly fall upon them with loud shouts, and -endeavour to drive them from the sea, taking care that none -of them escape into the water, as in this case the rest would -irresistibly follow and precipitate the huntsmen along with -them. As soon as the walruses have been driven far enough -up the strand, the Aleuts attack them with their lances, endeavouring -to strike at them in places where the hide is not so -thick, and then pressing with all their might against the spear, to -render the wound deep and deadly. The slaughtered animals fall -one over the other and form large heaps, while the huntsmen, uttering -furious shouts and intoxicated with carnage, wade through -the bloody mire. They then cleave the jaws and take out the -tusks, which are the chief objects of the slaughter of several -thousands of walruses, since neither their flesh nor their fat -is made use of in the colony. Sir George Simpson, in his -"Overland Journey Round the World," relates that the bales -of fur sent to Kjachta are covered with walrus hide; then it -is made to protect the tea chests, which find their way to -Moscow; and after all these wanderings, the far-travelled skin -returns again to its native seas, when, cut into small pieces and -stamped with a mark, it serves as a medium of exchange. The -carcases of the wholesale slaughter are left on the shore to be -washed away by the spring-tides, which soon erase every vestige -of the bloody scene, and in the following year the inexhaustible -north sends new victims to the coast.</p> - -<p>Kane gives us a vivid description of a walrus hunt in Smith's -Sound, most likely the most northern point of the earth inhabited -by man. "After a while Myouk became convinced, from signs or -sounds, that walruses were waiting for him in a small space -of recently open water that was glazed over with a few days' -growth of ice, and, moving gently on, soon heard the characteristic -bellow of a bull,—the walrus, like some bipeds, being -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">« 134 »</a></span> -fond of his own music. The party now formed in single file, -and moved on in serpentine approach to the recently frozen ice -spots, which were surrounded by older and firmer ice. When -within half a mile the line broke, and each man crawled towards -a separate pool. In a few minutes the walruses were in sight, -five in number, rising at intervals through the ice in a body -with an explosive puff that might have been heard for miles. -Two large grim-looking males made themselves conspicuous as -leaders of the group. When the walrus is above the water, the -hunter lies flat and motionless; as it begins to sink, he is alert -and ready for a spring. The animal's head is hardly below the -water line, when every man advances in rapid run, and again, -as if by instinct, before the beast returns, all are motionless -behind protecting knolls of ice. In this way the Esquimaux have -reached a plate of thin ice, hardly strong enough to bear them, -at the very brink of the pool. Myouk, till now phlegmatic, -seems to waken with excitement. A coil of walrus hide lies by -his side, and he grasps the harpoon, ready for action. Presently -the water is in motion, and, puffing with pent-up respiration, the -walrus rises before him. Myouk rises slowly, the right arm -thrown back, the left flat at his side. The walrus looks about -him, shaking water from his crest, Myouk throws up his left -arm, and the animal, rising breast-high, fixes one look before he -plunges. It has cost him all that curiosity can cost, for the -harpoon lies buried under his left flipper." The wounded animal -makes a desperate spring, and endeavours to lift itself upon the -ice, which breaks under its weight. These fruitless endeavours -give its physiognomy a still more vengeful expression; its bellowing -degenerates into a roar, and crimson foam gathers round -its mouth.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 313px;"> -<img src="images/134.png" width="313" height="189" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus).</div> -</div> - -<p>The Ice-Bear (<i>Ursus -maritimus</i>) may also be -reckoned among the -marine animals, as the -sea affords him by far -the greater part of his -food. From the common -bear, whom he surpasses -in strength and -size, as he attains a -length of nine feet, and a height of four, he not only distinguishes -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">« 135 »</a></span> -himself by his white sleek-haired fur, but also by a much -longer neck. His half-webbed feet show at once that he is born for -a sea life, and he is able to swim three miles an hour, and to dive -for a considerable length of time. On land he runs as fast again -as a man, and often surprises his prey, as his tread upon the snow -is almost inaudible. He principally lives on fish, but also on -seals, birds, foxes, reindeer, and even attacks -man—particularly when pinched -with hunger. But in his turn he falls -a prey to the inhabitants of the Arctic -regions, who eat the flesh, though it is -very coarse, and use the skin for -coverings of various kinds. He is a cunning hunter, though -not always successful. Thus one sunshiny day, Admiral -Beechey saw a large walrus rise in a -pool of water not very far from where -he stood. After looking around, the -grim-visaged creature drew his greasy -carcase upon the ice, where he rolled -about for a time, and at length laid -himself down to sleep. A bear, which -had probably been observing his movements, -crawled carefully upon the ice -on the opposite side of the pool, and -began to roll about also, but apparently -more with design than amusement, progressively -lessening the distance that intervened between him -and his prey. The suspicious walrus drew himself up, preparatory -to a precipitate retreat, when immediately the bear remained -motionless, as if in the act of sleep; but after a time he began to -lick his paws, and clean himself, and occasionally to encroach a -little more upon his intended victim. This time, however, his -cunning was useless, for the walrus suddenly plunged into the -pool, and though the bear, throwing off all disguise, rushed to -the spot and followed him in an instant into the water, he was -most likely disappointed of a meal that would have made up for -a long period of fasting. The ice-bear is everywhere at home -within the Arctic circle, and particularly abounds on Spitzbergen -and the other small islands of that sea. He sometimes comes -floating on drift ice to the north coasts of Iceland, Norway, -and Newfoundland, but is soon killed by the inhabitants.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/135a.png" width="200" height="90" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Seal.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 206px;"> -<img src="images/135b.png" width="206" height="216" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Arctic Walrus.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">« 136 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Manby, in his "Voyage to Spitzbergen," relates several interesting -examples of his ferocity and daring. Having perceived -an ice-bear swimming in the sea, a boat went after him to cut -him off; when suddenly the monster changed his route, faced -the boat, and approached it, keeping up a continued growling, -with other indications of rage, such as showing his frightful -teeth, and elevating his head and much of his body out of the -water. Being desirous to preserve the head, Manby let him -come within twelve yards, when he fired a ball through his -shoulder, which deprived him of the use of a fore-leg. Roaring -hideously, the infuriated animal pressed towards the boat in the -most ferocious manner, endeavouring to board or upset it, but -failed from the loss of his leg. He was then attacked by the -crew with lances, the thrusts of some of which he avoided with -astonishing dexterity, and, in the most resolute manner, again -made several attempts to reach the boat; but being repulsed -by the overpowering thrust of a lance from the harpooner on his -flank, he was unable longer to continue the contest. He had -bitten a lance, in the heat of the combat, with such exasperated -rage, as to break one of his long tusks; but finding his efforts -fruitless, he retreated towards the ice, swimming most astonishingly -fast, considering the great propelling power he had lost, -and finally ascended it with great difficulty, having only one -fore-paw to assist him, when, exhausted by the effort, he fell -down dead, uttering a tremendous growl.</p> - -<p>Captain Lewis, with a party of five hunters, attacked a bear, -and when at a distance of forty yards, four of them fired, and -each lodged a musket ball in its body, two of which passed -directly through the lungs. The enraged animal ran at them -with open mouth, and as it came near, the two men who -had reserved their fire gave it two wounds, and broke its -shoulder, which retarded its motion for a moment. But before -they could reload, it was so near that they were obliged to run, -and before they reached the shore the bear had almost overtaken -them. Two jumped into the canoe, the other four separated, -concealed themselves behind ice blocks, and firing as fast as -they could load, struck the bear several times. But although -eight balls had passed through its body, the bear pursued two -of them so closely, that they were obliged to leap down a perpendicular -bank of twenty feet into the water. The dying -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">« 137 »</a></span> -animal sprang after them, and was within a few feet of the -hindermost, when his strength at last failed him.</p> - -<p>Scoresby relates that in 1783, Captain Cook, of the Archangel, -of Lynn, landed on the coast of Spitzbergen, accompanied -by the surgeon and mate. While traversing the shore, the -captain was unexpectedly attacked by a bear, which seized him -in an instant between its paws. At this awful juncture, when a -moment's pause must have been fatal to him, the unfortunate -man called to his surgeon to fire, who immediately, with admirable -resolution and steadiness, discharged his piece, and -providentially shot the bear through the head, thus literally -saving the master from the jaws of death.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 475px;"> -<img src="images/137.png" width="475" height="390" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Ice-bear approaching the "Dorothea" and "Trent."</div> -</div> - -<p>"One evening," says Beechey, "we set on fire some sea-horse -fat, in order to entice within reach of our muskets any bears -that might be ranging the ice; as these animals possess a -very keen scent, and are invariably attracted by burnt animal -matter. About midnight we had the satisfaction of seeing one -of them drag his huge carcass out of the water, and slowly make -his way towards us. The sight of the tall masts of the ships -appeared to alarm him a little at first, for he occasionally hesitated, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">« 138 »</a></span> -threw up his head, and seemed half inclined to turn round -and be off; but the agreeable odour of the burnt blubber was -evidently so grateful to his olfactory nerves and empty stomach, -that it overcame every repugnance, and gradually brought him -within range of our muskets. On receiving the first shot he -sprang round, uttered a terrific growl, and half raised himself -upon his hind legs, as if in expectation of seizing the object that -had caused him such excruciating pain; and woe to any human -being who had at that moment been within reach of his merciless -paws! The second and third ball left him writhing upon -the ice, and the mate of the Dorothea jumped out of the -vessel and endeavoured to despatch him with the butt end of a -musket; but it unfortunately broke short off, and for a moment -left him at the mercy of his formidable antagonist, who showed, -by turning sharply upon his assailant, and seizing him by the -thigh, that he was not yet mastered; and he would most certainly -have inflicted a serious wound, had it not been for the -prompt assistance of two or three of his shipmates who had -followed him. The animal was by no means one of the largest -of his species, being only six feet in length, and three feet four -inches in height. His stomach was quite empty, with the -exception of a garter, such as is used by Greenland sailors to tie -up their boat stockings. In his left side there was a cicatrised -wound of considerable magnitude. From what we saw of the -activity and ferociousness of this animal, added to the well-known -strength of his species, we readily gave credit to the -accounts of Barentz and other early visitors to these regions; -and it may be considered a fortunate circumstance for the hero -of the Nile and Trafalgar that a natural barrier was interposed -between him and the object of his chase, when in his youth he -ventured alone over the ice in these regions in pursuit of such -formidable game."</p> - -<p>The ferocious white bear, the enemy and the dread of all -other animals that come within its reach, is exceedingly tender -and affectionate to its young, of which the following anecdote -affords a striking and interesting example. While the "Carcase" -was locked in the ice, early one morning the man at the mast-head -gave notice that three bears were making their way very -fast over the frozen ocean, and were directing their course towards -the ship. They had no doubt been invited by the scent -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">« 139 »</a></span> -of some blubber of a sea-horse that the crew had killed a few -days before, which had been set on fire; for they drew out of -the flames a part of the flesh that remained unconsumed, and -ate it voraciously. The crew from the ship threw great lumps -of the flesh of the sea-horse, which they had still left, upon the -ice, which the old bear fetched singly, laid every lump before -her cubs as she brought it, and dividing it, gave to each a share, -reserving but a small portion to herself. As she was fetching -away the last piece, they levelled their muskets at the cubs and -shot them both dead, and in her retreat they wounded the dam, -but not mortally. It would have drawn tears of pity from any -but unfeeling minds, to have marked the affectionate concern -expressed by this poor beast in the dying moments of her expiring -young. Though she was herself dreadfully wounded, -and could but just crawl to the place where they lay, she carried -the lump of flesh she had fetched away, as she had done others -before, tore it in pieces, and laid it before them; and when she -saw that they refused to eat, she laid her paws first upon one -and then upon the other, and endeavoured to raise them up, -piteously moaning all the while. When she found she could not -stir them, she went off, and when she had got at some distance, -looked back and moaned; and that not availing her to entice -them away, she returned, and smelling round them, began to -lick their wounds. She went off a second time as before, and -having crawled a few paces, looked again behind her, and for -some time stood moaning. But still her cubs not rising to follow -her, she returned to them again, and with signs of inexpressible -fondness, went round one and round the other, pawing -them and moaning. Finding at last that they were cold and -lifeless, she raised her head towards the ship, and uttered a -growl of despair, which the murderers returned with a volley of -musket balls. She fell between her cubs, and died licking their -wounds.</p> - -<p>The Sea-Otter is the last of the marine mammiferous animals -that claim our attention. Although it is also found in the -southern Pacific, yet its chief resort is in the Behring's Sea, -along the chain of the Aleut Islands. It is but a small animal, -yet its long-haired, beautifully fine and black fur, which is not -seldom paid for with 400 or 500 rubles, renders it by far the -most important product of those seas. It has even got an historical -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">« 140 »</a></span> -interest, since it has been the chief cause which led the -Russians from Ochotzk to Kamtschatka, and from thence over -the Aleut chain to the opposite -coast of America.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 290px;"> -<img src="images/140.png" width="290" height="170" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Sea-Otter.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Aleut islanders -show a wonderful dexterity -in the capture of this -animal. In April or May -they assemble at an appointed -spot in their light -skin-boats, or <i>baidars</i>, and -choose one of the most -respected <i>tamols</i>, or chiefs, for the leader of the expedition, -which generally numbers from fifty to a hundred boats. Such -hunting-parties are annually organised from the Kurile Islands -to Kadjack, and consequently extend over a line of three thousand -miles. On the first fine day the expedition sets out, and proceeds -to a distance of about forty wersts from the coast, when the -baidars form into a long line, leaving an interval of about two -hundred and fifty fathoms from boat to boat as far as a sea-otter -diving out of the water can be seen; so that a row of thirty -baidars occupies a space of from ten to twelve wersts. When -the number of the boats is greater, the intervals are reduced. -Every man now looks upon the sea with concentrated attention. -Nothing escapes the penetrating eye of the Aleut; in the smallest -black spot appearing but one moment over the surface of the -waters, his experienced glance at once recognises a sea-otter. -The baidar which first sees the animal, rows rapidly towards the -place where the creature dived, and now the Aleut, holding his -oar straight up in the air, remains motionless on the spot. Immediately -the whole squadron is in motion, and the long straight -line changes into a wide circle, the centre of which is occupied -by the baidar with the raised oar. The otter not being able -to remain long under water, re-appears, and the nearest Aleut -immediately greets him with an arrow. This first attack is -seldom mortal; very often the missile does not even reach its -over-distant mark, and the sea-otter instantly disappears. Again -the oar rises from the next baidar; again the circle forms, but -this time narrower than at first; the fatigued otter is obliged to -come oftener to the surface, arrows fly from all sides, and finally -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">« 141 »</a></span> -the animal, killed by a mortal shot, or exhausted by repeated -wounds, falls to the share of the archer who has hit it nearest -to the head. If several otters appear at the same time, the -boats form as many rings, provided their number be sufficiently -great. All these movements are executed with astonishing -celerity and precision, and amidst the deepest silence, which is -only interrupted from time to time by the hissing sound of the -flying arrows.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 225px;"> -<img src="images/141.png" width="225" height="90" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Banded Dipper.</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">« 142 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_X" id="CHAP_X">CHAP. X.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">SEA-BIRDS.</p> - - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 165px;"> -<img src="images/142.png" width="165" height="325" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Flamingo.</div> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2">Their vast Numbers.—Strand-Birds.—Artifices of the Sea-Lark to protect its -Young.—Migrations of the Strand-Birds.—The Sea-Birds in General.—The -Anatidæ.—The Eider Duck.—The Sheldrake.—The Loggerheaded Duck.—Auks -and Penguins.—The Cormorant.—Its Use by the Chinese for Fish -catching.—The Frigate Bird.—The Soland Goose.—The Gulls.—The Petrels.—The -Albatross.—Bird-catching on St. Kilda.—The Guano of the Chincha -Islands.</div> - -<p>Countless are the birds of the wood and field, of the mountain -and the plain; and yet it is doubtful whether they equal in -number those of the fish-teeming seas. -For every naked rock or surf-beaten cliff -that rises over the immeasurable deserts -of ocean, is the refuge of myriads of sea-birds; -every coast, from the poles to the -equator, is covered with their legions -and far from land, their swarms hover -over the solitudes of the deep. Many, -unfit for swimming, seek their food along -the shores; others rival the fishes in their -own native element; and others, again, -armed with indefatigable wings, pursue -their prey upon the high seas. But, -however different the mode of living and -destination of the numerous tribes, families, -genera, and species of the sea-birds may be, -each of them is organised in the most -perfect manner for the exigencies of its own peculiar sphere. -Take, for instance, the Strand-birds, that live on the margin of -ocean, and feast upon the molluscs and sea-worms, that inhabit -the littoral zone. How admirably the light weight of their proportionally -small body suits -the soft, yielding soil on -which they have to seek their -food; how well their long -legs are adapted for striding -through the mud of the shallow -waters; and their long -bill and flexible neck, how -beautifully formed for seizing -their fugitive prey, ere it -can bury itself deep enough -in the safe mud or sand!</p> - - -<p style="clear: both;" class="caption2"><a name="FPage_142" id="FPage_142"></a>PENGUINS ON THE SOUTH POLAR ICE.</p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p>A scene showing the immense droves of penguins which often clothe the sea -edges of the ice and rocks in the South Polar regions is represented in the -annexed plate.</p> - -<p>The individuals in the front are of the large species known as the Great -Penguin, <i>Aptenodytes Forsteri</i>. Beyond is a group of the lesser, but perhaps -more beautiful, species, <i>Aptenodytes Pennantii</i>.</p> - -<p>In the distance are seen lines of another small kind, which has been made -a separate genus, under the denomination of <i>Eudyptes</i>. It is inferior in characteristic -beauty to either of the last named. <i>Eudyptes antipodes</i> is, however, -worthy of a better representation than the dimensions of our plate permitted.</p></div> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 414px;"> -<a href="images/142fplg.png"><img src="images/142fp.png" width="414" height="612" alt="" /></a> -<div class="fig_caption">PENGUINS ON THE SOUTH POLAR ICE.<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">« 143 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 270px;"> -<img src="images/143.png" width="270" height="290" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Curlew.</div> -</div> - -<p>The wonderful art with -which the feathered inhabitants -of the grove construct -their nests, we should in vain look for among the Strand-birds, -but the anxiety they show in protecting their young brood, and -the stratagems they use to divert the attention of the enemy, -are after all instincts no less admirable than those which prompt -the Cassique or the Tailor-bird to build their complicated -dwellings. Thus on the approach of any person to its nest, the -Lapwing flutters round his head with great inquietude, and if -he persists in advancing, it will endeavour to draw him away by -running along the ground as if lame, and thereby inviting pursuit. -The Golden Plover also, when it sees an enemy—-man or -dog—-approach, does not await their arrival, but advances to -meet them. Then suddenly rising with a shrill cry, as if just -disturbed from its nest, it flutters along the ground as if crippled, -and entices them farther and farther from its young. The dogs, -expecting to catch an easy prey, follow the lame bird, which -suddenly, however, flies off with lightning speed, and leaves its -disappointed pursuers on the beach. The discovery of the -nest is rendered still more difficult by the colour and markings -of the eggs assimilating so closely to that of the ground and -surrounding herbage.</p> - -<p>The Scoopers, Oyster-catchers, Avosets, and other strand-birds -have recourse to similar stratagems for the protection of their -young. In New Zealand, the French naturalists, Quoy and -Gaimard, were deceived by an oyster-catcher, which, having -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">« 144 »</a></span> -been shot at, feigned to be wounded, and with hanging wing, -diverted them from the right track.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 180px;"> -<img src="images/144a.png" width="180" height="140" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Avoset.</div> -</div> - -<p>The strand-birds of the high northern -regions fly from the winter to coasts -where milder winds are blowing. But -as soon as the summer's sun begins to -exert its power, the desert shores of -the Arctic Ocean become animated -with swarms of plovers, sand-pipers, -rails, herons, and phalaropes, to whom -the thawed strand opens its inexhaustible -supplies. Soon, however, the approach of winter -hardens once more the soil, want follows upon abundance, -and the whole long-legged host hastens -to abandon the ice-bound strand, which -opposes an impenetrable armour to their -beaks.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 150px;"> -<img src="images/144b.png" width="150" height="210" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Plover.</div> -</div> - -<p>The food of the different kinds of strand-birds -varies, and consequently their bills -are variously formed. Those that live upon -worms have generally a long thin awl-shaped -bill, well fitted for picking their -prey out of the soft muddy or sandy soil. -If the small creatures conceal themselves -under large stones, they are secure from -these attacks; but then comes the Turn-stone, (<i>Tringa interpres</i>,) -who with his bill, a little turned up at the top, raises -the stone as with a lever, and makes sad havoc amongst the -defenceless garrison.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 215px;"> -<img src="images/144c.png" width="215" height="145" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Scissor-bill (Rhynchops nigra).</div> -</div> - -<p>The Sea-pie uses its wedge-shaped bill for opening shell-fish -with great adroitness; but the industry -of the Black Skimmer or Cut-water, -(<i>Rhynchops nigra</i>,) is still more -remarkable. The bill of this bird, -which chiefly inhabits the hot coasts -of America, is quite unique in its -kind; the under mandible, which is -in fact nothing but a wedge, being -about an inch longer than the upper -one, by which it is clasped. The sandy beach of Penco, says -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">« 145 »</a></span> -Lesson, is full of shell-fish, which remain nearly dry at low -water in small pools. The skimmer keeps waiting close by -until one of them opens its shell, when he immediately introduces -his wedge. He then seizes the mussel, beats it to pieces -upon the sand, and devours it with all the pleasure of an epicure -eating an oyster. He is also very active in sweeping the surface of -the water, from which he skims, as it were, the smaller fish or -shrimps. Thus, on all flat sandy shores nothing exists, either -soft or hard, creeping or swimming, jumping or running, that -does not find among the strand-birds its peculiar and admirably -armed enemy, or that can boast of a perfect immunity from -hostile attacks.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 380px;"> -<img src="images/145.png" width="380" height="200" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Speckled Diver.</div> -</div> - -<p>If we examine the real sea-birds, such as are formed for -indefatigable swimming or diving, or for wide flights over the -deserts of ocean, we shall find them no less wonderfully organised -than the winged dwellers on the strand. Their short -compressed toes easily cleave the waters, and by means of their -membranes or webs form, as it were, broad oars. Their muscular -short legs, placed more behind than in other birds, are beautifully -adapted for rowing, although their movements on land -are awkward and slow. All creatures living on the sea of course -require a thick waterproof mantle against weather and storm; -and consequently we find the plumage of sea birds thicker, -closer, and better furnished with down than that of the other -feathered tribes. And finally, the gland which all birds have at -the rump, and from which they express an oily matter to -preserve their feathers moist, is most considerable among those -that live upon the water, and contributes to make their plumage -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">« 146 »</a></span> -impermeable. Surely the sea bird has no right to complain of -imperfect clothing or a deficient outfit!</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 180px;"> -<img src="images/146a.png" width="180" height="204" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Snow Goose.</div> -</div> - -<p>The numerous members of the duck -family, or the Anatidæ, mostly live -during the summer in higher latitudes, -and wander in winter in countless swarms -towards sunnier regions; as, for instance, -the Snow Goose and the Barnacle. -Some remain throughout the year in -Great Britain, some only during the -winter; while others, which are more -particularly birds of the Arctic zone, but -very seldom make their appearance in -our southern clime. Most Anatidæ prefer the lake, the river, -the pond, or the morass; but many of them are true littoral -birds, and spend a great part of their -time swimming and fishing in the -sea.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 210px;"> -<img src="images/146b.png" width="210" height="190" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Barnacle Goose.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Eider Duck, (<i>Anas mollissima</i>,) -which attains nearly double the -size of the common duck, inhabits the -higher latitudes of Europe, Asia, and -America. One of its most remarkable -breeding places is on the small island -of Vidoë near Reikiavik (Iceland), -where it lives under the protection of the law; a person who -should chance to kill a breeding bird having to pay a fine of thirty -dollars.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 185px;"> -<img src="images/146c.png" width="185" height="135" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Eider Duck.</div> -</div> - -<p>"As our boat approached the shore," -says Mackenzie, ("Voyage through Iceland,") -"we came through a multitude -of these beautiful birds, who hardly gave -themselves the trouble to move out of -the way. Between the landing place and -the house of the old governor the ground was covered with them, -and it was necessary to walk cautiously not to tread upon their -nests. The ganders went about with a cackle resembling the -cooing of a pigeon, and were even more familiar than our -common duck. Round about the house, on the garden wall, on -the roofs, even in the inside of the huts and the chapel, they sat -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">« 147 »</a></span> -breeding in great numbers. Those which had not been long -upon their nest generally left it at our approach, but those -which had more than one or two eggs remained undisturbed, -allowed themselves to be handled, and sometimes even gently -used their bills to remove our hand. The nests were lined with -down, which the mother plucks from her own breast; and near -at hand a sufficient quantity was piled up to cover the eggs -when she goes to feed, which is generally at low water. The -downs are twice removed, but sometimes the poor duck is -obliged to provide for a fourth lining; and when she has no -more to spare, the gander willingly deprives himself of part of -his showy snow-white and rose-red garment. The eggs, which -are considered a great delicacy, are also partially taken away. -Our Vidoë friend used to send us two hundred at a time. -When boiled, they are tolerably good, but always very inferior -to those of our domestic hen. When taken from the nest, the -downs are of course mixed with feathers and straw; and to sort -and prepare them for sale is part of the winter employment of -the women. One nest furnishes about a quarter of a pound of -cleaned downs. The softness, lightness, and elasticity of these -feathers is universally known. A few handfuls of compressed -downs suffice to fill a whole coverlet, under which the northlander -bids defiance to the strongest winter cold. Almost as -soon as the young have left the egg, the mother conducts them -to the water's edge, takes them on her back, and swims a few -yards with them, when she dives, and leaves them on the -surface to take care of themselves. As soon as they have thus -acquired the art of swimming, the duck returns and becomes -their leader. The broods often unite in great numbers, and -remain some weeks quite wild, after which they disappear. -Long before we left Iceland not a single duck was to be seen. -No one knows to what parts they migrate. The bird is found -on the Flannen Islands, to the west of Lewis; it is seen on the -Shetland and Orkney Islands; it breeds on May Island, at the -mouth of the Frith of Forth." Even on Heligoland the eider -duck sometimes makes its appearance, but not to breed. The -produce of the eider duck, either for personal use or as an -article of trade, contributes to the comforts of many northern -nations. The Esquimaux kill these birds with darts, pursuing -them in their little boats, watching their course by the air -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">« 148 »</a></span> -bubbles when they dive, and always striking at them when they -rise wearied to the surface. Their flesh is valued as food, and -their skins are made into warm and comfortable under -garments.</p> - -<p>The Long-tailed Duck and the Sheldrake or Burrow Duck, -(<i>Anas glacialis</i> <i>tadorna</i>), likewise inhabit the northern shores -of Europe, Asia, and America. The -former often remains the whole year -in the high north, bidding defiance -to the icy winter of the Arctic circle, -and enjoying during the summer the -light of an uninterrupted day. Often, -however, it migrates to the south, -and wanders from Greenland and -Hudson's Bay as far as New York, -and from Spitzbergen and Iceland to Heligoland and the -Schleswig Islands. The duck likewise lines her nest with her -downs. During the winter, the sheldrake is often seen in -the west of England and in Ireland, where it is caught in nets. -On Sylt, on the Danish coast, it is half domesticated, living in -artificial burrows, and breeding even in the villages, on walls, -and in earth holes. In a pleasant valley among the downs, -which, although without trees, refreshed the eye with a verdant -carpet variegated with flowers, Naumann, the celebrated German -ornithologist, saw thousands of sheldrakes scattered in -couples over the meads, so tame that they could be approached -within twenty paces, when they flew up, but soon again alighted -on the sward. He admired the construction of the artificial -nests, often thirteen in one cavity, with a common entrance, and -communicating by horizontal tunnels. Over every nest is a -perpendicular opening, decked with a sod. On this being raised -the duck is often seen sitting on her nest, so tame that it allows -itself to be stroked. Every householder possesses several of -these artificial burrows, from which he daily gathers during -several weeks from twenty to thirty eggs, leaving six in each -nest to be hatched. He also takes care to remove one half of -the beautiful downs, which are no less light and valuable than -those of the eider duck.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 215px;"> -<img src="images/148.png" width="215" height="160" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Sheldrake.</div> -</div> - -<p>One of the most curious members of the duck family is the -large Loggerheaded Duck or goose (<i>Anas brachyptera</i>) of the -Falkland Islands, which sometimes weighs twenty-two pounds. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">« 149 »</a></span> -It was formerly called, from its extraordinary manner of -paddling and splashing upon the water, race-horse, but is now -named, much more appropriately, steamer. Its wings are too -small and weak to allow of flight, but by their aid, partly -swimming and partly flapping the surface of the water, it moves -very quickly. The manner is something like that by which the -common house duck escapes when pursued by a dog; but Mr. -Darwin, who often watched the bird, is nearly sure that the -steamer moves its wings alternately, instead of both together, as -in other birds. These clumsy logger-headed ducks make such -a noise and splashing, that the effect is exceedingly curious. -It is able to dive only a very short distance. It feeds entirely -on shell-fish from the kelp and tidal rocks; and hence its beak -and head, which it uses for the purpose of breaking them, are -so surprisingly heavy and strong, that they can scarcely be -fractured with a hammer.</p> - -<p>Another remarkable inhabitant of the southern hemisphere is -the Rock Goose, (<i>Anas antarctica</i>,) which exclusively inhabits -rocky shores, and is often met with on the Falkland Islands, -and on the west coast of America, as far north as Chili. In the -deep and retired channels of Tierra del Fuego, the snow-white -gander, invariably accompanied by his darker consort, and -standing close by each other on some distant rocky point, is a -common feature in the landscape.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 215px;"> -<img src="images/149.png" width="215" height="130" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Red-Breasted Merganser.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Mergansers differ chiefly from the sea-ducks, whom they -otherwise closely resemble both in outward form and mode of -life, by their comparatively long and slender bill, furnished -with serrated edges and hooked at the extremity. All -the British species are adorned with crests, or a tuft of -long feathers, at the back of the -head. The red-breasted merganser -is a beautiful bird, painted with a -variety of gay colours. "The head -and throat are of a rich shining green, -the neck white, except a narrow dark -line behind; at either side before the -wings are numerous large white -feathers bordered by velvet-black; the lower part of the neck -and breast is chestnut-brown, varied with dark streaks, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">« 150 »</a></span> -the body and wings are elegantly diversified with white, black, -and brown feathers." (Harvey, <i>Sea Side Book</i>.)</p> - -<p>The family of the Grebes and Divers approximates the duck -tribe in the order of creation, but is distinguished by a long -conical bill, and the position of the legs, which are placed so far -back towards the tail, that when the bird leaves the water it is -obliged to stand nearly erect to preserve its equilibrium. The -foot in the grebes is only partially webbed, the toes being merely -lobed or finned; but the divers are completely web-footed, -like the duck. These latter do honour to their name, being -most expert and indefatigable divers, remaining down sometimes -for several minutes, and swimming rapidly under the -water. The Red-throated Diver preys much on the fish entangled -in the nets, but is often caught himself in his rapid -pursuit of the fish; thus affording a strange example of a bird -caught under water.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 360px;"> -<img src="images/150.png" width="360" height="325" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Great Crested Grebe.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Arctic Diver enjoys among the Norwegians the reputation -of being a most excellent weather-prophet. When the -skies are big with rain, the birds fly wildly about, and make the -most horrible hoarse noise, fearing that the swelled waters -should invade their nest; on the contrary, in fine weather, their -note is different, and seemingly in an exulting strain. For this -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">« 151 »</a></span> -reason, the Norwegians, who, being mostly a maritime population, -pay the greatest attention to the aspect of the sky, think -it impious to destroy, or even to disturb, this species.</p> - -<p>The family of <i>Alcadæ</i>, comprising the Guillemots, Auks, -Razor Bills, and Puffins, is in form of body very similar to the -Divers: the legs, which are short and thick, are inserted very -far back, and give a still more erect carriage to the bird when -on shore. The wings are short and small in proportion to the -bulk of the body, and in the (now probably extinct) Great Auk, -so much so as to be unfitted for flight. The Auks are strictly -sea-birds, and nestle on its borders, breeding in caverns and -rocky cliffs, and laying only one large egg. They obtain their -food by diving, at which they are very expert. They are of -social habits, and congregate in vast flocks on the rocky islets -and head-lands of the northern coasts. At the head of the -Magdalen Bay, on Spitzbergen, for instance, there is a high -pyramidal mountain of granite, termed Rotge Hill, from the -myriads of small birds of that name (Little Auk, <i>Alca alce</i>), -which frequent its base, and which appear to prefer its environs -to every other part of the harbour. They are so numerous -that Admiral Beechey frequently saw an uninterrupted line -of them extending full half-way over the bay, or to a distance -of more than three miles, and so close together that thirty fell at -one shot. This living column, on an average, might have been -about six yards broad, and as many deep; so that allowing -sixteen birds to a cubic yard, there must have been nearly four -millions of birds on the wing at one time.</p> - -<p>The calling or crying of the rotges amongst one another -sounds at a distance as if you heard a great many women scolding -together; so that the noise of millions uniting in a chorus -must be terrific. On a fine summer's day, when a glorious -sunshine gilds the snow peaks and glaciers of Spitzbergen, the -merry cry of the little auk unites with that of the willocks, -divers, cormorants, gulls, and other aquatic birds; and everywhere -groups of walruses, basking in the sun, mingle their -playful roar with the husky bark of the seal. It is pleasant -to reflect that in those arctic wilds, uninhabitable by man, there -are still millions of creatures enjoying life, all owing their support -to the inexhaustible "garners" of the deep.</p> - -<p>In the Penguins of the southern hemisphere, the shortness of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">« 152 »</a></span> -wing and aptitude for swimming and diving are still more conspicuous -than in the auks of the -northern regions. In the water, the -penguin makes use of its small -featherless wing-stumps as paddles; -on land, as fore feet, with whose -help it scales so rapidly the grass-grown -cliffs, as to be easily mistaken for a quadruped. When -at sea, and fishing, it comes to the surface for the purpose of -breathing, with such a spring, and dives again so instantaneously, -that at first sight no one can be sure that it is not a fish leaping -for sport. Other sea-birds generally keep part of their body out -of the water while swimming; but this is not the case with the -penguin, whose head alone appears upon the surface; and thus -it swims with such rapidity and perseverance, as almost to defy -many of the fishes to equal it. How much it feels itself at -home on the waters, may be inferred from the fact that Sir -James Ross once saw two penguins paddling away a thousand -miles from the nearest land.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 255px;"> -<img src="images/152a.png" width="255" height="130" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Antarctic Penguin.</div> -</div> - -<p>On many uninhabited islands in the -higher latitudes of the southern hemisphere, -this strange bird is met with in -incredible numbers. On Possession -Island, for instance, a desolate rock discovered -by Sir James Ross in lat. 71° 56″, -not the smallest appearance of vegetation -could be found; but inconceivable -myriads of penguins completely and -densely covered the whole surface of -the island, along the ledges of the precipices, -and even to the summits of the -hills, attacking vigorously the sailors as they waded through -their ranks, and pecking at them with their sharp beaks, disputing -possession, which, together with their loud coarse notes, -and the insupportable stench from the deep bed of guano which -had been forming for ages, made them glad to get away again. -Sir James took possession of the island in the name of Queen -Victoria; but unfortunately its treasures of manure are hidden -beyond a far too formidable barrier of ice ever to be available -to man.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 215px;"> -<img src="images/152b.png" width="215" height="300" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Penguin.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">« 153 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Duperrey ("Voyage de la Coquille,") found the Falklands -swarming with penguins. In summer and autumn these strange -birds leave their burrows early in the morning, and launch into -the sea for fishing. After having filled their capacious stomachs, -they waddle on shore, and remain for a time congregated on the -strand, raising a dreadful clamour; after which they retire to -enjoy a noon-tide sleep among the high tussack grass or in their -burrows. In the afternoon the fishing recommences. Lesson -says that about sunset on fine summer evenings, which -unfortunately are but of rare occurrence on those foggy, storm-visited -islands, all the penguins together raise their discordant -voices, so that at a distance the noise might be mistaken for -the hoarse murmur of a great popular assembly. As soon as -the young are sufficiently strong, the whole band leaves the -island, departing no one knows whither, though the mariners -frequenting those seas believe that they spend the winter on -the ocean. This opinion seems to be corroborated by the -observations of Sir James Ross, who, on the 4th of December, -in 49° S. lat., met on the high sea a troop of penguins that -were doubtless on the way to their breeding place. He -admired the astonishing instinct of these creatures, half fish, -half bird, which leads them hundreds of miles through the -pathless ocean to their accustomed summer abodes.</p> - -<p>It may be imagined how the neighbouring seas must abound -with fish, to be able to nourish such multitudes of penguins, -whose stomach is capable of holding more than two pounds, and -whose voracity is so great that they are often obliged to disgorge -their superabundant meal. The elongated stomach reaches to -the lower part of the abdomen, and the whole length of the -intestinal canal is twenty-five feet, fifteen times longer than the -body, so that nature has evidently provided for a most vigorous -appetite, whetted by sea-bathing and sea air.</p> - -<p>There are several species of penguins. The largest (<i>Aptenodytes -antarctica</i>) weighs about eighty pounds. It is a rare -bird, generally found singly, while the smaller species always -associate in vast numbers. In 77° S. lat., Sir James Ross caught -three of these giant penguins, the smallest of which weighed -fifty-seven pounds. In the stomach of one of them he found -ten pounds of quartz, granite, and trap fragments, swallowed -most likely to promote digestion.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">« 154 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The penguin, like his northern representative the auk, lays -but one single egg. His not unsavoury flesh is black. Besides -his dense plumage, he is protected against the cold of the -higher latitudes by a thick cover of fat under his skin.</p> - -<p>Humboldt's penguin (<i>Spheniscus Humb.</i>) is frequently found -in the Bay of Callao. This bird is a little smaller than the -common grey penguin, with a somewhat differently coloured -back and breast. The Peruvians call it <i>pajaro niño</i>, "little -darling bird," and keep it in their houses; it is very easily -tamed, gets very familiar, and follows its master like a dog. -The sight of the fat creature, awkwardly waddling about the -streets on its short feet, and violently agitating its wing-stumps -to maintain its equilibrium, is inexpressibly grotesque. Tschudi -kept one of these tame penguins, which punctually obeyed his -call. At dinner it regularly stood like a stiff footman behind -his chair, and at night slept under his bed. When "Pepe" -wanted a bath, he went into the kitchen and kept striking with -his beak against an earthen jar, until some one came to pour -water over him.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 265px;"> -<img src="images/154.png" width="265" height="230" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Common Pelican.</div> -</div> - -<p>To the pelican tribe, which is generally distinguished by a -surface of naked skin about the -throat, capable of considerable dilatation, -and serving as a pouch for -the reception of unswallowed food, -belong among others the Cormorant -(<i>Phalacrocorax</i>), the Frigate-Bird -(<i>Tachypetes aquila</i>), and the -Gannet (<i>Sula bassana</i>), or Solan -goose. All these birds are of much -more active habits than the last -named family, with bodies of more -shapely form, more ample wings, and a stronger flight.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/155a.png" width="200" height="275" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Common Cormorant.</div> -</div> - -<p>The common cormorant with his long bill, bent at the point, -and furnished with a nail, his black livery, and yellowish chin-pouch, -is a most disagreeable comrade. His smell, when alive, is -more rank and offensive than that of any other bird, and his -flesh is so disgusting, that it turns the stomach even of an -Esquimaux. In spite of his voracity, he always remains thin -and meagre, the picture of a hungry parasite. But fishing he -understands remarkably well, and formerly used to be trained -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">« 155 »</a></span> -for this purpose in England, in the same manner as a nearly -related species is to the present day employed in China. Mr. -Fortune thus describes this original chase, -which he witnessed on the Yellow River:—"There -were two boats, each containing -one man, and about ten or twelve birds. -The latter stood perched on the sides of -the boats, and seemed to have just arrived -upon the scene of action. Their masters -now commanded them to leave the boats; -and so excellent was their training, that -they instantly obeyed, scattered themselves -over the canal, and began to look -for prey. They have a splendid sea-green -eye, and quick as lightning they -see and dive upon the finny tribe, which, once caught in the sharp -notched bill, finds escape impossible. As soon as a cormorant rises -to the surface with his prey in his bill, his master calls him, when, -docile as a dog, he swims to the boat and surrenders the fish, -after which he again resumes his labours. And what is more -wonderful still, when one of them has got hold of a fish so large -as to be with difficulty dragged to the boat, the others come to -his assistance, and by their united strength overpower the -sprawling giant. Sometimes when a cormorant is lazy or playful, -and seems to forget his business, the Chinaman strikes the -water with a long bamboo near to the dreamer, and calls out -to him in an angry tone. Immediately the bird, like a schoolboy -caught nodding over his lesson, gives up his play, and -returns to his duty. A small string is tied round the neck of -the birds, for fear they might be tempted to swallow the fish -themselves."</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 265px;"> -<img src="images/155b.png" width="265" height="205" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Frigate-Bird.</div> -</div> - -<p>The frigate-bird hovers over the -tropical waters. Its singularly easy -and graceful flight affords all the -charm of variety. Sometimes it is -seen balanced in mid air, its wings -spread, but apparently motionless, -its long forked tail expanding and -closing with a quick alternate motion, -and its head turned inquisitively downwards; sometimes -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">« 156 »</a></span> -it wheels rapidly, and darts to the surface of the water in pursuit -of prey; and then again it soars so as to be lost to vision, its elevation -alone being sufficient to distinguish it from all other sea -birds. Sometimes it is seen 400 leagues from land; and yet it is -said to return every night to its solitary roost. Its expanded -pinions measure from end to end fourteen feet, a prodigious extent -of wings, equalling or even surpassing that of the condor, the -lordly bird of the loftiest Andes. Being unable to swim or dive, -it seizes the flying-fish, that, springing out of the water to avoid -the jaws of the bonito, often falls a prey to the frigate-bird, or -else it compels boobies or tropic birds to disgorge. On volcanic -coasts it builds its nest in the crevices of the high cliffs, and on -the low coral islands in the loftiest trees. In the Paumotu Group, -Captain Wilkes saw whole groves covered with the nests of the -frigate-bird. When the old birds flew away, they puffed up -their red pouches to the size of a child's head, so that it looked -as if a large bladder full of blood was attached to their neck.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 460px;"> -<img src="images/156a.png" width="460" height="170" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Flying Fish.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 266px;"> -<img src="images/156b.png" width="266" height="225" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Common Gannet.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Gannet or Soland-goose (<i>Sula Bassana</i>) haunts the Bass -Island, a high steep rock in the Frith of Forth, whose black -precipices are painted with dazzling -stripes of white <i>guano</i>, the product -of the inconceivable number of birds -which settle upon the weather-beaten -ledges. The gannets incubate in the -turf of the slopes above, and you may -sit down by them and their great -downy young while their mates hover -over you with discordant screams and -almost touch you with their outspread pinions. There is but one -landing-place, and this sole entrance to the natural fastness is -closed by a barred gate, proclaiming that man has taken possession -of the rock. Some years ago it was let at an annual rent -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">« 157 »</a></span> -of thirty-five pounds. The eggs are not collected, and no old -bird is allowed to be shot, under a penalty of five pounds; only -the young birds are persecuted. The chase begins on the 1st of -August. They are taken with the hand or knocked on the head -with sticks, and sent to the Edinburgh market, where they fetch -about half a crown a piece. The gannet breeds also on Lundy -Island, in the Severn, on Ailsa, on the coast of Ayrshire, on the -island of St. Kilda, and hardly anywhere else in Europe. As it -must let itself fall before taking wing, it requires a steep and -precipitous breeding-station. Its mode of fishing is particularly -graceful. Rapidly skimming the surface of the sea, as soon as -it spies a fish swimming below, it rises perpendicularly over the -spot, and then, suddenly folding its wings, drops head-foremost -on its prey swifter than an arrow, and with almost unerring aim. -The prevalent colour of the full-plumaged bird is white, the -tips of its wings only being black, and some black lines about -the face, resembling eyebrows or spectacles. The pale yellow -eyes are encircled with a naked skin of fine blue, the head and -neck are buff colour, the legs black, and greenish on the fore -part. The plumage of the young bird is very different, being -blackish, dotted irregularly with small white specks.</p> - -<p>The family of the Laridæ, which comprises the gulls, the -sea-swallows, the petrels, and the albatrosses, is widely spread -over the whole surface of the ocean. All the birds of this -tribe have a powerful flight, and are distinguished by the -easy grace of their motions, striking the air at long intervals -with their wings, and generally gliding or soaring with outstretched -pinions. Their form is handsome and well-proportioned, -some of them resembling the swallow, others the dove; -but their mode of life does not correspond with their beauty, as -they are all ill-famed for their predatory habits and insatiable -voracity. The cry of the sea-mew is peculiar, being a mixture -of screaming and laughing. When in the solitude of a wild -rocky coast it is heard mingling with the hoarse rolling of the -surge and the moaning wind, it harmonises well with the character -of the dreary scene, and produces a not unpleasing effect. -It is amusing to witness the movements of the sea-mews at the -mouths of the larger rivers, where they are seen in numbers, -picking up the animal substances which are cast on shore, or -come floating down with the ebbing tide. Such as are near -the breakers will mount up the surface of the water, and run -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">« 158 »</a></span> -splashing towards the crest of the wave, to get hold of the object -of their pursuit, while others are seen every now and then diving, -and reappearing with a fish in their bill. Sometimes the more -powerful sea-hawk interrupts their pleasure, pounces upon the -robbers, and scatters the screaming band.</p> - -<p>Many different species of gulls inhabit the northern shores, -and various are the places which they choose for breeding. -The Kittiwake or Tarrock (<i>Larus tridactylus</i>), one of the commonest -sea-birds in Greenland, Iceland, the Feroës and the -Scotch islands, builds its sea-weed nest on the highest and most -inaccessible rocks. According to Faber (Prodromus of Icelandic -Ornithology), its swarms are so numerous on Grimsoe, -that they darken the sun when they fly, deafen the ear when -they scream, and deck the green-capped rocks with a white -covering when they breed.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 287px;"> -<img src="images/158a.png" width="287" height="201" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Herring Gull (Young).</div> -</div> - -<p>In the famous "bird-city" at the north point of Sylt, the Silvery -or Herring-gull plays a prominent -part. Its great size, equal to that -of the raven, but with much longer -wings—its agreeable form, its pure -white plumage, of metallic brilliancy -on the back, gradually melting into -light ash-blue; the velvet-black ends -of the wings, with snowy feather tips, -the lovely yellow eye, and the deep -yellow beak, with its coral-red spot, all this together forms a beautiful -picture. "There we stood," says -Naumann, "surrounded by thousands, -that partly hovered close -over our heads, uttering their shrill -screams, partly stood before us in -pairs; some on their nests, the -males keeping guard, some sleeping -on one leg, and others leisurely -stretching themselves. In one -word, one hardly knew what most -to admire, the uncommon cleanliness -and beauty of their plumage, the great variety and elegance -of their attitudes, their tameness, or the immense numbers -collected in so small a space."</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 255px;"> -<img src="images/158b.png" width="255" height="225" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Herring Gull, or Silvery Gull -(Adult).</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">« 159 »</a></span></p> - -<p>In the same "bird-city," but apart from the former, breed -also the Common Gull (<i>Larus canus</i>) which is much smaller -and of a more slender shape, and also the Sandwich and Caspian -Terns. It is astonishing to see how each kind of sea-bird seeks -its particular spot for breeding; only the auks and guillemots -herd promiscuously. What may induce the birds to meet in -such large bodies and then always to choose some particular -cliff? The gulls yield the fortunate possessor of their district -an annual income of at least two hundred rix-dollars. More -than thirty thousand of the eggs, which are larger than those -of the turkey, are collected every year, packed up with moss in -baskets, and sent to the market. Two or three persons are busy -from morning till evening, during the whole season, collecting -the eggs, and receive for their trouble those of the smaller birds, -which may also amount to about twenty thousand. But although -the terns appear in considerable numbers on Sylt, they have -chosen the small flat island, Norder Oog, to the west of Pelworm, -for their chief residence. The breeding colony of the -Sandwich tern amounts here to at least a million of individuals, -so that when the birds are at rest, the island, at the distance -of a mile, resembles a white stripe in the sea; but when their -innumerable multitudes hover above it, they seem an immense -white rotatory cloud. The eggs lie in some places so close -together, that it is almost impossible to walk between them -without treading upon them; the breeding birds often touch -one another, and would not find room, if, like all sea-swallows -that breed socially on the coast, they did not sit in the same -posture, with their head facing the water. It is incomprehensible -how each bird can find its eggs; it would even seem impossible, -did we not know the miracles of animal instinct. Their noise -is incessant, for even during the night they keep up a continual -and lively prattle. He who approaches them during the -day is soon surrounded by these screamers, whose whirling -thousand-tongued multitudes stun his senses; and these birds, -at other times so shy, flutter so close over his head, as often to -touch him with their wings.</p> - -<p>On Nowaja Semlja's ice-bound coast, on the peaks of isolated -cliffs, and suffering no other bird in his vicinity, dwells the -fierce imperious Burgomaster (<i>Larus glaucus</i>). None of its class -dares dispute the authority of the lordly bird, when with unhesitating -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">« 160 »</a></span> -superiority it descends on its prey, though in the -possession of another. Although not numerous, yet it is the -general attendant on the whale-fisher whenever spoils are -to be obtained. Then it hovers over the scene of action, and -having marked out its morsel, descends upon it and carries -it off on the wing. On its descent, the most dainty pieces -must be relinquished, though in the grasp of fulmar, snow-bird, -or kittiwake.</p> - -<p>The larger parasitical or raptorial gulls (<i>Lestris parasiticus, -catarrhactes</i>), are incapable of diving or plunging, their feathers -being too large in proportion to their bulk. They are therefore -obliged to live by the exertions of the lesser species, making -them disgorge what they have eaten, and dexterously catching -the rejected fish before it reaches the water. Thus we see the -old feudal relations of baron and serf established as a natural -institution among the gull-tribe.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 262px;"> -<img src="images/160a.png" width="262" height="165" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Broad-billed Petrel.</div> -</div> - -<p>Although the sea-swallows and sea-mews are endowed with -great power of wing, yet the petrels -and albatrosses alone deserve the -name of oceanic birds, as they are -almost always found on the high -seas, at every distance from land, -and only during breeding-time seek -the solitary coasts and islands. -Petrels are scattered over the whole -extent of the ocean, but the petrels -which inhabit the northern seas are different from those of the -antarctic ocean, and between both are other species, that never -forsake the intertropical waters.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 255px;"> -<img src="images/160b.png" width="255" height="230" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fork-tailed Petrel.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Fulmar (<i>Procellaria glacialis</i>) -is at home in the high north. -As soon as the whale-fisher has -passed the Shetland Islands, on his -way to the Arctic Seas, this bird is -sure to accompany his track, eagerly -watching for anything thrown overboard. -Walking awkwardly on land, -the fulmar flies to windward in the -most terrific storms. Many thousands -frequently accumulate round a dead whale, rushing in from all -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">« 161 »</a></span> -quarters. The sea immediately about the ship's stern, when -the men are engaged in skinning their gigantic prey, is sometimes -so completely covered with them that a stone can scarcely -be thrown overboard without striking one of them. When -anything is thus cast among the crowd, those nearest take -alarm, and so on, till a thousand are put in motion; but as -in rising they strike the water with their feet, a loud and most -irregular splashing is produced. It is amusing to observe with -what jealousy they view, and with what boldness they attack, -any of their species engaged in devouring the finest morsels, -and to hear the curious chuckling noise they make in their -anxiety for despatch, lest they should be disturbed. The voracious -birds are frequently so glutted as to be unable to fly, in -which case they rest upon the water until the advancement of -digestion restores their wonted powers. They then return to -the banquet with the same gusto as before, and although numbers -of the species may have been killed with boat-hooks, and float -among them, the others, nothing daunted, and unconscious of -danger to themselves, continue their gormandising labours. -When carrion is scarce, the fulmars follow the living whale, as -if they had a presentiment of his future fate, and sometimes, -by their peculiar motions while hovering on the surface of the -water, point out to the fisherman the position of the animal. -As their beak cannot make an impression on the dead whale -until some more powerful creature tears away the skin, it may -be imagined how delighted they are when man takes upon -himself the trouble of peeling a whale for them.</p> - -<p>The Glacial Petrel (<i>Procellaria gelida</i>) does not seem to -approach the pole so near as the fulmar. He appears but seldom -in Iceland, but breeds frequently in Newfoundland. The same -is the case with the Shearwater (<i>P. puffinus</i>), which breeds in -great numbers on the Feroë islands, and in Orcadia. The -tropical petrels are the least known. They do not appear -to gather troopwise, and but seldom follow ships. Towards -45° S. lat. the first Pintados (<i>P. capensis</i>) make their appearance, -and are more rarely seen after having passed 60° S. -lat. The Giant Petrel (<i>P. gigantea</i>), extends its flight as far as -the ice-banks of the south, where the Antarctic and the Snowy -(<i>P. antarctica et nivea</i>) Petrels first appear, birds which never -leave those dreary seas, and are often seen in vast flocks floating -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">« 162 »</a></span> -upon the drift ice. Thus nature has set bounds to petrels, as to -all other creatures that swim or fly in and over the ocean, and -has divided the wide deserts of the sea among their different -species. Who can tell us the mysterious laws which assign to -each of them its limits? Who can show us the invisible barriers -they are not allowed to pass?</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 440px;"> -<img src="images/162.png" width="440" height="260" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Stormy Petrel.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Stormy Petrel (<i>P. pelagica</i>) seems to belong to every -sea. It is about the size of a swallow, and in its general appearance -and flight is not unlike that bird. Although the smallest -web-footed bird known, it braves the utmost fury of the tempest, -often skimming with incredible velocity the trough of the waves, -and sometimes gliding rapidly over their snowy crests. Like all -of its kind, it lives almost constantly at sea, and seeks during -the breeding season some lonely rock, where it deposits in some -fissure or crevice its solitary egg.</p> - -<p>The mode of life of the petrels corresponds but little with -their external beauty; they are in fact the crows of the ocean, -and live upon the dead animal substances floating on its surface. -Wherever the carcase of a whale, borne along by the current, -covers the sea with a long stripe of putrid oil, they are seen -feasting in the polluted waters. All petrels have the remarkable -faculty of spouting oil of a very offensive smell, from their -nostrils when alarmed, and this apparently as a means of -defence.</p> - -<p>The Albatross (<i>Diomedea exulans</i>) is the monarch of the high -seas; the picture of a hero, who, under every storm of adverse -fortune, preserves the immoveable constancy of an undaunted -heart. Proud and majestic, he swims along in his own native -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">« 163 »</a></span> -element, and without ever touching the water with his pinions, -rises with the rising billow, and falls with the falling wave. -It is truly wonderful how he bids -defiance to the fury of the unshackled -elements, and how quietly he -faces the gale. "He seems quite -at home," say the sailors; and indeed -this expression is perfectly -characteristic of his graceful ease as -he hovers over the agitated ocean.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 275px;"> -<img src="images/163.png" width="275" height="225" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Wandering Albatross.</div> -</div> - -<p>The albatross exceeds the swan in -size, attains a weight of from 12lbs. -to 28lbs., and extends his wings from -ten to thirteen feet. His plumage is white and black, harmonising -with the wave-crest and the storm-cloud. For weeks and months -together he is seen to follow the course of a ship; but, according -to Mr. Harvey (Sea Side Book), "the time he can remain on -the wing seems to have been much exaggerated, for although, -like the gull and the petrel, he is no diving-bird, he swims -with the greatest ease; and notwithstanding the enormous -length of his pinions, knows well how to rise again into the -air. He is indeed unable to take wing from a narrow deck, -but when he wishes to rise from the sea, he runs along flapping -the waters until he has acquired the necessary impetus, or meets -with a wave of a sufficient height, from whose lofty crest he -starts as from a rocky pinnacle, and resumes his extensive flight -over an immense expanse of ocean." A short-winged species -frequents the waters of Kamtschatka and Japan; but the -<i>wandering</i> albatross (<i>D. exulans</i>) belongs more particularly to -the southern hemisphere, being rarely seen to the north of 30° -S. lat., and appearing more frequently as the higher latitudes -are approached. The regions of storms—the Cape of Good -Hope and Cape Horn—are his favourite resorts, and all travellers -know that the southern point of Africa is not far distant as soon as -the albatrosses show themselves in larger numbers. These birds -are the vultures of the ocean; their crooked sharp-edged beak -is better adapted to lacerate a lifeless prey, than to seize upon -the rapid fish as it darts swiftly along below the surface of -the waters. From a vast distance they smell the floating carcase -of a whale, and soon alight in considerable numbers upon the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">« 164 »</a></span> -giant carrion. They also feed upon the large cephalopods -that inhabit mid-ocean, and remains of these molluscs are -generally found in their stomach. The Auckland and Campbell -islands seem to be two of their favourite breeding-stations. -When Sir James Ross visited these secluded groups, the birds -were so assiduously breeding as to allow themselves to be -taken with the hand. The nest is built of sand mixed with -dried leaves and grasses, generally eighteen inches high, with -a diameter of twenty-seven inches at the surface, and of six feet -at the base. While breeding, the snow-white head and neck of -the bird project above the grasses, and betray it from afar. -On endeavouring to drive it from its eggs it defends itself valiantly, -snapping with its beak. Its greatest enemy is a fierce -raptorial gull (<i>Lestris antarcticus</i>), which is always on the look-out, -and, as soon as the albatross leaves the nest, shoots down -upon it to steal the eggs.</p> - -<p>Swift flies the albatross, but fancy travels with still more rapid -wings through the realms of space, and leads us suddenly from -the lone islands of the Pacific to the north of another hemisphere. -Saint Kilda rises before us—a glorious sight when the last rays -of the setting sun, as he slowly sinks upon the ocean, light up -with dazzling splendour the towering cliffs of the island, which -one might almost fancy to be some huge volcano newly emerged -from the deep, or the impregnable bulwark of some enchanted -land. St. Kilda, one of the most striking examples of the grandest -rock-scenery, plunges on all sides perpendicularly into the sea, -so that although six miles in circumference, it affords but one -single landing-place, accessible only in fair weather. Four of -the promontories are perforated, and as many large caverns are -formed, through which the sea rolls its heaving billows. From -the eastern extremity, which rises nearly perpendicularly to the -height of 1380 feet, and is supposed to be the loftiest precipice -in Britain, the view is of indescribable sublimity. Far -below, the long heavy swell of the ocean is seen climbing up -the dark rock, whose base is clothed with sheets of snow-white -foam. In many places the naked rock disappears under the -myriads of sea-birds sitting upon their nests; the air is literally -clouded with them, and the water seems profusely dotted with -the larger fowl, the smaller ones being nearly invisible on account -of the distance. Every narrow ledge is thickly covered -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">« 165 »</a></span> -with kittiwakes, auks, and guillemots; all the grassy spots are -tenanted by the fulmar, and honey-combed by myriads of -puffins; while close to the water's edge on the wet rocks, which -are hollowed out into deep recesses, -sit clusters of cormorants, erect and -motionless, like so many unclean -spirits, guarding the entrance of some -gloomy cave.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 240px;"> -<img src="images/165a.png" width="240" height="140" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Black Guillemot.</div> -</div> - -<p>On rolling down a large stone from -the summit, a strange scene of confusion -ensues. Here, falling like a -thunderbolt on some unfortunate fulmar sitting upon its nest, -it crushes the poor creature in an instant; then rolling down -the crags, and cutting deep furrows -in the grassy slopes, it scatters in -dismay the dense groups of auks and -guillemots. Its progress all along -is marked by the clouds of birds, -which affrighted shoot out from the -precipice to avoid the fate to which -nevertheless many fall a prey, until -at length it reaches the bottom along -with its many victims. The scared -tenants of the rock now return to their resting-places, and all -is again comparatively quiet.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 230px;"> -<img src="images/165b.png" width="230" height="184" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Common Puffin.</div> -</div> - -<p>Several species of gulls are of common occurrence on St. -Kilda: <i>Larus marinus</i>, <i>fuscus</i>, <i>canus</i>, and <i>tridactylus</i>. The -last, or kittiwake, is the most abundant; a social bird, choosing -the most inaccessible spots. On disturbing a colony of kittiwakes, -most of the birds leave their nests and fly about the -intruder, uttering incessantly their clamorous but not unmusical -cry. The noise from a large flock is almost deafening; the -flapping of their wings and their loud screams, joined to the -deep guttural notes of the passing gannets, and the shrill tones -of the larger gulls, form a combination of sounds without a -parallel in nature. Probably on account of its vigilance, the -kittiwake is not pursued by the fowler.</p> - -<p>The fulmar breeds in almost incredible numbers on St. Kilda -(the only place in Britain where he is found), and is to the -natives by far the most important production of their barren -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">« 166 »</a></span> -land. On the crest of the highest precipices, and only on such -as are furnished with small grassy shelves, on every spot above -a few inches in extent, the fulmars have taken possession of the -rock. On being seized, they instantly disgorge a quantity of clear -amber-coloured oil, which imparts to the whole bird, its nest -and young, and even the very rock which it frequents, a peculiar -and very disagreeable odour.</p> - -<p>Fulmar oil is one of the most valuable productions of St. -Kilda. The best is obtained from the old bird by surprising it -at night upon the rock, and tightly closing the bill until the -fowler has seized the bird between his knees with its head downwards. -By opening the bill, the fulmar is allowed to eject -about a table-spoonful, or rather more, of oil into the dried -gullet or stomach of a solan-goose. The islanders use fulmar oil -for their lamps, and consider it as an infallible remedy against -chronic rheumatism.</p> - -<p>It is chiefly in pursuit of the fulmar that the St. Kildian often -endangers his life. Two of the fowlers generally proceed in -company, each furnished with several coils of rope, about half an -inch in diameter. One of them fastens one of the ropes under -his arm-pits, and holding the extremity of another rope in one -hand, is lowered down the cliff. His comrade stands a little -away from the edge, holding the supporting rope firmly with -both hands and letting it out very slowly, while he allows the -other, or guide-rope, to slip out as is required from under one -foot, which loosely secures it. On reaching a ledge occupied -by birds, the fowler commences his operations, easily securing -the eggs and young birds, and knocking down the old ones with -a short stick, or catching them by a noose attached to a long -slender rod. He then secures his sport by bundling the birds -together, and tying them to a rope let down from above, depositing -at the same time in a small basket the eggs he has gathered. The -dexterity of these rocksmen is truly astonishing. The smallest -spot is considered by them as a sufficiently secure standing-place, -and they will creep on hands and knees, though cumbered with -a load of birds, along a narrow ledge, seemingly without concern -for their personal safety. When exhibiting before strangers, a -precipice about six hundred feet high, overhanging the sea, at -a short distance from the village, is generally chosen for a display -of their agility. About midway they strike against the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">« 167 »</a></span> -rock, and rebound twelve feet or more with all the agility of a -tight-rope dancer.</p> - -<p>The Gannet, or Solan-goose, which abounds in the north of -Scotland and on the numberless islands and rocky fiords which -line the Norwegian coast, likewise congregates in vast numbers -about St. Kilda, from whence a portion of them take their departure -every morning to fish for herrings, their favourite food, -in the bays and channels of the other Hebrides, the nearest of -which is about fifty miles distant. This bird is very select in -the choice of its breeding-places, which it occupies to the total -exclusion of every other species. None are to be found in Hirta, -but the island of Borreray is almost entirely occupied with -them, as are also the adjacent rocks, Stack Ly and Stack Narmin. -These cliffs are remarkable for their pointed summits and towering -height, and appear, even from the distance of many miles, -as if they were covered with snow, the deceptive appearance -being caused by the myriads of gannets with which the rock is -thickly covered, as well as the dense clouds of these white-plumed -birds passing and repassing in the neighbourhood of -their nests. Petrels, shearwaters, puffins, guillemots, and auks, -are also very abundant about the weather-beaten cliffs of St. -Kilda.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/167.png" width="400" height="310" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Puffin.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 165px;"> -<img src="images/168a.png" width="165" height="220" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Auk.</div> -</div> - -<p>If we consider that similar bird-republics are to be found on -almost every rocky coast or surf-beaten cliff of the northern -seas, we must needs be astonished at the inexhaustible prodigality -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">« 168 »</a></span> -of Nature, which covers desolate rocks with such a profusion -of life. The vast number of sea-birds is the more -surprising, as many species, such as the -guillemot, the auk, the fulmar, and the -puffin, lay but one single egg on the naked -rock, and often in so precarious a situation, -that it is almost inconceivable how -breeding can take place. When the birds -are surprised and suddenly fly off, many of -the eggs tumble down into the surf. Sea-eagles, -falcons, and raptorial gulls destroy -a great number, and pounce upon the -young; thousands fall a prey to the rigours -of an Arctic winter; the spring-tides -sweeping over low shores, often carry away whole generations -at once, and many a maritime population lives entirely upon -the sea-fowl that breed upon the sterile soil. And yet, in spite -of so many enemies and persecutions, their numbers remain -undiminished, nor has their importance ever ceased in the -domestic economy of the rude islanders of the north.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 575px;"> -<img src="images/168b.png" width="575" height="312" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Sea-Fowl Shooting.</div> -</div> - -<p>But however valuable the eggs and the oil, the feathers and the -flesh of the hyperborean bird-republics may be to man, they are -far from equalling in importance the guano producing sea-fowl of -the tropical seas. This inestimable manure, which has become -so indispensable to the British agriculturist, is found scattered -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">« 169 »</a></span> -over numerous localities in the intertropical regions. It abounds -on many of the rocky islets of the Red Sea, where the life-teeming -waters afford sustenance to innumerable sea-gulls, cormorants, -and pelicans; but its most widely celebrated stores cover the small -Chincha Islands, not far from Pisco, about a hundred miles to the -south of Callao, where they form enormous layers 50 or 60 feet deep.</p> - -<p>The upper strata are of a greyish-brown colour, which lower -down becomes darker; and in the inferior strata the colour is a -rusty red, as if tinged by oxide of iron. The guano becomes -progressively more and more compact from the surface downwards, -a circumstance naturally accounted for by the gradual -deposit of the strata and the increasing superincumbent weight. -As is universally known, guano is formed of the excrements of -different kinds of marine birds; but the species which Tschudi, -the celebrated Peruvian traveller, more particularly enumerates -are—<i>Larus modestus</i> (Tschudi), <i>Rhynchops nigra</i> (Linn.), -<i>Plotus anhinga</i> (Linn.), <i>Pelecanus thayus</i> (Mol.), <i>Phalacrocorax -Gaimardii</i> and <i>albigula</i> (Tsch.), and chiefly the <i>Sula -variegata</i> (Tsch.).</p> - -<p>The immense flocks of these birds, as they fly along the coast, -appear like aërial islands; and when their vast numbers, their -extraordinary voracity, and the facility with which they procure -their food are considered, we cannot be surprised at the magnitude -of the beds of guano which have resulted from the uninterrupted -accumulations of countless ages. During the first year -of the deposit the strata are white, and the guano is then called -<i>Guano blanco</i>. In the opinion of the Peruvian cultivators, this -is the most efficacious kind. As soon as the dealers in guano -begin to work one of the beds, the island on which it is formed -is abandoned by the birds. It has also been remarked that, since -the increase of trade and navigation, they have withdrawn from -the islands in the neighbourhood of the ports. Under the empire -of the Incas, the guano was regarded as an important branch -of state economy. It was forbidden, on pain of death, to kill -the young birds. Each island had its own inspector, and was -assigned to a certain province. The whole distance between -Arica and Chaucay, a length of two hundred nautical miles, was -exclusively manured with guano. These wise provisions have -been entirely forgotten by the Spaniards, but the Peruvians now -begin to discover the error of their former masters, and look -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">« 170 »</a></span> -forward with anxiety to the period when the guano will no longer -suffice for the wants of husbandry. At the present day they use -it chiefly in the cultivation of maize and potatoes. A few weeks -after the seeds begin to shoot, a little hole is made round each -root and filled up with guano, which is afterwards covered with a -layer of earth. After the lapse of twelve or fifteen hours, the -whole field is laid under water, and left in that state for about -half a day. Of the guano blanco a less quantity suffices, and the -field must be more speedily and abundantly watered, otherwise the -roots would be destroyed. The effect of this manure is incredibly -rapid. In a few days the growth of the plant is doubled; if the -manure is repeated a second time, but in smaller quantity, a rich -harvest is certain;—at least the produce will be three times -greater than that which would have been obtained from the unmanured -soil. The uniformity of climate, along a coast where -rain is <i>never</i> known to fall, contributes essentially to the superior -quality of the Chincha guano, as atmospherical precipitations -naturally dissolve and wash away many of the most fertilising -salts.</p> - -<p>The consumption of guano in Western Europe, and particularly -in England, increases with surprising rapidity. On the -island of Iquique a layer thirty feet deep, and covering a space -of 220,000 square feet, has been entirely removed within twenty-seven -years. In the year 1854, 250,000 tons were dug in the -Chincha Islands, and the actual annual exportation amounts to -double the quantity. The digestive functions of the Sula and -her companions thus bring in <i>larger</i> sums to the Peruvian -Government than all the silver mines of Cerro de Pasco, and -the transport of the guano employs larger fleets than ever Spain -possessed at the brightest period of her power.</p> - -<p>"The Chincha Islands," says Castelnau (<i>Expédition dans les -Parties Centrales de l'Amérique du Sud</i>; Paris, 1851), "are -completely desert and devoid of vegetation; their granite soil -is clearly distinguished by its colour from the thick stratum -of guano with which it is covered, and the surface of -which looks at a distance like snow. The steep banks render -landing difficult, but facilitate at the same time the shipping of -the produce, as the vessels lie at anchor close to the pits. -Digging takes place at three places, close to one another, and -the traveller has only to compare the enormous deposits with -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">« 171 »</a></span> -the smallness of the excavations, which at some distance are -hardly perceptible, to convince himself of the inexhaustible -supply. Some huts have been constructed on the island, where, -in the midst of ammoniacal effluvia, some Peruvian customhouse -officers and soldiers superintend the working of the -guano-mines."</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 410px;"> -<img src="images/171.png" width="410" height="222" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Birds of Passage.</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">« 172 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_XI" id="CHAP_XI">CHAP. XI.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">THE REPTILES OF THE OCEAN.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">The Saurians of the Past Seas.—The Anatomical Structure of the Turtles.—Their -Size.—Their Visits to the Shores.—The Dangers that await their Young.—Turtles -on the Brazilian Coast.—Prince Maximilian of Neuwied and the -Turtle.—Conflicts of the Turtles with Wild Dogs and Tigers on the Coast of -Java.—Turtle-catching on Ascension Island.—Tortoise-shell.—The Amblyrhynchus -cristatus.—Marine Snakes.—The Great Sea-Snake.</div> - - -<p>There was a time when the reptiles were the monarchs -of the sea, when the ocean swarmed with gigantic saurians, -tyrants of the fishes, combining the swiftness -of the dolphin with the rapacity of the -crocodile. Had those monsters of the deep -been endowed with human intelligence, -they would most likely also, with human -arrogance, have boasted of an eternal sway. -For where in the whole ocean was the -enemy that could cope with them? Did -not all beings flee wherever they appeared? -and did not the inexhaustible sea promise -them an everlasting supply of food?</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 170px;"> -<img src="images/172.png" width="170" height="518" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Ichthyosaurus.</div> -</div> - -<p>But in spite of their colossal power, the -saurians, like all created beings, have been -forced to succumb to time.</p> - -<p>Centuries and centuries passed on, the -sea and air gradually changed, the temperature -of the elements no longer remained -the same, and thus by degrees a new ocean -and a new atmosphere were formed, uncongenial -to the nature of those huge reptiles. -Thus they have been effaced from the roll -of living things, and some petrified remains -alone bear testimony to their former -existence.</p> - -<p>The most powerful saurians of the present day—the crocodile -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">« 173 »</a></span> -the gavial and the alligator—have left to the dolphins, the -sharks, and other monstrous or swiftly-swimming cetaceans -and fishes the dominion of the seas, and now merely infest -the rivers and swamps of the tropical zone. The lizards also -have long since retired from the scene where they once -abounded, and the ocean at present harbours no other reptiles -in its bosom than turtles and sea-snakes.</p> - -<p>Most of the animals belonging to this class are either dangerous -or of a disgusting appearance. Few creatures are objects -of such universal abhorrence as the crocodile—the very -type of brutal cold-blooded ferocity; as the venomous snake—the -emblem of perfidy and ingratitude; or as the loathsome, -but innocent toad, to which, on account of its ugliness, noxious -properties have been ascribed which the poor animal does not -possess. The frogs, lizards, and turtles alone seem to have -escaped this general detestation, either from their more active -habits, or their well-known harmlessness, or their various utility -to man.</p> - -<p>The anatomy of the turtle offers many points of interest; its -vertebræ, ribs, and breast-bone growing together so as to form a -bony envelope round the whole animal. This harness is covered -by the skin, which in its turn is bedecked with large scales, while -all the muscles and other soft parts are enclosed in the inner -cavity. Only the head, feet, and tail protrude through openings -between the upper and under carapace, and these can, by the -land tortoises at least, be withdrawn entirely under the former. -This is the only protection which Nature has afforded these -animals against their enemies, for they have neither swiftness of -flight, nor any offensive weapon at their command. But as soon -as anything suspicious approaches, they conceal themselves -under their massive cover, and oppose to every attack by tooth -or nail the passive resistance of an impenetrable shield. Most -of their enemies find it, besides, no easy task to turn them on -their back, as many species attain a very considerable weight, so -that their mere bulk constitutes a good defence. It might be -supposed that this protection could only avail for a short time, -as the want of air must soon force the animal to stretch its head -out of its hiding-place, and this indeed would be the case, if kind -Nature had not taken her measures against this emergency, by -giving the creature a <i>cold</i> blood, so that it can remain a very -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">« 174 »</a></span> -long time without breathing; long enough, at least, to tire the -patience of the most obstinate foe.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 675px;"> -<img src="images/174.png" width="675" height="505" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Skeleton of Tortoise.</div> - -<div><span class="smcap">A</span>, superior maxilla; <span class="smcap">B</span>, inferior maxilla; <span class="smcap">C</span>, ossiculum auditus; -<span class="smcap">D</span>, os hyoides; <span class="smcap">E</span>, cervical vertebræ; <span class="smcap">F</span>, dorsal vertebræ; -<span class="smcap">G</span>, sacrum; <span class="smcap">H</span>, caudal vertebræ; <span class="smcap">I</span>, dorsal ribs; -<span class="smcap">K</span>, marginal scales; <span class="smcap">N</span>, scapula; <span class="smcap">O</span>, coracoid bone; -<span class="smcap">P</span>, os humeri; <span class="smcap">Q</span>, radius; <span class="smcap">R</span>, ulna; -<span class="smcap">S</span>, bones of the carpus; <span class="smcap">T</span>, metacarpal bones; <span class="smcap">U</span>, digital phalanges; -<span class="smcap">V</span>, pelvis; <span class="smcap">W</span>, femur; <span class="smcap">X</span>, tibia; <span class="smcap">Y</span>, fibula; -<span class="smcap">Z</span>, tarsus; <span class="smcap">Æ</span>, metatarsus; <span class="smcap">A.V.</span>, phalanges of the foot.</div> -</div> - - -<p>But how comes it, the reader may ask, that respiration, which -pours a warm current through our veins, fails in raising the -temperature of the turtle's blood?</p> - -<p>Without entering into a lengthened description of the human -heart, I shall merely observe that it consists of two halves (each -half being again subdivided into two separate chambers), and -that the right half, which receives venous blood and pours it -into the lungs, is completely separated by a partition from the -left half, which receives arterial or aërated blood from the lungs, -and propels it into every part of the body. Thus the two different -kinds of blood are completely separated, so that an -<i>unmixed</i> venous blood flows into the lungs, where it is converted -by the oxygen of the air into arterial blood. But this connection, -like most chemical processes, takes place under an evolution of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">« 175 »</a></span> -heat, which is so considerable that our internal temperature -constantly maintains itself at the height of 98° F.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 430px;"> -<img src="images/175a.png" width="430" height="405" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Theoretic Representation of the Circulation in -Mammals and Birds.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 399px;"> -<img src="images/175b.png" width="399" height="313" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Theoretic Representation of the Circulation in Reptiles.</div> -</div> - -<p>But the turtle's heart is differently formed, consisting, as the -annexed theoretic representation shows, of but one ventricle and -two auricles, so that a <i>mixed</i>, or only half aërated blood circulates -throughout the body, which naturally produces a torpidity of the -whole vital process. Besides, the lungs of the reptiles are incapable -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">« 176 »</a></span> -of aërating so great a quantity of blood as ours, as their cells -are much larger, thus offering less surface to the action of the air; -and finally, the ribs of the turtles being immovable, they are incapable -of extending the lungs, so that the animal is absolutely -obliged to swallow the necessary supply of air, and to pump it, as -it were, into the lungs, by contracting the muscles of the throat. -Thus we see that every precaution has been taken to reduce respiration -to a low standard, and prevent the evolution of heat. With -this indolence of its cold-blooded circulation, the whole nature -of the animal is in harmony; the bluntness of its senses, its want -of intelligence, its slow movements, and its long endurance of -hunger, thirst, and want of air. It leads but a drowsy dream-like -existence, and yet, we may be sure, it is far from unhappy, -for all its functions and organs agree perfectly one with the other, -and when concord reigns, enjoyment of some kind must exist.</p> - -<p>The turtles are distinguished from the land tortoises particularly -by their large and long fin-shaped feet, and also by a -longer tail, which serves them as a rudder. They have no teeth, -but the horny upper jaw closes over the lower like the lid of a -box, thus serving them as excellent shears, either for crushing -shells or dividing the tough fibres of the sea-grass.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 230px;"> -<img src="images/176.png" width="230" height="102" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Green Turtle.</div> -</div> - -<p>They are at home in all the warmer seas, but sometimes they -are carried by oceanic streams far away from their accustomed -haunts. Thus, in the year 1752, -a Green turtle, six feet long, and -weighing 900 pounds, stranded near -Dieppe; and in 1778 another, seven -feet long, on the coast of Languedoc. -One taken on the coast of Cornwall -in July, 1756, measured from the -tip of the nose to the end of the shell, six feet nine inches, and -the weight was supposed to be nearly 800 pounds. These few -examples show us that the turtles rank among the larger inhabitants -of the ocean, although they are far from attaining the -fabulous proportions assigned to them by Pliny (who makes the -Indians use their shells as boats or roofs), or the enormous size -of some colossal extinct species, such as the fossil tortoise from -the Siwala hills, preserved in the East Indian Museum, which -measures twelve feet in length. They live almost constantly at -sea, partly on shell-fish, like the fierce Loggerhead turtle -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">« 177 »</a></span> -(<i>Testudo Caretta</i>), partly on sea-grass, like the Green turtle -(<i>T. Midas</i>), and only go on shore during the warmest months -of the year, for the purpose of laying -their eggs.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 234px;"> -<img src="images/177.png" width="234" height="152" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Loggerhead Turtle.</div> -</div> - -<p>"We followed the monotonous sea-coast," -says Prince Maximilian of -Neuwied, in his interesting "Travels -through the Brazils;" "our -two soldiers, a Negro and an Indian, -frequently stopping to dig turtle-eggs -out of the sand, which, boiled in sea-water, -used to form our evening repast. Once, while they were -busy gathering drift-wood for cooking, we found at a small -distance from our fire an enormous turtle busy laying her eggs. -We could not possibly have met with anything more agreeable; -the creature seemed to have crawled there for the express -purpose of providing for our supper. Our presence did not -discompose her in the least; she allowed herself to be touched, -and even raised from the ground, for which purpose four men -were required. During our loud deliberations on her future -fate, she gave no other sign of uneasiness than a blowing sound, -and continued to work slowly with her hind fins, throwing up -the earth at regular intervals.</p> - -<p>"One of the soldiers stretched himself out at full length on the -ground near the purveyor of our kitchen, inserted his arm into the -earth-hole, and threw out the eggs as they were laid by the -turtle. In this manner above a hundred were collected in about -ten minutes. A council was now held as to the means of adding -the beast to our collection, but as it would have required an -additional mule for the transport, we gave it its life. These -colossal turtles—Midas, Coriacea, and Caretta—especially choose -these desert coasts for the laying of their eggs. They emerge -from the sea in the dusk of evening, and then crawl back again -into the water one or two hours after the setting of the sun. -Thus also the friendly turtle, which had so abundantly provided -for our wants, disappeared after a short time; we found the large -hole filled up, and a broad trace in the sand showed that the -animal had again retreated to its favourite element. The Midas -is said to lay from ten to twelve dozen, and the Coriacea from -eighteen to twenty dozen eggs at once."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">« 178 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The wild sand coast of Bantam (Java) is annually frequented -by a large number of turtles. They are often obliged to creep -over nearly a quarter of a mile of the beach, before finding at -the foot of the sand-dunes a dry and loose soil fit for their purpose; -and on this journey, which for them is a very long one, they -have many dangers to encounter. Hundreds of their skeletons -lie scattered about the strand, many of them five feet long, and -three feet broad; some bleached and cleaned by time, others still -half filled with putrid intestines, and others, again, quite fresh -and bleeding. High in the air a number of birds of prey wheel -about, scared by the traveller's approach. Here is the place -where the turtles are attacked by the wild dogs. In packs of -from twenty to fifty, the growling rabble assails the poor sea-animal -at every accessible point, gnaws and tugs at the feet and -at the head, and succeeds by united efforts in turning the huge -creature upon its back. Then the abdominal scales are torn off, -and the ravenous dogs hold a bloody meal on the flesh, intestines, -and eggs of their defenceless prey. Sometimes, however, the -turtle escapes their rage, and dragging its lacerating tormentors -along with it, succeeds in regaining the friendly sea. Nor -do the dogs always enjoy an undisturbed repast. Often -during the night, the "lord of the wilderness," the royal tiger, -bursts out of the forest, pauses for a moment, casts a glance over -the strand, approaches slowly, and then with one bound, accompanied -by a terrific roar, springs among the dogs, scattering -the howling band like chaff before the wind. And now it is -the tiger's turn to feast, but even he, though rarely, is sometimes -disturbed by man. Thus, on this lonely, melancholy coast, wild -dogs and tigers wage an unequal war with the inhabitants of the -ocean.</p> - -<p>The cold-blooded turtle is obliged to confide the hatching of -her eggs to the sun, which generally accomplishes the task in three -weeks. On creeping out of the egg, the young, even those of -the largest species, are not larger than half-a-crown and of a -white colour. Unprotected by a parent's tenderness, the poor -little creatures seem only to be born for immediate death. Their -first instinctive movements are towards the element for which -they are destined; slowly they drag themselves towards the -water, but the sea meets them with a rough embrace, and the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">« 179 »</a></span> -unmerciful waves generally throw them back again upon the -shore. Here they are attacked by great sea-birds, storks and -herons, against which, in spite of their smallness, they make -feeble efforts of defence, or by still more powerful beasts of -prey; and thus the greater part of the unfortunate brood is -destroyed at its very first entrance into life; while those which -reach the sea, are generally devoured by sharks and other sharp-toothed -fishes. It is therefore not in vain that the turtle lays -four or five hundred eggs in the course of a single summer, for -were she less fruitful, the race would long since have been extinguished.</p> - -<p>I need hardly mention, that the flesh of the green turtle is -everywhere esteemed as a first-rate delicacy. The king of the -Manga Reva Islands in the South Sea keeps them in a pen for -the wants of his table; and the London alderman is said to -know no greater enjoyment than swallowing a basin of turtle soup. -Hence it is no wonder that the mariner, tired of salt-beef -and dried peas, persecutes them on all the coasts of the tropical -seas, wherever solitude, a flat beach, and a favourable season -promise to reward his trouble.</p> - -<p>Bernardin de St. Pierre gives us the following picturesque -description of turtle-catching on Ascension Island;—"Fire-wood, -a kettle, and the great boat-sail were landed, and the -sailors lay down to sleep, as the turtles do not emerge from the -sea before night-fall. The moon rose above the horizon and -illumined the solitude, but her light, which adds new charms to -a friendly prospect, rendered this desolate scene more dreary -still. We were at the foot of a black hillock, on whose summit -mariners had planted a great cross. Before us lay the plain, -covered with innumerable blocks of black lava, whose crests, -whitened by the drippings of the sea-birds, glistened in the -moonbeam. These pallid heads on dark bodies, some of which -were upright, and others reclined, appeared to us like phantoms -hovering over tombs. The greatest stillness reigned over this -desolate earth, interrupted only from time to time by the breaking -of a wave, or the shriek of a sea-bird. We went to the -great bay to await the arrival of the turtles, and there we lay -flat upon the sand in the deepest silence, as the least noise -frightens the turtles, and causes them to withdraw. At last we -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">« 180 »</a></span> -saw three of them rising out of the water, and slowly creeping -on shore, like black masses. We immediately ran up to the -first, but our impatience caused it to drop immediately again -into the sea, where it escaped our pursuit. The second, which -had already advanced too far, was unable to retreat; we turned -it on its back. In this way we caught about fifty turtles, some -of which weighed five hundred pounds. Next morning, at ten, -the boat came to fetch the produce of our nocturnal sport. -This work occupied us the whole day, and in the evening the -superfluous turtles were restored to the sea. If suffered to -remain a long time on their back, their eyes become blood-red, -and start out of their sockets. We found several on -the strand that had been allowed to perish in this position, a -cruel negligence, of which thoughtless sailors are but too often -guilty."</p> - -<p>In the sea, also, the turtles are pursued by man. In the clear -West Indian waters, where they are frequently seen at great -depths, feeding on the sea-grass meadows, divers plunge after -them and raise them to the surface. Sometimes they are harpooned, -or even caught sleeping on the waters.</p> - -<p>The ancient Romans, who spent such extravagant sums upon -dishes repugnant to our taste, seem to have had but little relish for -turtle flesh, which otherwise the conquerors of the world might -easily have obtained from the Red Sea; for though we read that -Vitellius feasted upon the brains of pheasants, and the tongues -of nightingales, it is nowhere mentioned, that he ever, like the -Lord Mayor of London, set seven hundred tureens of turtle -soup before his guests.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, they made a very extensive use of tortoise-shell, -the produce of the Hawk's-bill turtle (Testudo -imbricata) a native both of the American -and Asiatic seas, and sometimes, but more rarely, -met with in the Mediterranean. The flesh -of the animal is not held in any estimation as a -food, but the plates of the shell being thicker, -stronger, and cleaner than those of any other -species, render it of great importance as an article -of trade.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 130px;"> -<img src="images/180.png" width="130" height="169" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Hawk's-bill Turtle.</div> -</div> - -<p>"Carvilius Pollio," says Pliny, "a man of great invention in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">« 181 »</a></span> -matters pertaining to luxury, was the first who cut the plates of -the tortoise for veneering or inlaying." The Romans imported -large quantities of this precious article from Egypt, and under -the reign of Augustus, the wealthy patricians used even to inlay -the doors and columns of their palaces with it. When Alexandria -was taken by Julius Cæsar, the warehouses were so full of -tortoise-shell that the conqueror proposed to make it the principal -ornament of his triumph.</p> - -<p>The use of tortoise-shell for the decoration of houses and furniture -is long since out of fashion, but it is still in great request -for the making of combs and boxes. By steeping it in boiling -water it softens, and may then, by a strong pressure, be moulded -into any form. When a considerable extent of surface is required, -different pieces must be joined together. This is done -by scraping thin the edges of the pieces to be united, and laying -them over each other while they are in the heated and softened -state; strong pressure being then applied, they become completely -agglutinated. It is in this way that gold, silver, and -other metals for different ornaments are made to adhere to -tortoise-shell.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>When, at the beginning of the chapter, I mentioned that the -lizards had entirely forsaken the ocean, I forgot that the Galapagos -Islands in the South Sea, right under the Equator, -exclusively possess a maritime animal of this kind, which, from -its being the sole existing representative, or dwindled descendant -of the giant oceanic saurians of yore, is far too interesting -to be passed unnoticed. This lizard is extremely common -on all the islands throughout the Archipelago. It lives exclusively -on the rocky sea-beaches, and is never found,—at -least Mr. Darwin never saw one,—even ten yards inshore. It is -a hideous-looking creature, of a dirty black colour, stupid and -sluggish in its movements. The usual length of a full-grown -one is about a yard, but there are some even four feet long. -These lizards were occasionally seen some hundred yards from -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">« 182 »</a></span> -the shore, swimming about; and Captain Collnett, in his "Voyage," -says they go out to sea in shoals to fish. With respect to -the object, Mr. Darwin believes he is mistaken; but the fact, stated -on such good authority, cannot be doubted. When in the water -the animal swims with perfect ease and quickness by a serpentine -movement of its body and flattened tail; the legs, during -this time, being motionless and closely collapsed on its sides. -A seaman of the "Beagle" sank one with a heavy weight attached -to it, thinking thus to kill it directly; but when an hour -afterwards he drew up the line the lizard was quite active. -Their limbs and strong claws are admirably adapted for crawling -over the rugged and fissured masses of lava, which every where -form the coast. In such situations a group of six or seven of -these hideous reptiles may oftentimes be seen on the black -rocks, a few feet above the surf, basking in the sun with outstretched -legs.</p> - -<p>Mr. Darwin opened the stomach of several, and in each case -found it largely distended with minced sea-weed, of a kind growing -at the bottom of the sea, at some little distance from the coast. -The nature of this lizard's food, as well as the structure of its -tail, and the certain fact of its having been seen voluntarily -swimming out at sea, absolutely prove its aquatic habits; yet -there is in this respect one strange anomaly, namely, that when -frightened it will not enter the water. From this cause it is -easy to drive these lizards down to any little point overhanging -the sea, where they will sooner allow a person to catch hold of -their tail than jump into the water. They do not seem to have -any notion of biting; but when much frightened they squirt a -drop of fluid from each nostril. One day Mr. Darwin carried one -to a deep pool left by the retiring tide, and threw it in several -times as far as he was able. It invariably returned in a direct -line to the spot where he stood. It swam near the bottom with -a very graceful and rapid movement, and occasionally aided -itself over the uneven ground with its feet. As soon as it arrived -near the margin, but still being under water, it either -tried to conceal itself in the tufts of sea-weed, or it entered some -crevice. As soon as it thought the danger was past, it crawled -out on the dry rocks and shuffled away as quickly as it could. -Mr. Darwin several times caught this same lizard by driving it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">« 183 »</a></span> -down to a point, and, though possessed of such perfect powers -of diving and swimming, nothing could induce it to enter the -water; and as often as he threw it in, it returned in the manner -above described.</p> - -<p>Perhaps this singular piece of apparent stupidity may be -accounted for by the circumstance that this reptile has no -enemy whatever on shore, whereas at sea it must often fall -a prey to the numerous sharks. Hence, probably urged by a -fixed and hereditary instinct that the shore is its place of safety, -whatever the emergency may be, it there takes refuge. On a -comparison of this singular animal with the true iguanas, the -most striking and important discrepancy is in the form of the -head. Instead of the long pointed narrow muzzle of those -species, we have here a short obtusely truncated head, not so -long as it is broad; the mouth consequently is capable of being -opened to only a very small extent. From this circumstance, -and from the crest on its head, it has received the Latin name -of <i>Amblyrhynchus cristatus</i>.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The serpent race, which thrives so abundantly in the tropical -forests and morasses, has also its marine representatives in the -Indian and Pacific Oceans, where more than fifty species of -Hydrophis, Pelamys, and Chersydra have been found. They -are distinguished from their terrestrial relations by the flattened -form of their tail, the planes of which being directed vertically -give it the properties of a powerful oar, in striking -the water by lateral oscillations. These sea-snakes -always appear to prefer calms, swimming -on the still surface in an undulating manner, -never raising the head much from the surface, -or vaulting out of the water. They dive with -facility on the approach of danger, but do not -appear to be particularly timid.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 136px;"> -<img src="images/183.png" width="136" height="205" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Water-Snake.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Pelamys bicolor is very common from -India to Otaheite. In the seas of Mindoro and -Sooloo, Mr. Adams saw thousands swimming on the top of the -water, especially in eddies and tide-ways where the ripple -collects numerous fish and medusæ, which principally constitute -their prey. Their tongue is white and forked, differing in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">« 184 »</a></span> -respect of its colour from the tongue of other snakes, which is -generally black. The water-snakes, which are frequently -beautifully banded, and as thick as a man's leg, are said to be -highly venomous. Captain Cook, in one of his voyages, "saw -abundance of water-snakes, one of which was coming up the -side of our ship, and our men beat it off. The Spaniards -affirm there is no cure for such as are bit by them; and one -of our blacks happened to fall under that misfortune, and died -notwithstanding the utmost care was taken by our surgeons to -recover him."</p> - -<p>Such are the <i>real</i> sea-snakes as they are met with by ordinary -travellers, while <i>the great sea-serpent</i>, which from time to time -dives up in the columns of the newspapers, must, until better -evidence be brought forward for its existence, be banished to -those dim regions peopled by unicorns, griffins, krakens, and -tailed men.</p> - -<p>Olaus Magnus, it is true, speaks of the great sea-snake as if -it made its daily appearance on the Norwegian coast. According -to him, it inhabits the rocky caves near Bergen, and -wanders forth at night, particularly by moonshine, to commit its -depredations by sea and land; as calves and pigs seem to suit -its appetite as well as fishes and lobsters. The body is covered -with scales, a long mane flows along the neck, and the head, -furnished with two glistening eyes, rises like a mast out of the -water. It often attacks ships, and picks up seamen from the -deck. This description may serve as an example of the boldness -with which authors have sometimes asserted the most -extravagant things.</p> - -<p>The Greenland missionary Egede tells us in his Journal, that -"on the 6th of July, 1734, there appeared a very large and -frightful sea-monster, which raised itself so high out of the -water that its head reached above our main-top. It had a -long sharp snout, very broad flappers, and spouted water like a -whale. The body seemed to be covered with scales, the skin -was uneven and wrinkled, and the lower part was formed like a -snake. After some time the creature plunged backwards into -the water, and then turned its tail up above the surface, a -whole ship-length from the head."</p> - -<p>It is hard to disbelieve so pious and excellent a man, whose -excited fancy no doubt gave extraordinary forms and dimensions -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">« 185 »</a></span> -to some commoner sea-animal of large size; but the testimony -of a Scoresby, who during his frequent Arctic voyages never -saw anything of the kind, would have been more convincing.</p> - -<p>If to this account of Egede be added the reports of some -other northern divines, such as Pontoppidan, the missionary -Nicholas Græmius, and Maclean, who either pretend to have -actually seen the monster or write about it from hearsay—and -the testimony of a few seamen, among others of Captain -M'Quhae of the Dædalus, who, on the 6th of August, 1848, -saw a sea-snake on his homeward voyage from the East Indies; -we have all the evidence extant in favour of the existence of -the monstrous animal.</p> - -<p>In opposition to these testimonies, incredulous naturalists beg -to remark, that no museum possesses a single bone of the huge -snake, and that its body has nowhere been found swimming on -the ocean or cast ashore. They therefore agree with Professor -Owen in regarding the negative evidence, from the utter absence -of any recent remains, as stronger against their actual existence -than the positive statements which have hitherto weighed with -the public mind in favour of their reality; and believe that a -larger body of evidence from eye-witnesses might be got -together in proof of the reality of ghosts than in proof of the -existence of the great sea-serpent.</p> - -<p>The plain truth seems to be that lines of rolling porpoises, -resembling a long string of buoys, first gave origin to the -marvellous stories of the fabulous monster. For, keeping in -close single file, and progressing rapidly along the calm surface -of the water by a succession of leaps or demivaults forward, -part only of their uncouth forms appears to the eye, so as to -resemble the undulatory motions of one large serpentiform -animal.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">« 186 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_XII" id="CHAP_XII">CHAP. XII.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">THE MARINE FISHES.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">General Observations on Fishes.—Their Locomotive Organs.—Tail.—Fins.—Classification -of Fishes by Cuvier.—Air-Bladder.—Scales.—Beauty of the -Tropical Fishes.—The Gills.—Terrestrial Voyages of the Anabas and the -Hassar.—Examples of Parental Affection.—Organs of Sense.—Offensive -Weapons of Fishes.—The Sea-Wolf.—The Shark.—The Saw-Fish.—The Sword-Fish.—The -Torpedo.—The Star-Gazer.—The Angler.—The Chætodon Rostratus.—The -Remora, used for catching Turtles.—Defensive Weapons of -Fishes.—The Weever.—The Stickleback.—The Sun-Fish.—The Flying-Fish.—The -numerous Enemies of the Fishes.—Importance and History of the Herring -Fishery.—The Pilchard.—The Sprat.—The Anchovy.—The Cod.—The Sturgeons.—The -Salmon.—The Tunny.—The Mackerel Family.—The Eel.—The -Murey.—The Conger.—The Sand-Launce.—The Plectognaths.—The Sea-Horse.—The -Pipe-Fish.—The Flat-Fishes.—The Rays.—The Fecundity of Fishes.</div> - - -<p>The bosom of the ocean is full of mysteries; it conceals a whole -world of curiously-shaped animals, which the naturalist only -superficially knows, and may, perhaps, never be able to fathom. -To observe the habits of terrestrial animals, and accurately to -determine their various species, is a comparatively easy task; -but the denser element in which fishes live prevents us from -following their motions with exactness, from studying their -instincts, and from noting with fidelity their specific differences.</p> - -<p>Since Pliny, who mentions but seventy-four different kinds of -fishes, the number of known species has indeed enormously increased. -The ancients, who knew only the waters of the Mediterranean -and a very small part of the ocean, had no conception -of the finny multitudes inhabiting the tropical and icy seas; -but although modern science has succeeded in describing and -picturing above eight thousand different kinds of fishes, yet -there can be no doubt that many still unknown species dwell in -the depths of ocean, or in the distant seas which are but seldom -visited by the European mariner.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">« 187 »</a></span></p> - -<p>If the whole economy of the world of fishes were opened to -our view, the magnificent picture would, no doubt, give us additional -reasons for admiring the infinite wisdom of the Creator; -but the little we do know suffices to convince us that the -same wonderful harmony existing between the anatomical -structure and the outward relations or mode of life in birds and -mammiferous quadrupeds is also to be found in fishes, and that -these creatures, though occupying a lower grade in Creation, are -no less beautifully adapted to the peculiar element in which -they are destined to live and move.</p> - -<p>This strikes us at once in their external form, which, though -subject to great variety, being sometimes spherical as in the -globe-fish, or cubical as in the ostracion, or expanded as in the -skate, or snake-like as in the eel, is generally that of an elongated -oval, slightly compressed laterally, a shape which enables -the fishes to traverse their native fluid with the greatest celerity -and ease. We wisely endeavour to imitate this peculiar form -in the construction of our ships, yet the rapidity with which the -fastest clipper cleaves the waters is nothing to the velocity of an -animal formed to reside in that element. The flight of an -arrow is not more rapid than the darting of a tunny, a salmon, -or a gilt-head through the water. It has been calculated that a -salmon will glide over 86,400 feet in an hour, that it will -advance more than a degree of the meridian of the earth in a -day, and that it could easily make the tour of the world in some -weeks, were it desirous of emulating the fame of a Cook or of -a Magellan. Every part of the body seems exerted in this -despatch; the fins, the tail, and the motion of the whole backbone -assist progression; and it is to this admirable flexibility of -body, which mocks the efforts of art, that fishes owe the -astonishing rapidity of their movements.</p> - -<p>Whales and dolphins move onwards by striking the water -in a vertical direction, while fishes glide along by laterally -curving and extending the spine. In some species, such as the -eel, the whole body is flexible; but most of them paddle away -with their tail to the right and left, and are thus driven forwards -by the resistance of the water. Consequently the power of -fishes is chiefly concentrated in the muscles bending the spine -sideways, and generally we find these parts so much developed -as to form the greatest part of the body.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">« 188 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 551px;"> -<img src="images/188.png" width="551" height="239" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Skeleton of the Perch.<br /> - -<span class="smcap">A</span> <span class="smcap">A</span>, Dorsal Fins; <span class="smcap">B</span>, Caudal; <span class="smcap">C</span>, Anal; <span class="smcap">D</span>, Ventral; <span class="smcap">E</span>, Pectoral.</div> -</div> - -<p>The fins are the most important auxiliary organs of locomotion -in fishes. The dorsal, caudal, and anal fins serve by their -vertical position to increase the extent of the rowing surface, -and to maintain the animal's balance, while the pectoral and -ventral fins, which must be considered as the representatives of -the fore and hind limbs of other vertebrata, are, moreover, of -great assistance in directing its movements. With the help of -these organs, fishes can advance or retrograde, ascend or descend -in the water as they please, and it is curious to observe how, -alternately extending or contracting one fin or the other, they -gracefully plough the liquid element in every direction.</p> - -<p>It is no less wonderful how perfectly the size and texture of -the fins corresponds with the habits and necessities of the -different species of fishes. Those which traverse vast portions -of the ocean, or have frequently to struggle against swelling -waves, are furnished with large and strong fins, while these organs -are soft in the species which confine themselves to greater -depths, where the winds cease to disturb the waters.</p> - -<p>From the great variety which is met with both in the number -and position of the fins, they are also of the greatest use in the -classification of fishes, and afford the naturalist many of the -chief characters which serve to distinguish the several orders, -families, genera, and species of these aquatic vertebrates.<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[M]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[M]</span></a> Cuvier divides the fishes into:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>I. Chondropterygii—Skeleton cartilaginous; fins supported by cartilaginous -rays; and</p> -<p>II. Osteopterygii—Skeleton composed of true bone.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">« 189 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The Chondropterygii are subdivided into three orders:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>(<i>a</i>) Sturionidæ (sturgeons), with free gills.</p> -<p>(<i>b</i>) Selacii (rays, sharks), with gills fixed and a mouth formed for mastication.</p> -<p>(<i>c</i>) Cyclostomata (lamprey, myxine), with gills fixed and a mouth formed for -suction.</p> -</div> - -<p>The osseous fishes, which are far more numerous, are subdivided into six -orders:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>(<i>a</i>) Acanthopterygii; distinguished by the stiff spines which constitute the -first fin-rays of the dorsal fin, or which support the anterior fin of the back in -case there are two dorsals. In some cases the anterior dorsal fin is only represented -by detached spines. The first rays of the anal fin are likewise spinous, -as well as the first ray of the ventral fin. To this extensive order, which comprises -about three-fourths of the osseous fishes, belong, among others, the -families of the perches, gurnards, mackerels, mullets, breams, gobies, blennies, -&c.</p> -</div> - -<p>The three following orders of the osseous fishes have the rays that support the -fins soft and composed of numerous pieces articulated with each other, with the -exception in some cases of the first ray of the dorsal, or of the pectoral. Their -leading character is afforded by the situation or absence of the ventral fin, which -in the</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>(<i>b</i>) Malacopterygii abdominales are suspended beneath the abdomen, and -behind the pectorals; in the</p> -<p>(<i>c</i>) Malacopterygii subbrachiales beneath the pectorals; and in the</p> -<p>(<i>d</i>) Malacopterygii apodes are totally wanting.</p> -</div> - -<p>To the abdominal soft-rayed fishes belong the herring, salmon, pike, sly, and -carp families; to the subbrachial, the cod family, the side-swimmers, and the lump -fishes; and, finally, to the apodal malacopterygians, the single family of the -anguilliform fishes. The small order of the</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>(<i>e</i>) Lophobranchi comprises the pipe-fishes, sea-horses, in whom the gills are -not pectinated, as in the preceding subdivisions, but consist of little round tufts; -and, finally, the</p> -<p>(<i>f</i>) Plectognathi—comprising the file, porcupine, and sun fishes—are distinguished -by their maxillaries and premaxillaries being joined immovably to each -other, so as to render the upper jaw incapable of protrusion.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">« 190 »</a></span></p> - - -<p>Most fishes possess a remarkable accessory organ of locomotion -in the air-bladder or swim-bladder which extends to a -greater or smaller distance along the ventral surface of the -spine, and enables them voluntarily to increase or diminish the -specific gravity of their body. When they contract this remarkable -gas-reservoir, or press out the included air by means of the -abdominal muscles, the bulk of the body is diminished, its -weight in proportion to the water is increased, and the fish -swims easily at a greater depth. The contrary takes place on -relaxing the tension of the abdominal muscles; and thus we -see fishes rise and fall in their denser element by the application -of the same physical law which is made use of by our -aëronauts, to scale the heavens or to descend again upon the -earth. Those fishes which are destined to live at the bottom of -the sea or to conceal themselves in the mud, such as eels and -skates, have either no air-bladder or a very small one—for -economical Nature gives none of her creatures any organ that -would be useless to them. Even the slimy glutinous matter -which is secreted from the pores of most fishes, and lubricates -their bodies, assists them in gliding through the waters, so that -no means have been neglected to promote the rapidity of their -movements.</p> - -<p>The skin of fishes is but seldom naked; in most species it is -covered with scales, that sometimes appear in the form of -osseous plates, as in the ostracions, or project into formidable -prickles, as in the porcupine-fish, but generally offer the aspect -of thin laminæ, overlapping each other like the tiles of a roof, -and embedded, like our nails, in furrows of the skin. In nearly -all the existing fishes, the scales are flexible and generally either -of a more or less circular form (<i>cycloid</i>), as in the salmon, -herring, roach, &c., or provided with comb-like teeth projecting -from the posterior margin (<i>ctenoid</i>), as in the sole, perch, pike, -&c.; while the majority of fossil fishes were decked with hard -bony scales, either rhomboidal in their form, of a highly -polished surface, as in our sturgeons (<i>ganoid</i>), and arranged in -regular rows, the posterior edges of each slightly overlapping -the anterior ones of the next, so as to form a very complete -defensive armour to the body; or irregular in their shape and -separately imbedded in the skin (<i>placoid</i>), as in the sharks and -rays of the present day.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 320px;"> -<img src="images/190.png" width="320" height="175" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Portion of Skin of Sole highly magnified.</div> -</div> - -<p>The scales of almost any fish afford admirable subjects for -microscopic observation, but more particularly those of the -ctenoid kind, which exhibit a brilliancy of reflected light, and a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">« 191 »</a></span> -regularity of structure, such as no human mosaic could ever -equal.</p> - -<p>Many of our European fishes are richly decorated with vivid -colours, but their scaly raiment is generally far from equalling -the gorgeous magnificence of the fishes of the tropical seas.</p> - -<p>If in the birds of the equatorial zone a part of the plumage -sparkles with a gem-like brilliancy, all the colours of the rainbow -combine to decorate the raiment of the tropical fishes, and -no human art can reproduce the beauty of their metallic lustre, -which at every movement in the crystalline waters exhibits to -the enchanted eye new combinations and reflections of the -most splendid tints.</p> - -<p>The gaudiest fishes live among the coral reefs. In the tepid -waters, where the zoophytes, those sensitive flowers of the ocean, -build their submarine palaces, we find the brilliant Chetodons, -the gorgeous Balistinæ, and the azure Glyphysodons gliding -from coral branch to coral branch like the playful Colibris, that -over the Brazilian fields dart from one lustrous petal to another.</p> - -<p>Oxygen is as necessary to fishes and other marine creatures as -it is to the terrestrial animals, but as they are obliged to draw -it from a denser element, which absorbs but a small volume of -air, their gills are necessarily differently constructed from the -lungs of the creatures breathing in the atmosphere. In most -species, comprising all the bony fishes, and the sturgeons, -among those which have a cartilaginous skeleton, we find on -either side of the throat five apertures, separated from each -other by four crooked, parallel and unequal bones, and leading -to a cavity, which is closed on the outside by an operculum or -cover. In this cavity, and attached to the bones, are situated the -delicate membranes, bearded like feathers, which serve to aërate -the blood. The water constantly flows through the gills in one -direction, entering by the branchial apertures of the throat, and -emerging through the operculum. This is, in more than one -respect, a most wise provision of Nature; for if the fishes were -obliged to receive and reject the water by the same aperture, -as we do the air, each expiration would evidently drive them -backwards, and consequently retard their movements. It is -also evident that the delicate fringes or folds of the gills would -soon get into disorder if the water were carried through them in -two opposite directions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">« 192 »</a></span></p> - -<p>In most of the cartilaginous fishes, such as the sharks, rays, -and lampreys, the gills are differently formed, the water not -passing into a cavity closed by a cover, but flowing directly outwards -through five (in the shark) or seven (in the lamprey) -vents or spiracles. In these species also the gills are fixed, their -margins being attached. Though the whole breathing apparatus -of a fish is comprised in a small compass, its surface, if fully -extended, would occupy a very considerable space; that of the -common skate, for instance, being equal to the surface of the -human body. This single fact may convince us of the numberless -ramifications and convolutions of the gills, in which the -water is elaborated and attenuated in the course of giving out -its air; and how wonderfully Nature has contrived to effect her -purpose with the greatest economy of space.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 320px;"> -<img src="images/192.png" width="320" height="270" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Theoretic representation of the Circulation in Fishes.</div> -</div> - -<p>Respiration is a species of combustion, and this must necessarily -be very slow in an element which contains so small a -portion of oxygen. No wonder that the circulation of the blood -in fishes is equally tardy. Their heart, in comparison with <i>ours, -is but half a one</i>, as it merely serves to force the venous blood -into the gills—whence the aërated blood does not flow back to -the heart as with us, to be rapidly and strongly propelled through -the body, but proceeds immediately to the arteries. Evidently -only a cold blood could be formed under such circumstances. It -may seem strange that, when fishes are taken out of the water, they -die from want of air; such, however, is the case. Their delicate -breathing membranes collapse in the atmosphere, the blood can -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">« 193 »</a></span> -no longer flow as before into the innumerable small vessels with -which they are interwoven, and, by rapidly drying in the air, -they soon entirely lose the faculty of breathing. Thus those -fishes whose gill-cover has a large aperture, die soonest in the -air, while those where the opening is narrow, and more particularly -those species where the gills communicate with a -cellular labyrinth containing water, which serves to keep them -moist, are able to live a much longer time in the atmosphere.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 510px;"> -<img src="images/193a.png" width="510" height="240" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">The Anabas of the Dry Tanks.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 375px;"> -<img src="images/193b.png" width="375" height="345" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Frog-Fish.—(Cheironectes.)</div> -</div> - -<p>It is owing to such a moistening apparatus that <i>the climbing -fishes</i> (Anabas) live for days out of the water, and even creep up -the trees at some distance from the shore, to catch the insects -which serve them as food—a curious instance indeed of an -animal seeking its nourishment in another element.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">« 194 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The Frog-fish of the Asiatic islands and the Southern hemisphere -is not more remarkable for its hideous deformity than for -its capacity of leading a terrestrial life. Not only can it live -several days out of the water but it can crawl about the room in -which it is confined, a facility which it owes to the great strength -and the peculiar position of its pectoral fins, which thus perform -the office of feet. The whole aspect of these grotesque-looking -creatures, particularly in a walking position, is so much like -that of toads or frogs, that a careless observer would at first -be at some loss to determine their real nature.</p> - -<p>A no less wonderful pedestrian is the Hassar (<i>Doras costata</i>), -a South American fish, that marches over land in search of -water, travelling a whole night when the pools dry up in -which it commonly resides. It projects itself forwards on its -bony pectoral fins, by the elastic spring of the tail, exerted -sidewise, and in this manner proceeds nearly as fast as a man -will leisurely walk. The strong scuta or bands which envelop -its body must greatly facilitate its march, in the manner of -the plates under the belly of serpents, which are raised and -depressed by a voluntary power, in some measure performing -the office of feet. The Indians say justly that these fishes -supply themselves with water for their journey. If they find -the pools and rivers everywhere dried up, they bury themselves -in the mud, and fall into a kind of asphyxia or lethargy, till -the rainy season recalls them again to life.</p> - -<p>The hassar is also remarkable for a parental affection, almost -unexampled among fishes. Sir Richard Schomburgk relates that -it not only builds a complete nest for its spawn but also watches -over it with the utmost vigilance till the young brood comes -forth. In April, this marine artist begins to build his little -dwelling of vegetable fibres, among the water-plants and rushes, -until it resembles a hollow ball, flattened at the top. An -aperture corresponding to the size of the mother leads into -the interior. The parental affection of the fish is shamefully -misused by man for its destruction. A small basket is held -before the opening; then the nest is slightly beaten with a -stick; and, furious, with extended fins, whose sharp points are -able to inflict a painful wound, the poor hassar darts into the -fatal basket.</p> - - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 408px;"> -<a href="images/195fplg.png"><img src="images/195fp.png" width="408" height="593" alt="" /></a> -<div class="fig_caption">SUBAQUEOUS LIFE—STICKLEBACKS AND NEST.<br /> -<span class="smaller">Click on image to view larger version.</span></div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption2"><a name="FPage_195" id="FPage_195">SUBAQUEOUS LIFE—STICKLEBACKS AND NEST.</a></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 56px;"> -<img src="images/bardot.png" width="56" height="7" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p>This plate represents a group of fifteen-spined sticklebacks busily employed in -making their nests. To the left is seen a curious piece of marine architecture, -mentioned by Mr. Couch, the well-known ichthyologist. A pair of sticklebacks -had made their nest "in the loose end of a rope, from which the separated strands -hung out about a yard from the surface, over a depth of four or five fathoms, and -to which the materials could only have been brought, of course, in the mouth of -the fish, from the distance of about thirty feet. They were formed of the usual -aggregation of the finer sorts of green and red sea-weed, but they were so matted -together in the hollow formed by the untwisted strands of the rope that the mass -constituted an oblong ball of nearly the size of the fist, in which had been deposited -the scattered assemblage of spawn, and which was bound into shape with a thread -of animal substance, which was passed through and through in various directions, -while the rope itself formed an outside covering to the whole."</p></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">« 195 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The black Goby (<i>Gobius niger</i>) also prepares a nest for its -eggs. This fish inhabits the slimy bottoms of the lagoons -near Venice, and burrows galleries in the clayey soil, where -it spends the greater part of the year, protected against storms -and enemies. In spring it digs more superficial dwellings -among the roots of the sea-grass, to which the spawn attaches -itself. The architect watches over the entrance of the house, -opposing sharp rows of teeth to every intruder.</p> - -<p>A similar care may be admired in the tiny Stickleback, which -the celebrated ichthyologist, M. Coste, has often watched building -its nest. After the fish has collected the materials, it -covers them with sand, glues the walls with a mucous secretion, -and prepares a suitable entrance. At a later period it becomes -the bold and indefatigable defender of its eggs, repelling with -tooth and prickles all other sticklebacks that approach the nest. -If the enemy is too powerful, it has recourse to artifice, darts -forth, seems actively engaged in the pursuit of an imaginary -prey, and often succeeds in diverting the aggressor's attention -from its nest. The River Bullhead is likewise said to evince -the same parental affection for its ova, as a bird for its nest, -returning quickly to the spot, and being unwilling to quit it -when disturbed. It is believed, also, of the Lump-Sucker, that -the male first keeps watch over the deposited ova, and guards -them from every foe with the utmost courage. If driven from -the spot by man, he does not go far, but is continually looking -back, and in a short time returns. Thus we find among the -inferior animals glimpses of a higher nature, which prove that -all created beings form a continuous chain, linked together by -one all-pervading and almighty Power.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">« 196 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/196a.png" width="420" height="215" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Internal Ear of Perch.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/196b.png" width="153" height="111" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Osseous labyrinth of the Human Ear.<br /> - -<i>a</i>, Oval or vestibular fenestra; <i>b</i>, round or cochlear fenestra; <i>c</i>, external or horizontal semicircular -canal; <i>d</i>, superior or anterior vertical semicircular canal; <i>e</i>, posterior or inferior -vertical semicircular canal; <i>f</i>, the turns of cochlea.</div> -</div> - -<p>The senses of the fishes are also in perfect harmony with -the peculiarities of their mode of life. Their eyes are indeed -wanting in the fire and animation which gives so much expression -to the physiognomy of the higher animals, but the structure -of these organs is admirably calculated for the element in which -they are plunged, as the spherical form and great size of the -crystalline lens, by concentrating the rays of light, enables them -to see with distinctness even through so dense a medium as that -which surrounds them. When water is clear, smooth, and undisturbed -the sight of fishes is very acute, a circumstance well -known to anglers, who prefer a breeze undulating over the -surface, as they can then approach much nearer the objects of -their pursuit and practise their <i>artful dodges</i> with a much -better chance of success. The eyes in fishes are observed to -occupy very different positions in different species, but their -situation is always such as best to suit the exigencies of the -particular fish. Thus in the star-gazer and sea-devil, that -watch their prey from a muddy concealment, they are very -appropriately placed at the top of the head, while in the flat-fishes, -where an eye on the side habitually turned towards the -ground would have been useless, the distorted head, by placing -both eyes on the same level, affords them an extensive range of -view in those various directions in which they may either endeavour -to find suitable food or avoid dangerous enemies. That -fishes are not deficient in the sense of hearing may be seen -at once by the annexed illustrations, which show a marked -similarity of organisation between the human ear and that of -the perch. It is well known that they start at the report of a -gun, though it is impossible for them to see the flash. Sir -Joseph Banks used to collect his fishes by sounding a bell, and -the Chinese call the gold-fish with a whistle to receive their -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">« 197 »</a></span> -food. In spite of their scaly covering, the fishes are not unprovided -with organs of touch. The lips in many species are soft, -and the mouths of others, such as the -red mullet—for which such enormous -sums were paid by the Roman epicures—are -provided with barbules -largely supplied with nerves, which no -doubt enable them to distinguish the -objects with which they come in contact. -In the three elongated rays of their pectoral fins the -gurnards may be said to possess fingers to compensate for their -bony lips; and in many other fishes these modified arms or -forefeet are applied as organs of feeling -to ascertain the character of the -bottom of the water. "You may witness -the tactile action of the pectoral fins," -says Professor Owen,<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[N]</a> "when gold-fish -are transferred to a strange vessel; -their eyes are so placed as to prevent -them seeing what is below them; so -they compress their air-bladder, and allow themselves to sink -near the bottom, which they sweep, as it were, by rapid and -delicate vibrations of the pectoral fins, apparently ascertaining -that no sharp stone or stick projects upwards, which might -injure them in their rapid movements round their prison." -Whether fishes possess any high degree of taste is a subject -not easily proved; but, to judge by the large size of their -olfactory nerves, their sense of smell is probably acute.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[N]</span></a> "Lectures on Comparative Anatomy."</p></div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 228px;"> -<img src="images/197a.png" width="228" height="119" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Red Mullet.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 232px;"> -<img src="images/197b.png" width="232" height="163" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Gurnard.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 232px;"> -<img src="images/197c.png" width="232" height="70" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Wolf-Fish.—(Anarrhicas lupus.)</div> -</div> - -<p>The life of fishes is a state of perpetual warfare, a constant -alternation of flight and pursuit. Prowling through the waters, -they attack and devour every weaker being they meet, or dart -away to escape a similar lot. Many of -them are provided, besides their swiftness -and muscular power, with the most -formidable weapons. Thus the Sea-wolf -has six rows of grinders in each -jaw, excellently adapted for bruising the crabs and whelks, -which this voracious animal grinds to pieces, and swallows along -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">« 198 »</a></span> -with the shells. When caught, it fastens with indiscriminate -rage upon anything within its reach, fighting desperately, even -when out of its own element, and inflicting severe wounds if not -cautiously avoided. Schönfeld relates that it will seize on an -anchor, and leave the marks of its teeth behind, and Steller informs -us that one which he saw taken on the coast of Kamschatka -frantically seized a cutlass with which it was attempted to be -killed, and broke it in pieces as if it had been made of glass. -No wonder that the fishermen, dreading its bite, endeavour as -soon as possible to render it harmless by heavy blows upon the -head. The great size of the monster, which in the British waters -attains the length of six or seven feet, and in the colder and -more extreme northern seas is said to become still larger, renders -it one of the most formidable denizens of the ocean. It commonly -frequents the deep parts of the sea, but approaches the -coasts in spring to deposit its spawn among the marine plants. -Fortunately for its more active neighbours, it swims but slowly, -and glides along with the serpentine motion of the eel.</p> - -<p>Far more dreadful, from its gigantic size and power, is the -White Shark (<i>Squalus carcharias</i>), whose jaws are likewise -furnished with from three to six rows of strong, flat, triangular, -sharp-pointed, and finely serrated teeth, which it can raise or -depress at pleasure. This tyrant of the seas grows to a length of -thirty feet, and its prodigious strength may be judged of from the -fact that a young shark, only six feet in length, is able to break -a man's leg by a stroke of its tail. Thus, when a shark is caught -with a baited hook at sea, and drawn upon deck, the sailors' first -act is to chop off its tail, to prevent the mischief otherwise to -be apprehended from its enormous strength. An anecdote -related by Hughes, the well-known and esteemed author of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">« 199 »</a></span> -"Natural History of Barbadoes," gives a good idea of the savage -nature of this monster. "In the reign of Queen Anne a merchant-ship -arrived at that island from England: some of the -crew, ignorant of the danger of the recreation, were bathing in -the sea, when a large shark appeared and swam directly towards -them; being warned of their danger, however, they all hurried -on board, where they arrived safe, except one poor fellow, who -was bit in two by the shark, almost within reach of the oars. -A comrade, and intimate friend of the unfortunate victim, -when he observed the severed trunk of his companion, vowed -his revenge. The voracious monster was seen traversing the -bloody surface of the waves, in search of the remainder of his -prey, when the brave youth plunged into the water. He held -in his hand a long sharp-pointed knife; and the rapacious -animal pushed furiously towards him. He had turned on his -side and opened his enormous jaws, when the youth, diving -dexterously, seized the shark with his left hand, somewhere -below the upper fins, and stabbed him repeatedly in the belly. -The animal, enraged with pain, and streaming with blood, -attempted in vain to disengage himself. The crews of the surrounding -vessels saw that the combat was decided; but they -were ignorant which was slain, till the shark, exhausted by loss -of blood, was seen nearer the shore, and along with him his -gallant conqueror—who, flushed with victory, redoubled his -efforts, and, with the aid of an ebbing tide, dragged him to the -beach. Finally, he ripped open the stomach of the fish, and -buried the severed half of his friend's body with the trunk in -the same grave."</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 462px;"> -<img src="images/198.png" width="462" height="133" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">White Shark.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 534px;"> -<img src="images/199.png" width="534" height="142" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Hammer-headed Shark.—(Squalus Zygæna.)</div> -</div> - -<p>It is no uncommon thing for the negroes, who are admirable -divers, thus to attack and vanquish the dreaded shark, but success -can only be achieved by consummate dexterity, and by -those who are armed for this express purpose.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">« 200 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Ordinary swimmers are constantly falling a prey to the -sharks of warm climates. Thus Sir Brooke Watson, when in -the West Indies, as a youth, was swimming at a little distance -from a ship, when he saw a shark making towards him. -Struck with terror at its approach, he immediately cried out -for assistance. A rope was instantly thrown, but, even while -the men were in the act of drawing him up the ship's side, -the monster darted after him, and at a single snap took off -his leg.</p> - -<p>Fortunately for the friends of sea-bathing on our shores, the -white shark, like his relation, the monstrous Hammer-headed -Zygæna, appears but seldom in the colder latitudes, though both -have occasionally been found on the British coast.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 237px;"> -<img src="images/200a.png" width="237" height="144" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Picked Dog-Fish.</div> -</div> - -<p>The northern ocean has got its peculiar sharks, but they -are generally either good-natured like -the huge basking shark (<i>S. maximus</i>), -which feeds on sea-weeds and medusæ, -or else like the <i>Picked</i> dog-fish -(<i>Galeus acanthius</i>), of too small a size -to be dangerous to man, in spite of -the ferocity of their nature.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/200b.png" width="300" height="180" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Blue Shark.</div> -</div> - -<p>But the dog-fish and several other species of our seas, such as -the Blue Shark (<i>Carcharias glaucus</i>), though they do not attempt -the fisherman's life, are extremely -troublesome and injurious -to him, by hovering -about his boat and cutting -the hooks from the lines in -rapid succession. This, indeed, -often leads to their own -destruction, but when their -teeth do not deliver them -from their difficulty, the blue -sharks, which hover about the Cornish coast during the pilchard -season, have a singular method of proceeding, which is, by rolling -the body round so as to twine the line about them throughout -its whole length; and sometimes this is done in such a -complicated manner, that Mr. Yarrell has known a fisherman -give up any attempt to unroll it as a hopeless task. To the -pilchard drift-net this shark is a still more dangerous enemy, -and it is common for it to pass in succession along the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">« 201 »</a></span> -whole length of net, cutting out, as with shears, the fish and -the net that holds them, and swallowing both together.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 461px;"> -<img src="images/201a.png" width="461" height="186" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Saw-Fish.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 570px;"> -<img src="images/201b.png" width="570" height="140" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Sword-Fish.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Saw-snouted Shark or Saw-fish (<i>Squalus pristis</i>), which -grows to fifteen feet in length, and the Sword-fish (<i>Xiphias -gladius</i>, <i>platypterus</i>), are furnished with peculiarly formidable -weapons. The long flat snout of the former is set with teeth on -both sides through its whole length, while the upper jaw of the -latter terminates in a long sword-shaped snout. A twenty-feet -long sword-fish once ran his sword with -such violence into the keel of an East -Indiaman, that it penetrated up to the -root, and the fish itself was killed by the -violence of the shock. The perforated -beam, with the driven-in sword, are both -preserved in the British Museum, and -give a good idea of the prodigious power -of the leviathans of ocean.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 189px;"> -<img src="images/201c.png" width="189" height="310" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Torpedo.</div> -</div> - -<p>While most fishes only rely upon their -well-armed jaws, their physical strength, -or their rapidity, for attack or defence, -some of them are provided with more -mysterious weapons, and stun their victims -or their enemies by electrical discharges.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">« 202 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 355px;"> -<img src="images/202a.png" width="355" height="475" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Muscles and Electric Batteries of the Torpedo.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Torpedo of the Mediterranean is furnished with wonderful -organs for this purpose, situated on each side of the anterior -part of the body,—perfect -galvanic batteries, consisting -of a multitude of small -prismatic columns, subdivided -into cells, and interwoven -with a multitude of -nerves, which serve to disengage -the electric fluid, -and discharge it according -to the will of the fish, or -when it is excited by some -external stimulus. The -shock of the torpedo is -not so strong as that of -the electric eel (<i>Gymnotus -electricus</i>) of the Orinoco, -which is able to stun a -horse, but its power suffices -to paralyse the arm of a -man. A Sly, or Silurus, -found in the Nile or Senegal, -and called by the Arabs <i>raasch</i>, or lightning, and one of -the many Tetrodons inhabiting the tropical seas, is endowed -with a similar faculty of producing galvanic shocks.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 240px;"> -<img src="images/202b.png" width="240" height="86" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Electric Eel.</div> -</div> - -<p>Some fishes, to whom nature has denied all other offensive -weapons, have recourse to stratagem -for procuring their food. Hidden -in the mud, the Star-gazer (<i>Uranoscopus -scaber</i>) exposes only the tip -of the head, and waving the -beards with which its lips are -furnished in various directions, decoys the smaller fishes and -marine insects, that mistake these organs for worms.</p> - -<p>The Angler, or Sea-devil (<i>Lophius piscatorius</i>), a slow -swimmer, who would very often be obliged to fast if he had only -his swiftness to rely upon, uses a similar stratagem. Crouching -close to the ground, he stirs up the sand or mud, and, hidden -by the obscurity thus produced, attracts many a prize by leisurely -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">« 203 »</a></span> -moving to and fro the two slender and elongated appendages -on his head, the first of which, the better to deceive, is broad and -flattened at the end, inviting pursuit -by the shining silvery appearance of -the dilated part. Even the great -European Sly, a fish which has been -known to grow to the length of fifteen -feet, and to attain a weight of 300 lbs. -is not ashamed to owe its food to -similar deceits. Like a true lazzarone, the fat creature lies -hidden in the mud of rivers, its mouth half open, and angling -with its long beards.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 241px;"> -<img src="images/203a.png" width="241" height="119" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Angler.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 275px;"> -<img src="images/203b.png" width="275" height="272" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">European Sly.—(Silurus glanis.)</div> -</div> - -<p>But no fish catches its prey in a -more remarkable manner than the -Beaked, or Rostrated Chætodon, -a native of the fresh waters of -India. When he sees a fly alighting -on any of the plants which -overhang the shallow water, he -approaches with the utmost caution, -coming as perpendicularly as -possible under the object of his -meditated attack. Then placing -himself in an oblique direction, -with the mouth and eyes near the surface, he remains a moment -immoveable, taking his aim like a first-rate rifleman. Having -fixed his eyes directly on the insect, he darts at it a drop of water -from his tubular snout, but without showing his mouth above the -surface, from which only the drop seems to rise, and that with such -effect, that though at the distance of four, five or six feet, it very -seldom fails to bring its prey into the water. Another small -East Indian fish, the <i>Toxotes jaculator</i>, -catches its food by a similar dexterous -display of archery.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 238px;"> -<img src="images/203c.png" width="238" height="133" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Toxotes Jaculator.</div> -</div> - -<p>While all other fishes hunt only for -their own benefit, the Indian Remora, -or Sucking-fish (<i>Echeneis Naucrates</i>), -owes to the remarkable striated apparatus -on its head, by which it firmly -adheres to any object—rock, ship, or animal,—to which it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">« 204 »</a></span> -chooses to attach itself, the rare distinction of being employed -by man as a hunting-fish. When Columbus first discovered the -West Indies, the inhabitants of the coasts of Cuba and Jamaica -made use of the remora to catch turtles, by attaching to its -tail a strong cord of palm-fibres, which served to drag it out -of the water along with its prey. By this means they were -able to raise turtles weighing several hundred pounds from the -bottom; "for the sucking-fish," says Columbus, "will rather -suffer itself to be cut to pieces than let go its hold." In Africa, -on the Mozambique coast, a similar method of catching turtles -is practised to the present day. Thus a knowledge of the habits -of animals, and similar necessities, have given rise to the same -hunting artifices among nations that never had the least communication -with each other. Everybody knows the fables that -have been related of the small Mediterranean remora (<i>Echeneis -remora</i>). It even -owes its Latin name -to the marvellous -story of its being -able to arrest a ship -under full sail in -the midst of the ocean; and from this imaginary physical power -a no less astonishing moral influence was inferred, for the -ancients believed that tasting the remora completely subdued -the passion of love, and that if a delinquent, wishing to gain -time, succeeded in making his judge eat some of its flesh, he -was sure of a long delay before the verdict was pronounced.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 403px;"> -<img src="images/204a.png" width="403" height="82" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Sucking-fish. (Remora.)</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 243px;"> -<img src="images/204b.png" width="243" height="93" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Common Weever.</div> -</div> - -<p>Most fishes have only a rapid flight to depend upon for -their safety; some, however, more favoured by nature, have -been provided with peculiar defensive weapons. Thus the -dorsal fins of the Dragon-weever (<i>Trachinus draco</i>), a small -silvery fish, frequently occurring on our shores, are armed -with strong spines, that effectually provide against its being -easily swallowed by a more powerful -enemy. The wounds it inflicts are -very troublesome and painful, though -it does not appear that the spines -contain any poisonous matter, as the -fishermen generally believe. At all -events, the dragon-weever is not nearly so dangerous as the <i>Clip -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">« 205 »</a></span> -bagre</i>, a kind of silurus or sly, inhabiting the Brazilian rivers, that -inflicts with its long spines such painful wounds as to deprive the -sufferer of consciousness, and to produce an inflammation that lasts -for several weeks. The Lance-tails, or -Acanthuri, have a sharp bony process, -not unlike the very large thorn of a -rose-tree, placed on each side of the -tail; by this they can inflict a deep -cut on the hand of any one who -is so imprudent as to seize them in -that part.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 229px;"> -<img src="images/205a.png" width="229" height="156" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Surgeon Fish. (Acanthurus.)</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 251px;"> -<img src="images/205b.png" width="251" height="160" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Diodon.</div> -</div> - -<p>I could still add a long list of spine-armed fishes, but content -myself with noticing the Stickleback, which frequently owes -its preservation to the sharp needles with which it is provided.</p> - -<p>The Tetrodons and Diodons have the power of inflating their -body at pleasure, and thus raising the small spines dispersed -over their sides and abdomen in such -a manner, as to operate as a defence -against their enemies. These beautiful -and remarkable fishes chiefly -inhabit the tropical waters, but sometimes -wander into higher latitudes. -Man is not the only creature driven -by the currents of fate far from the -place of his birth.</p> - -<p>The Flying-fishes (<i>Exoceti</i>) are provided with pectoral fins of -so great a length, as to be able to carry them, like wings, a great -distance through the air. According to Mr. George Bennett -("Wanderings in New South Wales"), they cannot raise themselves -when in the atmosphere, the elevation they take depending -entirely on the power of the first spring or leap they make on -leaving their native element. Their flight, as it is called, carries -them fifteen or eighteen feet high over the water, and the lines -which they traverse when they enjoy full liberty of motion, are -very low curves, and always in the direction of their previous -progress in the usual element of fishes. Their silvery wings and -blue bodies glittering beneath the rays of a tropical sun, afford -a most beautiful spectacle, when, as is frequently the case, they -rise into the air by thousands at once, and in all possible directions. -The advantage afforded them by their wing-like fins, in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">« 206 »</a></span> -escaping from the pursuit of the bonitos and albacores, often, -however, leads to their destruction in another element, where -gulls and frigate-birds -frequently -seize them with -lightning-like rapidity, -ere they fall -back again into the -ocean. It is amusing -to observe a -bonito swimming -beneath the feeble -aëronaut, keeping -him steadily in view, and preparing to seize him at the moment -of his descent. But the flying-fish often eludes the bite of his -enemy, by instantaneously renewing his leap, and not unfrequently -escapes by extreme agility.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 396px;"> -<img src="images/206.png" width="396" height="224" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Flying-Fish.</div> -</div> - -<p>The specific gravity of the flying-fish can be most admirably -regulated in correspondence with the element through which it -may move. The swim-bladder, when distended, occupies nearly -the entire cavity of the abdomen, thus containing a large volume -of air; and in addition to this, there is a membrane in the -mouth which can be inflated through the gills. The pectoral -fins, though so large when expanded, can be folded into an -exceedingly slender, neat, and compact form, so as to be no -hindrance to swimming. A light displayed from the chains -of a vessel in a dark night, will bring many flying-fishes on -board, where they are esteemed as a great delicacy. Their -fate, thus to be persecuted in both elements and to find security -nowhere, has often been pitied in prose and verse; but although -they excite so much sentimental commiseration, they are themselves -no less predaceous than their enemies, feeding chiefly on -smaller fishes.</p> - -<p>The flying-fish of the West Indian waters is frequently -allured by the tepid waters of the Gulf-stream into higher latitudes, -and Pennant cites several examples of its having been -found near the British coast.</p> - -<p>The Flying-Gurnard (<i>Trigla volitans</i>) of the Mediterranean, -Atlantic, and Indian seas, a highly singular and beautiful species, -also raises itself into the air by means of its large pectoral fins -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">« 207 »</a></span>. -It does not fly very high, but swings itself as far as a musket-ball -reaches, and may thus elude even the rapidity of the -dolphin. That strangely formed fish, the <i>Pegasus</i> of the Indian -seas, is also enabled by its large pectoral -fins to support itself for some -moments in the air, when it springs -over the surface of the water.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 241px;"> -<img src="images/207.png" width="241" height="159" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Swimming Pegasus.</div> -</div> - -<p>Neither the quadrupeds nor the -birds are subject to so many persecutions -as the fishes, which have inexorable -enemies in all classes of animals. -Numberless molluscs and zoophytes -feed upon their eggs, or devour their minute fry; myriads of sea-birds -are on the look-out for them along the strands, or on the -high ocean; seals and ice-bears lie in wait for them, while with -weapons and deceit, with net, angle and harpoon, man carries -death and destruction into their ranks. It would be a difficult -task to state with any degree of exactness the number of fishermen -disseminated over the face of the globe, but if we consider -that, on a moderate calculation, at least a million of persons are -directly or indirectly engaged in fishing in Great Britain and -Ireland alone, and then cast a glance over the immense coast-line -of the ocean, we may without exaggeration affirm that at -least one-fiftieth part of the human race lives upon the produce -of the seas. If we further reflect that fishes form a great part -of the food of all coast-inhabitants, and consider in what masses -they are sent into the interior,—fresh, dried, salted, smoked, -and pickled,—we cannot doubt that the great extent of the ocean -only apparently limits the numbers of the human race, for how -many thousands of square miles of the most fruitful soil would -it not require to bring forth the quantity of food which the blue -and green fields of ocean supply to man? "Bounteous mother," -"<i>Alma parens</i>," was the name given by the grateful ancients to -the corn and grass-producing, herd-feeding earth; but how -much more deserving of that endearing appellation is the sea, -that, without being ploughed or manured, dispenses her gifts -with such inexhaustible profusion! Numberless indeed are the -various kinds of fishes which she furnishes to man, for almost -every species affords an equally agreeable and healthy food: but -of all the finny families or tribes that people the ocean none can -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">« 208 »</a></span> -compare for utility with that of the <i>Clupeidæ</i>, or Herrings, -small in size but great in importance. In mile-long shoals, -often so thickly pressed that a spear cast into them would stand -upright in the living stream, the common herring appears -annually on the coasts of north-western -Europe, pouring out the horn -of abundance into all the lochs, -bays, coves, and fiords, from Norway -to Ireland, and from Orcadia to Normandy. -Sea-birds without end keep thinning their ranks during -the whole summer; armies of rorquals, dolphins, seals, shell-fish, -cods, and sharks devour them by millions, and yet so countless -are their numbers, that whole nations live upon their spoils.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 220px;"> -<img src="images/208.png" width="220" height="85" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Herring.</div> -</div> - -<p>As soon as the season of their approach appears, fleets of herring -boats leave the northern ports, provided with drift-nets, about -1200 feet long. The yarn is so thick that the wetted net sinks -through its own weight, and need not be held down by stones -attached to the lower edge, for it has been found that the -herring is more easily caught in a slack net. The upper edge -is suspended from the drift-rope by various shorter and smaller -ropes, called buoy ropes, to which empty barrels are fastened, -and the whole of the floating apparatus is attached by long -ropes to the ship. Fishing takes place only during the night, -for it is found that the fish strike the nets in much greater -numbers when it is dark than while it is light. The darkest -nights, therefore, and particularly those in which the surface of -the water is ruffled by a fresh breeze, are considered the most -favourable. To avoid collisions, each boat is furnished with one -or two torches. From off the beach at Yarmouth, where often -several thousand boats are fishing at the same time, these numberless -lights, passing to and fro in every direction, afford a most -lively and brilliant spectacle. The meshes of the net are exactly -calculated for the size of the herring, wide enough to receive the -head as far as behind the gill-cover, but not so narrow as to allow -the pectoral fins to pass. Thus the poor fish, when once entangled, -is unable to move backwards or forwards, and remains -sticking in the net, like a bad logician on the horns of a dilemma, -until the fisherman hauls it on board. In this manner a single -net sometimes contains so vast a booty, that it requires all the -authority of a Cuvier or a Valenciennes to make us believe the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">« 209 »</a></span> -instances they mention. A fisherman of Dieppe caught in one -night 280,000 herrings, and threw as many back again into the -sea. Sometimes great sloops have been obliged to cut their nets, -being about to sink under the superabundant weight of the fish.</p> - -<p>The oldest mention of the herring-fishery is found in the -chronicles of the monastery of Evesham, of the year 709; while -the first French documents on the subject only reach as far as -the year 1030. As far back as the days of William the Conqueror, -Yarmouth was renowned for its herring-fishery; and Dunkirk and -the Brill conducted it on a grand scale centuries before William -Beukelaer of Biervliet, near Sluys, introduced a better method -of pickling herrings in small kegs, instead of salting them as -before in loose irregular heaps. It is very doubtful whether -Solon or Lycurgus ever were such benefactors of their respective -countries as this simple uneducated fisherman has been to his -native land; for the pickled herring mainly contributed to -transform a small and insignificant people into a mighty nation. -In the year 1603, the value of the herrings exported from Holland -amounted to twenty millions of florins; and in 1615, the -fishery gave employment to 2000 <i>buysen</i>, or smacks, and to -37,000 men. Three years later we see the United Provinces -cover the sea with 3000 <i>buysen</i>; 9000 additional boats served for -the transport of the fishes, and the whole trade gave employment -to at least 200,000 individuals. At that time Holland provided all -Europe with herrings, and it may without exaggeration be affirmed -that this small fish was their best ally and assistant in casting -off the Spanish yoke, by providing them with money, the chief -sinew of war. Had the emperor Charles V. been able to foresee -that Beukelaer's discovery would one day prove so detrimental -to his son and successor Philip II., he would hardly have done -the poor fisherman the honour to eat a herring and drink a glass -of wine over his tomb.</p> - -<p>But all human prosperity is subject to change; and thus -towards the middle of the sixteenth century a series of calamities -ruined the Dutch fisheries. Cromwell gave them the -first blow by the Navigation Act; Blake the second, by his victories; -in 1703 a French squadron destroyed the greatest part -of their herring-smacks; and finally, the competition of the -Swedes, and the closing of their ports by the English, under the -disastrous domination of Napoleon I., completed the ruin of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">« 210 »</a></span> -that branch of trade which had chiefly raised the fortunes of -their fathers.</p> - -<p>In the year 1814, when the Dutch first began to breathe after -having shaken off the yoke of the modern Attila, they made a -faint attempt to renew the herring-fishery with 106 boats, which, -up to the year 1823, had only increased to 128; since 1836, however, -there has been a steady progress, and herring-catching in -the Zuyder Zee during the winter months is yearly increasing in -importance.</p> - -<p>During the second half of the last century, while the herrings -began to desert the Dutch nets, they enriched the Swedes, -who, during the year 1781, exported from Gottenburg alone -136,649 barrels, each of them containing 1200 herrings. But -some years after, the shoals on the Swedish coasts began also to -diminish, so that in 1799 there was hardly enough for home consumption. -And now commenced the rapid rise and increase of -the Scotch herring-fisheries; and it is certainly remarkable -that this should have taken place at so late a period, since the -British waters are perhaps those which most abound in herrings. -When we think of the present grandeur of British commerce, -which extends to the most distant parts of the globe, and -ransacks all Nature for new articles of trade, it seems almost -incredible that up to the middle of the sixteenth century the -herring-fishery on the British coasts was left in the hands of -the Dutch and Spaniards, and that the acute and industrious -Scotchmen should have been so tardy in working the rich gold-mines -lying at their gates. But if their appearance in the market -has been late, they have made up for lost time, by completely -distancing all their competitors. In 1855, the Scotch herring-fisheries -employed no less than 11,000 smacks or boats, manned -by 40,000 seamen, who were assisted by 28,000 curers and -labourers, exclusive of the vessels and men bringing salt and -barrels or engaged in carrying on the export trade.</p> - -<p>The English herring-fishery is also extremely important, for -Yarmouth alone employs in this branch of trade about 400 -sloops, of from forty to seventy tons, the largest of which have -ten or twelve men on board. Three of these sloops, belonging -to the same proprietor, landed, in the year 1857, 285 lasts, or -3,762,000 fishes; and as each last was sold for £14 sterling, it is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">« 211 »</a></span> -probable that no whaler made a better business that season. -The importance of the Yarmouth herring-fishery may be inferred -from the fact, that it gives employment and bread to -about 5,000 persons during several months of the year, and -engages a capital of at least £700,000. No wonder, that among -the north seamen the herring-fishery is called the "great" -fishery, while that of the whale is denominated only the "small."</p> - -<p>But the herring is a very capricious creature, seldom remaining -long in one place; and there is not a station along the British -coast which is not liable to great changes in its visits, as -well with regard to time as to quantity. The real causes of these -irregularities are unknown; the firing of guns, the manufacture -of kelp, and the paddling of steam-boats have been assigned as -reasons, but such reasons are quite imaginary. The progress of -science promises to find, however, a remedy even for the caprices -of the herring; and if his shoals frequently appear and disappear -again in the more retired bays or fiords of Norway, before -the fishermen are apprised of his movements, the electric telegraph -(the most wonderful discovery of a time so rich in wonderful -inventions), will be used for his more effectual capture. -By this time the wires are already laid, which are to communicate -along the whole Scandinavian coast, and with the rapidity -of lightning, every important movement of the marine hosts. -Poor herring! who would have thought, when Franklin made -his first experiments upon electricity, that that mysterious -power should ever be used for thy destruction!</p> - -<p>The supposed migration of herrings to and from the high -northern latitudes is not founded on fact; the herring has never -been seen in abundance in the northern seas, nor have our whale-fishers -or Arctic voyagers taken any particular notice of them. -There is no fishery for them of any consequence either in Greenland -or Iceland. On the southern coast of Greenland the herring -is a rare fish, and, according to Crantz, only a small variety makes -its appearance on the northern shore. This small variety, -or species, was found by Sir John Franklin on the shore of the -Polar basin, on his second journey. There can be no doubt -that the herring inhabits the deep water all round our coast, -and only approaches the shores for the purpose of depositing its -spawn within the immediate influence of the two principal -agents in vivification—increased temperature and oxygen—and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">« 212 »</a></span> -as soon as that essential object is effected, the shoals that haunt -the superficial waters disappear, but individuals are found, and -many are to be caught throughout the year. So far are they -from being migratory to us from the north only, that they visit -the west coast of Cork in August, arriving there much earlier -than those which come down the Irish Channel, and long -before their brethren make their appearance at places much -farther north. Our common herring spawns towards the end of -October, or the beginning of November, and it is for two or -three months previous to this, when they assemble in immense -numbers, that the fishing is carried on, which is of such great -and national importance. "And here," Mr. Couch observes, -"we cannot but admire the economy of Divine Providence, by -which this and several other species of fish are brought to the -shores, within reach of man, at the time when they are in their -highest perfection and best fitted to be his food." The herring -having spawned, retires to deep water, and the fishing ends for that -season. While inhabiting the depths of the ocean, its food is -said, by Dr. Knox, to consist principally of minute entomostraceous -animals, but it is certainly less choice in its selection when -near the shore.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 259px;"> -<img src="images/212.png" width="259" height="99" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Pilchard.</div> -</div> - -<p>Although the common herring of our northern seas is beyond -all doubt the most important of the tribe, yet there is no sea, no -coast, where other species of the same family are not a source of -abundance to man, and of astonishment by their vast numbers. -Thus the enormous shoals of Pilchards -appearing along our south-western -coasts are not less valuable -to the fishermen of Devon and -Cornwall than the common herring -to those of the North Sea. The -older naturalists considered the pilchard, like the herring, as a -visitor from a distant region, and they assigned to it also the -same place of resort as that fish, with which indeed the pilchard -has been sometimes confounded. To this it will be a sufficient -reply, that the pilchard is never seen in the Northern Ocean. -They frequent the French coasts, and are seen on those of Spain, -but on neither in considerable numbers or with much regularity; -so that few fishes confine themselves within such narrow bounds. -On the coast of Cornwall they are found throughout all the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">« 213 »</a></span> -seasons of the year, and even there their habits vary in the -different months. In January they keep near the bottom, and -are chiefly hauled up in the stomachs of ravenous fishes; in -March they sometimes assemble in <i>schulls</i>, but this union is only -partial and not permanent and only becomes so in July; when they -regularly and permanently congregate so as to invite the fisherman's -pursuit. The season and situation for spawning, and the -choice of food, are the chief reasons which influence the motions -of the great bodies of these fish; and it is probable that a thorough -knowledge of these particulars would explain all the variations -which have been noticed in the doings of the pilchard, in the -numerous unsuccessful seasons of the fishery.</p> - -<p>They feed with voracity on small crustaceous animals, and -Mr. Yarrell frequently found their stomachs crammed with thousands -of a minute species of shrimp, not larger than a flea. It -is probably when they are in search of something like this, that -fishermen report they have seen them lying in myriads quietly -at the bottom, examining with their mouths the sand and small -stones in shallow water. The abundance of this food must be -enormous, to satisfy such a host.</p> - -<p>"When near the coast," says the author of the "History -of British Fishes," "the assemblage of pilchards assumes the -arrangement of a mighty army, with its wings stretching parallel -to the land, and the whole is composed of numberless smaller -bodies, which are perpetually joining together, shifting their -position, and separating again. There are three stations occupied -by this great body, that have their separate influence on the -success of the fishery. One is to the eastward of the Lizard, the -most eastern extremity, reaching to the Bay of Bigbury in Devonshire, -beyond which no fishing is carried on, except that -it occasionally extends to Dartmouth; a second station is included -between the Lizard and Land's End; and the third is on the -north coast of the county, the chief station being about St. Ives. -The subordinate motions of the shoals are much regulated by -the tide, against the current of which they are rarely known to -go, and the whole will sometimes remain parallel to the coast -for several weeks, at the distance of a few leagues; and then, as if -by general consent, they will advance close to the shore, sometimes -without being discovered till they have reached it. This usually -happens when the tides are strongest, and is the period when -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">« 214 »</a></span> -the principal opportunity is afforded for the prosecution of the -sean-fishery." The quantity of pilchards taken is sometimes -incredibly large. In 1847, a very productive year, 40,000 hogsheads -were cured in Cornwall alone, representing probably, after -all deductions, a net value to the takers of £80,000. The Sardine -(<i>Clupea sardina</i>), a fish closely allied to the Pilchard -though smaller, is considered as the most savoury of all the -herring tribe. It is chiefly found in the Mediterranean, on the -coasts of South France and Africa, and about the islands of -Corsica and Sardinia, where it plays a no less important part -than the Pilchard on the coasts of Cornwall and Devonshire.</p> - -<p>Though a much less valuable fish than its larger-sized relatives, -the diminutive Sprat is not to be despised. Coming into -the market in immense quantities, and at a very moderate -price, immediately after the herring season is over, it affords -during all the winter months a cheap and agreeable food. Like -all other species of the herring tribe, the sprats are capricious -wanderers, and make their appearance in exceedingly variable -numbers. The coasts of Kent, Essex, and Suffolk, are the most -productive. So great is the supply thence obtained, that notwithstanding -the immense quantity consumed by the vast -population of London and its neighbourhood, there is yet occasionally -a surplus to be disposed of at so low a price, as to induce -the farmers, even so near the metropolis as Dartford, to -use them for manure.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 355px;"> -<img src="images/214.png" width="355" height="110" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Anchovy.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Mediterranean seems to be the peculiar birthplace of -the Anchovy (<i>Engraulis encrasicholus</i>), where it appears in -the spawning season -in countless multitudes -along the shallow coasts. -It is about four inches -long, of a bluish-brown -colour on the back, and -silvery-white on the -belly. It is covered with large thin and easily deciduous scales, -and may be readily distinguished from the Sprat and other -kindred species by the anal fins being remarkably short. -It is mostly caught in the neighbourhood of Antibes, Frejus, -and St. Tropez, and sent pickled in enormous quantities -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">« 215 »</a></span> -to the fair of Beaucaire, from whence it is transported in small -tin boxes to all parts of the world.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 253px;"> -<img src="images/215a.png" width="253" height="102" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Haddock.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 254px;"> -<img src="images/215b.png" width="254" height="70" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Ling.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 255px;"> -<img src="images/215c.png" width="255" height="94" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Cod.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Cod-family, to which among others, the Dorse, the -Haddock, the Whiting, the Hake, the Ling, and other valuable -fishes belong, ranks next to that of the herrings in importance -to man. In the seas with which Europeans are best acquainted -the common Cod, the chief representative of the tribe, is found -universally, from Iceland to very nearly as far south as Gibraltar, -but appears most abundantly on the eastern side of the American -continent, and among its numerous -islands, from 40° up to 66° N. lat., -where it may be said to hold dominion -from the outer edge of the -great banks of Newfoundland, which -are more than three hundred miles -from land, to the verge of every creek and cove of the bounding -coast. To support such a mass of living beings, the ocean sends -forth its periodical masses of other -living beings. At one season the cod -is accompanied by countless myriads -of the Capelin (<i>Salmo arcticus</i>), -and at another by equal hosts of -a molluscous animal, the Cuttle-fish (<i>Sepia loligo</i>), called in -Newfoundland the squid. The three animals are migratory, -and man, who stations himself -on the shore for their combined -destruction, conducts his movements -according to their migrations, -capturing millions upon -millions of capelins and squids, -to serve as a bait for the capture of millions of cods. In the -United Kingdom alone this fish, in the catching, the curing, -the partial consumption, and sale, supplies employment, food, -and profit to thousands of the human race; but the banks of -Newfoundland are the chief scene of its destruction. As soon -as spring appears, England sends forth 2000 ships, with 30,000 -men, across the Atlantic, towards those teeming shallows; France -about one-half the number; and the Americans as many as both -together. On an average, each ship is reckoned to catch about -40,000 fishes; and we may form some idea of the voracity, as -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">« 216 »</a></span> -well as of the numbers of the cod, when we hear that in the -course of a single day a good fisherman is able to haul up four -hundred one after another with his line—no easy task considering -the size of the fish, which often attains a length of -from two to three feet and a weight of from twenty to forty -pounds.</p> - -<p>The captured fish have but little time left them to bewail -their lot, for a few thousands will be "dressed down"—that is, -gutted, boned and salted—in the course of two or three hours. -For this purpose the crew divide themselves into throaters, -headers, splitters, salters, and packers. First the throater -passes his sharp knife across the throat of the unfortunate cod -to the bone and rips open the bowels. He then passes it quickly -to the header, who with a strong sudden wrench pulls off the -head and tears out the entrails, which he casts overboard, passing -at the same time the fish instantly to the splitter, who with one -cut lays it open from head to tail, and almost in the twinkling -of an eye with another cut takes out the backbone. After -separating the sounds, which are placed with the tongues, and -packed in barrels as a great delicacy, the backbone follows the -entrails overboard, while the fish at the same moment is passed -with the other hand to the salter. Such is the amazing quickness -of the operations of heading and splitting that a good -workman will often decapitate and take out the entrails and -backbone of six fish in a minute. Every fisherman is supposed -to know something of each of these operations, and no rivals at -cricket ever entered with more ardour into their work than do -some athletic champions for the palm of "dressing down" after -a "day's catch."</p> - -<p>Besides its excellent firm flesh, the liver-oil of the cod is used -as a valuable medicine, and serves to restore many a scrofulous -or rickety child to health. The sound-bladder is also employed -by the Icelanders for the manufacture of fish-lime or isinglass. -The best quality of the latter article, however, is afforded by a -species of Sturgeon (<i>Accipenser Huso</i>) which is chiefly found in -the Black and Caspian seas, and ascends the tributary rivers in -immense numbers.</p> - -<p>The Common Sturgeon (<i>Accipenser sturio</i>), though principally -frequenting the seas and rivers of North-Eastern Europe, where, -especially in the Volga, extensive fisheries are established for its -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">« 217 »</a></span> -destruction, is also captured on the coasts of Great Britain and -Ireland, as examples are by no means uncommon in the fish-mongers' -shops of our great cities, a few coming into the hands -of the principal dealers every season. Yarrell mentions one -caught in a stake-net near Findhorn, in Scotland, in July 1833, -which measured eight feet six inches in length and weighed two -hundred and three pounds; but in the Baltic specimens of a -length of eighteen feet and weighing a thousand pounds have -occasionally been captured. The body is long and slender from -the shoulders backward, somewhat pentagonal in shape, with five -longitudinal rows of flattened plates, with pointed central spines, -directed backwards, and the snout is tapering and beak-shaped, -the mouth small and toothless, so that the sturgeon, though -almost equalling the white shark in size, is of a much more -harmless character and formidable only to the crustaceans, small -fish, or soft animals, he meets with at the bottom in deep water, -beyond the ordinary reach of sea-nets. Hence he is rarely caught -in the open sea, but falls an easy prey to the cunning of man -when entering the friths, estuaries, and rivers for the purpose of -spawning. The sturgeon is a highly valuable fish not only for -its well-flavoured flesh but also for its roe, which furnishes the -delicate caviar of commerce. The smallest but most highly -esteemed of the sturgeons is the Sterlet of the Volga, which -sometimes fetches such extravagant prices that Prince Potemkin -has been known to pay three hundred roubles for a single tureen -of sterlet-soup.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 584px;"> -<img src="images/217.png" width="584" height="143" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Common Sturgeon.</div> -</div> - -<p>While many of the numerous members of the salmon family -confine themselves to the rivulet or to the lake, others alternate, -like the sturgeons, between the river and the sea. Of these -the most remarkable is the noble fish which has given its name -to the whole tribe, and may justly be considered as its head, not -only in point of size but also for its wide-spread utility to man.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">« 218 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Every spring or summer the salmon leave the ocean to deposit -their spawn in the sweet waters, often at a distance of many -hundred miles in the interior of the Continent, so that the same -fish which during part of the year may be breasting the waves -of the North Sea, may at another be forcing the current of an -Alpine stream. Their onward progress is not easily stopped: -they shoot up rapids with the velocity of arrows, and make -wonderful efforts to surmount cascades or weirs by leaping, -frequently clearing an elevation of eight or ten feet. These -surprising bounds appear to be accomplished by a sudden jerk, -which is given to its body by the animal from a bent into a -straight position. If they fail in their attempt, and fall back -into the stream, it is only to rest a short time, and thus recruit -their strength for a new effort. The fall of Kilmaroc, on the -Beauly, in Inverness-shire, is one of the spots where the leaping -feats of the salmon can best be witnessed. "The pool below that -fall," says Mr. Mudie, in the <i>British Naturalist</i>, "is very large, -and as it is the head of the run in one of the finest salmon -rivers in the north, and only a few miles distant from the sea, -it is literally thronged with salmon, which are continually -attempting to pass the fall, but without success, as the limit of -their perpendicular spring does not appear to exceed twelve or -fourteen feet; at least, if they leap higher than that, they are -aimless and exhausted, and the force of the current dashes them -down again before they have recovered their energy. They often -kill themselves by the violence of their exertions to ascend, and -sometimes they fall upon the rocks and are captured. It is -indeed said that one of the wonders which the Frasers of Lovat, -who are lords of the manor, used to show their guests was a -voluntarily cooked salmon at the falls of Kilmaroc. For -this purpose a kettle was placed upon the flat rock on the south -side of the fall, close by the edge of the water and kept full and -boiling. There is a considerable extent of the rock where tents -were erected, and the whole was under a canopy of overshadowing -trees. There the company are said to have waited until a -salmon fell into the kettle, and was boiled in their presence. -We have seen as many as eighty taken in a pool lower down -the river at one haul of the seine, and one of the number -weighed more than sixty pounds."</p> - -<p>As the salmon laboriously ascend the rivers, it may easily be -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">« 219 »</a></span> -imagined that the cunning and rapacity of man seeks every -opportunity to intercept their progress. Nets of the most -various form and construction are employed for their capture; -numbers are entrapped in enclosed spaces formed in weirs, into -which they enter as they push up the stream, and are then prevented -by a grating of a peculiar contrivance from returning or -getting out; and many are speared, a mode frequently practised -at night-time, when torches are made use of to attract them to -the surface, or to betray them by their silvery reflection to the -attentive fisherman.</p> - -<p>The ruddy gleam illumining the river banks or sparkling in -the agitated waters, the black sky above, the deep contrasts of -light and shade, attach a romantic interest to this nocturnal -sport, which has been both practised and sung by Walter -Scott.</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i1">"'Tis blithe along the midnight tide<br /></span> -<span class="i2">With stalwart arm the boat to guide,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">On high the dazzling blaze to rear<br /></span> -<span class="i2">And heedful plunge the barbed spear.<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Rock, wood, and scour emerging bright,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Fling on the stream their ruddy light,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">And from the bank our band appears<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Like Genii armed with fiery spears."<br /></span> -</div></div> - -<p>The natural history of the salmon was until lately but very -imperfectly known, as the parr (brandling, samlet) and the grilse, -which are now fully proved to be but intermediate stages of its -growth, were supposed by Yarrell to be distinct fishes. The first -person who seems to have suspected the true nature of the parr -was James Hogg, the Ettrick shepherd, who in his usual eccentric -way took some pains to verify his opinion. As an angler, he -had often caught the parr in its transition state, and had frequently -captured smolts (at that time the only acknowledged -youthful salmon) with the scales barely covering the bars or -finger marks of the parr. Wondering at this, he marked a great -number of the lesser fish and offered rewards of whisky (being -himself a great admirer of the genuine mountain-dew) to the -peasantry to bring him any fish that had evidently undergone -the change. These crude experiments of the talented shepherd -convinced him that the parr were the young of the salmon in -the first stage, and since then professed naturalists have fully -settled the question by watching the egg into life, and tracing -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">« 220 »</a></span> -the growth of the young fish step by step until it ultimately -changed into the kingly salmon.</p> - -<p>This ignorance of the true nature of the parr had most disastrous -effects, as it largely contributed to the depopulation of our -streams, for the farmers and cottars who resided near the rivers -used not unfrequently, after filling the frying-pan with parr, to -feed their pigs with them, and myriads were annually killed by -juvenile anglers. This truly deplorable havoc has fortunately -been arrested by Act of Parliament, but the killing of grilse is -still, I believe, a fertile source of destruction,<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[O]</a> and should -undoubtedly be restrained by law, as the wholesale slaughter of -these juvenile fishes is a most lamentable example of improvident -waste.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[O]</span></a> In 1862, 8,467 salmon and 25,042 grilse were captured in the Tweed.</p></div> - -<p>In former times our rivers abounded with salmon, more than -200,000 having been caught in a single summer in the Tweed -alone, and 2,500 at one haul in the river Thurso; but, besides -the causes above mentioned, over fishing or fishing at an improper -season, and probably in many cases the pollution of the -streams with deleterious matter from mines or manufactories, -have considerably reduced their numbers. Fortunately, public -attention has at length been thoroughly aroused to the danger -which menaces our king of fishes; and, what with better laws for -his protection and the successful attempts that have latterly -been made in artificial fish-breeding, we may hope that more -prosperous times are in store for our salmon-fisheries.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 251px;"> -<img src="images/220.png" width="251" height="84" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Salmo Rossii</div> -</div> - -<p>The salmon not only frequents the streams of Northern -Europe but ascends in vast multitudes the giant rivers of -Siberia and of North America. It -is fished by the Ostjak and the -Tunguse, and speared by the Indian -of the New World. Ross's Arctic -salmon, which is of a more slender -form than the common salmon, -differently marked and coloured, and with a remarkably long -under jaw, is so extremely abundant in the sea near the -mouths of the rivers of Boothia Felix that 3,378 were obtained -at one haul of a small-sized seine. The rivers of Kamtschatka -abound in salmon of various kinds, so that the stream, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">« 221 »</a></span> -swelling as it were with living waves, not seldom overflows -its banks and casts multitudes ashore. Steller affirms that, -in that almost uninhabited peninsula, the bears and dogs and -other animals catch more of these fishes with their mouths -and feet than man in other countries with all his cunning -devices of net and angle.</p> - -<p>The salmon of Iceland, which formerly remained undisturbed -by the phlegmatic inhabitants, are now caught in large numbers -for the British market. A small river, bearing the significant -name of Laxaa or Salmon river, has been rented for the trifling -sum of 100<i>l.</i> a year by an English company which sends every -spring its agents to the spot, well provided with the best fishing -apparatus. The captured fish are immediately boiled and hermetically -packed in tin boxes, so that they can be eaten in -London almost as fresh as if they had just been caught. Other -valuable salmon-streams in Iceland and Norway pay us a similar -tribute; and as commerce, aided by the steamboat and the railway, -extends her empire, rivers more and more distant are made -to supply the deficiencies of our native streams. More than -150,000 salmon are annually caught in Aljaska—not a quarter -of a century ago a real "ultima Thule"—and after having been -well pickled and smoked at the various fishing-stations are -chiefly sent from Sitcha to Hamburg.</p> - -<p>Nature has denied the salmon to the streams of Australia -and New Zealand; but as the eggs of this fish can be preserved -for a very long time, they have been transported with perfect -success to those far-distant colonies.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/221.png" width="200" height="85" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Tunny.</div> -</div> - -<p>If neither the salmon, nor the common herring, nor the cod, -dwell in the Mediterranean, the fishermen of that sea rejoice -in the capture of the Tunny, the -chief of the mackerel or scomberoid -family. Its usual length is about two -feet, but it sometimes grows to eight or -ten; and Pennant saw one killed in -1769, when he was at Inverary, that -weighed 460 pounds. The flesh is as firm as that of the -sturgeon, but of a finer flavour.</p> - -<p>"In May and June," says Mr. Yarrell, "the adult fish rove -along the coast of the Mediterranean in large shoals and triangular -array. They are extremely timid, and easily induced to take a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">« 222 »</a></span> -new and apparently an open course, in order to avoid any suspected -danger. But the fishermen take advantage of this peculiarity -for their destruction by placing a look-out or sentinel on some -elevated spot, who makes the signal that the shoal of tunnies is -approaching, and points out the direction in which it will come. -Immediately a great number of boats set off, range themselves -in a curved line, and, joining their nets, form an enclosure which -alarms the fish, while the fishermen, drawing closer and closer, -and adding fresh nets, still continue driving the tunnies towards -the shore, where they are ultimately killed with poles.</p> - -<p>"But the grandest mode of catching the tunny is by means of -the French <i>madrague</i>, or, as the Italians call it, <i>tonnaro</i>. Series -of long and deep nets, fixed vertically by corks at their upper -edges, and with lead and stones at the bottom, are kept in a particular -position by anchors, so as to form an enclosure parallel to -the coast, sometimes extending an Italian mile in length; this is -divided into several chambers by nets placed across, leaving -narrow openings on the land side. The tunnies pass between -the coast and the tonnaro; when arrived at the end, they are -stopped by one of the cross-nets, which closes the passage against -them, and obliges them to enter the tonnaro by the opening -which is left for them. When once in, they are driven by -various means from chamber to chamber to the last, which is -called the chamber of death. Here a strong net, placed horizontally, -that can be raised at pleasure, brings the tunnies to -the surface, and the work of destruction commences. The -tonnaro fishery used to be one of the great amusements of -rich Sicilians, and, at the same time, one of the most considerable -sources of their wealth. When Louis XIII. visited Marseilles, -he was invited to a tunny-fishery, at the principal <i>madrague</i> -of Morgiou, and found the diversion so much to his taste -that he often said it was the pleasantest day he had spent in -his whole progress through the south."</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 260px;"> -<img src="images/222.png" width="260" height="94" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Mackerel.</div> -</div> - -<p>The elegant shape and beautiful -colouring of the common -Mackerel are too well known to -require any particular description, -and its qualities as an edible fish -have been long duly appreciated. It dies very soon after it is -taken out of the water, exhibits for a short time a phosphoric -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">« 223 »</a></span> -light, and partly loses the brilliancy of its hues. Like all other -members of the family, it is extremely voracious, and makes -great havoc among the herring-shoals, although its own length -is only from twelve to sixteen inches. It inhabits the northern -Atlantic, and is caught in large numbers along the British coast, -where it is preceded in its -annual visit by the Gar-fish, -which for this reason has -received also the name of -Mackerel-guide. The older -naturalists ascribed to the -mackerel the same distant -migrations as to the tunny, -but most probably it only retires during the winter into the -deeper waters, at no very great distance from the shores, -where it appears during the summer season in such incalculable -numbers.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 290px;"> -<img src="images/223a.png" width="290" height="90" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Gar-Fish.</div> -</div> - -<p>The mackerel is caught with long nets or by hand-lines. It -bites greedily at every bait, but generally such a one is preferred -as best represents a living prey darting through the water—either -some silvery scaled fish, or a piece of metal, or of scarlet -cloth. With swelling sails the boat flies along, and a sharp -wind is generally considered so favourable that it is called -a "Mackerel-breeze." The line is short, but made heavy -with lead, and in this manner a couple of men can catch -a thousand in one day. The more rapid the boat the -greater the success, for the mackerel rushes like lightning -after the glittering bait, taking it for a flying prey. The -chieftains of the Sandwich Islands used to catch the bonito -mackerels in a similar way, by attaching -flying-fish to their hooks, and rapidly -skimming the surface of the waters. -Thus everywhere man knows how to -turn to his advantage the peculiar instincts -or habits of the animal creation.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 210px;"> -<img src="images/223b.png" width="210" height="100" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Bonito.</div> -</div> - -<p>The author of "Wild Sports of the West" has favoured us -with an animated description of mackerel-fishing on the coast -of Ireland.</p> - -<p>"It was evident that the bay was full of mackerel. In every -direction, and as far as the eye could range, gulls and puffins -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">« 224 »</a></span> -were collected, and, to judge by their activity and clamour, there -appeared ample employment for them among the fry beneath. -We immediately bore away for the place where these birds were -numerously congregated, and the lines were scarcely overboard -when we found ourselves in the centre of a shoal of mackerel. -For two hours we killed these beautiful fish, as fast as the baits -could be renewed and the lines hauled in; and when we left off -fishing, actually wearied with sport, we found that we had taken -above five hundred, including a number of the coarser species, -called Horse-mackerel. There is not, on sea or river, always -excepting angling for salmon, any sport comparable to this delightful -amusement: full of life and bustle, everything about it -is animated and exhilarating; a brisk breeze and fair sky, the -boat in quick and constant motion, all is calculated to interest -and excite. He who has experienced the glorious sensations of -sailing on the Western Ocean, a bright autumnal sky above, a -deep-green lucid swell around, a steady breeze, and as much of -it as the hooker can stand up to, will estimate the exquisite -enjoyment our morning's mackerel-fishing afforded."</p> - -<p>Although an occasional visitor of our shores, the Bonito, or -Stripe-bellied Tunny (<i>Thynnus pelamys</i>), which is much inferior -in size to the common tunny of the Mediterranean and -the Black Sea, is a true ocean-fish, and generally met with at -a vast distance from land. It inhabits the warmer seas, of -which it is one of the most active and voracious denizens. It -is well known to all voyagers within the tropics for the amusement -it affords by its accompanying the vessel in its track, and -by its pursuit of the flying-fish. But in its turn the predacious -Bonito is subject to the persecutions of the huge Sperm-whale, -who will often drive whole shoals before him, and crush dozens -at a time between his prodigious jaws.</p> - -<p>The Pelamid (<i>Thynnus sarda</i>), which abounds in all districts -of the Mediterranean and on both sides of the Atlantic, has but -very lately been discovered in the British waters, a single specimen -having been caught a few years ago at the mouth of the -North Esk. It greatly resembles the species just mentioned in -form and mode of life, prowling about the high seas for cephalopods -and flying-fishes, and is very commonly confounded with -the bonito by sailors, who also give both of them the name of -Skip-jacks, expressive of the habit which many of the large -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">« 225 »</a></span> -Scomberoids have of skimming the surface of the sea, and -springing occasionally into the air.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 215px;"> -<img src="images/225.png" width="215" height="86" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Pilot-Fish.—(Naucrates ductor.)</div> -</div> - -<p>Another member of the mackerel family, the Pilot-Fish -(<i>Naucrates ductor</i>), easily recognised by the three dark-blue -bands which surround its silvery body, -will frequently attend a ship during its -course at sea for weeks or even months -together, most likely to profit by the -offal thrown overboard. Regardless -of the useful precept, "avoid bad company," -it is frequently found attending the white shark, and -owes its name to its being supposed to act as a trusty guide -or friendly monitor to that voracious monster, sometimes -directing it where to find a good meal, and at others warning it -when to avoid a dangerous bait. At all events, the pilot-fish -is well rewarded for his attendance by snatching up the morsels -which are overlooked by his companion, and as he is an excellent -swimmer, and probably keeps a good look-out, has but -little reason to fear being snatched up himself.</p> - -<p>"It has been observed," says Yarrell, "that when a shark and -his pilot were following a vessel, if meat was thrown overboard -cut into small pieces, and therefore unworthy the shark's attention, -the pilot-fish showed his true motive of action by deserting -both shark and ship to feed at his leisure on the -morsels."</p> - -<p>The family of the anguilliform fishes, characterised by their -serpent-like bodies, destitute of ventral fins, and generally -covered by a slippery skin, with, in some of the genera, small -scales embedded therein, likewise comprises a number of highly -interesting and useful species, forming many generic groups.</p> - -<p>Its chief representative in our waters is the Common Eel -(<i>Anguilla vulgaris</i>), which, though a frequent inhabitant of -our lakes, ponds, and rivers, may also justly be reckoned among -the marine fishes; for the same wonderful instinct which prompts -the salmon and the sturgeon annually to leave the high seas -and seek the inland streams for the sake of perpetuating their -race, forces also the eel to migrate, but his peregrinations are -of an opposite character, for here the full-grown fishes descend -the rivers to deposit their spawn in the sea, and the young, -after having been born in the brackish estuaries, ascend the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">« 226 »</a></span> -streams to accomplish their growth in the sweet waters. The -mode of procreation of eels, which for ages had been an enigma, -has now at length been completely elucidated by Professor -Rathke, who discovered that the eggs, which are of microscopic -smallness, so as to be undistinguishable by the naked eye from -the fat in which they lie imbedded, are expelled through an -opening hardly large enough to admit the point of a needle. -The energy of the salmon in swimming stream-upwards for -hundreds and hundreds of miles, and bounding over rapids and -cataracts, is truly wonderful, but the instinctive efforts of the -little eels or <i>elvers</i> to surmount obstacles that seem quite out of -proportion to their strength are no less admirable. Mr. Anderson, -upwards of a century ago, described the young eels as -ascending the upright posts and gates of the waterworks at -Norwich until they came into the dam above; and Sir Humphry -Davy, who was witness of a vast migration of elvers at -Ballyshannon, speaks of the mouth of the river under the fall as -blackened by millions of little eels. "Thousands," he adds, -"died, but their bodies remaining moist, served as the ladder -for others to make their way; and I saw some ascending even -perpendicular stones, making their road through wet moss, or -adhering to some eels that had died in the attempt. Such is -the energy of these little animals that they continue to find -their way in immense numbers to Loch Erne. Even the mighty -fall of Schaffhausen (which stops the salmon) does not prevent -them from making their way to the Lake of Constance, where -I have seen many very large eels." After the little eels have -gained the summit of a fall, they rest for a while with their -heads protruded into the stream. They then urge themselves -forward, taking advantage of every projecting stone or slack -water, and never get carried back by the current. Myriads are -destroyed on the way by birds or fishes; but, as usual, their -greatest enemy is man, who not only devours whole cart-loads of -little eels not larger than a knitting-needle, frying them into -cakes, which are said to be delicious, though rather queer-looking -from the number of little eyes with which they are -bespangled, but after getting tired of eating them, actually -feeds his pigs with them, or even uses them for manure. A -prodigal waste which should be looked after, as these little -eels would soon increase their weight, and consequently their -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">« 227 »</a></span> -value a thousand fold. On the Continent many lakes and ponds -have been stocked with elvers, packed in wet grass, and sent by -the railroads or the post far into the interior of the country.</p> - -<p>Eels are pre-eminently nocturnal animals. They always congregate -at the darkest parts of the stews in which they are -kept, and invariably select the darkest nights for their autumnal -migration to the sea. Owing to the smallness of their gill -aperture, the membranous folds of which, by closing the orifice -when the eel is out of the water, prevents the desiccation of the -branchiæ, they have the power of living a long time out of the -water when the air is humid, and not unfrequently travel -during the night over the moist surface of meadows or gardens -in quest of frogs or other suitable food.</p> - -<p>That eels are not devoid of sagacity is proved by many well -authenticated anecdotes. "In Otaheite," says Ellis in his "Polynesian -Researches," "they are fed till they attain an enormous -size. These pets are kept in large holes two or three feet deep, -partially filled with water. On the sides of these pits they -generally remain, excepting when called by the person who -feeds them. I have been several times with the young chief -when he has sat down by the side of the hole, and by giving a -shrill sort of whistle has brought out an enormous eel, which -has moved about the surface of the water and eaten with confidence -out of his master's hand."</p> - -<p>The eel has many enemies, among others the common heron, -who, in spite of the slippery skin of his victim, knows how to -drive his denticulated middle claw into his body, or to strike -him with his pointed bill. Yarrell relates that a heron had -once struck his sharp beak through the head of an eel, piercing -both eyes, and that the eel—no doubt remembering that one -good turn deserves another—had coiled itself so tightly round -the neck of the heron as to stop the bird's respiration: both -were dead.</p> - -<p>The London market is principally supplied with eels from -Holland, a country where they abound. According to Mr. -Mayhew, about ten millions of eels, amounting to a weight of -1,500,000 lbs., are annually sold in Billingsgate market. These -figures show us at once that the multiplication of eels in our -sluggish rivers, which only contain such fish as are comparatively -speaking worthless, is a matter worth consideration, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">« 228 »</a></span> -powerfully pleads for the protection and transplantation of the -elvers wherever they are likely to prosper.</p> - -<p>Eels are extremely susceptible of cold; none whatever are -found in the Arctic regions, and at the approach of winter they -bury themselves in the mud, where they remain in a state of -torpidity until the genial warmth of spring recalls them to a -more active state of existence. In this condition they are frequently -taken by eel-spears, and in Somersetshire the people -know how to find the holes in the banks of rivers in which eels -are laid up, by the hoar-frost not lying over them as it does -elsewhere, and dig them out in heaps. Though generally only -from two to three feet long, eels sometimes acquire a much -larger size. Specimens six feet long and fifteen pounds in weight -are occasionally captured, and Yarrell saw at Cambridge the -preserved skins of two which weighed together fifty pounds. -They were taken on draining a fen-dyke at Wisbeach. As eels -are but slow in growth, these sizes speak for a great longevity.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 240px;"> -<img src="images/228.png" width="240" height="95" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Conger Eel.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Conger is in its general appearance so nearly allied -to the common eel that it might -easily be mistaken for the same -species. It, however, materially differs -from it by its darker colour in -the upper part, and its brighter hue -beneath, by its dorsal fin beginning -near the head, and by its snout generally projecting beyond -the lower jaw.</p> - -<p>This marine giant of the eel tribe attains a length of ten feet, -and a weight of 130 pounds, and is well known on all the rocky -parts of the coast of the British Islands, though nowhere more -abundant than on the Cornish coast, where, according to Mr. -Couch, it is not uncommon for a boat with three men to bring -on shore from five hundredweight to two tons. The fishing -for congers is always performed at night, and not unattended -with danger, as it is quite a common occurrence for a conger to -attack the fishermen with open jaws, and so great is the strength -of the large specimens that they have occasionally succeeded in -pulling the fisherman quite out of his boat, if by any chance -he has fastened the line to his arm. The congers that keep -among rocks hide themselves in crevices, where they are not -unfrequently left by the retiring tide; but in situations free -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">« 229 »</a></span> -from rocks, congers hide themselves by burrowing in the -ground, where it is customary on some parts of the coast of -France to employ dogs in their search. In spite of its tough -flesh and exceedingly nauseous smell, the conger was highly -esteemed by Greek epicures, and in England in the time of -the Henrys considered an article of food fit for a king. Thus, -the Prince and Poins, according to Falstaff's account, found -amongst other reasons for their companionship this one: that -both of them were fond of conger and fennel sauce. In our -times its flesh, though banished from all aristocratic tables, -meets a ready sale at a low price among the poorer classes. In -the Isle of Man the conger may be said to take the place of -the poor man's pig; it is his bacon, which he would find difficult -to save if it were not for these large eels, which are caught -in great abundance, and sold at the rate of 2<i>d.</i> or 3<i>d.</i> per lb. -The Manx men split the congers, and then salt them and -hang them up to dry on their cottage walls, where they do not -exactly contribute to perfume the gale.</p> - -<p>The Murry or Muræna differs from the common eel by the -want of pectoral fins, and its beautifully-marked skin. It is -said to live with equal facility in fresh or salt water, though -generally found at sea, and it is as common in the Pacific as it -is in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. The only specimen on -record as a British fish was caught by a fisherman of Polperro, -October 8, 1834; its length was four feet four inches. The -muræna has acquired a kind of historical celebrity from the -strange fondness with which it was cherished by the Romans, -who preserved large quantities of them in their numerous -vivaria, as we do the lustrous gold-fish in the water-basins of -our gardens. A certain Cajus Hirrius, who lived in the time -of Julius Cæsar, was the first that introduced the fashion, which -soon became a passion among the wealthy senators and knights -of the imperial city, who used to deck their especial pets with -all kinds of ornaments. The celebrated orator, Hortensius, the -rival of Cicero, had a <i>piscina</i> at Bauli, on the gulf of Baiæ, -where he took great delight in a favourite murry that would -come at his call and feed from his hand. When the creature -died, he was unable to stop his tears; and another celebrated -Roman, L. Licinius Crassus, appears to have had an equally -tender heart, for he, too, wept at the death of his fishy darling. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">« 230 »</a></span> -Vedius Pollio, a Roman knight, has even acquired through these -fishes a scandalous renown, by causing now and then a slave -that had been guilty of some slight offence to be cast alive and -naked into their piscina, and amusing himself with the sight of -the murrys lacerating and devouring the body. That this -wretch was a friend of the Emperor Augustus harmonises but -badly with the ideas of the urbanity of his court which we may -have formed from the poems of Horace and Virgil. It is but -fair, however, to the character of the emperor to state that -he reprobated Pollio's cruelty, and ordered his fish-pond to be -filled up.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 228px;"> -<img src="images/230.png" width="228" height="82" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Ammodyte, or Launce.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Launces are distinguished from the eels by their large -gill openings, and their caudal fin being separated from their -dorsal and anal fins. The common -Sand Launce abounds on many parts -of our shore. On account of its -silvery brightness it is highly esteemed -by the fishermen as bait for their -hooks, and its remarkable habit of -burrowing in the sand as the tide recedes affords easy means -of capture. While underground, it most likely gets hold of -many an unfortunate lob-worm, mollusc, or crustacean, but on -emerging from its retreat it is in its turn preyed upon by -the larger fishes. On a calm evening it is an interesting sight -to see the surface of the water broken by the repeated plunges -of the voracious mackerel as they burst upon the launces -from beneath. On the sands at Portobello, near Edinburgh, -people of all ages may be seen when the tide is out diligently -searching for the sand launce, and raking them out with -iron hooks. On the south coast of Devonshire, where the -sand launces are extremely plentiful, the fishermen employ a -small seine with a fine mesh, and are frequently so successful -that six or seven bushels are taken at one haul. The usual -length of the sand launce is from five to seven inches. In -many localities it is prepared for table, and considered a great -delicacy.</p> - -<p>Although the Lamprey essentially differs from the eel in the -formation of its gills, the softness of its cartilaginous skeleton, -and its funnel-shaped mouth provided with sharp teeth, disposed -in circles, yet it resembles it closely in its outward form. Its -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">« 231 »</a></span> -colour is generally a dull brownish olive, clouded with yellowish-white -variegations; the fins are tinged with dull orange, and the -tail with blue. The Marine or Sea Lamprey inhabits the ocean, -but ascends the rivers in spring. Though capable of swimming -with considerable vigour and rapidity, it is more commonly seen -attached by the mouth to some large stone or other substance, -the body hanging at rest, or obeying the motion of the current. -Its power of adhesion is so great that a weight of more than -twelve pounds may be raised without forcing the fish to quit its -hold. Like the eel, it is remarkably tenacious of life, the head -strongly attaching itself for several hours to a stone, though by -far the greater part of the body be cut away from it. The -lamprey is still considered as a delicacy; every schoolboy -knows that King Henry I. died of an indigestion caused by -this favourite dish; and the town of Gloucester still sends every -Christmas a lamprey-pie to Queen Victoria, such as it was wont -to offer to its sovereign in the days of the Plantagenets and -Tudors.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 265px;"> -<img src="images/231.png" width="265" height="108" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Myxine.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Myxine, Glutinous Hag, or Borer, bears a near resemblance -to the lamprey, but -stands upon a much inferior -degree of organisation, having -no eyes—(the sole example -of blindness among fishes), and -a still softer skeleton, so that, -when boiled, it almost entirely -dissolves into mucus. In the lamprey and myxine, the -branchial cells, which admit water, are lined by the delicate -membrane through which the blood is aërated. In the former, -however, the external apertures of the branchial cells are placed -on the side of the neck; while in the myxine, which feeds on -the internal parts of its prey, and buries its head and part of -its body in the flesh, the openings of the respiratory organs are -removed sufficiently far back to admit of the respiration going on -while the animal's head is so inserted. Thus, even in this lowest -and meanest of all vertebrate animals, we find a remarkable -adaptation of its construction to its wants, and the proof that it -has been as well taken care of by its Creator as the highest -organised creatures of its class.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">« 232 »</a></span></p> - -<table summary="images"> -<tr> - <td><img src="images/232a.png" width="255" height="160" alt="" /><br /> - <div class="fig_caption">Porcupine-Fish—(Diodon hystrix.)</div> - </td> - <td><img src="images/232b.png" width="212" height="132" alt="" /><br /> - <div class="fig_caption">Globe-Fish.</div> - </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><img src="images/232c.png" width="160" height="175" alt="" /><br /> - <div class="fig_caption">Short Sun-Fish.—(Orthagoriscus Mola.)</div> - </td> - <td><img src="images/232d.png" width="325" height="132" alt="" /><br /> - <div class="fig_caption">Trunk-Fish.—(Ostracion triqueter.)</div> - </td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width:315px;"> -<img src="images/232e.png" width="315" height="151" alt="" /><br /> -<div class="fig_caption">File-Fish.—(Balistes erythropterus.)</div> -</div> - - -<p>One of the most remarkable orders of fishes is that of the -Plectognaths, which are distinguished by having the superior -maxillary bones and the intermaxillaries soldered together so as -to render the upper jaw immovable, or incapable of projection. -Among the Plectognaths, we find among others the prickly Globe-fishes -and sea-porcupines; the curiously-shaped Sun-fishes, all -head and no body; the Ostracions or Trunk-fishes, clothed like -the armadillos in a defensive coat of mail, leaving only the tail, -fins, mouth, and a small portion of the gill-opening, capable of -motion; and the gorgeous Balistæ or File-fishes, which owe their -family-name to the peculiar -structure of their first dorsal -fin. The first and strongest -spine of this organ is studded -up the front with numerous -small projections, which, under -the microscope, look like so -many points of enamel or -pearl arising from the surface of the bone and giving it the -appearance of a file. The second smaller spine has in the fore -part of its base a projection which, when the spines are elevated, -locks into a corresponding notch in the posterior base of the -first spine, and fixes it like the trigger of a gun-lock; from -which the fish is called in Italy <i>pesce balestra</i>, or the cross-bow -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">« 233 »</a></span> -fish. The strong spine cannot be forced down till the small one -has been first depressed and the catch disengaged.</p> - -<p>The Plectognaths are mostly denizens of the warmer seas, -but the pig-faced trigger-fish of the Mediterranean (<i>Balistes -capriscus</i>) has been caught three times in the British waters -since 1827, and the short sun-fish or molebut, though occurring -but occasionally, may be said to have been taken from -John o' Groat's to the Land's End. It grows to an immense -size, often attaining the diameter of four feet, sometimes even -double that size, and occasionally weighing from 300 to 500 -pounds. When observed in our seas, the sun-fishes have generally -appeared as though they were dead or dying, floating -lazily along on one side and making little or no attempt to -escape. It is to be presumed that in more congenial waters -they evince a greater degree of liveliness.</p> - -<p>The order of the Lophobranchii is in many respects too -curious and interesting to be passed over in silence. Here the -gills, instead of being as usual ranged like the teeth of a comb, -are clustered into small filamentous tufts placed by pairs along -the branchial arches; the face projects into a long tubular -snout, having the mouth either at its extremity, as in the Hippocampus -and in the Pipe-fishes, or at its base, as in the Pegasus -of the Indian seas; and the body is covered with shields or -small plates, which often give it an angular form, and encase it -as it were in jointed armour. But the most interesting feature -of their economy is the pouches in which the males of the -most characteristic genera carry the eggs until they are hatched. -In the hippocampi this provision for the safety of the future -generation, which strongly reminds one of the kangaroo or the -opossum, forms a perfect sack, opening at its commencement -only; in the pipe-fishes it is closed along its whole length by -two soft flaps folding over each other. Another peculiarity of -these interesting little fishes is the independent motion of their -eyes, the one glancing hither and thither while its fellow remains -motionless, or looks in different directions. This phenomenon -of <i>double</i> vision, which was long supposed to be peculiar to the -chameleon, is, however, not confined to this singular reptile or -to the hippocampi and pipe-fishes, but has been found by -Mr. Gosse to exist likewise in the Little Weever (<i>Trachinus -vipera</i>), in the Suckers (<i>Lepidogastri</i>), a small family remarkable -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">« 234 »</a></span> -for the power they possess of attaching themselves to stones -or rocks by means of an adhesive disk on the under surface -of their bodies, and in several other fishes.</p> - -<p>When imprisoned in an aquarium, few subjects of the deep -display more intelligence or afford more entertainment than -the little <i>Hippocampus brevirostris</i>, or Sea-Horse.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 223px;"> -<img src="images/234.png" width="223" height="100" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Sea-Horse.</div> -</div> - -<p>"While swimming about," says Mr. Lukis,<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[P]</a> "it maintains -a vertical position, but the tail, ready to grasp whatever meets it -in the water, quickly entwines itself in -any direction round the weeds, and, -when fixed, the animal intently watches -the surrounding objects, and darts at its -prey with great dexterity. When two -of them approach each other, they often twist their tails together, -and struggle to separate or attach themselves to the weeds; this -is done by the under part of their cheeks or chin, which is also -used for raising the body when a new spot is wanted for the tail -to fasten upon afresh."</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[P]</span></a> Yarrell, "British Fishes," 3rd edition, vol. ii. p. 396.</p></div> - -<p>"In captivity," says Mr. Gosse, "the manners of the Worm -Pipe-Fish (<i>Syngnathus lambriciformis</i>), the smallest of our -native species, are amusing and engaging. Its beautiful eyes -move independently of each other, like those of the chameleon, -and another point of resemblance to that animal our little pipe-fish -presents in the prehensile character of its tail. It curves -just the tip of this organ laterally round the stem or frond of -some sea-weed and holds on by this half-inch or so, while the -rest of its body roves to and fro, elevating and depressing the -head and fore parts, and throwing the body into the most graceful -curves. All the motions of the Pipe-fish manifest much -intelligence. It is a timid little thing, retiring from the side -of the glass at which it had been lying when one approaches, -and hiding under the shadow of the sea-weeds, which I have -put in, both to afford it shelter, and also to supply food in the -numerous animalcules that inhabit these marine plants. Then -it cautiously glides among their bushy fronds, and from under -their shelter peeps with its brilliant eyes at the intruder as if -wondering what he can be, drawing back gently at any alarming -motion. In swimming, it is constantly throwing its body -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">« 235 »</a></span> -into elegant contortions and undulations; often it hangs nearly -perpendicular with the tail near the surface; now and then it -butts against the side of the vessel with reiterated blows of its -nose, as if it could not make out why it should not go forward -where it can see no impediment. Now it twists about as if it -would tie its body into a love knot, then hangs motionless in -some one of the 'lines of beauty' in which it has accidentally -paused."</p> - -<p>The family of the Pleuronectidæ or Flat-fishes recommends -itself to our notice as much by the singularity of its form as by -its usefulness to man. "The want of symmetry," says Yarrell, -"so unusual in vertebrated animals, is the most striking and -distinctive character of these fishes: the twisted head with both -eyes on the same side, one higher than the other, not in the -same vertical line, and often unequal in size; the mouth cleft -awry, and the frequent want of uniformity in those fins that -are in pairs, the pectoral and ventral fins of the under side -being generally smaller; and the whole of the colour of the -fish confined to one side, while the other side remains white, -produce a grotesque appearance: yet a little consideration will -prove that these various and seemingly obvious anomalies are -perfectly in harmony with that station in nature which an -animal possessing such conformation is appointed to fill.</p> - -<p>"As birds are seen to occupy very different situations, some -obtaining their food on the ground, others on trees, and not a -few at various degrees of elevation in the air, so are fishes -destined to reside in different depths of water. The flat-fishes -and the various species of skate are, by their depressed form of -body, admirably adapted to inhabit the lowest position, where -they occupy the least space among their kindred fishes."</p> - -<p>"Preferring sandy or muddy shores, the place of the flat-fish -is close to the ground; where, hiding their bodies horizontally -in the loose soil at the bottom, with the head only slightly -elevated, an eye on the under side of the head would be useless; -but as both eyes are placed on the upper surface, an -extensive range of view is afforded in those various directions -in which they may either endeavour to find suitable food or -avoid dangerous enemies. Light, one great cause of colour, -strikes on the upper surface only; the under surface, like that -of most other fishes, remains perfectly colourless. Having -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">« 236 »</a></span> -little or no means of defence, had their colour been placed only -above the lateral line on each side, in whatever position they -moved their piebald appearance would have rendered them -conspicuous objects to all their enemies. When near the -ground, they swim slowly, maintaining their horizontal position; -and the smaller pectoral and ventral fins, on the under side, are -advantageous where there is so much less room for their action -than with the larger fins that are above. When suddenly disturbed, -they sometimes make a rapid shoot, changing their -position from horizontal to vertical; and, if the observer -happens to be opposite the white side, they may be seen to pass -with the rapidity and flash of a meteor. Soon, however, they -sink down again, resuming their previous motionless horizontal -position, and are then distinguished with difficulty, owing to -their great similarity in colour to the surface on which they -rest."</p> - -<p>The number of species of the flat-fishes diminishes as the -degrees of northern latitude increase. In this country we -have twenty-three species; at the parallel of Jutland there -are thirteen; on the coast of Norway they are reduced to -ten; in Iceland the number is but five, and in Greenland only -three.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 245px;"> -<img src="images/236.png" width="245" height="118" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Halibut.</div> -</div> - -<p>Many of them attain a considerable size, particularly the -Halibut (<i>Pleuronectes hippoglossus</i>). In April 1828 a specimen -seven feet six inches long and three feet six inches broad -was taken off the Isle of Man, and sent to Edinburgh market. -Olafsen mentions that he saw one which measured five ells; and -we are told by the Norwegian fishermen that a single halibut -will sometimes cover a whole skiff. -Let us, however, remember that these -stories proceed from the country -where monstrous krakens and sea-snakes -are most frequently seen, and -where the mists of the north seem to -produce strange delusions of vision. -At all events, the halibut is better entitled to the name of -<i>maximus</i> than its relation the Turbot, to which that epithet has -been improperly applied by naturalists. The turbot, equally -esteemed by the ancients and the moderns for the delicacy of its -flesh, is often confounded in our markets with the halibut, but -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">« 237 »</a></span> -may be easily recognised by the large unequal and obtuse -tubercles on its upper part.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 270px;"> -<img src="images/237a.png" width="270" height="177" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Turbot.</div> -</div> - -<p>The number of turbot brought -to Billingsgate within twelve -months, up to a recent period, -was 87,958. Though very considerable -quantities of this fish -are now taken on various parts of -our own coasts, from the Orkneys -to the Land's End, yet a preference -is given to those caught by -the Dutch fishermen, who are supposed to draw not less than -80,000<i>l.</i> for the supply of the London market alone. According -to Mr. Low, it is rare along our most northern shores, but -increases in numbers on proceeding to the south.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 225px;"> -<img src="images/237b.png" width="225" height="105" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Sole.</div> -</div> - -<p>Next to the turbot, the Sole is reckoned the most delicate of -the flat-fishes. It inhabits the sandy shore all round our coast, -where it keeps close to the bottom, -indiscriminately feeding on smaller -testaceous animals, crustacea, annelides, -radiata, and the spawn and fry -of other fishes. It is found northward -as far as the Baltic and the seas of -Scandinavia, and southward along the -shores of Spain, Portugal, and the Mediterranean. The consumption -is enormous, for Mr. Bertram informs us that no less -than 100,000,000 soles are annually brought to the London -market.<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[Q]</a> They seldom take any bait, and are caught almost -entirely by trawling. The principal fishing-ground in England -is along the south coast from Sussex to Devonshire, where the -soles are much larger and considered otherwise superior to -those of the north and east. On the Devonshire coast, the great -fishing-station is at Brixham in Torbay, where the boats, using -large trawling nets from thirty to thirty-six feet in beam, produce -a continual supply.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[Q]</span></a> We are told by the same author ("Harvest of the Seas," Murray, 1866) that -500,000 cod-fish, 25,000,000 mackerel, 35,000,000 plaice, and 200,000,000 haddocks, -&c., form the yearly supply of the metropolis, which, besides this immense -number of white-fish, consumes 50,000,000 red herrings and 1,600,000 dried cod. -These, with the addition of Molluscous shell-fish (oysters, &c.) to the amount of -920,000,000, and a daily demand for 10,000 lobsters during the season, afford an -instructive indication of what must be the requirement of the whole population of -the United Kingdom as regards fish food. -</p> -<p> -The Report of the Commissioners appointed in the year 1863 to enquire into the -sea-fisheries of the United Kingdom gives us the gratifying intelligence that the -number of fishermen in Great Britain has nearly doubled within the last twenty -years, while the boats are increasing in number and size. No class of the population -is said to be in a more flourishing condition; and this prosperity is no doubt -mainly due to the railroads, which have opened throughout the whole kingdom -a ready market for the produce of the seas. In Ireland, however, there has been -a diminution of 10,583 boats and 52,127 men within the same time; a consequence -of the famine of 1848, and subsequent emigration.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">« 238 »</a></span></p></div> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 206px;"> -<img src="images/238a.png" width="206" height="144" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Plaice.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Plaice and Flounder, though far inferior to the sole in -quality, are still in great request as articles of food. On the -English coast, the plaice are obtained -in abundance on all sandy banks and -muddy grounds, wherever either lines -or trawl-nets can be used. On the -sandy flats of the Solway Frith, they -are taken by the fishermen and their -families wading in the shoal water -with bare feet. When a fish is felt, it -is pressed by the foot firmly against the bottom until it can -be secured by the hand and transferred to the basket. Long -practice gives the dexterity which renders this kind of fishing -successful.</p> - -<p>In some parts of the North of Europe, where from the rocky -nature of the soil the sea is remarkably transparent, plaice and -some other flat-fish of large size are taken by dropping down -upon them from a boat a doubly-barbed short spear, heavily -leaded, to carry it with velocity to the bottom, with a line -attached to it, by which the fish, when transfixed, is hauled up.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 210px;"> -<img src="images/238b.png" width="210" height="120" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">The Flounder.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Flounder, one of the most common of the flat-fish, is -found in the sea and near the mouths of large streams all round -our coast, particularly where the bottom -is soft, whether of sand, clay, or mud. -It also ascends the rivers, and is caught -in considerable quantities from Deptford -to Richmond by Thames fishermen, who, -with the assistance of an apprentice, use -a net of a particular sort, called a tuck-sean. -"One end of this net," says Yarrell, "is fixed for a short -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">« 239 »</a></span> -time by an anchor or grapple, and its situation marked by a -floating buoy; the boat is then rowed or rather sculled by the -apprentice in a circle, the fisherman near the stern handing -out and clearing the net: when the circle is completed and a -space enclosed, the net is hauled in near the starting-point in a -direction across the fixed end."</p> - -<p>The Sail-fluke, a species of flat-fish common among the -Orkneys, where it is highly prized as an article of food, its flesh -being firm and white, is remarkable for its curious habit of -coming ashore spontaneously, with its tail erected above the -water, like a boat under sail, whence it has derived its name. -This it does generally in calm weather, and on sandy shores, and -the country people residing near such places train their dogs to -catch it. In North Ronaldshay, the northernmost island of the -group, a considerable supply is obtained in an original manner: -thus described in a letter from a resident inserted in Yarrell's -"British Fishes:" "In the winter and early spring, a pair of -black-headed gulls take possession of the South Bay, drive away -all interlopers, and may be seen at daybreak every morning, -beating from side to side, on the wing, and never both in -one place, except in the act of crossing as they pass. The -sail-fluke skims the ridge of the wave towards the shore with -its tail raised over its back, and when the wave recedes is left on -the sand, into which it burrows so suddenly and completely that, -though I have watched its approach, only once have I succeeded -in finding its burrow.</p> - -<p>"The gull, however, has a surer eye, and casting like a hawk -pounces on the fluke, from which, by one stroke of its bill, it -extracts the liver. If not disturbed, the gull no sooner gorges -the luscious morsel than it commences dragging the fish to -some outlying rock, where he and his consort may discuss it at -leisure. By robbing the black backs, I have had the house -supplied daily with this excellent fish, in weather during which -no fishing-boat could put to sea. Close to the beach of South -Bay, a stone wall has been raised to shelter the crops from the -sea-spray. Behind this we posted a smart lad, who kept his eye -on the soaring gulls. The moment one of the birds made its -well-known swoop, the boy rushed to the sea-strand shouting -out with all his might. He was usually in time to scare the -gull away and secure the fluke, but almost in every case with -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">« 240 »</a></span> -the liver torn out. If the gull by chance succeeded in carrying -his prey off the rock, he and his partner set up a triumphant -cackling, as if deriding the disappointed lad."</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 248px;"> -<img src="images/240.png" width="248" height="164" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Thornback.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Rays resemble the side-swimmers by the flatness of their -form, but differ widely from them in many other particulars. -Like the sharks and sturgeons, they -belong to the cartilaginous fishes, and -as their branchiæ adhere to the cells, -these respiratory membranes are not -furnished with a gill-cover, but communicate -freely with the water by -means of five spiracles on either side. -More unsightly fishes can hardly be -conceived. The rhomboidal broad body, the long narrow tail -frequently furnished with two and sometimes three small fins, -and mostly armed with one or more rows of sharp spines along -its whole length, the dirty colour, and the thick coat of slime -with which it is covered, render them pre-eminently disgusting. -Their mode of defending themselves is very effectual, and forms -a striking contrast to the helplessness of the flat fish. The point -of the nose and the base of the tail are bent upwards towards -each other, and the upper surface of the body being then concave, -the tail is lashed about in all directions over it, and the -rows of sharp spines frequently inflict severe wounds.</p> - -<p>Eleven species of rays are found on the British coasts, some, -like the skates, with a perfectly smooth skin; others, like the -thornback, with an upper surface studded with spines, and some, -like the sting-ray, with a tail still more powerfully armed with a -long serrated spine: a formidable weapon, which the fish strikes -with the swiftness of an arrow into its prey or enemy, when with -its winding tail it makes the capture secure. The lacerations inflicted -by the tropical sting-rays produce the most excruciating -tortures. An Indian who accompanied Richard Schomburgk on -his travels through Guiana, being hit by one of these fishes while -fording a river, tottered to the bank, where he fell upon the -ground and rolled about on the sand with compressed lips in an -agony of pain. But no tear started from the eye, no cry of -anguish issued from the breast, of the stoical savage. An Indian -boy wounded in the some manner, but less able to master his -emotions, howled fearfully, and flung himself upon the sand, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">« 241 »</a></span> -biting it in the paroxysm of his anguish. Although both had -been hit in the foot, they felt the severest pain in the loins, in -the region of the heart, and in the arm-pits. A robust man, -wounded by a sting-ray, died in Demarara under the most -dreadful convulsions.</p> - -<p>The rays are very voracious; their food consists of any sort -of fish, mollusc, annelide, or crustacean, that they can catch. -So powerful are their muscles and jaws that they are able to -crush the strong shell of a crab with the greatest ease. Even in -our seas they attain a considerable size. Thomas Willoughby -makes mention of a single skate of two hundred pounds' weight, -which was sold in the fish market at Cambridge to the cook of -St. John's College, and was found sufficient for the dinner of a -society, consisting of more than a hundred and twenty persons. -Dr. G. Johnston measured a sharp-nosed ray at Berwick, which -was seven feet nine inches long and eight feet three inches -broad. But our European rays are far from equalling the -colossal dimensions of the sea-devil of the Pacific. This terrific -monster swims fast, and often appears on the surface of the -ocean, where its black unwieldy back looks like a huge stone -projecting above the waters. It attains a breadth of twelve -or fifteen feet, and Lesson was presented by a fisherman of -Borabora with a tail five feet long. The Society Islanders -catch the hideous animal with harpoons, and make use of its -rough skin as rasps or files in the manufacture of their wooden -utensils.</p> - -<p>Creatures so voracious and well armed as the rays would have -attained a dangerous supremacy in the maritime domains had -they equalled most other fishes in fecundity. Fortunately for -their neighbours, they seldom produce more than one young at -a time, which, as in the sharks, is enclosed in a four-cornered -capsule ending in slender points, but not, as in the former, produced -into long filaments.</p> - -<p>Thus nature has in this case set bounds to the increase of a -race which else might have destroyed the balance of marine -existence; in most fishes, however, she has been obliged to -provide against the danger of extinction by a prodigal abundance -of new germs. If the cod did not annually produce more -than nine millions of eggs, and the sturgeon more than seven; -if the flat-fish, mackerels, and herrings, did not multiply by -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">« 242 »</a></span> -hundreds of thousands, they could not possibly maintain themselves -against the vast number of their enemies. "Not one egg -too much," every one will say who considers that of all the -myriads of germs which are deposited on the shallow sand-banks -and shores to be quickened by the fructifying warmth -of the sun, not one in a hundred comes to life, as fishes and -molluscs, crabs and radiata, devour the spawn with equal voracity; -that a thousand dangers await the young defenceless fry, since -everywhere in the oceanic realms no other right is known than -that of the stronger; and that, finally, the insatiable rapacity of -man is continually extirpating millions on millions of the full-grown -fishes. But if very few of this much-persecuted race -die a natural death, a life of liberty makes them some amends -for their violent end. The tortured cart-horse or the imprisoned -nightingale would, if they could reflect, willingly exchange their -hard lot and joyless existence for the free life of the independent -fish, who, from the greater simplicity of his structure, his want -of higher sensibilities, his excellent digestion, and the more -equal temperature of the element in which he lives, remains -unmolested by many of the diseases to which the warm-blooded -and particularly the domestic animals are subject.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 235px;"> -<img src="images/242.png" width="235" height="208" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Dory.</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">« 243 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_XIII" id="CHAP_XIII">CHAP. XIII.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">CRUSTACEA.</p> - -<p class="caption2">CRABS—LOBSTERS.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">How are they distinguished from the Insects?—Barnacles and Acorn-shells.—Siphonostomata.—Entomostraca.—King-Crab.—Edriophthalmia.—Sandhoppers.—Thoracostraca.—Compound -Eye of the higher Crustaceans.—Respiratory -Apparatus of the Decapods.—Digestive Organs.—Chelæ or Pincers.—Distribution -of Crabs.—Land Crabs.—The Calling Crab.—Modifications of the Legs in -different species.—The Pinna and Pinnotheres.—Hermit Crabs.—The Lobster.—The -Cocoa-nut Crab.—The Shrimp.—Moulting Process.—Metamorphoses of -Crabs.—Victims and Enemies of the Crustaceans.—Their Fecundity.—Marine -Spiders and Insects.</div> - -<table summary="barnacle"> -<tr> - <td><img src="images/244a.png" width="300" height="130" alt="" /><br /> - <div class="fig_caption">Barnacle.</div> - </td> - <td style="width: 200px;"><img src="images/244b.png" width="96" height="138" alt="" /><br /> - <div class="fig_caption">Balanus ovularis.</div> - </td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 387px;"> -<img src="images/244c.png" width="387" height="344" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Development of Balanus balanoides.—(Acorn-shell.)<br /> - -A. Earliest form. B. Larva after second moult. C. Side view of the same. D. Stage immediately -preceding the loss of activity. <i>a.</i> Stomach. <i>b.</i> Nucleus of future attachment.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Crustaceans were included by Linnæus among his insects, -but their internal structure presents such numerous and important -differences that modern naturalists have raised them to -the dignity of a separate class. They have indeed, in common -with the insects, an articulated body, generally cased with hard -materials; they are like them provided with jointed legs, with -antennæ or feelers, and their organs of mastication are similarly -formed; but insects breathe atmospheric air through lateral -pores or tracheæ, while the crustaceans, being either aquatic -animals or constantly frequenting very damp places, have a -branchial or a tegumentary respiration. The perfect insect -undergoes no further change; the crustacean, on the contrary, -increases in size with every successive year. The higher crustacean -possesses a heart, which propels the blood, after it has -been aërated in the gills, to every part of the body; in the insect -the circulation of the blood is by no means so highly organised. -On the other hand many of the insects are far superior in point -of intelligence to even the best endowed crustaceans, for here -we find no parental care, no mutual affection, no joint labours -for the welfare of a large community, no traces of an amiable -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">« 244 »</a></span> -disposition, but frequent outbursts of an irascible and sanguinary -temper. Though the whole of the Crustacea are formed -after one and the same -general type, and the -same fundamental idea -may be traced throughout -all their tribes, -yet the rings of which -their body is composed, -and the limbs or appendages -attached to these segments, undergo such extensive -modifications of structure in the various orders into which -the class has been divided that even the eye of -science has with difficulty made out the true -nature of many of their lowest forms. Who, -for instance, judging from outward appearances -alone, would suppose that the Barnacles and -Acorn-shells which he sees riveted to the rock -or to a piece of floating timber were relations -of the crab or lobster; but a view of their early -forms at once points out their real character, for then they appear -as active little animals possessing three pairs of legs and a pair -of compound eyes, and having the body covered with an expanded -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">« 245 »</a></span> -shield like that of many of the lower crustaceans. After going -through a series of metamorphoses, these larvæ, tired of a roaming -life, attach themselves by their head, a portion of which becomes -excessively elongated into the "peduncle" of the Barnacles, -whilst in the Balani or acorn-shells it expands into a broad -disk of adhesion. The multivalve shell is gradually formed, -the eyes are cast away as being no longer needed, and the now -useless feet are replaced by six pairs of extremely useful <i>cirrhi</i>, -long, slender, many-jointed, tendril-like appendages fringed with -delicate filaments and covered with vibratile cilia. These cirrhi, -which resemble a plume of purple feathers, and from whose -peculiar character the name of the group, Cirrhipoda, is derived, -are constantly in motion as long as they are bathed in -water, projecting outwards and expanding into an oval concave -net, then retracting inwards, and closing upon whatever may -have come within their reach. They are so judiciously placed -that any small animal which becomes entangled within them -can rarely escape, and is at once conveyed to the mouth. The -currents produced in the water by their perpetual activity -serve also to aërate the blood, so that these delicate organs act -both as gills and as prehensile arms. In spite of their sessile -condition, the Cirrhipeds have not been left without protection -against hostile attacks, for at the approach of danger they shrink -within their shell, and close its orifice against a host of hungry -intruders.</p> - -<p>Their various families are widely spread over the seas. It is -well known that the barnacles frequently attach themselves in -such vast numbers to ships' bottoms as materially to obstruct -their way, and the acorn-shells often line the coasts for miles -and miles with their large white scurfy patches. The Coronulæ -settle so profusely on the skin of the Greenland whale as often to -hide the colour of its skin, while the Tubicinellæ exclusively -occur on the huge cetaceans of the South Sea. Some of the -larger sea-acorns are highly esteemed as articles of food. The -Chinese, after eating the animal of <i>Balanus tintinnabulum</i> with -salt and vinegar, use the shell, which is about two or three -inches high and an inch in diameter, as a lamp, and the flesh of -<i>Balanus psittacus</i> on the southern parts of the South American -coast is said to equal in richness and delicacy that of the crab.</p> - -<p>While the Cirrhipeds grasp their prey as in a living net, the -Siphonostomata lead a parasitic life chiefly upon fishes, sucking -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">« 246 »</a></span> -their juices with a bloodthirsty proboscis. Some (Argulus, -Caligus) wander about freely on the body of their victims as -grazing animals on their pasture grounds, or even make excursions -in the water, where they will turn over and over several -times in succession like mountebanks; others (Lerneæ), after -having, like the barnacles, indulged in a vagabond existence in -their first youth, remain ever after clinging to the spot on which -they originally settled, and where their body undergoes such -remarkable transformations that not a vestige of the crustacean -structure which characterised their erratic life remains.</p> - -<p>As we continue to proceed from the lower to the higher forms, -we find, on the next stage of crustacean life, the numerous -families of the Entomostraca; some bristly-footed (Lophyropoda), -with a small number of legs and with respiratory organs attached to -the parts in the neighbourhood of the mouth, others gill-footed -(Branchiopoda), with numerous foliaceous legs, serving both for -respiration and swimming. Some of these creatures, which are -generally of such minute size as to be only just visible to the -naked eye, have an unprotected body (Branchipus), but generally -they are enclosed within a horny or shelly -casing, which sometimes closely resembles a -bivalve shell in shape and in the mode of junction -of its parts, whilst in other instances it forms a -kind of buckler, an opening being left behind, -through which the members project.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 127px;"> -<img src="images/246a.png" width="127" height="223" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">King-Crab.</div> -</div> - -<p>Though enjoying a royal title, the King-crabs, -or Limuli, occupy in reality but a low rank -among the crustaceans, and are hardly superior in -organisation to the Entomostraca. They are of -large size, sometimes attaining the length of -two feet, and of a very singular structure, the bases of the legs -performing the part of jaws. The best-known species comes from -the Moluccas, where they are often seen slowly -swimming in the sheltered bays, or still more -slowly crawling along upon the sandy shores.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 118px;"> -<img src="images/246b.png" width="118" height="96" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Sandhopper.</div> -</div> - -<p>In the Edriophthalmia are included the lower -crustaceans that have no carapace, and whose -thorax and abdomen are distinctly composed of articulated -segments. The numerous legs are variously formed in the different -genera for springing, walking, or swimming; and respiration -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">« 247 »</a></span> -is executed by certain portions of the extremities, modified -for this purpose in their structure. To this order belong among -others the saltatorial sandhoppers (Talitrus), which so frequently -jump up before our feet when walking on the wet sea-sand; -the ill-famed Cheluræ and Linnoriæ, whose devastations in submerged -timber almost rival those of the ship-worm, and the -parasitical Cyami, which gnaw deep holes into the skin of the -whale. The sandhoppers are extremely frequent on the shores -of the arctic seas, where they emulate the -tropical ants in their speedy removal of -decaying animal substances. Thus Captain -Holböll relates that, having enclosed a piece -of shark's flesh in a basket, and let it down -to a depth of seventy-five fathoms, in the Greenland sea, he by -this means caught within two hours six quarts of these little -creatures, while a vast number still followed the basket -as it was hauled up.</p> - - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 150px;"> -<img src="images/247a.png" width="150" height="98" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Chelura terebrans.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 91px;"> -<img src="images/247b.png" width="91" height="136" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Limnoria -lignorum.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 76px;"> -<img src="images/247c.png" width="76" height="54" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Square -facets of -Scyllarus.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 90px;"> -<img src="images/247d.png" width="90" height="68" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Hexagonal -facets of -Squilla.</div> -</div> - -<p>As the lower crustaceans offer but few points of interest -to the general reader, they required but a few -words of notice; but the highest order of the class, the -Thoracostraca, thus named from the carapace which -covers their thorax, so that only the abdomen presents -an annular structure, may justly claim a more ample -description. The preceding orders had either sessile eyes or -none at all; here the movable eyes are fixed on stalks and of a -compound structure like those of the insects; each -ocular globe consisting of a number of distinct parallel -columns, every one of which is provided with its own -crystalline lens, receives its separate impression of -light, and is thus in itself a perfect eye. Approaches -to this structure are seen in some of the lower crustaceans; but -here the "ocelli," as these minute individual eyes have been -designated, are very numerous. They are at once -recognised, under even a low magnifying power, by -the facetted appearance of the surface of the compound -eye, the facets being either square (Scyllari, -&c.) or more commonly hexagonal (Paguri, Squillæ, -&c). The auditory apparatus is likewise highly developed; -the sense of smell is known to be very acute; and the antennæ -are delicate organs of touch.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">« 248 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The Thoracostraca are subdivided into the small group of -the Stomatopoda, whose branchiæ are external and the feet -prehensile or formed for swimming, and -the far more numerous and important -Decapods, which are either long-tailed -like the scyllarus or short-tailed like the -crab. In these the branchiæ no longer -float in the water, but are enclosed in -two chambers, situated one at each side of the under surface -of the broad shelly plate which covers the back of the animal. -Each of these chambers is provided with two apertures, one in -the front near the jaws, the other behind.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 174px;"> -<img src="images/248.png" width="174" height="99" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Scyllarus equinoxialis.</div> -</div> - -<p>The disposition of the anterior or efferent orifice varies but -little; but in the long-tailed species the afferent or posterior -orifice is a wide slit at the basis of the feet, while in the short-tailed -kinds it forms a small transverse aperture generally -placed almost immediately in front of the first pair of ambulatory -extremities. By means of this formation, the short-tailed decapods -or crabs, like those fishes that are provided with a narrow -opening to their gill covers, are enabled to exist much longer -out of the water than the long-tailed lobsters. Some of them -even spend most of their time on land; and, still better to adapt -them for a terrestrial life, the internal surfaces of the branchial -caverns are lined with a spongy texture, and the gill branches -separated from each other by hard partitions, so as to prevent -them from collapsing after a long penury of water and thus -completely stopping the circulation. While in fishes the water -that serves for respiration flows from the front backwards, so as -not to impede their motions, we find in the interior of the -branchial cavity of the decapods a large valve attached to the -second pair of maxillary feet, which, continually falling and -rising, occasions a rapid current from behind forwards in the -water with which the cavity is filled, a structure perfectly -harmonising with their retrograde or sidelong movements.</p> - -<p>The digestive apparatus of the decapods is of a very complicated -structure. The mouth is here furnished with at least -eight pieces or pairs of jaws, which pass the food through an -extremely short gullet into a stomach of considerable size. This -stomach is rendered curious by having within certain cartilaginous -appendages, to which strong grinding-teeth are attached. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">« 249 »</a></span> -These are placed at the outlet of the stomach, so that the aliment, -after being subjected to the action of the jaws, is again more -perfectly comminuted by the stomach-teeth before entering -the digestive tube. The different pieces composing the -masticatory apparatus of the stomach vary considerably in -the different genera, and even in the several species of the -same genus; but in every case they are always singularly in -harmony with the kind of food taken and the general habits of -the animal.</p> - -<p>To enable the decapods to seize their victims or to defend -themselves against their enemies, their anterior thoracic extremities -generally assume the form of "chelæ," claws, or pincers -of considerable strength, armed with teeth or sharp hooks, which -give them increased powers of prehension. This form results -mainly from the state of extreme development in which the -penultimate articulation frequently occurs, and its assumption -of the shape of a finger by the prolongation of one of its inferior -angles. Against the finger-like process thus produced, -which is of great strength, and quite immovable, the last -articulation can be brought to bear with immense force, as it -is put into motion by a muscular mass of great size, and in -relation with the extraordinary development of the penultimate -articulation. In most cases only the first pair of legs is converted -into these formidable weapons, but in the Dromiæ, which -are very common in the warmer seas, we -find the two posterior pairs of legs, which -are of a much smaller size, and raised above -the plane of the others, similarly armed. -These posterior claws, however, are not -intended for active warfare, but merely for -strategical purposes, as they serve to hold -fast the pieces of sponges, shells, medusæ, and other marine -productions, under whose cover the wily robber approaches and -entraps his prey.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 170px;"> -<img src="images/249.png" width="170" height="122" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Dromia Vulgaris.</div> -</div> - -<p>While the lower crustaceans abound in the polar seas, -the crabs are completely wanting in those desolate regions; -their number increases with the warmer temperature -of the waters, and attains its maximum in the tropical -zone. Here we find the most remarkable and various -forms, here they attain a size unknown in our seas; and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">« 250 »</a></span> -here they do not, as with us, inhabit solely the salt waters, but also -people the brooks and rivers, or even constantly sojourn on land,—as, -for instance, the <i>Thelphusæ</i> and <i>Gecarcini</i>. There are even -some species of land-crabs that suffocate -when dipped into water. They -breathe indeed through branchiæ, -but the small quantity of oxygen -dissolved in water does not suffice -for the wants of their active respiration. -They generally live in the -shades of the damp forests, often at a great distance from the -sea, concealing themselves in holes. At breeding time they -generally seek the shore for the purpose of washing off their -spawn, and depositing it in the sand, and no obstruction will -then make them deviate from the straight path. They feed on -vegetable substances, and are reckoned very excellent food. -When taken, they will seize the person's finger with their claw, -and endeavour to escape, leaving the claw behind, which for -some time after it has been separated from the body, continues -to give the finger a friendly squeeze. In the dusk of the evening -they quit their holes, and may then be seen running about with -great swiftness.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 214px;"> -<img src="images/250a.png" width="214" height="104" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Jamaica Land-Crab.</div> -</div> - -<p>All sandy and muddy coasts of the tropical seas, affording -sufficient protection against a heavy sea, swarm with crabs. -In the East and West Indies the Gelasimi bore in every -direction circular holes in the moist black soil of the coast. -One of the claws of these remarkable creatures is much larger -than the other, so as sometimes to surpass -in size the whole remainder of the body. -They make use of it as a door, to close the -entrance of their dwelling, and when running -swiftly along, carry it upright over the -head, so that it seems to beckon like an outstretched -hand. One might fancy the crab -moved it as in derision of its pursuers, telling -them by pantomimic signs, "Catch me if you can!"</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 153px;"> -<img src="images/250b.png" width="153" height="103" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Large-Clawed Calling-Crab.</div> -</div> - -<p>As soon as the ebbing flood lays bare the swampy grounds of -the mangrove woods, myriads of animals are seen wallowing in -the pestiferous mud. Here a fish jumps about, there a holothuria -crawls, and crabs run along by thousands in every direction. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">« 251 »</a></span> -The black mud along the coast of Borneo assumes quite -a brilliant blue tinge, when, at low water, during the heat of -the day, the cœrulean Gelasimi -come forth to feed.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 255px;"> -<img src="images/251.png" width="255" height="140" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Calling-Crab of Ceylon.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Venetian lagoons also harbour -a vast number of the common -Shore-Crab (<i>Portunus Mænas</i>), -the catching of which affords a -profitable employment to the inhabitants -of those swampy regions. -Whole cargoes are sent to Istria, where they are used as bait for -anchovies. The fishermen gather them a short time before they -cast their shell, and preserve them in baskets, until the moulting -process has been effected, when they are reckoned a delicacy even -on the best tables. On attempting to seize this crab, it runs -rapidly sideways, and conceals itself in the mud; but when unsuccessful, -it raises itself with a menacing mien, beats its claws -noisily together, as if in defiance of the enemy, and prepares for -a valiant defence, like a true knight.</p> - -<p>The most valuable short-tailed crustacean of the North Sea is -undoubtedly the Great Crab (<i>Cancer pagurus</i>), which attains -a weight of from four to five pounds, and is consumed by -thousands in the summer, when it is in season and heaviest. -It is caught in wicker-baskets, arranged so as to permit an easy -entrance, while egress is not to be thought of.</p> - -<p>The legs of the crabs are very differently formed in various -species. In those which have been called sea-spiders they are -very long, thin, and weak, so that the animal swims badly, and is -a slow and uncertain pedestrian. For greater security it therefore -generally seeks a greater depth, where, concealed among the sea-weeds, -it wages war with annelides, planarias, and small mollusks. -Sea-spiders are often found on the oyster-banks, and considered -injurious by the fishermen, who unmercifully destroy them -whenever they get hold of them.</p> - -<p>In other species the legs are short, muscular, and powerful, -so as rapidly to carry along the comparatively light body. The -tropical land-crabs and the genera <i>Ocypoda</i> and <i>Grapsus</i>, which -form the link between the former and the real sea-crabs, are -particularly distinguished in this respect.</p> - -<p>The Rider or Racer (<i>Ocypoda cursor</i>), who is found on the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">« 252 »</a></span> -coasts of Syria and Barbary, and abounds at Cape de Verde, -owes his name to his swiftness, which is such that even a man -on horseback is said not to be able to -overtake him. The West Indian ocypodas -dig holes three or four feet deep, -immediately above high-water mark, -and leave them after dusk. Towards -the end of October they retire further -inland, and bury themselves for the -winter in similar holes, the opening of -which they carefully conceal.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 222px;"> -<img src="images/252a.png" width="222" height="136" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">American Sand-Crab.</div> -</div> - -<p>In the Portuni, or true Sea-crabs, finally, we find the hind -pair of legs flattened like fins, so that they would cut but a -sorry figure on the land, but are all the -better able to row about in their congenial -element.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 188px;"> -<img src="images/252b.png" width="188" height="140" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Spotted Fin-Crab.</div> -</div> - -<p>A strange peculiarity of many crabs is -the quantity of parasites they carry along -with them on their backs. Many marine -productions, both of a vegetable and -animal nature, have their birth and grow -to beauty on the shell of the sea-spider. Corallines, sponges, -zoophytes, algæ, may thus be found, and balani occasionally cover -the entire upper surface of the body of the crab. "All the -examples of the <i>Inachus Dorsettensis</i> which I have taken," says -the distinguished naturalist, Mr. W. Thompson of Belfast, "were -invested with sponge, which generally covers over the body, -arms, and legs; algæ and zoophytes likewise spring from it." In -this extraneous matter some of the smaller zoophytes find -shelter, and, together with the other objects, render the capture -of the <i>Inachus Dorsettensis</i> interesting far beyond its own acquisition. -In Mr. Hyndman's collection, there is a sea-spider carrying -on its back an oyster much larger than itself, and covered -besides with numerous barnacles. Like Atlas, the poor creature -groaned under a world.</p> - -<p>The extraneous matters which so many crabs carry along with -them are, however, far from being always a useless burden; -they are often a warlike stratagem, under cover of which the -sly crustacean entraps many a choice morsel. Thus Bennett -witnessed at Otaheite the proceedings of an interesting Hyas -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">« 253 »</a></span> -species, which disguised itself by investing its body with a -covering of decayed vegetable substances and coral-sand. The -better to ensnare its prey, the back was covered with rigid and -incurved bristles, calculated to retain the extraneous substances, -while the short and well concealed forceps-claws were -ready for the attack, and the ophthalmic peduncles, curving upward -to raise the eyes above the pile of materials, gave the wily -crab the great advantage of seeing without being seen. As soon -as an unfortunate mollusk, unsuspicious of evil, approached the -lurking ruffian, he darted upon it like an arrow, and, ere it could -recover its presence of mind, was busy tearing it to pieces.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 125px;"> -<img src="images/253a.png" width="125" height="98" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Pea-Crab.</div> -</div> - -<p>If many crabs are burdened with small animals and plants, -others live parasitically in the shells of mollusks. Thus the -small <i>Pinnotheres veterum</i> claims the hospitality -of the Pinna, a large bivalve of the -Mediterranean. The ancients supposed that this -was a friendly connection, an <i>entente cordiale</i>, -formed for mutual defence: that the Pinna, -being destitute of eyes, and thus exposed when -he opened his shell to the attacks of the cuttle-fish -and other enemies, was warned of their approach by his -little lodger, upon which he immediately closed his shell and -both were safe. Unfortunately, there -is not a word of truth in the whole -story. The sole reason why the Pinnotheres -takes up its abode under a -stranger's roof is the softness of its -own integuments, which otherwise -would leave it utterly defenceless; nor does the Pinna show the -least sign of affection for its guest, who, on returning from an -excursion, often finds it very difficult to slip again into the -shell.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 238px;"> -<img src="images/253b.png" width="238" height="101" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Pinna Augustana.</div> -</div> - -<p>According to Mr. Thompson, the <i>Modiola vulgaris</i>, a species -of mussel very common on the Irish coast, almost always harbours -several parasitic crabs (<i>Pinnotheres pisum</i>). At Heligoland, -Dr. Oetker, to whom we are indebted for the best work -on that interesting island, scarce ever found a modiola without -several guests of this description, while he never could find any -in oysters, mussels, and other nearly related species. What may -the reason be of either this predilection or that desertion?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">« 254 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The numerous family of the Paguri, or Hermit crabs, is also -condemned by its formation to lead a parasitic and robber-life. -The fore part of the body is indeed, as in other -crabs, armed with claws and covered with a -shield, but ends in a long soft tail provided -with one or two small hooks. How then are -the poor creatures to help themselves? The -hind part is not formed for swimming, and its -weight prevents them from running. Thus -nothing remains for them but to look about -them for some shelter, and this is afforded -them by several conchiform shells, <i>buccina</i>, -<i>neritæ</i>, in which they so tenaciously insert their hooked tails, as if -both were grown together. So long as they are young and feeble, -they content themselves with such shells as they find empty on -the strand, but when grown to maturity, they attack living -specimens, seize with their sharp claws the snail, ere it can withdraw -into its shell, and after devouring its flesh, creep without -ceremony into the conquered dwelling, which fits them like a -coat when they take a walk, and the mouth of which they close -when at rest with their largest forceps, in the same manner as -the original possessor used his operculum or lid. How remarkable -that an animal should thus find in another creature -belonging to a totally different class, the completion, as it -were, of its being, and be indebted to it for the protecting cover -which its own skin is unable to secrete!</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 146px;"> -<img src="images/254.png" width="146" height="180" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Diogenes Hermit -Crab.</div> -</div> - -<p>When the dwelling of the pagurus becomes inconveniently -narrow, the remedy is easy, for appropriate sea-shells abound -wherever hermit crabs exist. They are found on almost every -coast, and every new scientific voyage makes us acquainted with -new species. According to Quoy and Gaimard, they are particularly -numerous at the Ladrones, New Guinea, and Timor. -The strand of the small island of Kewa, in Coupang Bay, was -entirely covered with them. In the heat of the day they -seek the shade of the bushes; but as soon as the cool of evening -approaches, they come forth by thousands. Although they -make all large snail-houses answer their purposes, they seem in -this locality to prefer the large Sea Nerites.</p> - -<p>The famous East Indian Cocoa-nut Crab (<i>Birgus latro</i>), a -kind of intermediate link between the short and long tailed -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">« 255 »</a></span> -crabs, bears a great resemblance to the paguri. It is said to -climb the palm-trees, for the sake of detaching the heavy nuts; -but Mr. Darwin, who attentively observed the animal on the -Keeling Islands, tells us that it merely lives upon those that -spontaneously fall from the tree. To extract its nourishment -from the hard case, it shows an ingenuity which is one of the -most wonderful instances of animal instinct. It must first of -all be remarked, that its front pair of legs is terminated by very -strong and heavy pincers, the last pair by others, narrow and -weak. After having selected a nut fit for its dinner, the crab -begins its operations by tearing the husk, fibre by fibre, from -that end under which the three eye-holes are situated; it then -hammers upon one of them with its heavy claws, until an opening -is made. Hereupon it turns round, and by the aid of its posterior -pincers, extracts the white albuminous substance. It -inhabits deep burrows, where it accumulates surprising quantities -of picked fibres of cocoa-nut husks, on which it rests as on -a bed. Its habits are diurnal; but every night it is said to pay -a visit to the sea, no doubt for the purpose of moistening its -branchiæ. It is very good to eat, living as it does on choice -vegetable substances; and the great mass of fat, accumulated -under the tail of the larger ones, sometimes yields, when melted, -as much as a quart of limpid oil. Thus our taking possession of -the Keeling Islands, as a coaling station for the steamers from -Australia to Ceylon, bodes no good to the Birgus.</p> - -<p>The long tail, which the paguri sedulously conceal in shells, -serves the shrimps and lobsters as their chief organ of locomotion, -for although these creatures have well-formed legs, they -make but slow work of it when they attempt to crawl. But -nothing can equal the rapidity with which they dart backwards -through the water, by suddenly contracting their tail. Thus -the Lobster makes leaps of twenty feet at one single bound, and -the little shrimp equals it fully in velocity in proportion to its size, -and belongs unquestionably to the most active of the denizens of -the ocean. It swarms in incalculable numbers on the sandy -shores of the North Sea, where it is caught in nets attached to a -long cross pole, which the fishermen, walking knee-deep in the -water, push along before them. Boiled shrimps are a well -known delicacy; and the <i>Squilla Mantis</i> of the Mediterranean, -which resembles our common shrimp in outer form, but essentially -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">« 256 »</a></span> -differs from it in the formation of its branchiæ, which -float freely in the water, attached to the abdominal legs, holds -an equal rank in the estimation of the South Europeans.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 542px;"> -<img src="images/256a.png" width="542" height="322" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Crustaceans and Oysters.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 242px;"> -<img src="images/256b.png" width="242" height="140" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Spotted Mantis Crab.</div> -</div> - -<p>But of all crustaceans, none approaches the Lobster in delicacy -of taste. This creature, the epicure's -delight, loves to dwell in the -deep clear waters along bold rocky -shores, where it is taken in wicker -baskets, or with small nets attached -to iron hoops. About two millions -of lobsters are annually imported -from Norway, although they are also found in great abundance -along the Scottish and Irish coasts. Thus, considering their high -price, they form a considerable article of trade; and yet they -are far from equalling in importance the minute Herring-crab -(<i>Cancer halecum</i>), which, by forming the chief nourishment of -that invaluable fish, renders in an indirect way incalculable -services to man.</p> - -<p>The lobster breeds in the summer months, depositing many -thousands of eggs in the sand, and leaving them there to be -hatched by the sun. But few, as may easily be imagined, live -to attain a size befitting them to appear in red livery on our -tables. Like all crustaceans, the lobster casts its shell annually, -and with such perfection, that the discarded garment, with all -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">« 257 »</a></span> -its appendages, perfectly resembles the living animal. The -process is curious enough to deserve a few lines of description.</p> - -<p>When towards autumn, the time of casting the shell approaches, -the lobster retires to a silent nook, like a pious hermit -to his cell, and fasts several days. The shell thus detaches -itself gradually from the emaciated body, and a new and tender -cuticle forms underneath. The old dress seems now, however, -to plague the lobster very much, to judge by the efforts he -makes to sever all remaining connection with it. Soon the -harness splits right through the back, like the cleft bark of a -tree, or a ripe seed-husk, and opens a wide gate to liberty. -After much tugging and wriggling, the legs, tail, and claws -gradually follow the body. The claws give the lobster most -trouble; but he is well aware that perseverance generally wins -the day, and never ceases till the elastic mass, which can be -drawn out like india-rubber, and instantly resumes its ordinary -shape, has been forced through the narrow passage. It can -easily be supposed that, after such a violent struggle for freedom, -the lobster is not a little exhausted. Feeling his weakness, and -the very insufficient protection afforded him by his soft covering, -he bashfully retires from all society until his hardened case -allows him to mix again with his friends on terms of equality, -for he well knows how inclined they are to bite and devour a -softer brother.</p> - -<p>The facility with which the crustacea cast off their legs, and -even their heavy claws, when they have been wounded in one -of these organs or alarmed at thunder, is most remarkable. -Without the least appearance of pain, they then continue to run -along upon their remaining legs. After some time a new limb -grows out of the old stump, but never attains the size of the -original limb.</p> - -<p>At the beginning of the chapter I have already briefly -described the wonderful transformations of the barnacles, -acorn-shells, and lerneæ, but the changes which the young -crabs, lobsters, prawns, and shrimps, have to undergo ere they -assume their perfect form are no less astonishing. Thus in the -earliest state of the small edible crab (<i>Carcinus mœnas</i>) we -find a creature with a preposterously large helmet-shaped head, -ending behind in a long spine, and furnished in front with two -monstrous sessile eyes like the windows of a lantern. By means -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">« 258 »</a></span> -of a long articulated tail the restless Chimera continually turns -head over heels. Claws are wanting, and while the old crab is -of course a perfect decapod, the young has only four bifid legs, -armed at the extremity with four long bristles, that are continually -pushing food towards the ciliated mouth. Who could -imagine that a creature like this should ever change into a crab, -to which it has not the least resemblance? But time does -wonders. After the first change of skin the body assumes -something like its permanent shape, the eyes become stalked, -the claws are developed, and the legs resemble those of the -crab, but the tail is still long, and the swimming habit has not -yet been laid aside. At the next stage, while the little creature -is still about the eighth of an inch in diameter, the crab form -is at length completed, the abdomen folding in under the -carapace. No wonder that these larvæ were long supposed to be -distinct types, and described under the -names of Zoëa and Megalops, until -Mr. T. J. Thompson first discovered -their real nature.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 536px;"> -<img src="images/258a.png" width="536" height="234" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Metamorphosis of Carcinus mœnas.<br /> - -A. First stage. B. Second stage. C. Third stage, in which it begins to assume the adult form. -D. Perfect form.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/258b.png" width="200" height="135" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Phyllosoma.</div> -</div> - -<p>The life history of the Palinuri or -spiny lobsters is equally curious. They -frequently weigh ten or twelve pounds -each, and are distinguished by the very large size of their -lateral antennæ and by their feet being unarmed with pincers. -Surely nothing can be more dissimilar than the glass crabs or -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">« 259 »</a></span> -<i>Phyllosomas</i>, thin as a leaf of paper, and so transparent that -their blue eyes are their only visible parts while swimming in -the water; and yet these flimsy creatures are nothing but the -young of the large and bulky Palinuri.</p> - -<p>Though several of the lower crustaceans ascend into the -regions of eternal snow, while others hide themselves in the -perpetual night of subterranean grottoes; though many delight -in the sweet waters of the river or the lake, or rapidly multiply -in stagnant pools, yet the chief seat of their class, which altogether -comprises about 1,600 known species, is in the ocean -and its littoral zone, where their numbers, their voracity, -and their powerful claws, render them the most formidable -enemies of all the lower aquatic animals that are not -swift or cunning enough to escape them. Even the fishes -and cetaceans are, as we have seen, exposed to their attacks; -and as the whale, the carp, the sturgeon, the shark, the perch, -have each of them their peculiar crustacean parasites, it can -easily be imagined how large the number of still unknown -species must be which feast on that vast host of fishes that has -never yet been accurately examined. On the other hand, the -crustaceans constitute a great part of the food, as well of the sea-stars, -sea-urchins, annelides, and many of the molluscs, as also -of the fishes and sea-birds; and as they are found of all sizes, -from microscopical minuteness to the gigantic proportions of -the <i>Inachus Kæmpferi</i> of Japan, the fore-arm of which measures -four feet in length, and the others in proportion, so that it -covers about 25 feet square of ground, they are able to -satisfy the wants or the voracity of a vast number of enemies, -from the rotifer or the polyp that feed on tiny entomostraca or -the larvæ of the barnacle, to man, who selects a great variety -of the fat and luscious decapods for his share of the feast.</p> - -<p>A great fecundity enables the crustaceans to bear up against -all these persecutions. 12,000 eggs have been found on the -lobster; 6,807 on the shrimp; 21,699 on the great crab -(<i>Platycarcinus pagurus</i>). The lower orders are still more -prolific, for such is the rapidity with which many of them come -to maturity and begin to propagate that it has been calculated -that a single female Cyclops may be the progenitor in one year -of 4,442,189,120 young! Endowed with such powers, the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">« 260 »</a></span> -crustaceans are not likely to be extirpated, nor to disappoint -the hopes of their gastronomical admirers for many an age to -come.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>When we hear of fishes wandering about on the dry land, we -cannot wonder that some insects and arachnidans should depart -so strangely from the usual habits of their class as to select -the sea for their habitation.</p> - -<p>"There is a minute marine spider," says Mr. Gosse, "very -common on most parts of the coast, crawling sluggishly upon -the smaller sea-weeds, which seems, from its lack of centralisation, -to realise our infant ideas of Mr. Nobody; but zoologists -have designated him as <i>Nymphon gracile</i>. Widely different -from the spiders of terra firma, in which an abdomen some ten -times as bulky as all the rest of the animal put together is the -most characteristic feature, the belly of our marine friend is reduced -to an atom not so big as a single joint of one of his -eight legs; though his thorax is more considerable, this is little -more than the extended line formed by the successive points of -union of the said legs. These latter, on the other hand, are -long, stout, well-armed, and many-jointed; but, apparently -from the lack of the centralising principle, they are moved -heavily, sprawled hither and thither, and dragged about like -the limbs of an unfortunate who is afflicted with the gout." -This strange little creature has four eyes gleaming like diamonds, -respires by the skin, and its stomach is prolonged into each of -its eight legs, which are thus made the seats of digestion. Mr. -Nobody and his marine relations, some of which also attach -themselves to fishes, form the small group of the <i>Pycnogonida</i> -(πυκνος, <i>frequent</i>; γὁνυ <i>knee</i>) thus named from their many-jointed -legs.</p> - -<p>It is a well-known fact that the winds will sometimes waft -butterflies to an immense distance from the shore. Thus -<i>Acherontia atropos</i> has been found on the Atlantic a thousand -miles from the nearest land; and while Mr. Darwin was in the -bay of San Blas, in Patagonia, he saw thousands of butterflies -hovering over the sea as far as the eye could reach. These -insects, of course, are nothing but stray wanderers on an alien -and hostile element; but <i>Leptopus longipes</i>, a species of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">« 261 »</a></span> -bug, makes the salt water its home; the Halobates, another -hemipterous insect, faces the tranquil mirror of the tropical -seas as leisurely as our water-bugs sport on the glassy surface -of our ponds, and the <i>Gyrinus marinus</i>, a beetle belonging -to the family of the whirligigs, ambitiously seeks a wide -expanse, and may be seen curvetting about on the surface -of the sea, and darting down every now and then to seize its -prey.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 240px;"> -<img src="images/261.png" width="240" height="166" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Stenopus hispidus.</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">« 262 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_XIV" id="CHAP_XIV">CHAP. XIV.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">MARINE ANNELIDES.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">The Annelides in general.—The Eunice sanguinea.—Beauty of the Marine Annelides.—The -Giant Nemertes.—The Food and Enemies of the Annelides.—The -Tubicole Annelides.—The Rotifera—Their Wonderful Organisation.—The -Synchæta Baltica.</div> - - -<p>The class of the Annelides, or annulated worms—to which also -our common earth-worm and the leech belong—peoples the -seas with by far the greater number of its genera and species. -All of them are distinguished by an elongated, and generally -worm-like form of body, susceptible of great extension and contraction. -The body consists of a series of rings, or segments, -joined by a common elastic skin; and each ring, with the exception -of the first or foremost, which forms the head, and the -last which constitutes the tail, exactly resembles the others, -only that the rings in the middle part of the body are larger -than those at the extremities. The head is frequently provided -with eyes, and more or less perfect feelers; the mouth is armed -in many species with strong jaws, or incisive teeth. The blood -is red, and circulates in a system of arteries and veins.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 640px;"> -<img src="images/262.png" width="640" height="110" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Nervous Axis of an Annelidan.</div> -</div> - -<p>With the idea of a worm we generally connect that of incompleteness; -we are apt to consider them as beings equally -uninteresting and ugly, and disdain to enquire into the wonders -of their organisation. But a cursory examination of the <i>Eunice -sanguinea</i>, a worm about two and a half feet long, and frequently -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">« 263 »</a></span> -occurring on our coasts, would alone suffice to give us a very -different opinion of these despised, but far from despicable creatures. -The whole body is divided into segments scarce a line -and a half long, and ten or twelve lines broad, and thus consists -of about three hundred rings. A brain and three hundred -ganglions, from which about three thousand nervous branches -proceed, regulate the movements, sensations, and vegetative -functions of an Eunice. Two hundred and eighty stomachs -digest its food, five hundred and fifty branchiæ refresh its blood, -six hundred hearts distribute this vital fluid throughout the -whole body, and thirty thousand muscles obey the will of the -worm, and execute its snake-like movements. What an astonishing -profusion of organs! Surely there is here but little occasion -to commiserate want, or to scoff at poverty!</p> - -<p>And if we look to outward appearance, we shall find that -many of the marine annelides may well be reckoned among the -handsomest of creatures. They display the rainbow tints of the -humming-birds, and the velvet, metallic brilliancy of the most -lustrous beetles. The vagrant species that glide, serpent-like, -through the crevices of the submarine rocks, or half creeping, -half swimming conceal themselves in the sand or mud, are pre-eminently -beautiful. The delighted naturalists have consequently -given them the most flattering and charming names of -Greek mythology,—Nereis, Euphrosyne, Eunice, Alciopa.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 494px;"> -<img src="images/263.png" width="494" height="188" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Nereis.</div> -</div> - -<p>"Talk no more of the violet as the emblem of modesty," -exclaims De Quatrefages, "look rather at our annelides, that, possessed -of every shining quality, hide themselves from our view, -so that but few know of the secret wonders that are hidden -under the tufts of algæ, or on the sandy bottom of the sea."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">« 264 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 150px;"> -<img src="images/264.png" width="150" height="92" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Aphrodita, or Sea-Mouse.</div> -</div> - -<p>In most of the wandering annelides, each segment is provided -with variously formed appendages, more or less developed, -serving for respiration and locomotion, or for aggression and -defence; while in some of the least perfect of the class, not a -trace of an external organ is to be found over -the whole body. The great Band-worm -(<i>Nemertes gigas</i>) is one of the most remarkable -examples of this low type of annelism. -It is from thirty to forty feet long, about -half an inch broad, flat like a ribbon, of brown -or violet colour, and smooth and shining like -lackered leather. Among the loose stones, or in the hollows of -the rocks, where he principally lives on Anomiæ,—minute shells -that attach themselves to submarine bodies,—this giant worm -forms a thousand seemingly inextricable knots, which he is continually -unravelling and tying. When after having devoured all -the food within his reach, or from some other cause, he desires -to shift his quarters, he stretches out a long dark-coloured -ribbon, surmounted by a head like that of a snake, but without -its wide mouth or dangerous fangs. The eye of the observer -sees no contraction of the muscles, no apparent cause or instrument -of locomotion; but the microscope teaches us that the -Nemertes glides along by help of the minute vibratory -ciliæ with which his whole body is covered. He hesitates, he -tries here and there, until at last, and often at a distance of -fifteen or twenty feet, he finds a stone to his taste; whereupon -he slowly unrolls his length to convey himself to his new resting -place, and while the entangled folds are unravelling themselves -at one end, they form a new Gordian knot at the other. All -the organs of this worm are uncommonly simplified; the mouth -is a scarce visible circular opening, and the intestinal canal ends -in a blind sack.</p> - -<p>Nature has not in vain provided the more perfect annelides -with the bristly feet, which have been denied to the Nemertes -and the sand-worm. Almost all of them feed on a living prey,—Planarias -and other minute creatures—which they enclasp -and transpierce with those formidable weapons. Some, lying in -wait, dart upon their victims as they heedlessly swim by, seize -them with their jaws, and stifle them in their deadly embrace; -others, of a more lively nature, seek them among the thickets of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">« 265 »</a></span> -corallines, millepores and algæ, and arrest them quickly ere -they can vanish in the sand.</p> - -<p>But the annelides also are liable to many persecutions. The -fishes are perpetually at war with them; and when an imprudent -annelide quits its hidden lurking-place, or is uncovered by -the motion of the waves, it may reckon itself fortunate, indeed, -if it escapes the greedy teeth of an eel or a flat-fish. It is even -affirmed of the latter, as it is of the whelks, that they know perfectly -well how to dig the annelides out of the sand. The sea-spiders, -lobsters, and other crustacea are the more dangerous, as their -hard shells render them perfectly invulnerable by the bristling -weapons of the annelides.</p> - -<p>While the greater part of these worms lead a vagrant life, -others, like secluded hermits, dwell in self-constructed retreats -which they never leave. Their cells, which they begin to form -very soon after having left the egg, and which they afterwards -continue extending and widening according to the exigencies of -their growth, generally consist of a hard calcareous mass; but -sometimes they are leathery or parchment-like tubes, secreted by -the skin of the animal, not however forming, as in the mollusks, -an integral part of the body, but remaining quite unconnected -with it. Thus these tubicole annelides spend their whole life -within doors, only now and then peeping out of their prison -with the front part of their head.</p> - -<p>As they lead so different a life from their roaming relations, -their internal structure is very different, for where is the being -whose organisation does not perfectly harmonise with his wants? -Thus, we find here no bristling feet or lateral respiratory appendages; -but instead of these organs, which in this case would -be completely useless, we find the head surmounted by a beautiful -crown of feathery tentaculæ, which equally serve for breathing -and the seizing of a passing prey. Completely closed at the inferior -extremity, the tube shows us at its upper end a round -opening, the only window through which our hermit can -peep into the world, seize his food, and refresh his blood by -exposing his floating branchiæ to the vivifying influence of the -water.</p> - -<p>Do not, therefore, reproach him with vanity or curiosity, if -you see him so often protrude his magnificently decorated -head; but rejoice rather that this habit, to which necessity -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">« 266 »</a></span> -obliges him, gives you a better opportunity for closer observation. -Place only a shell or stone covered with <i>serpulas</i> or -<i>cymospiras</i>, into a vessel filled with -sea-water, and you will soon see how, -in every tube, a small round cover -is cautiously raised, which hitherto -hermetically closed the entrance, and -prevented you from prying into the -interior. The door is open, and -soon the inmate makes his appearance. -You now perceive small buds, -here dark violet or carmine, there blue or orange, or variously -striped. See how they grow, and gradually expand their -splendid boughs! They are true flowers that open before your -eye, but flowers much more perfect than those which adorn your -garden, as they are endowed with voluntary motion and animal -life.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 220px;"> -<img src="images/266.png" width="220" height="162" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Serpula, attached to a Shell.</div> -</div> - -<p>At the least shock, at the least vibration of the water, the -splendid tufts contract, vanish with the rapidity of lightning, -and hide themselves in their stony dwellings, where, under -cover of the protecting lid, they bid defiance to their enemies.</p> - -<p>Not all the tubicole annelides form grottos or houses of so -complete a structure as those I have just described. Many -content themselves with agglutinating sand or small shell-fragments -into the form of cylindrical tubes. But even in -these inferior architectural labours of the <i>Sabellas</i>, <i>Terebellas</i>, -<i>Amphitrites</i>, &c., we find an astonishing regularity and art; -for these elegant little tubes, which we may often pick up on -the strand, where they lie mixed with the shells and algæ cast -out by the flood, consist of particles of almost equal size, so -artistically glued together, that the delicate walls have everywhere -an equal thickness. The form is cylindrical, or funnel-shaped, -the tube gradually widening from the lower to the upper -end. Some of these tubicoles live like solitary hermits, others -love company; for instance, the <i>Sabella alveolaris</i>, which often -covers wide surfaces of rock, near low-water mark with its -aggregated tubes. When the flood recedes nothing is seen but -the closed orifices; but when covered with the rising waters, the -sandy surface transforms itself into a beautiful picture. From -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">« 267 »</a></span> -each aperture stretches forth a neck ornamented with concentric -rings of golden hair, and terminating in a head embellished -with a tiara of delicately feathered, rainbow-tinted tentacula. -The whole looks like a garden-bed enamelled with gay flowers -of elegant form and variegated colours.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>If size alone were a criterion of classification, the Rotifera -would have to be ranked among the microscopic Protozoa, as -they are scarcely visible to the naked eye; but a more complicated -organisation separates them widely from these lowest -members of the animal kingdom, and entitles them to be -placed next to the worms.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 344px;"> -<img src="images/267.png" width="344" height="394" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Ptygura mehcerta.—(A rotifer highly magnified.)<br /> - -<p class="p0"> -1. Partially expanded.<br /> -2. Completely expanded, the cilia in action causing currents indicated by the arrows.<br /> -3. Contracted. <i>a.</i> Contractile vesicle. <i>b.</i> Situation of the anal orifice.<br /> -</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>They are chiefly characterised by a remarkable rotatory -or ciliary apparatus, whose vibrating motions, whirling the -water about in swift circles or eddies, engulf in a fatal vortex -their microscopic food, or enable them to swim from place to -place. Such is the crystal transparency of these curious -little creatures that their internal structure can be easily -recognised. The mouth is placed immediately below the rotatory -apparatus, and when once an unfortunate animalcule has -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">« 268 »</a></span> -been driven into its gaping portals, it is presently crushed between -a pair of formidable sharp-toothed jaws, which are perpetually -in motion, whether the animal is taking food or not. -After having undergone the action of this lively apparatus, -the aliment passes into a tubular stomach surrounded by a -cushion-like mass of cells commonly coloured with the hue of -the food, and, therefore, concluded to be connected with the -digestive system.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 343px;"> -<img src="images/268.png" width="343" height="556" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Conochilus volvox.—(Highly magnified.)<br /> - -<i>a.</i> Jaws and teeth. <i>b.</i> Papillæ.<br /> -<i>c.</i> Glands. <i>d.</i> Ovarium.<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 209px;"> -<img src="images/269.png" width="209" height="656" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Philodina roseola.—(Highly -magnified.)<br /> - -<p> -<i>a.</i> Respiratory tube.<br /> -<i>b.</i> Alimentary canal.<br /> -<i>c.</i> Cellular mass.<br /> -<i>d.</i> Terminal intestinal pouch.<br /> -<i>e.</i> Anal orifice.<br /> -</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The rotifera are either naked or covered with a sheath, and -many inhabit a tube formed by themselves, attached by its -lower end to some water-plant, and open at the summit, from -which the animal protrudes when it would exercise its active -instincts, and into which it retires for repose from labour or for -refuge from alarm. The majority, however, have a furcated -foot, which is often capable of contraction by a set of telescopic -sheathings or false joints, and by which they are enabled to -secure a hold of the minute stems of water-plants. This is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">« 269 »</a></span> -their ordinary position when keeping their wheels in action for -a supply of food or of water; but they have no difficulty in -letting go their hold, and either creeping along by alternate -contractions and extensions or swimming away in search of a -new attachment. From the neck projects a telescopic spur, -supposed to be an organ of respiration, -and just below this are seen two -minute red specks, supposed to be -eyes. The first rotifer was discovered -by Leeuwenhoek, in 1702; now more -than 180 species are known, and new -discoveries are constantly adding to -their numbers. They are chiefly found -in sweet water, but some are inhabitants -of the sea, as, for instance, the <i>Synchæta -baltica</i>, remarkable for its luminous -powers. It measures about 1/125 -of an inch in length, and but 1/350 in -width, so that it is invisible to the -sharpest unassisted sight: but when -viewed through a microscope, it appears -as a beautiful and richly organised -creature, clear as glass and perfectly -colourless, except that its stomach is -usually distended with yellow food, -and that it carries a large red eye, which -glitters like a ruby.</p> - -<p>"Its motions too," says Mr. Gosse, -"are all vivacious and elegant. It -shoots rapidly along or circles about -in giddy dance, in company with its -fellows, sometimes near the surface, at -others just over the bottom of the vase -in which it is kept. Occasionally the -foot with the tiny toes is drawn up -into the body and then suddenly thrown -down, and bent up from side to side as a dog wags his tail. -Sometimes the rotatory organs are brought forward and then -spasmodically spring back to their ordinary position, when the -little creature shoots forward with redoubled energy. In all its -actions it displays vigour and precision, intelligence and will."</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">« 270 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_XV" id="CHAP_XV">CHAP. XV.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">MOLLUSCS.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">The Molluscs in general.—The Cephalopods.—Dibranchiates and Tetrabranchiates.—Arms -and Tentacles.—Suckers.—Hooked Acetabula of the Onychoteuthis.—Mandibles.—Ink -Bag.—Numbers of the Cephalopods.—Their Habits.—Their -Enemies.—Their Use to Man.—Their Eggs.—Enormous size of several species.—The -fabulous Kraken.—The Argonaut.—The Nautili.—The Cephalopods of -the Primitive Ocean.—The Gasteropods.—Their Subdivisions.—Gills of the -Nudibranchiates.—The Pleurobranchus plumula.—The Sea-Hare.—The Chitons.—The -Patellæ.—The Haliotis or Sea-Ear.—The Carinariæ.—The Pectinibranchiates.—Variety -and Beauty of their Shells.—Their Mode of Locomotion.—Foot -of the Tornatella and Cyclostoma.—The Ianthinæ.—Sedentary Gasteropods.—The -Magilus.—Proboscis of the Whelk.—Tongue of the Limpet.—Stomach -of the Bulla, the Scyllæa, and the Sea-Hare.—Organs of Sense in the -Gasteropods.—Their Caution.—Their Enemies.—Their Defences.—Their Use to -Man.—Shell-Cameos.—The Pteropods.—Their Organisation and Mode of Life.—The -Butterflies of the Ocean.—The Lamellibranchiate Acephala.—Their -Organisation.—Siphons.—The Pholades.—Foot of the Lamellibranchiates.—The -Razor-Shells.—The Byssus of the Pinnæ.—Defences of the Bivalves.—Their -Enemies.—The common Mussel.—Mussel Gardens.—The Oyster.—Oyster -Parks.—Oyster Rearing in the Lago di Fusaro.—Formation of new -Oyster Banks.—Pearl-fishing in Ceylon.—How are Pearls formed?—The -Tridacna gigas.—The Teredo navalis.—The Brachiopods.—The Terebratulæ.—The -Polyzoa.—The Sea-Mats.—The Escharæ.—The Lepraliæ.—Bird's Head -Processes.—The Tunicata.—The Sea-Squirts.—The Chelyosoma.—The Botrylli.—The -Pyrosomes.—The Salpæ.—Interesting Points in the Organisation of the -Tunicata.</div> - - -<p>Simple or compound, free or sessile, peopling the high seas -or lining the shores, the marine Molluscs, branching out into -more than ten thousand species, extend their reign as far as the -waves of ocean roll. Though distinguished from all other sea-animals -by the common character of a soft unarticulated body, -possessing a complicated digestive apparatus, and covered by a -flexible skin or mantle, under or over which a calcareous shell -is generally formed by secretion, yet their habits are as various -as their forms. Some dart rapidly through the waters, others -creep slowly along, or are firmly bound to the rock; in some -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">« 271 »</a></span> -the senses are as highly developed as in the fishes, in others they -are confined to the narrow perceptions of the polyp. Many -are individually so small as to escape the naked eye, others of -a size so formidable as to entitle them to rank among the giants -of the sea; some are perfectly harmless and unarmed, others -fully equipped for active warfare. It is evident that creatures -so variously gifted, and consequently so widely dissimilar in -structure, cannot possibly be grouped together in one description, -and that each of the four orders, Cephalopoda, Gasteropoda, -Pteropoda, and Acephala (Lamellibranchiates, Brachiopods, -Polyzoa, and Tunicata), into which they have been subdivided, -must be separately brought before the reader, in order to give -him a clear and faithful picture of their organisation and mode -of life.</p> - -<p>The Cephalopods are the most perfect specimens of the -molluscan type, as the decapods are the first among the -crustaceans. These remarkable creatures consist of two distinct -parts: the trunk or body, which, in form of a sack, -open to the front, encloses the branchiæ and digestive organs, -and the well-developed head, provided with a pair of sharp-sighted -eyes, and crowned with a number of fleshy processes, -arms or feet, which encircle and more or less conceal the mouth. -It is to this formation that the cephalopod owes its scientific -name, for as the feet grow from the circumference of the mouth, -it literally creeps upon its head.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 259px;"> -<img src="images/272a.png" width="259" height="383" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Poulp (Octopus).</div> -</div> - -<p>All the cephalopods are marine animals, and breathe through -branchiæ or gills. These are concealed under the mantle, in -a cave or hollow, which alternately expands and contracts, and -communicates by two openings with the outer world. The one -in form of a slit serves to receive the water; the other, which is -tubular, is used for its expulsion.</p> - -<p>According to the different number of their gills, the -cephalopods are divided into two groups. The first, to which -the poulp and common cuttle-fish belong, and which comprises -by far the majority of living species, has only two sets of gills; -while the second, which, in the present epoch, is only -represented by a few species of Nautilus, has four, two -on each side, according to the number of their arms or feet—for -these remarkable organs serve equally well for prehension -or locomotion. The first group is again subdivided into two -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">« 272 »</a></span> -orders, Octopods and Decapods, the former having only eight -sessile feet, while the latter possess -an additional pair of elongated tentacles, -which serve to seize a prey -that may be beyond the reach of -the ordinary feet, and also to act as -anchors to moor them in safety during -the agitations of a stormy sea.</p> - -<p>Both the arms and tentacles are -furnished with suckers disposed along -the whole extent of the inner surface -of the former, but generally confined -to the widened extremities of the -latter, where they are closely aggregated -on the inner aspect.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 260px;"> -<img src="images/272b.png" width="260" height="528" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Calamary.</div> -</div> - -<p>In all the octopods the suckers are -soft and unarmed. Every sucker is -composed of a circular adhesive disk, which has a thick fleshy -circumference and bundles of muscular -fibres radiating towards the -circular orifice of an inner cavity.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 240px;"> -<img src="images/273.png" width="240" height="385" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Section of an arm and suckers of a -Poulp.<br /> - -<i>e.</i> Soft and tumid margin of the disk.<br /> -<i>g.</i> Circular aperture.<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>This widens as it descends, and -contains a cone of soft substance, -rising from the bottom of the cavity, -like the piston of a syringe. When -the sucker is applied to a surface -for the purpose of adhesion, the -piston, having previously been raised -so as to fill the cavity, is retracted, -and a vacuum produced, which may -be still further increased by the -retraction of the plicated central -portion of the disk. So admirably -are these air-pumps constructed, and -so tenacious is their grasp, that, -when they have once seized or fixed -upon a prey, it cannot possibly disengage -itself from their murderous -embrace.</p> - -<p>In many of the decapods, who, generally seeking their prey in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">« 273 »</a></span> -the deeper waters, have to contend with the agile, slippery, and -mucus-clad fishes, more powerful organs of prehension have -been superadded to the suckers. -Thus, in the Calamary the base of -the piston is enclosed by a horny -hoop, the margin of which is developed -into a series of sharp-pointed -curved teeth; and in the still more -formidable Onychoteuthis each hoop -is produced into the form of a long, -curved, and sharp-pointed claw (<i>f</i>), -which the predacious mollusc presses -firmly into the flesh of its struggling -victim, and then withdraws by muscular -contraction.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 157px;"> -<a href="images/274lg.png"><img src="images/274.png" width="157" height="634" alt="" /></a> -<div class="fig_caption">Arms and Tentacles of an -Onychoteuthis.<br /> -<i>e.</i> Parts joined together by the mutual<br /> -apposition of the armed suckers.<br /> -<i>f.</i> Terminal expanded portions bearing<br /> -the hooks.<br /><br /> -<span class="smaller">Click on image to view larger version.</span> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Besides the hooked acetabula, a -cluster of small simple unarmed -suckers may be observed at the base -of the expanded part. These add -greatly to the animal's prehensile -powers, for when they are applied to one another (<i>e</i>), the -tentacles are firmly locked together at that point, and the -united strength of both the elongated peduncles can be applied -to drag towards the mouth any resisting object which has been -grappled by the terminal hooks. There is no mechanical -contrivance which surpasses the admirable structure of this -natural forceps.</p> - -<p>The size of the arms and the arrangement of the suckers differ -considerably in the various species. In the octopods or poulps, -which generally lead a more sedentary creeping life, and, hidden -in the crevices of rocks, await the passing prey, the arms, in -accordance with their wants, are with rare exceptions longer, -more muscular, and stronger, than in the actively swimming -decapods, where the two elongated tentacles or peduncles are the -chief organs of prehension. In some species we find the arms -distinct—in others they are united by a membrane. Some -have a double row of suckers on each arm, others four rows, -others again but one. So wonderful are the variations which -nature, that consummate artist, plays upon a single theme—so -inexhaustible are the modifications she introduces into the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">« 274 »</a></span> -formation of numerous species, all constructed upon the same -fundamental plan, and all equally -perfect in their kind.</p> - -<p>Thus well provided with the means -for seizing and overcoming the struggles -of a living prey, the Cephalopods -likewise possess adequate weapons for -completing its destruction; for their -mouth is most formidably armed with -two horny or calcareous jaws, shaped -like the mandibles of a parrot, playing -vertically on each other, and enclosing -a large fleshy tongue bristling with -recurved horny spines. Hard, indeed, -must be the crab which can resist this -terrible beak; and when the cuttle-fish -has once fixed on the back of a -fish, though much larger and stronger -than himself, it is in vain for the -tortured victim to fly through the -water: he carries his enemy with him -till he sinks exhausted under his murderous -fangs.</p> - -<p>Besides their arms, by help of which -the Cephalopods either swim or creep, -the forcible expulsion of the water -through the respiratory tube or infundibulum -serves them as a means -of locomotion in a backward direction. -By those which have an elongated -body and comparatively strong muscles, -this movement is performed with -such violence that they shoot like arrows -through the water, or even like -the flying-fish perform a long curve -through the air.</p> - -<p>Thus Sir James Ross tells us, that -once a number of cuttle-fish not only -fell upon the deck of his ship, which -rose fifteen or sixteen feet above the water, and where more -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">« 275 »</a></span> -than fifty were gathered, but even bolted right over the entire -breadth of the vessel, like a sportsman over a five-barred gate. -Finally, the fin-like expansion of their mantle renders the -nimble decapods good service in swimming. In the Sepias this -finny membrane runs along the sides of the body, while in the -Calamary it forms a kind of terminal paddle.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 445px;"> -<img src="images/275.png" width="445" height="697" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Sepia.<br /> - -<i>b.</i> Finny membrane running along the sides of the body.<br /> -<i>c.</i> Arms with four rows of suckers.<br /> -<i>d.</i> Elongated retractile tentacles.<br /> -<i>e.</i> Eyes.<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>It might be supposed that the dibranchiate cephalopods, by -their swiftness, their arms, and their powerful jaws, were sufficiently -provided with means of attack or defence; but it must -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">« 276 »</a></span> -be remembered that their body is soft and naked, and that, -though well armed in front, they may readily be attacked in the -rear. To afford them the additional protection they required, -nature, ever ready to minister to the real wants of her children, -has furnished them with an internal bag communicating with the -respiratory tube, and secreting a large quantity of an inky fluid, -which they can squirt out with force in the face of their foe, -and which, mixing readily with the water, envelops them in an -opaque cloud, and thus screens them from pursuit. But this -inky fluid, thus useful to its owner, is often the cause of his -destruction by man, who applies it to his own purpose, for -the Italian pigment, called sepia, so invaluable to painters in -water-colours, is prepared from the inspissated contents of -the ink bag of a cuttle-fish. Such is the durability of this -colour that even the inky fluid of fossil species has been found -to retain its chromatic property. We are told that grains of -wheat buried with Egyptian mummies three thousand years -ago have germinated; but it is surely still more astonishing -that an animal secretion, the origin of which is lost in the -dark abyss of countless ages, should remain so long unaltered.</p> - -<p>The cephalopods are scattered in vast numbers over the -whole ocean, from the ice-bound shores of Boothia Felix to the -open main; they seem, however, to be most abundant in -temperate latitudes. Some, like the common poulp, constantly -frequent the coasts, creeping among the rocks and stones at the -bottom; others, like the Cirroteuthis and Ommastrephes, roam -about the high seas at a vast distance from the land.</p> - -<p>They are generally nocturnal or vespertine in their habits; -they abound towards evening and at night on the surface of the -seas, but sink to a greater depth, or retire into the crevices of -the rocks, as soon as the sun rises above the horizon. Some are -of a recluse disposition, and lead a solitary life in the anfractuosities -of the littoral zone; others, of a more social temper, -wander in large troops along the shores, or over the vast plains -of ocean.</p> - -<p>Possessing the organs of sense, and the means of locomotion -in a high degree of development, the cephalopods may naturally -be expected to be far more active and intelligent than the -inferior orders of the molluscs. On moonlight nights, among -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">« 277 »</a></span> -the islands of the Indian Archipelago, Mr. Adams frequently -observed the Sepiæ and Octopi in full predatory activity, and -had considerable difficulty and trouble in securing them, so -great was their restless vivacity, and so vigorous their endeavours -to escape. "They dart from side to side of the pools," says the -naturalist in his entertaining and instructive account of his -journey to those distant gems of the tropical sea, "or fix themselves -so tenaciously to the surface of the stones by means of -their suckers that it requires great force and strength to detach -them. Even when removed and thrown upon the sand, they -progress rapidly, in a sidelong shuffling manner, throwing about -their long arms, ejecting their ink-like fluid in sudden violent -jets, and staring about with their big shining eyes (which at -night appear luminous, like a cat's) in a very grotesque and -hideous manner."</p> - -<p>At the Cape de Verd islands, Mr. C. Darwin was also much -amused by the various arts to escape detection used by a -cuttle-fish, which seemed fully aware that he was watching it. -Remaining for a time motionless, it would then stealthily -advance an inch or two, like a cat after a mouse, and thus -proceeded, till, having gained a deeper part, it darted away, -leaving a dusky train of ink, to hide the hole into which it had -crawled.</p> - -<p>All the cephalopods are extremely voracious; they destroy on -shallow banks the hopes of the fishermen, devour along the -coasts and on the high seas countless myriads of young fish and -naked molluscs, and kill, like the tiger, for the mere love of -carnage. Thus they would become dangerous to the equilibrium -of the seas if nature, to counterbalance their destructive -habits, had not provided a great number of enemies for the -thinning of their ranks.</p> - -<p>They form the almost exclusive food of the sperm-whales, -and the albatross and the petrels love to skim them from the -surface of the ocean. Tunnies and bonitos devour them in vast -numbers, the cod consumes whole shoals of squids, and man, as -I have already mentioned, catches many millions to serve him -as a bait for this valuable fish.</p> - -<p>At Teneriffe, in the Brazils, in Peru and Chili, in India and -China, various species of cephalopods are used as food. Along -the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, the common sepia -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">« 278 »</a></span> -constitutes now, as in ancient times, a valuable part of the food -of the poor. "One of the most striking spectacles," says -Edward Forbes, "is to see at night on the shores of the Ægean -the numerous torches glancing along the shores, and reflected -by the still and clear sea, borne by poor fishermen, paddling as -silently as possible over the rocky shallows in search of the -cuttle-fish, which, when seen lying beneath the water in wait for -his prey, they dexterously spear, ere the creature has time to -dart with the rapidity of an arrow from the weapon about to -transfix his soft but firm body."</p> - -<p>Animals exposed to the attacks of so many enemies must -necessarily multiply in an analogous ratio. Their numerous -eggs are generally brought forth in the spring. In the species -inhabiting the high seas, they float freely on the surface, -carried along by the currents and winds, and form large gelatinous -bunches or cylindrical rolls, sometimes as large as a -man's leg.</p> - -<p>The eggs of the littoral cephalopods appear in the form of -dark-coloured, roundish or spindle-shaped bodies, of the size and -colour of grapes, and hanging together in clusters. They are -soft to the touch, with a tough skin, -resembling india-rubber; one end -is attenuated into a sort of point -or nipple, and the other prolonged -into a pedicle, which coils round -sea-weed or other floating objects, -and serves to fix the berry-like -bag in its place. At an early stage -these "sea-grapes," as they are -called by the fishermen, contain a -white yolk enclosed in a clear albumen, -and nearer maturity the young -cuttle-fish may be found within in -various stages of formation, until -finally, hatched by the heat of the -sun, it emerges from the husk perfectly -formed, and launches forth -into the water.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 252px;"> -<img src="images/278.png" width="252" height="423" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Ova of the Cuttle-fish.</div> -</div> - -<p>Some species of cephalopods are only about the size of a finger, -while others attain an astonishing size. Banks and Solander, in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">« 279 »</a></span> -Cook's first voyage, found the dead carcass of a gigantic cuttle-fish -floating between Cape Horn and the Polynesian islands. It -was surrounded by aquatic birds, which were feeding on its -remains. From the parts of this specimen, which are still -preserved in the Hunterian collection, and which have always -strongly excited the attention of naturalists, it must have -measured at least six feet from the end of the tail to the end of -the tentacles.</p> - -<p>Near Van Diemen's Land, Péron saw a sepia about as -big as a tun rolling about in the waters. Its enormous arms -had the appearance of frightful snakes. Each of these organs -was at least seven feet long, and measured seven or eight inches -round the base. These well authenticated proportions are truly -formidable, and fully justify the dread and abhorrence which -the Polynesian divers entertain of those snake-armed monsters -of the deep; but not satisfied with reality, some writers have -magnified the size of the cephalopods to fabulous dimensions. -Thus Pernetti mentions a colossal cuttle-fish, which, climbing -up the rigging, overturned a three-masted ship; and Pliny -notices a similar giant, with arms thirty feet long and a corresponding -girth. But all this is nothing to the Norwegian kraken, -a mass of a quarter of a mile in diameter, and a back covered -with a thicket of sea-weeds. When it comes to the surface, -which seems to be but rarely the case, it raises its arms mast-high -into the air, and, having enjoyed for a time the lovely -daylight, sinks slowly back again into abysmal darkness. -Fishermen are said to have landed on a kraken, and to have -kindled a fire upon the supposed island for the purpose of -cooking their dinner. But even a kraken, thick-skinned as -he may be, does not like his back to be converted into a -hearth, and thus it happened that the treacherous ground -gave way under the mistaken mariners, and overwhelmed -them in the waters. Strange that the oriental tale of Sinbad -the sailor should thus be re-echoed in the wild legends of the -north.</p> - -<p>All the dibranchiate cephalopods are destitute of an outward -shell, with the sole exception of the Spirula, a small species -chiefly found in the South Sea, and of the far more renowned -Argonaut, which poets, ancient and modern, have celebrated as -the model from which man took the first idea of navigation. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">« 280 »</a></span> -Its two sail-like arms expanding in the air, and the six others -rowing in the water, -the keel of its elegant -shell is pictured -as dividing -the surface of the -tranquil sea. But -as soon as the wind -rises, or the least -danger appears, the -cautious argonaut -takes in his sails, -draws back his oars, -creeps into his shell, -and sinks instantly into a securer depth. Unfortunately there is -not a word of truth in this pleasing tale. Like the common -octopus, the argonaut generally creeps about at the bottom of -the sea, or when he swims, he places his sails close to his -shell, stretches his oars right out before him, and shoots backwards -like most of his class by expelling the water from his -respiratory tube.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 401px;"> -<img src="images/280.png" width="401" height="310" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Argonaut.</div> -</div> - -<p>As he sits loosely in his shell, he was supposed by some -naturalists to be a parasite enjoying the house of the unknown -murdered owner; but this is perfectly erroneous, as the young -in the egg already show the rudiments of the future shell, -and the full-grown animal repairs by reproduction any injury -that may have happened to it.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 606px;"> -<img src="images/281.png" width="606" height="524" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Pearly Nautilus.</div> -</div> - -<p>The tetrabranchiate cephalopods, or Nautili, are very differently -constructed from their dibranchiate relations. Here, instead of -mighty muscular arms, furnished with suckers or raptorial claws, -we find a number of small, sheathed, and retractile tentacles (<i>f</i>), -surrounding the mouth in successive series, and amounting to -little short of a hundred. The head is further provided with a -large muscular disk (<i>g</i>), which, besides acting as a defence to the -opening of the shell, serves also in all probability as an organ -for creeping along the ground, like the foot in the Gasteropods. -The mandibles are strengthened by a dense calcareous -substance fit to break up the defensive armour of the crustacean -or shell-fish on which the animal feeds. There is no ink-bag, -no organ of hearing, and the eyes (<i>h</i>) are pedunculated, and of a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">« 281 »</a></span> -more simple structure. The handsome pearl-mother and spirally -wound shell is divided by transverse partitions (<i>a</i>), perforated in -the centre, into numerous chambers (<i>b</i>). The animal takes up -its abode in the foremost and largest (<i>b′</i>), but sends a communicating -tube or siphon (<i>c</i>) through all the holes of the partitions -to the very extremity of the spirally wound shell. Though the -empty conch was frequently found swimming on the waters of -the Indian Ocean, or cast ashore on the Moluccas or New -Guinea, yet it was only in 1829 that the animal was known with -any certainty, one having been caught alive by Mr. George -Bennett, near the New Hebrides, which, preserved in spirits, is -now in the museum of the College of Surgeons. Since then -three different species have been found to abound in the waters -of the above-named archipelago, of New Caledonia, and of the -Feejee and Solomon Islands, where they principally sojourn -among the coral reefs at depths of from three to six fathoms. -They usually remain at the bottom of the water, where they -creep along rather quickly, supporting themselves upon their -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">« 282 »</a></span> -tentacula, with their head downwards and the shell raised above. -After stormy weather, as it becomes more calm, they may be -seen in great numbers floating upon the surface of the sea with -the head protruded, and the tentacula resting upon the water, -the shell at the same time being undermost; they remain, -however, but a short time sailing in this manner, as they can -easily return to their situation at the bottom of the sea, by -merely drawing in their tentacles and upsetting the shell. They -are caught in baskets by the natives, who eat them roasted as a -great delicacy.</p> - -<p>What renders these animals peculiarly interesting is the -circumstance that they are the only living representatives of a -class which once filled in countless numbers the bosom of the -primeval ocean, and whose fossil remains (Orthoceratites, Ammonites) -furnish the naturalist with a series of historical -documents, attesting the unmeasured age of our planet. What -are the ruins, thirty or forty centuries old, that speak of the -vanished glories of extinguished empires to these wonderful -medals of creation that lead our thoughts through the dim -vista of unnumbered centuries to the fathomless abyss of the -past.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>In point of development of organisation the Gasteropods or -snails rank immediately after the Cephalopods. They also have -a head plainly distinguishable from the rest of the body, and to -which two brilliant black eyes give an animated expression. -But their nervous system is far less developed, and while the -lively cephalopod is able to swim about, and rapidly to seize a -distant prey, almost all the gasteropods creep slowly along -upon a flat disk or foot situated below the digestive organs, a -formation to which they owe their name of gasteropods or -stomach-footers.</p> - -<p>The marine snails are divided into several groups according -to the different position and arrangement of their gills. In -some species these organs form naked or free-swimming tufts -on the back (Nudibranchiata) but generally they are variously -disposed either in special cavities or under the folds of the -mantle. Thus in the Inferobranchiata they are arranged -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">« 283 »</a></span> -under its inferior border on both sides of the body, or upon -one side only, while in the Tectibranchiata they are placed, as -in the Nudibranchiata, upon the -dorsal aspect of the body, but are -protected by a fold of the skin. -In the Cyclobranchiata they form -a fringe round the margin of the -body, between the edge of the -mantle and the foot, and in the -Scutibranchiata and Pectinibranchiata -they are pectinated, or -shaped like the teeth of a comb, and placed in a large hollow -chamber, which opens externally at the side of the body or -above the head.</p> - -<table summary="Images"> -<tr> - <td><img src="images/283a.png" width="268" height="190" alt="" /><br /> - <div class="fig_caption">Tiara.</div> - </td> - <td><img src="images/283b.png" width="330" height="314" alt="" /><br /> - <div class="fig_caption">Glaucus.</div> - </td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 125px;"> -<img src="images/283c.png" width="125" height="241" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Scyllæa.</div> -</div> - -<p>Nothing can be more elegant or various than the form and -arrangement of the gills in most of the nudibranchiate gasteropods. -In the Glauci and Scyllææ, we see at each side of the -elongated body long arms branching out into tufty filaments; -in the Briarei a hundred furcated stems serve for the aëration -of the blood. On the back of the Eolides the gills are arranged -in rows; in the Dorides they form a wreath or garland round -the posterior intestinal aperture.</p> - -<p>The beauty of these animals corresponds with their charming -mythological names, for every part of them which is not -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">« 284 »</a></span> -sparkling like the purest crystal shines with the liveliest -colours, red, yellow, or azure. Some inhabit the coasts, where -they creep along upon a well-developed foot, others live in -the deep waters, where they cling to the stems of floating -sea-weed with a narrow -and furrowed -foot, or swim upon -their back, using the -borders of the mantle -and of the branchiæ -as oars. Though chiefly living in the warmer latitudes, -they are found in every sea, and many interesting -species inhabit the British waters: such as the Sea-lemon -(<i>Doris tuberculata</i>), which, when its horns and starry wreath -of branchiæ are concealed, bears a curious resemblance in -size, form, colour, and warty surface to the half of a citron -divided longitudinally; the exquisite <i>Eolis coronata</i>, whose -crowded clusters of branchial papillæ are radiant with crimson -and cerulean tints; and the crested Antiopa, whose transparent -breathing organs are tipped with silvery white.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 387px;"> -<img src="images/284.png" width="387" height="112" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Eolis.</div> -</div> - -<p>Though they have no shell to cover them, the Nudibranchiata -are not left defenceless to the mercy of their -enemies. The transparency of their body is a cause of -safety to many of them. Some conceal themselves under -stones or among the branches of the madrepores, and some -on contracting cast off a part of their mantle, which they -leave in possession of their hungry foe, while they themselves -make their escape.</p> - -<p>Among the British Inferobranchiata we find the rare golden -or orange-coloured <i>Pleurobranchus plumula</i>, thus named from -its branchiæ projecting like a plume from between the mantle -and foot in crawling; and among the Tectibranchiata the -common sea-hare (<i>Aplysia punctata</i>), which resembles a great -naked snail; its back opening with two wide lobes, which can be -expanded or closed over the opening at the animal's will. When -open, they expose to view on the right side the finely fringed -and lobed branchiæ, seated in a deep hollow beneath a fold of -the mantle. The uncomely creature glides along over the stones -upon its flat fleshy foot and up the slender stems of sea-weeds -by bringing the borders of the same locomotive apparatus to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">« 285 »</a></span> -meet around the stem, thus tightly grasping it as if enclosed in -a tube. While progressing, the fore part is poked forward as a -narrow neck furnished with two pair of tentacles, one pair of -which, standing erect and being formed of thin laminæ, bent -round so as to bring the edges nearly into contact, look like the -ears of the timid quadruped, from which the Aplysia has derived -its common name. The colour is a dark-brownish purple studded -with rings and spots of white. On being disturbed, the sea-hare -pours out from beneath the mantle-lobes a copious fluid of the -richest purple hue, which however quickly fades, and is of no -value in the arts.</p> - -<p>More than forty species of Aplysiæ are known, most of them -inhabitants of the warmer seas. The acrid humour exuded by -the depilatory aplysia, or <i>Aplysia depilans</i>, of the Mediterranean -is still supposed by the Italian fishermen to occasion the loss of -the hair, and was used by the ancient Romans in the composition -of their venomous potions—though it is by no means -poisonous. Such are the prejudices resulting from the propensity -of man to associate evil qualities with an unprepossessing -appearance.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 151px;"> -<img src="images/285.png" width="151" height="134" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Chiton squamosus.</div> -</div> - -<p>To the Cyclobranchiate order belong the Limpets and the -Chitons. The latter, which are the only multivalve shells among -the Gasteropods, are spread in more than two hundred species -over every shore from Iceland to the Indies, but they are -particularly abundant on the coasts of Peru and Chili. Some of -the smaller species inhabit our coasts, where they may be found -adhering to stones near low water mark. They -are coated with eight transverse shelly plates, -folding over each other at their edges like the -plates of ancient armour, and inserted into a -tough marginal band, so as to form a complete -shield to the animal. Thus encased in coat of -mail, the chitons have the power of baffling -the voracity of their enemies by rolling themselves up into a -ball like the wood-louse or the armadillo: they are also able to -cling with such tenacity to the rock that it is difficult to detach -them without tearing them to pieces. The Limpets, or Patellæ, -likewise attach their shield-like shell so firmly to a hard body -that it requires the introduction of a knife between the shell and -the stone to detach them. It has been calculated that the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">« 286 »</a></span> -larger species are thus able to produce a resistance equivalent -to a weight of 150 pounds, which, considering the sharp angle -of the shell, is more than sufficient to defy the strength of a -man to raise them. They often congregate -in large numbers in one place, -and an old writer compares them to nail-heads -struck into the rock. More than a -hundred species are known; one of which, -the <i>Patella cochlear</i> of the Cape, is almost -invariably found squatting upon the shell of -another species of limpet. The finest and largest varieties -abound on the shores of the Oriental seas and the coasts of the -Mediterranean, but several of the smaller species are very numerous -in our littoral or sub-littoral zone, where they either feast -on the green sea-weeds that we find covering at ebb-tide the -stones with a thin emerald layer, or upon the coarser olive-coloured -algæ. Thus <i>Patella pellucida</i> and <i>Patella lævis</i>, -both remarkable for longitudinal streaks of iridescent colours -on an olive-shell, may generally be found feeding either on -the broad fronds or on the roots and stems of the Laminariæ, -or Oar-weeds. To their labours may indeed be partly attributed -the annual destruction of these gigantic algæ, for, eating into -the lower part of the stems, and destroying the branches of the -roots, they so far weaken the base that it is unable to support -the weight of the frond, and thus the plant is detached and -driven on shore by the waves.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 202px;"> -<img src="images/286.png" width="202" height="134" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Limpet and Shell.</div> -</div> - -<p>The beautiful Sea-ear, or Haliotis, is the chief representative -of the scutibranchiate gasteropods. The flattened shell, perforated -with small holes on one side, is characterised by a very -wide mouth or aperture, the largest in any shell except the -limpet. The outside is generally rough, or covered with -marine substances; the inside presents the same enamelled -appearance as mother-of-pearl, and exhibits the most beautiful -colours. The holes with which the shell is perforated serve to -admit water to the branchiæ, and are formed at regular intervals -as it increases in size. The foot is very large, having the -margin fringed all round, and is able, like that of the chiton -or the limpet, to cling firmly to the rock. More than seventy -species of Haliotis are known, the greater part occurring in the -Pacific Ocean.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">« 287 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 372px;"> -<img src="images/287a.png" width="372" height="567" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Haliotis.<br /> - -<i>c.</i> Series of perforations.<br /> -<i>d.</i> Eye peduncles. <i>e.</i> Tentacles. <i>g.</i> Foot.<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 354px;"> -<img src="images/287b.png" width="354" height="198" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Carinaria.</div> -</div> - -<p>To the scutibranchiate gasteropods also belong the strangely -formed Carinariæ, which seem to be made up of disjointed -parts. The gills (<i>g</i>) project from under a thin vitreous shell (<i>f</i>), -which projects from the -dorsal surface, and has a -form not unlike that of -the Argonaut or of a Phrygian -cap. The foot (<i>b</i>) is -not formed for creeping, -but constitutes a muscular -vertical paddle or fin, that -serves them for swimming -on the back, and is furnished -with a sucking disk (<i>c</i>), with which they are enabled to -attach themselves to floating objects.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">« 288 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The Pectinibranchiata comprise all the spiral univalve shells, -and are by far the most numerous of all the gasteropods, as their -species are not counted by hundreds, but by thousands. If their -calcareous garment could be drawn out, it would be found to -consist of a tube gradually widening from the apex to the base; -but what an immense variety of form and ornaments, what a -prodigality of splendid tints, has not Nature spread over this -interminable host! The same fundamental idea appears to us -in thousands of modifications, one yet more elegant and capricious -than the other. Thus the passion of the -shell collector is as conceivable as that of -the lover of choice flowers, and when we read -that rich tulip-amateurs have given thousands -of florins for one single bulb, we cannot wonder -that many of the Volutes, Cones, Mitres, -and Harps, are worth several times their -weight in gold; that more than a hundred -pounds have been paid for a Chinese wentle-trap, -and that the <i>Cypræa aurora</i>, which the -Polynesian chiefs used to wear about the neck, -is valued at thirty or forty guineas.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 173px;"> -<img src="images/288a.png" width="173" height="369" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Orange Cone-Shell.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 163px;"> -<img src="images/288b.png" width="163" height="208" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Mitre-Shells.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 212px;"> -<img src="images/288c.png" width="212" height="172" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Harp-shell.</div> -</div> - -<p>The mode in which these beautifully painted -structures are formed is very similar to what -takes place among bivalve shells. They are -secreted by the glandular margin of the mantle or soft -skin which clothes the upper part of the body of the snail, -and their form depends on the shape of the body they -are destined to cover, while the outline of the border is alike -regulated by that of the mantle. In the border of the mantle -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">« 289 »</a></span> -are placed the glands through which colouring matter is added -to the lime of which the shell consists, and here also the whole -of the outer coat of the shell is formed by constant annual -additions to the lip. The after-growth of the shell proceeds, -layer over layer, from the general surface of the mantle, so that -the calcareous robe constantly increases in thickness with the age -of the animal.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 397px;"> -<img src="images/289.png" width="397" height="246" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Chinese Wentle-trap.—(Scalaria pretiosa.)</div> -</div> - -<p>However different the form of a shell may be, its use is invariably -the same, affording the soft-bodied animal a shield or -retreat against external injuries. In this respect it is not -uninteresting to remark that those species which inhabit the -littoral zone, and are most exposed to the violence of the -waves, have a stronger shell than those which live in greater -depths, and that the fresh-water molluscs have generally a -much more delicate and fragile coat than those which live in -the ocean. The greater the necessity of protection the better -has Nature provided for the want. Thus most of the gasteropods, -besides possessing a stone-hard dwelling, are also furnished -at the extremity of the foot with an operculum, or calcareous -lid, which fits exactly upon the opening of their house, and -closes it like a fortress against the outer world. But no -animal exists that is safe against every attack, for the large -birds sometimes carry the ponderous sea-snails, whose entrance -they cannot force with their beaks, high up into the air, -and let them fall upon the rocks, where they are dashed to -pieces.</p> - -<p>The ordinary mode of locomotion of the testaceous sea-snails -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">« 290 »</a></span> -is by creeping along on their foot: those that have a very heavy -house to carry, such as the Cassis or the -Pteroceras, generally move along very -slowly, while others, such as the Olivæ, -that are possessed of a comparatively -strong and broad foot, have rapid and -lively movements, and quickly raise -themselves again when they have been -overturned. The Strombidæ and Rostellariæ place their powerful -and elastic foot under the shell in a bent -position, when suddenly by a muscular effort -they straighten that organ and roll and leap over -and over. The structure of the foot of the -<i>Tornatella fasciata</i>, an inhabitant of our coast, is most remarkable: -beaten incessantly by the waves, in -the cavities of rocks which it frequents, -nearly on a level with the surface of the -sea, to the violence of which it is always -exposed, it has need of additional powers -for retaining its hold; its foot is therefore -divided into two adhering portions, placed -at each extremity, and separated by a wide interval; when it -crawls, it fixes the posterior disc and advances the other, which -it attaches firmly to the place of progression, and this being -effected, the hinder sucker is detached and drawn forwards, -locomotion being accomplished by the alternate adhesion of -these two prehensile discs. In Cyclostoma the foot is likewise -furnished with two longitudinal adhering lobes, which are advanced -alternately. But the foot of the marine snails is not -merely an instrument of progression on a solid surface, for in -many species it is convertible at the will of the animal into a -boat, by means of which the creature -can suspend itself in an inverted position -at the surface of the water, where by -the aid of its mantle and tentacles it can -row itself from place to place.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 239px;"> -<img src="images/290a.png" width="239" height="130" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Pteroceras scorpio.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 152px;"> -<img src="images/290b.png" width="152" height="68" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Oliva hispidula.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 185px;"> -<img src="images/290c.png" width="185" height="136" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Strombus pes pelicani.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 214px;"> -<img src="images/290d.png" width="214" height="131" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Ianthina communis.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Ianthinæ, or purple Sea-Snails, -carry under their foot a vesicular organ -like a congeries of foam-bubbles, that prevents creeping, but -serves as a buoy to support them at the surface of the water.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">« 291 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 214px;"> -<img src="images/291a.png" width="214" height="93" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Murex haustellum.</div> -</div> - -<p>When the sea is quiet, these little creatures,</p> - -<p> -Like little wanton boys that swim on bladders,<br /> -</p> - -<p>appear in vast shoals on the surface, but as soon as the -wind ruffles the ocean, or an enemy approaches, they at -once empty their air-cells, contract their float, and sink to -the bottom, pouring out at the same time a darkened fluid -like that of the Aplysia or the Murex, which no doubt -serves them as a defence against -their foes, and, according to Lesson, -furnished the celebrated purple of -the ancients. The Ianthinæ inhabit -the Mediterranean and the warmer -regions of the Atlantic, but especially towards the close of -summer they are frequently drifted by the Gulf Stream to the -west coast of Ireland.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 153px;"> -<img src="images/291b.png" width="153" height="236" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Magilus antiquus.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 119px;"> -<img src="images/291c.png" width="119" height="152" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Worm-Shell.</div> -</div> - -<p>While the vast majority of the gasteropods either creep or -swim, some are doomed to the sedentary life of the oyster, -and remain for ever fixed to the spot where -they first attached themselves as small free-swimming -larvæ. Thus the <i>Magilus antiquus</i>, -which in its young state presents all -the characters of a regular spiral univalve, establishes -itself in the excavations of madrepores, -and as the coral increases around it, the Magilus -is obliged, in order to have its aperture on a -level with the surrounding surface, to construct -a tube, lengthening with the growth of the -coral. As the tube goes on increasing, the -animal abandons the spiral for the tubular part of the shell, and -in the operation it leaves behind no partitions, -but secretes a compact calcareous matter which -reaches to the very summit of the spiral part, so -that in an old specimen the posterior part of the -shell presents a solid mass.</p> - -<p>The Siliquariæ are generally found embedded -in a similar manner in sponges or other soft -bodies, while the Vermetus, or Worm-Shell, usually -attaches itself, like the Serpulæ, to rocks, coral-reefs, or -shells.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">« 292 »</a></span></p> - -<p>In these genera, which have been arranged by Cuvier in a -separate order (Tubulibranchiata), the foot is naturally reduced -to the state of an adhesive organ, its chief functions consisting -in opening and closing the lid.</p> - -<p>The sea-snails are either predaceous or herbivorous; among -the pectinibranchiates, those with circular mouths to the shell -are vegetable feeders, while such as have an aperture ending in -a canal are animal feeders. Considerable modifications of -internal structure indicate this difference of food; and the -external organs, particularly about the mouth, exhibit a corresponding -variety of form. In those which feed on vegetables -the mouth is generally a slit furnished with more or less perfect -lips, armed with a simple cutting apparatus, which is often -powerful enough to divide or dismember comparatively hard -substances.</p> - -<p>In most animal feeders the mouth presents the appearance -of a proboscis that can be protruded or shortened at -the will of the animal, and which, grasping the food, conveys -it to a spine-armed tongue, by the aid of which it is propelled -into the gullet without mastication or any preparatory -change.</p> - -<p>In the Whelk and its shell-boring allies, the alternate protrusion -and retraction of the proboscis, which is here of a much -more complicated structure, causes the sharp tongue to act as a -rasp or auger, capable of drilling holes into the hardest shells. -It is this circumstance which renders the whelk so formidable -an enemy to mussel and oyster banks. During the erection of -Bell Rock lighthouse, an attempt was made to plant a colony of -mussels on the wave-beaten cliff, as they were likely to be of -great use to the workmen, and especially to the light keepers, -the future inhabitants of the rock; but the mussels were soon -observed to open and die in great numbers. "For some time," -says Mr. Stevenson in his interesting narrative, "this was -ascribed to the effects of the violent surge of the sea, but the -Buccinum lapillus having greatly increased, it was ascertained -that it had proved a successful enemy to the mussel. The -buccinum was observed to perforate a small hole in the shell, -and thus to suck out the finer parts of the body of the mussel; -the valves of course opened, and the remainder of the shell-fish -was washed away by the sea. The perforated hole is generally -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">« 293 »</a></span> -upon the thinnest part of the shell, and is perfectly circular, of a -champhered form, being wider towards the outward side, and so -perfectly smooth and regular as to have all the appearance of -the most beautiful work of an expert artist. It became a -matter extremely desirable to preserve the mussel, and it seemed -practicable to extirpate the buccinum. But after we had picked -up and destroyed many barrels of them, their extirpation was -at length given up as a hopeless task. The mussels were consequently -abandoned as their prey; and, in the course of the -third year's operations, so successful had the ravages of the -buccinum been that not a single member of the imported -mussel colony was to be found upon the rock." Thus the -engineer, whose skill and perseverance had gained so proud a -triumph over the waves of the stormy ocean, was defeated by -an ignoble whelk.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 349px;"> -<img src="images/293.png" width="349" height="192" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Limpet's tongue.</div> -</div> - -<p>In the genera which have no proboscis, the tongue, acting as -a prehensile and rasping or abrading organ, is frequently of considerable -length; thus, in the Ear-shell, it is half as long as the -body, and in the common Limpet even three times longer than -the entire animal. From -the two cartilaginous -pieces (<i>b b</i>), placed on -each side of its root, arise -the short and powerful -muscles which wield the -organ. The surface of -this curious piece of -mechanism, a magnified -view of which is given -at <span class="smcap">B</span>, is armed with minute, though strong, teeth, placed in -transverse rows, and arranged in three series; each central -group consists of four spines, while those on the sides contain -but two a-piece. It is only at its anterior extremity (<i>d</i>), -however, that the tongue, so armed, presents that horny -hardness needful for the performance of its functions, the -posterior part being comparatively soft; so that, probably -in proportion as the anterior part is worn away, the parts -behind it gradually assume the necessary firmness, and advance -to supply its place. In the upper part of the circumference -of the mouth, we find a semicircular horny -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">« 294 »</a></span> -plate, resembling an upper jaw, and the tongue, by triturating -the food against this, gradually reduces substances -however hard. On opening the limpet, the tongue is found -doubled upon itself, and folded in a spiral manner beneath -the viscera.</p> - -<p>Many of the Gasteropods which live on coarse and refractory -materials are provided with several digestive cavities, resembling -in some degree the stomachs of the ruminating -quadrupeds; and frequently the triturating power of these -organs is still further increased by their being armed with teeth -variously disposed.</p> - -<table summary="images"> -<tr> - <td><img src="images/294a.png" width="124" height="154" alt="" /><br /> - <div class="fig_caption">Bulla.</div> - </td> - <td><img src="images/294b.png" width="120" height="196" alt="" /><br /> - <div class="fig_caption">Gizzard of Bulla.</div> - </td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>In the Bulla, for instance, a genus belonging, like the sea-hares, -to the tectibranchiate order, the gizzard, or -second stomach, contains three plates of stony -hardness attached to its walls, and so disposed -that they perform the part of a most efficacious -grinding mill.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 210px;"> -<img src="images/294c.png" width="210" height="330" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Gizzard of Syllæa.</div> -</div> - -<p>On opening the gizzard -of the Scyllæa, it is found -to be still more formidably armed, for -in its muscular walls there are embedded -no less than twelve horny -plates (<i>e</i>), which are extremely -hard and as sharp -as the blades of a knife.</p> - -<p>The Sea-hare, however, -furnishes us with the most -curious form of these -stomachal teeth, for here -we see not only the -gizzard (<i>b</i>) armed with horny pyramidal plates, whose tuberculated -apices, meeting in the centre of the organ, must -necessarily bruise by their action whatever passes through -that cavity, but the third stomach (<i>d</i>) is also studded with -sharp-pointed hooks (<i>c</i>), resembling canine teeth, and admirably -adapted to pierce and subdivide the tough leathery -fronds of the olive sea-weeds on which the animal feeds. Thus -these deformed and disgusting molluscs afford us one of the -most interesting examples of the adaptation of organs to their -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">« 295 »</a></span> -functions, which an enlightened research is continually finding -in creation.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 340px;"> -<img src="images/295.png" width="340" height="586" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Compound stomach of Sea-Hare.</div> -</div> - -<p>Though not so gifted as the cephalopods, many of the gasteropods -possess all the organs of sense. Like them, they have an -apparatus specially calculated to appreciate sonorous undulations, -and consisting of a membranous vesicle attached to an -auditive nerve, and containing either a single spherical otolithe -or a larger number of similar smaller calcareous bodies, which -by their vibrations communicate the impression of sound to the -nerve. Their minute eyes are short-sighted, it is true, and -frequently either entirely wanting or, as in the Nudibranchiates, -scarcely able to distinguish light from darkness; but their -inactive habits require no wide field of vision, and thus they -see as much of the external world as is necessary for their -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">« 296 »</a></span> -humble sphere of existence. The organs of sight are generally -situated either on a prominence -at the base of the -superior pair of tentacles -or, as, for instance, in the -Murex, at the extremity -of these organs (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>), a -position which enables -the animal to direct them -readily to different objects.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 338px;"> -<img src="images/296.png" width="338" height="414" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Tentacles and eye of Murex.<br /> - -<i>c.</i> Eye highly magnified.</div> -</div> - -<p>Many of the Gasteropods -are evidently capable of -perceiving odours; thus, -animal substances let down -in a net to the bottom will -attract thousands of Nassæ -in one night. We also may -infer that they are not deficient -in taste from the presence of papillæ at the bottom of -their mouth, analogous to those found on the tongue of other -animals; but, of all their senses, that of touch is undoubtedly -the most perfect. The whole soft surface of the body is indeed -of exquisite sensibility, but more especially the vascular foot, -and the tentacles, or horns, which vary both in number and in -shape in different genera. Yet, in spite of this delicacy in -the organisation of the skin, which makes it so sensible of -contact, it appears to have been beneficently ordered that -animals so helpless and exposed to injury from every quarter -are but little sensible to pain. Although they are deprived of -all higher instincts, we find among the Gasteropods a few -examples of concealment under extraneous objects, which -remind us of the masks and artifices frequently employed by -the insects and crustaceans.</p> - -<p>The Agglutinating Top (<i>Trochus agglutinans</i>) covers itself -with small stones and fragments of shells, and thus shielded -from the view escapes the voracity of many an enemy but -little suspecting the savoury morsel hidden under the mound of -rubbish which he disdainfully passes by.</p> - -<p>In animals which are only provided with passive means of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">« 297 »</a></span> -defence, we may naturally expect a considerable degree of -caution, and in this respect the gasteropods might give many -useful lessons to man. How carefully they protrude their tentacles -as far as possible to sound every obstacle in their way, -before they creep onwards, and how rapidly they withdraw -into their shell at the least symptom of danger! What an -example to so many of us that leap before they look, and frequently -break their necks in the fall!</p> - -<p>Yet, in spite of all their prudence and of the protection of -their stony dwellings, they serve as food to a host of powerful -enemies. The sea-stars, their most dangerous foes, not only -swallow the young fry but also seize with their long rays the -full-grown gasteropods, and clasp them in a murderous embrace.</p> - -<p>They are preyed upon by fishes, crustaceans, and sea-birds, -who pick them up along the shores; but it will sometimes -happen that a crow, while endeavouring to detach a limpet for -its food, is caught by the tip of its bill, and held there until -drowned by the advancing tide.</p> - -<p>Man also consumes a vast number of sea-snails, for on every -coast there are some edible species; and it may be said that, with -the exception of very few that have a disagreeable taste, they -are all of them used as food by the savage. The miserable -inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego chiefly live upon a large limpet -that abounds on the rocky shores of their inhospitable land, and -but for this resource would most likely long since have been -extirpated by hunger.</p> - -<p>Many of the univalve shells are, moreover, highly prized as -objects of ornament or use both by savage and civilised nations. -The South Sea Islander makes use of a Triton as a war conch; -the Patagonian drinks out of the Magellanic volute, the Arab -of the Red Sea employs a large Buccinum as a water-jug, and -the <i>Cypræa moneta</i> is well known in commerce as the current -coin of the natives of many parts of Africa. In Europe the iridescent -Haliotis is frequently used for the inlaying of tables or -boxes, and various species of Helmet-shells and Strombi (<i>Cassis -rufa madagascariensis</i>, <i>Strombus gigas</i>), peculiar as being -formed of several differently coloured layers, placed side by side, -are in great request for the cutting of cameos, as they are soft -enough to be worked with ease, and hard enough to resist wear. -More than two hundred thousand of these shells are annually -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">« 298 »</a></span> -imported into France, and the value of cameos produced in Paris -alone amounts to more than a hundred thousand pounds. A large -number are also cut in the small town of Oberstein on the Nahe -(a river flowing into the Rhine at Bingen), which has long been -famous for the manufactory of agate ornaments and trinkets, -and has now added this new branch of industry to the more -ancient sources of its prosperity.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The Pteropods, or Wing-footers, move about by means of -two fin-like flaps, proceeding wing-like from the fore part of the -body. They have no disk to walk upon, nor arms for the -seizure of prey, like the cephalopods and gasteropods, but resemble -them by the possession of a head distinct from the rest -of the body, which some, like the Hyaleas and Cleodora, conceal -in a thin transparent or translucent shell, in which they -also hide their head and wings at the approach of danger, and -immediately sink to the bottom; while others, like the blue and -violet Clios, beautifully variegated with light -red spots, are perfectly naked. They generally -inhabit the high seas, and are but -rarely drifted by storms or currents into the -neighbourhood of the land. They mostly -swim about freely, but sometimes also they -are found clinging by their wings to floating -sea-weeds. They are small creatures, but propagate so fast that -the <i>Clio borealis</i> and <i>Limacina arctica</i> form the chief food of -the colossal whale.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 180px;"> -<img src="images/298.png" width="180" height="138" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Hyalea globulosa.</div> -</div> - -<p>While these two little pteropods, in spite of their minute proportions, -deserve to rank among the most important inhabitants -of the northern seas, the Mediterranean species belong mainly -to the genera Hyalea, Cleodora, and Criseis—forms wholly -unknown to our own fauna except as waifs. Vast shoals of -these animals frequent the deeper parts of that sea, leaving -their remains strewed over its bed, between depths of from -one hundred to two hundred fathoms; they are short-lived -creatures, and have their seasons, being met with near the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">« 299 »</a></span> -surface during spring and winter, sparkling in the water like -needles of glass.</p> - -<p>"The pteropods are the winged insects of the sea," says M. -Godwin-Austen, "reminding us, in their free circling movements -and crepuscular habits, of the gnats and moths of the -atmosphere; they shun the light, and if the sun is bright, you -may look in vain for them during the life-long day—as days -sometimes are at sea; a passing cloud, however, suffices to bring -some Cleodoræ to the surface. It is only as day declines -that their true time begins, and thence onwards the watches of -the night may be kept by observing the contents of the towing-net, -as the hours of a summer day may be by the floral dial. -The Cleodoræ are the earliest risers; as the sun sets, <i>Hyalæa -gibbosa</i> appears, darting about as if it had not a moment to -spare, and, indeed, its period is brief, lasting only for the Mediterranean -twilight. Then it is that <i>Hyalæa trispinosa</i> and -<i>Cleodora subula</i> come up; <i>Hyalæa tridentata</i>, though it does -not venture out till dusk, retires early, whilst some species, -such as <i>Cleodora pyramidata</i>, are to be met with only during the -midnight hours and the darkest nights. This tribe, like a -higher one, has its few irregular spirits, who manage to keep it -up the whole night through. All, however, are back to their -homes below before dawn surprises them."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The lamellibranchiate Acephala, or headless molluscs with -comb-like gills, are distinguished from the preceding orders of -molluscs by a more simple organisation and the peculiar formation -of their external coverings. They are all contained within -a bivalve shell, articulated after the manner of a hinge, and to -which some of their families are attached by one strong muscle -(Monomyaria), others by two (Dimyaria). In this shell, which -is secreted by two large flaps or folds of their skin or mantle, -they generally lie concealed like a book in its binding, and bid -defiance to many of their enemies. When danger menaces, the -sea-snail withdraws its head and closes the entrance of its hermitage -with a lid, but the bivalve shuts its folding-doors when -it wishes to avoid a disagreeable intruder. A strong elastic -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">« 300 »</a></span> -ligament connects the two valves, and opens them wide as -soon as the muscular contraction which closed them ceases -to act.</p> - -<p>While the sea-snail creeps along upon a mighty foot, the -bivalve is frequently doomed to a sedentary life, and the former -protrudes from its shell a well-formed head, while the latter, -like many a biped, has no head at all. The lamellibranchiate -Acephala have, however, been treated by nature not quite so -step-motherly as might be supposed from this deficiency, for -many of them have eyes, or at least ocular spots, which enable -them to distinguish light from darkness; and even auditory -organs have been discovered in many of them. Their circulation -is performed by a heart generally symmetrical, and their -respiration by means of four branchial leaflets equal in size, -and symmetrically arranged on either side of the body. The -mouth is a simple orifice without any teeth, bordered by membranous -lips, and placed at one end of the body between the -two inner leaves of the branchiæ. The digestive apparatus -consists of a stomach or intestine of different lengths, a liver, -and several other accessory organs. A simple nervous system -brings all the parts of the body into harmonious action.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 302px;"> -<img src="images/300.png" width="302" height="253" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Bivalve deprived of shell, to show its -various openings.</div> -</div> - -<p>In many lamellibranchiates the folds of the mantle are disjoined, -as, for instance, in the oyster, which, on opening its shell, -at once admits the water to its delicately fringed branchiæ; in -others they are more or less united, so as to form a closed sack -with several openings, an anterior one (<i>h</i>) for the passage of the -foot, and two posterior ones (<i>g</i>, <i>f</i>) for the ingress and egress of the -water which the animal requires -for respiration. These posterior -openings are often prolonged -into shorter or longer tubes or -siphons, sometimes separate, and -sometimes grown together so -as to form a single elongated -fleshy mass. The use of these -prolongations becomes at once -apparent when we consider that -they are chiefly developed in -those species which burrow in -sand, mud, wood, or stone, and which therefore require to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">« 301 »</a></span> -be specially guarded against the danger of suffocation. The -interior of these siphonal canals is lined with innumerable -vibratory cilia, by the -action of which the water -is drawn towards the -branchial orifice and conveyed -in a current through -the canal over the surface -of the gills; then, having -been deprived of its oxygen, -it is expelled by a -similar mechanism through the other tube; and it is by the -force of this anal current that the passage is kept free from the -deposit of mud or other substances, which would otherwise soon -choke it up. The cleaning action of the anal current is assisted -by the faculty the burrowing molluscs possess of elongating -and contracting their siphons, and the degree to which this -may be accomplished depends on the depth of the cavity which -the species is accustomed to make. Yet since many particles -of matter float even in clear water, which from their form or -other qualities might be injurious to the delicate tissue of the -viscera to be traversed, how is the entrance of these to be -guarded against in an indiscriminating current? A beautiful -contrivance is provided for this necessity. The margin of the -branchial siphon, and sometimes, though more rarely, of the anal -one, is set round with a number of short tentacular processes, -endowed with an exquisite sensibility and expanding like -feathery leaves. In <i>Pholas dactylus</i> this apparatus, which is -here confined to the oral tube, is of peculiar beauty, forming a -network of exquisite tracery, through the interstices or meshes -of which the water freely percolates, while they exclude all -except the most minute floating atoms of extraneous matter. -Thus admirably has the health and comfort of the lowly shell-fish -been provided for that spend their whole life buried in -sepulchres of stone or sand.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 365px;"> -<img src="images/301.png" width="365" height="163" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Donax.<br /> - -<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>. Siphons.</div> -</div> - -<p>The fragile shell of the pholades seems to have prompted -them to seek a better protection in the hard rock; a similar -necessity may have induced the ship-worm to drill a dwelling -in wood. Its shells, which are only a few lines broad, are very -small compared with the size of the vermiform body, and are -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">« 302 »</a></span> -therefore completely inadequate for its defence. For better -security it bores deep passages in submerged timber, which it -lines with a calcareous secretion, closing -the opening with two small lids. Unfortunately, -while thus taking care of -itself, it causes considerable damage to -the works of man. It is principally -to guard against the attacks of this -worm that ships are sheathed with -copper, and the beams of submarine -constructions closely studded with nails. -During the last century, the Teredo -caused such devastations in the dykes which guard a great part -of Holland against the encroachments of an overwhelming -ocean that the Dutch began to tremble -for their safety; and thus a miserable -worm struck terror in the hearts of -a nation which had laughed to scorn -the tyranny of Philip II., and bid defiance -to the legions of Louis XIV.</p> - - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 218px;"> -<img src="images/302a.png" width="218" height="211" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Pholas striata.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 222px;"> -<img src="images/302b.png" width="222" height="108" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Ship-worm.—(Teredo navalis.)</div> -</div> - -<p>But while blaming the teredo for its damages, justice bids us -not pass over in silence the services which it renders to man. If it -here and there destroys useful constructions, on the other hand, it -removes the wrecks that would otherwise obstruct the entrance -of rivers and harbours; and we may ask whether these services -do not outweigh the harm it causes. The pholades also belong -to the noxious animals; they perforate the walls and calcareous -jetties which man opposes to the fury of the sea, or raises for the -creation of artificial harbours and landing -places, destroy their foundations, and -gradually cause their destruction.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 222px;"> -<img src="images/302c.png" width="222" height="237" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Petunculus.<br /> - -<i>a.</i> Foot.</div> -</div> - -<p>The foot of the lamellibranchiates -presents a great variety of form, and is -found in various degrees of development, -gradually passing into a rudimentary -state, until finally it is completely -wanting in the oyster family. In most -of those which live at large it is strong -and muscular, serving either as an excellent -spade for speedy concealment in the sand when an -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">« 303 »</a></span> -enemy approaches, or to dig a furrow into which the animal -forces itself partially, and then advances slowly by making -slight see-saw or balancing motions, or even to jump along with -tolerable rapidity. Thus, the common Cockle protrudes its -foot to its utmost length, bending it and fixing it strongly -against the surface on which it stands; then by a sudden -muscular spring it throws itself into the air, and, by repeating -the process again and again, hops along at a pace one would -hardly expect to meet with in a shell-bound mollusc.</p> - -<p>Even some of those which have but a very rudimentary foot, -incapable of subserving locomotion, are able to move from place -to place by the sudden opening or shutting of their valves. In -this manner the scallop, which inhabits deep places, where it -lies on a rocky or shelly bottom, swims or flies through the -water with great rapidity, and the file or rasp mussel, a closely -related genus, principally occurring in the Indian Ocean, glides -so swiftly through the water that the French naturalists Quoy -and Gaimard were hardly able to overtake it.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 218px;"> -<img src="images/303.png" width="218" height="200" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Cockle.<br /> - -<i>a.</i> Foot.</div> -</div> - -<p>In the stone or wood-boring bivalves -the functions of the foot with regard to -locomotion are much more limited than -in the Cockle, or Tellina, as they merely -consist in moving the animal up and -down in the cavity where it has fixed its -residence. In the Razor-Shells, which -will sometimes burrow to the depth of -two feet, and very rarely quit their holes, -the cylindrical foot, no longer fit for horizontal -locomotion, serves the animal for rising or sinking in the -sand, for when about to bore, it attenuates it into a point, and -afterwards contracts it into a rounded form so as to fix it by its -enlargement when it desires to rise.</p> - -<p>In places where the razor-shells abound, they are sought -after as bait for fish, and taken in spite of their mole-like -facility of concealment, for when the tide is low, their retreat is -easily recognised by the little jet of water they eject when -alarmed by the motion of the fishermen above. Having thus -detected their burrow, the wily enemy who is well aware that, -though inhabiting the salt water, the Solen does not like too -much of a good thing, merely throws some salt into the hole, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">« 304 »</a></span> -which, sadly irritating the nerves of the poor creature, generally -brings it to the surface. He must, however, be very quick in -grasping it firmly, for should he fail, the animal speedily sinks -again into the sand and will remain there, being either insensible -to the additional irritation or its instinct of self-preservation -teaching it to remain beneath.</p> - -<p>The pholades, which have very delicate milk-white valves, -burrow holes in limestone or sandstone rocks, though occasionally -they content themselves with houses of clay or turf. -How creatures invested with shells as thin as paper and as -brittle as glass are able to work their way through hard stone -has long been a puzzle to naturalists, some of whom asserted -that they attained their object by means of an acid solvent, -others that they bored like an auger by revolving; but recent -investigations have discovered that their short and truncated -foot is the chief instrument they use in their mining operations, -being provided at its base with a rough layer of sharp crystals -of flint, which, when worn off, are soon replaced by others, and -act as excellent files.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 99px;"> -<img src="images/304.png" width="99" height="450" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Solen, or Razor-Shell.<br /> - -<i>a.</i> Foot.</div> -</div> - -<p>In several of the sedentary genera the rudimentary -foot, though incapable of locomotion, makes -itself useful by spinning a bundle of silken threads, -called <i>byssus</i>, or beard, which serve to anchor the -animal to any solid submarine object as firmly as a -ship in harbour. Generally the connection is permanent, -but some species, among others the edible -mussel, are able to detach the filaments from the -glandular pedicle situated at the inferior base of the -foot which originally secreted them, and then to seek -another point of attachment.</p> - -<p>If the byssus be examined under a powerful lens, -before any of the filaments are torn, it is easy to perceive -that these are fixed to submarine bodies by -means of a small disc-like expansion of their extremities -of various extent, according to the genus -and species. Certain genera are celebrated for the -abundance and fineness of their byssus; that of the -Pinnæ, or Wing-Shells, among others, which are very common -in some parts of the Mediterranean, and attain a considerable -size, is so long and firm that in Naples it is sometimes manufactured -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">« 305 »</a></span> -into gloves and other articles of dress, though more as -an object of curiosity than for use.</p> - -<p>Thus we find in the same class of animals the same organ -most variously modified in form and structure; now serving -as a foot, now as a spade, or as a rasp, or as a spinning machine, -and, throughout all these modifications, admirably adapted in -every case to the mode of life -of its possessor.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 284px;"> -<img src="images/305.png" width="284" height="532" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Pinna.<br /> - -<i>c.</i> Pedicle from which the filaments are detached.<br /> -<i>d.</i> Inferior base of the foot.<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The whole construction, and -generally the extremely restricted -locomotion, of the bivalves tells -us at once that they are unable -to attack their prey, but must be -satisfied with the food which the -sea-currents bring to the door of -their shells, or within the vortex -of their branchial siphons. But -they have as little reason to complain -as the equally slow or sessile -polyps, bryozoa, and ascidians, -for the waters of the ocean harbour -such incalculable multitudes -of microscopic animals and -plants that their moderate appetite -never remains long unsatisfied. -The same streams -which aërate their blood also -convey to their mouth all the -food which they require.</p> - -<p>Deprived of more active weapons, most bivalves rely upon -their shells as their best means of defence, and to answer this -purpose, their stony covering must naturally increase in solidity -the more its owner is exposed to injury. The pholades, lithodomes, -and teredines, which scoop out their dwellings in stone -or wood, and thus enjoy the protection of a retrenched camp, -can do with a thin and brittle or even with a mere rudimentary -shell. The solens, which at the least alarm bury themselves -deeper and deeper in the sand, likewise require no closely-fitting -valves; but the oysters or mussels, which have no external -fortress to retire to, and are unable to move from the spot, would -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">« 306 »</a></span> -be badly off indeed if they could not entirely conceal themselves -within their thick shells, and keep them closed by strong -muscular contraction.</p> - -<p>Bernardin de St. Pierre, in his "Studies of Nature," points -out another admirable provision for the safety of molluscs. -Thus, those which crawl and travel, and can consequently choose -their own asylums, are in general those of the richest colours. -Such, among the Gasteropods, are the gaudily-tinted Nerites, -and the polished marbled Cowries, the Olives, richly ornamented -with three or four colours, and the Harps, which have tints as -rich as the most beautiful tulips; while among the bivalves the -vivacious Pectens, coloured scarlet and orange, and a host of -other travelling shells, are impressed with the most lively colours. -But those which do not swim, as the Oysters, which are adherent -always to the same rocks, or those which are perpetually at -anchor, as the Pinnas and Mussels, or those which repose on the -bosom of Madrepores, such as the Arcs, or those which are -entirely buried in the calcareous rocks, as the Lithodomi, or -those which immovably, by reason of their weight, pave the surface -of the reefs, as the Tridacna, are of the colour of the bottoms -or floors which they respectively inhabit, in order, no doubt, -that they shall be less perceived by their enemies.</p> - -<p>But even so the best guarded of the bivalves fall a prey to -innumerable enemies, and when we see the strand covered for -miles and miles with their débris, we may rest assured that but -few of the quondam inmates of these fragmentary shells have -died a natural death. Annelides and Sea-snails, crustaceans -and star-fishes, strand birds and even quadrupeds, all fatten -upon their delicate flesh, and man devours incalculable numbers.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 144px;"> -<img src="images/306.png" width="144" height="128" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Edible Cockle.</div> -</div> - -<p>In vain the Pholas buries itself in stone, or the cockle in the -sand; their security was at an end as soon as man had found -out that they were grateful to the palate. The former was -reckoned a delicacy by the ancients, and -the latter is preferred by some to the oyster -itself. So much is certain, that, during -the years of famine caused by the potato -disease, it preserved the lives of many of -the poor Shetlanders and Orcadians.</p> - -<p>The Razor-Shells, particularly when -roasted, and the Clam-Mussels, which are not only a favourite -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">« 307 »</a></span> -repast of the Greenlander but also of the white bear and arctic -fox, are equally reckoned among the most delicate of bivalves.</p> - -<p>The common Mussel (<i>Mytilus edulis</i>), which is found in -the littoral zone on almost every rocky shore, is eaten in vast -numbers by the coast inhabitants, and carried in enormous -masses into the interior of the country; it furnishes an equally -cheap and agreeable food, but is not easy of digestion, and sometimes -produces symptoms of poisoning, which have been ascribed -to the eggs of asterias, on which it feeds -during the summer. In the northern countries -it is also in great request as a bait for -cod, ling, rays, and other large fishes that -are caught by the line. In the Frith of -Forth alone from thirty to forty millions of -mussels are used for this purpose, and in -many places they are enclosed in <i>gardens</i>, -the ground of which is covered with large -stones, to which they attach themselves by -their byssus or beard.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 174px;"> -<img src="images/307.png" width="174" height="224" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Edible Mussel.</div> -</div> - -<p>It is a curious fact that the rearing of mussels should have -been introduced into France as far back as the year 1235, by an -Irishman of the name of Walton. This man, who had been -shipwrecked in the Bay de l'Aiguillon, and gained a precarious -living by catching sea-birds, observed that the mussels, which -had attached themselves to the poles on which he spread his nets -over the shallow waters, were far superior to those that naturally -grow in the mud, and immediately made use of his discovery -by founding the first "<i>bouchot</i>," or mussel-park, consisting of -stakes and rudely interwoven branches. His example soon -found imitators, and, strange to say, the method of construction -adopted by Walton, six centuries ago, has been maintained unaltered -to the present day. It may give some idea of the -immense resources that might be obtained from so many utterly -neglected lagunes when we hear that the fishermen of l'Aiguillon, -although they sell three hundredweight of mussels for the very -low sum of five francs, or four shillings, annually export or send -them into the interior to the amount of a million or twelve -hundred thousand francs.</p> - -<p>The praise which Pliny bestowed on the oyster, calling it the -palm or glory of the table, is still re-echoed by thousands of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">« 308 »</a></span> -enthusiastic admirers. We know that this king of the molluscs -congregates in enormous banks, often extending for miles and -miles, particularly on rocky ground, though it is also found on -a sandy or even on a muddy bottom. Along the shallow -alluvial shores of many tropical lands, great quantities of -oysters are often found attached to the lower branches of the -mangroves, where they are so situated as to be covered when -the flood sets in, and to remain suspended in the air when it -retires, swinging about as the wind agitates their movable -support. The oyster inhabits all the European seas from the -shores of the Mediterranean to the Westenfiord in Norway, where -it finds its northern boundary, lat. 68° N., but the British -waters may be considered as its headquarters, for nowhere is it -found in greater abundance and of a richer flavour. After the -ancient Romans had once tasted the oysters of Kent—the renowned -<i>Rutupians</i>—they preferred them by far to those of the -Lucrine lake, of Brindisi, and of Abydos, and Macrobius tells -us that the Roman epicures in the fourth century never failed -to have them at table. The "Pandores" of Edinburgh, and -the "Carlingfords" of Dublin, are likewise celebrated for their -delicious flavour; and if we turn to the Continent, we find the -Bay of Biscay, and the coasts of Brittany and Normandy, of -Holland and of Schleswig-Holstein, renowned for the excellence -of their oysters.</p> - -<p>Three sorts of oysters are distinguished in the trade. The -first comprises those which are dredged from the deeper banks. -These are the largest-sized, but also the least valued. The -second consists of those that are gathered on a more elevated -situation. Being accustomed to the daily vicissitudes of ebb -and flood, they retain their water much longer, and can therefore -be transported to much greater distances than the former. -Those are preferred that grow on a clear bottom near the -estuaries of rivers. The third and most valued sort of oysters -are those that are cleaned and fattened in artificial <i>parks</i> or -stews.</p> - -<p>This branch of industry was already known to the Romans, -and Pliny tells us that Sergius Orata, a knight, was the first -who established an artificial basin for the cultivation of oysters, -and realised large sums of money by this ingenious invention. -At present Harwich, Colchester, Whitstable, and many other -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">« 309 »</a></span> -sea-ports along our coast are famed for their oyster-stews, as are, -in France and Belgium, Marennes, Havre, Dieppe, Tréport, and -Ostend, where real British natives are cleaned and fattened for -continental consumption.</p> - -<p>The renowned oyster-parks of Ostend, the oldest of which -celebrated its hundredth anniversary in 1860, are extensive -walled basins, communicating by sluices with the open sea, so -that the water can be let in and out with every returning tide. -As microscopic algæ and animalculæ are produced in much -greater numbers in these tranquil reservoirs than in the boisterous -sea, the oysters find here much more abundant food, and -being detached one from the other, they can also open and close -their shells with greater facility, so that nothing hinders their -growth. Thus fostered and improved by constant attention, -they are greatly superior in flavour to the rough children of -nature that are sent without any further preparation to market -and condemned to the knife soon after having been dragged -forth from their submarine abode. The highly prized <i>green</i> -oysters owe their colour to the number of ulvæ, enteromorphæ, -and microscopic infusoriæ, that are abundantly generated in -the parks, and communicate their verdant tinge to the animal -that swallows them.</p> - -<p>In spite of their high price, which unfortunately debars the -poorer classes from their enjoyment, the consumption of oysters -is immense; so that in a commercial point of view they are by -far the most important of all the mollusc tribes. Of the quantities -eaten in London alone, it is impossible to give even an -approximate guess, as no reliable statistics can be arrived at. -Exclusive of those bred in Essex and Kent, in the rivers Crouch, -Blackwater, and Colne, and in the channel of the Swale and the -Medway, vast numbers are brought from Jersey, Poole, and -other places along the coast. The Channel Islands alone, which -export about 100,000 bushels a year, send a great part of their -oysters to the metropolitan market.</p> - -<p>The luxurious tables of Paris likewise consume unnumbered -millions, and when we consider that, thanks to the railroad, -even the most distant inland towns of the Continent may now be -supplied with Ostend oysters, we cannot wonder that their -price has risen enormously with the constantly increasing demand.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">« 310 »</a></span></p> - -<p>This great augmentation of value has naturally directed -attention to the creation of new oyster-banks, and to the better -management of those already existing, and fortunately the -manner in which the mollusc propagates renders its culture in -appropriate localities a by no means difficult task.</p> - -<p>The oyster spawns from June to September. Instead of immediately -abandoning its eggs to their fate, as is the case with -so many sea-animals, it keeps them for a time in the folds of its -mantle, between the branchial lamellæ, and it is only after having -thus acquired a more perfect development that the microscopic -larvæ, furnished with a swimming apparatus and eyes, emerge -from the shell, and are then driven about by the floods and -currents, until they find some solid body to which they attach -themselves for life. In this manner the oyster produces in one -single summer a couple of millions of young, which, however, -mostly perish during the first wandering stage of their existence. -Thus we see what rich rewards may be gained by protecting and -fixing the oyster-larvæ at an early date; and that this can be -done in many places without any great outlay of capital is -proved to us by successful examples both in ancient and modern -times.</p> - -<p>Between the Lucrine Lake, the ruins of Cumæ, where of yore -the Sibyl uttered her ambiguous oracles, and the promontory of -Misenum, lies a small salt-water lake, about a league in circumference, -generally from three to six feet deep, and reposing -on a volcanic, black, and muddy bottom. This is the old Acheron -of Virgil, the present Fusaro. Over its whole extent are spread -from space to space great heaps of stones, that have been -originally stocked with oysters brought from Tarentum. Round -each of these artificial mounds stakes are driven into the ground, -tolerably near each other, and projecting from the water, so as -to be pulled up easily. Other stakes stand in long rows several -feet apart, and are united by ropes, from which bundles of brushwood -hang down into the water. All these arrangements are -intended to fix the <i>oyster-dust</i>, that annually escapes from the -parental shells, and to afford it a vast number of points to which -it may attach itself. After two or three years the microscopic -larvæ have grown into edible oysters. Then, at the proper -season, the stakes and brushwood bundles are taken out of -the water, and after the ripe berries of the marine vineyard -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">« 311 »</a></span> -have been plucked, they are again immersed into the lake, -until a new generation brings a new harvest. Thus the indolent -Neapolitans have for ages given an example which has but -recently been imitated by the men of the North. In 1858 a -mason named Beef (a name which, if not misspelt, would seem -to point out an English origin) inaugurated the modern era of -oyster cultivation, at the island of Ré, near La Rochelle, by -laying down a few bushels of growing oysters among a quantity -of large stones on the fore shore. His success encouraged his -neighbours to follow his example, so that now already upwards -of 4,000 beds or <i>claires</i> extend along the coast.</p> - -<p>Between March and May 1859 a quantity of oysters taken -from different parts of the sea were distributed in ten longitudinal -beds in the Bay of St. Brieux, on the coast of Brittany. -The bottom was previously covered with old oyster-shells and -boughs of trees arranged like fascines, which afford a capital -holding-ground for the spat. In 1860 three of the fascines were -taken up indiscriminately from one of the banks, and found to -contain about 20,000 oysters each, of from one inch to two -inches in diameter. The total expense for forming the above -bank was 221 francs, and reckoning the number of oysters on -each of the 300 fascines laid down on it at only 10,000, these -sold at the low price of 20 francs a thousand would produce -the sum of 60,000 francs, thus yielding a larger profit than any -other known branch of industry.</p> - -<p>Encouraged by these successful examples, an English company -has obtained a grant by Act of Parliament of a piece of -fore shore lying between the Whitstable and Faversham Oyster -Companies' beds, and thus admirably situated for receiving a -large quantity of floating spawn from these establishments. -There can be no doubt that oyster cultivation will spread further -and further, and that ultimately all the worthless bays and -lagunes along our coasts will be converted into rich oyster-fields, -yielding a good profit to their owners and enjoyment to millions -of consumers.</p> - -<p>A shell nearly related to the oyster produces the costly pearls -of the East that have ever been as highly esteemed as the -diamond itself. The most renowned pearl-fisheries are carried -on at Bahrein, in the Persian Gulf, and in the Bay of Condatchy, -in the island of Ceylon, on banks situated a few miles from -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">« 312 »</a></span> -the coast. Before the beginning of the fishery, the government -causes the banks to be explored, and then lets them to -the highest bidder, very wisely allowing only a part of them to -be fished every year. The fishing begins in February, and -ceases by the beginning of April. The boats employed for this -purpose assemble in the bay, set off at night at the firing of a -signal-gun, and reach the banks after sunrise, where fishing goes -on till noon, when the sea-breeze which arises about that time -warns them to return to the bay. As soon as they appear -within sight, another gun is fired, to -inform the anxious owners of their -return. Each boat carries twenty men -and a chief; ten of them row and -hoist up the divers, who are let down -by fives,—and thus alternately diving -and resting keep their strength to the -end of their day's work. The diver, -when he is about to plunge, compresses -his nostrils tightly with a small piece of horn, which -keeps the water out, and stuffs his ears with bees'-wax for the -same purpose. He then seizes with the toes of his right foot a -rope to which a stone is attached, to accelerate the descent, -while the other foot grasps a bag of network. With his right -hand he lays hold of another rope, and in this manner rapidly -reaches the bottom. He then hangs the net round his neck, -and with much dexterity and all possible despatch collects as -many oysters as he can while he is able to remain under water, -which is usually about two minutes. He then resumes his -former position, makes a signal to those above by pulling the -rope in his right hand, and is immediately by this means hauled -up into the boat, leaving the stone to be pulled up afterwards -by the rope attached to it. Accustomed from infancy to their -work, these divers do not fear descending repeatedly to depths -of fifty or sixty feet. They plunge more than fifty times in a -morning, and collect each time about a hundred shells. Sometimes, -however, the exertion is so great that, upon being brought -into the boat, they discharge blood from their mouth, ears, and -nostrils.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 225px;"> -<img src="images/312.png" width="225" height="189" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Ceylon Pearl-Oyster.</div> -</div> - -<p>While the fishing goes on, a number of conjurors and priests -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">« 313 »</a></span> -are assembled on the coast, busily employed in protecting the -divers by their incantations against the voracity of the sharks. -These are the great terror of the divers, but they have such -confidence in the skill or power of their conjurors that they -neglect every other means of defence. The divers are paid in -money, or receive a part of the oyster-shells in payment. Often, -indeed, they try to add to their gains by swallowing here or there -a pearl, but the sly merchant knows how to find the stolen -property. The oysters, when safely landed, are piled up on mats, -in places fenced round for the purpose. As soon as the animals -are dead, the pearls can easily be sought for and extracted from -the gaping shells. After the harvest has been gathered, the -largest, thickest, and finest shells, which furnish mother-of-pearl, -are sorted, and the remaining heap is left to pollute the air. -Some poor Indians, however, often remain for weeks on the spot, -stirring the putrid mass in the hopes of gleaning some forgotten -pearls from the heap of rottenness. The pearls are drilled and -stringed in Ceylon, a work which is performed with admirable -dexterity and quickness. For cleaning, rounding, and polishing -them, a powder of ground pearls is made use of.</p> - -<p>The Pacific also furnishes these costly ornaments to wealth -and beauty, but the pearls of California and Tahiti are less -prized than those of the Indian Ocean.</p> - -<p>Pearl-like excrescences likewise form on the inner surface of -our oysters and mussels, and originate in the same manner as -the true pearls. The formation of the pearl, however, is not -yet quite satisfactorily accounted for. Some naturalists believe -that the animal accumulates the pearl-like substance to give -the shell a greater thickness and solidity in the places where it -has been perforated by some annelide or gasteropod; and according -to Mr. Philippi, an intestinal worm stimulates the exudation -of the pearl-like mass, which, on hardening, encloses and -renders it harmless.</p> - -<p>Brilliancy, size, and perfect regularity of form are the -essential qualities of a beautiful pearl. Their union in a single -specimen is rare, but it is of course still more difficult to find a -number of pearls of equal size and beauty for a costly necklace -or a princely tiara.</p> - -<p>Nature has given the bivalves the same beauty of colouring -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">« 314 »</a></span> -and wonderful variety of elegant or capricious forms as to the -sea-snails; so that they are equally esteemed in the cabinets of -wealthy amateurs. Among the most costly are reckoned the -Spondyli, which are found in the tropical seas, where they grow -attached to rocks. They are distinguished by the brilliancy of -their colours, but particularly by the long thorny excrescences -with which their shells are covered. A Parisian professor once -pawned all his silver spoons and forks to make up the sum of -six thousand francs which was asked for a <i>Royal Spondylus</i>; -but on returning home was so <i>warmly</i> received by his lady -that, overwhelmed by the hurricane, he flung himself on a chair, -when the terrific cracking of the box containing his treasure -reminded him too late that he had concealed it in his skirt-pocket. -Fortunately but two of the thorns had been broken -off, and the damage was susceptible of being repaired; his -despair, however, was so great that his wife had not the heart -to continue her reproaches, and in her turn began to soothe the -unfortunate collector.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 289px;"> -<img src="images/314.png" width="289" height="136" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Tridacna gigas.</div> -</div> - -<p>The gigantic Tridacna, which is now to be found in the shop -of every dealer in shells, was formerly an object of such rarity -and value that the Republic of -Venice once made a present of -one of them to Francis I., who -gave it to the Church of St. -Sulpice in Paris, where it is -still made use of as a basin for -holy water. The tridacna attains -a diameter of five feet, -and a weight of five hundred pounds, the flesh alone weighing -thirty. The muscular power is said to be so great as to be able -to cut through a thick rope on closing the shell. It is found in -the dead rocks on the coral reefs, where there are no growing -lithophytes except small tufts. Generally only an inch or two -in breadth of the ponderous shell is exposed to view, for the -tridacna, like the pholas, has the power of sinking itself in the -rock, by removing the lime about it. Without some means like -this of security, its habitation would inevitably be destroyed -by the roaring breakers. A tuft of byssus, however strong, -would be a very imperfect security against the force of the sea -for shells weighing from one to five hundred pounds. It -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">« 315 »</a></span> -is found in the Indian Ocean and the Pacific as far as the -coral zone extends. The animal -of the tridacna, and of the nearly -related Hippopus, distinguishes -itself by the beauty of its colours. -The mantle of the <i>Tridacna safranea</i>, -for instance, has a dark -blue edge with emerald-green -spots, gradually passing into a -light violet. When a large number -of these beautiful creatures -expand the velvet brilliancy of -their costly robes in the transparent waters, no flower-bed on -earth can equal them in splendour.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 269px;"> -<img src="images/315.png" width="269" height="263" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Hippopus maculatus.</div> -</div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Like the Lamellibranchiate Acephala, the Brachiopods are -covered with a bivalve shell, but their internal organisation is -very different. Instead of being disposed in separate gills, -their respiratory system is combined with the ciliated mantle on -which the vascular ramifications are distributed, but their most -striking feature is the possession of spiral fringed arms or -buccal appendages which serve to open the shell and occupy -the greater part of its cavity. These curious organs are in some -Brachiopods quite free, in others attached to a complicated -cartilaginous or calcareous skeleton. None of the existing -molluscs of this class are capable of changing place, but are -either fixed to extraneous substances by the agglutination of one -of their valves or by a muscular peduncle passing through a -perforation of their shells. There are no more than forty-nine -living species, chiefly belonging to the genera Terebratula and -Crania, and generally found at great depths in the Southern -Ocean; but the fossil remains of 1,370 species prove their -importance in the primitive seas, where they rivalled the -lamellibranchiates in numbers and variety. Though now so -rare or so local in the British seas that ordinary collectors are -not likely to meet with any, they abound in many of our oldest -rocks. "A visit to the quarries at Dudley," says E. Forbes, -"or an Irish lime-kiln, or an oolitic section on the Dorsetshire -coast, or a green sand ravine in the Isle of Wight, will afford -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">« 316 »</a></span> -more information about the Brachiopods than an examination -of the finest collection of the living species. In each of the -above excursions a different set of forms would be collected, for -many of the palæozoic genera have altogether disappeared when -we rise among the secondary rocks, and in the latter we find -forms which closely remind us of existing species, but which, -though very near, are yet unquestionably distinct. In formations -of all epochs, a few generic types are common, and the -Lingulæ of the earliest sedimentary formations, presenting -traces of organic life, strikingly remind us of the species of -that curious group living in exotic seas at the present day."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 216px;"> -<img src="images/316.png" width="216" height="172" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Leaf-like Sea-Mat.</div> -</div> - -<p>At the lower extremity of the great series of molluscous -animals we find the Polyzoa (Bryozoa, or Sea-Mosses) and -Tunicata. The former, which comprise the Sea-Mats (Flustræ, -Escharæ), the Sea-Scurfs (Lepraliæ), the Retepores, the Cellulariæ, -and several other families, were formerly reckoned among -the polyps, whom they greatly resemble in appearance and mode -of life, but far surpass by the complexity of their internal organisation. -The Sea-Mats are among the commonest objects -which the tide casts out upon our shores, for you will hardly ever -walk upon the strand without finding their blanched skeletons -among the relics of the retiring flood. -Their flat leaf-like forms might easily -cause them to be mistaken for dried sea-weeds, -but a pocket-lens suffices to show -that they are built up of innumerable -little oblong cells, placed back to back -like those of a honey-comb, and each -crowned by four stout spines, which give -their surface a peculiarly harsh feel -when the finger is passed over it from the apex to the base. -"The individual cells," says Mr. Gosse, "are shaped like a -child's cradle, and if you will please to suppose some twenty -thousand cradles stuck side to side in one plane, and then -turned over, and twenty thousand more stuck on to these bottom -to bottom, you will have an idea of the framework of a flustra. -And do not think the number outrageous, for it is but an ordinary -average. I count in an area of half an inch square sixty -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">« 317 »</a></span> -longitudinal rows, each of which contains about twenty-eight -cells in that space; this gives 6,720 cells per square inch on each -surface. Now a moderate-sized polyzoary contains an area of -three square inches, i. e. six on both surfaces, which will give the -high number of 40,320 cells on such a specimen. Many, however, -are much larger."</p> - -<p>Before the stormy tide detached them from the bottom of the -sea, and left them to perish on the shore, each of the cells contained -a living creature whose mouth was surrounded by a -coronet of filiform and ciliated tentacles, destined to produce -a vortex in the water, and thus to provide the tiny owner with -its food. The body was bent on itself somewhat like the letter -V, the one branch (<i>a</i>) being the mouth and throat, the other (<i>b</i>) -the rectum, opening by an anus, and the middle part (<i>c</i>) the -stomach. Each of these tiny members of the -flustra colony possessed a considerable number -of muscles; each was furnished with a movable -lip or lid to block up the entrance of his -cell when he courted retirement; each had -his individual nerves, and consequently his -individual sensations, though feeling and -moving simultaneously with his fellow citizens -by the agency of a system of nerves common -to the whole republic, and sending forth a -delicate filament to the inmate of each cell.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 152px;"> -<img src="images/317.png" width="152" height="272" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Flustra in its cell. -(Highly magnified.)</div> -</div> - -<p>Such are the wonders which but for the -microscope would for ever have remained -unknown to man.</p> - -<p>The Escharæ greatly resemble the Flustræ, for here also the -cells are disposed side by side upon the same plane, so as to -form a broad leaf-like polyzoary, which, however, is not of a -horny or coriaceous texture, as in the latter genus, but completely -calcified, so as to present something of the massiveness -of the stony corals. The annexed wood-cuts, showing us -<i>Eschara cervicornis</i>, first <span class="smcap">A</span>, in its natural size; then <span class="smcap">B</span>, a few -cells magnified twenty diameters, and ultimately <span class="smcap">C</span>, a single -individual so highly magnified as to reveal some of the details -of its otherwise invisible structure, give us a good idea of the -truly remarkable organisation of the Polyzoa.</p> - -<p>In the Escharæ and Flustræ the cellular extension of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">« 318 »</a></span> -common stock or polyzoary is unbroken, and opening on both -surfaces, while in the Retepores we find the cells opening only -on one side, and the leaf-like expansion pierced like network.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 210px;"> -<img src="images/318a.png" width="210" height="325" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Eschara cervicornis. -(Natural size.)</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 214px;"> -<img src="images/318b.png" width="214" height="218" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Portion of a branch of the polypary of -Eschara cervicornis, magnified twenty -diameters, to show the form and arrangement -of cells.</div> -</div> - - -<p>In cabinets of natural history, the species commonly called -Neptune's ruffles will rarely be found wanting. It is a native -of the Mediterranean, but individuals of a smaller size are also -found in the British seas.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 251px;"> -<img src="images/318c.png" width="251" height="312" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">An individual of Eschara cervicornis, -highly magnified.<br /> - -<i>a.</i> Tentacula<br /> -<i>b.</i> First digestive cavity.<br /> -<i>d.</i> Stomach.<br /> -<i>f.</i> Anus.<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 192px;"> -<img src="images/318d.png" width="192" height="150" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Retepora cellulosa. -(Neptune's Ruffle.)</div> -</div> - -<p>The Lepraliæ, or Sea-Scurfs, form thin calcareous crusts of -a white-yellow or reddish colour on rocks, shells, and sea-weeds. -To the naked eye they appear as rude unsightly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">« 319 »</a></span> -eruptions, so as to justify their name derived from the hideous -leprosy of the East, but, when magnified, their cells, generally -disposed in regular concentric rows, exhibit a surprising -diversity and elegance of structure. Forty species are found -in the North Sea alone; hence we may judge how great the -number of still unknown forms must be that spread their -microscopic traceries over the algæ and shells of every zone.</p> - -<p>It would lead me too far were I minutely to describe the -Cellulariæ with their cells disposed in alternating rows on -narrow bifurcated branches; the Tubulipores, with their mouths -at the termination of tubular cells without any movable -appendage or lip; the Bowerbankias and Lagunculas, with -their creeping stems and separate cells; suffice it to say that a -wonderful exuberance of fancy displays itself in the structure -of the numerous varieties of the Polyzoa.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 350px;"> -<img src="images/319.png" width="350" height="460" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">A. Portion of a Cellularia, magnified.<br /> - -B. A Bird's Head Process, more highly magnified, -and seen in the act of grasping another. -</div> -</div> - -<p>But a closer inspection reveals still greater miracles to the -marine microscopist, for most genera, and chiefly the Cellulariæ, -possess very remarkable appendages, or processes, presenting the -most striking resemblance to the head of a bird. Each of these -processes, or "aviculariæ," -as they have been -named, has two "mandibles," -of which one is -fixed like the upper jaw -of a bird, the other -movable like its lower -jaw; the latter is opened -and closed by two sets of -muscles, which are seen -in the interior of the -head, and between them -is a peculiar body, furnished -with a pencil of -bristles, which is probably -a tactile organ, -being brought forwards -when the mouth is open, -so that the bristles project -beyond it, and being -drawn back when the mandible closes. During the life of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">« 320 »</a></span> -polyzoon, these tiny "vulture-heads," which are either sessile -or pedunculated, keep up a continual motion, and it is most -amusing to see them see-sawing and snapping and opening -their jaws, and then sometimes in their incessant activity even -closing upon the beaks of their neighbours.</p> - -<p>It is still very doubtful what is their precise function in the -economy of the animal; whether it is to retain within reach of -the ciliary current bodies that may serve as food, or whether it -is like the pedicellariæ of the sea-urchins to remove extraneous -particles that may be in contact with the surface of the polyzoary. -The latter would seem to be the function of the "vibracula," -which are likewise pretty generally distributed among the -polyzoa. Each of these long bristle-shaped organs, springing -at its base out of a sort of cup, that contains muscles by which -it is kept in almost constant motion, sweeps slowly and carefully -over the surface of the polyzoary, and removes what might be -injurious to the delicate inhabitants of the cells, when their -tentacles are protruded. So carefully have these lowly molluscs -been provided for!</p> - -<p>The polyzoa can neither hear nor see, at least as far as we are -able to ascertain, but the delicacy of their sense of touch is very -great. "When left undisturbed in a glass of fresh sea-water," -says Dr. Johnston,<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[R]</a> "they push their tentacula beyond the -mouth of the cell by straightening the body, and then expanding -them in the form of a funnel or bell, they will often remain -quiet and apparently immovable for a long time, presenting a -very pretty and most interesting object to an observer of the -'minims of nature.' If, however, the water is agitated, they -withdraw on the instant, probably by aid of the posterior ligament -or muscle; the hinder part of the body is pushed aside up -the cell, the whole is sunk deeper, and by this means the tentacula, -gathered into a close column, are brought within the cell, -the aperture of which is shut by the same series of actions. -The polyzoa of the same polyzoary often protrude their thousand -heads at the same time, or in quick but irregular succession, -and retire simultaneously, or nearly so, but at other times -I have often witnessed a few only to venture on the display of -their glories, the rest remaining concealed, and if, when many -are expanded, one is singled out and touched with a sharp instrument, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">« 321 »</a></span> -it alone feels the injury, and retires, without any -others being conscious of the danger, or of the hurt inflicted on -their mate. The polyzoa propagate by gemmation and by ova -or eggs, which, germinating on the inner surface, escape at a later -period into the visceral cavity, and are finally discharged into -the wide sea, so to fulfil their mission in creation, and people the -shores of every clime with myriads of busy workers in horn and -in lime, which, with subtle chemistry, they draw from a fluid -quarry and build up in textures of admirable beauty and -heaven-ordered designs."</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[R]</span></a> "History of the British Zoophytes," 2nd edit. vol. i. p. 259.</p></div> - -<p>Each polyzoon begins with a single ovum. The original or -seminal cell of a flustra or lepralia has no sooner fixed itself -upon some stone, shell, or alga, than new buds begin to shoot -forth, which in their turn produce others from their unattached -margins, so as rapidly to augment the number of cells to a very -large amount. Thus a common specimen of <i>Flustra carbasea</i> -presents more than 18,000 individual polyzoa, and as each of -these has about twenty-two tentacula, which are again furnished -with about a hundred ciliæ a piece, the entire polyzoary presents -no less than 396,000 tentacula and 39,600,000 ciliæ. The -Rev. David Landsborough calculated that a specimen of <i>Flustra -membranacea</i> five feet in length by eight inches in breadth had -been the work and the habitation of above two millions of inmates, -so that this single colony on a submarine island was about -equal in number to the population of Scotland. As the tentacula -are numerous in this species, four thousand millions of ciliæ -must have provided for its wants, about four times the number -of the inhabitants of this globe!</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">« 322 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 244px;"> -<img src="images/322a.png" width="244" height="652" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Clavellina producta. Group of two adult -and several young individuals, magnified -about five times.<br /> -<i>c.</i> Branchial orifice. <i>e.</i> Branchiæ.<br /> -<i>i.</i> Anal orifice. <i>l.</i> Stomach.<br /> -<i>o.</i> Heart. <i>u</i>, <i>u′</i>, <i>u″</i>. Reproductive<br /> -buds, springing from the abdomen of the adults. -</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 220px;"> -<img src="images/322b.png" width="220" height="485" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Ascidia mammillata.<br /> -<i>a.</i> Branchial orifice, open. <i>b.</i> Anal orifice, closed. -</div> -</div> - -<p>The Tunicata are so called because their soft parts are not -enclosed in a calcified shell such as invests the majority of their -class, but in a more or less coriaceous envelope or tunic which -is either bag-shaped, and provided with two apertures, or tube-shaped, -and open at the ends. They present a strong resemblance -to the Polyzoa, not merely in their general plan of -conformation, but also in their tendency to produce composite -structures by gemmation; they may, however, be at once distinguished -from them by the absence of the ciliated tentacula -which form so conspicuous a feature in the external aspect of a -flustra or a retepore. Their branchiæ, which have generally -the form of ridges (<i>e</i>), occupy a large sac, forming, as it were, -the antechamber of the alimentary canal, which is barely -distinguishable into gullet, stomach, and intestine, and always -convoluted or folded once on itself. The Tunicata are exclusively -marine, and widely spread from the arctic to the -tropical seas. All of them are free during the earlier parts of -their existence; some remain permanently so (Pyrosomidæ, -Salpæ), but the generality (Ascidiæ, Botrylli) become fixed to -shells and other marine bodies; some exist as distinct individuals -(Ascidiæ, Cynthia), whilst various degrees of combination are -effected by others (Botryllus, Clavellina, Pyrosoma), and some -are simple in one generation and combined in the next (Salpæ).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">« 323 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Thus the whole family is divisible into two groups, the -<i>simple</i> and the <i>aggregate</i>; both branching out into numerous -genera, of which my limits only allow me to mention some of -the most remarkable. The simple Ascidiæ, or Sea-Squirts, are -very common on our shores. "Rarely," says Forbes, "is -the dredge drawn up from any sea-bed at all prolific in -submarine creatures without containing few or many of their -irregularly shaped leathery bodies, fixed to sea-weed, rock, -or shell, by one extremity, or by one side, free at the other, -and presenting two more or less prominent orifices, from -which, on the slightest pressure, the sea-water is ejected with -great force. On the sea-shore, when the tide is out, we find -similar bodies attached to the under surface of rough stones. -They are variously, often splendidly, coloured, but otherwise -are unattractive or even repulsive in aspect. Some are of a -large size, several inches in length. As may easily be imagined, -they lead a very inactive life, except in the young state, when -by means of a long tail they rapidly swim about, until finally -settling in some convenient spot, they gradually assume the -form and adopt the quiet life of the parent from which they -sprang."</p> - -<p>To the simple Tunicata belong also the Chelyosomata, whose -coriaceous envelope, consisting of eight somewhat horny angular -plates, reminds one of the -carapace of the turtle. -Their small and prominent -orifices, perforating -the plated surface, are -each surrounded by six -triangular valvules.</p> - -<p>Some species of simple -Ascidians on the coasts -of the Channel and the -Mediterranean are valued -as articles of food. At -Cette sea-squirts are taken -regularly to market, and <i>Cynthia microcosmus</i>, although so -repulsive externally, furnishes a very delicate morsel.</p> - -<table summary="images"> -<tr> - <td><img src="images/323.png" width="354" height="260" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption">Chelyosoma Macleayanum.<br /> - <i>a.</i> Branchial orifice. <i>b.</i> Anal orifice.<br /> - <i>c.</i> Coriaceous envelope of the sides.<br /> - <i>d.</i> Stone to which the animal is fixed. - </div> - </td> - <td><img src="images/324a.png" width="268" height="405" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption">Botryllus violaceus. Two of the - stems magnified.<br /> - <i>a.</i> Common test. <i>b.</i> Some of the branchial orifices.<br /> - <i>c.</i> The common anal orifice of one of the systems. - </div> - </td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">« 324 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 452px;"> -<img src="images/324b.png" width="452" height="402" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Diazona violacea (magnified).</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 180px;"> -<img src="images/325.png" width="180" height="597" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">A single individual of -Pyrosoma giganteum, cut -out of the common test -and magnified.<br /> -<i>a.</i> Branchial or external orifice.<br /> -<i>b.</i> Anal or internal orifice.<br /> -<i>d.</i> Stomach. <i>e.</i> Liver.<br /> -<i>f.</i> Branchiæ. -</div> -</div> - -<p>While in the Clavellinidæ the animals are connected by -creeping tubular prolongations of the common tunic through -which the blood circulates, the Botrylli form translucent jelly-like -masses of various hues of -orange, yellow, purple, blue, grey, -and green; sometimes nearly uniform -in tint, sometimes beautifully -variegated, and very frequently -pencilled as if with stars of -gorgeous device; now encrusting -the surface of the rock, now -descending from it in icicle-like -projections. They are also frequently -attached to the broad-leaved -fuci, investing the stalks, -or clothing with a glairy coat -the expanse of the fronds. "In -examining their bodies," says -the distinguished naturalist previously -quoted, "we find that it -is not a single animal which is -before us, but a commonwealth -of beings bound together by common and vital ties. Each -star is a family, each group of stars a community. Individuals -are linked together in systems, systems combined into masses. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">« 325 »</a></span> -Few bodies among the forms of animal life exhibit such exquisite -figures as those which we see displayed in the combinations of -these compound Ascidians."</p> - -<p>In the genus Diazona, which has its chief seat in the Mediterranean, -the animals, which are very prominent and arranged in -concentric circles, form a single system expanded into a disc like -that of a flower or of an Actinia. The anal orifices, it will be -seen, are situated close to the branchial apertures at the free end -of the single animals, while in the Botrylli -they open into a central excretory cavity.</p> - -<p>In the Pyrosomes we find large colonies -of small individuals aggregated in -the form of a cylinder open at one end. -Their mouths or anterior extremities are -situated on the exterior of this hollow -body, which they bristle with large and -longish tubercles (<i>a</i>), whilst the opposite -or anal orifices (<i>b</i>) open into the cavity -of the cylinder, whose smooth wall they -perforate with numerous small holes. By -a simultaneous action the central cavity is -either narrowed or enlarged, and by this -means the strange social republic glides -slowly through the waters.</p> - -<p>The Pyrosomes inhabit the Mediterranean -and the warmer parts of the ocean. -In the former at times their abundance is -a source of great annoyance to the fishermen, -sometimes even completely clogging -their nets, and on the high seas they are -not seldom met with in almost incredible -profusion. Their delicate and transparent -forms, their elegant tints, and their -unrivalled phosphorescence render them -objects of admiration to the voyager, and -entitle them to rank amongst the most -resplendent living gems of the ocean.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">« 326 »</a></span></p> - -<table summary="images"> -<tr> - <td><img src="images/326a.png" width="358" height="155" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption">Salpa maxima.<br /> - <i>a.</i> Upper lip or posterior orifice.<br /> - <i>b.</i> Anterior orifice.<br /> - <i>c.</i> Prolongations of the test by which the<br /> - animal is adherent to its neighbours. - </div> - </td> - <td><img src="images/326b.png" width="312" height="279" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption">Salpæ, isolated and associated.<br /> - A. <i>Salpa runcinata</i>, solitary.<br /> - B. <i>Salpa runcinata</i>, associated.<br /> - C. <i>Salpa zonaria</i>, aggregated. - </div> - </td> -</tr> -</table> - - - -<p>While the sessile Ascidiæ remind one of the polyps, the -transparent Salpæ, freely swimming in the sea, bear a great -resemblance to the pellucid jelly-fishes. Each resembles a -crystalline tube, through which one can distinctly see the internal -coloured parts. Sometimes these animals, which abound in the -warmer seas, are found solitary, at other times associated in circular -or lengthened groups, termed garlands, ribands, and chains; -but, strange to say, these two forms so different in outward -appearance are only the alternating generations of one and the -same animal. The chained Salpæ produce only solitary ones, and -the latter only chains, or, as Chamisso, to whom we owe the discovery -of this interesting fact, expresses himself, "a salpa mother -never resembles her daughter, or her own mother, but is always -like her sister, her grand-daughter, or her grand-mother." When -Chamisso first made known his discovery, he was laughed at as -a fanciful visionary, but all later observations have not only -fully confirmed his statement but also discovered similar or -even more wonderful metamorphoses among the jelly-fish, -polyps, crustacea, sea-urchins, and other marine animals. Thus -Chamisso gave the first impulse to a whole series of highly -interesting observations, and his rank is now as well established -among naturalists as it has long been among the most distinguished -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">« 327 »</a></span> -poets of Germany. The Salpæ progress by the alternate -contractions and dilatations of their tubular body. In this -manner the chains, as if obeying a common impulse, glide -along with a serpentine movement, and are often regarded by -sailors as sea-snakes.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 325px;"> -<img src="images/327.png" width="325" height="471" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Inner or under side of the superior plated -surface of Chelyosoma Macleayanum.<br /> -<i>a.</i> Branchial orifice. -<i>b.</i> Anal orifice. -<i>c.</i> Muscles bordering the carapace-plates. -<i>d.</i> Central hexagonal plate.<br /> -<i>e.</i> Surrounding plates. -<i>f.</i> The nerve-ganglion and nerve-fibres. -<i>g</i>, <i>h</i>. Auditory apparatus. -<i>i.</i> Row of tentacles, anterior to the œsophagus. -<i>j.</i> Stomach. -<i>k.</i> Part of the intestine. -</div> -</div> - -<p>Before quitting the Tunicata, a few points of interest in their -simple history remain to be noticed. Despite their humble -organisation, they have a heart which, as may easily be ascertained -in the transparent species, is subject to strange alternations -of action. For after having received for a minute or -two the blood <i>from</i> the branchiæ, and propelled it <i>to</i> the -system at large, it will at once cease to pulsate for a moment -or two, and then propel the -blood <i>to</i> the branchial sac, -receiving it at the same -time <i>from</i> the system generally. -After this reversed -course has continued for -some time, another pause -occurs, and the first course -is resumed. It is very probable -that many of the -Tunicata are able to hear -and to see. In Chelyosoma, -organs have been discovered -whose structure seems to -indicate that they are destined -for the transmission -of sound, and the Ascidiæ -have frequently around the -extremity of their tubes a -row of coloured points similar -to the imperfect organs -of sight present in the majority -of the bivalve Acephalans. -Thus a closer examination -of the lower animals is constantly bringing new faculties -to light, and the further we penetrate into the secrets of their -life the more we find occasion to admire the power and wisdom -of their Maker!</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">« 328 »</a></span></p> - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_XVI" id="CHAP_XVI">CHAP. XVI.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">ECHINODERMATA.</p> - -<p class="caption2">STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, AND SEA-CUCUMBERS.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">The Star-Fishes.—Their Feet or Suckers.—Voracity of the Asterias.—The Rosy -Feather-Star.—Brittle and Sand-Stars.—The real Sea-Stars of the British Waters.—The -Sea-Urchins.—The Pedicellariæ.—The Shell and the Dental Apparatus -of the Sea-Urchin.—The Sea-Cucumbers.—Their strange Dismemberments.—Trepang-fishing -on the Coast of North Australia.—In the Feejee Islands.</div> - - -<p>"As there are stars in the sky, so are there stars in the sea," is -the poetical exordium of Link's treatise on Star-fishes, the first -ever published on the subject; and James Montgomery tells us in -rather bombastic style, that the seas are strewn with the images -of the constellations with which the heavens are thronged.</p> - -<p>This is no doubt highly complimentary to the star-fishes, but -is far from being merited by any particularly shining or radiant -quality; as they occupy a very inferior grade among the denizens -of the sea, and merely owe their stellar name to their form, -which somewhat resembles the popular notion of a star.</p> - -<p>But if they are of an inferior rank to most marine animals; -if even the stupid oyster boasts of a heart, which they do not -possess; yet a closer inspection of their organisation shows us -many wonderful peculiarities, and proves to us once more that -nature has impressed the stamp of perfection as well upon her -lowest and most simple creations, as upon those beings that rank -highest in the scale of life.</p> - -<p>Every one knows the common Star-fish, with its lanceolate -arms; its generally orange-coloured back, thickly set with tubercles, -and the pale under-surface, with its rows of feet, feelers, -or suckers, which serve both for locomotion and the seizure of -food.</p> - -<p>When one of these creatures is placed on its back, in a plate -filled with sea-water, it is exceedingly curious to watch the -activity which those numberless sucking feet display. At first -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">« 329 »</a></span> -the star-fish is motionless; for, offended by the rough handling -it has undergone, the feet have all shrunk into the body; but -soon they are seen to emerge like so many little worms from -their holes, and to grope backwards and forwards through the -water, evidently seeking the nearest ground to lay hold of. -Those that reach it first immediately affix their suckers, and, by -contracting, draw a portion of the body after them, so as to -enable others to attach themselves, until, pulley being added -to pulley, their united power is sufficient to restore the star-fish -to its natural position.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 447px;"> -<img src="images/329.png" width="447" height="442" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Star-Fish.</div> -</div> - -<p class="hanging">The upper tuberculated surface is shown, with some of the spines of the under surface -projecting at the sides of the rays. At one of the angles between the rays, on the right -side, is seen the eccentric calcareous plate, or madreporic tubercle, which indicates the -existence of a bilateral symmetry.</p> - - - -<p>This act of volition is surely remarkable enough in so simple -an animal, which scarcely possesses the rudiments of a nervous -system, but the simple mechanism by which the suckers are -put into motion is still more wonderful. Each of these little -organs is tubular, and connected with a globular vesicle filled -with an aqueous fluid, and contained within the body of the -star-fish immediately beneath the hole from which the sucker -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">« 330 »</a></span> -issues. When the animal wishes to protrude its feet, each -vesicle forcibly contracts, and, propelling the fluid into the corresponding -sucker, causes its extension; and, when it desires -to withdraw them, a contraction of the suckers drives back the -fluid into the expanding vesicles. The internal walls of the -suckers and their vessels are furnished with vibratory cilia, and -by this simple means a continual circulation of the fluid they -contain goes on within them.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 162px;"> -<img src="images/330a.png" width="162" height="162" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Lily-Encrinite.</div> -</div> - -<p>Numerous species of star-fishes are so very common in our -waters, that in many places the sea-bottom is literally paved -with them. They likewise abounded in the primeval ocean, for -deep beds of carboniferous limestone and vast strata of the -triassic muschelkalk are often formed by the -accumulation of little else than the skeletons -of Encrinites and Pentacrinites, which, -unlike the sea-stars which every storm drifts -upon our shores, did not move about freely, -but were affixed to a slender flexible stalk, -composed of numerous calcareous joints connected -together by a fleshy coat. The -feathered bifurcated arms of the Crinoids -are unprovided with suckers, which would have been perfectly -useless to creatures not destined to pursue their game to any -distance, but passively to receive the nutriment -which the current of sea-water set in motion -by their richly-ciliated pinnules conveys to the -mouth. These beautiful creatures were formerly -supposed to be nearly extinct, for up to -within the last few years only two living -stalked crinoids were known in the ocean of -the present period, but the dredge has latterly -brought up new and remarkably fine species -from depths of more than 2000 fathoms, and -there is every reason to believe that these -animals still form an important element in -the abyssal fauna.<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[S]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[S]</span></a> See <a href="#Page_420">page 420</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 138px;"> -<img src="images/330b.png" width="138" height="232" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Portion of the Pentaorinus Briareus. -(Fossil.)</div> -</div> - -<p>Of freely-swimming Crinoids but one single representative is -known in the northern seas, the Rosy Feather-star (<i>Comatula -rosacea</i>), whose long and delicately fringed rays and deep rose -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">« 331 »</a></span> -colour dotted with brown may serve to give us an idea of the -beauty of the submarine landscapes where <i>Pentacrinus Wyville-Thomsoni</i> -or <i>Bathycrinus gracilis</i> abound. During the earlier -stage of its existence, the comatula is attached to a stalk; a discovery -for which science is indebted to Mr. T. V. Thompson, who -in 1823 dredged in the Cove of Cork a singular little pedunculated -crinoid animal (<i>Pentacrinus europæus</i>), which he found attached -to the stems of zoophytes. It measured about three-fourths of -an inch in height, and resembled a minute <i>comatula</i> mounted on -the stalk of a <i>pentacrinus</i>. When this pygmy representative -of the ancient lily-stars was first dragged up from its submarine -haunts, it created a great sensation among naturalists, as it was -the first recent animal of the encrinite kind which had ever -been seen in the seas of Europe. At first it was supposed to be -a distinct species, but Mr. Thompson, by carefully following it -through all the stages of its growth, succeeded in proving that -it was merely the hitherto unnoticed young of the rosy feather-star.</p> - -<p>This elegant crinoid is found all round our coasts, and its -range extends from Norway to the shores of the Mediterranean. -In swimming, the movements of its arms exactly resemble the -alternating stroke given by the medusa to the liquid element, -and have the same effect, causing the animal to raise itself from -the bottom and to advance back foremost, even more rapidly -than the medusa. When dying, either in fresh water or in -spirits, it emits a most beautiful purple colour, which tinges -the liquid in which it is killed.</p> - -<p>The <i>Ophiuridæ</i>, or <i>snake-stars</i>, are essentially distinguished -from the true <i>star-fishes</i> by the long serpent or worm-like -arms, which are appended to their round, depressed, urchin-like -bodies. They have no true suckers with which to walk, -their progression being effected (and with great facility) by -the twisting or wriggling of their arms, which are moreover -in many species furnished with spines on the sides, assisting -locomotion over a flat surface. These arms are very different -from those of the true star-fishes, which are lobes of the -animal's body, whereas the arms of the Ophiuridæ are mere -processes attached or superadded to the body.</p> - -<p>These animals are very generally distributed through the -seas of our earth, both of its northern and southern hemispheres, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">« 332 »</a></span> -but are found largest in the tropical ocean. In -our own waters they are very abundant, and are among the -most curious and beautiful game pursued by -the dredger.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 179px;"> -<img src="images/332.png" width="179" height="434" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Sand-star.</div> -</div> - -<p>The British Ophiuridæ belong to two -generic types, that of the <i>Ophiuræ</i> and that -of the <i>Euryales</i>. The former, to which the -sand and brittle-stars belong, have simple -arms; the latter, arms ramifying into many -processes.</p> - -<p>The rays of the Sand-stars have a whip-like -or lizard-tail appearance, while those of the -Brittle-stars look like so many centipedes or -annelides attached at regular distances round -a little sea-urchin. We have ten native brittle-stars, -the most common of which (<i>Ophiocoma -rosula</i>, Forbes) is also one of the handsomest, -presenting every variety of variegation, and -the most splendid displays of vivid hues arranged -in beautiful patterns. Not often are -two specimens found coloured alike. It is -the most brittle of all brittle-stars, separating itself into -pieces with wonderful quickness and ease. Touch it, and -it flings away an arm; hold it, and in a moment not an -arm remains attached to the body. "The common brittle-star," -says Edward Forbes, "often congregates in great numbers -on the edges of scallop-banks, and I have seen a large -dredge come up completely filled with them; a most curious -sight, for when the dredge was emptied, these little -creatures, writhing with the strangest contortions, crept about -in all directions, often flinging their arms in broken pieces -around them; and their snake-like and threatening attitudes -were by no means relished by the boatmen, who anxiously asked -permission to shovel them overboard, superstitiously remarking -that the things weren't altogether right."</p> - -<p>Fancy the naturalist's vexation, who has no other means of -preserving a brittle-star entire than by quickly plunging it into -cold fresh water, which acts as a poison on the Ophiuræ as well -as on most other marine animals, and kills them so instantaneously -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">« 333 »</a></span> -that even the most brittle species have no time to -make the contraction necessary to break off their rays.</p> - -<p>The <i>Ophiocoma rosula</i> seems to be equally abundant on all -parts of the coast of Britain and Ireland. It is fond of rocky -places, and grows in Shetland to a much larger size than elsewhere. -It is said to prey on little shells and crabs, and is -greatly relished by the cod in its turn, great numbers being -often found in the stomach of that voracious fish.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 228px;"> -<img src="images/333.png" width="228" height="315" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Warted Euryale.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Scotch or Shetland Argus (<i>Euryale verrucosum</i>, Lamarck), -a very rare animal, of which the adjoining wood-cut -represents a segment, is the only -British <i>Euryale</i>. It measures a foot -or more across, and its singular aspect -has long excited admiration among -naturalists. "So odd a creature as -this," remarks Bradley in his "Works -of Nature," "is well worth the contemplation -of such curious persons -as live near the sea, where every day -they have subjects enow to employ -their curiosity and improve their -understanding." Grew says that -"as he swims he spreads and stretches -out all his branches to their full -length, and so soon as he perceives -his prey within his reach, he hooks them all in, and so takes it -as it were in a net."</p> - -<p>The British species of true star-fishes may be arranged under -four families. The <i>Urasters</i> are distinguished from all others -by having four rows of suckers in each of the avenues which -groove the under surface of their rounded rays. In consequence -of the great number of these singular organs, the under surface -of a living cross-fish presents a sight truly curious and wonderful. -Hundreds of worm-like suckers, extending and contracting, -coiling and feeling about, each apparently acting independently -of the others, give the idea rather of an assemblage of polypi -than of essential parts of <i>one</i> animal. They are sensitive in -the extreme, for, if we touch one of those singular tubes when -outstretched, all those in its neighbourhood are thrown into a -state of agitation; and when it shrinks from our touch, changing -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">« 334 »</a></span> -from a lengthy fibre to a little shrunk tubercle, some of its -neighbours, as if partaking in its fears, contract themselves in -like manner.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 290px;"> -<img src="images/334.png" width="290" height="265" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Common Cross-fish.</div> -</div> - -<p>The common Cross-fish (<i>Uraster rubens</i>) abounds on most -parts of our shores, so as in some places to be used for manure -in large quantities. "It is a -sworn enemy to oysters, and -as it is frequently found with -one or more of its rays broken -off, the fishermen fancy that -it loses them in consequence -of its oyster-hunting propensities; -that it insinuates an arm -into the incautious oyster's -gape, with the intent of whipping -out its prey, but that -sometimes the apathetic mollusk -proves more than a match -for its radiate enemy, and closing on him, holds him fast by the -proffered finger; whereupon the cross-fish preferring amputation -and freedom to captivity and dying of an oyster, like some -defeated warrior flings his arms away, glad to purchase the -safety of the remaining whole by the reparable loss of a part, -as it has the power of reproducing the broken rays.</p> - -<p>"There is, however, reason to think that the cross-fish destroys -his prey in a very different manner from that just narrated; for -star-fishes are not unfrequently found feeding on shell-fish, -enfolding their prey within their arms, and seeming to suck it -out of its shell with their mouths, pouting out the lobes of the -stomach, which they are able to project in the manner of a -proboscis. Possibly the stomach secretes an acrid and poisonous -fluid, which, by paralysing the shell-fish, opens the way to its -soft and fleshy parts."—<i>Forbes's Star Fishes.</i></p> - -<p>The <i>Solasters</i> are "suns in the system of sea-stars," and are -entitled to this distinguished rank among the marine constellations -by their many rays and brilliant hues. The <i>Solaster -papposa</i>, or common Sun-star, with rays varying in number -from twelve to fifteen, is one of the commonest, and at the -same time handsomest, of all the British species. Sometimes -the whole upper surface is deep purple, and frequently the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">« 335 »</a></span> -disk is red, and the rays white tipped with red. It grows to a -considerable size, having been found eleven inches broad.</p> - -<p>The Goniasters, or Cushion-stars, are distinguished from the -allied species by their pentagonal form. One of the most singular -of our native species is the Birdsfoot Sea-star (<i>Palmipes membranaceus</i>), -being the thinnest and flattest of all its class. When -alive it is flexible, like a piece of leather, and a person who -had never seen it before would be apt to mistake it for the torn -off dorsal integument of some gibbous goniaster. The colour -is white, with a red centre and five red rays, proceeding one to -each angle. The whole upper surface is covered with tufts of -minute spines arranged in rows.</p> - -<p>The Asteriæ, with their stellate body and flat rays, are very -different in aspect from the Goniasters. The Butt-thorn (<i>Asterias -aurantiaca</i>) owes its name to one of those strange superstitions -which originate in some inexplicable manner, and are -handed down by one credulous generation to the next. "The -first taken by the fishermen at Scarborough is carefully made a -prisoner, and placed on a seat at the stern of the boat. When -they hook a butt (halibut) they immediately give the poor -star-fish its liberty and commit it to its native element; but if -their fishery is unsuccessful it is left to perish, and may eventually -enrich the cabinet of some industrious collector."</p> - -<p>To the family of the Asteriæ belongs also the Ling-thorn -(<i>Luidia fragilissima</i>), the largest, and one of the most interesting -of our British species. When full grown, it measures two -feet across, and would appear to exceed that size occasionally, judging -from fragments. The rays are from five to seven in number, -quite flat, and generally five times as long as the disk is broad. -The colour is brick-red above, varying in intensity, the under -surface being straw-coloured. The wonderful power which the -Luidia possesses, not merely of casting away its arms entire, but of -breaking them voluntarily into little pieces with great rapidity, -approximates it to the brittle-stars, and renders the preservation -of a perfect specimen a very difficult matter.</p> - -<p>"The first time I ever took one of these creatures," says -Edward Forbes, "I succeeded in getting it into the boat entire. -Never having seen one before, and quite unconscious of its -suicidal powers, I spread it out on a rowing-bench, the better -to admire its form and colours. On attempting to move it for -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">« 336 »</a></span> -preservation, to my horror and disappointment I found only an -assemblage of rejected members. My conservative endeavours -were all neutralised by its destructive exertions, and it is now -badly represented in my cabinet by an armless disk and a -diskless arm. Next time I went to dredge on the same spot, -determined not to be cheated out of a specimen in such a way -a second time, I brought with me a bucket of cold fresh water, -to which article star-fishes have a great antipathy. As I expected, -a luidia came up in the dredge, a most gorgeous specimen. -As it does not generally break up before it is raised above the -surface of the sea, cautiously and anxiously I sunk my bucket -to a level with the dredge's mouth, and proceeded in the most -gentle manner to introduce luidia to the purer element. -Whether the cold air was too much for him, or the sight of -the bucket too terrific, I know not, but in a moment he proceeded -to dissolve his corporation, and at every mesh of the -dredge his fragments were seen escaping. In despair I grasped -at the largest, and brought up the extremity of an arm with -its terminating eye, the spinous eyelid of which opened and -closed with something exceedingly like a wink of derision."</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 285px;"> -<img src="images/336.png" width="285" height="285" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Goniaster.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Sea-star might be called a flattened sea-urchin, with -radiated lobes, and the Sea-urchin, a contracted or condensed -sea-star, so near is their relationship. -In both we find -the same radiating construction, -in which the number five -is so conspicuous, and in both -also the rows of suckers, which, -starting from a centre, are -set into motion by a similar -mechanism, and used for the -same purpose. In all the sea-urchins -finally, and in many -of the sea-stars, we find the -surface of the body covered -with numerous exceedingly minute, two- or three-forked pincers, -that perpetually move from side to side, and open and shut without -intermission. These active little organs, which have been -named <i>Pedicellariæ</i>, were formerly supposed to be parasites, -working on their own account, but they are now almost universally -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">« 337 »</a></span> -recognised as organs subservient to the nutrition of the -animal, and destined to seize the food floating by, and to convey -it to the mouth, one passing it to the other. Even in their outward -appearance, the sea-urchins are not so very different from -the sea-stars as would be imagined on seeing a Butt-thorn near -a globular urchin, for both orders approach each other by -gradations; thus, the Goniasters, with their cushion-shaped -disks and shortened rays, approximate very much in shape to -the sea-urchins; and among the latter we also find a gradual -progression from the flattened to the globular form. Still -there are notable differences between the two classes. Thus in -the sea-urchins the digestive organs form a tube with two -openings, while in the true sea-stars they have but one single -orifice. Their mode of life is, however, identical.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 410px;"> -<img src="images/337.png" width="410" height="318" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Shell of Echinus, or Sea-Urchin.<br /> - -On the right side covered with spines, on the left the spines removed.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Echinidæ move forward by means of the joint action of -their suckers and spines, using the former in the manner of the -true star-fishes, and the latter as the snake-stars. They also -make use of the spines, which move in sockets, to bury themselves -in the fine sand, where they find security against many -enemies.</p> - -<p>Some species even entomb themselves pholas-like in stone, -inhabiting cavities or depressions in rocks, corresponding to -their size, and evidently formed by themselves. Bennett describes -each cavity of the edible <i>Echinus lividus</i> as circular, -agreeing in form with the urchin within it, and so deep as to -embrace more than two-thirds of the bulk of the inhabitant. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">« 338 »</a></span> -It is large enough to admit of the creature's rising a little, but -not of its coming out easily. The echinus adheres so firmly to -this cavity by its suckers, as to be forced from it with extreme -difficulty when alive. On the coasts of the county of Clare -thousands may be seen lodged in the rock, their purple spines -and regular forms presenting a most beautiful appearance on -the bottoms of the grey limestone rock-pools. How the boring -is performed has, like many other secrets, not yet been settled by -naturalists. The first perforation is most likely effected by -means of the teeth, and then the rock softened by some secreted -solvent.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 195px;"> -<img src="images/338a.png" width="195" height="182" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Mammillated Sea-Urchin.</div> -</div> - -<p>Sea-urchins are found in all seas, but as they are extremely -difficult to preserve, and many of them have such long and delicate -spines that it is almost impossible -to procure perfect specimens, probably -not one tithe of their species is known.</p> - -<p>On our coasts the common "egg-urchin" -affords the poor a somewhat scanty -repast; but, throughout the Mediterranean, -its greater size, and also that of its -allies, <i>Echinus melo</i> and <i>E. sardicus</i>, -render them, when "in egg," important -articles of food. In Sicily these animals are in season about the -full moon of March; there the <i>E. esculentus</i> is still called the -"King of Urchins;" whilst the larger melon-urchin is popularly -considered to be its mother. The size and abundance of these -edible species are among the striking peculiarities of the fish -markets of the Mediterranean sea-board.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/338b.png" width="200" height="144" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Edible Sea-Urchin.</div> -</div> - -<p>The calcareous shell of the "sea-urchin" seems, at first sight, -to be composed of one simple crust, but proves, on nearer inspection, -to be a masterpiece of mosaic -consisting of several hundred parts, -mostly pentagonal. These are so closely -united that their junctions are hardly -visible, but on allowing the shell to -macerate for some days in fresh water, -it falls to pieces. This complicated -structure is by no means a mere architectural -fancy, a useless exuberance of ornament, but essentially -necessary to the requirements of the animal's growth. A -simple hard crust would not have been capable of distension, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">« 339 »</a></span> -whereas a complicated shell, such as the sea-urchin possesses, -can grow in the same ratio as the internal parts, by continual -deposits on the edges of the individual pieces. On closely -examining a living sea-urchin, we find the whole surface of the -shell and spines covered with a delicate skin, which, in spite -of their close connexion, penetrates into the intervals of the -several pieces. This membrane secretes the chalk of which the -shell is composed, and deposits fresh layers on the edges of the -plates, so that in this manner the shell continually widens until -the animal has attained its perfect size. The spines are secreted -in the same manner, and show under the microscope an admirable -beauty and regularity of structure. So bountifully has -the great Architect of worlds -provided for the poor insignificant -sea-urchin!</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 284px;"> -<img src="images/339a.png" width="284" height="280" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Dental Apparatus of the Sea-urchin, -viewed from above.</div> -</div> - -<p>The dental apparatus of the -animal—the so-called lantern -of Aristotle—is another masterpiece -in its way. Fancy five -triangular bones or jaws, each -provided with a long, projecting, -movable tooth. A complicated -muscular system sets -the whole machinery going, and -enables the jaws to play up and -down, and across, so that a more effective grinding-mill can -scarcely be imagined.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 298px;"> -<img src="images/339b.png" width="298" height="225" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">A. Two sockets with teeth, of Echinus -esculentus. B. Single socket with its -tooth viewed on the outside.</div> -</div> - -<p>The <i>Holothuriæ</i>, or Sea-cucumbers, -may be regarded -in one light as soft sea-urchins, -and in another as approximating -to the Annelides or -worms. Their suckers are -similar to those of the true -star-fishes and sea-urchins. -Besides progression by means -of these organs, they move, -like annelides, by the extension -and contraction of their -bodies. The mouth is surrounded by plumose tentacula, the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">« 340 »</a></span> -number of which, <i>when they are complete</i>, is always a multiple -of five. They all have the power of changing their shapes in -the strangest manner, sometimes elongating themselves like -worms, sometimes contracting the middle of their bodies, so as -to give themselves the shape of an hour-glass, and then again -blowing themselves up with water, so as to be perfectly globular.</p> - -<p>The great Sea-cucumber is the largest of all the known -European species, and probably one of the largest <i>Cucumeriæ</i> in -the world, measuring when at rest fully one foot, and capable -of extending itself to the length of three. Under the influence -of terror, it dismembers itself in the strangest manner. Having -no arms or legs to throw off, like its relations the luidia and the -brittle-star, it simply disgorges its viscera, and manages to live -without a stomach; no doubt a much greater feat than if it -contrived to live without a head. According to the late Sir -James Dalyell, the lost parts are capable of regeneration, even -if the process of disgorgement went so far as to leave but an -empty sac behind. Considering the facility with which the -sea-cucumber separates itself from its digestive organs, it is the -more to be wondered how it tolerates the presence of a very -remarkable parasite, a fish belonging to the genus <i>Fierasfer</i>, -and about six inches long. This most impudent and intrusive -comrade enters the mouth of the cucumber, and, as the stomach -is too small for his reception, tears its sides, quartering himself -without ceremony between the viscera and the outer skin. The -reason for choosing this strange abode is as yet an enigma.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 441px;"> -<img src="images/340a.png" width="441" height="59" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Fierasfer.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 227px;"> -<img src="images/340b.png" width="227" height="63" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Eatable Trepang.</div> -</div> - -<p>The <i>Holothuriæ</i>, which in our part of the globe are very little -noticed, play a much more important part in the Indian Ocean, -where they are caught by millions, and, under the name of -<i>Trepang</i> or <i>Biche de mer</i>, brought to -the markets of China and Cochin-China. -Hundreds of praos are annually -fitted out in the ports of the Sunda -Islands for the gathering of trepang; and sailing with help of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">« 341 »</a></span> -western monsoon to the eastern parts of the Indian Archipelago, -or along the northern coast of Australia, return home again by -favour of the eastern monsoon. The bays of the inhospitable -treeless shores of tropical New Holland, the abode of a few half-starved -barbarians, are enlivened for a few months by the -presence of the trepang fishers.</p> - -<p>"During my excursions round Raffles Bay," says Dumont -d'Urville, ("Voyage to the South Pole,") "I had remarked here -and there small heaps of stones surrounding a circular space. -Their use remained a mystery until the Malayan fishers arrived. -Scarce had their praos cast anchor, when without loss of time -they landed large iron kettles, about three feet in diameter, and -placed them on the stone heaps, the purpose of which at once -became clear to me. Close to this extemporised kitchen they -then erected a shed on four bamboo stakes, most likely for the -purpose of drying the holothurias in case of bad weather. Towards -evening, all preliminaries were finished, and the following -morning we paid a visit to the fishermen, who gave us a friendly -reception. Each prao had thirty-seven men on board, and carried -six boats, which we found busily engaged in fishing. Seven or -eight Malays, almost entirely naked, were diving near the ship, -to look for trepang at the bottom of the sea. The skipper alone -stood upright, and surveyed their labours with the keen eye of a -master. A burning sun scorched the dripping heads of the divers, -seemingly without incommoding them; no European would have -been able to pursue the work for any length of time. It was -about noon, and the skipper told us this was the best time for -fishing, as the higher the sun, the more distinctly the diver is able -to distinguish the trepang crawling at the bottom. Scarce had -they thrown their booty into the boat when they disappeared -again under the water, and as soon as a boat was sufficiently -laden, it was instantly conveyed to the shore, and succeeded by -another.</p> - -<p>"The holothuria of Raffles Bay is about six inches long, and -two inches thick. It forms a large cylindrical fleshy mass, -almost without any outward sign of an organ, and as it creeps -very slowly along is easily caught. The essential qualities of a -good fisherman are great expertness in diving, and a sharp eye -to distinguish the holothurias from the similarly coloured sea-bottom.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">« 342 »</a></span></p> - -<p>"The trepang is first thrown into a kettle filled with boiling sea-water. -After a few minutes, it is taken out of its hot-bath and -ripped open with a knife to cleanse it of its intestines. It is -then thrown into a second kettle, where a small quantity of -water and the torrefied rind of a mimosa produce dense vapours. -This is done to smoke the trepang for better preservation. Finally, -it is dried in the sun, or in case of bad weather under the above-mentioned -shed. I tasted the trepang, and found it had some -resemblance to lobster. In the China market the Malays -sell it to the dealers for about fifteen rupees the picul of 125 -pounds. From the earliest times, the Malays have possessed -the monopoly of this trade in those parts, and Europeans will -never be able to deprive them of it, as the economy of their -outfit and the extreme moderation of their wants forbid all -competition. About four in the afternoon the Malays had -terminated their work. In less than half an hour the kettles -and utensils were brought on board, and before night-fall we saw -the praos vanish from our sight."</p> - -<p>The inhabitants of the island of Waigiou, to the north of New -Guinea, prepare the trepang in the Malay manner, and barter it -for cotton and woollen stuffs, which are brought to them by some -Chinese junks. "In every hut," says Lesson, "we found great -heaps of this dried leathery substance, which has no particular -taste to recommend it, and is so highly esteemed by the Chinese -for no other reason than because they ascribe to it,—as to some -other gelatinous substances, as agar-agar, shark-fins, and edible -bird's nests,—peculiar invigorating properties, by means of which -their enervated bodies are rendered fit for new excesses."</p> - -<p>The Feejee islanders have the reputation of being the greatest -cannibals and the most perfidious savages of the whole Pacific, -yet the trepang fishery attracts many American and European -speculators to that dangerous archipelago. Captain Wilkes, of the -United States Exploring Expedition, found there a countryman, -Captain Eagleston, who had been successful in more than one of -these expeditions, and obligingly communicated to him all the -particulars of his adventurous trade. There are six valuable sorts -of biche de mer, or trepang; the most esteemed is found on -the reefs one or two fathoms deep, where it is caught by diving. -The inferior sorts occur on reefs which are dry, or nearly so, at -low water, where they are picked up by the natives, who also -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">« 343 »</a></span> -fish the biche de mer on rocky coral bottoms by the light of the -moon or of torches, as they come forth by night to feed. The -most lucrative fisheries are on the northern side of Viti Levu. -They require a large building for drying, with rows of double -staging, on which reeds are placed. Slow fires are kept up by -natives underneath, about fifteen hands being required to do -the ordinary work of a house.</p> - -<p>Before beginning, the services of some chief must be secured, -who undertakes the building of the house, and sets his dependants -at work to fish. The usual price is a whale's tooth for a -hogshead of the animals just as they are taken on the reef; but -they are also bought with muskets, powder, balls, vermilion, -blue beads, and cotton cloth of the same colour. When the -animals are brought on shore, they are measured into bins -containing about fifty hogsheads, where they remain until next -day. They are then cut along the belly for a length of three or -four inches, taking care not to cut too deep, as this would cause -the fish to spread open, which would diminish its value. They -are then thrown into boilers, two men attending each pot, and -relieving each other, so that the work may go on night and day. -No water need be added, as the fish itself yields moisture enough -to prevent burning. After draining on a platform for about an -hour, they are taken to the house and laid four inches deep -upon the lower battens, and afterwards upon the upper ones, -where they remain three or four days. Before being taken on -board they are carefully picked, all damp pieces being removed. -They are stowed in bulk, and sold in Manilla or Canton by the -picul, which brings from fifteen to twenty-five dollars. In this -manner Captain Eagleston had collected in the course of seven -months, and at a trifling expense, a cargo of 1200 piculs, worth -about 25,000 dollars. The outfit is small, but the risk is great, -as no insurance can be effected; and it requires no small activity -and enterprise to conduct this trade. A thorough knowledge of -native character is essential to success, and the utmost vigilance -and caution must always be observed to prevent surprise, or -avoid difficulties.</p> - -<p>No large canoes should ever be allowed to remain alongside -the vessel, and a chief of high rank should be kept on board as -a hostage. That these precautions are by no means unnecessary, -is proved by the frequent attempts of the savages to cut off -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">« 344 »</a></span> -small vessels trading on their coasts. One of the most frequent -methods is to dive and lay hold of the cable; this, when the -wind blows fresh to the shore, is cut, in order that the vessel may -drift upon it, or in other cases a rope is attached to the cable by -which the vessel may be dragged ashore. The time chosen is -just before daylight. The moment the vessel touches the land, -it is treated as a prize sent by the gods, and the crew murdered, -roasted, and devoured.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 342px;"> -<img src="images/344.png" width="342" height="186" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Sea-horse.</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">« 345 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_XVII" id="CHAP_XVII">CHAP. XVII.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">CŒLENTERATA.</p> - -<p class="caption2">POLYPS AND JELLY-FISHES.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">Thread-cells or Urticating Organs.—Sertulariæ.—Campanulariadæ.—Hydrozoie -Acalephæ.—Medusidæ.—Lucernariadæ.—Calycophoridæ.—The Velella.—The -Portuguese Man-of-war.—Anecdote of a Prussian Sailor.—Alternating Fixed -and Free-swimming Generations of Hydrozoa.—Actinozoa.—Ctenophora.—Their -Beautiful Construction.—Sea-anemones.—Dead Man's Toes.—Sea-pens.—Sea-rods.—Red -Coral.—Coral Fishery.—Isis hippuris.—Tropical Lithophytes.—History -of the Coral Islands.—Darwin's Theory of their Formation.—The -progress of their Growth above the level of the Sea.</div> - - -<p>Despite the low rank they occupy in the hierarchy of animal -life, the Cœlenterata, comprising the numerous families of the -Jelly-fishes and Polyps, play a most important part in the household -of the ocean, for the sea is frequently covered for miles -and miles with their incalculable hosts, and whole archipelagos -and continents are fringed with the calcareous structures they -raise from the bottom of the deep.</p> - -<p>Their organisation is more simple than that of the preceding -classes, for they have neither the complex intestinal tube of the -polyzoa or the sea-urchins nor the jointed rays or arms of the -star-fishes; their whole digestive apparatus is but a simple sac, -and their instincts are reduced to the mere prehension of the -food that the currents bring within reach of their tentacles, or -to the retraction of these organs when exposed to a hostile -attack.</p> - -<p>But, simple as they are, they have been provided by Nature -with a comparatively formidable weapon in those remarkable -"thread-cells," or urticating organs, which are so constantly met -with in their integuments, and chiefly in their tentacles.</p> - -<p>The thread-cells are composed of a double-walled sac having -its open extremity produced into a short sheath terminating in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">« 346 »</a></span> -a long thread. A number of barbs or hooks are sometimes -disposed spirally around the sheath, the thread itself being often -delicately serrated. Under pressure or irritation the thread-cell -suddenly breaks, its fluid escapes, and the delicate thread is -so rapidly projected that the eye is utterly unable to follow the -process. The violent protrusion of this barbed missile, along -with the acrid secretion of the cell, causes many a worm or -crustacean of equal or superior strength, that might have gone -forth as victor from the struggle of life, to succumb to the cœlenterate, -and is even in many cases exceedingly irritating to the -human skin. Besides enabling its possessor to derive his subsistence -from animals whose activity, as compared with his own, -might be supposed to have removed them altogether out of the -reach of danger, these stings serve also as admirable weapons of -defence, and many a rapacious crab or annelide that would -willingly have feasted upon a sea-anemone is no doubt repelled -by the venomous properties of its urticating tentacles.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 362px;"> -<img src="images/346.png" width="362" height="410" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Urticating Organs of Cœlenterata.<br /> - -<i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>. Threads and thread-cells of <i>Caryophyllia Smithii</i>.<br /> -<i>b.</i> Thread-cell of <i>Corynactis Allmani</i>.<br /> -<i>c.</i> Peculiar receptacle of <i>Willsia stellata</i>, containing thread-cells.<br /> -<i>d.</i> A single thread-cell of the same.<br /> -<i>g.</i> Thread-cell of <i>Actinia crassicornis</i>.—(All magnified.)<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The Cœlenterata have been subdivided into two great classes: -the Hydrozoa, in which the wall of the digestive sac is not separated -from that of the cavity of the body, and the Actinozoa, in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">« 347 »</a></span> -which the stomach forms a distinct bag separated from the wall -of the cavity of the body by an intervening space, subdivided -into chambers by a series of vertical partitions. Each of these -two classes comprises a number of families of various forms and -habits of life. Thus among the Hydrozoa, with whom I begin -my brief survey of cœlenterate life, some are of a compound -nature (Sertularidæ, &c.), and, having once settled, remain permanently -attached to the site of their future existence; while -others (Rhizostomidæ, &c.) continue freely to roam through the -water, and others again appear in the various stages of their -development either as sessile polyps or as free-swimming -Medusæ.</p> - -<p>The sertularian tribes -are remarkable for the -elegance of their forms, -resembling feathers more -or less stiff and angular, -more or less flexible and -plumose. Their bleached -skeletons are among -the commonest objects -thrown out by the waves, -and so plant-like is their -appearance and manner -of growth that, like the -Flustræ, they might -easily be mistaken for -sea-weeds.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 342px;"> -<img src="images/347.png" width="342" height="531" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Sertularia tricuspidata.<br /> - -<i>a.</i> Skeleton (natural size).<br /> -<i>b.</i> Portion of the same, highly magnified.<br /> -<i>κ.</i> <i>Cœnosarc</i>, or common trunk.<br /> -<i>π′.</i> <i>Hydrotheca</i>, or protective envelope of individual polyp.<br /> -<i>ρ′.</i> <i>Gonoblastidium</i>, or reproductive germ or body.<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Originally produced -from a single ovulum, -every species, by the -evolution of a succession -of buds, after an order -peculiar to each, grows -up to a populous colony, -and simultaneously with -its growth the fibres by which it is rooted extend, and at uncertain -intervals give existence to similar bodies, whence new -polypiferous shoots take their origin, for these root fibres are -full of the same medullary substance with the rest of the body. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">« 348 »</a></span> -Thus the graceful sea-fir (<i>Sertularia cupressina</i>), the largest of -our native species, may attain a height of two or three feet, and -bear on its branches no less than 100,000 distinct microscopical -polypi, each with its own crown of tentacles, and each of these -armed with numerous thread-cells, as formidable in their way as -the crustacean's claw or the annelide's embrace. But though -each polyp has a certain share of independence yet its body is -continuous with the more fluid pulp that fills the branches and -stem of the common trunk, and by this means all the polyps of -it are connected together by a living thread, and made to constitute -a family whose workings are all regulated by one harmonious -instinct. Each of -these plant-like structures -may therefore be considered -as one animal furnished with -a multitude of armed heads -and mouths, and in all the -other compound cœlenterates -we find a similar organisation. -All the soft parts of a sertularian -polypary are enclosed -in a horny sheath (<i>hydrosoma</i>) -which develops peculiar -cup-shaped processes (<i>hydrothecæ</i>) -for the protection of -each individual polyp, and -capsules for the reproductive -bodies (<i>gonoblastidia</i>) in -which the ova are produced. -The various modifications of -form and structure of the -polyps, of their hydrothecæ and gonoblastidia, give rise to a -number of families, genera, and species. Thus in the Sertulariæ -the polypites are sessile, biserial, alternate, or paired; sessile and -uniserial in the Plumulariæ, and stalked in the Campanulariadæ.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 317px;"> -<img src="images/348.png" width="317" height="405" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><br /> - -<i>a.</i> <i>Laomedea neglecta</i>, natural size.<br /> -<i>b.</i> Portion of the same, magnified.<br /> -<i>c.</i> Reproductive body of <i>Campanularia volubilis</i>.<br /> -<i>e.</i> Reproductive body of <i>C. syringa</i>.<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The free-swimming Jelly-fishes, or Acalephæ, as they have -been named by Aristotle on account of the stinging properties -due to their urticating cells, are likewise among the commonest -objects left upon our shores by the retreating tide. When -stranded, they appear like gelatinous masses, disgusting to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">« 349 »</a></span> -the sight; but these shapeless objects were beautiful while -they moved along in their own element, and their simple -organisation shows no less the masterhand of the Creator -than the complex structure of the higher stages of animal -existence. With the exception of the Ctenophora, they all -belong to the hydrozoic class, and from the great diversity -of their structure have been ranged under four orders, Medusidæ, -Lucernaridæ, Calycophoridæ, and Physophoridæ.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 448px;"> -<img src="images/349.png" width="448" height="315" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><br /> - -<i>a.</i> Medusid seen in profile. <i>b.</i> The same viewed from below. <i>c.</i> Its polypite.<br /> -<i>d.</i> Part of its marginal canal, and other structures in connection therewith.<br /> -ν. Disk or swimming organ. π. Polypite. ψ. Veil. τ. Tentacle. χ. Radiating canal.<br /> -χ′. Marginal canal. ω. Reproductive organ. ο′. Coloured spot. ο″. Marginal vesicle.<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The Medusidæ are distinguished by their globular or bell-shaped -disc, which by its alternate contractions and expansions -forces them forward through the water. By contracting the -whole or only part of its disc, the medusa has it in its power to -direct its movements, and while thus swimming along with the -convex side of the disc directed forwards, and its oral lobes and -tentacles following behind like "streamers long and gay," it -may well rank among the most elegant children of the sea.</p> - -<p>From the roof of the disc a single polypite is suspended, -whose mouth, generally produced into four lobes, though in some -forms it is much more divided, passes into the central cavity -(stomach) of the swimming organ, from which canals (either -four in number, or multiples of four) radiate to join a circular -vessel surrounding the margin of the bell. A shelf-like membrane -or veil, extending around the margin, and highly contractile, -assists locomotion by narrowing more or less the aperture -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">« 350 »</a></span> -of the bell, and thus concentrating its efforts upon a narrower -space. More or less numerous tentacles generally depend from -the margin, and around it are disposed two kinds of remarkable -bodies—"vesicles" and "pigment spots," or "eye-specks"—which -are supposed to be able to communicate the impressions -of light and sound. This complexity of organisation in creatures -which Réaumur contemptuously styled mere lumps of -animated jelly is all the more wonderful when we consider that -they consist almost entirely of water, and shrink to a mere -nothing when abandoned by their vital power. Thus of a -medusa originally weighing many pounds but few traces remain -after death; the ground is covered with a light varnish; all the -rest has been absorbed by the thirsty sands.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/350.png" width="463" height="386" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Various forms of Medusidæ.<br /> - -<i>a.</i> <i>Aequorea formosa</i>, seen in profile. <i>b.</i> The same, viewed from above.<br /> -<i>c.</i> Upper view of <i>Willsia stellata</i>. <i>d.</i> <i>Slabberia conica.</i><br /> -<i>e.</i> Portion of the marginal canal of <i>Tiaropsis Pattersonii</i>.<br /> -<i>f.</i> Polypite of <i>Bougainvillea dinema</i>. <i>g.</i> Part of its marginal canal.<br /> -<i>h.</i> <i>Steenstrupia Owenii.</i> (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, and <i>d</i> are about the natural size; the others are magnified.)<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The oceanic or free-swimming forms of the Lucernaridæ -resemble the Medusidæ by their bell-shaped umbrella, but -differ from them by their internal structure, by the absence of -a marginal veil, by the nature of their canal system and marginal -bodies, and by their mode of development. The radiating -canals, never less than eight in number, send off numerous -branches, which form a very intricate network, and the vesicles -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">« 351 »</a></span> -and pigment-spots, here united into a single organ, termed the -lithocyst, are each protected externally by a sort of hood, whence -these jelly-fishes have been named "Stegonophthalmia," or -"covered-eyed," by Forbes, to distinguish them from the -naked-eyed "Gymnophthalmia," or Medusidæ. The Pelagidæ -(Chrysaora), which form one of the divisions of this group, are -simple, and have their margin surrounded with tentacles like the -Medusidæ, while the Rhizostomidæ have no marginal tentacles, -and consist of numerous polyps studding the trunks of a dependent -tree. These animals have consequently no central -mouth, but hundreds of little mouths all active for the welfare -of the community.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/351.png" width="485" height="451" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Oceanic forms of Lucernaridæ.<br /> - -<i>a.</i> <i>Rhizostoma pulmo.</i> <i>b.</i> <i>Chrysaora hysoscella.</i><br /> -<i>c.</i> Its lithocyst.—(All reduced.)<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The sessile Lucernaridæ differ from the other members of -the order by the narrow disc or stalk which serves to fix their -body when at rest. Their quadrangular mouth is in the centre -of the umbrella expansion, and round the margin of the -cup arise a number of short tentacles, disposed in eight or nine -tufts in Lucernaria, and forming one continuous series in -Carduella.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">« 352 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 324px;"> -<img src="images/352.png" width="324" height="163" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Lucernalia auricula. -(Natural size.)</div> -</div> - -<p>Though generally preferring to lie at anchor, the Lucernaridæ -are able to detach themselves, and to swim in an -inverted position by the -slowly repeated movements -of their cup-like umbrella. -When in a state of expansion, -few marine creatures -exceed them in beauty and -singularity of form; when -contracted, they are shapeless, -and easily overlooked. -"Their mode of progression," says Mr. Couch, "differs under -different circumstances. If intending to move to any great -distance, they do so by loosening their attachments, and then, by -various and active contortions, they waft themselves away till they -meet with any obstruction, where they rest; and if the situation -suits them, they fix themselves; if not, they move on in the -same manner to some other spot. If the change be only for a -short distance, as from one part of a leaf to another, they bend -their campanulate rims, and bring the tentacula in contact with -the jaws, and by them adhere to it. The foot-stalk is then -loosened and thrown forward and twirled about till it meets -with a place to suit it; it is then fixed, and the tentacula are -loosened, and in this way they move from one spot to another. -Sometimes they advance like the Actiniæ, by a gliding motion -of the stalk. In taking their prey, they remain fixed with their -tentacula expanded, and if any minute substance comes in contact -with any of the tufts, that tuft contracts, and is turned to -the mouth, while the others remain expanded watching for prey."</p> - -<p>The Calycophoridæ are distinguished by the cup-shaped -swimming organs, which form the most prominent part of their -body. Generally transparent like glass, their course upon -distant inspection is only revealed by the bright tints of -some of their appendages. In Diphyes, the type of the group, -the two cups (ν, ν′′) fit into each other so as to form a -more or less perfect close canal. The common stem of the -numerous polyp colony freely glides up and down the chamber -thus formed, into which it can be completely retracted, and -along its sides are placed the several appendages of the compound -creature, consisting chiefly of polypites (π), tentacles, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">« 353 »</a></span> -organs of reproduction. Large specimens of Diphyes attain, -when fully extended, a length of several inches, the stem -giving support to at least fifty -different polypites. The other -genera of the order exhibit a -great variety in the form and -arrangement of their various -parts; thus, in Vogtia, each of -the swimming organs (ν) is produced -into five points, of which -the three upper are much longer -and stronger than the two lower. -The individual polyps (π), large -in size, but few in number, are -congregated immediately under -the swimming apparatus, and -are provided with long and formidable -tentacula.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 295px;"> -<img src="images/353.png" width="295" height="467" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><i>a.</i> Diphyes -appendiculata.<br /> - -<i>b.</i> Vogtia pentacantha. -(Natural size.)</div> -</div> - -<p>In the Physophoridæ the -basal end of the common polyp -stem is modified so as to form a -float or aëriform sac, which is, -however, extremely different in -shape, structure, and size in the -various families. In the Velellæ, the float, whose under surface -is studded, besides one larger central polypite, with numerous -small nutritive, reproductive, and tentacular bodies, forms -a horizontal disc traversed by a diagonal triangular crest, and -divided into numerous hollow chambers. Thus equipped, the -semi-transparent velella, beautifully tinged with ultramarine, -sails on the surface of the warmer seas, but the currents of the -Gulf Stream, and the westerly winds, frequently drift it to the -coast of Ireland, where it is often found on the beach, entangled -in masses of sea-weed. Of the vast numbers in which it sometimes -occurs, Herr von Kittlitz relates an interesting instance in -his "Travels to Russian America and Micronesia." "Having -passed 30° N. lat. in the Pacific, the sea was suddenly found -covered with myriads of Velellæ, of a size somewhat greater -than the Atlantic species." Two days long the ship sailed -through these floating masses, when suddenly the scene changed, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">« 354 »</a></span> -and large clusters of barnacles appeared, which, having no -doubt devoured the soft parts of the Velellæ, now invested their -horny skeletons. As the ship advanced, the number of the -barnacle clusters augmented, which, to judge from the various -sizes of the individuals, must have taken some time for their -formation, and were apparently destined to increase until the -final destruction of the Velellæ hosts, into which, from their -greater weight, they were continually drifting deeper and -deeper by the action of the currents. Again two or three days -elapsed, and as the surface of the sea occupied by both species -of animals extended at the least over four degrees of latitude, -a faint idea may be formed of their numbers. Shoals of -dolphins and sperm-whales were busy exterminating the barnacles, -as these had devoured the Velellæ. The whole scene -was an example on the grandest scale of the destruction and -regeneration perpetually going on in the wastes of the ocean.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 462px;"> -<img src="images/354.png" width="462" height="373" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><br /> - -<i>a</i>. <i>Velella spirans</i>, somewhat enlarged.<br /> -<i>b.</i> One of its smaller polypites, much magnified.<br /> -ν. Crest. λ. Liver. ο. Mouth of polypite. δ. Its digestive cavity.<br /> -φ′. Rounded elevations, containing thread-cells. ρ. Medusiform zoöids.<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">« 355 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 320px;"> -<img src="images/355.png" width="320" height="571" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Physalia caravella.—(Considerably reduced.)<br /> - -α. Pneumatophore, or float-bladder.<br /> -π. Polypites. τ. Tentacles.<br /> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>The Physaliæ, which far surpass the Velellæ in size and -beauty, are also inhabitants of the warmer seas, where the <i>Physalia -caravella</i>, or "Portuguese man-of-war," is the mariner's -admiration. On a large float-bladder eight or nine inches long -and three inches broad, whose transparent crystal shines in every -shade of purple and azure, rises a vertical comb, the upper -border of which sparkles with fiery red. This beautiful float -has a small opening at either -end, and strong muscular -walls, so that by their contraction -its cavity can be considerably -diminished. And -thus partly by the escape of -air forced out through the -openings, and partly by the -compression of what remains, -the specific gravity is so much -altered as to admit of the -animal's sinking into the -deep when danger threatens. -Numerous polyps proceed -from the lower surface, accompanied -by tentacles having -a sac-like extension at -their base, and hanging down -in beautifully blue and violet -coloured locks or streamers. -When fully extended, these -tentacles form fishing lines -fifteen or sixteen feet long, -which, as their thread-cells -are uncommonly large, at -once paralyse the resistance of the fish or cephalopod they meet -with. Then rolling together, they convey the senseless prey to -the numerous mouths of the compound animal, which, sucking -like leeches, pump out its nutritious juices. In this manner the -greedy physalia devours many a bonito or flying-fish of a size -far superior to its own, and such is the corrosive power of -its tentacles that even man is punished with excruciating -pains when heedlessly or ignorantly he comes within their reach. -"One day," says Dutertre in his "History of the Antilles," "as -I was sailing in a small boat, I saw a physalia, and as I was -anxious to examine it more closely, I tried to get hold of it. -But scarcely had I stretched out my hand when it was suddenly -enveloped by a net of tentacles, and after the first impression of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">« 356 »</a></span> -cold (for the animal has a cold touch) it seemed as if my arm -had been plunged up to the shoulder in a caldron of boiling oil, -so that I screamed with pain." In his journey round the -world, Dr. Meyen also relates the case of a sailor who jumped -overboard to catch a physalia. But scarce had he come within -reach of its tentacles when the excruciating pain almost deprived -him of sensation, and he was with great difficulty hauled -out of the water. A severe fever was the consequence, and -his life was for some time despaired of.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/356.png" width="210" height="587" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Physophora Philippii.<br /> - -α. Pneumatophore. ν. Swimming-bells.<br /> -φ. Hydrocysts. π. Polypites. τ. Tentacles.<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Several of the Physophoridæ are provided, besides the float, -with swimming-bells (<i>nectocalyces</i>) and peculiar appendages -or bracteæ (<i>hydrophyllia</i>), which, overlapping -the polypites, serve for their -protection. The graceful <i>Athorybia -rosacea</i> possesses from twenty to forty -of these organs inserted in two or three -circlets immediately below the pneumatocyst, -and above a much smaller number -of polypites.</p> - -<p>It has the power of alternately raising -and depressing them so as to render -them agents of propulsion.</p> - -<p>The Physophoræ have no hydrophyllia, -but their swimming-bells are considerably -developed, and serve as powerful -instruments of locomotion. They are -also provided with certain processes -termed "hydrocysts," which some observers -appear disposed to regard as -organs of touch. Such are but a few -of the numerous genera of the Physophoridæ.</p> - -<p>Of the jelly-fishes in general it may -be remarked that, though they are -denizens of the frigid as well as of -the temperate and tropical seas, their -beauty increases on advancing towards -the equator, for while the Medusæ in -our latitudes are generally dull and obscure, those of the torrid -zone appear in all the splendour of the azure, golden-yellow, or -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">« 357 »</a></span> -ruby-red tints which distinguish the birds and fishes of those -sunny regions. They are indeed of no immediate use to man, -but their indirect services are not to be despised. They partly -nourish the colossal whale, and thus, converted into oil, attract -thousands of hardy seamen to the icy seas; numberless Crustacea -and molluscs also live upon their hosts, and are in their -turn devoured by the mighty herring shoals, whose capture -gives employment and wealth to whole nations of fishermen.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/357.png" width="466" height="237" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Development of Chrysaora hysoscella.<br /> - -<i>a.</i> Ova with gelatinous investment. <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>. Free ova.<br /> -<i>d.</i> Young Hydratuba developed therefrom. <i>e.</i> The same with eight tentacles.<br /> -<i>f.</i> Hydratuba in its ordinary condition. <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>. More advanced forms, with constrictions.<br /> -<i>i.</i> A specimen undergoing fission, in which the tentacles are seen to arise from below the constricted portion, while its upper segments separate and become free-swimming zoöids (<i>k</i>).<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Armed with that wonderful instrument, the microscope, -naturalists have been taught to disunite in many cases animals -which from their external resemblance were formerly supposed -to belong to the same class or family; and to join others to all -appearances extremely dissimilar. Thus the Bryozoa have -been detached from the polyps, in spite of their similitude of -growth, while the roaming and fixed Hydrozoa have been found -in many cases to be but alternating generations or various -phases of development of the same animal. Take, for instance, -<i>Chrysaora hysoscella</i> (see preceding figure, <a href="#Page_351">page 351</a>), -one of our commonest jelly-fishes. The ova this free-swimming -creature produces might naturally be supposed to develop -themselves into equally free-swimming Chrysaoræ; but instead -of this they soon become attached, and grow into a colony of -sessile Hydratubæ, as, at this stage of their career, they have -been termed. For years they may thus continue, but then the -evolutions shown in the annexed illustration take place until -free-swimming zoöids are detached, which eventually become -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">« 358 »</a></span> -similar to the huge Chrysaora, from one of whose ova the -primitive hydratube was produced.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/358.png" width="450" height="390" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Various forms of Coryniadæ.<br /> - -<i>a</i> and <i>b</i>. <i>Vorticlava humilis.</i> <i>c.</i> Four polypites of <i>Hydractinia echinata</i>, growing on a piece of shell.<br /> -<i>d.</i> Portion of <i>Syncoryne Sarsii</i>, with medusiform zoöids (ρ), budding from between the tentacles (τ) of the polypite (ο).—(All, except <i>a</i>, magnified.)<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>In a similar manner the Coryniadæ, a family of hydrozoic -polyps, which, unpossessed of the firm investment of the sertularians, -are frequently found decking sea-weeds and stones with -dense arborescent structures, give birth to detached medusiform -zoöids. On the other hand, many medusid forms produce -organisms directly resembling their parents, and many fixed -Hydrozoa, such as the Sertularidæ, do not give birth to free-swimming -medusoids, but to ciliated gemmules, which, escaping -from the capsules in which they had been formed, soon evolve -themselves into true polyps. A great part of this "strange -eventful history" is still enveloped in darkness, as the life of -comparatively but few Hydrozoa has been thoroughly investigated; -so much is certain that future observations will -bring many new interesting relationships to light, and add new -links to the chain which binds together the various members of -the hydrozoic class.</p> - -<p>Although the Ctenophora, thus named from the ciliated bands -which constitute so obvious a feature in their physiognomy, closely -resemble the Medusæ by their gelatinous consistence and their -mode of life, yet a more complex organisation assigns them the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">« 359 »</a></span> -highest rank among the Actinozoa, and approximates them to the -sea-anemones. The elegant <i>Pleurobrachia pileus</i>, which in the -summer so often appears on our coasts in countless multitudes, is -the species that has been longest known. The melon-shaped body, -from half an inch to nearly an inch in length, is clear as crystal, -and divided by eight longitudinal equidistant ribs into eight -equally large segments or fields. These ribs are covered with -numberless flat paddles or ciliæ, placed one above another, and -obeying the will of the animal. When it wishes to swim backwards -or forwards, it sets all its paddles in motion, whose united -power drives the living crystal rapidly and gracefully through -the water; and when it wishes to turn, it merely stops their -movements on one side. In sunlight, the ribs of the pleurobrachia -sparkle with all the colours of the rainbow; in darkness -they emit a beautiful cerulean phosphorescence.</p> - -<p>The prehensile apparatus of the elegant little creature is no -less beautifully organised than its locomotive mechanism. It -consists of two long tentacles emerging from the under part of -the body, and capable of so wonderful a contraction as entirely -to disappear within its cavity, where they are lodged in tubular -sheaths. On one side they are provided at regular intervals -with shorter and much thinner filaments, which roll together -spirally when the chief tentacle contracts, and expand when it -is stretched forth. On the secondary branches themselves still -more minute threads are said to have been observed. Words -are unable to express the beauty which the entire apparatus -presents in the living animal, or the marvellous ease with which -it can be alternately contracted, extended, and bent at an -infinite variety of angles.</p> - -<p>Most of the Ctenophora are spheroidal or ovate, but in -Cestum elongation takes place to an extraordinary extent, at -right angles to the direction of the digestive track, a flat ribbon-shaped -body, three or four feet in length, being the result. The -Callianiræ are remarkable for having their ciliated ribs elevated -on prominent wing-like appendages, and the Beroës, which have -no tentacles, receive their nourishment through a widely gaping -mouth, whose size makes them amends for the deficiency of -other prehensile organs. Such are but a few of the varieties -exhibited by the beautiful and interesting Ctenophora.</p> - -<p>In habit they resemble the oceanic Hydrozoa, like them -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">« 360 »</a></span> -swimming near the surface in calm weather, and again descending -on the approach of a squall. Like them also, their delicate -structures rapidly disappear when removed from the sea-water -and exposed to the rays of the sun, an almost imperceptible -film remaining the only trace of what was erewhile an active -and beautiful organism. Yet in spite of their aqueous consistence -the Ctenophora are very voracious, feeding on a number of -floating marine animals, among which their own kindred seem -especially to be preferred. The prey once swallowed is assimilated -with a rapidity which to some may seem strange when -the simple structure of the digestive apparatus is considered.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 410px;"> -<img src="images/360.png" width="402" height="540" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Various forms of Ctenophora.<br /> - -<i>a. Cestram Veneris.</i> <i>b. Eurhamphæa vexilligera.</i> <i>c. Beroë rufescens.</i><br /> -<i>d. Callianira triploptera.</i> <i>e. Pleurobrachia pileus.</i> (<i>a</i> is considerably reduced; <i>b</i> slightly so; <i>c</i> and <i>e</i> are about the -natural size; the size of <i>d</i> is uncertain.)<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The land has its flowers; they bloom in our gardens, they -adorn our meadows, they perfume the skirts of the forest, they -brave the winds that blow round the high mountain peaks, -they conceal themselves in the clefts of rocks, or spring forth -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">« 361 »</a></span> -out of ruins; wherever a plant can find room there Flora -appears with her lovely gifts.</p> - -<p>But the ocean also has its large radiate anemones, whose -lustrous petals, still more wonderful than those of the land, for -they are endowed with animal life, form the chief ornament of -the crystal tide-pools, or of the sheltered basins of our rock-bound -shores.</p> - -<p>More than twenty species of these marine flowers, many of -them displaying a gorgeous wreath of richly coloured tentacles, -are denizens of the British waters; but the finest and largest -are found along the margin of the equatorial ocean, where they -occasionally measure a foot in diameter. Their tints are as -various as the arrangement of their prehensile crown; fiery red -and apple-green, yellow and white as driven snow. Sometimes -the tentacles form a gorgon's head of long thick worms, clothed -in satin and velvet, and sometimes a thicket of delicate filaments.</p> - -<p>Nothing seems more inoffensive than a sea-anemone expanding -its disc in the tranquil waters, but woe to the wandering -annelide, to the shrimp, or whelk, or nimble entomostracon, that -comes within reach of its urticating tentacles, for, plunged into -a fatal lethargy, it is soon hurried to the gaping mouth of its -voracious enemy, ever ready to engulf it in a living tomb. The -morsel thus swallowed is retained in the stomach for ten or -twelve hours, when the undigested remains are regurgitated, -enveloped in a glairy fluid, not unlike the white of an egg. -The size of the prey is frequently in unseemly disproportion -to the preyer, being often equal in bulk to itself. Thus Dr. -Johnstone mentions a specimen of <i>Actinia crassicornis</i>, that -might have been originally two inches in diameter, and that -had somehow contrived to swallow a scallop-valve of the size -of an ordinary saucer. The shell fixed within the stomach was -so placed as to divide it completely into two halves, so that the -body, stretched tensely over, had become thin and flattened like -a pancake. All communication between the inferior portion of -the stomach and the mouth was of course prevented; yet instead -of emaciating and dying of an atrophy, the animal had availed -itself of what undoubtedly had been a very untoward accident -to increase its enjoyments and chances of double fare. A new -mouth, furnished with two rows of numerous tentacula, was -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">« 362 »</a></span> -opened upon what had been the base, and led to the under -stomach; the individual had indeed become a sort of Siamese -twin, but with greater intimacy and extent in its unions.</p> - -<p>From this instance we may naturally infer that the Actiniæ -are no mean adepts in the art of accommodating themselves to -circumstances. They may be kept without food for upwards of -a year; they may be immersed in water hot enough to blister -their skins, or exposed to the frost, or placed within the exhausted -receiver of the air-pump, and their hardy vital principle -will triumph over all these ordeals. Their reproductive powers -are truly astonishing. Cut off their tentacles, and new ones -sprout forth; repeat the operation, and they germinate again. -Divide their bodies transversely or perpendicularly through the -middle, and each half will develop itself into a more or less -perfect individual.</p> - -<p>But these apparently indestructible creatures die almost -instantly when plunged into fresh water, which is for them, or -for so many other marine animals, a poison no less fatal than -prussic acid to man.</p> - -<p>Though generally firmly attached by means of a glutinous -secretion from their enlarged base to rocks, shells, and other -extraneous bodies, the sea-anemones can leave their hold, and -remove to another station, whensoever it pleases them, either by -gliding along with a slow and almost inperceptible movement -or by reversing the body and using the tentacula as feet; or, -lastly, inflating the body with water so as to diminish its specific -weight, they detach themselves, and are driven to a distance by -the random motion of the waves. They are extremely sensible -not only to external irritations—the slightest touch causing -them to shrink into a shrivelled shapeless mass—but also of -atmospherical changes. They hide their crown under a glare -of light; but in a calm and unclouded sky expand and disclose -every beauty, while they remain contracted and veiled in cloudy -or stormy weather. The Abbé Dicquemare has even found, -from several experiments, that they foretell changes of the -weather as certainly as the barometer. When they remain -naturally closed there is reason to fear a storm, high wind, -and a troubled sea; but a fair and calm season is to be anticipated -when they lie relaxed with expanded tentacula. The -ova of the Actiniæ are detained for some time after their separation -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">« 363 »</a></span> -in the interseptal spaces, or even in the stomach, and -there hatched, as it were, into their lasting form. On emerging -into the open ocean, they already resemble their full-grown -relatives, the only difference consisting in a smaller number of -tentacles and septa. The sea-anemones were consequently -supposed to be viviparous, an error which more accurate observations -have fully refuted.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 607px;"> -<img src="images/363.png" width="607" height="430" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Alcyonidium elegans.<br /> - -<i>a.</i> Branch to which the polypary is fixed. <i>b.</i> Foot. <i>c.</i> Trunk.<br /> -<i>d.</i> Polyp-bearing branches. <i>e.</i> Polyps contracted within the foot.<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Both the Ctenophora and the Sea-Anemones are single or -solitary, but the vast majority of the Actinozoa consist of -aggregated animals attached to one another by lateral appendages, -or by their posterior extremity, and participating in a -common life, while at the same time each member of the family -enjoys its independent and individual existence. These compound -polyps are all either <i>Alcyonarians</i>, in which each polyp -is furnished with eight pinnately fringed tentacles, or <i>Zoantharians</i>, -in which the tentacula are simple or variously modified, -and generally disposed in multiples of five or six. The Alcyonarians -are again subdivided into the four families of the Alcyonidæ, -the Pennatulidæ, the Gorgonidæ, and the Tubiporidæ.</p> - -<p>The Alcyonidæ vary much in form, being either lobed, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">« 364 »</a></span> -branched, rounded, or existing in a shapeless mass or crust, -while the interior substance is of a spongy or cork-like nature, -surrounded by tubular rays enclosed in a sort of tough fleshy -membrane. The <i>Alcyonium digitatum</i> is one of our most -common marine productions, so that on many parts of the coast -scarce a shell or stone can be dredged from the deep that does -not support one or more specimens. As it lies on the shore, it -certainly offers few inducements from its beauty to recommend -it to further notice, and seems fully to warrant the more expressive -than elegant names of "cow's paps," "dead man's toes," -or "dead man's hands," which the fishermen have conferred on -it. On putting one of these shapeless masses into a glass of -sea-water, however, and allowing it to remain for a little time -undisturbed, its real nature becomes apparent, and a series of -most interesting phenomena present themselves. The dull -orange mass, which was at first opaque and of a dense texture, -slowly swells and becomes more diaphanous, apparently by the -absorption of the surrounding water into its substance, until, -having attained its full dimensions, numerous dimples appear, -studding its entire surface, each of which, as it gradually -expands, reveals itself to be a cell, the residence of a polyp, -which, gradually protruding itself, pushes out a cylindrical -body, clear as crystal, fluted like a column, and terminated by a -coronet of eight delicately fringed tentacula. The unsightly -aspect of the trunk, which reminded us of cadaverous fingers -or toes, is now forgotten, just as we forget the uncouth branches -of a cactus when we see it clothed with its gorgeous flowers. -All the polyp-cells are connected by a complicated system of -inosculating canals, bound together by a fibrous network, and -lying imbedded in a transparent jelly, which forms the fleshy -part of the compound animal. The eggs are lodged in the -tubes, and at length discharged through the mouth.</p> - -<p>The Sea-Pens, or Pennatulæ, are remarkable from the circumstance -that, although they possess an internal calcareous support, -they are not permanently attached to foreign bodies. -The lower portion of the stem, which strikingly resembles the -barrel of a quill, is naked, and, when found in the bays upon -our coast, is generally stuck into the mud at the bottom like -a pen into an inkstand, whilst the upper two thirds of the stem -are feathered with long closely set pinnæ, comparable to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">« 365 »</a></span> -barbs of a quill, from the margin of which are protruded the -rows of polyps which minister to the support of the common -body of the compound -animal. The purple-red -<i>Pennatula phosphorea</i>, -which is found in great -plenty sticking to the baits -on the fishermen's lines, -especially when they use -muscles to bait their hooks, -is one of the most singular -and elegant of the British -sea-pens. Some authors -believe that it is capable -of using its fin-like arms -like oars, but observations -are wanting in corroboration. -The pale orange fawn -<i>Virgularia mirabilis</i>, an -allied species, has a more elongated slender form than the -pennatula. Its rod-like body, from six to ten inches long, is -furnished with short fin-like lobes of a crescent shape, which -approach in pairs, but are not strictly opposite; -they are about the eighth of an -inch asunder, and are furnished along -the margins with a row of urn-shaped -polyp-cells. These very delicate and -brittle animals seem to be confined to a -small circumscribed part of the coast, -which has a considerable depth and a -muddy bottom, and the fishermen accustomed -to dredge at that place believe from the cleanness -of the Virgulariæ, when brought to the surface, that they -stand erect at the bottom with one end fixed in the mud -or clay.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 343px;"> -<img src="images/365a.png" width="343" height="397" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Grey Sea-Pen.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 184px;"> -<img src="images/365b.png" width="184" height="203" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Virgularia mirabilis.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Gorgonidæ (Gorgonia, Primnoa, Corallium, Isis, Mopsea) -mainly differ from the Alcyonidæ in having an erect and -branching stem, firmly rooted by its expanded base. A soft -and fleshy crust, studded with numerous polyps, envelops a -solid horny or calcareous axis, which serves as a support to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">« 366 »</a></span> -arborescent structure, and enables it to rise to a height of -several feet, or even, if we are to credit the Norway fishermen, -to rival our forest-trees in magnitude. This they conclude to -be the case from their nets being sometimes entangled on the -trunk or stem of the <i>Primnoa lepadifera</i>, as this large species -of gorgon is called, when the united strength of several men is -unable to free the nets. "They have even assured me," says -Sir A. Capell de Brooke, "that the corals grow to the height of -fifty or sixty feet, as they judge from the following circumstance, -which seems clear and simple. The lines for the red-fish, which -is found in the greatest plenty where the primnoa grows, are -set in very deep water at the distance of about six feet from the -bottom, and in the parts where it is flat and level, which they -can tell from their soundings. On drawing up the lines at the -distance of forty, fifty, or sixty feet, and sometimes even more -from the bottom, they get entangled with some of the upper -parts or branches of the gorgon, which are thus torn off, and -hence they reasonably conclude that the animal rises to this -height."</p> - -<p>The Gorgonidæ either branch away irregularly like shrubs, -or else their branches inosculate and form a kind of net or fan, -as in the <i>Flabellum Veneris</i>, a beautiful Indian species, which -some naturalist of more than usual fancy has appropriated to -the use of Venus.</p> - -<p>Four British species of Gorgonia are recorded. <i>G. verrucosa</i>, -the commonest of these, abounds in deep water along the whole -of the south coast of England. It is more than twelve inches -in height, and fifteen or seventeen in breadth, and expands -laterally in numerous cylindrical and warty branches. It is -somewhat fan-shaped, but does not form a continuous network. -Its coral has a dense black axis, with a snow-white pith in the -centre, and is covered, while living, with a flesh-coloured crust. -The flexible corneous stem of the Gorgonias enables them to -bend beneath the passing current, and thus prevents their -long and slender ramifications from breaking, while the hard -calcareous branches of the valuable red coral (<i>Corallium -nobile</i>) are sufficiently short and strong to resist the violence -of the sea. This beautiful marine production, though also -occurring in the Ethiopic Ocean and about Cape Negro, is -chiefly found in the Mediterranean, on the shores of Provence, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">« 367 »</a></span> -about the isles of Majorca and Minorca, on the south of Sicily, -and on the coast of Africa. It grows on rocky bottoms, and -frequently in an inverted position, or downwards from the under -surface of stones, generally at a depth of several hundred feet.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 548px;"> -<img src="images/367.png" width="548" height="641" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Red Coral.<br /> - -Gorgonia nobilis. (A small detached portion magnified.)</div> -</div> - -<p>When alive, the soft rind which invests the valuable central -stony axis is studded with snow-white polyps. The fishery is -still carried on in the same way as it was described by Marsigli -150 years ago. The net is composed of two strong rafters of -wood tied crosswise, with leads fixed to them; to these they -fasten a quantity of hemp twisted loosely round and intermingled -with some loose netting. This apparatus is let down, -and while the boat is sailing or being rowed along, alternately -raised and dropped so as to sweep a certain extent of the bottom -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">« 368 »</a></span> -and to entangle the corals in its coarse meshes. The labour, -as may be imagined, is very great; frequently, after a long toil, -the net is brought up empty, or filled only with other marine -productions, which, however interesting they may be to the -naturalist, are perfectly worthless in the eyes of the coral-fisher; -and not seldom immense exertions are required to loosen it from -the rocks, among which it has got entangled.</p> - -<p>The chief seat of the coral-fishery is at present along the -coasts of Algeria and Tunis, where it is almost exclusively -carried on by the Italians, who fit out more than 400 small -ships, or "corallines," of from five to sixteen tons, for this purpose. -In spring this fleet of nut-shells leaves the ports of Torre -del Greco, Sicily, Sardinia, and Genoa, and proceeds to its -various points of destination, where it remains until the -autumnal gales compel the fragile "corallines" to retire. Every -month or fortnight the products of the fishery are delivered up -to agents in Bona or La Calle, under whose direction the corals -are sorted, packed in cases, and sent to Naples, Leghorn, or -Genoa, where they are cut, polished, and manufactured into -necklaces and other ornaments or trinkets. About 4,000 sailors -are employed in the fishery, each man receiving an average pay -of 380 franks for the season, which he almost entirely brings -home with him, his trifling expenses on land being generally -defrayed by the small pieces of coral he manages to conceal -from the sharp eye of the "padrone." The average quantity -of corals fished by each "coralline" amounts to about six -hundredweight, and the total value of the fishery to more than -200,000<i>l.</i>, without taking into account the produce of the fisheries -at Stromboli, in the Straits of Messina, and other parts of the -Italian coast.</p> - -<p>The manufactured articles sell of course for a much higher -price, so that the "red coral" is a by no means inconsiderable -article of trade. Great quantities are exported to India, and in -Leghorn and Genoa several large manufactories work exclusively -for that distant market, where the blood-red corals, whose -colour harmonises with the dark complexion of the native -ladies, are particularly in demand, while those of a roseate hue -are preferred in Europe.</p> - -<p>The fishermen have a strange belief that the corals are by -nature soft, but immediately turn into stone from terror when -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">« 369 »</a></span> -entangled by the net. There is also a legendary tale of an -enchanted coral-tree, large and powerful as an oak, which is -said to grow in a deep grotto at the foot of Mont Alban, on -the Ligurian coast. It extends its arms when no danger is -nigh, but immediately withdraws them, like a cuttle-fish, at the -approach of an insidious enemy. This superstition is so firmly -rooted that, while Professor Vogt was at Villafranca in 1865, a -"coralline" arrived from Torre del Greco for the purpose of -fishing for this imaginary prey. The "padrone" swore he -would not leave the neighbourhood before he had secured his -prize, hoping to enrich himself with the spoils, but doomed, no -doubt, to a grievous disappointment, and a considerable loss, on -a coast where but few ordinary corals are found.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 555px;"> -<img src="images/369.png" width="555" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Isis hippuris.</div> -</div> - -<p>In the elegant <i>Isis hippuris</i>, which grows in the Indian Ocean, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">« 370 »</a></span> -and is frequently found in cabinets of natural history, the horny -and calcareous matter of the axis is disposed in alternate joints, -so as to unite flexibility with firmness. A similar structure of -alternately disposed calcareous and horny segments occurs in -Mopsea. In Isis branches are developed from the calcareous, -in Mopsea from the horny segments of the axis.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 266px;"> -<img src="images/370a.png" width="266" height="184" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Tubipora Musica.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Tubiporidæ are confined to the narrow limits of a single -genus containing but few species. Here the polypary is composed -of distinct calcareous tubes -rising from a fleshy or membranaceous -basis, and arranged in successive -stages. These tubes are -separated from each other by -considerable intervals, but mutually -support each other by the -interposition of external horizontal -plates, formed of the same -dense substance as themselves, by which they are united together, -so that a mass of these tubes exhibits an arrangement -something like that of the pipes in an organ, whence the -beautiful Indian species, <i>Tubipora musica</i>, has derived its -name. From the upper ends of the tubes the polyps are -protruded, and being, when alive, of a bright grass-green -colour, they contrast very beautifully with the rich crimson of -the tubes they inhabit.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 224px;"> -<img src="images/370b.png" width="224" height="145" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Caryophyllia.</div> -</div> - -<p>In our seas, the coralligenous Zoophytarians, distinguished by -the hard calcareous skeletons they deposit within their tissues -are but feebly represented by a few straggling Caryophylliæ, but -in the tropical ocean they branch out -into numerous families, genera, and -species, and play a highly important -part in the economy of the maritime -domain. Originally proceeding from -single ova, which at first freely move -by means of vibratile ciliæ, and -become fixed after a short period of -erratic existence, they multiply by gemmation, and grow into -an immense variety of forms, of which the following description -by one who has long and attentively studied them in their -native haunts may serve to give an idea. "Trees of coral," -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">« 371 »</a></span> -says Professor Dana, "are well known; and although not emulating -in size the oaks of our forests—for they do not exceed -six or eight feet in height—they are gracefully branched, and -the whole surface blooms with coral polyps in place of leaves -and flowers. Shrubbery, tufts of rushes, beds of pinks, and -feathery mosses, are most exactly imitated. Many species spread -out in broad leaves or folia, and resemble some large-leaved plant -just unfolding; when alive, the surface of each leaf is covered -with polyp-flowers. The cactus, the lichen clinging to the rock, -and the fungus in all its varieties, have their numerous representatives. -Besides these forms imitating vegetation, there are -gracefully modelled vases, some of which are three or four feet -in diameter, made up of a network of branches and branchlets, -and sprigs of flowers. There are also solid coral hemispheres -like domes among the vases and shrubbery, occasionally ten -or even twenty feet in diameter, whose symmetrical surface is -gorgeously decked with polyp-stars of purple and emerald-green."</p> - -<p>Under such aspects appear the living organisms whose combined -efforts have mainly constructed those reefs and islands of -coral origin which now lie scattered far and wide over the -surface of the equatorial ocean. Words are inadequate to express -the splendour of the submarine gardens with which the -lithophytes clothe the rocky shores of the tropical seas.</p> - -<p>"There are few things more beautiful to look at," says Captain -Basil Hall, "than these corallines when viewed through two or -three fathoms of clear and still water. It is hardly an exaggeration -to assert that the colours of the rainbow are put to -shame on a bright sunny day by what meets the view on -looking into the sea in those fairy regions." And Ehrenberg -was so struck with the magnificent spectacle presented by the -living polyparia in the Red Sea that he exclaimed with enthusiasm, -"Where is the paradise of flowers that can rival, in -variety and beauty, these living wonders of the ocean!"</p> - -<p>Besides the charms of their own growth, the tropical coral -gardens afford a refuge or a dwelling-place to numberless -animals clothed in gorgeous apparel. Fishes attired in azure, -scarlet, and gold, crustaceans, sea-urchins, sea-stars, sea anemones, -annelides, of a brilliancy of colour unknown in the -northern seas, glide or swim along through their tangled -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">« 372 »</a></span> -shrubberies; and frequently the gigantic tridacna, embedded in -their calcareous parterres, discloses, on opening her ponderous -valves, her violet mantle tinted with emerald-green. The enchanted -naturalist lingers for hours over the magnificent spectacle, -and forgets the lapse of time, as wonders upon wonders -crowd on his enraptured gaze.</p> - -<p>But the tropical coral-gardens serve not only as a harbour of -refuge to the numberless creatures that frequent their labyrinthine -recesses, for many annelides, crustaceans, asterias, and -even fishes, feed upon their animal flowrets. Among these, -the Scari are provided with a very remarkable dental apparatus -to protect their mandibles from injury while biting the calcareous -corals. These fishes have their jaws, which resemble -the beak of a parrot (whence they receive their usual appellation -"parrot fishes"), covered externally with a kind of pavement of -teeth, answering the same purpose as the horny investment of -the mandibles of the bird. The teeth that form this pavement -are perpetually in progress of development towards the base of -the jaw, whence they advance forward, when completed, to -replace those which become worn away in front by the constant -attrition to which they are subjected. Thus armed, the Scari -browse without difficulty on the newest layers of the stony -corals, digesting the animal matter therein contained, and -setting free the carbonate of lime in a chalky state. Many of -the Diodons, Chætodons, and Balistæ or file-fishes, of which -Kittlitz saw some new species, one still more splendid than the -other, in every lagoon-island he visited in the long range of -the Carolines, likewise feed upon corals, and possess a dental -apparatus fit for masticating their refractory aliment. The -Diodons have grooved teeth, excellently adapted to crush and -bruise, and the Balistæ have eight strong conical teeth in every -jaw, with which they easily nip off the shoots of the coral bushes.</p> - -<p>Of the reef-building corals it may well be said that they -build for eternity. The bones of the higher animals vanish -after a few years, but the stony skeleton of the polyp -remains attached to the spot of its formation, and serves -as a basement or stage for new generations to build upon. -Life and death are here in concurrent or parallel progress; -generally the whole interior of a corallum is dead. The -large domes of the astræas are in most species covered -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">« 373 »</a></span> -with a hemispherical living shell, -about half an inch thick; and in some -porites of the same size the whole -mass is lifeless, except the exterior -for a sixth of an inch in depth.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 241px;"> -<img src="images/373a.png" width="241" height="142" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Astræa.</div> -</div> - -<p>We are astonished when travellers -tell us of the vast extent of certain -ancient ruins; but how utterly insignificant -are the greatest of these when compared with the piles of -stone accumulated in the course of ages by these minute, and individually -so puny architects! The history of the formation of -coral-reefs is no less wonderful than their extent. They have been -divided, according to their geological character, into three classes. -The first fringes the shores of continents or islands (shore-reefs); -the second, rising from a deep ocean, at a greater distance from -the land, encircles an island, or stretches like a barrier along -the coast (encircling-reefs, barrier-reefs); the third, enclosing a -lagoon, forms a ring or annular breakwater round an interior -lake (atolls, or lagoon-islands).</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 592px;"> -<img src="images/373b.png" width="592" height="299" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Stone Corals.</div> -</div> - -<p>Many of the high rocky islands of the Pacific lie, like a -picture in its frame, in the middle of a lagoon encircled by -a reef. A fringe of low alluvial land in these cases generally -surrounds the base of the mountains; a girdle of palm-trees, backed -by abrupt heights, and fronted by a lake of smooth water, only -separated from the deep blue ocean by the breakers roaring -against the encircling reef; such, for instance, is the scenery of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">« 374 »</a></span> -Tahiti, so justly named "the queen of islands." But the -encircling reefs are often at a much greater distance from the -shore. Thus in New Caledonia they extend no less than 140 -miles beyond the island.</p> - -<p>As an example of barrier-reefs, I shall cite that which fronts -the north-east coast of Australia. It is described by Flinders as -having a length of nearly a thousand miles, and as running -parallel to the shore at a distance of between twenty and thirty -miles from it, and in some parts even of fifty and seventy. The -great arm of the sea thus inclosed, has a usual depth of between -ten and twenty fathoms. This probably is both the grandest -and most extraordinary reef now existing in any part of the -world.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 588px;"> -<img src="images/374.png" width="588" height="284" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Stone Corals.</div> -</div> - -<p>The atolls, or lagoon-islands, are numerously scattered over -the face of the tropical ocean. The Marshall and Caroline -islands, the Paumotic group, the Maldives and Lacadives, and -many other groups or solitary islets of the Pacific or Indian -Ocean, are entirely built up of coral; every single atom, from -the smallest particle to large fragments of rock, bearing the -stamp of having been subjected to the power of organic arrangement. -A narrow rim of coral-reef, generally but a few -hundred yards wide, stretches around the enclosed waters. -When a lagoon-island is first seen from the deck of a vessel, only -a series of dark points is descried just above the horizon. Shortly -after, the points enlarge into the plumed tops of cocoa-nut trees, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">« 375 »</a></span> -and a line of green, interrupted at intervals, is traced along the -water's surface.</p> - -<p>The long swell produced by the gentle but steady action of the -trade wind, always blowing in one direction over a wide area, -causes breakers which even exceed in violence those of our -temperate regions, and which never cease to rage. It is impossible -to behold these waves without feeling a conviction -that a low island, though built of the hardest rock, would ultimately -yield, and be demolished by such irresistible forces. Yet -the insignificant coral-islets stand and are victorious; for here -another power, antagonistic to the former, takes part in the -contest. The organic forces separate the atoms of carbonate of -lime one by one from the foaming breakers, and unite them in -a symmetrical structure. Let the hurricane tear up its thousand -huge fragments, yet what will this tell against the accumulated -labours of myriads of architects at work night and day, month -after month. Thus do we see the soft and gelatinous body -of a polyp, through the agency of vital laws, conquering the -great mechanical power of the waves of an ocean, which neither -the art of man nor the inanimate works of nature could successfully -resist.</p> - -<p>The reef-building corals, so hardy in this respect, are extremely -sensitive and delicate in others. They absolutely -require warmth for their existence, and only inhabit seas the -temperature of which never sinks below 60° Fahr. They also -require clear and transparent waters. Wherever streams or -currents are moving or transporting sediment, there no corals -grow, and for the same reason we find no living zoophytes upon -sandy or muddy shores.</p> - -<p>As within one cast of the lead coral-reefs rise suddenly like -walls from the depths of ocean, it was formerly supposed that -the polyps raised their structures out of the profound abysses of -the sea; but this opinion could no longer be maintained, after -Mr. C. Darwin and other naturalists had proved that the lithophytes -cannot live at greater depths than twenty or at most -thirty fathoms.</p> - -<p>Hereupon Quoy and Gaimard broached the theory that corals -construct their colonies on the summits of mountain ridges, or -the circular crests of submarine craters, and thus accounted both -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">« 376 »</a></span> -for the great depths from which the coral-walls suddenly rise, -and the annular form of lagoon islands. Yet this theory, ingenious -as it was, could not stand the test of a closer examination: -for no crater ever had such dimensions as, for instance, one of the -Radack Islands, which is fifty-two miles long by twenty broad; -and no chain of mountains has its summits so equally high, as -must have been the case with the numerous reef-bearing submarine -rocks, considering the small depth from which the -lithophytes build. Another seemingly inexplicable fact was, -that, although corals hardly exist above low-water mark, reefs -are found at Tongatabu or Eua, for instance, at elevations of -forty and even three hundred feet above the level of the ocean.</p> - -<p>Mr. Charles Darwin was the first to give a satisfactory explanation -of all the phenomena of coral formations, by ascribing -them to the oscillations of the sea bottom, to its partial upheaving -or subsidence.</p> - -<p>It is now perfectly well known that large portions of the -continent of South America, Scandinavia, North Greenland, -and many other coasts, are slowly rising, and that other terrestrial -or maritime areas are gradually subsiding. Thus -on every side of the lagoon of the Keeling Islands, in which -the water is as tranquil as in the most sheltered lake, Mr. -Darwin saw old cocoa-nut trees undermined and falling. The -foundation-posts of a store-house on the beach, which, the inhabitants -said, had stood seven years before just above high -water, were now daily washed by the tide.</p> - -<p>Supposing on one of these subsiding areas an island-mountain -fringed with corals, the lithophytes, keeping pace with the -gradual sinking of their basis, soon raise again their solid -masses to the level of the water; but not so with the land, each -inch of which is irreclaimably gone. Thus the fringing reef -will gradually become an encircling one; and, if we suppose the -sinking to continue, it must by the submergence of the central -land, but upward growth of the ring of coral, be ultimately -converted into a lagoon-island.</p> - -<p>The numerous <i>atolls</i> of the Pacific and Indian Ocean give -us a far insight into the past, and exhibit these seas overspread -with lofty lands where there are now only humble monumental -reefs dotted with verdant islets. Had there been no growing -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">« 377 »</a></span> -coral, the whole would have passed away without a record; -while, from the actual extent of the coral-reefs and islands, we -know that the entire amount of the high land lost to the Pacific -was at least 50,000 square miles. But as other lands may have -subsided too rapidly for the corals to maintain themselves at the -surface, it is obvious that the estimate is far below the truth.</p> - -<p>As living coral-reefs do not grow above low-water mark, it -may well be asked how habitable islands can form upon their -crests. The breakers are here the agents of construction. They -rend fragments and blocks from the outer border of the reef -and throw them upon the surface. Corals and shells are pulverised -by their crushing grinding power, and gradually fill up the -interstices. In this manner the pile rises higher and higher, till -at last even the spring tides can no longer wash over it into the -lagoon, on the border of which the fine coral sand accumulates -undisturbed. The seeds which the ocean-currents often carry -with them from distant continents find here a congenial soil, -and begin to deck the white chalk with an emerald carpet. -Trees, drifting from the primeval forest, where they have been -uprooted by the swelling of the river on whose banks they grew, -are also conveyed by the same agency to the new-formed shore, -and bring along with them small animals, insects, or lizards, as -its first inhabitants. Before the stately palm extends its feathery -fronds sea-birds assemble on this new resting-place, and land-birds, -driven by storms from their usual haunts, enjoy the shade -of the rising shrubbery. At last, after vegetation has completed -its work, man appears on the scene, builds his hut on -the fruitful soil which falling leaves and decaying herbs have -gradually enriched, and calls himself the master of this little -world. In this manner all the coral-reefs and islands of the -tropical seas have gradually become verdant and habitable; -thus has arisen the kingdom of the Maldives, whose sultan, -Ibrahim, glories in the title of sultan of the thirteen atolls and -twelve thousand isles. May his shadow never be less!</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">« 378 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_XVIII" id="CHAP_XVIII">CHAP. XVIII.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">PROTOZOA.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">The Foraminifera.—The Amœbæ—Their Wonderful Simplicity of Structure.—The -Polycystina.—Marine Infusoria.—Sponges—Their Pores—Fibres and Spiculæ—The -Common Sponge of Commerce.</div> - - -<p>Think not, reader, that the life of the ocean ends with the -innumerable hosts of fishes, molluscs, crustacea, medusæ, and -polyps we have reviewed, and that the waters of the sea or the -sands of the shore have now no further marvels for us to admire. -The naked eye indeed may have attained the limits of -life, but the microscope will soon reveal a new and wonderful -world of animated beings.</p> - -<p>Take only, for instance, while wandering on the beach, a -handful of drift-sand, and examine it through a magnifying -glass. You will then not seldom find, -among the coarser grains of inorganic -silica, a number of the most elegant -shells; some formed like ancient amphoræ, -others wound like the nautilus, -but all shaped in their minuteness with -a perfection which no human artist -could hope to equal in the largest size.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 225px;"> -<img src="images/378.png" width="225" height="135" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Nummulina discoidalis.<br /> - -<i>a.</i> Natural size. <i>b.</i>, <i>c.</i> The same, highly magnified.<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The knowledge of these charming little marine productions is -of modern date, for they were first observed in the sand of the -Adriatic by Beccaria in 1731, and for some time believed to -belong exclusively to that gulf. At a later period some species -were discovered here and there in England and France, but -their universality and importance in the economy of the ocean -were first pointed out in 1825, by the distinguished French -naturalist Alcide d'Orbigny.</p> - -<p>The sand of many sea-coasts is so mixed with Foraminifera, as -they have been called from the openings with which their shells -are pierced, that they often form no less than half its bulk. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">« 379 »</a></span> -Plancus counted 6000 in an ounce of sand from the Adriatic, -and d'Orbigny reckoned no less than 3,849,000 in a pound of -sand from the Antilles. Along the whole Atlantic coast of the -United States, the plummet constantly brings up masses of foraminiferous -shells from a depth of ninety fathoms, so that the -vast extent of ocean-bottom, which itself forms but a small part -of the domains they occupy, is literally covered with their -exuviæ.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 302px;"> -<img src="images/379a.png" width="302" height="330" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Amœba.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 412px;"> -<img src="images/379b.png" width="412" height="224" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Amœba, -showing the extemporaneous feet formed by evanescent projections -of the general plastic mass of the animal.</div> -</div> - -<p>Thus their numbers surpass all human conception, nor can -any other series of beings be compared to them in this respect; -not even the minute crustaceans -which colour thousands -of square miles on the surface -of the sea, and, according to -Scoresby, form almost exclusively -the food of the huge -Greenland whale; nor the infusory -animals of the fresh-water, -whose shields compose -the Bilin slate quarries in -Bohemia; for these are limited -in their distribution, whereas -the Foraminifera occur in all -parts of the world.</p> - -<p>The resemblance of the Foraminifera -to the nautili and ammonites at first led naturalists -to suppose that they formed part of the same class, which -in a long course -of centuries had -dwindled down in -less congenial seas -to almost invisible -dimensions; but a -closer investigation -proved them -to belong to a -much lower order -of beings, nearly -related to the -Amœbæ, which likewise occur all over the ocean. Other animals -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">« 380 »</a></span> -excite our wonder by their complicated structure, but the amœba -raises our astonishment by the excessive simplicity of its organisation. -The amœba is nothing more than a living globule of -mucus, a transparent, colourless, contractile substance, or plastic -mass, the individual life of which shows itself in manifold changes -of form, bearing the character of voluntary motion. When an -amœba approaches another minute animal or plant unable to -move out of its reach, it sends out extemporaneous feet, which -soon clasp the prey on all sides, and the prisoner lies embedded -in the living mucus until all his soluble parts have been absorbed. -There is absolutely no trace of particular organs in the amœba; -all its constituent particles may be used for any purpose, all -equally move and digest, and each can at any time perform the -organic functions pertaining to the whole.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/380.png" width="202" height="159" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">A Compound Foraminiferous Protozoon, magnified.<br /> - -The shell is perforated with holes, through which the different lobes of the animal -communicate, and thread-like portions are protruded externally.</div> -</div> - -<p>In their internal simplicity the Foraminifera are on a par -with the amœbæ, and differ from them only in respect of their -outward form. The amœbæ are naked, while the Foraminifera -are covered with a shell, out of which, through one or numerous -openings, the animal protrudes the processes which it requires -for creeping or seizing its prey. These processes or filaments -of mucus frequently ramify, closing as they spread, and sometimes -covering an area of several lines in diameter, in the centre -of which the animal inclosed in its shell waits for its prey, like -a spider in its net.</p> - -<p>The extended filaments appear to have something venomous -about them; for Dr. Schultze, to whom we owe an interesting -monograph on the Foraminifera, frequently saw small and -sprightly parameciæ, colpodes, and other infusoria drop down -paralysed as soon as they touched the net.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">« 381 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/381.png" width="482" height="373" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Various forms of Foraminifera.<br /> - -<i>a. Lagena striata.</i> <i>a′. Nodosaria rugosa.</i> <i>b. Marginulina raphanus.</i><br /> -<i>b′.</i> Longitudinal section of shell of ditto. <i>c. Polystomella crispa</i>, with its pseudopodia protruded.<br /> -<i>d. Nummulites lenticularis</i>, shown in horizontal section. <i>e. Cassidulina lævigata.</i><br /> -<i>f. Textularia globulosa.</i> <i>g. Miliolina seminulum.</i> <i>g′.</i> Animal of Miliolina removed from its shell.<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The amazing variety of form of the Foraminifera is no less -remarkable than the elegance of their delicately chiselled shells, -and may well be called immense, as no less than 2,400 living -and fossil species have already been distinguished by naturalists, -and a far greater number is probably still nameless and -unknown. Though generally so minute that the diameter of -the pores through which they protrude their filaments usually -only ranges from 1/3000 to 1/10000 of an inch yet the diminutive -world of the Foraminifera has also its giants, particularly -among the fossil species, such as the Nummulites, which occur -in such prodigious numbers in the limestone of the Egyptian -pyramids, and whose flattened lenticular coin-like forms (d) -attain the comparatively gigantic diameter of several inches. -Thus the material with which the proud Pharaohs of the Nile -constructed their colossal tombs was originally piled up at the -bottom of the sea by countless generations of shell-cased -Protozoa.</p> - -<p>The Foraminifera are among the oldest inhabitants of our -globe,<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[T]</a> and as the present ocean contains them in countless -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">« 382 »</a></span> -multitudes, thus have they swarmed in the waters of the primeval -seas from the first dawn of creation, and piled up the -monuments of their existence in vast strata of limestone. A -great part of the rocky belt from Rügen to the Danish isles, -the white chalk cliffs which, beginning in England, extend -through France as far as Southern Spain, are chiefly composed -of the shells of Foraminifera, and the zone of Nummulite -limestone, which served to build the huge quadrilateral -monument of Cheops, forms a band, often 1,800 miles in -breadth, and frequently of enormous thickness, from the -Atlantic shores of Europe and Africa through Western Asia -up to North India and China; enough to satisfy the most -extravagant architectural folly of millions of despots. So -important is the part which these beings, individually so -minute, have performed and still perform in the geological -annals of the globe.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[T]</span></a> The <i>Eozoon canadense</i>, the oldest of known organic remains, found in the -Upper Laurentian series, which preceded the Cambrian formation, is a Foraminifer. -Millions of years must have passed since it first felt and moved.</p></div> - -<p>Many of these "minims of nature" consist of only one -chamber, and hence are called unilocular or monothalamous; -but a vast proportion consist of several chambers, and hence are -called multilocular or polythalamous. The latter, however -numerous their chambers or seemingly complex their structure, -always originate as a single shell. The primitive jelly-sphere, -or first sarcode segment, secretes around itself its appropriate -calcareous envelope. Having grown too large for its habitation, -it protrudes a portion of itself without, and thus forms a second -segment. If by a process of spontaneous fission this segment -becomes quite detached from its parent, and repeats the life -and method of reproduction of the latter, a series of monothalamous -shells will be formed. But if by means of a sarcode -band the primitive segment maintains its connection with -its immediate offspring, and this, repeating the reproductive -process, does the same, a compound shell will, of course, be the -result.</p> - -<p>Among the microscopic denizens of the ocean, the Polycystina -rival the Foraminifera both by their number and their -wonderful elegance of form and structure. Their body consists -of the same viscid homogeneous plastic mass, termed "sarcode" -by the naturalists; like them they are capable of protruding it -through the foramina with which their shell is pierced, and -consequently they are ranked with them among the Rhizopods, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">« 383 »</a></span> -or root-footed animalcules, that form the lowest order of the -Protozoa, the lowest class of the animal world.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 430px;"> -<img src="images/383.png" width="430" height="352" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Polycystina.<br /> - -<i>a. Podocyrtis Schomburgkii. b. Haliomma Humboldtii.</i></div> -</div> - -<p>It is a peculiar feature of these beautiful little shells (whose -delicate sculpture frequently reminds the observer of the finest -specimens of the hollow ivory balls carved by the Chinese) that -they are usually surmounted by a number of spine-like projections, -very frequently having a radiate disposition. Some -have an oblong shape (Podocyrtis), others a discoid form (Haliomma), -from the circumference of which the silicious spines -project at regular intervals, so as to give them a star-like aspect. -They are generally of a smaller size than even the Foraminifera, -appear to be almost as widely diffused, and have also largely -contributed to the structure of the earth-rind. They were first -discovered by Professor Ehrenberg at Cuxhaven, on the North -Sea; they were afterwards found by him in collections made in -the antarctic seas, and have been brought up by the sounding -lead from the bottom of the Atlantic at depths of from 1,000 to -2,000 fathoms.</p> - -<p>The term Infusoria, which formerly comprised a most -heterogeneous assemblage of minute plants and animals, is now -confined to the highest order of the Protozoa, distinguished -from the Rhizopods by the possession of a mouth and of -ciliary filaments, whose vibrations serve them both for progression -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">« 384 »</a></span> -through the water and for drawing alimentary particles -into the interior of their body. Though most of the Infusoria -live in ponds, morasses, pools, wells, or cisterns, yet many are -marine, as, for instance, the <i>Carchesium polypinum</i>, which is -frequently found attached to corallines, and the <i>Vaginicola -valvata</i>, which from its sheath and valve strongly reminds one -of a tubicolar annelide.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 450px;"> -<img src="images/384.png" width="417" height="341" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Marine Infusoria.<br /> - -<i>a.</i> <i>Vaginicola valvata</i>, showing animal extended, and valve (φ) raised.<br /> -<i>a′.</i> The same, showing animal contracted within its sheath,<br /> -and valve (φ′) shut down.<br /> -<i>b.</i> <i>Lagotia viridis</i>, showing rotatory organ (ξ).<br /> -<i>b′.</i> Young animal of preceding.<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The wide diffusion both in time and space of the marine -Protozoa, and chiefly of the Foraminifera and Polycystina, is -a sufficient proof of their vast importance in the household of -the seas. Along with the Diatoms and other microscopical -forms of vegetation on which their own existence depends, they -evidently constitute the basis on which the superstructure of all -the higher orders of the animal life of the ocean reposes. -Hosts of minute crustaceans, annelides, acalephæ, and molluscs, -feed upon their inexhaustible legions, and serve in their turn to -sustain creatures of a larger and still larger size until finally -Man is enabled to feast on the abundance of the seas.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">« 385 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The Porifera, or Sponges, were formerly supposed to belong -to the vegetable kingdom, but their animal nature is now fully -ascertained, for modern researches have proved that the soft -glairy substance with which their skeleton is invested during -life consists of "sarcode," similar to that which forms the soft -parts of the Foraminifera and Polycystina. It is by this -animated or organic gelatine, which can generally be pressed -out with the finger, and in some species is copious even to -nauseousness, that the solid parts of the sponge are deposited, -and from it the whole growth of the mass proceeds. The -framework or skeleton of the Porifera is usually composed of -horny fibres of unequal thickness, which ramify and interlace -in every possible direction, anastomosing -with each other so as to -form innumerable continuous cells -and intricate canals, the walls of -which in the recent sponge are -crusted over with the gelatinous -living cortex.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 245px;"> -<img src="images/385a.png" width="245" height="148" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Single interspace or open cell, and -surrounding finer meshwork of -the skeleton of a sponge.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 330px;"> -<img src="images/385b.png" width="330" height="176" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Needle-like and starred spicula of a Tethea. -(Highly magnified.)</div> -</div> - -<p>Generally this fibrous mass is interwoven -with numerous mineral -spicules of a wonderful elegance and variety of forms, for their -shapes are not only strictly determinate for each species of -sponge but each part of the sponge, it is believed, has spiculæ -of a character peculiar to itself. Sometimes they are pointed -at both ends, sometimes at one only, or one or both ends may -be furnished with a head like that of a pin, or may carry three -or more diverging points, which sometimes curve back so as to -form hooks. Sometimes they are triradiate, sometimes stellar; -in some cases smooth, in -others beset with smaller -spinous projections like the -lance of the saw-fish. In -many species they are -embedded in the horny -framework; in others, as, -for instance, in Tethea -Cranium, or in Halichondria, -they project from its surface like a tiny forest of spears. -They are generally composed of silex or flint, but in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">« 386 »</a></span> -genus Grantia they consist of carbonate of lime. Though the -skeleton of most sponges is formed both of horny fibres and -of mineral spicules yet the proportions of these two component -parts vary considerably in different species. In the common -sponge, for instance, the fibrous skeleton is almost entirely -destitute of spicules, a circumstance to which it owes the -flexibility and softness that render it so useful to man, while -they predominate in the -Halichondriæ, and sometimes -even, as in the -Grantiæ, completely supersede -the horny fabric.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 352px;"> -<img src="images/386a.png" width="352" height="192" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Minute portion of the surface of Tethea Cranium, -magnified, spicula projecting beyond the -surface.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 614px;"> -<img src="images/386b.png" width="614" height="265" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Halina papillaris.<br /> - -Currents passing inwards through the pores (<i>a a</i>), traversing the internal canals (b), and escaping -by the larger vents (<i>c</i>, <i>d</i>).</div> -</div> - -<p>On examining a sponge, -the holes with which the -substance is everywhere -pierced may be seen to -be of two kinds; one -of larger size than the rest, few in number, and opening into -wide channels and tunnels which pierce the sponge through its -centre; the other minute, extremely numerous, covering the -wide surface, and communicating with the innumerable branching -passages which make up the body of the skeleton. Through -the smaller openings or pores the circumambient water freely -enters the body of the sponge, passes through the smaller -canals, and, ultimately reaching the larger set of vessels, is -evolved through the larger apertures or oscula. Thus by a still -mysterious agency (for the presence of cilia has as yet been -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">« 387 »</a></span> -detected but in one genus of full-grown marine sponges) a -constant circulation is kept up, providing the sponge with -nourishing particles and oxygen, and enabling its system of -channels to perform the functions both of an alimentary tube -and a respiratory apparatus.</p> - -<p>Dr. Grant describes in glowing terms his first discovery of -this highly interesting phenomenon: "Having put a small -branch of sponge with some sea-water into a watch-glass, in -order to examine it with the microscope, and bringing one -of the apertures on the side of the sponge fully into view, -I beheld for the first time the spectacle of this living fountain, -vomiting forth from a circular cavity an impetuous torrent -of liquid matter, and hurling along in rapid succession opaque -masses, which it strewed everywhere around. The beauty -and novelty of such a scene in the animal kingdom long -arrested my attention, but after twenty-five minutes of constant -observation, I was obliged to withdraw my eye from -fatigue, without having seen the torrent for one instant change -its direction or diminish in the slightest degree the rapidity of -its course. I continued to watch the same orifice at short -intervals for five hours, sometimes observing it for a quarter of -an hour at a time, but still the stream rolled on with a constant -and equal velocity."</p> - -<p>Subsequent observations have proved that the living sponge -has the power of opening and closing at pleasure its oscula, -which are capable of acting independently of each other, thus -fully establishing the animal nature of these simple organisations, -in whom latterly even traces of sensibility have been detected, -such as one would hardly expect to meet with in a sponge. For -these creatures, as we are entitled to call them, are able to -protrude from their oscula the gelatinous membrane which -clothes their channels, and on touching these protruded parts -with a needle, they were seen by Mr. Gosse to shrink immediately—a -proof that the sponge, however low it may rank -in the animal world, is yet far from being so totally inert or -lifeless as was formerly imagined.</p> - -<p>The propagation of the sponges is provided for in a no less -wonderful manner than their respiration and nourishment. -Minute globular particles of sarcode sprout forth as little protuberances -from the interior of the canals. As they increase in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">« 388 »</a></span> -size, they are gradually clothed with vibratile cilia, and, finally -detaching themselves, are cast out through the oscula into the -world of waters. Here their wanderings continue for a short -time, until, if they be not devoured on the way, they reach some -rock or submarine body on which, tired of their brief erratic -existence, they fix themselves for ever, and, bidding adieu to all -further rambles, lead henceforth the quiet sedentary life of their -parents. In this manner the sponges, which otherwise would -have been confined to narrow limits, spread like a living carpet -over the bottom of the seas, and in spite of their being utterly -defenceless, maintain their existence from age to age. At the -same time they serve to feed a vast number of other marine -animals, for the waters frequently swarm with their eggs, and -these afford many a welcome repast to myriads of sessile molluscs, -annelides, polyps, and other creatures small or abstemious -enough to be satisfied with feasting on atoms.</p> - -<p>Sponges inhabit every sea and shore, and differ very much in -habit of growth. For whilst some can only be obtained by -dredging at considerable depths, others live near the surface, -and others, again, attach themselves to the surfaces of rocks and -shells between the tide marks. Like the corals, they revel in -every variety of shape and tint, imitate like them every form -of vegetation, and adorn like them the submarine grounds with -their fantastic shrubberies. The fine collection of West Indian -sponges exhibited in the Crystal Palace, but to which fancy -must add the additional ornament of colour, may serve to give -some idea of their prodigal versatility of growth. More than -sixty different species have been discovered in the British waters -alone, and as they go on increasing in numbers, size, and beauty, -until they attain their highest development along the shores of the -tropical ocean, they no doubt hold a conspicuous rank among -the living wonders of the sea. The branched sponges, with a -compact feltred tissue, are more common than others in the colder -maritime domains, where the species of a loose texture, which -grow in large massive forms, either do not exist or are very rare. -Many sponges are of considerable size, such as the vase-like -tropical species known under the name of Neptune's cup; others -are almost microscopical; and while by far the greater number -grow superficially from a solid base, some penetrate like destructive -parasites into the texture of other animals. Thus the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">« 389 »</a></span> -<i>Halichondria celata</i> establishes itself in the small holes which -some of the smaller annelides drill in the shell of the oyster, -eat further and further into the unfortunate mollusc's vitals, -causing the softer parts of the shell to rot away, and spread -through its whole substance, like the dry-rot fungus through a -solid beam of timber, until, sinking under the weight of his -misery, the poor victim perishes, and his loosened shell is cast to -the mercy of the waves. On the other hand, some marine Acorn-shells -nestle habitually in a sponge, the normal construction of -the base of the shell being altered to suit the peculiarities of its -habitation, so that in this instance, as in many others, there is a -foreseen relation between two very dissimilar animals. Amongst -the reticulated fibres of its spongy dwelling, the Acorn-shell -finds a secure refuge in its infant state, and is soon enclosed by -the growing fabric of the sponge-animal, except a small opening, -which is kept clear by the vortex occasioned by the constant -motion of its feelers or tentacula.</p> - -<p>But very few of the manifold species of sponges are of any use -to man. The common sponge of commerce (<i>Spongia communis</i>), -so serviceable in our households, is most abundant in the Lycian -seas, where it is found attached to rocks at various depths -between three fathoms and thirty. When alive, it is of a -dull bluish black above, and dirty white beneath. There are -several qualities, possibly indicating as many distinct species.</p> - -<p>"The most valued kinds," says Edward Forbes, "are sought -for about the Gulf of Macri, along the Carian coast, and round -the opposite islands. The species which live immediately along -the shore near the water's edge, though often large, are worthless. -These are of many colours; some of the brightest scarlet or -clear yellow form a crust over the faces of submarine rocks; -others are large and tubular, resembling holothuriæ in form -and of a gamboge colour, which soon turns to dirty brown when -taken out of the water; others are again lobed or palmate, -studded with prickly points, and perforated at intervals with -oscula. These grow to a considerable size, but, like the former, -are useless, since their substance is full of needles of flint."</p> - -<p>Large quantities of excellent sponge (<i>Spongia usitatissima</i>) -are likewise imported from the West Indies.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">« 390 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_XIX" id="CHAP_XIX">CHAP. XIX.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">MARINE PLANTS.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">The Algæ.—Zostera marina.—The Ulvæ and Enteromorphæ.—The Fuci.—The -Laminariæ.—Macrocystis pyrifera.—Description of the Submarine Thickets at -Tierra del Fuego.—Nereocystis lutkeana.—The Sargasso Sea.—The Gathering -of edible Birds'-nests in the marine Caves of Java.—Agar-Agar.—The Florideæ.—The -Diatomaceæ.—Their importance in the economy of the Seas.</div> - - -<p>The dry land develops the most exuberant vegetation on the -lowest grounds, the plains and deep valleys, and the size and -multiplicity of plants gradually diminish as we ascend the -higher mountain regions, until at last merely naked or snow-covered -rocks raise their barren pinnacles to the skies: but the -contrary takes place in the realms of ocean; for here the greater -depths are completely denuded of vegetation, and it is only -within 600 or 800 feet from the surface that the calcareous -nullipores begin to cover the sea-bottom, as mosses and lichens -clothe the lofty mountain-tops. Gradually corallines and a -few algæ associate with them, until finally about 80 or 100 -feet from the surface begins the rich vegetable zone which -encircles the margin of the sea. The plants of which it is -composed do not indeed attain the same high degree of development -as those of the dry land, being deprived of the beauties -of flower and fruit: but as the earth at different heights and -latitudes constantly changes her verdant robe, and raises our -highest admiration by the endless diversity of her ornaments, -thus also the forms of the sea-plants change, whether we descend -from the brink of ocean to a greater depth, or wander along the -coast from one sea to another; and their delicate fronds are as -remarkable for beauty of colour and elegance of outline, as the -leaves of terrestrial vegetation.</p> - -<p>The difference of the mediums in which land- and sea-plants -exist naturally requires a different mode of nourishment, the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">« 391 »</a></span> -former principally using their roots to extract from a varying -soil the substances necessary for their perfect growth, while the -latter absorb nourishment through their entire surface from the -surrounding waters, and use their roots chiefly as holdfasts.</p> - -<p>The constituent parts of the soil are of the greatest importance -to land-plants, to whose organisation they are made to contribute; -while to the sea-plant it is generally indifferent whether -the ground to which it is attached be granite, chalk, slate, or -sandstone, provided only its roots find a safe anchorage against -the unruly waters.</p> - -<p>Flat rocky coasts, not too much exposed to the swell of the -waves, and interspersed with deep pools in which the water is constantly -retained, are thus the favourite abode of most algæ, -while a loose sandy sea-bottom is generally as poor in vegetation -as the Arabian desert.</p> - -<p>But even on sandy shores extensive submarine meadows are frequently -formed by the Grass Wrack (<i>Zostera marina</i>), whose -creeping stems, rooting at the joints and extending to a considerable -depth in the sand, are admirably adapted for seeming a -firm position on the loose ground. Its long riband-like leaves, -of a brilliant and glossy green, wave freely in the water, and -afford shelter and nourishment to numerous marine animals and -plants. In the tropical seas it forms the submarine meadows -on which the turtles graze, and in the North of Europe it is -used for the manufacture of cheap bedding. It also furnishes -an excellent material for packing brittle ware.</p> - -<p>Sea-weeds are usually classed in three great groups, green, -olive-coloured, and red; and these again are subdivided into -numerous families, genera, and species.</p> - -<p>On the British coasts alone about 400 different species are -found, and hence we may form some idea of the riches of the -submarine flora. Thousands of algæ are known and classified, -but no doubt as many more at least still wait for their botanical -names, and have never yet been seen by human eye.</p> - -<p>The <i>Green</i> sea-weeds, or Chlorospermeæ, generally occur near -high-water mark, and love to lead an amphibious life, half in the -air and half in salt-water. The delicate Enteromorphæ, similar -to threads of fine silk, and the broad brilliant Ulvæ, which frequently -cover the smooth boulders with a glossy vesture of lively -green, belong to this class. Many of them are remarkable for -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">« 392 »</a></span> -their wide geographical distribution. Thus the <i>Ulva latissima</i> -and the <i>Erderomorpha compressa</i> of our shores thrive also in -the cold waters of the Arctic Sea, fringe the shores of the tropical -ocean, and project into the southern hemisphere as far as the -desolate head-lands of Tierra del Fuego. But few animals or -plants possess so pliable a nature, and such adaptability to the -most various climates.</p> - -<p>The <i>Olive-coloured</i> group of sea-weeds, or Melanospermeæ, -plays a much more considerable part in the economy of the -ocean. The common fuci, which on the ebbing of the tide impart -to the shore cliffs their peculiar dingy colour, belong to this -class; as well as the mighty Laminariæ, which about the level -of ordinary low water, and one or two fathoms below that -limit, fringe the rocky shore with a broad belt of luxuriant -vegetation.</p> - -<p>The first olive-coloured sea-weed we meet with on the receding -of the flood is the small and slender <i>Fucus canaliculatus</i>, -easily known by its narrow grooved stems and branches, and -the absence of air-vessels. Then follows <i>Fucus nodosus</i>, a large -species, with tough thong-like stems, expanding at intervals -into knob-like air-vessels, and covered in winter and spring with -bright yellow berries. Along with it we find the gregarious -<i>Fucus vesiculosus</i>, with its forked leaf traversed by a midrib, -and covered with numerous air-vessels situated in pairs at each -side of the rib. Finally, about the level of half-tide, a fourth -species of fucus appears, <i>Fucus serratus</i>, distinguished from -all the rest by its toothed margin and the absence of air-vessels.</p> - -<p>These four species generally occupy the littoral zone of our -sea-girt isle, being found in greatest abundance on flat rocky -shores, particularly on the western coasts of Scotland and Ireland, -where they used formerly to be burnt in large quantities for -the manufacture of kelp or carbonate of soda, which is now -obtained by a less expensive process. In Orcadia alone more -than 20,000 persons were employed during the whole summer -in the collection and incineration of sea-weeds, a valuable resource -for the poverty-stricken islanders, of which they have -been deprived by the progress of chemical science.</p> - -<p>The fuci are, however, still largely used, either burnt or in a -fermented state, as a valuable manure for green crops. Thus -every year several small vessels are sent from Jersey to the -coast of Brittany, to fetch cargoes of sea-weeds for the farmers -of that island.</p> - - -<p class="caption2"><a name="FPage_392" id="FPage_392">A RUSSIAN OFFICIAL, ATTENDED BY A SOLDIER,<br /> -COLLECTING ALGÆ ON THE SHORES OF THE<br /> -NORTH PACIFIC.</a></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 56px;"> -<img src="images/bardot.png" width="56" height="7" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div style="margin: 0 auto; width:700px;"> -<p>The annexed plate is taken from the frontispiece of the magnificent folio volume -by Messrs. Ruprecht and Postels, on the Algæ of the North Pacific. This work, in -which even the largest of the marine plants of that region are represented of their -natural size, was published at the expense of the Russian Government, and copies -were presented to some of the principal libraries of Europe.</p> - -<p>In the middle distance, a Russian official belonging to one of the settlements -is seen gathering algæ, attended by a soldier.</p> - -<p>In the front of the picture the water is supposed to be so clear as to show distinctly -the growth of sea-weeds of various kinds, which clothe the submarine -rocks in that region. Some species of these have been added to the number -shown in the original composition.</p> - -<p>In the centre, with the light fully upon them, are streaming plants of a gigantic -<i>Alaria</i>, whose fronds sometimes extend to a length of 40 feet. Immediately beneath -it, to the right, is the curiously perforated <i>Agarium Gmelini</i>, the singular perforations -of which are indicated by small white patches.</p> - -<p>To the right is the curious "flower-bearing" sea-weed known as the Sea Rose, -<i>Constantinea Rosa marina</i>, the flower-like growth of which, combined with the -pink colour of its seeming flowers, is very remarkable.</p> - -<p>In front, and rather to the right of the last, is a dark mass of the splendid -<i>Iridæa Mertensiana</i>, the dark velvety masses of which, of a deep crimson colour, -are often more than a foot across.</p> - -<p>To the right of the last, in the corner, is one of the most beautiful of the ulvæ, -<i>Ulva fenestrata</i>, a name which may be popularised as the "windowed" ulva, in -allusion to its extremely perforated character, the openings being of considerable -size, and often separated from each other only by the slenderest divisions, thus -forming a kind of vegetable lace-work.</p> -</div> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 614px;"> -<a href="images/392fplg.png"><img src="images/392fp.png" width="614" height="415" alt="" /></a> -<div class="fig_caption">A RUSSIAN OFFICIAL ATTENDED BY A SOLDIER COLLECTING ALGÆ ON THE SHORES OF THE NORTH PACIFIC.<br /> -<span class="smaller">Click on image to view larger sized.</span></div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">« 393 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The largest of indigenous sea-weeds are the <i>Laminaria -saccharina</i> and <i>digitata</i>, or the sugary and fingered oar-weeds. -Their stout woody stems, and broad tough glossy leaves of -dark olive-green, often twelve or fourteen feet long, must be -familiar to every one who has sojourned on the coast. When -gliding over their submerged groves in a boat, their great fronds -floating like streamers in the water afford the interesting -spectacle of a dense submarine thicket, through whose palm-like -tops the fishes swim in and out, emulating in activity the -birds of our forests.</p> - -<p>But our native oar-weeds, large as they seem with regard to -the other fuci among which they grow, are mere pygmies when -compared with the gigantic species which occur in the colder -seas.</p> - -<p>None of the members of this family grow in the tropical -waters, but they extend to the utmost polar limits, and seem to -increase in size and multiplicity of form as they advance to the -higher latitudes. The northern hemisphere has generally different -genera from the southern. To the former belong the -gigantic Alarias with their often forty feet long and several -feet broad fronds, the singularly perforated Thalassophyta, and -the far-spreading Nereocystis, which is only found in the -Northern Pacific; while the genera Macrocystis and Lessonia -are denizens of the Southern Ocean.</p> - -<p>In the numerous channels and bays of Tierra del Fuego, the -enormous and singular <i>Macrocystis pyrifera</i> is found in such -incredible masses as to excite the astonishment of every traveller. -"On every rock," says Mr. Darwin, perhaps the best observer of -nature that ever visited those dreary regions, and certainly their -most poetical describer, "the plant grows from low-water mark -to a great depth, both on the outer coast and within the channels. -I believe, during the voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, not -one rock near the surface was discovered which was not buoyed by -this floating weed. The good service it thus affords to vessels -navigating near this stormy land is evident, and it certainly -has saved many a one from being wrecked. I know few -things more surprising than to see this plant growing and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">« 394 »</a></span> -flourishing amidst those great breakers of the western ocean, -which no mass of rock, let it be ever so hard, can long resist. -The stem is round, slimy, and smooth, and seldom has a -diameter of so much as an inch. A few taken together are -sufficiently strong to support the weight of the large loose -stones to which in the inland channels they grow attached; -and some of these stones are so heavy, that when drawn to -the surface they can scarcely be lifted into a boat by one -person."</p> - -<p>"Captain Cook, in his second voyage says, that 'at Kerguelen's -Land some of this weed is of most enormous length, though the -stem is not much thicker than a man's thumb. I have mentioned -that, on some of these shoals on which it grows, we did -not strike ground with a line of twenty-four fathoms; the -depth of water, therefore, must have been greater. And as this -weed does not grow in a perpendicular direction, but makes a -very acute angle with the bottom, and much of it afterwards -spreads many fathoms on the surface of the sea, I am well -warranted to say that some of it grows to the length of sixty -fathoms and upwards.'</p> - -<p>"Certainly at the Falkland Islands, and about Tierra del -Fuego, extensive beds frequently spring up from ten and fifteen -fathoms water. I do not suppose the stem of any other plant -attains so great a length as 360 feet, as stated by Captain Cook. -Its geographical range is very considerable; it is found from the -extreme southern islets near Cape Horn, as far north on the -eastern coast as lat. 43°, and on the western it was tolerably -abundant, but far from luxuriant, at Chiloe, in lat. 42°. It -may possibly extend a little further northward, but is soon -succeeded by a different species.</p> - -<p>"We thus have a range of 15° in latitude, and as Cook, who -must have been well acquainted with the species, found it at -Kerguelen's Land, no less than 140° in longitude.</p> - -<p>"The number of living creatures, of all orders, whose existence -intimately depends on the kelp, is wonderful. A large volume -might be written, describing the inhabitants of one of these beds -of sea-weed. Almost every leaf, except those that float on the -surface, is so thickly incrusted with corallines as to be of a white -colour. We find exquisitely delicate structures, some inhabited -by simple hydra-like polypi, others by more organised kinds -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">« 395 »</a></span> -and beautiful compound ascidiæ. On the flat surfaces of the -leaves, various patelliform shells, trochi, uncovered mollusks, and -some bivalves are attached. Innumerable crustacea frequent -every part of the plant. On shaking the great entangled roots, -a pile of small fish, shells, cuttle-fish, crabs of all orders, sea-eggs, -star-fish, beautiful holothuriæ (some taking the external -form of the nudibranch mollusks), planariæ, and crawling -nereidous animals of a multitude of forms, all fall out together. -Often as I recurred to a branch of the kelp, I never failed to discover -animals of new and curious structure. In Chiloe, where, as I -have said, the kelp did not thrive very well, the numerous shells, -corallines, and Crustacea were absent, but there yet remained a -few of the Flustraceæ, and some compound ascidiæ; the latter, -however, were of different species from those in Tierra del Fuego. -We here see the fucus possessing a wider range than the animals -which use it as an abode.</p> - -<p>"I can only compare these great aquatic forests of the southern -hemisphere with the terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions. -Yet, if the latter should be destroyed in any country, I do not -believe nearly so many species of animals would perish, as under -similar circumstances would happen with the kelp. Amidst the -leaves of this plant numerous species of fish live, which nowhere -else would find food or shelter; with their destruction the many -cormorants, divers, and other fishing-birds, the otters, seals, -and porpoises, would soon perish also; and lastly the Fuegian -savage, the miserable lord of this miserable land, would redouble -his cannibal feast, decrease in numbers, and perhaps cease -to exist."</p> - -<p>For many a day's sail before reaching Cape Horn, large -bundles of the macrocystis detached by the storm announce to -the navigator that he is approaching the desolate coasts of -Tierra del Fuego.</p> - -<p>"We succeeded," says Professor Meyen, in his <i>Reise um die -Welt</i>, "in getting hold of one of these floating islands, which, -amid loud acclamations, was hauled upon deck by the exertions -of five men. It was quite impossible to disentangle the enormous -mass; we could only detach, to the length of about sixty -feet, what we considered to be the chief stem; the branches -were from thirty to forty feet long, and as thick as the principal -trunk from which they sprang. We estimated the total length -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">« 396 »</a></span> -of the plant at about two hundred feet; the pear-shaped air -vessels at the basis of the leaves were often six or seven inches -long, and the leaves themselves measured seven or eight feet. -On these swimming fucus-islands lived a vast multitude of -various animals; thousands upon thousands of barnacles and -sertulariæ, of crustaceans and annelides.</p> - -<p>"The admiration which the gigantic sea-weeds of Tierra del -Fuego excited in our minds equalled that which had been raised -by the exuberant vegetation of the virgin forests of Brazil. -One single plant of the <i>Macrocystis pyrifera</i> would suffice, -like one of the mammoth-trees of those luxuriant woods, to -cover a large space of land with its leaf-like substance. The -quantity of small algæ, of sertularias, cellarias, and other -minute animals dwelling on these swimming islands, surpasses -in variety the multitude of parasitical plants bedecking the -trees in a tropical forest. It seems as if, in these desolate and -dreary regions, the generative powers of the planet were solely -confined to the gigantic growth of submarine vegetation."</p> - -<p>On the rocky coasts of the Falkland Islands are found no less -astonishing masses of enormous sea-weeds, chiefly belonging -to the genera Macrocystis, Lessonia, and Durvillea. Rent from -the rocks to which they were attached, and cast ashore, they -are rolled by the heavy surf into prodigious vegetable cables, -much thicker than a man's body and several hundred feet long. -Many of the rarest and most beautiful algæ may be here discovered, -which have either been wrenched from inaccessible rocks -far out at sea, along with the larger species, or have attached -themselves parasitically to their stems and fronds. Many of -them remind the botanist, by some similarity of form, of the -sea-weeds of his distant home, while others tell him at once that -he is far away in another hemisphere. The gigantic lessonias -particularly abound about these islands. Their growth resembles -that of a tree. The stem attains a height of from eight to ten -feet, the thickness of a man's thigh, and terminates in a crown -of leaves two or three feet long, and drooping like the branches -of a weeping-willow. They form large submerged forests, and, -like the thickets of the macrocystis, afford a refuge and a -dwelling to countless sea animals.</p> - -<p>A similar abundance of colossal algæ is found in the Northern -Pacific, about the Kurile and Aleutic Islands, and along the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">« 397 »</a></span> -deeply indented and channel-furrowed north-west coast of -America.</p> - -<p>Thus the <i>Nereocystis lutkeana</i> forms dense forests in Norfolk -Bay and all about Sitcha. Its stem, resembling whipcord, and -often above 300 feet long, terminates in a large air-vessel, six -or seven feet long, and crowned with a bunch of dichotomous -leaves, each thirty or forty feet in length. Dr. Mertens assures -us that the sea-otter, when fishing, loves to rest upon the colossal -air-vessels of this giant among the sea-weeds, while the long -tenacious stems furnish the rude fishermen of the coast with -excellent tackle. The growth of the nereocystis must be uncommonly -rapid, as it is an annual plant, and consequently -develops its whole gigantic proportions during the course of one -brief summer.</p> - -<p>Before proceeding to the third chief group of marine plants, -the red sea-weeds, or Rhodosperms, I must mention the enormous -fucus banks, or floating meadows of the Atlantic, which -form undoubtedly one of the greatest wonders of the ocean.</p> - -<p>We know that the mighty Gulf Stream, which rolls its indigo-blue -floods from America to the opposite coasts of the Old World, -flows partly southwards in the neighbourhood of Azores, and is -ultimately driven back again to America. In the midst of these -circuitous streams, from 22° to 36° N. lat., and from 35° to 65° W. -long., extends a sea without any other currents than those resulting -from the temporary action of the winds. This comparatively -tranquil part of the ocean, the surface of which surpasses at least -twenty times that of the British Isles, is found more or less densely -covered with floating masses of <i>Sargassum bacciferum</i>. Often -the sea-weed surrounds the ship sailing through these savannas -of the sea, in such quantities as to retard its progress, and then -again hours may pass when not a single fucus appears. While -Columbus was boldly steering through the hitherto unknown -fields of the Sargasso Sea, the fears of his timorous associates -were increased by this singular phenomenon, as they believed -they had now reached the bounds of the navigable ocean, and -must inevitably strike against some hidden rock, if their commander -persevered in his audacious course.</p> - -<p>It is an interesting fact that the Sargasso Sea affords the most -remarkable example of an aggregation of plants belonging to one -single species. Nowhere else, according to Humboldt, neither in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">« 398 »</a></span> -the savannas of America, nor on the heaths or in the pine forests -of Northern Europe, is such a uniformity of vegetation found as -in those boundless maritime meadows.</p> - -<p>"The masses of sea-weeds," says Meyen, "covering so vast an -extent of ocean have ever since the time of Columbus been the -object of astonishment and inquiry. Some navigators believe, -that they are driven together by the Gulf Stream, and that the -same species of Sargassum plentifully occurs in the Mexican Sea; -this is however perfectly erroneous.</p> - -<p>"Humboldt was of opinion that this marine plant originally -grows on submarine banks, from which it is torn by various -forces; I for my part have examined many thousands of specimens, -and venture to affirm that they never have been attached -to any solid body. Freely floating in the water, they have -developed their young germs, and sent forth on all sides roots -and leaves, both of the same nature."</p> - -<p>Thus the Sargassum seems to be the indigenous production of -the sea where it appears, and to have floated there from time -immemorial. Its swimming islands afford an abode and -nourishment to a prodigious amount of animal life. They are -generally covered with elegant sertularias, coloured vorticellas, -and other strange forms of marine existence. Various naked or -nudibranchiate mollusks and annelides attach themselves to the -fronds, and afford nourishment to hosts of fishes and crustaceans, -the beasts of prey of this little world.</p> - -<p>Similar aggregations of sea-weeds are also met with in the -Indian and Pacific Oceans, in the comparatively tranquil spaces -encircled by rotatory currents. Their rare occurrence on the -surface of the sea may serve as a proof of the restless motion of -its waters. Were the ocean not everywhere intersected by currents, -it would most likely be covered with sea-weeds, opposing -serious, if not invincible obstacles to navigation.</p> - -<p>The <i>Red</i> sea-weeds, Rhodosperms or Florideæ, are by far the -most numerous in species, and undoubtedly the most beautiful and -perfect of all the algæ. They love neither light nor motion, and -generally seek the shade of larger plants on the perpendicular sides -of deep tide-pools removed from the influences of the tides and -gales. They mostly grow close to low-water mark, and are to be -seen only for an hour or two at the spring-tides, during which, as -is well known, the deepest ebbs take place. To this group belong -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">« 399 »</a></span> -the wonderfully delicate polysiphonias, callithamnias, plocamias, -and delesserias, whose elegant rosy scarlet or purple leaves -are the amateur's delight, and when laid out on paper resemble -the finest tracery, defying the painter's art to do justice to their -beauty. It likewise numbers among its genera the chalky corallines -and nullipores, which on account of the hardness of their -substance were formerly considered to be polyps, but whose -true nature becomes apparent on examining their internal -structure.</p> - -<p>The <i>Chondrus crispus</i>, or Carrigeen, which grows in such vast -quantities on the coasts of the British Isles, also belongs to the -rhodosperms, though when growing, as it frequently does, in -shallow tide-pools, exposed to full sunlight, its dark purple colour -fades into green or even yellowish white. When boiled it -almost entirely dissolves in the water, and forms on cooling a -colourless and almost tasteless jelly, which of late years has been -largely used in medicine as a substitute for Iceland moss. Similar -nutritious gelatines, which also serve for the manufacture -of strong glues, are yielded by other species of rhodosperms, -among others by the <i>Gracillaria spinosa</i> of the Indian Ocean, -which the Salangana (<i>Hirundo esculenta</i>), a bird allied to the -swallow, is said principally to use for the construction of her -edible nest.</p> - -<p>The steep sea-walls along the south coast of Java are clothed -to the very brink with luxuriant woods, and screw-pines strike -everywhere their roots into their precipitous sides, or look down -by thousands from the margin of the rock upon the unruly sea -below. The surf of incalculable years has worn deep caves into -the chalk cliffs, and here the Salangana builds her nest. Where -the sea is most agitated whole swarms are observed flying about, -and purposely seeking the thickest wave-foam. From a projecting -cape, on looking down upon the play of waters, may be -seen the mouth of the cave of Gua Rongkop, sometimes completely -hidden under the waves, and then again opening its -black recesses, into which the swallows vanish, or from which -they dart forth with the rapidity of lightning. While at some -distance from the coast the blue ocean sleeps in undisturbed -repose, it never ceases to fret and foam against the foot of the -mural rocks, where the most beautiful rainbows glisten in the -eternally rising vapours.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">« 400 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Who can explain the instinct which prompts the birds to glue -their nests to the high dark vaults of those deep, and apparently -so inaccessible, caverns? Did they expect to find them a safe -retreat from the persecutions of man? Then surely their hopes -were vain, for where is the refuge to which his insatiable avidity -cannot find the way? At the cavern of Gua-gede, the brink -of the precipitous coast lies eighty feet above the level of the sea at -ebb-tide; the wall first bends inwards, and then, at a height of -twenty-five feet from the sea, throws out a projecting ledge which -is of great use to the nest-gatherers, serving as a support for a -rotang ladder let down from the cliff. The roof of the cavern's -mouth lies only ten feet above the sea, which, even at ebb-tide, -completely covers the floor of the cave, while at flood-tide the -opening of the vast marine grotto is entirely closed by every wave -that rolls against it. To penetrate into the interior is thus only -possible at low water, and during very tranquil weather; and even -then it could not be done, if the rugged roof were not perforated -and jagged in every direction. The boldest and strongest of the -nest-gatherers wedges himself firmly in the hollows, or clings to -the projecting stones, while he fastens rotang ropes to them, which -then depend four or five feet from the roof. To the lower ends of -these ropes long rotang cables are attached, so that the whole forms -a kind of suspension bridge throughout the entire length of the -cavern, alternately falling and rising with its inequalities. The -cave is 100 feet broad and 150 long as far as its deepest recesses. -If we justly admire the intrepidity of the St. Kildans, who, let -down by a rope from the high level of their rocky birthplace, -remain suspended over a boisterous sea, we must needs also pay a -tribute of praise to the boldness of the Javanese nest-gatherers. -Before preparing their ladders for the plucking of the birds' nests, -they first offer solemn prayers to the goddess of the south-coast, -and sometimes deposit gifts on the tomb where the first discoverer -of the caverns and their treasures is said to repose. -Thus in all zones and in every stage of civilisation, man is -directed by an inward voice to seek the protection of the invisible -powers when about to engage in a great and perilous undertaking.</p> - -<p>As I have already mentioned, the Salangana builds her nest of -sea-weeds, which she softens in her stomach and then disgorges. -During its construction new layers, which soon grow hard in -the air, are continually deposited on the margin, until it has -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">« 401 »</a></span> -attained the proper size. When gathering time approaches, -some of the pluckers daily visit the cavern to examine the state -of the brood. As soon as they find that most of the young are -beginning to be provided with feathers, their operations commence. -These nests form the first quality; those in which the -young are still completely naked, the second; while those which -only contain eggs, and are consequently not yet ripe, rank third. -The nests with young whose feathers are completely developed -are over-ripe, black, and good for nothing. All the young and -eggs are thrown into the sea. The gathering takes place three -times a year; the birds breed four times a year. In spite of -these wholesale devastations their numbers do not diminish; -as many of the young have no doubt flown away before the -day of execution, or other swallows from still unexplored caverns -may fill up the void. In this manner about 50 piculs are -annually collected, which the Chinese pay for at the rate of -4000 or 5000 guilders the picul. Each picul contains on an -average 10,000 nests. Dividing these 500,000 nests among -three gatherings, and reckoning two birds to each nest, we find -that more than 333,000 swallows inhabit at the same time the -Javanese coast caverns.</p> - -<p>In the interior of the island, in the chalkstone grottos of -Bandong, the Salangana also breeds, but in far inferior numbers, -as here the annual collection amounts on an average to no more -than 14,000 nests. In these inland caves swallows and bats -reside together, but without disturbing each other, as the -former when not breeding leave their caverns at sunrise, -disappear in the distance, and only return late in the evening, -when the bats are already enjoying their vespertine or nocturnal -flight.</p> - -<p>In Sumatra and some other islands of the Indian archipelago, -birds'-nests are likewise collected, but nowhere in such numbers -as in Java. They are brought to the Chinese market, where -they are carefully cleaned before being offered for sale to the -consumer. The addition of costly spices renders them one of -the greatest delicacies of Chinese cookery, but as for themselves -they are nothing better than a fine sort of gelatine.</p> - -<p>The Japanese have long been aware that these costly birds' nests -are in fact merely softened algæ. They consequently pulverise -the proper species of sea-weeds, which are abundantly found on -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">« 402 »</a></span> -their own coasts, boil them to a thick jelly, and bring them to -market under the name of <i>Dschin-schan</i>, as artificial birds'-nests. -The Dutch call it Agar-agar, and make great use of it; -simple boiling sufficing to convert the dried substance into a -thick uniform jelly, which is both nourishing and easy of digestion. -Thus we see that the algæ, which the Romans considered -so perfectly worthless that, when they wished to express their -utter contempt of an object, they declared it to be still viler -than the vile sea-weed, are by no means deserving of so hard a -sentence. Man himself might be much more justly reproached -for neglecting the abundant stores of nourishment which nature -has gratuitously provided for him on all flat and rocky coasts. -For not only the species I have mentioned are eatable, but also -some of the commonest fuci of our seas (<i>Fucus nodosus</i>, <i>F. vesiculosus</i>, -<i>Laminaria saccharina</i>), as well as the gigantic alarias -and durvilleas of the colder oceanic regions. And yet how -rare is their use, notwithstanding the increasing wants of a -rapidly growing population!</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 305px;"> -<img src="images/402.png" width="305" height="242" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Surirella constricta.<br /> - -A. Front view. B. Binary subdivision.—(Highly magnified.) -</div> -</div> - -<p>Besides the larger forms of vegetation, the ocean contains a -vast number of microscopical plants. Among these the most -remarkable are the Diatomaceæ, simple vegetable cells enclosed -in a flinty envelope, consisting of two plates closely applied -to each other like the two valves of a mussel. The forms of -these minute organisms are no -less curious than those of the -Foraminifera, for they exhibit -regular mathematical figures, -and their surface is often -most delicately sculptured. -Multiplying by spontaneous -fissure, many of the Diatoms -are met with entirely free -after the process of duplicative -subdivision has once been completed, -while others, such as the -Licmophora, or Fan-bearer, an elegant native species, habitually -remain coherent one to another, producing clusters or filaments -of various shapes, connected by a gelatinous investment or by a -stalk-like appendage, which serves to attach them to other -plants or to stones and to pieces of wood. Though individually -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">« 403 »</a></span> -invisible to the naked eye, they appear, when thus congregated, -as patches of a green or brownish slimy mass, or as little glittering -tufts a line or two in height. Some of their numerous -species are natives of fresh water, but by far the majority are -denizens of the sea, where -they are found from the -equator to the poles. The -brown scum floating upon -the surface of the antarctic -waters near the mighty -ice barrier which arrested -Sir James Ross's progress -to the south pole was -found to consist almost -solely of Diatomaceæ, and -they are equally abundant -in the Arctic Ocean.</p> - -<p>It is remarked by Dr. -Hooker that the universal -presence of this invisible -vegetation throughout -the South Polar Seas -is a most important feature, -since there is a marked deficiency in this region of higher -forms of vegetation, so that without the Diatoms there -would neither be food for aquatic animals nor (if it were -possible for these to maintain themselves by preying on one -another) could the ocean waters be purified of the carbonic -acid which animal respiration would be continually imparting -to it. Thus it is not in vain that they abound in the most -inhospitable seas, where but for them no sea-bird would flap -its wings, and no dolphin dart through the desert waters.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 359px;"> -<img src="images/403.png" width="359" height="469" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Licmophora flabellata. -(Highly magnified.)</div> -</div> - -<p>From the indestructible nature of their flinty coverings the -Diatoms play a no less conspicuous part in the geological history -of our globe than the calcareous Foraminifera.</p> - -<p>Extensive rocky strata, chains of hills, beds of marl—once deposited -at the bottom of the ocean, and raised by subsequent -changes of level from the depth of the waters—contain the -remains of these little plants in greater or less abundance. No -country is destitute of such monuments, and in some they constitute -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">« 404 »</a></span> -the leading features in the structure of the soil. Under -the whole city of Richmond, in Virginia, and far beyond its -limits, over an area of unknown extent, they form a stratum of -eighteen feet in thickness, and similar deposits are found to -alternate in the neighbourhood of the Mediterranean with -calcareous strata chiefly composed of Foraminifera. At first -sight it may seem a gross exaggeration to attribute so vast an -agency to beings individually so minute, but when we recollect -how quickly they multiply by division, and how their activity -dates from the first dawn of organic creation, their architectural -powers no longer seem incredible. In forty-eight hours a single -diatom may multiply to 8,000,000, and in four days to -140,000,000,000,000, when the silicious coverings of its enormous -progeny will already suffice to fill up a space of two cubic -feet. No wonder, then, that during the course of ages these microscopic -plants have been able to form prodigious strata wherever -circumstances favoured their propagation. In no case is the -power of numbers more forcibly exemplified, for where can we -find results more vast, proceeding from the infinite multiplication -of the smallest individuals, than that whole tracts of country -should literally be built up of the skeletons of Foraminifera and -Diatomaceæ?</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 235px;"> -<img src="images/404.png" width="235" height="204" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Hooded Merganser.</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">« 405 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_XX" id="CHAP_XX">CHAP. XX.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE LIFE.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">The Dependence of all created Beings upon Space and Time.—The Influences -which regulate the Distribution of Marine Life.—The four Bathymetrical Zones -of Marine Life on the British Coasts, according to the late Professor Edward -Forbes of Edinburgh.—Abyssal Animals.—<i>Bathybius Haeckelii.</i>—Deep-Sea -Sponges and Shell-Fish.—Vivid Phosphorescence of Deep-Sea Animals.—Deep-Sea -Shark Fishery.—The "Challenger."</div> - - -<p>The wanderer to distant lands sees himself gradually surrounded -by a new world of animals and plants. On crossing the Alps, for -instance, the well-known vegetable forms of our native country -leave us one after the other; the beech, the fir, the oak, no -longer meet the eye, or appear but rarely, and of more stunted -growth, while in their stead citron and olive-trees decorate the -landscape; and finally, on the shores of the Mediterranean the -world of palms begins to disclose its beauties.</p> - -<p>Thus during a long journey our early companions drop off -one after the other, until at last we see ourselves surrounded by -a crowd of new associates, who were strangers to us at the beginning -of our pilgrimage.</p> - -<p>We may cross the earth from pole to pole, or follow the sun -in his diurnal course; in all directions, from north to south and -from east to west, Nature will be found to change her garments -as we proceed, and never to resume again those she has once -cast off. The plants and animals of the temperate and cold -regions of the north are different from those of the analogous -regions in the southern hemisphere; and in the tropical zone -each part of the world nourishes its peculiar inhabitants.</p> - -<p>Similar changes meet our eye on ascending from the plains to -the summits of high mountains. At the foot of Etna flourishes -the luxuriant vegetation of a warmer sky, the palmetto (<i>Chamærops -humilis</i>) and the pomegranate, even the cotton shrub and -the sugar-cane; higher up, the cool shade of magnificent chestnut -woods refreshes our path; then follows the stately oak; until finally -we attain the dreary height where all vegetation ceases in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">« 406 »</a></span> -dreadful cold of an eternal winter. With every thousand feet we -rise above the level of the sea, we seem to have advanced nearer -and nearer to the pole.</p> - -<p>This wonderful change of form, which decorates the various -regions of the earth with such an endless variety of organised -existence, alike prevails in the realms of ocean. Here we find -every larger sea-basin nourishing its peculiar inhabitants, and -discover at various vertical distances beneath the surface of the -sea, changes in organic nature similar to those we observed at -different distances above its level.</p> - -<p>Thousands of extinct animal and vegetable forms, which have -successively flourished and disappeared, teach us the important -lesson, that all created beings are made but for a season. It is -only during a determined epoch of planetary life that each genus -or species finds that combination of outward circumstances, under -which it is able to attain its highest perfection. But imperceptibly, -in the course of ages, the external world modifies its -nature; families once flourishing in a different atmosphere -decline and wither; they are no longer able to maintain themselves -against new forms of life starting up in all the vigour of -youth, and disappear from the scene, supplanted by races which -must one day vanish in their turn.</p> - -<p>Organic life is no less dependent on place than it is on time. -Of the numberless animal and vegetable forms that people the -earth, each finds in only one spot the scene of its greatest size -and its greatest profusion. Some endowed with a more pliable -or energetic nature occupy a large space upon the surface of -the globe; we find them in the enjoyment of healthy existence -scattered far and wide over whole hemispheres, while -others are obliged to content themselves with the narrowest -birthplace, and are not seldom confined to a single bay, or -a single mountain side.</p> - -<p>A great part of the magic charm of nature is owing no doubt -to this deep and mysterious connexion between the soil and its -productions. Here all is harmony; we feel it in our hearts; and -our eye delights in the consonance of forms and colours, as our -ear in the concord of sweet sounds. And where is the mortal -artist whose paintings could rival the ever-changing panorama -which the Master of all worlds unfolds through all zones, from -pole to pole? His pictures constantly fade away; but they are -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">« 407 »</a></span> -perpetually succeeded by new creations of equal beauty. Happy -the man whose eye is open to their charms! Every ramble -through the woods and fields is to him a banquet of pure and -inexhaustible delight.</p> - -<p>The causes which confine the life of animals and plants to -circumscribed localities are in many cases easily to be traced. -The warmth or coldness of the sea, resulting from currents, -geographical position, and depth; tranquil or disturbed, pure or -troubled waters; abundance or scarcity of food, solidity or softness -of the ground, sufficiently explain why many species of marine -animals appear in some places in considerable numbers, while in -others they are totally wanting. A superficial view of their -organisation often shows us at once the physical properties their -<i>habitat</i> must necessarily possess. By looking at a fucus we -immediately see whether it requires the protection of tranquil -waters, or is able to bid defiance to the floods; whether it is -made to anchor upon the rock, or to sink its roots into a more -yielding soil.</p> - -<p>In many cases, however, the causes which regulate the distribution -of the sea-animals are still enveloped in darkness, and we -no more know why the tropical seas bring forth in some places -numerous coral-reefs, and none at all in other to all appearance -just as favourably situated localities, than we do why the tea-plant -is confined to a small corner of Asia, or the Peruvian -cinchonas to a narrow girdle on the Andes.</p> - -<p>Evidently, besides the influences known to us, there are -many other hidden ones at work, whose conflicting powers draw -round every living creature a mysterious circle, whose bounds it -is unable to transgress. Their discovery belongs to the future, -and certainly forms one of the most interesting subjects for the -naturalist's inquiries.</p> - -<p>The geographical distribution of the terrestrial plants and -animals is undoubtedly much easier to be ascertained than that -of the denizens of the ocean. The naturalist is able to climb -the highest mountains beyond the extreme limit of vegetation, -and far above their most towering peaks his eye, piercing the -transparent atmosphere, sees the condor soar in solitary majesty; -he can wander through the deepest glens, or even, penetrating -into the bowels of the earth, examine and collect the forms of -the subterranean flora; but it has not been given him to perambulate -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">« 408 »</a></span> -the submarine meads, or to force his way leisurely through -dense thickets of algæ, and explore their hidden wonders.</p> - -<p>Yet, in spite of these natural impediments, his inventive -genius, fired by his insatiable avidity of knowledge, has given -him the means of interrogating the abyss, and partly raising the -veil behind which marine life conceals its secret operations. -Armed with a dredge, he fetches from the bottom of the sea -plants, polypi, mollusks, and annelides, and learns to distinguish -the various depths assigned for their abode; or he puts on the -helmet of the submarine diver, and passes whole hours in collecting -and observing beneath the clear waters of the sea; or he -drops the plummet hundreds of fathoms deep into the ocean, -and draws it up again coated with specimens of corals or Foraminifera.</p> - -<p>To the late Professor Edward Forbes of Edinburgh science -is indebted for the first investigations of this nature that have -been undertaken on a greater scale; and, to give the reader -some idea of the causes which regulate the distribution of marine -life, I cannot do better than cite a few of the general results of -that eminent naturalist's researches.<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[U]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[U]</span></a> Natural History of the European Seas, by the late Professor E. Forbes. Edited -by R. Godwin Austen, 1859.</p></div> - -<p>As the animals and plants of the land are grouped together -into distinct zoological and botanical provinces, so likewise is -the population of the sea gathered into geographical groups, -which, though well marked in their more central and most developed -portions, imperceptibly merge at their margins into those -of neighbouring realms. "These submarine provinces have a -more or less direct correspondence with those of the neighbouring -lands, though sometimes they differ very considerably from the -latter in their extent; since the physical features which may -constitute boundaries in the one, may not be sufficiently extended -or developed in the other to impede the spread of -peculiar species of animals or plants. Marine creatures, owing -to their organisation and the transporting powers of the element -in which they live, are much more capable of diffusion, as a -whole, than the terrestrial organisms; hence we should expect to -find the regions they respectively inhabit, beneath the waves, of -much vaster dimensions than those occupied by similar geographical -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">« 409 »</a></span> -assemblages of their terrestrial brethren; and such is to a -great extent true. Nevertheless, the inequalities of the sea-bed, -the modifications of the temperature of the ocean produced by -currents pouring through it like mighty rivers, the projection of -promontories, and the more important interruptions caused by -the great gulfs and abysses of the deep, or by vast and comparatively -desert tracts of unprolific sand, which in many places are -spread out in extensive shallows, are all-powerful influences, -determining their diffusion within certain and more or less defined -limits."</p> - -<p>The <i>structure of the coast</i>, as far as the mineral character of -its rocks is concerned, may seriously affect the distribution of -particular tribes. Since many shell-fish, for instance, bore only in -limestone or rocks containing abundance of lime, a very ordinary -difference in the nature of the strata must necessarily determine -their presence or absence.</p> - -<p>The <i>outline of a coast</i> has also great influence in regulating -the diffusion of species. A much indented region is very -favourable to submarine life; a straight coast-line, exposed to the -full rolling of the surf, is usually unfavourable, though there are a -few creatures which delight in the dash of the waves, and hardily, -though some of them are small and exceedingly delicate, brave -the full force of the ocean storms, reminding us, as Mr. Godwin -Austen quaintly remarks, "of those sturdy people, not uncommon -in this stormy life, who thrive best in troubles, and feel happiest -under conditions that make most men miserable."</p> - -<p>The <i>nature of the sea-bottom</i>, according as it consists of -mud, sand, gravel, nullipore, broken shells, loose stones, or -rock, determines, to a great extent, the presence or absence of -peculiar forms of shell-fish and other invertebrata, and of fish -also, since the distribution of the food regulates that of the -devourers.</p> - -<p>The <i>rise and fall of the tides</i> are most important in determining -the presence or absence of the species inhabiting the -littoral zone. The <i>currents</i>, besides their agency as modifiers -of climate, act as means of transport, by carrying the germs and -larvæ of numerous creatures from region to region.</p> - -<p>The <i>influence of climate</i> is conspicuously manifested in the -diminution of the number of genera and species as we proceed -northwards to the Icy Ocean.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">« 410 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The <i>composition of the waters</i> has also a most important -effect on the distribution of aquatic animals, as the degree of -saltness or freshness determines the presence or absence of -numerous forms of both fishes and invertebrate animals; and -last, not least, the <i>influence of depth</i>, in which <i>pressure</i> and -the <i>diminution of light</i> are doubtless important elements, is -everywhere manifest over the ocean, "for everywhere we find -creatures, whether animal or vegetable, distributed in successive -belts or regions, from high-water mark down to the deepest -abysses from which living beings have been drawn up. Peculiar -types inhabit each of the zones, and are confined within their -destined limits, whilst others are common to two or more, and -not a few appear capable of braving all bathymetrical conditions. -Nevertheless, so marked is the appearance of the inhabitants of -any given region of depth, that the sight of a sufficient assemblage -of them from any one locality will enable the naturalist -at once to declare the soundings within certain limits, and -without the aid of line or plummet."</p> - -<p>In the British seas <i>four</i> distinct and well-marked zones of -life succeed each other in vertical extension. The first of these -is the <i>littoral zone</i>, equivalent to the tract between tide-marks, -but quite as manifest in those portions of the coast-line where -the tides have a fall of only a foot or two, or even less, as in -districts where the fall is very great. This important belt, -which again forms four subdivisions, and is inhabited by -animals and plants capable of enduring periodical exposure to -the air, to the glare of light, the heat of the sun, the pelting -of rain, and often to being more or less flooded with fresh -water when the tide has receded, claims many genera as well -as species peculiar to itself. "The verge of continual air is generally -distinguished by the abundant presence of <i>Fucus canaliculatus</i>, -among whose roots may be found crowds of small -varieties of the periwinkle, called <i>Littorina rudis</i>, which indeed -range out of the water considerably, and may be found adhering -to rocks many feet above high-water mark." The second sub-region -is marked by the abundance of a small dark rigid sea-weed, -called <i>Lichina</i>, painting the rock sides as if with a dingy -stripe. With it we find the larger forms of <i>Littorina rudis</i>, -abundance of the common limpet (<i>Patella vulgata</i>), the common -mussel (<i>Mytilus edulis</i>), and myriads of small seaside -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">« 411 »</a></span> -barnacles, often striping the sea-wall in a broad white band. -"Where the shore shelves a little, and rocky ledges decline -gradually into the sea, the common mussel delights to live, -firmly anchored by its byssal cable -in the crevices of rocks or among -masses of gravel, the pebbles of -which are tied together by its -silky filaments." The rock sides -and the floors of transparent pools -are here often thickly coated with -a nullipore, forming a hard pale -red crust. The region of half-tide -forms a third subdivision of the littoral zone, and is exceedingly -prolific in marine animals and plants. "Here we find <i>Fucus articulatus</i>, -with its graceful even-edged rich brown fronds, mingled -occasionally with the less elegant <i>Fucus nodosus</i>. Here limpets -throng, and dog-periwinkles (<i>Purpura lapillus</i>) crawl observantly, -seeking to bore more passive mollusks and extract their -juicy substance. This is the home of the best of periwinkles, -the large black <i>Littorina littorea</i>, gathered in thousands for -the London market. On our western coasts -we find it in company with the purple-striped -top-shell (<i>Trochus umbilicatus</i>), and towards -the south with the larger <i>Trochus crassus</i>. -Here also sea-anemones love to expand their -many-armed disks, often glowing with the -most brilliant colours." A fourth sub-region -succeeds, the lowest belt above low-water -mark, and is distinguished by the presence -of the black saw-toothed sea-weed (<i>Fucus -serratus</i>), so much used in the packing of lobsters for market. -On its fronds creeps the lowest in grade of the periwinkles, the -variously tinted <i>Littorina neritoides</i>, exhibiting every colour in -its obtuse and thickened shell.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 260px;"> -<img src="images/411a.png" width="260" height="154" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Limpet.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 158px;"> -<img src="images/411b.png" width="158" height="192" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Periwinkle.</div> -</div> - -<p>"At the verge of low-water mark, immediately below it, wherever -the coast is rocky, there are all round the British shores, -within a space of a few inches, a remarkable series of more or -less distinctly defined belts, each consisting of a different species -of sea-weed. These in succession are, the <i>Laurencia pinnatifida</i> -uppermost; then the green <i>Conferva rupestris</i>; then the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">« 412 »</a></span> -elegant and firm, often iridescent, fronds of <i>Chondrus crispus</i>; -and, lowermost, the thong-weed or <i>Himanthalia lorea</i>."</p> - -<p>Succeeding the shore-band, or littoral zone, we have the -<i>region of the great laminaria or tangle forests</i>, or in sandy -places the waving meadows of zostera, or grass-wrack. It extends -from the edge of low water to a depth varying in different -localities, but seldom exceeding fifteen fathoms, and is itself -divided into sub-regions, marked by belts of differently tinted -algæ. This zone above all others swarms with life, and is the -chief residence of fishes, mollusks, crustaceans, and invertebrata -of all classes, remarkable for brightness and variety of colouring. -"Here," says Mr. Godwin Austen, "is the chosen haunt of the -nudibranchiate mollusks, animals of exceedingly delicate texture, -extraordinary shapes, elegance of organs, and vividness of painting. -Their bodies exhibit hues of a brilliancy and intensity -such as can match the most gorgeous setting of a painter's -palette. Vermilion red, intense crimson, pale rose, golden -yellow, luscious orange, rich purple, the deepest and the brightest -blues, even vivid greens and densest blacks, are common tints, -separate or combined, disposed in infinite varieties of elegant -patterns, in this singular tribe. Our handsomest fishes are congregated -here, the wrasses especially, some of which are truly -gorgeous in their painting. Here are gobies and more curious -blennies, swimming playfully among these submarine groves. -Strange worms crawl serpent-like about their roots, and formidable -crustacea are the wild beasts who prowl amid their -intricacies. The old stalks, and the surfaces of the rocky or -stony ground on which they usually grow, are incrusted like -the trunks of ancient trees or faces of barren rocks with lichenous -investments. But whereas in the air these living crusts are -chiefly if not all of vegetable origin, in the sea they are more -often constructed out of animal organisms. Some of them are -sponges, others are true zoophytes, others polyzoa or bryozoa, -beings that have proved to belong to the class of mollusks, -however unlike they may seem to shell-fish.</p> - -<p>"In the middle and lower part of the Laminarian region -around our shores the tangles become less plentiful as we -descend, and at last become exceptional and disappear. But -other sea-weeds are very abundant, especially those that delight -in red or purple hues. Tender sea-mosses, exquisitely delicate -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">« 413 »</a></span> -in form and colouring, abound. Where none of these are -very plentiful, we often find the coral-weed or nullipore in -vast quantities, and assuming many strange modifications of -form. Among these vegetable corals numbers of shells and -articulate animals delight to live, and probably not a few feed -upon their stony fronds. The Lima, a shell-fish related to the -scallop, gathers the broken branches by means of prehensile -tentacles, and constructs for itself a comfortable nest lined with -a woven cloth of byssal threads. Numerous fishes resort to -these rugged pastures in order to deposit their spawn among -the gnarled branchlets."</p> - -<p>To the laminarian succeeds the <i>coralline zone</i>, extending -in most places some thirty fathoms or more. Plants, indeed, -are rare, but here the horny plant-like sertularias love to rear -their graceful feathery branches, and form miniature gardens of -fairy-like delicacy and beauty; and here carnivorous -mollusks, whelks above all, prowl in -great numbers. Bivalves of remarkable elegance, -especially clams and scallops, are found buried -in multitudes beneath its gravels and muddy -sands; and no less plentifully congregate the -spider-crabs, with many other peculiar crustaceans. -As a natural consequence of this well-furnished -table, fishes abound, and many of -our deep sea and white fisheries owe their value -to the zoological features of the coralline zone.</p> - -<p>Last and lowest of our regions of submarine existence is that -of <i>deep-sea corals</i>, so named on account of the great stony -zoophytes characteristic of it in the oceanic seas of Europe. -Many sea-stars and sea-urchins are likewise found in this region, -in the depths of which the number of peculiar creatures is few, -yet sufficient to give it a marked character.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 130px;"> -<img src="images/413.png" width="130" height="224" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Whelk.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">« 414 »</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 268px;"> -<img src="images/414.png" width="268" height="123" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Gurnard.</div> -</div> - -<p>The aspect of the British submarine fauna is in general -more remarkable for elegance of form and neat simplicity than -for glaring or vivid hues. "The smaller kinds of sponges are -not seldom brilliantly dyed, but the more conspicuous kinds are -tawny or brownish. The sea-anemones are elegantly variegated -with rich colours, but the majority of zoophytes are not strikingly -tinted. The star-fishes, as a group, are most remarkable among -the invertebrata for gorgeous painting, but our sea-urchins -are sombre when compared with their relatives from warmer -seas. The jelly-fish are occasionally tinged with delicate hues, -and some of the smaller kinds even showily ornamented; but -those which most figure in our waters are not conspicuous on -account of colour, however elegant in their contours. Our -marine shells, though often pretty, are not gaudy or attractive, -except in rare instances. The same may be said with almost -equal truth of our marine crustaceans, though, on close inspection, -the elegance of device on the carapaces of many species is exceedingly -admirable."</p> - -<p>Our fishes are not distinguished by brilliancy of colour. -"Their hues are quaker-like, though sufficiently lustrous for -sober tinting. The cod and flounder tribes are among the most -characteristic, and such of the more common fishes as belong to -families of which we have but few representatives are in most -instances clothed in sober grey and silver. Beauty of no mean -description may, however, be displayed by these modest vestments; -as, for instance, in the mackerel and the herring. Our -gorgeously decorated wrasses form the chief exception to the -general rule, but these belong to a family more characteristic of -the southern seas. A like deficiency in the numbers of the -gurnard and mackerel tribes seriously -affects the aspect of our -piscine fauna when compared -with denizens of the Mediterranean." -The sharks and rays -too are comparatively deficient, -although a few species, as we -have seen in a former chapter, -are, to the great annoyance of our fishermen, over-abundant. -The sea-eels are also few, though in the common conger and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">« 415 »</a></span> -the larger sand-eel (<i>Ammodytes lancea</i>) we have two very -conspicuous species.</p> - -<table summary="images"> -<tr> - <td><img src="images/415a.png" width="203" height="67" alt="" /><br /> - <div class="fig_caption">Sand-Eel.</div> - </td> - <td><img src="images/415b.png" width="253" height="87" alt="" /><br /> - <div class="fig_caption">Grey Mullet.</div> - </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><img src="images/415c.png" width="217" height="104" alt="" /><br /> - <div class="fig_caption">Red Mullet.</div> - </td> - <td><img src="images/415d.png" width="380" height="134" alt="" /><br /> - <div class="fig_caption">Salmon.</div> - </td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>As the surface of the British islands exhibits a transition as -it were from a northern to a southern -character, from the firs of Scotland to -the free-growing myrtles of the Devon -coast, so the inhabitants of our seas -pass through a great variety of form, -from a northern to a southern type. While the rorqual of the -Frozen Ocean not seldom strands on our northern and eastern -coasts; the flying-fish of the equinoctial -seas sometimes appears -within view of our southern shores; -and it is this peculiar position of -our insular empire, fronting the -colder and the warmer seas, which -enriches its waters with such a variety of marine life. "Several -characteristic boreal forms find their southern limit within the -northern half of our waters, and there -some of the most striking and abundant -kinds are chiefly developed in numbers, -such as the cat-fish or sea-wolf (<i>Anarhicas -lupus</i>), the scythe (<i>Merlangus -carbonarius</i>), the ling (<i>Lota molva</i>), -the cod (<i>Gadus morrhua</i>), the lump-sucker (<i>Cyclopterus -lumpus</i>), and even the herring (<i>Clupea harengus</i>). On the -other hand, along the southern shores of England we find -fishes becoming frequent which are distinctly of a southern -type, such as the grey and red mullets (<i>Mugil cephalus</i> and -<i>Mullus barbatus</i>), the sea-bream, and, far more plentifully, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">« 416 »</a></span> -the John Dory (<i>Zeus aper</i>) and the pilchard (<i>Clupea pilchardus</i>)."<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[V]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[V]</span></a> Godwin Austen, Natural History of the European Seas, pp. 103, 104.</p></div> - -<p>Although very inferior in beauty to the tropical fishes, our -finny tribes are far superior in flavour, and may well challenge -the world to produce their equals for the table. The turbot, -cod, whiting, herring, whitebait, mackerel, sole, and even the -salmon, though it belongs rather to fluviatile history than to the -chronicles of the sea, may fairly be cited to testify to the truth -of this assertion; so that surely we have no reason to complain -of having been but indifferently provided for in the geographical -distribution of fishes, which of all marine productions are the -most important to man.</p> - -<p>The researches of Forbes led him to believe that "as we -descend deeper and deeper, the denizens of the sea become -fewer and fewer, indicating our approach towards a silent and -desolate abyss, where life is either extinguished or exhibits but -faint glimmerings to mark its lingering presence;" but subsequent -deep-sea soundings, performed with improved dredging -apparatuses, have led to the surprising result that the bottom -of the ocean, even in its abyssal depths, far from being a dreary -void, as was formerly imagined, is in reality a busy scene, -absolutely teeming with life. And in this case, as in so many -others, we have a fine instance of the truth of the observation -that every new invention or discovery casts a new light upon -some other province of human knowledge; for to the submarine -telegraph we are indebted for the first certain proof of -the existence of highly organised animals living at abyssal -depths.</p> - -<p>In 1860 the submarine cable between Sardinia and Bona, on -the coast of Africa, having completely failed, was picked up -from a depth exceeding one thousand fathoms, and found -encrusted with various shells and corals. All previous observations -with reference to the existence of living creatures at -extreme depths had been liable to doubt from two sources. In -the first place the methods of deep-sea soundings were still so -imperfect that there was always a possibility, from the action of -deep currents upon the sounding-line or from other causes, of a -greater depth being indicated than really existed; and, secondly, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">« 417 »</a></span> -there was no absolute certainty that the animals entangled on -the sounding instrument had actually come up from the bottom. -They might have been caught on the way.</p> - -<p>But now all doubt was removed. A submarine cable lies on -the ground throughout its whole length. Before laying it, its -course is carefully surveyed and the real depth accurately ascertained. -Fishing it up is a delicate and difficult operation, and -during its progress the depth is checked again and again. -When, therefore, as in this case, the animals dragged up with -a cable from depths of upwards of one thousand fathoms are -found, not sticking loosely to it, but moulded upon its outer -surface, or cemented to it by horny or calcareous excretions, it -is evident that they must have lived and grown upon it at the -bottom of the deep sea.</p> - -<p>The subsequent dredging cruises of H.M.SS. "Porcupine" -and "Lightning" in 1868, 1869, and 1870, under the scientific -direction of Dr. Carpenter, Professor Wyville Thomson, and Mr. -Gwyn Jeffreys, afforded additional and convincing proofs that -life abounds in the abyssal regions of the ocean. During these -several cruises 57 hauls of the dredge were taken at depths -beyond 500 fathoms, and 16 at depths beyond 1,000 fathoms, -and in all cases life was abundant. In 1869 two casts were -taken in depths greater than 2,000 fathoms, and proved equally -successful in bringing up specimens of deep-sea life. With the -deepest cast, 2,435 fathoms, off the mouth of the Bay of -Biscay, living, well-marked, and characteristic specimens of all -the five invertebrate sub-kingdoms were taken. "And thus," -says Professor Wyville Thomson,<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[W]</a> "the question of the existence -of abundant animal life at the bottom of the sea has been -finally settled, and for all depths, for there is no reason to -suppose that the depth anywhere exceeds between three and -four thousand fathoms; and if there be nothing in the conditions -of a depth of 2,500 fathoms to prevent the full -development of a varied fauna, it is impossible to suppose -that even an additional 1,000 fathoms would make any great -difference."</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[W]</span></a> The Depths of the Sea. London, 1873.</p></div> - -<p>It may be asked how the deep-sea animals bear the enormous -pressure at these great depths, which seems at first sight alone -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">« 418 »</a></span> -sufficient to put any idea of life out of the question? There -was a curious popular notion that on descending deeper and -deeper the sea water became gradually, under the pressure, -heavier and heavier, so that at last it became more weighty than -molten gold. But water is, in fact, almost incompressible; so -that its density at 2,000 fathoms is scarcely appreciably increased. -Any free air suspended in the water, or contained in -any compressible tissue of an animal at 2,000 fathoms, would -of course be reduced to a mere fraction of its bulk; but the -animals subject to the pressure of the deep seas, being permeated -throughout their whole organisation by incompressible fluids at -the same pressure, are consequently as capable of bearing it as -we do the pressure of the atmosphere. The absence of light -seemed another circumstance incompatible with the existence -of animal life at abyssal depths, as all plants depend upon -light for their growth, and their absence apparently involves -that of vegetable food, which, as we all know, forms everywhere -the substratum of animal existence. We have as yet very little -exact knowledge as to the distance to which the sun's light -penetrates into the water of the sea. According to some recent -experiments it would appear that the rays capable of affecting -a delicate photographic film are very rapidly cut off, their effect -being imperceptible at the depth of only a few fathoms; and -though probably some portions of the sun's light possessing -certain properties may penetrate to a much greater distance, it -is certain that, beyond the first fifty fathoms, plants to whose -existence light is essential are barely represented, and after two -hundred fathoms entirely absent.</p> - -<p>But though plant-life is thus limited to the more superficial -parts of the ocean, the analysis of sea water, taken in all -localities and at all depths, has shown that it everywhere -contains a very appreciable and very uniform quantity of -organic matter in solution and in suspension. It is thus -quite intelligible that numberless protozoa—whose distinctive -character is that they are capable of being supported by the -absorption of organic matter through the surface of their -bodies—are able to exist in the dark abysses of the sea, and in -their turn afford nourishment to more highly organised animals.</p> - -<p>After these general remarks on the creatures of the deep, -I will now give a brief account of their various groups.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">« 419 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Over an enormous extent the abyssal ocean bottom is found -covered with a sheet of almost formless beings, absolutely devoid -of internal structure, and consisting merely of living and -moving expansions of jelly-like matter. Whether this form of -life, still more simple than the Amœba,<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[X]</a> to which Professor -Huxley has given the name of <i>Bathybius Haeckelii</i>, be continuous -in one vast sheet or broken up into circumscribed -individual particles, it is equally an object of wonder; and as -no living thing, however slowly it may live, is ever perfectly -at rest, it shows us that the bottom of the sea is, like its surface, -the theatre of perpetual change.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[X]</span></a> See Chapter XVIII., <a href="#Page_380">p. 380</a>.</p></div> - -<p>Living among and upon this Bathybius we find a multitude -of other protozoa, foraminifera and other rhizopods, radiolarians, -and sponges.</p> - -<p>Such is the countless number of the Foraminifera inhabiting -the deep seas, that their remains form the chief mass of the -soft oozy bottom of the ocean. In the surface layer of the -deposit the shells of <i>Globigerina bulloides</i>, the prevailing -species, are found fresh, whole, and living, and in the lower -layers dead and gradually crumbling down by the decomposition -of their organic cement and by the pressure of the -layers above. Countless generations are thus piled one upon -the other; and each successive stratum, weighing upon those of -older date, is laying the foundation of future rocks, which subsequent -revolutions may perhaps heave out of the deep and -raise in towering pinnacles to the skies.</p> - -<p>Sponges<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[Y]</a> of wonderful beauty and lustre appear to extend -in endless variety over the whole of the bottom of the sea. -Some (<i>Holtenia Carpenteri</i>) anchor in the ooze by means of a -perfect maze of delicate glassy filaments, like fine white hair, -spreading out in all directions through the sea's fluid mud; -while others (<i>Hyalonema</i>) send right down a coiled whisp of -strong spicules, each as thick as a knitting-needle, which open -out into a brush as the bed gets firmer, and fix the sponge in -its place somewhat on the principle of a screw-pile. "A very -singular sponge, from deep water off the Loffoden Islands, -spreads into a thin circular cake, and adds to its surface by -sending out a flat border of silky spicules, like a fringe of white -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">« 420 »</a></span> -floss silk round a little yellow mat; and the lovely Euplectella, -whose beauty is imbedded up to its fretted lid in the grey mud -of the seas of the Philippines, is supported by a frill of spicules -standing up round it like Queen Elizabeth's ruff."<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[Z]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[Y]</span></a> Ibid. pp. 385-389.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[Z]</span></a> The Depths of the Sea, p. 73.</p></div> - -<p>The stalked sea-stars, which, as the fossil pentacrinites and -encrinites testify, abounded in the past periods of the earth's -history, were, until now, supposed to be on the verge of extinction; -but when we consider that the first few scrapes of the -dredge at great depths have brought new species to light, we -are entitled to believe that they constitute an important element -in the abyssal fauna, and probably pave large tracts of the sea-bottom -with a carpet of animated flowers. Freely-moving sea-stars -and sea-urchins have likewise been hauled up in great -numbers from abyssal depths; crustaceans have not been found -wanting, and the captured shell-fish have shown that the deep-sea -molluscs are by no means deficient in colour, though as a -rule they are paler than those from shallow water.</p> - -<p><i>Dacrydium vitreum</i>, dredged from 2,435 fathoms, a curious -little mytiloïd shell-fish, which makes and inhabits a delicate -flask-shaped tube of foraminifera and other foreign bodies -cemented together by organic matter and lined by a delicate -membrane, is of a fine reddish-brown colour dashed with green, -and the animals of one or two species of Lima from extreme -depths are of the usual vivid orange scarlet.</p> - -<p>Some of the abyssal molluscs have even been found provided -with organs of sight. A new species of Pleurotoma, from -2,090 fathoms, had a pair of well-developed eyes on short foot-stalks, -and a Fusus from 1,207 fathoms was similarly provided. -The presence of organs of sight at these great depths leaves -little room to doubt that light must reach even these abysses -from some source, and as from many considerations it can -scarcely be sunlight, Professor Wyville Thomson throws out -the suggestion "that the whole of the light beyond a certain -depth may be due to phosphorescence, which is certainly very -general, particularly among the larvæ and young of deep-sea -animals."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">« 421 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Thus many of the creatures dredged in the Northern Atlantic, -off the west coast of Ireland,<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[AA]</a> in depths varying from 557 to 584 -fathoms, were most brilliantly phosphorescent. In some places -nearly everything brought up seemed to emit light, and the -mud itself was perfectly full of luminous specks. The alcyonarians, -the brittle-stars, and some annelids were the most -brilliant. The Pennatidæ, the Virgulariæ, and the Gorgoniæ -shone with a lambent white light, so bright that it showed -quite distinctly the hour on a watch, while the light from -<i>Ophiacantha spinulosa</i> was of a brilliant green, coruscating -from the centre of the disk, now along one arm, now along -another, and sometimes vividly illuminating the whole outline -of the star-fish. While the Ophiacantha shines like a star of the -most vivid uranium green, the sea-pen (<i>Pavonaria quadrangularis</i>) -is resplendent with a pale lilac phosphorescence like the -flame of cyanogen gas, not scintillating like the green light of -Ophiacantha, but almost constant, sometimes flashing out at -one point more vividly, and then dying gradually into comparative -dimness, but still sufficiently bright to make every -portion of the polyp visible.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[AA]</span></a> Ibid., <a href="#CHAP_III">Chapter III</a>. Cruise of the "Porcupine," pp. 98-149.</p></div> - -<p>Such numbers of the Pavonaria were brought up at one haul -of the dredge in the Sound of Skye, that the "Porcupine" had -evidently passed over a forest of them. While the darkness of -winter frowns over the surface of the Northern Atlantic, the -animated shrubs at its bottom are thus glowing with light, and -a kind of magical day prevails in depths which were supposed -to be shrouded with perpetual night. But it might have been -better for many of the luminous denizens of the abyss if a more -obscure existence had been their lot; for in a sea swarming -with predaceous crustaceans with great bright eyes phosphorescence -must surely be a fatal gift.</p> - -<p>Off the coast of Portugal there is a great fishery of sharks -(<i>Centroscymnus Cœlolepis</i>), carried on at a depth of 500 -fathoms. If an animal so highly organised as a shark can thus -bear without inconvenience the enormous pressure of more -than half a ton on the square inch existing at that depth, it -is a sufficient proof that the pressure is applied under circumstances -which prevent its affecting it to its prejudice, and there -seems to be no reason why it should not tolerate equally well -a pressure of one or two tons, or why many other fishes—though -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">« 422 »</a></span> -the dredge, in consequence of their facility of locomotion, will -hardly ever be able to bring them to light—should not abound -in the still waters of the abyssal deep.</p> - -<p>The "Challenger" Exploring Expedition will no doubt reveal -to us still many an unknown wonder of those interesting -regions, and make us acquainted with a world of new animals -which even the profundity of the ocean vainly strives to hide -from the curiosity of man.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 551px;"> -<img src="images/422.png" width="551" height="348" alt="" /> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">« 423 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_XXI" id="CHAP_XXI">CHAP. XXI.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">THE PHOSPHORESCENCE OF THE SEA.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">Its Causes.—Noctiluca miliaris.—Phosphorescent Annelides and Beroës.—Intense -Phosphorescence of the Pyrosoma atlantica.—Luminous Pholades.—The -luminous Shark.—Phosphorescent Algæ.—Citations from Byron, Coleridge, -and Crabbe.</div> - - -<p>He who still lingers on the shore after the shades of evening -have descended, not seldom enjoys a most magnificent spectacle; -for lucid flashes burst from the bosom of the waters, as if the -sea were anxious to restore to the darkened heavens the light it -had received from them during the day. On approaching the -margin of the rising flood to examine more closely the sparkling -of the breaking wave, the spreading waters seem to cover the -beach with a sheet of fire. Each footstep over the moist sands -elicits luminous star-like points, and a splash in the water resembles -the awakening of slumbering flames.</p> - -<p>The same wonderful and beauteous aspect frequently gladdens -the eye of the navigator who ploughs his way through the wide -deserts of ocean, particularly if his course leads him through the -tropical seas.</p> - -<p>"When a vessel," says Humboldt, "driven along by a fresh -wind, divides the foaming waters, one never wearies of the lovely -spectacle their agitation affords; for, whenever a wave makes -the ship incline sideways, bluish or reddish flames seem to shoot -upwards from the keel. Beautiful beyond description is the -sight of a troop of dolphins gambolling in the phosphorescent sea. -Every furrow they draw through the waters is marked by streaks -of intense light. In the Gulf of Cariaco, between Cumana -and the peninsula of Maniquarez, this scene has often delighted -me for hours."</p> - -<p>But even in the colder oceanic regions the brilliant phenomenon -appears from time to time in its full glory. During a -dark and stormy September night, on the way from the Sea-lion -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">« 424 »</a></span> -island, Saint George, to Unalaschka, Chamisso admired as -beautiful a phosphorescence of the ocean as he had ever witnessed -in the tropical seas. Sparks of light, remaining attached to the -sails that had been wetted by the spray, continued to glow in -another element. Near the south point of Kamtschatka, at a -water-temperature hardly above freezing point, Ermann saw -the sea no less luminous than during a seven months' sojourn in -the tropical ocean. This distinguished traveller positively -denies that warmth decidedly favours the luminosity of the sea.</p> - -<p>At Cape Colborn, one of the desolate promontories of the desolate -Victoria Land, the phosphoric gleaming of the waves on -the 6th September, when darkness closed in, was so intense that -Simpson assures us he had seldom seen anything more brilliant. -The boats seemed to cleave a flood of molten silver, and the spray -dashed from their bows, before the fresh breeze, fell back in -glittering showers into the deep.</p> - -<p>Mr. Charles Darwin paints in vivid colours the magnificent -spectacle presented by the sea, while sailing in the latitudes -of Cape Horn on a very dark night.</p> - -<p>There was a fresh breeze, and every part of the surface, which -during the day is seen as foam, now glowed with a pale light. -The vessel drove before her bows two billows of liquid phosphorus, -and in her wake she was followed by a milky train. As far -as the eye reached, the crest of every wave was bright, and the -sky above the horizon, from the reflected glare of these livid -flames, was not so utterly obscure as over the rest of the -heavens.</p> - -<p>While "La Venus" was at anchor before Simon's Town, the -breaking of the waves produced so strong a light that the room -in which the naturalists of the expedition were seated was -illumined as by sudden flashes of lightning. Although more -than fifty paces from the beach where the phenomenon took place, -they tried to read by this wondrous oceanic light, but the -successive glimpses were of too short duration to gratify their -wishes.</p> - -<p>Thus we see the same nocturnal splendour which shines forth -in the tropical seas, and gleams along our shores, burst forth -from the arctic waters, and from the waves that bathe the -southern promontories of the old and the new worlds.</p> - -<p>But what is the cause of the beautiful phenomenon so widely -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">« 425 »</a></span> -spread over the face of ocean? How comes it that at certain -times flames issue from the bosom of an element generally -so hostile to their appearance?</p> - -<p>Without troubling the reader with the groundless surmises -of ancient naturalists, or repeating the useless tales of the past, -I shall at once place myself with him on the stage of our -actual knowledge of this interesting and mysterious subject. -It is now no longer a matter of doubt that many of the inferior -marine animals possess the faculty of secreting a luminous -matter, and thus adding their mite to the grand phenomenon. -When we consider their countless multitudes, we shall no longer -wonder at such magnificent effects being produced by creatures -individually so insignificant.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 234px;"> -<img src="images/425.png" width="234" height="207" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Noctiluca miliaris. -(Highly magnified.)</div> -</div> - -<p>In our seas it is chiefly a minute gelatinous animal, the -<i>Noctiluca miliaris</i>, most probably an aberrant member of the -infusorial group, which, as it were, -repeats the splendid spectacle of the -starry heavens on the surface of the -ocean. In form it is nearly globular, -presenting on one side a groove, from -the anterior extremity of which issues -a peculiar curved stalk or appendage, -marked by transverse lines, which -might seem to be made use of as an -organ of locomotion. Near the base of -this tentacle is placed the mouth, which passes into a dilatable -digestive cavity, leading, according to Mr. Huxley, to a distinct -anal orifice. From the rather firm external coat proceed -thread-like prolongations through the softer mass of the body, so -as to divide it into irregular chambers. This little creature, -which is just large enough to be discerned by the naked eye -when the water in which it may be swimming is contained in a -glass jar exposed to the light, seems to feed on diatoms, as their -loricæ may frequently be detected in its interior. It multiplies -by spontaneous fission, and the rapidity of this process may be -inferred from the immensity of its numbers. A single bucket -of luminous sea-water will often contain thousands, while for -miles and miles every wave breaking on the shore expands in a -sheet of living flame. It was first described by Forster in the -Pacific Ocean; it occurs on all the shores of the Atlantic, and the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">« 426 »</a></span> -Polar Seas are illuminated by its fairy light. "The nature -of its luminosity," says Dr. Carpenter, "is found by microscopic -examination to be very peculiar; for what appears to the eye to -be a uniform glow is resolvable under a sufficient magnifying -power into a multitude of evanescent scintillations, and these -are given forth with increased intensity whenever the body of -the animal receives any mechanical shock."</p> - -<p>The power of emitting a phosphorescent light is widely diffused -both among the free-swimming and the sessile Cœlenterata. -Many of the Physophoridæ are remarkable for its manifestation, -and a great number of the jelly-fishes are luminous. Our own -<i>Thaumantias lucifera</i>, a small and by no means rare medusid, -displays the phenomenon in a very beautiful manner, for, when -irritated by contact of fresh water, it marks its position by a -vivid circlet of tiny stars, each shining from the base of a -tentacle. A remarkable greenish light, like that of burning -silver, may also be seen to glow from many of our Sertularians, -becoming much brighter under various modes of excitation.</p> - -<p>Among the Ctenophora the large <i>Cestum Veneris</i> of the -Mediterranean is specially distinguished for its luminosity, and -while moving beneath the surface of the water gleams at night -like a brilliant band of flame.</p> - -<p>The Sea-pens are eminently phosphorescent, shining at night -with a golden-green light of a most wonderful softness. When -touched, every branchlet above the shock emits a phosphoric -glow, while all the polyps beneath remain in darkness. When -thrown into fresh water or alcohol, they scatter sparks about in -all directions, a most beautiful sight; dying, as it were, in a -halo of glory.</p> - -<p>But of all the marine animals the Pyrosomas, doing full -justice to their name (fire-bodies) seem to emit the most vivid -coruscations. Bibra relates in his "Travels to Chili" that he once -caught half a dozen of these remarkable light-bearers, by whose -phosphorescence he could distinctly read their own description -in a naturalist's vade-mecum. Although completely dark when -at rest the slightest touch sufficed to elicit their clear blue-green -light. During a voyage to India, Mr. Bennett had occasion to -admire the magnificent spectacle afforded by whole shoals of -Pyrosomas. The ship, proceeding at a rapid rate, continued -during an entire night to pass through distinct but extensive -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">« 427 »</a></span> -fields of these molluscs, floating and glowing as they floated on -all sides of her course. Enveloped in a flame of bright phosphorescent -light, and gleaming with a greenish lustre, the -Pyrosomes, in vast sheets, upwards of a mile in breadth, and -stretching out till lost in the distance, presented a sight, the -glory of which may be easily imagined. The vessel, as it -cleaved the gleaming mass, threw up strong flashes of light, as -if ploughing through liquid fire, which illuminated the hull, the -sails, and the ropes, with a strange unearthly radiance.</p> - -<p>In his memoir on the Pyrosoma, M. Péron describes with -lively colours the circumstances under which he first made its -discovery, during a dark and stormy night, in the tropical -Atlantic. "The sky," says this distinguished naturalist, "was -on all sides loaded with heavy clouds; all around the obscurity -was profound; the wind blew violently, and the ship cut her way -with rapidity. Suddenly we discovered at some distance a great -phosphorescent band stretched across the waves, and occupying -an immense tract in advance of the ship. Heightened by the -surrounding circumstances, the effect of this spectacle was -romantic, imposing, sublime, rivetting the attention of all on -board. Soon we reached the illuminated tract, and perceived -that the prodigious brightness was certainly and only attributable -to the presence of an innumerable multitude of largish animals -floating with the waves. From their swimming at different -depths they took apparently different forms: those at the greatest -depth were very indefinite, presenting much the appearance -of great masses of fire, or rather of enormous red-hot cannon -balls; whilst those more distinctly seen near the surface perfectly -resembled incandescent cylinders of iron.</p> - -<p>"Taken from the water, these animals entirely resembled each -other in form, colour, substance, and the property of phosphorescence, -differing only in their sizes, which varied from -three to seven inches. The large, longish tubercles with which -the exterior of the Pyrosomes was bristled were of a firmer -substance, and more transparent than the rest of the body, and -were brilliant and polished like diamonds. These were the -principal scene of phosphorescence. Between these large -tubercles, smaller ones, shorter and more obtuse, could be distinguished; -these also were phosphorescent. Lastly, in the -interior of the substance of the animal, could be seen, by the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">« 428 »</a></span> -aid of the transparency, a number of little, elongated, narrow -bodies (viscera), which also participated in a high degree in the -possession of the phosphoric light."</p> - -<p>In the Pholades or Lithodomes, that bore their dwellings in -the hard stone, as other shell-fish do in the loose sands, the -whole mass of the body is permeated with light. Pliny gives -us a short but animated description of the phenomenon in the -edible date-shell of the Mediterranean (<i>Pholas dactylus</i>):—</p> - -<p>"It is in the nature of the pholades to shine in the darkness -with their own light, which is the more intense as the animal is -more juicy. While eating them, they shine in the mouth and -on the hands, nay, even the drops falling from them upon the -ground continue to emit light, a sure proof that the luminosity -we admire in them is associated with their juice." Milne-Edwards -found this observation perfectly correct, for wishing to place -some living pholades in alcohol, he saw a luminous matter exude -from their bodies, which on account of its weight sank in the -liquid, covering the bottom of the vessel, and there forming a -deposit as shining as when it was in contact with the air.</p> - -<p>Several kinds of fishes likewise possess the luminous faculty. -The sun-fish, that strange deformity, emits a phosphoric gleam; -and a species of Gurnard (<i>Trigla lucerna</i>) is -said to sparkle in the night, so as to form fiery -streams through the water.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 155px;"> -<img src="images/428.png" width="155" height="178" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Short Sun-Fish.</div> -</div> - -<p>With regard to the luminosity of the larger -marine animals, Ermann, however, remarks -that he so often saw small luminous crustacea -in the abdominal cavity of the transparent -<i>Salpa pinnata</i>, that it may well be asked -whether the phosphorescence of the larger -creatures is not in reality owing to that of -their smaller companions.</p> - -<p>According to Mr. Bennett, "Whaling Voyage round the Globe," -a species of shark first discovered by himself is distinguished -by an uncommonly strong emission of light. When the specimen, -taken at night, was removed into a dark apartment, it afforded -a very interesting spectacle. The entire inferior surface of the -body and head emitted a vivid and greenish phosphorescent -gleam, imparting to the creature by its own light a truly ghastly -and terrific appearance. The luminous effect was constant, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">« 429 »</a></span> -not perceptibly increased by agitation or friction. When the -shark expired, (which was not until it had been out of the water -more than three hours,) the luminous appearance faded entirely -from the abdomen, and more gradually from other parts; lingering -longest around the jaws and on the fins.</p> - -<p>The only part of the under surface of the animal which was -free from luminosity was the black collar round the throat; and -while the inferior surface of the pectoral, anal, and caudal fins -shone with splendour, their superior surface (including the upper -lobe of the tail fin) was in darkness, as were also the dorsal fins, -and the back and summit of the head.</p> - -<p>Mr. Bennett is inclined to believe that the luminous power of -this shark resides in a peculiar secretion from the skin. It was -his first impression that the fish had accidentally contracted some -phosphorescent matter from the sea, or from the net in which it -was captured; but the most rigid investigation did not confirm -this suspicion, while the uniformity with which the luminous -gleam occupied certain portions of the body and fins, its permanence -during life, and decline and cessation upon the approach -and occurrence of death, did not leave a doubt in his mind but -that it was a vital principle essential to the economy of the -animal. The small size of the fins would appear to denote that -this fish is not active in swimming; and, since it is highly predaceous -and evidently of nocturnal habits, we may perhaps -indulge in the hypothesis, that the phosphorescent power it -possesses is of use to attract its prey, upon the same principle as -the Polynesian islanders and others employ torches in night-fishing.</p> - -<p>Some of the lower sea-plants also appear to be luminous. -Thus, over a space of more than 600 miles (between lat. -8° N. and 2° S.), Meyen saw the ocean covered with phosphorescent -Oscillatoria, grouped together into small balls or globules, -from the size of a poppy-seed to that of a lentil.</p> - -<p>But if the luminosity of the ocean generally proceeds from -living creatures, it sometimes also arises from putrefying organic -fibres and membranes, resulting from the decomposition of those -living light-bearers. "Sometimes," says Humboldt, "even a -high magnifying power is unable to discover any animals in the -phosphorescent water, and yet light gleams forth wherever a -wave strikes against a hard body and dissolves in foam. The -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">« 430 »</a></span> -cause of this phenomenon lies then most likely in the putrefying -fibres of dead mollusks, which are mixed with the waters in -countless numbers."</p> - -<p>Summing up the foregoing in a few words, it is thus an indisputable -fact, that the phosphorescence of the sea is by no means -an electrical or magnetic property of the water, but exclusively -bound to organic matter, living or dead. But although thus -much has been ascertained, we have as yet only advanced one -step towards the unravelling of the mystery, and its proximate -cause remains an open question. Unfortunately, science is still -unable to give a positive answer, and we are obliged to be -contented with a more or less plausible hypothesis. When we -consider that the phosphorescence most commonly resides only -in the outward mucous covering of the body, in which a number -of particles cast off by the skin are continually undergoing decomposition, -the phenomenon seems to be a simple chemical -process, during which more or less phosphorus may be disengaged, -which by agitation or friction gives rise to the emission -of light. It is more difficult to explain those cases in which -the entire mass of the body is luminous (as in Pholas), or the -muscular substance (as in some Annelides), or the vibratory -cilia (as in the Beroës); and here we do better to confess our -entire ignorance, than to resort to the hypothesis of electrical -discharges, extremely improbable in an element which is so excellent -an electrical conductor, and particularly when we consider -that no emission of light takes place in the few and powerful -electrical fishes we are acquainted with.</p> - -<p>We know as little of what utility marine phosphorescence may -be. Why do the countless myriads of Mammariæ gleam and -sparkle along our coasts? Is it to signify their presence to other -animals, and direct them to the spot where they may find -abundance of food? So much is certain, that so grand and wide-spread -a phenomenon must necessarily serve some end equally -grand and important.</p> - -<p>As the phosphorescence of the sea is owing to living creatures, -it must naturally show itself in its greatest brilliancy when the -ocean is at rest; for during the daytime we find the surface of -the waters most peopled with various animals when only a slight -zephyr glides over the sea. In stormy weather, the fragile or -gelatinous world of the lower marine creatures generally seeks a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">« 431 »</a></span> -greater depth, until the elementary strife has ceased, when it -again loves to sport in the warmer or more cheerful superficial -waters.</p> - -<p>In the tropical zone, Humboldt saw the sea most brilliantly -luminous before a storm, when the air was sultry, and the sky -covered with clouds. In the North Sea we observe the phenomenon -most commonly during fine tranquil autumnal nights; -but it may be seen at every season of the year, even when the -cold is most intense. Its appearance is, however, extremely -capricious; for, under seemingly unaltered circumstances, the -sea may one night be very luminous, and the next quite dark. -Often months, or even years, pass by without witnessing it in -full perfection. Does this result from a peculiar state of the -atmosphere, or do the little animals love to migrate from one -part of the coast to another?</p> - -<p>It is remarkable that the ancients should have taken so little -notice of oceanic phosphorescence. The "Periplus" of Hanno -contains perhaps the only passage in which the phenomenon is -described. To the south of Cerne the Carthaginian navigator -saw the sea burn, as it were, with streams of fire. Pliny, -in whom the miracle (<i>miraculum</i>, as he calls it) of the date-shell -excited so lively an admiration, and who must often -have seen the sea gleam with phosphoric light, as the passage -proves where he mentions in a few dry words the luminous -gurnard (<i>lucerna</i>) stretching out a fiery tongue, has no exclamation -of delight for one of the most beautiful sights in nature. -Homer also, who has given us so many charming descriptions of -the sea in its ever-changing aspects, and who so often leads us -with long-suffering Ulysses through the nocturnal floods, never -once makes them blaze or sparkle in his immortal hexameters.</p> - -<p>Even modern poets mention the phenomenon but rarely. -Camoens himself, whom Humboldt, on account of his beautiful -oceanic descriptions, calls, above all others, the "poet of the -sea," forgets to sing it in his Lusiad. Byron in his "Corsair" -has a few lines on the subject:</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i1">"Flash'd the dipt oars, and, sparkling with the stroke,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Around the waves phosphoric brightness broke;"<br /></span> -</div></div> - -<p class="p0">but contents himself, as we see, with coldly mentioning a phenomenon -so worthy of all a poet's enthusiasm. In Coleridge's -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">« 432 »</a></span> -wondrous ballad of "The ancient Mariner" we find a warmer -description:</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i1">"Beyond the shadow of the ship<br /></span> -<span class="i4">I watch'd the water-snakes:<br /></span> -<span class="i2">They moved in tracks of shining white,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">And, when they rear'd, the elfish light<br /></span> -<span class="i4">Fell off in hoary flakes.<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i1">"Within the shadow of the ship<br /></span> -<span class="i4">I watch'd their rich attire—<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Blue, glossy green, and velvet black:<br /></span> -<span class="i2">They coiled and swam, and every track<br /></span> -<span class="i4">Was a flash of golden fire."<br /></span> -</div></div> - -<p>These indeed are lines whose brilliancy emulates the splendour -of the phenomenon they depict, but even they are hardly more -beautiful than Crabbe's admirable description:</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i1">"And now your view upon the ocean turn,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">And there the splendour of the waves discern;<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Cast but a stone, or strike them with an oar,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">And you shall flames within the deep explore;<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Or scoop the stream phosphoric as you stand,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">And the cold flames shall flash along your hand;<br /></span> -<span class="i2">When, lost in wonder, you shall walk and gaze<br /></span> -<span class="i2">On weeds that sparkle, and on waves that blaze."<br /></span> -</div></div> - -<p>Or than the graphic numbers of Sir Walter Scott:</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i1">"Awak'd before the rushing prow,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">The mimic fires of ocean glow,<br /></span> -<span class="i4">Those lightnings of the wave;<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Wild sparkles crest the broken tides.<br /></span> -<span class="i2">And flashing round, the vessel's sides<br /></span> -<span class="i4">With elfish lustre lave;<br /></span> -<span class="i2">While, far behind, their livid light<br /></span> -<span class="i2">To the dark billows of the night<br /></span> -<span class="i4">A blooming splendour gave."<br /></span> -</div></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">« 433 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_XXII" id="CHAP_XXII">CHAP. XXII.</a></h2> - -<p class="caption2">THE PRIMITIVE OCEAN.</p> - -<div class="blockquot2">The Giant-Book of the Earth-rind.—The Sea of Fire.—Formation of a solid -Earth-crust by cooling.—The Primitive Waters.—First awakening of Life in -the Bosom of the Ocean.—The Reign of the Saurians.—The future Ocean.</div> - - -<p>The greatest of all histories, traced in mighty characters by -the Almighty himself, is that of the earth-rind. The leaves -of this giant volume are the strata which have been successively -deposited in the bosom of the sea, or raised by volcanic -powers from the depths of the earth; the wars which it relates -are the Titanic conflicts of two hostile elements, water and fire, -each anxious to destroy the formations of its opponent; and the -historic documents which bear witness to that ancient strife lie -before us in the petrified or carbonified remains of extinct -forms of organic existence—the medals of creation.</p> - -<p>It is only since yesterday that science has attempted to unriddle -the hieroglyphics in which the past history of our planet -reveals itself to man, and it stands to reason that in so difficult -a study truth must often be obscured by error; but although -the geologist is still a mere scholar, endeavouring to decipher -the first chapters of a voluminous work, yet even now the study -of the physical revolutions of our globe distinctly points out a -period when the molten earth wandered, a ball of liquid fire, -through the desert realms of space. In those times, so distant -from ours that even the wildest flight of imagination is unable -to carry us over the intervening abyss, the waters of the ocean -were as yet mixed with the air, and formed a thick and hazy -atmosphere through which no radiant sunbeam, no soft lunar -light, ever penetrated to the fiery billows of molten rock, which -at that time covered the whole surface of the earth. What -pictures of desolation rise before our fancy, at the idea of yon -boundless ocean of fluid stone, which rolled from pole to pole -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">« 434 »</a></span> -without meeting on its wide way anything but itself. Ever -and ever in the dark-red clouds shone the reflection of that vast -conflagration, witnessed only by the eye of the Almighty, for -organic life could not exist on a globe which exclusively obeyed -the physical and chemical laws of inorganic nature.</p> - -<p>But while the fiery mass with its surrounding atmosphere -was circling through the icy regions of ethereal space (the temperature -of which is computed to be lower than 60° R. below -freezing point), it gradually cooled, and its hitherto fluid surface -began to harden to a solid crust. Who can tell how many -countless ages may have dropped one after the other into the -abyss of the past, ere thus much was accomplished; for the -dense atmosphere constantly threw back again upon the fiery -earth-ball the heat radiating from its surface, and the caloric of -the vast body could escape but very slowly into vacant space?</p> - -<p>Thus millions of years may have gone by before the aqueous -vapours, now no longer obstinately repelled by the cooling -earth-rind, condensed into rain, and, falling in showers, gave -birth to an incipient ocean. But it must not be supposed that -the waters obtained at once a tranquil and undisturbed possession -of their new domain, for, as soon as they descended upon -the earth, those endless elementary wars began, which, with -various fortunes, have continued to the present day.</p> - -<p>As soon as the cooling earth-rind began to harden, it naturally -contracted, like all solid bodies when no longer subject to the -influence of expanding heat, and thus in the thin crust enormous -fissures and rents were formed, through which the fluid -masses below gushed forth, and, spreading in wide sheets over -the surface, once more converted into vapours the waters they -met with in their fiery path.</p> - -<p>But after all these revolutions and vicissitudes which opposed -the birth of ocean, perpetually destroying its perpetually renewed -formation, we come at last to a period when, in consequence -of the constantly decreasing temperature of the earth-rind, -and its increasing thickness, the waters at last conquered a -permanent abode on its surface, and the oceanic empire was -definitively founded.</p> - -<p>The scene has now changed; the sea of fire has disappeared, -and water covers the face of the earth. The rind is still too -thin, and the eruptions from below are still too fluid to form -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">« 435 »</a></span> -higher elevations above the general surface: all is flat and even, -and land nowhere rises above the mirror of a boundless -ocean.</p> - -<p>This new state of things still affords the same spectacle of -dreary uniformity and solitude in all its horrors. The temperature -of the waters is yet too high, and they contain too many -extraneous substances, too many noxious vapours arise from the -clefts of the earth-rind, the dense atmosphere is still too much -impregnated with poisons, to allow the hidden germs of life anywhere -to awaken. A strange and awful primitive ocean rises and -falls, rolls and rages, but nowhere does it beat against a coast; -no animal, no plant, grows and thrives in its bosom; no bird -flies over its expanse.</p> - -<p>But meanwhile the hidden agency of Providence is unremittingly -active in preparing a new order of things. The earth-rind -increases in thickness, the crevices become narrower, and -the fluid or semi-fluid masses escaping through the clefts ascend -to a more considerable height.</p> - -<p>Thus the first islands are formed, and the first separation between -the dry land and the waters takes place. At the same -time no less remarkable changes occur, as well in the constitution -of the waters as in that of the atmosphere. The farther the -glowing internal heat of the planet retires from the surface, the -greater is the quantity of water which precipitates itself upon it. -The ocean, obliged to relinquish part of its surface to the dry -land, makes up for the loss of extent by an increase of depth, -and the clearer atmosphere allows the enlivening sunbeam to -gild here the crest of a wave, there a naked rock.</p> - -<p>And now also life awakens in the seas, but how often has it -changed its forms, and how often has Neptune displaced his -boundaries since that primordial dawn. Alternately rising or -subsiding, what was once the bottom of the ocean now forms -the mountain crest, and whole islands and continents have been -gradually worn away and whelmed beneath the waves of the sea, -to arise and to be whelmed again. In every part of the world -we are able to trace these repeated changes in the fossil remains -embedded in the strata that have successively been deposited in -the sea, and then again raised above its level by volcanic agencies, -and thus, by a wonderful transposition, the history of the primitive -ocean is revealed to us by the tablets of the dry land. The -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">« 436 »</a></span> -indefatigable zeal of the geologists has discovered no less than -thirty-nine distinct fossiliferous strata of different ages, and as -many of these are again subdivided into successive layers, frequently -of a thickness of several thousand feet, and each of them -characterised by its peculiar organic remains, we may form some -idea of the vast spaces of time required for their formation.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 208px;"> -<img src="images/436.png" width="208" height="295" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Trilobite.</div> -</div> - -<p>The annals of the human race speak of the rise and downfall -of nations and dynasties, and stamp a couple of thousand years -with the mark of high antiquity; but each stratum or each leaf -in the records of our globe has witnessed the birth and the extinction -of numerous families, genera, and species of plants and -animals, and shows us organic Nature as changeable in time as -she appears to us in space. As, when we sail to the southern -hemisphere, the stars of the northern firmament gradually sink -below the horizon, until finally entirely new constellations blaze -upon us from the nightly heavens; thus in the organic vestiges -of the palæozoic seas we find no form of life resembling those -of the actual times, but every class</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i1">"Seems to have undergone a change<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Into something new and strange."<br /></span> -</div></div> - -<p>Then spiral-armed Brachiopods were the chief representatives -of the molluscs; then crinoid star-fishes paved the bottom of -the ocean; then the fishes, covered with large thick rhomboidal -scales, were buckler-headed like the Cephalaspis, or furnished with -wing-like appendages like the Pterichthys; and then the Trilobites, -a crustacean tribe, thus named from its three lobed -skeleton, swarmed in the shallow littoral -waters where the lesser sea-fry afforded -them an abundant food. From a comparison -of their structure with recent -analogies, it is supposed that these strange -creatures swam in an inverted position -close beneath the surface of the water, the -belly upwards, and that they made use of -their power of rolling themselves into a -ball as a defence against attacks from -above. The remains of seventeen families -of Trilobites, including forty-five genera -and 477 species, some of the size of a pea, -others two feet long, testify the once flourishing condition of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">« 437 »</a></span> -these remarkable crustaceans, yet but few of their petrified -remains, so numerous in the Silurian and Devonian strata, are -found in the carboniferous or mountain limestone, and none -whatever in formations of more recent date. Thus, long before -the wind ever moaned through the dense fronds of the tree ferns -and calamites which once covered the swampy lowlands of our -isle, and long before that rich vegetation began, to which we are -indebted for our inexhaustible coal-fields, now frequently buried -thousands of feet below the surface on which they originally -grew, the Trilobites belonged already to the things of the past!</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 218px;"> -<img src="images/437a.png" width="218" height="335" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Ammonites, or Snake-Stones.</div> -</div> - -<p>In the seas of the mesozoic or mediæval -period, new forms of life appear upon -the scene. A remarkable change has -taken place in the cephalopods; for the -chambered and straightened Orthoceratites -and many other families of the -order have passed away, and the spiral -Ammonites, branching out into numerous -genera, and more than 600 species, -now flourish in the seas, so that in some -places the rocks seem, as it were, composed -of them alone. Some are of -small dimensions, others upwards of -three feet in diameter. They are met -with in the Alps, and have been found -in the Himalaya Mountains, at elevations of 16,000 feet, as -eloquent witnesses of the vast revolutions of which our earth -has been the scene. Carnivorous, and resembling -in habits the Nautili, their small -and feeble representatives of the present day, -their immense multiplication proves how numerous -must have been the molluscs, crustaceans, -and annelides, on which they fed, all -like them widely different from those of the -present day.</p> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 152px;"> -<img src="images/437b.png" width="152" height="250" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Belemnites.<br /> - -<i>a.</i> B. acutus.<br /> -<i>b.</i> Belemnite (restored).<br /> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Then also flourished the Belemnites (Thunder-stones), -supposed by the ancients to be -the thunderbolts of Jove, but now known -to be the petrified internal bones of a race of -voracious ten-armed cuttle-fishes, whose importance in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">« 438 »</a></span> -oolitic or cretaceous seas may be judged of by the frequency -of their remains, and the 120 species that have been hitherto -discovered. Belemnites two feet long have been found, so -that, to judge by analogies, the animals to which they belonged -as cuttle-bones must have measured eighteen or twenty feet -from end to end, a size which reduces the rapacious Onychoteuthis -of the present seas to dwarfish dimensions.</p> - -<div class="fig_left" style="width: 238px;"> -<img src="images/438a.png" width="238" height="131" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Ichthyosaurus communis.</div> -</div> - -<p>But of all the denizens of the mesozoic seas none were more -formidable than the gigantic Saurians, whose approach put -even the voracious sharks to flight. The first of these monsters -that raises its frightful head above the waters is the dreadful -Ichthyosaurus, a creature thirty or even fifty feet long, half -fish, half lizard, and combining in -strange assemblage the snout of the -porpoise, the teeth of the crocodile, -and the paddles of the whale. Singular -above all is the enormous eye, -in size surpassing a man's head. Woe -to the fish that meets its appalling -glance! No rapidity of flight, no weapon, be it sword or saw, -avails, for the long-tailed gigantic saurian darts like lightning -through the water, and its dense harness bids defiance to every -attack. Not only have fifteen distinct species of Ichthyosauri -been distinguished, but the remains of crushed and partially -digested fish-bones and scales, which are found within their -skeleton, indicate the precise nature of their food. Their fossil -remains abound along the whole extent of the lias formation, -from the coasts of Dorset, through Somerset and Leicestershire -to the coast of Yorkshire, but the largest specimens have been -found in Franconia.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 456px;"> -<img src="images/438b.png" width="456" height="102" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption">Plesiosaurus.</div> -</div> - -<p>Along with this monster, another and still more singular -deformity makes its appearance, the Plesiosaurus, in which the -fabulous chimæras and hydras of antiquity seem to start into -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">« 439 »</a></span> -existence. Fancy a crocodile twenty-seven feet long, with the -fins of a whale, the long and flexible neck of a swan, and a -comparatively small head. With the appearance of this new -tyrant, the last hope of escape is taken from the trembling -fishes; for into the shallow waters, inaccessible to the more -bulky Ichthyosaurus, the slender Plesiosaurus penetrates with -ease.</p> - -<p>A race of such colossal powers seemed destined for an immortal -reign, for where was the visible enemy that could put an end -to its tyranny? But even the giant strength of the saurians -was obliged to succumb to the still more formidable power of -all-changing time, which slowly but surely modified the circumstances -under which they were called into being, and gave birth -to higher and more beautiful forms.</p> - -<p>In the tertiary period, the dreadful reptiles of the mesozoic -seas have long since vanished from the bosom of the ocean, and -cetaceans, walruses, and seals, unknown in the primitive deep, -now wander through the waters or bask on the sunny cliffs. -With them begins a new era in the life of the sea. Hitherto it -has only brought forth creatures of base or brutal instinct, but -now the Divine spark of parental affection begins to ennoble its -more perfect inhabitants, and to point out the dim outlines of -the spiritual world.</p> - -<p>During all these successive changes the surface of the earth -has gradually cooled to its present temperature, and many -plants and animals that formerly enjoyed the widest range must -now rest satisfied with narrower limits. The sea-animals of the -north find themselves for ever severed from their brethren of -the south, by the impassable zone of the tropical ocean; and -all the fishes, molluscs, and zoophytes, whose organisation -requires a greater warmth, confine themselves to the equatorial -regions.</p> - -<p>As the tertiary period advances towards the present epoch, -the species which flourished in its prime become extinct, like the -numberless races which preceded them; new modifications of -life, more and more similar to those of the present day, start -into existence; and, finally, creation appears with increasing -beauty in her present rich attire.</p> - -<p>Thus old Ocean, after having devoured so many of his children, -has transformed himself at last into our contemporaneous -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">« 440 »</a></span> -seas, with their currents and floods, and the various animals and -plants growing and thriving in their bosom.</p> - -<p>Who can tell when the last great revolutions of the earth-rind -took place, which, by the upheaving of mighty mountains or the -disruption of isthmuses, drew the present boundaries of land -and sea? or who can pierce the deep mystery which veils the -future duration of the existing phase of planetary life?</p> - -<p>So much is certain, that the ocean of the present day will be -transformed as the seas of the past have been, and that "all -that it inhabit" are doomed to perish like the long line of -animal and vegetable forms which preceded them.</p> - -<p>We know by too many signs that our earth is slowly but -unceasingly working out changes in her external form. Here -lands are rising, while other areas are gradually sinking; here -the breakers perpetually gnaw the cliffs, and hollow out their -sides, while in other places alluvial deposits encroach upon the -sea's domain.</p> - -<p>However slowly these changes may be going on, they point to -a time when a new ocean will encircle new lands, and new -animal and vegetable forms arise within its bosom. Of what -nature and how gifted these races yet slumbering in the lap of -time may be, He only knows whose eye penetrates through all -eternity; but we cannot doubt that they will be superior to the -present denizens of the ocean.</p> - -<p>Hitherto the annals of the earth-rind have shown us uninterrupted -progress; why, then, should the future be ruled by different -laws? At first the sea only produces weeds, shells, crustacea; -then the fishes and reptiles appear; and the cetaceans close the -vista. But is this the last word, the last manifestation of oceanic -life, or is it not to be expected that the future seas will be -peopled with beings ranking as high above the whale or dolphin -as these rank above the giant saurians of the past?</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">« 441 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="PART_III" id="PART_III">PART III.</a><br /> - -<span style="font-size:0.8em;">THE</span><br /> - -PROGRESS OF MARITIME DISCOVERY.</h2> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">« 442 »</a><br /><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">« 443 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_XXIII" id="CHAP_XXIII">CHAP. XXIII.</a></h2> - -<div class="blockquot2">Maritime Discoveries of the Phœnicians.—Expedition of Hanno.—Circumnavigation -of Africa under the Pharaoh Necho.—Colæus of Samos.—Pytheas of -Massilia.—Expedition of Nearchus.—Circumnavigation of Hindostan under -the Ptolemies.—Voyages of Discovery of the Romans.—Consequences of the -Fall of the Roman Empire.—Amalfi.—Pisa.—Venice.—Genoa.—Resumption -of Maritime Intercourse between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.—Discovery -of the Mariner's Compass.—Marco Polo.</div> - - -<p>Among the nations of antiquity, navigation, as may well be supposed, -was in a very rude and imperfect state. Unacquainted -with the mariner's compass, which during the darkest and most -tempestuous nights safely leads the modern seaman over the -pathless ocean, the sparkling constellations of a serene sky, or -the position of the sun, were the only guides of the ancient -navigator. He therefore rarely ventured to lose sight of land, -but cautiously steering his little bark along the shore, was -subject to all the delays and dangers of coast navigation. Even -under the mild sky and in the calm waters of the Mediterranean, -it was only during the summer months that he dared to leave -the port; to brave the fury of the wintry winds was a boldness -he never could have thought of. Under such adverse circumstances, -it is surely far less astonishing that the geographical -knowledge of the ancients was so extremely limited when compared -with ours, than that with means so scanty they yet should -have known so much of the boundaries of ocean.</p> - -<p>But the spirit of commercial enterprise triumphs over every -difficulty. Stimulated by the love of gain, and the hope of discovering -new sources of wealth, the Phœnicians, the first great -maritime nation mentioned in history, were continually enlarging -the limits of the known earth, until the fatal moment when -the sword of the conqueror destroyed their cities, and extinguished -their power for ever.</p> - -<p>The first periods of Phœnician greatness are veiled in the -mysterious darkness of an unknown past, yet so much is certain, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">« 444 »</a></span> -that their date must have been very remote; as, according to the -accounts which Herodotus received from the priests, the foundation -of Tyre took place thirty centuries before the Christian era.</p> - -<p>Long before the expedition of the Argonauts, the Phœnicians -had already founded colonies on the Bithynian coast of the -Black Sea (Pronectus, Bithynium); and that at a very early time -they must have steered through the Straits of Grades into the -Atlantic is proved by the fact, that, as far back as the eleventh -century before Christ, they founded the towns of Grades and -Tartessus on the western coast of Southern Spain. Penetrating -farther and farther to the north, they discovered Britain, where -they established their chief station on the Scilly Isles, at present -so insignificant and obscure, and even visited the barbarous shores -of the Baltic in quest of the costly amber. They planted their -colonies along the north-west coast of Africa, even beyond the -tropic; and, 2000 years before Vasco de Gama, Phœnician -mariners are said to have circumnavigated that continent, for -Herodotus relates that a Tyrian fleet, fitted out by Necho II., -Pharaoh of Egypt (611-595 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>), sailed from a port in the Red -Sea, doubled the southern promontory of Africa, and, after a -voyage of three years, returned through the Straits of Grades to -the mouth of the Nile.</p> - -<p>Less wonderful, but resting on better historical proof, is the -celebrated voyage of discovery to the south which Hanno performed -by command of the senate of Carthage, the greatest of -all Phœnician colonies, eclipsing even the fame of Tyre itself. -Sailing from Cerne, the principal Phœnician settlement on the -western coast of Africa, and which was probably situated on the -present island of Arguin, he reached, after a navigation of -seventeen days, a promontory which he called the West Horn -(probably Cape Palmas), and then advanced to another cape, to -which he gave the name of South Horn, and which is manifestly -Cape de Tres Puntas, only 5° north of the line. During daytime -the deepest silence reigned along the newly discovered -coast, but after sunset countless fires were seen burning along -the banks of the rivers, and the air resounded with music and -song, the black natives spending, as they still do now, the hours -of the cool night in festive joy. Most likely the Canary -Islands were also known to the Phœnicians, as the summit -of the Peak of Teneriffe is visible from the heights of Cape -Bojador.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">« 445 »</a></span></p> - -<p>The progress of the great mariners of old in the Indian Ocean -was no less remarkable than the extension of their Atlantic -discoveries. Far beyond Bab-el-Mandeb their fleets sailed to -Ophir or Supara, and returned with rich cargoes of gold, silver, -sandal-wood, jewels, ivory, apes, and peacocks, to the ports of -Elath and Ezion-Geber at the head of the Red Sea. These -costly productions of the south were then transported across the -Isthmus of Suez to Rhinocolura, the nearest port on the Mediterranean, -and thence to Tyre, which ultimately distributed -them over the whole of the known world.</p> - -<p>The true position of Ophir is an enigma which no learned -Œdipus will ever solve. While some authorities place it on the -east coast of Africa, others fix its situation somewhere on the -west coast of the Indian peninsula; and Humboldt is even of -opinion that the name had only a general signification, and that -a voyage to Ophir meant nothing more than a commercial expedition -to any part of the Indian Ocean, just as at present we -speak of a voyage to the Levant or the West Indies.</p> - -<p>But whatever Ophir may have been, it is certain that the -Phœnicians carried on a considerable trade with the lands and -nations beyond the Gates of the Red Sea. Their trade in the -direction of the Persian Gulf was no less extensive. Through -the Syrian desert, where Palmyra, their chief station or emporium, -proudly rose above the surrounding sands, their caravans -slowly wandered to the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, to -provide Nineveh and Babylon with the costly merchandise of -Sidon and Tyre. Following the course of the great Mesopotamian -streams, they reached the shores of the Persian Gulf, -where they owned the ports of Tylos and Aradus and the rich -pearl islands of Bahrein, and, having loaded their empty camels -with the produce of Iran and Arabia, returned by the same way to -the shores of the Mediterranean. How far their ships may have -ventured beyond the mouth of the Persian Gulf is unknown, -but the researches of the learned orientalists, Gesenius, Benfey, -and Lassen, render it extremely probable, that, taking advantage -of the regularly changing monsoons, they sailed through the -Straits of Ormus to the coast of Malabar.</p> - -<p>The progress of the Phœnician race in the technical arts, as -well as in the astronomical and mathematical sciences so highly -important for the improvement of their navigation, was no less -remarkable for the age in which they lived, than the vast -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">« 446 »</a></span> -extension of a commercial intercourse which reached from -Britain to the Indus, and from the Black Sea to the Senegal. -They wove the finest linen, and knew how to dye it with the -most splendid purple. They were unsurpassed in the workmanship -of metals, and possessed the secret of manufacturing white -and coloured glass, which their caravans and ships exchanged -for the produce of the north and of the south. By the invention -of the alphabet, which with many other useful sciences and arts, -they communicated to the Greeks and other nations with whom -they traded, they no less contributed to the progress of mankind -than by the humanising influence of commerce.</p> - -<p>Thus when we consider the services which these merchant-princes -of antiquity rendered to their contemporaries, wherever -their flag was seen or their caravans appeared, the annihilation -of the maritime power of Tyre by Alexander (332 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>), and the -destruction of Carthage by the Romans (146 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>), must strike -us as events calamitous to the whole human race. Had the -Carthaginians, so distinguished by their commercial spirit and -ardour for discovery, triumphed over the semi-barbarous Romans, -who, then at least, had not yet learned to imitate the arts of -plundered Greece, there is every probability that some Punic -Columbus would have discovered America at least a thousand -years sooner, and the world at this day be in possession of many -secrets still unknown, and destined to contribute to the comforts -or enjoyments of our descendants.</p> - -<p>In the times of Homer, when the Indian Ocean and the -Atlantic had long been known to the Phœnicians, the geographical -knowledge of the Greeks was still circumscribed by the -narrow limits of the Eastern Mediterranean and part of the -Euxine, and many a century elapsed ere their ships ventured -beyond the Straits of Gades. Colæus of Samos (639 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>) is said -to have been the first seafarer of Hellenic race who sailed forth -into the Atlantic, compelled by adverse winds, and was able on -his return from his involuntary voyage to tell his astonished -countrymen of the wondrous rising and falling of the oceanic -tides. It was seventy years later before the Phoceans of Massilia, -the present Marseilles, ventured to follow the path he -had traced out, and to visit the Atlantic port of Tartessus.</p> - -<p>The town of Massilia had the additional honour of reckoning -among her sons the great traveller Pytheas, the Marco Polo of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">« 447 »</a></span> -antiquity. This far-wandering philosopher, who lived about 330 -years before Christ, had visited all the coasts of Europe, from -the mouths of the Tanais or Don to the shores of Ultima Thule, -which, according to Leopold von Buch, was not Iceland, nor -Feroë, nor Orcadia, but the Norwegian coast. His narrative -first made the Greeks acquainted with North-western Europe, -and remained for a long time their only geographical guide to -those hyperborean lands.</p> - -<p>While the horizon of the Greeks was thus considerably expanding -towards the regions of the setting sun, the conquests of -Alexander opened to them a new world in the distant Orient. -Greek navigators now for the first time unfurled their sails on -the Indian Ocean. The Macedonian, desirous not only of subduing -Asia but of firmly attaching it to the nations of the -Mediterranean by the bonds of mutual interest, and hoping by -this means to consolidate his vast conquests, sent a fleet under -the command of Nearchus, from the mouths of the Indus to the -head of the Persian Gulf, to establish if possible a new road for -a regular commercial intercourse between India and Mesopotamia. -The performance of this voyage was reckoned by the -conqueror one of the most glorious events of his reign, but it -may serve as a proof of the slowness of ancient navigation, that -Nearchus took ten months to perform a journey which one of -our steamers might easily accomplish in five days.</p> - -<p>After the disruption of the Macedonian empire, the circle of -the Greek discoveries in the Indian Ocean was widened by the -enterprising spirit of the Seleucidæ and Ptolemies. Seleucus -Nicator is said to have penetrated to the mouths of the Ganges, -and the fleets of the Egyptian kings sailed round the peninsula -of Hindostan and discovered the coasts of Taprobane or Ceylon, -the spicy odours of whose cinnamon-groves are said to be wafted -far out to sea, so that—</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span style="margin-left: 12em;">"for many a league,</span><br /> -Pleased with the grateful scent, old Ocean smiles."<br /> -</div></div> - -<p>But now came the time when earth-ruling Rome called the -whole civilised world her own, and her victorious eagles expanded -their triumphant wings from the Red Sea to the coasts of the -Northern Ocean. What discoveries might not have been expected -from such a power, if the Romans had possessed but one -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">« 448 »</a></span> -tithe of the maritime spirit of conquered Carthage? But even -this military empire contributed something to the enlargement -of maritime knowledge. Under the reign of Augustus a Roman -fleet sailed round the promontory of Skagen, discovered about -sixteen years after the birth of Christ the Island of Fionia or -Fünen, and is even supposed to have reached the entrance of the -Gulf of Finland. In the year 84 <span class="smcap">A.C.</span> Julius Agricola, the -conqueror of Britain, sailed for the first time round Scotland, and -discovered the Orcadian Isles.</p> - -<p>In Pliny's time the real magnitude of the earth was still so imperfectly -known that, according to the calculations of that great -though rather over-credulous naturalist, Europe occupied the -third part, Asia only the fourth, and Africa about the fifth, of its -whole extent.</p> - -<p>The geographer Ptolemy, who lived about the middle of -the second century, under the reigns of Hadrian and Marcus -Aurelius, describes the limits of the earth as far as they were -known in his time. To the west, the coast of Africa had been -explored as far as Cape Juby; and the Fortunate Islands or Hesperides, -the present Canaries, rose from the ocean as the last -lands towards the setting sun.</p> - -<p>To the north discovery had reached as far as the Shetland -Isles, and the promontory Perispa at the entrance of the Gulf of -Finland; while on the east coast of Africa Cape Brava formed -the ultimate boundary of the known world. Soon after -Ptolemy's time the whole coast of Malacca (<i>Aurea Chersonesus</i>) -and the Siamese Sea, as far as the Cape of Cambogia (<i>Notium -promontorium</i>), was explored, and the Romans even appear to -have had some knowledge of the great islands of the Indian -archipelago, Java, Sumatra, and Borneo.</p> - -<p>And yet, notwithstanding all this progress towards the East, it -may well be asked whether the Phœnicians had not embraced a -wider horizon than the Romans in the full zenith of their fortunes. -Even though we reject the circumnavigation of Africa under -Necho, and the discovery of America by Punic navigators, as not -fully proved or fabulous, it is quite certain that they had explored -the west coast of Africa to a much greater extent than the Romans, -and extremely probable that they knew at least as much of the -lands which bound the Indian Ocean. But, as from a narrow-minded -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">« 449 »</a></span> -mercantile policy they kept many of their discoveries -profoundly secret, all knowledge of them perished with their -ruin. In ancient times, when the defeat of a people too often -led to its complete destruction, or at least to the extinction of its -peculiar civilisation, and the difficulties of intercourse rendered -the diffusion of knowledge extremely difficult and slow, it not -unfrequently happened that useful discoveries were erased from -the memory of mankind, a danger which, thanks to the printing-press -and the steam-engine, is now no longer to be feared.</p> - -<p>Thus a darkening or eclipse of intellectual life took place to -a vast extent when the western Roman Empire succumbed to -the barbarians of the North, and the bands which for centuries -had united the cities of the east and west were violently sundered. -Under that fatal blight Civilisation vanished from the -lands which had so long been her chosen seat, only to dawn -again after a long and obscure night. Commercial intercourse -ceased between the sea-ports of the Mediterranean, all communication -with distant countries was cut off, and the boundaries -of the known earth became more and more narrow, as the -ignorance of a barbarous age increased.</p> - -<p>It is not before the beginning of the ninth century that we -perceive the first glimpses of a better day in the rising fortunes -of some Italian sea-ports, where favourable circumstances had -given birth to liberal institutions. As early as the year 840 -Amalfi possessed a considerable number of trading-vessels, and -carried on a lucrative commerce with the Levant. The maritime -code of this little republic regulated the commercial transactions -of all the Mediterranean sea-ports; as in a later century the -law-book of Wisby served as a guide to the merchants of the -Baltic. A few years after its submission in 1131 to the arms -of King Roger of Sicily, Amalfi was plundered by the Pisanese -and almost entirely destroyed. The neglected harbour was -gradually choked with sand, and the little town, which now -numbers no more than 3000 inhabitants, has nothing to console -it for its actual poverty but the remembrance of a glorious -past. Along with Amalfi, Gaëta, Naples, and Pisa, rose to considerable -eminence in commerce, though far from equalling the -power and splendour of Genoa and Venice, the great republics -of northern Italy.</p> - -<p>As far back as the beginning of the sixth century, the city of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">« 450 »</a></span> -the lagunes fits out a small fleet to purge the Adriatic of Istrian -pirates. By a prudent course of policy she renders herself indispensable -to the Byzantine court, and acquires great privileges in -Constantinople. It is here she purchases the costly productions -of the East, with which during the ninth and tenth centuries, -she provides Northern Italy and a great part of Germany. About -the beginning of the eleventh century her trade with Egypt and -Syria begins to flourish, and soon raises her to the pinnacle of -her power and wealth. In the year 1080 she extends her rule -over Croatia and Dalmatia, and gains in 1204 considerable advantages -by assisting the western crusaders in the conquest of -Constantinople. Pera, numerous coast towns from the Hellespont -to the Ionian Sea, a great part of the Morea, Corfu, and -Candia fall to the winged lion's share, and requite the services -of "blind old Dandolo." The silk manufacture is transported, -as a valuable fruit of conquest, from the Morea to Venice, and -becomes a new source of wealth to the Adriatic Tyre. The -Euxine opens her ports to the Venetian seamen, treaties of -commerce are concluded with Trebizond and Armenia, and a -factory is established at Tana, at the mouth of the Don.</p> - -<p>While thus the power of Venice rises more and more in the -East, Genoa, which already in the tenth century carried on a -flourishing trade, acquires by degrees the supremacy in the -Western Mediterranean. The aid afforded by the republic to -the Greek emperor Michael Palæologus contributes largely to the -overthrow of the Latin throne of Constantinople, and opens the -Bosphorus and the Black Sea to the enterprise of her merchants. -The grandeur of Genoa now reaches its height; she holds fortified -possession of Pera and Galata, and covers the coasts of the -Crimea with her strong-holds and castles.</p> - -<p>At a later period the Florentines appear on the scene, and -assume the rank formerly held by Pisa in Mediterranean commerce. -The acquisition of the sea-port of Leghorn (1421) opens -the barriers of the ocean to the birthplace of Dante and -Galileo.</p> - -<p>After their deliverance from the Moorish yoke in the ninth -century, a fresh and vigorous spirit begins also to animate the -Catalans. They conclude treaties of commerce with Genoa and -Pisa, and towards the end of the thirteenth century the ships of -Barcelona are found visiting all the ports of the Mediterranean.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">« 451 »</a></span></p> - -<p>But in spite of the growth of trade and navigation in Italy and -Spain, many years had yet to elapse after the fall of the Roman -empire ere the gates of the Atlantic were once more opened to -the navigators of the Mediterranean. It was not before the -middle of the thirteenth century, after Seville and a great part -of the Andalusian coast had been wrested from the Moors by -Ferdinand of Castile, that the Italian and Catalonian seafarers, -encouraged by privileges and remissions of duties, began to visit -the port of Cadiz, where they met with merchants from Portugal -and Biscay. Soon after, and most probably in consequence of -the connexions thus formed, we find Italian ships visiting the -ports of England and the Netherlands. About 1316, Genoese -vessels began to carry goods to England; and somewhat -later the Venetians, whose visits are not mentioned by the -chroniclers before 1323.</p> - -<p>Thus after a long interruption we see the seamen of the -Mediterranean at length resuming the track to the Atlantic -ports that had been struck out more than thirty centuries before -by their predecessors the Phœnicians. But their voyages to the -western ocean took place under circumstances much more -favourable than those which had attended the men of Tyre and -Carthage in their adventurous expeditions. Not only the better -construction of their ships, but still more the use of the mariner's -compass, for which Europe is probably indebted to the Arabs, -who in their turn owed its knowledge to the Chinese, enabled -them to steer more boldly into the open sea, and regardless of -the bendings of the coasts to reach their journey's end by a less -circuitous route. The period when the magnetic needle was -first made use of by the Mediterranean navigators is not exactly -known, but so much is certain that it did good service long before -the time of Flavio Gioja (1302), to whom its discovery has -been erroneously ascribed, though he may have introduced some -improvement in the arrangement of the compass. Humboldt -tells us in his "Cosmos," that in the satirical poem of Guyot de -Provens, "La Bible" (1190), and in the description of Palestine -by Jaques de Vitry, bishop of Ptolemais (1204-1215), the sea-compass -is mentioned as a well-known instrument. Dante also -speaks of the needle which points to the stars (Paradise, xii. 29); -and in a nautical work by Raimundus Lullus of Majorca, written -in the year 1286, we find another proof of a much earlier -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">« 452 »</a></span> -knowledge of the compass than before the beginning of the -fourteenth century, since its use by the mariners of his time is -expressly mentioned by that author.</p> - -<p>Confidently following this unerring guide, the Catalonians -sailed at an early period to the north coast of Scotland, and even -preceded the Portuguese in their discoveries on the west coast of -Africa, since Don Jayme Ferrer penetrated to the mouth of the -Rio de Ouro as early as August 1346. About the same time the -long-forgotten Canary Islands were rediscovered by the Spaniards; -and at a later period (1402-1405) conquered and depopulated -by some Norman adventurers, the Bethencourts.</p> - -<p>While thus the South-European navigators unfurled their sails -on the Atlantic, and gave the first impulse to the glorious discoveries -that in the following century were destined to open up -the ocean, and reveal its hitherto unknown greatness to mankind, -the Indian Sea still remained closed to their enterprise; for -though the Venetians by this time rivalled, if they did not surpass -the ancient maritime greatness of the Tyrians in the Mediterranean, -they did not, like them, directly fetch the rich produce -of the South in their own ships from the East-African and -Indian ports, but received them at second hand from the Arabian -masters of Syria and Egypt.</p> - -<p>But though no ship of theirs was ever seen in the Indian -seas, through them the knowledge of the Arabian discoveries -in those parts penetrated to Europe, and widely extended the -knowledge of the ocean. For when the Arabs, fired by the prophetic -ardour of Mahomet, suddenly emerged from the obscurity -of pastoral life, and appeared as conquerors before the astonished -world, the trade of the Indian Ocean fell into the hands of these -new masters of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, who soon learnt -to pursue it with an energy which the Romans and Persians had -never known. The town of Bassora was founded by the caliph -Omar on the western shore of the great stream formed by the -confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates, and soon emulated -Alexandria herself in the greatness of its commerce. From Bassora -the Arabs sailed far beyond the Siamese Gulf, which had -formerly bounded European navigation. They visited the unknown -ports of the Indian archipelago, and established so active a -trade with Canton, that the Chinese emperor granted them the -use of their own laws in that city.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">« 453 »</a></span></p> - -<p>This progress of the Arabs, and the vast treasures accruing to -Venice from the overland Indian trade, could not fail to excite -the envy of the other seafaring powers, and to call forth an increasing -desire of discovering a new maritime route to the wealth-teeming -regions of Southern Asia.</p> - -<p>The wonderful narratives of the first travellers who wandered -by land to the distant East likewise contributed in no small -degree to foment the ardour of discovery. The most celebrated -of these geographical pioneers was Marco Polo, a noble Venetian -who had resided many years at the court of the Mongol ruler, -Kublai Khan, and visited the most remote regions of Asia. He -was the first European that ever sailed along the western shores -of the Pacific, the first that told his astonished countrymen of -the magnificence of Cambalu or Peking, the capital of the great -kingdom of Cathay, and of the splendour of Zipanga or Japan -situated on the confines of a vast ocean extending to the east. -He also made more than one sea-voyage in the Indian Ocean, -and to him Europe owed her first knowledge of the Moluccas, -the east coast of Africa, and the island of Madagascar.</p> - -<p>This greatest of all the mediæval travellers, who without exaggeration -may be said to have enlarged the boundaries of the -known earth as much as Alexander the Great, was followed by -Oderich of Portenau, who travelled as far as India and China -(1320-1330); by Sir John Mandeville, who visited almost all -the lands described by Marco Polo; by Schildberger of Munich, -who accompanied the barbarous Tamerlane on his locust expeditions; -and finally by Clavigo, sent in the year 1403 by the Spanish -court on an embassy to Samarcand. The truths which these bold -travellers communicated to their countrymen about the riches -and the commerce of the nations they had visited, as well as the -fables in which their credulity or their extravagant fancy indulged, -made an enormous impression on the European mind, -and raised to a feverish heat the longing after those sunny lands -and isles which imagination adorned with all the charms of an -earthly paradise.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">« 454 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_XXIV" id="CHAP_XXIV">CHAP. XXIV.</a></h2> - -<div class="blockquot2">Prince Henry of Portugal.—Discovery of Porto Santo and Madeira.—Doubling of -Cape Bojador.—Discovery of the Cape Verde Islands.—Bartholomew Diaz.—Vasco -de Gama.—Columbus.—His Predecessors.—Discovery of Greenland by -Günnbjorn.—Bjorne Herjulfson.—Leif.—John Vaz Cortereal.—John and -Sebastian Cabot.—Retrospective View of the Beginnings of English Navigation.—Ojeda -and Amerigo Vespucci.—Vincent Yañez Pinson.—Cortez.—Verazzani.—Cartier.—The -Portuguese in the Indian Ocean.</div> - - -<p>The reigning idea of a century finds always one or more eminent -spirits, in whom and through whose agency the desires and -hopes of thousands ripen into deeds, and are changed from -dreams into realities. One of these rare and highly gifted men -was Prince Henry of Portugal, a son of King John I., who -made it the chief aim of his life to extend the boundaries of -maritime discovery, and devoted with glowing ardour all the -powers of his energetic mind, and all the influence of rank and -riches to the attainment of this noble object. From the castle -of Sagres near Cape St. Vincent, where, far from the court, he -had fixed his residence in order to be less disturbed in his -favourite studies, his eye glanced over the Atlantic, which -constantly reminded him of the unknown lands which held out -such brilliant prospects to the navigator who should venture to -steer southwards along the African coast. The experienced -seamen and learned geographers that surrounded him confirmed -him in his hopes, and encouraged him to attempt the -realisation of his generous ideas.</p> - -<p>Fortunately all outward circumstances combined to favour -the prince's projects. At that time Portugal was not plunged, -as at present, in a state of slothful lethargy, but full of the bold -and enterprising spirit which the expulsion of the Moors and -long intestine wars had called to life. The geographical position -of the country, bounded on every side by the dominions of -a mightier neighbour, forbade all extension by land, and pointed -to the ocean as the only field in which a comparatively small -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">« 455 »</a></span> -but spirited people could hope to reap a rich harvest of wealth -and glory.</p> - -<p>The first two ships which Prince Henry sent out on a voyage -of discovery along the African coast (1412) did not reach -farther than Cape Bojador, whose rocky cliffs stretching far out -into the Atlantic intimidated their inexperienced commanders. -Six years later (1418) Juan Gonsalez Zarco and Tristan Vaz -Tejeira were intrusted with a new expedition, and sailed with -express commands to double that ill-famed promontory; but a -terrible gale drove them out to sea, and forced them to seek -a refuge on an unknown island, to which they thankfully gave -the name of Porto Santo. This discovery, though extremely -unimportant in itself, served to confirm the prince in his -projects, and encouraged him to send out in the following year -a new expedition under the same commander, to take possession -of the island.</p> - -<p>This led to a more important discovery, for on landing on -Porto Santo the attention of the Portuguese was struck by a -black and prominent spot, rising above the southern horizon. -To this they now directed their course, and were equally delighted -and surprised to see it swell out as they approached to -the ample proportions of a large island; to which, on account of -the dense forests which at that time covered its verdant hill-slopes -up to the very top, they gave the name of Madeira. Prince -Henry immediately equipped a considerable fleet to carry a -colony of his countrymen to the new land of promise, and furnished -them with the vine of Cyprus, and the sugar-cane of -Sicily, which throve so well on the Atlantic isle, that after a -few years the produce of Madeira began to be of consequence in -the trade of the mother country.</p> - -<p>Thus the first undertakings of Prince Henry were not left -unrewarded; but, besides the commercial advantages arising -from the possession of Madeira, it encouraged the Portuguese -navigators no longer servilely to creep along the coasts, but -boldly to steer into the open sea. Thus Don Gilianez, by avoiding -the shore-currents, succeeded at last in doubling the dreaded -Cape Bojador (1433), and opening a new sphere to navigation. -One discovery now rapidly followed another. Gonsalez and Nuño -Tristan (1440-1442) penetrated as far as the Senegal; Cape de -Verd was reached in 1446; and three years later, the limits of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">« 456 »</a></span> -the known earth were extended as far as the islands of the same -name and the Azores, those advanced sentinels in the bosom of -the Atlantic. It may easily be imagined how much these successes -contributed to encourage the universal ardour for discovery. -Adventurers from all countries hastened to Portugal, -hoping to gratify their ambition or avarice under the auspices of -a prince who had already achieved so much; and even many -Venetians and Genoese, who were at that time superior to all -other nations in naval science, reckoned it as an honour to serve -under a flag which might justly be considered as the high school -of the seaman. Thus before Prince Henry closed his eyes (1463) -the aim of his glorious life had been attained; for, though he -did not live to see his countrymen penetrate into the Indian -Ocean, yet he witnessed the mighty impulse which in a short -time was to lead to that important result.</p> - -<p>In the year 1471 the line was crossed for the first time, and -the Portuguese thus detected the error of the ancients, who -believed that the intolerable heat of a vertical sun rendered the -equatorial regions uninhabitable by man.</p> - -<p>Under John the Second a mighty fleet discovered the -kingdoms of Benin and Congo (1484), followed the coast above -1500 miles beyond the equator, and revealed to Europe the -constellations of another hemisphere.</p> - -<p>The farther their ships penetrated to the south, the higher -rose the flood tide of their hopes. As the African continent -appeared sensibly to contract itself, and to bend towards the -East as they proceeded, they no longer doubted that the way to -the Indian Ocean would now soon be found, and give them the -exclusive possession of a trade which had enriched Venice, and -made that city the envy of the world. The ancient long-forgotten -tale of the Phœnician circumnavigation of Africa now -found belief, and Bartholomew Diaz sailed from Lisbon for the -purpose of solving the important problem. The storms of an -unknown ocean, the famine caused by the loss of his store-ship, -and the frequent mutinies of a dispirited crew, could not stop -the progress of this intrepid mariner, who, boldly advancing in -the face of a thousand difficulties, at length discovered the high -promontory which forms the southern extremity of Africa. -But, as his weather-beaten ships were no longer able to confront -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">« 457 »</a></span> -the mountain-billows and furious gales foaming or roaring -round that stormy headland, he was obliged, sore against his -will, to give up the attempt to double the Cape of Tempests, -Cabo tormentoso, as he called it, but to which the king gave the -more inviting name of the Cape of Good Hope. Yet before -Vasco de Gama set sail from Lisbon to accomplish the great -work (1498) and win the prize to which so many navigators -had gradually paved the way, the astounding intelligence had -flashed through Europe that on the 12th of October, 1492, -Columbus had discovered a new world in the west. The history -of this most famous, and most important in its results, of all -sea-voyages, is so well known that I may well refrain from -entering into any details on the subject: at all events the reader -will be much more interested by a short account of the intrepid -navigators who, long before the great Genoese, found their way -to the shores of the new continent.</p> - -<p>While Tropical America is separated from Europe and Africa -by a vast tract of intervening ocean, and even the advanced -posts of the Azores and Cape de Verd Islands are far distant -from the western shores of the Atlantic, Iceland and Greenland -appear to us in the north as stations linking at comparatively -easy distances the Old World and the New. It is, therefore, by -no means surprising that the discovery of Iceland by the Norwegian -<i>Viking</i> or pirate Nadod, and the somewhat later colonisation -of the island by Ingolf, in the year 875, should in the -following century have led the Norsemen to the discovery of -America, particularly when we consider that no people ever -equalled them in daring and romantic love of adventure:</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i1">"Kings of the main their leaders brave,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Their barks the dragons of the wave."<br /></span> -</div></div> - -<p>Greenland, discovered by Günnbjorn in the year 876 or 877, -was indeed not colonised by the Icelanders before 983; a delay -excusable enough when we consider the uninviting climate of -that dreary peninsula or island, but three years after the latter -date, we already find Bjorne Herjulfson undertaking a cruise -from the new settlement to the south-west, and successively -discovering Nantucket, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, though -without making any attempts to land. Bjorne was followed -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">« 458 »</a></span> -about the year 1000 by Leif, a son of Erick the Red, the founder -of the Greenland colony; who, sailing along the American -coast as far as 41-1/2° north lat. discovered the <i>good Winland</i>, -which received its name from the wild vines which Tyrker, a -German who accompanied the expedition, found growing there -in abundance. The fertility and mild climate of this coast, -when compared with that of Labrador and Greenland, induced -the discoverers to settle, and to found the first European colony -on the American continent. Frequent wars with the Eskimos -or Skrelingers (dwarfs), who at that time, as I have already -mentioned in the fourth chapter, extended far more to the south -than at present, soon however destroyed the colony; and the last -account of Norman America we find in the old Scandinavian -records is the mention of a ship which, in the year 1347, had -sailed from Greenland to Markland (Nova Scotia) to gather -wood, and was driven by a storm to Stamfjord on the west coast -of Iceland. About this time also the colonies in Greenland, -which until then had enjoyed a tolerable state of prosperity, -decayed and ultimately perished under the blighting influence -of commercial monopolies, of wars with the aborigines, and -above all of the <i>black death</i> (1347-1351), that horrible plague -of the fourteenth century, which, after having depopulated -Europe, vented its fury even upon those remote wilds. Thus -the knowledge of the Norman discovery of America gradually -faded from the memory of man, and thus also it happened that -the names and deeds of Leif and Bjorne Herjulfson remained -totally unknown to the southern navigators, who at that time -moreover, had little intercourse with the nations of Northern -Europe.</p> - -<p>Besides his well-authenticated Norman predecessors, Columbus -may possibly have had others. Traces of early Irish and -Welsh discoveries are pointed out by the Northern historians, -and John Vaz Cortereal, a Portuguese navigator, is said to have -visited the coasts of Newfoundland some time previous to the -voyages of Columbus and Cabot.</p> - -<p>If before the first voyage of the great Genoese navigator a -mighty longing to penetrate to distant countries pervaded the -public mind of Europe, it may be imagined to what a feverish -glow this reigning idea of the century was excited, when the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">« 459 »</a></span> -wonderful accounts of the gold and enchanting beauty of Haiti -spread from land to land. As in former times, half Europe had -thrown itself upon the Orient to liberate the tomb of our -Saviour from the tyranny of the Moslem; so now one flood of -adventurers followed another to the new land of promise, which -held out such glittering prospects of wealth and enjoyment. -Obeying the mighty impulse, England and France now entered -upon the path on which Portugal and Spain had so gloriously -preceded them, and, as the fruit of this general emulation, we -see after a few years the whole western shore of the great -Atlantic basin drawn into the circle of the known earth.</p> - -<p>If Columbus was undoubtedly the first discoverer of the West -Indian islands (the Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti, 1492; Lesser Antilles, -1493; Jamaica, 1494), the honour of having preceded him on -the American continent belongs to John Cabot, a Venetian -merchant settled in Bristol, and to the youthful energy of his -son Sebastian, since they landed on the coast of Labrador (24th -June, 1497) seventeen months before the continent of Tropical -America, in the delta of the Orinoco, was discovered by -Columbus on his third voyage.</p> - -<p>Thus Genoa and Venice, the great Mediterranean rivals, divide -the glory of having revealed a new world to mankind, but it -was ordained that the laurels of their sons should bloom under -a foreign flag, and the fruits of their endeavours be reaped by -other nations. For as Columbus steered into the western ocean -in the service of the Spanish monarch, the Cabots were sent by -Henry the Seventh of England across the Atlantic to discover a -north-western passage to India. This, of course, they did not -accomplish, but the discovery of Newfoundland and of the coast -of America from Labrador to Virginia rewarded their efforts, -and laid the foundation of Britain's colonial greatness. Their -voyage is also remarkable as having been the first expedition of -the kind that ever left the shores of England, which at that -time held a very inferior rank among the maritime nations, and -gave but taint indications of her future naval supremacy. On -this occasion it may not be uninteresting to cast a retrospective -glance on the modest beginnings of British navigation. In -the year 1217 the first treaty of commerce was concluded with -Norway, and in the beginning of the fourteenth century Bergen -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">« 460 »</a></span> -was the most distant port to which English vessels resorted. -Soon afterwards they ventured into the Baltic, and it was not -before the middle of the following century that they began to -frequent some of the Castilian and Portuguese ports. Towards -the end of the fifteenth century the English flag was still -a stranger to the Mediterranean, and direct intercourse with -the Levant only began with the sixteenth. Edward the Second, -preparing for his great Scottish war, was obliged to hire five -galleys from Genoa, the same town whence a few years back -our giant steamers transported a whole Sardinian army to the -shores of the Crimea, where centuries before the Genoese had -been established as lords and masters. Such are the changes -in the relative position of nations that have been brought about -by the power of time!</p> - -<p>After this short digression I return to America, where, in -1499, Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci were the first to sail along -the coast of Paria. The following year was uncommonly rich -in voyages of discovery, as well in the south as in the north. -In the western ocean the line was first crossed by Vincent -Yañez Pinson, who doubled Cape Saint Augustin, discovered -the mouths of the Amazon river, and thence sailed northwards -along the coast as far as the island of Trinidad, which Columbus -had discovered two years before. About the same time a -Portuguese fleet, sailing under the command of Pedro Alvarez -Cabral to the Indian Ocean, was driven by adverse winds to the -coast of the Brazils; so that, if the genius of Columbus had not -evoked, as it were, America out of the waves, chance would -have effected her discovery a few years later.</p> - -<p>A third voyage, which renders the year 1500 remarkable in -maritime annals, is that of Gaspar Cortereal, a son of John Vaz -Cortereal whom I have already mentioned as one of the doubtful -precursors of Columbus.</p> - -<p>Hoping to realise the dream of a north-west passage to the -riches of India, Gaspar appeared on the inhospitable shores -of Labrador, and penetrated into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. -Storms and ice-drifts forced him to retreat, but firmly resolved -to prosecute his design, he again set sail in the following year -with two small vessels. It is supposed that on this second -voyage he penetrated into Frobisher Bay, but here floating ice-masses -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">« 461 »</a></span> -and violent gales separated him from his companion -ship, which returned alone to Portugal.</p> - -<p>As in our times the uncertain fate of Franklin has called forth -a series of heroic deeds, so the doubtful destiny of the Portuguese -explorer allowed his brother Miguel no rest, whom in the -following spring we find hastening with three ships on the traces -of the lost Gaspar. But Miguel also disappeared for ever among -the ice-fields of the north. A third brother of this high-minded -family yet remained, who earnestly implored the king that he -also might be allowed to go forth and seek for his missing -kindred. But Emanuel steadfastly refused permission, saying -that these deplorable enterprises had already cost him two of -his most valuable servants, and he could afford to lose no more.</p> - -<p>In the year 1501 Rodrigo de Bastidas sailed to the coast of -Paria, and discovered the whole shore-line from Cape de Vela -to the Gulf of Darien. In the year 1502 the aged Columbus, -entering with youthful ardour upon his fourth and last voyage, -set sail with four wretched vessels, the largest of which was -only seventy tons burthen, and discovered the coast of the -American continent from Cape Gracias á Dios to Porto-Bello. -The east coast of Yucatan was explored in the year 1508 by -Juan Diaz de Solis and Vincent Yañez Pinson, and the island -of Cuba circumnavigated for the first time by Sebastian de -Ocampo.</p> - -<p>In 1512 Juan Ponce de Leon is led by his evil star to Florida, -where, instead of finding as he hoped the fountain of eternal -youth, he is doomed to a miserable end; and in 1517 the above-mentioned -Solis sails along the coasts of the Brazils to the -mouth of the Rio de la Plata, where he is killed in a conflict -with the Indians. In 1518 Cordova makes his countrymen -acquainted with the north and west coasts of Yucatan, and in -the same year Grijalva discovers the Mexican coast from Tabasco -to San Juan de Ulloa. In 1518 he is followed by the great -Cortez, who lands at Vera Cruz, overthrows the empire of Montezuma -after a series of exploits unparalleled in history, and -renders the whole coast of Mexico far to the north subject to -the Spanish crown.</p> - -<p>The voyages of Verazzani (1523) who sailed along the coast -of the United States, and of Jacques Cartier (1524) who investigated -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">« 462 »</a></span> -the Bay of St. Lawrence, did not indeed widely extend -geographical knowledge, as these navigators, who had been sent -out by Francis I., did no more than examine more closely the -previous discoveries of Cabot and Cortereal; their explorations -however had the result of giving France possession of Canada, -and of entitling her to a share in the fisheries of Newfoundland. -Thus within half a century after the ever memorable day when -Columbus first landed on Guanahani, we find almost the whole -eastern coast of America rising into light from the deep darkness -of an unknown past.</p> - -<p>But while the western shores of the Atlantic were thus unrolling -themselves before the wondering gaze of mankind, the -Indian Ocean was the scene of no less remarkable events; for -in the same year (1498) that Columbus first visited the American -continent, Vasco de Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope, which -thus fully justified its auspicious name, crossed the Eastern Ocean, -and on the 22nd of May landed at Calicut on the coast of Malabar, -ten months and two days after leaving the port of Lisbon.</p> - -<p>And now, as if by magic, the great revolution in commerce -took place which the Venetians long had feared and the Portuguese -had no less anxiously hoped for; for the latter lost no time -in reaping the golden fruits of the glorious discoveries of Gama -and his predecessors. In less than twenty years their flag waved -in all the harbours of the Indian Ocean, from the east coast of -Africa to Canton; and over this whole immense expanse a row -of fortified stations secured to them the dominion of the seas. -Their settlements in Diu and Goa awed the whole coast of -Malabar, and cut off the intercourse of Egypt with India by -way of the Red Sea. They took possession of the small island -of Ormus, which commands the entrance of the Persian Gulf, -and rendered this important commercial highway likewise tributary -to their power. In the centre of the East-Indian world -rose their chief emporium, Malacca, and even in distant China -Macao obeyed their laws. The discovery of the Molucca -Islands gave them the monopoly of the lucrative spice trade, -which was destined at a later period, and more permanently, to -enrich the thrifty Dutchman.</p> - -<p>What vast changes had taken place since Prince Henry's -first expeditions to the coast of Africa! How had old Ocean -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">« 463 »</a></span> -enlarged his bounds! He who as a child had still known the -earth with her old and narrow confines might, before his -hair grew white, have seen the Atlantic assume a definite form; -Africa project like an enormous peninsula into the boundless -world of waters, and one single ocean bathe all the coasts from -Canton to the West Indies.</p> - -<p>Yet a few years and the Pacific opens its gates, and all the -discoveries of Columbus and Vasco seem small when compared -with the vast regions which Magellan reveals to man.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">« 464 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_XXV" id="CHAP_XXV">CHAP. XXV.</a></h2> - -<div class="blockquot2">Vasco Nuñez de Balboa.—His Discovery of the Pacific, and subsequent Fate.—Ferdinand -Magellan.—Sebastian el Cano, the first Circumnavigator of the -Globe.—Discoveries of Pizarro and Cortez.—Urdaneta.—Juan Fernandez.—Mendoza.—Drake.—Discoveries -of the Portuguese and Dutch in the Western -Pacific.—Attempts of the Dutch and English to discover North-East and North-West -Passages to India.—Sir Hugh Willoughby and Chancellor.—Frobisher.—Davis.—Barentz.—His -Wintering in Nova Zembla.—Quiros.—Torres.—Schouten.—Le -Maire.—Abel Tasman.—Hudson.—Baffin.—Dampier.—Anson.—Byron.—Wallis -and Carteret.—Bougainville.</div> - - -<p>The riches which the Indian trade had poured into the lap of -Venice, and which at a later period fell to the share of the -Portuguese, formed the chief incitement to the great maritime -discoveries which illustrated the end of the fifteenth and the -first half of the sixteenth century.</p> - -<p>The hope to discover a new road to India had not only -animated the Portuguese navigators, but also led Columbus -and Cabot across the Atlantic. It caused the unfortunate -Cortereal to sail into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, induced Juan de -Solis to penetrate into the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, and -was finally the chief end and aim of the wondrous expedition of -Magellan. The time is now come when the barriers of the -Pacific are to fall, but before crossing its vast bosom with the -illustrious navigator who first traversed it from end to end, I -shall detain the reader a few moments on the shores of the Gulf of -Darien, where the wretched remains of the colony of Santa Maria -el Antigua, founded by Ojeda in 1509, had, after the departure -of that unfortunate adventurer, freely elected Vasco Nuñez de -Balboa to be their governor. This great man, who would have -emulated the fame of a Cortez or Pizarro if his good fortune -had been equal to his merit, omitted no opportunity of justifying -the choice of his comrades by the unremitting zeal he displayed -for their welfare. Making up for the scantiness of his resources -by unceasing activity, he subdued the neighbouring caciques, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">« 465 »</a></span> -and collected a great quantity of gold, which abounded more in -that part of the continent than in the islands.</p> - -<p>It happened during one of his frequent excursions that a -young Cacique, witnessing a very angry dispute among the -Spaniards about a few grains of gold, asked them in a contemptuous -tone why they quarrelled about such a trifle; and -added, that, if they set such an exorbitant value upon a metal -comparatively worthless in his eyes, he could gratify their -utmost wishes by pointing out to them a land where gold was so -plentiful that even common utensils were made of it. And when -Balboa eagerly asked where that happy country was situated, -"Six days' journey to the south," was the answer, "will bring -you to another ocean along whose coast it lies!"</p> - -<p>This was the first time the Spaniards ever heard of the Pacific -and of gold-teeming Peru, and the intelligence was well calculated -to inflame the enterprising spirit of their leader. Balboa -immediately concluded that this sea must be that which Columbus -and so many other navigators had vainly sought for, and -that its discovery would beyond all doubt open the way to -India, which, according to the geographical error of the times, -was supposed to be far less distant from America than it -really is.</p> - -<p>The most brilliant prospects rose before his fancy, and he -would immediately have gone forth to realise them, if prudence -had not warned him first to provide all the means necessary to -insure success. He therefore endeavoured before all to gain the -good-will of the neighbouring Indian chiefs, and sent some trustworthy -agents to Hispaniola with a considerable quantity of -gold, whereby many adventurers were induced to flock to his -standard. Having thus reinforced himself, he thought he might -now safely undertake his important expedition.</p> - -<p>The Isthmus of Darien, over which he had to force his way, -is not above sixty miles broad, but this short distance was rendered -difficult, or rather impervious, by the innumerable obstacles -of a tropical wilderness. The high mountains running along the -neck of land were covered with dense forests, and the low grounds -beneath filled with deep swamps, from which arose exhalations -deadly to a European constitution. Wild torrents rushed -down the ravines, and often forced them to retrace their steps. -A march through a country like this, thinly peopled by a few -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">« 466 »</a></span> -savages, and without any other guides than some Indians of -doubtful fidelity, was an enterprise worthy of all the energies of -a Balboa.</p> - -<p>On the 1st of September, 1513, after the end of the rainy season, -he set out with a small but well chosen band of 190 Spaniards, -accompanied by 1000 Indian carriers. As long as he remained -on the territories of the friendly Caciques his progress was -comparatively easy, but scarce had he penetrated into the -interior, when, besides the almost invincible obstacles of nature—forests, -swamps, and swollen torrents,—he had to encounter -the deadly enmity of the Indians. As he approached, some of -the Caciques fled to the mountains, after having destroyed or -carried along with them all that might have been of use to the -hated strangers; while others, of more determined hostility, -opposed his progress by force of arms. Although the Spaniards -had been led to expect that a six days' march would bring them -to their journey's end, they had already spent no less than twenty-five -days in forcing their way through the wilderness, amidst -incessant attacks and hardships. The greater part of them were -rapidly giving way under fatigues almost surpassing the limits -of mortal endurance, and even the strongest felt that they could -not hold out much longer. But Balboa, ever the foremost to -face danger or difficulty, whose spirits no reverse could damp, -and whose fiery eloquence painted in glowing colours the -glorious reward of their present privations, knew how to inspire -his men with his own unconquerable spirit, so that without a -murmur they kept toiling on through swamp and forest. At -length the Indian guides pointed out to them a mountain-crest -from which they promised them the view of the longed-for ocean. -Filled with new ardour they climbed up the steep ascent, but -before they reached the summit Balboa ordered them to halt, -that he might be the first to enjoy the glorious prospect. As -soon as he saw the Pacific stretch out in endless majesty along -the verge of the distant horizon, he fell on his knees and poured -forth his rapturous thanks to heaven for having awarded him so -grand a discovery. And now also his impatient companions -hurried on, and soon the primeval forest—accustomed only to -the howlings of the brute or the eagle's scream—resounded -with the loud exclamations of their astonishment, gratitude, -and joy.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">« 467 »</a></span></p> - -<p>It was from the small mountain-chain of Quarequa, on the 25th -of September, 1513, that the Spaniards first saw the sea-horizon, -but they had still several days to march before they reached the -Gulf of San Miguel. Here Alonzo Martin de Don Benito was -the first white man that ever floated in a canoe on the Eastern -Pacific, even before Balboa, armed with sword and shield, descended -into the water to take possession of the newly discovered -ocean in the name of the king his master.</p> - -<p>Although the subsequent fortunes of this great man are -foreign to my subject, yet it may not be uninteresting to the -reader to be informed how his important services were requited. -Unfortunately the ingratitude of the Spanish court, which so -scandalously embittered the declining years of Columbus and -Cortez, reached its lowest depth in the case of Balboa. Those -great men had at least in the beginning enjoyed some show of -favour, but the discoverer of the Pacific was treated throughout -with the basest indignity. The governorship of Darien, to which -his splendid achievements had given him so undeniable a claim, -was conferred upon a certain Pedrarias Davila, a wretch who, -after having persecuted and thwarted the hero in every possible -way, caused him at length to be beheaded, under a false accusation -of high treason.</p> - -<p>Six years after Balboa had first seen the Pacific, two years -after his execution, Ferdinand of Magellan made his appearance -in that great ocean. A Portuguese of noble birth, this eminent -navigator had served with distinction under Albuquerque, the -conqueror of Malacca. His plan of seeking a new road to India -across the Atlantic being but coldly received in his native -country, he transferred his services to Spain, where his distinguished -merit found better judges in Cardinal Ximenes, and -his youthful master, Charles V. With five ships, the largest -of which did not carry more than 120 tons, and with a crew of -236 men, partly the sweepings of the jails, he sailed on the 20th -of September, 1519, from the port of San Lucar, and spent -the following summer (the winter of the southern hemisphere) -on the dreary coast of Patagonia. In this uncomfortable station -he lost one of his squadron; and the Spaniards suffered so much -from the excessive rigour of the climate, that the crews of three -of his ships, headed by their officers, rose in open mutiny, and -insisted on relinquishing the visionary project of a desperate -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">« 468 »</a></span> -adventurer, and returning directly to Spain. This dangerous -insurrection Magellan suppressed by an effort of courage no less -prompt than intrepid, and inflicted exemplary punishment on -the ringleaders.</p> - -<p>He now continued his journey to the south, and reached, near -53° south lat., the celebrated straits which bear his name. Here -again he had to exert his full authority to induce his reluctant -followers to accompany him into the unknown channel that was -to lead them to an equally unknown ocean. One of his ships -immediately deserted him and returned to Europe, but the -others remained true to their commander, and, after having -spent twenty days in winding through those dangerous straits, -they at last, on the 27th of November, 1521, emerged into the -open ocean, the sight of which amply repaid Magellan for all -the anxieties and troubles he had undergone. They now pursued -their way across the wide expanse of waters, of whose enormous -extent they had no conception, and soon had to endure -all the miseries of hunger and disease. But the continuous -beauty of the weather, and the steady easterly wind, which, swelling -the sails of Magellan, drove him straight onwards to the -goal, kept up his courage; and induced him to give to the -ocean which greeted him with such a friendly welcome the name -of the Pacific, which it still, though undeservedly, retains. During -three months and twenty days he sailed to the north-west, -and, by a singular mischance, without seeing any land in those -isle-teeming seas, except only two uninhabited rocks which he -called the "Desventuradas," or the "Wretched." At last, after -the longest journey ever made by man through the deserts of -the ocean, he discovered the small but fruitful group of the -Ladrones (March 6, 1521), which afforded him refreshments in -such abundance, that the vigour and health of his emaciated -crew was soon reestablished. From these isles, to which his -gratitude might have given a more friendly name, he proceeded -on his voyage, and soon made the more important discovery of -the islands now known as the <i>Philippines</i>. In one of these he -got into an unfortunate quarrel with the natives, who attacked -him in great numbers and well-armed; and, while he fought at -the head of his men with his usual valour, he fell by the hands of -those barbarians, together with several of his principal officers.</p> - -<p>Thus Magellan lost the glory of accomplishing the first circumnavigation -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">« 469 »</a></span> -of the globe; the performance of which now fell -to the share of his companion, Sebastian El Cano, who returned -to San Lucar in the "Victoria" by the Cape of Good Hope, -having sailed round the globe in the space of three years and -twenty-eight days.</p> - -<p>But although Magellan did not live fully to achieve his glorious -undertaking, the astonishing perseverance and ability with which -he performed the chief and most difficult part of his arduous task -have secured him an immortal renown. Nor has posterity been -unmindful of his services, having awarded his name an imperishable -place in the memory of man, both in the straits, the -portal of his grand discovery, and in the "Magellanic clouds," -those dense clusters of stars and nebulæ which so beautifully -stud the firmament of the southern hemisphere.</p> - -<p>After Magellan, Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, shines as a discoverer -in the South Sea. The history of his memorable feats -by land does not belong to this narrative, but I may well accompany -him on his adventurous navigation along the unknown -coast of South America, and relate the hardships he had to endure -before he was enabled to reap the rewards of victory.</p> - -<p>Soon after the execution, or rather the murder, of Balboa, -Pedrarias Davila obtained permission to transfer the colony of -Darien to Panama, which, although equally unhealthy, yet from -its situation on the Pacific afforded greater facilities for the -prosecution of discovery on the south-west coast, to which now -all the hopes and plans of the Spanish gold-seekers were directed. -Several expeditions left the new colony in rapid succession, but -all proved unsuccessful. Their timorous leaders, none of whom -had ventured beyond the dreary coasts of <i>Tierra firme</i>, gave -such dismal accounts of their hardships and the wretched aspect -of the countries they had seen, that the ardour for discovery was -considerably damped, and the opinion began to gain ground that -Balboa must have founded chimerical hopes on the idle tales of -an ignorant or deceitful savage.</p> - -<p>But there were three men in Panama, Francisco Pizarro, Diego -de Almagro, and Hernando Luque, who, far from sharing the -general opinion, remained fully determined to seek the unknown -gold-land. Pizarro and Almagro were soldiers, Luque was a priest. -They formed an association approved of by the governor, each -agreeing to devote all his energies to the common interest. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">« 470 »</a></span> -Pizarro, the poorest of the three, took upon himself the greater -part of the hardships and dangers of the enterprise, and volunteered -to command the first expedition that should be fitted out; -Almagro engaged to follow him with the necessary reinforcements; -and Luque, the man of peace, promised to watch in -Panama over the interests of the association.</p> - -<p>On the 14th of November, 1524, Pizarro sailed from Panama -with 112 men, closely packed together in one small vessel. Unfortunately -he had chosen the worst season of the year for his -departure, as the periodical winds raging at the time blew quite -contrary to the course he intended to pursue, and thus it happened -that after seventy days he had advanced no farther to the south-east -than an experienced navigator will now traverse in as many -hours. During this tedious journey he landed in different parts -of the coast of Tierra firme, but, finding all the previous descriptions -of its inhospitable nature fully confirmed, he saw himself -obliged to await the promised reinforcements in Chuchama, -opposite to the Pearl Islands. Here he was soon joined by -Almagro, who had suffered similar hardships, and moreover -lost an eye in a fight with the Indians. But, as he had advanced -farther to the south, where the country and people wore a more -favourable aspect, this slight glimpse of hope encouraged the -adventurers to persevere in spite of all the miseries they had -endured. Almagro returned to Panama, where with the greatest -difficulty he could levy fourscore men, his sufferings and those -of his companions having given his countrymen a very unfavourable -idea of the service.</p> - -<p>With this small reinforcement the associates did not hesitate -to renew their enterprise, and at length, after a passage no less -tedious than the first, reached the Bay of Saint Matthew on the -coast of Quito (1526). In Tecumez, to the south of the Emerald -River, they were delighted with the aspect of a fine well-cultivated -country, inhabited by a people whose clothing and dwellings -indicated a higher degree of civilisation and wealth. But, -not venturing to attempt its conquest with a handful of men enfeebled -by fatigue and disease, they retired to the small island -of Gallo, where Pizarro waited, while Almagro once more returned -to Panama, hoping that the better accounts he could -give of their second journey would procure reinforcements large -enough for the conquest of the newly discovered countries.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">« 471 »</a></span></p> - -<p>But the new governor of Panama, Pedro de los Rios, interdicted -all further volunteering for an enterprise he considered -chimerical, and even sent a vessel to the island of Gallo to bring -back Pizarro and his companions. The associates, on the other -hand, were less inclined than ever to give up their enterprise, -now that better prospects had opened, so that Pizarro peremptorily -refused to obey the governor's commands, and used all his -eloquence in persuading his men not to abandon him. But the -hardships they had endured, and the prospect of soon revisiting -their families and friends, pleaded so strongly against him, that -when he drew a line with his sword upon the sand, and told -those that wished to leave him to pass over it, only thirteen of -his veterans remained true to his fortunes.</p> - -<p>With this select band of heroes Pizarro now retired to the -desert island of Gorgona, where, as it lay further from the -coast, he could await with greater security the reinforcements -which he trusted the zeal of his associates would soon be able to -procure. Nor was he deceived, for Almagro and Luque, by -their repeated solicitations, at length prevailed upon the governor -to send out a small vessel to his assistance, though without one -landsman on board, that he might not be encouraged to any -new enterprise. Meanwhile Pizarro and his faithful "thirteen" -had spent five long months on their wretched island, their eyes -constantly turned to the north, until, heart-sick and despairing -from hope deferred, they resolved to intrust themselves to the -inconstant waves upon a miserable raft, rather than remain any -longer in that dreadful wilderness. But now at last the vessel -from Panama appeared, and raised them so thoroughly from the -deepest despondency to the most extravagant hopes, that Pizarro -easily induced not only his old friends, but also the crew of the -vessel, to sail farther to the south instead of returning at once -to Panama.</p> - -<p>This time the winds were favourable, and after a voyage of -twenty days they at length reached the town of Tumbez on the -coast of Peru, where the magnificent temple of the sun and the -palace of the Incas, with its costly golden vases, exceeded their -most sanguine expectations. But once more Pizarro, too weak -to attempt invasion, was obliged to content himself with the -view of the riches he one day hoped to possess, and returned to -Panama after an absence of three years.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">« 472 »</a></span></p> - -<p>Amidst interminable delays and difficulties, which, although -not to be compared to those he had endured, would still have -totally discouraged a mind of a less iron mould, five years -more elapsed before the matchless perseverance of Pizarro met -with its reward. On the 14th of April, 1531, he landed in Peru -for the second time, and in a few months the empire of the -Incas lay prostrate at his feet. The poor adventurer of Gorgona -was now one of the richest men on earth.</p> - -<p>From this time the stream of conquest and discovery continuously -rolled on to the south, so that after a few years the -whole coast of Peru and Chili, as far as the wilds of Patagonia, -was either known or subject to the Spaniards.</p> - -<p>But while Pizarro and his comrades were thus opening the -south-west coast of America to the knowledge of mankind, the -conqueror of Mexico was no less anxious to add to his laurels -the glory of discovery in the Northern Pacific, whose shores his -warriors had reached in 1521, soon after the fall of the Aztec -capital. Desirous of opening a new passage to the East Indies, he -fitted out a fleet (1526), which, under the command of his kinsman -Alvaro de Saavedra, was to sail to the Moluccas, and most -likely discovered part of the Radack and Ralick Archipelago, -visited and described three centuries later by Kotzebue and -Chamisso.</p> - -<p>In the year 1536 Cortez himself undertook a maritime expedition -to the north, discovered the peninsula of California, and -explored the greater part of the long and narrow bay which -separates it from the mainland. After the return of this great -man to Spain, where, loaded with ingratitude, he died in 1547, -Rodriguez Cabrillo (1543) sailed as far as Monterey, and subsequently -the pilot of the expedition, Bartholomew Ferreto, -reached 43° N. lat., where Vancouver's Cape Oxford is situated.</p> - -<p>In the year 1542 Villalobos made the first attempt to establish -a colony on the Philippine Islands with settlers from Mexico, -but, having failed, the colonisation did not take place before -1565. The intelligence of this success was brought to America -by the pilot and monk, Fray Andreas Urdaneta, who sailed on -the 1st of June from Manilla and arrived on the 3rd of October -in the Mexican port of Acapulco. All previous attempts to sail -from Asia to America had failed, on account of the opposing -trade-winds; but Urdaneta sailed northward till he encountered -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">« 473 »</a></span> -the favourable west wind, which carried him to the New World -across the wide bosom of the Pacific. The discovery of this -new ocean route was of considerable importance to the Spaniards, -and, to perpetuate the memory of Urdaneta's nautical ability, -they continued to call the passage by his name.</p> - -<p>About the same time another Spanish pilot, Juan Fernandez, -discovered the proper sea route from Callao to Chili, by first -sailing far out to sea, and thus avoiding the coast-currents from -the south. He also discovered the island which still bears his -name, and has become so celebrated by the adventures of Alexander -Selkirk, and the immortal tale of Daniel Defoe.</p> - -<p>In the year 1567 an expedition sailed from Callao under -Alvaro Mendana, which discovered the Solomon Islands; and in -1595 the group of the Marquesas de Mendoza was first brought -to light by the same navigator. Before the last expedition of -Mendana, Drake, the first circumnavigator of the globe (1577-1580) -after Magellan and El Cano, penetrated into the Pacific, -by rounding Cape Horn, and subsequently discovered the coasts -of New Albion as far as 48° N. lat.</p> - -<p>After having thus rapidly followed the course of the discoveries -which during the sixteenth century made Europe acquainted -with the whole western coast of America, from Cape Pillares in -Tierra del Fuego to the mouth of the Columbia River, I return -to the Indian Ocean, where in the beginning of the century we -left the Portuguese in the full bloom of their power, and, to -judge by the progress already made, likely to add largely to the -stock of geographical knowledge. But whether the masters of -the Indian Ocean had no desire to extend still farther the circle -of their conquests, or the fiery spirit of enterprise which had -animated Vasco de Gama and Diaz was prematurely extinguished, -the discoveries of the Portuguese in the Pacific by no means -corresponded to the gigantic flight which in less than a quarter -of a century had led them from Cape de Verde to the extremity -of the Malayan Archipelago. New Guinea was indeed discovered -by Don Jorge de Menezes (1526) and Alvaro de Saavedra -(1528), and some old maps prove that before 1542 a part of -the coast of New Holland was known to the Portuguese, who had -penetrated to the north as far as Formosa and Japan, yet at -the end of the sixteenth century the western boundaries of -the Pacific were only known from 40° N. lat. to 10° S. lat., and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">« 474 »</a></span> -all beyond was enveloped in darkness. As little was known -of the innumerable South Sea islands, for although some of the -groups had been seen or visited by the Spaniards, their existence -was kept secret lest other seafaring nations should be -tempted to explore the wastes of the Pacific.</p> - -<p>I have already mentioned that the desire to find a shorter -route to the wealth of India was the chief inducement which -led to the discoveries of Vasco de Gama, Columbus, and -Magellan; this same motive also called forth the first attempts -of the Dutch and English to find a northern passage to the -southern seas.</p> - -<p>In the year 1553 Sir Hugh Willoughby and Chancellor left -England on their memorable voyage of Arctic discovery, and -steered to the north-east. In a stormy night they parted company, -never to meet again. For a long time nothing was heard -of Willoughby, until some Russian sailors found on the dreary -coast of Lapland two wrecks tenanted only by the dead. A note, -dated January 1554, proved that then at least some of the unfortunate -navigators were still alive; but this was the last and -only memorial of the mysterious end of the first Britons that -ever ventured into the frozen seas. Chancellor was more fortunate. -After having for a long time been driven about by storms, -he discovered the White Sea, and on landing heard for the first -time of Russia and her sovereign the Czar Ivan Vasiliovitch, -who resided in a great town called Moscow. This unknown -potentate the indefatigable seaman resolved to visit in his capital, -where he was graciously received, and obtained permission for -his countrymen to frequent the port of Archangel. Soon after -his return to England he was sent back to Russia by Queen -Mary, for the purpose of settling the terms of a treaty of -commerce between the two nations; and, having satisfactorily -accomplished his mission, once more set sail from the White -Sea, accompanied by a Muscovite ambassador. But this time -the return voyage was extremely unfortunate; two of the ships, -richly laden with Russian commodities, ran ashore on the coast -of Norway, and Chancellor's own vessel was driven by a dreadful -storm as far as Pitsligo in Scotland, in which bay it was wrecked. -Chancellor endeavoured to save the ambassador and himself in -a boat, but the small pinnace was upset, and, although the -Russian reached the strand, the Englishman, after having -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">« 475 »</a></span> -escaped so many dangers in the Arctic Ocean, was doomed to -an untimely end within sight of his native shores.</p> - -<p>Twenty years afterwards, Martin Frobisher set sail with three -small vessels of thirty-five, thirty, and ten tons, on no less an -errand than the discovery of a north-west passage to Asia. -With these wretched nut-shells he reached the coasts of Greenland -and Labrador, but was prevented by the ice from effecting -a landing.</p> - -<p>This first voyage was little remarkable in itself, but its accidental -results tended much to the advancement of northern -research, for Frobisher brought home some glittering stones, -the lustre of which was erroneously attributed to gold; a circumstance -which, as may well be imagined, greatly contributed -to pave the way for a second expedition to "Meta Incognita." -This time Frobisher sailed with three ships, of a much larger -size, that they might be able to hold more of the anticipated -treasure; and, besides securing 200 tons of the imaginary gold, -discovered the entrance of the strait which bears his name.</p> - -<p>His geographical knowledge may be inferred from the fact -that he firmly believed the land on one side of this channel to -be Asia, and on the other America; and, though we may be -tempted to smile at his ignorance, yet the lion-hearted seaman -is not the less to be admired, who with such inadequate means -ventured to brave the unknown terrors of the Frozen Ocean.</p> - -<p>The gales and floating ice which greeted Frobisher as he -endeavoured to force a passage through the strait put a stop to -all farther progress to India; but, as the gold delusion still -continued, the expedition was considered eminently successful. -A large squadron of fifteen vessels was consequently fitted out -for the summer of 1578, and commissioned not only to bring -back an untold amount of treasure, but also to take out materials -and men to establish a colony on those desolate shores.</p> - -<p>But this grand expedition, which sailed forth with such -extravagant hopes, was doomed to end in disappointment. One -of the largest vessels was crushed by an iceberg at the entrance -of the strait, and the others were so beaten about by storms -and obstructed by fogs, that the whole summer elapsed, and -they were fain to return to England without having done anything -for the advancement of geographical knowledge.</p> - -<p>The utter worthlessness of the glittering stones having meanwhile -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">« 476 »</a></span> -been discovered, Frobisher relinquished all further attempts -to push his fortunes in the northern regions, and sought -new laurels in a sunnier clime. He accompanied Drake to the -West Indies, commanded subsequently one of the largest vessels -opposed to the Spanish Armada, and ended his heroic life while -attacking a small French fort on behalf of Henry IV., during the -war with the League. He was one of those adventurous spirits -always thirsting for action, and too uneasy ever to enjoy repose.</p> - -<p>In the year 1585, John Davis, with the ships "Sunshine" and -"Moonshine," carrying besides their more necessary equipments -a band of music "to cheer and recreate the spirits of the -natives," made his first voyage in quest of the north-west -passage, and discovered the broad strait which leads into the -icy deserts of Baffin's Bay. But neither in this attempt nor in -his two following ones was he able to effect the object for which -he strove; and these repeated failures cooled for a long time -the national ardour for northern discovery.</p> - -<p>In the year 1594 the Dutch appear upon the scene. This -persevering and industrious people, which in the following -century was destined to play so important a part in the politics -of Europe, had just then succeeded in casting off the Spanish -yoke, and was laudably endeavouring to gain by maritime -enterprise a position among the neighbouring states, which the -smallness of its territory seemed to deny to its ambition. All -the known roads to the treasures of the south were at that time -too well guarded by the jealous fleets of Spain and Portugal to -admit of any rivalry; but, if fortune should favour them in -finding the yet unexplored northern passage to India, they -might still hope to secure a lion's share in that most lucrative -of trades. Animated by the bold spirit of adventure which -the dawn of independence always calls forth in a nation, a -company of Amsterdam merchants fitted out an expedition of -northern discovery, which it intrusted to the superintendence -and pilotage of William Barentz, one of the most experienced -seamen of the day.</p> - -<p>Barentz left the Texel on the 6th of June, 1594, reached the -northern extremity of Nova Zembla, and returned to Holland. -Meanwhile his associate, penetrating through a strait to which -he gave the very appropriate name of Waigats or "Wind-hole," -battled against the floating ice of the Sea of Kara, until, rounding -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">« 477 »</a></span> -a promontory, he saw a blue and open sea extending before -him, and the Russian coast trending away towards the south-east. -He now no longer doubted that he had sailed round the -famous cape "Tabis" of Pliny, an imaginary promontory which -according to that erroneous guide formed the northern extremity -of Asia, and whence the voyage was supposed to be short and -easy to its eastern and southern shores. He had only reached -the Gulf of Obi, and within the Arctic Circle the continent of -Asia still stretched 120 degrees to the east; but this was then -unknown, and the Dutchman, satisfied with the prospect of success, -did not press onward to test its reality, but started in full -sail for Holland, to rouse the sluggish fancy of his phlegmatic -countrymen with chimerical hopes and golden visions.</p> - -<p>On the receipt of this glad intelligence six large vessels were -immediately fitted out, and richly laden with goods suited to -the taste of the Indians. A small swift-sailing yacht was added -to the squadron to bear it company as far as the imaginary promontory -of Tabis, and thence to return with the good news that -it had safely performed what was supposed to be the most -perilous part of the voyage, and had been left steering with a -favourable wind right off to India.</p> - -<p>But, as may well be imagined, these sanguine hopes were -destined to meet with a woeful disappointment, for the Wind-hole -Strait, doing full justice to its name, did not allow them to -pass; and, after many fruitless endeavours to force their way -through the mighty ice-blocks that obstructed that inhospitable -channel, they returned dejected and crest-fallen to the port -whence they had sailed a few months before, elated with such -brilliant expectations.</p> - -<p>Although great disappointment was felt at this failure, the -scheme however was not abandoned, and on the 16th of May, -1596, Heemskerk, Barentz, and Cornelis Ryp once more started -for the north-east. Bear Island and Spitzbergen were discovered, -whereupon the ships separated; Cornelis and Heemskerk returning -to Holland, while Barentz, enclosed by the ice, was obliged -to spend a long and dreary winter in the dreadful solitudes of -Nova Zembla. Fortunately a quantity of drift-wood was found -on the strand, which served the Dutchmen both for the construction -of a small hut and for fuel. At the same time it raised -their courage, as they now no longer doubted that Providence, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">« 478 »</a></span> -which had sent them this unexpected succour in the wilderness, -would guide them safely through all their difficulties. -And indeed they stood in need of this consolatory belief, for -as early as September the ground was frozen so hard that they -tried in vain to dig a grave for a dead comrade, and their -cramped fingers could hardly proceed with the building of the hut.</p> - -<p>The attacks of the white bears also gave them great trouble. -One day Barentz, from the deck of the vessel, seeing three bears -stealthily approaching a party of his men who were labouring at -the hut, shouted loudly to warn them of their peril, and the men, -startled at the near approach of danger, sought safety in flight. -One of the party, in his haste and perturbation, fell into a cleft -in the ice; but the hungry animals fortunately overlooked him, -and continued their pursuit of the main body. These gained -the vessel and began to congratulate themselves on their safety, -when, to their horror, they perceived that their foes, instead of -retreating from a hopeless pursuit, were actually scaling the ship's -sides, evidently determined to have their meal. Matters now -became serious. One of the sailors was despatched for a light, -but in his hurry and agitation could not get the match to take -fire (Enfields and revolvers were then unknown), and the -muskets being thus rendered useless, the sailors in despair kept -their enemies off by pelting them with whatever articles came -first to hand. This unequal conflict continued for some time, -until a well-directed blow on the snout of the largest bear caused -the <i>barking</i><a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[AB]</a> monster to retire from the field followed by his -two companions,</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span style="margin-left: 5em;">"who, seeing Hector flee,</span><br /> -No longer dared to face the enemy."<br /> -</div></div> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[AB]</span></a> "I did not hear them roar as ours do, but they only bark."—<i>Marten's Voyage -to Spitzbergen.</i></p></div> - -<p>By the middle of October the hut was completed; and though -the accommodations it afforded were extremely scanty, they were -glad to take up their abode in it at once.</p> - -<p>And now began the long, dreary, three months' night of the -77th degree of latitude, during which snow-drifts and impetuous -winds confined them to their miserable dwelling. "We -looked pitifully one upon the other," says Gerret De Veer, the -simple narrator of the sufferings of that Arctic winter, "being -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">« 479 »</a></span> -in great fear that if the extremity of the cold grew to be more -and more, we should all die there of cold; for that what fire -soever we made would not warm us." The ice was now two inches -thick upon the walls and even on the sides of their sleeping-cots, -and the very clothes they wore were whitened with frost, so that -as they sat together in their hut they "were all as white as the -countrymen used to be when they came in at the gates of the -towns in Holland with their sleads, and have gone all night."</p> - -<p>Yet in the midst of all their sufferings these hardy men -maintained brave and cheerful hearts, and so great was their -elasticity of spirit that, remembering the 5th of January was -"Twelfth Even," they determined to celebrate it as best they -might. "And then," says the old chronicler, "we prayed our -maister that we might be merry that night, and said that we -were content to spend some of the wine that night which we -had spared, and which was our share (one glass) every second -day; and so that night we made merry and drew for king. And -therewith we had two pounds of meale, whereof we made pancakes -with oyle, and every man had a white biscuit, which we -sopt in the wine. And so, supposing that we were in our own -country, and amongst our friends, it comforted as well as if we -had made a great banket in our owne house." Blessed Content! -arising from a simple heart and a life of honest and healthful toil, -never didst thou celebrate a greater triumph, or more forcibly -show thy power, than in that dreary hut on Nova Zembla!</p> - -<p>Some weeks afterwards the sun appeared once more above -the horizon; and the glorious sight, though it soon vanished -again into darkness, was a joyful one indeed, full of delightful -images of a return to friends and home. Now, also, the furious -gales and snow-storms ceased; and, though the severity of the -cold continued unabated, they were able to brave the outer air -and recruit their strength by exercise.</p> - -<p>When summer came, it was found impossible to disengage the -ice-bound vessel, and the only hopes of escaping from their -dreary prison now rested on two small boats, in which they -ventured on the capricious ocean. On the fourth day of their -voyage, their fragile barks became surrounded by immense -quantities of floating ice, which so crushed and injured them, -that the crews, giving up all hope, took a solemn leave of each -other. But in this desperate crisis they owed their lives to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">« 480 »</a></span> -presence of mind and agility of De Veer, who with a well-secured -rope leaped from one fragment of ice to another till he -gained a firm field, on which first the sick, then the stores, the -crews, and finally the boats themselves, were safely landed. -Here they were obliged to remain while the boats underwent -the necessary repairs, and during this detention upon a floating -ice-field the gallant Barentz closed the eventful voyage of his -life. He died as he had lived, calmly and bravely, thinking less -of himself than of the safety of his crew, for his last words -were directions as to the course in which they were to steer. -Even the joyful prospect of a return to their families and home -could not console his surviving comrades for the loss of their -leader, whom they loved and revered as a friend and father. -After a most tedious and dangerous passage, they at length -arrived at Kola in Russian Lapland, where to their glad surprise -they found their old comrade, John Cornelis, who received them -on board his vessel and conveyed them to Amsterdam.</p> - -<p>During the seventeenth century the most remarkable maritime -discoveries were made by the English, Dutch, and Spaniards, -though by the latter only at its commencement. In the year -1605 Quiros sailed from Callao, discovered the island of -Sagittaria, since so renowned under the name of Otaheite, and -the archipelago of Espiritu Santo, or the New Hebrides of Cook. -On this journey he was accompanied by Torres, the bold seaman -who some years after gave his name to the strait which separates -New Guinea from Australia.</p> - -<p>While the declining sun of Spain was thus gilding with its -last rays the northern shore of New Holland, the meridian -splendour of the Batavian republic cast forth bright beams of -light over the wide Pacific.</p> - -<p>Schouten and Le Maire, penetrating through the strait which -is still named after the latter, sailed in the year 1616 round -Tierra del Fuego; and about the same time Hartog discovered -Eendragt's Land, on the west coast of Australia. The successive -voyages of Jan Edel (1619), Peter Nuyts (1627), and Peter -Carpenter (1628), brought to light the northern and southern -shores of the vast island, which thus began to assume a rude shape -on the map of the geographer. In the year 1642, Abel -Tasman, the greatest of the Dutch navigators, drew a mighty -furrow through the South Sea, discovered Van Diemen's Land, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">« 481 »</a></span> -which posterity desirous of perpetuating his fame has called -Tasmania, saw the northern extremity of New Zealand emerge -from the ocean, and finally unveiled to the world the hidden -beauties of Tonga.</p> - -<p>While the Dutch navigators were thus dissipating the darkness -of Australia, Hudson and Baffin were immortalising their names -in the Arctic Ocean.</p> - -<p>In the year 1627 Henry Hudson made the first attempt to -steer right on to the pole, and to cross to India over the axis of -the globe. He reached the northern extremity of Spitzbergen, -but all his attempts to penetrate deeper into the polar ocean -were baffled by the mighty ice-fields that opposed his progress. -But though he failed in his undertaking to sail through the -region of eternal winter to the spicy groves of India, yet the -numerous morses and seals he had seen basking on the coast of -Spitzbergen opened such cheering prospects of future profit, -that the "Muscovy Company," which had fitted out the expedition, -was by no means discontented with the issue of his -voyage.</p> - -<p>Three years after we find the gallant Hudson once more -attempting to discover the north-west passage in a vessel of -fifty-five tons, provisioned for six months. The crew which he -commanded was unfortunately utterly unworthy of such a leader, -and quailed as soon as they had to encounter the fog and -ice-fields of the Frozen Ocean.</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i1">"And now there came both mist and snow,<br /></span> -<span class="i4">And it grew wondrous cold;<br /></span> -<span class="i2">And ice mast-high came floating by,<br /></span> -<span class="i4">As green as emerald.<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">And through the drifts the snowy clifts<br /></span> -<span class="i4">Did send a dismal sheen,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Nor shapes of men nor beasts we ken,<br /></span> -<span class="i4">The ice was all between."<br /></span> -</div></div> - - -<p>But, in spite of the murmurs and repinings of his faint-hearted -followers, the dauntless commander pressed on through the strait -which bears his name, until at last his little bark emerged into -a boundless deep blue sea. Hudson's Bay lay before him, but -the delighted discoverer was happy in the belief that the grand -object of his voyage was attained, and the shortest road to India -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">« 482 »</a></span> -laid open to the mariners of England. It was about the beginning -of August, and the spiritless crew considering the passage -accomplished, urged an immediate return; but Hudson was -determined on completing the adventure, and wintering if possible -on the sunny shores of India.</p> - -<p>Three months long he continued tracking the coasts of that -vast northern Mediterranean, now for the first time explored by -civilised man, vainly hoping to see a new channel opening to the -west, until at length November came and imprisoned his small -vessel in adamantine fetters. A long and dreary winter awaited -the ice-bound seamen, with almost exhausted provisions, and -unfortunately without that heroic patience and serene concord -which had sustained the sufferings of Barentz and his companions. -It must indeed have been a melancholy winter for poor Hudson, -solitary and friendless among scowling ruffians, hating him as -the cause of their bitter misery; but spring came at last with its -consolatory sunshine, and hope once more dawned in his tortured -breast. The ship is again afloat, and on the 21st of June, 1611, -the captain comes forth from his cabin, refreshed by the sleep of -a quiet conscience, and strong in body and mind to meet the -duties of the day. But as he steps on deck his arms are suddenly -pinioned, and he finds himself in the power of a mutinous -crew. He looks around for some trace of sympathy, but hatred -meets him in every eye. Inquiry, remonstrance, entreaty, -command, all alike fail to move their stubborn resolution, and -now Hudson resigns himself bravely to his fate, with all the -quiet dignity of a noble nature, and looks calmly at the ominous -preparations going forward. A small open boat is in waiting, -and into this he is lowered, some powder and shot and the carpenter's -box come next, followed by the carpenter himself, a -strong brave fellow, the captain's <i>one</i> devoted adherent among -the rebellious crew; the sick and infirm complete the unfortunate -cargo. A signal is given, the boat is cast adrift, and -soon the last faint cry for mercy expires in the breeze which -carries the vessel onwards on its homeward course.</p> - -<p>Thus perished the high-minded Hudson, without further -tiding or trace, on the scene of his glory; but the vengeance of -heaven soon overtook the ringleaders of that dark conspiracy. -Some fell in a fight with the Eskimos, and others died on the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">« 483 »</a></span> -homeward voyage, which was performed under the extremity of -famine. Whatever horrors may have attended the last moments -of Hudson, his sufferings were less, for his conscience was undefiled -by guilt.</p> - -<p>In the year 1616 Baffin sailed round the enormous bay to -which his name has been given, but without attempting to -penetrate through any one of those wide sounds that have led -the Arctic navigators of our days to so many glorious discoveries.</p> - -<p>From the times of Tasman, whose bold voyage through the -wastes of the Southern Pacific has already been mentioned, to -those of our own immortal Cook, but very little was done for -the progress of geography, as if, after so many heroic endeavours, -the spirit of maritime discovery had required a long repose to -recruit its energies, ere the greatest navigator of modern times -was destined to unveil the mysterious darkness which still concealed -one half of the vast Pacific from the knowledge of mankind. -The voyages most worthy of remark during this period -were those of the Cossack Semen Deshnew (1654), who sailed -from the mouth of the Kolyma River round the eastern promontory -of Asia, and must be considered as the discoverer of -Behring's Straits; of the adventurous Dampier (1689-1691), -that strange combination of the buccaneer, the author, and the -naturalist, who first discovered the strait which separates New -Guinea from New Ireland; of the Dutchman Roggewein (1721-23), -who made known some islands in the Pacific; of the -brothers Laptew and of Prontschitschew (1734-1743), who -unveiled the greatest part of the Siberian coast; of Commodore -Anson (1740-1744), whose heroic sufferings and successes in the -Pacific still live in the memory of his countrymen; and of the -unfortunate Behring (1730-1741), who terminated his second -unsuccessful exploring expedition by a miserable death on a -desert island.</p> - -<p>After the peace of Aix la Chapelle England felt that the -dominion of the seas imposed upon her the obligation of extending -the bounds of geographical knowledge, and thus in rapid -succession Byron (1764) and Wallis and Carteret (1766-1768) -were sent forth to discover unknown shores, while France made -a simultaneous effort to refresh the somewhat meagre laurels she -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">« 484 »</a></span> -had reaped by the voyages of Verazzani and Cartier. The consequences -of this emulation were not unimportant. Bougainville -(1766-1768) completed the discovery of the Solomon Islands, -which Mendana had only partly seen; Wallis made the world -acquainted with the beauties of Tahiti, and Byron explored the -unvisited coasts of Patagonia. But the fame of these worthy -mariners was soon eclipsed by a greater renown, for, in the same -year that Wallis returned from his expedition, Cook sailed from -the port of Plymouth on his first voyage round the world.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">« 485 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_XXVI" id="CHAP_XXVI">CHAP. XXVI.</a></h2> - -<div class="blockquot2">What had Cook's Predecessors left him to discover?—His first Voyage.—Discovery -of the Society Islands, and of the East Coast of New Holland.—His second -Voyage.—Discovery of the Hervey Group.—Researches in the South Sea.—The -New Hebrides.—Discovery of New Caledonia and of South Georgia.—His -third Voyage.—The Sandwich Islands.—New Albion.—West Georgia.—Cook's -Murder.—Vancouver.—La Peyrouse.</div> - - -<p>To form a correct estimate of Cook's discoveries, it is necessary -that, before following the track of that great seaman, we should -glance over the vast regions of the Pacific previously unknown -to man. Many navigators indeed, since Magellan, had traversed -that immense ocean, but the greater part of its expanse still lay -buried in obscurity.</p> - -<p>To the north of the line, the Spaniards, sailing from Manilla -to Acapulco, still servilely followed the route which Urdaneta had -pointed out, and all beyond was unexplored.</p> - -<p>The regions to the south of the line were better known, but -here also maritime discoverers, with the sole exception of -Tasman, had confined themselves to the tropical waters. No -one had yet tried to sail through the boundless space which to -the south of the 25th degree of latitude extended between New -Zealand and America. Of Australia only the western coast was -known; the existence of Torres' Strait had long since been forgotten, -and New Guinea and New Holland were supposed to form -one connected land. To the south no one knew whether Australia -and Van Diemen's Land were joined together, or severed -by a channel; and the eastern coast of the fifth part of the world -still awaited a discoverer. The boundaries of New Zealand were -buried in the same obscurity. Tasman had only visited the west -coast of the northern island, which, as far as was then known, -might have extended a thousand miles farther on towards Chili. -In one word, the great geographical problem of an enormous -southern continent, the existence of which was formerly supposed -necessary to form the counterpoise of the northern lands, still -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">« 486 »</a></span> -remained unsolved. The discoveries already made had indeed -narrowed the limits which during the sixteenth century were -still assigned to that imaginary continent, but in the unexplored -bosom of the South Sea there yet was room enough for lands surpassing -the whole of Europe in extent. Many of the South Sea -islands moreover, though discovered before Cook's voyages, had -vanished again from the memory of the world, or, according to -Humboldt's expression, "wavered, as if badly rooted on the map, -for want of exact astronomical measurements." Thus two -hundred and fifty years after Magellan the Pacific still offered -an enormous field for discovery, and when Cook set sail on the -30th of July, 1768, on his first voyage of circumnavigation, -nearly one half of the globe lay open to his researches.</p> - -<p>The first service he rendered on this voyage was the discovery -that the route to the Pacific through the Strait of Le Maire and -round Cape Horn was preferable to that which until then had -been followed, through the Straits of Magellan.</p> - -<p>After having observed at Otaheite the transit of Venus across -the sun, which was one of the chief objects of the expedition, -he soon after landed on the shores of Huaheine, Ulietea, and -Borabora, which had never yet been visited by a European -mariner, and gave to the whole group the name of the Society -Islands, on account of their close vicinity to each other. Thence -he sailed to New Zealand, which he was the first to find consisted -of two large islands, separated by the strait which bears his name. -With unwearied industry he spent no less than six months on -the accurate survey of the New Zealand group, and then sailed to -New Holland, the eastern coast of which he first discovered, and -closely examined in its full length of 2000 miles. He also found -that the continent of Australia was separated from New Guinea -by a channel which he called "Endeavour Strait," but to which -the justice of posterity has restored or awarded the name of Torres, -its first explorer. This whole sea is so full of dangerous reefs -and shoals that for months the sounding line was scarce ever laid -aside, and any less experienced and prudent navigator must inevitably -have been wrecked during these constant cruises in such -perilous waters. Even Cook owed more than once his preservation -to what may well be called a miraculous interposition of -Providence, of which I shall cite a remarkable example. It was -on the 10th of June, 1770, in the latitude of Trinity Bay. The -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">« 487 »</a></span> -vessel sailed, under a fresh breeze and by clear moonlight, -through a sea the depth of which the plummet constantly -indicated at 20 to 21 fathoms, so that not the least danger was -apprehended. But suddenly the depth diminished to four -fathoms, and before the lead could be heaved again the vessel -struck and remained immoveable, except as far as she was -heaved up and down and dashed against the rocks by the surge. -The general anxiety may be imagined, and indeed the situation -was such as to warrant the most serious apprehensions. It -was found that the ship had been lifted over the ledge of a -rock and lay in a hollow, inside of the reef, where the water -in some places was three or four fathoms deep and in others -hardly as many feet. The sheathing boards were knocked off -and floating round the ship in great numbers, and at last the -false keel also was destroyed, while the constant grating of the -vessel against the rock seemed to announce its speedy disruption. -It was now necessary to lighten the vessel as much as possible, -and soon more than 50 tons' weight was thrown overboard.</p> - -<p>On the following morning land was seen at the distance of -eight miles; but no islet lay between, on which, in case the -vessel went to pieces, a speedy refuge might be found. To add -to their distress, the vessel drew so much water that three -pumps could hardly master it; and, finally, it was found that -even the rising of the flood, on which they mainly reckoned, -was unavailing to extricate them from their perilous position. -All that could possibly be spared was now therefore cast into the -sea, still more to lighten the vessel, and thus the next tide was -patiently expected, when, after incredible exertion, the ship -righted, and they got her over the ledge of the rock into deep -water.</p> - -<p>But the men were by this time so much exhausted by their -uninterrupted labour that they could not stand to the pumps -more than five or six minutes at a time, after which they threw -themselves flat on the streaming deck, where they lay till others -exhausted like themselves took their places, on which they -started up again and renewed their exertions. In this desperate -situation one of the midshipmen, named Monkhouse, bethought -himself of a means by which a ship, having sprung a leak admitting -more than four feet of water in an hour, had yet been able -to perform the whole journey from Virginia to London. He -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">« 488 »</a></span> -took a lower studding-sail, and, having mixed a large quantity of -oakum and wool together, stitched them down by handfuls as -lightly as possible. The sail was then hauled under the ship's -bottom by means of ropes which kept it extended. When it -came under the leak, the wool and oakum, with part of the sail, -were forced inwards by the pressure of the water, which thus -prevented its own ingress in such an effectual manner that one -pump, instead of three, was now sufficient to keep it under. In -this way they got the ship into a convenient port on the coast of -New Holland, where they repaired the injury. Here it was -found that their preservation was not entirely owing to that ingenious -expedient, for one of the holes in the ship's bottom was -almost entirely plugged by a piece of rock which had broken off -and stuck in it; and this hole was so large, that, had it not been -filled up in this truly extraordinary manner, the vessel must undoubtedly -have sunk. Some persons, leading a tranquil life -unvexed by storm or wave, might perhaps be inclined to ascribe -so miraculous an escape to chance, but the seaman, who has had -death before his eyes, will always in such a case recognise the -hand of an Almighty protector: and who can doubt that a thrill -of intense gratitude flashed through the soul of Cook on the discovery -of the cause to which he owed the preservation of his -life?</p> - -<p>With a vessel thus shattered, and a crew thus worn with -fatigue, further discoveries were no more to be thought of, and -Cook hastened to return by way of Batavia and the Cape to -England, where he arrived on the 11th of June, 1771.</p> - -<p>The object of his second voyage (1772-1775) was to determine -finally the question of the existence of a great southern continent, -and to extend the geography of that part of the globe to its utmost -limits. Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander had accompanied -him on his first voyage, this time John Reinhold Forster and -his son George were engaged by government to explore and -collect the natural history of the countries through which they -should pass.</p> - -<p>On the 13th of July, 1772, Cook sailed from Plymouth, and -reached the Cape without having a single man sick. Well -aware how much cleanliness and pure air contribute to health, -he had neglected none of the means necessary to insure it. -Every day the beds were aired, the linen of the sailors was -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">« 489 »</a></span> -frequently washed, and in rainy weather fire often made between -decks, to dispel unwholesome damps and effluvia.</p> - -<p>He now sailed to the south far into a desert and unknown -sea, crossed it in various directions, and after having spent 117 -days on the ocean, mostly among floating ice-fields, and without -having once seen land, he steered northwards to the well-known -coast of New Zealand, where on the 25th of January, 1773, he -cast anchor in Dusky Bay. The feelings of the seaman may be -imagined, when, after long wanderings over the waste of waters, -he sees land, mountains, forests, and green plains rise above the -horizon, when singing-birds take the place of the wild sea-mew, -and friendly faces greet him on the strand. A beneficent -mind is ever anxious to do good, and thus before sailing -farther on to Otaheite, Cook caused a little garden to be -planted, in which European vegetable seeds were sown and confided -with proper instructions to the care of the intelligent -savages, who were moreover presented with goats and pigs.</p> - -<p>On the return voyage from Tahiti to New Zealand, where he -intended to provide himself with fire-wood and provisions, -before advancing once more into the high southern latitudes, he -was pleased with the discovery of the small but lovely Harvey -Islands, whose green girdle of cocoa-nut palms mirrors itself in -the dark blue waters.</p> - -<p>And now again he cruised in all directions through the icy -sea, over an extent of 65° of longitude and as far as the 71st -degree of southern latitude, without having seen any land; and -having thus satisfied himself of the non-existence of a southern -continent, or at least of its circumscription within bounds which -must ever render it perfectly useless to man, he left those dreary -regions of eternal winter, to continue his discoveries under a less -inclement sky.</p> - -<p>He first visited Easter Island and the Marquesas, where a new -discovery received the name of Hood's Island, and on the way -thence to Tahiti added the Palisser Group to the map of the -world. We now follow him to the extensive archipelago of -Espiritu Santo, first seen by Quiros in 1606, who took it for a -part of the imaginary southern continent. Since then it had -only been visited by Bougainville (1768), who however had -contented himself with landing on the Isle of Lepers, and ascertaining -the fact that it did not form part of a continent but -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">« 490 »</a></span> -of a considerable group of islands. Cook on his part examined -the whole archipelago in such an accurate manner, ascertaining -the situation of many of the islands and discovering such -numbers of new ones, that he justly thought he had acquired -the right to rebaptize them under the name of the New -Hebrides.</p> - -<p>From these islands he sailed for the third time to New Zealand, -and discovered on his passage New Caledonia and the -romantic Norfolk Island.</p> - -<p>Leaving New Zealand on the 10th of November, 1774, once -more to search for the southern continent, he traversed a vast -extent of sea for 17 days, from 43° to 55° 48′ S. lat., when he -gave up all thoughts of finding any more land in that part of -the ocean, and determined to steer directly for the west entrance -of the Straits of Magellan, with a design of coasting the southern -part of Tierra del Fuego, quite round Cape Horn to Le Maire's -Straits. Those wild, deeply indented, rocky coasts, the region of -eternal storms and fogs, form the most striking contrast to the -smiling shores of the South Sea islands. But, if in the latter -the splendour of tropical vegetation enchants the eye of the -spectator, the exuberance of animal life in the Magellanic Archipelago -may well raise his astonishment. In one of the small -islands near Staaten Land Cook admired the remarkable harmony -reigning among the different species of mammifera and -birds. The sea-lions occupied the greatest part of the sea-coast, -the bears the inland; the shags were posted on the highest cliffs, -the penguins in such places as had the best access to the sea; -and the other birds chose more retired places. Occasionally, -however, all these animals were seen to mix together like domestic -cattle and poultry in a farmyard, without one attempting -to hurt the other in the least. Even the eagles and the vultures -were frequently observed sitting together on the hills among the -shags, while none of the latter, either old or young, appeared to -be disturbed at their presence. No doubt the poor fishes had -to pay for the touching union of this "happy family."</p> - -<p>Having fully explored the southern extremity of America, we -once more see the indefatigable navigator steer forth into the -deserts of the southern Polar Ocean, where he discovers some -snow-clad isles, Bird Island, South Georgia, Sandwich Land, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">« 491 »</a></span> -the southern Thule; and finally returns to England (30th July, -1775) after an absence of three years and seventeen days.</p> - -<p>His third voyage (1776) was undertaken for the purpose of -exploring the Northern Pacific, and casting the same broad light -over those unvisited waters as over the southern part of that -vast ocean. To the south-east of the Cape of Good Hope he -discovered Prince Edward's Islands, and thence proceeded to -explore Kerguelen's Land, discovered six years previously by -the Frenchman of that name. This wintry island bears neither -tree nor shrub, but in the bays the gigantic sea-weeds form submarine -forests, and countless penguins make the dreary shores -resound with their deep braying voice.</p> - -<p>Van Diemen's Land, New Zealand, and the Friendly and -Society Isles were now visited for the last time. Steering to -the north, Cook discovered in the last days of the year 1777 the -Sandwich Islands, most likely previously known to the Spaniards, -but kept secret from the world; and reached on the 7th of -March, 1778, the mountainous forest-girt coast of New Albion, -along which two centuries before Drake had sailed as far as 48° -N. lat. Penetrating farther and farther to the north, he at -length reached the most westerly point of the American continent, -Cape Prince of Wales, which, stretching far out into the -Straits of Behring, is only thirty-nine miles distant from the -east coast of Siberia. Both pillars of this water-gate, according -to Chamisso's description, are high mountains within sight of -each other, rising abruptly from the sea on the Asiatic side, -while on the American their foot is bordered by a low alluvial -plain. On the Asiatic side the sea has its greatest depth, and -the current, which sets from the south into the channel with a -rapidity of two or three knots an hour, its greatest strength. -Whales and numberless herds of walruses are seen only on the -Asiatic side.</p> - -<p>Through these famous straits, which Deshnew had first passed, -and which Behring most likely never saw, Cook penetrated -into the Arctic Ocean, examined a part of the Siberian coast, -and then sailed to the opposite shores of America, where he discovered -and explored the coast of West Georgia as far as 70° 44′ -N. lat., until fields of ice opposed an impenetrable barrier to his -progress.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">« 492 »</a></span></p> - -<p>After having thus illumined with the torch of science the -farthest extremities of the earth, Cook once more steered to the -south and discovered Hawaii, the largest of the Sandwich Islands. -But better had it been for him if the glory of this discovery had -fallen to the share of some other navigator, for it was here that -the illustrious seaman, who had thrice circumnavigated the -globe, was doomed to fall by the club of a barbarous savage.</p> - -<p>No navigator has ever made so many important discoveries -at such distances from each other as Cook, or done more for the -progress of geographical knowledge. The wide Pacific he so -thoroughly explored, that his successors found only single ears -to glean where he had reaped the richest harvest. With the -firm resolution and the indomitable perseverance of the ancient -mariners who preceded him on that vast ocean, he combined a -scientific knowledge they never possessed. What they had only -flightily observed, or imperfectly described, he in reality discovered, -and indelibly marked upon the map of the globe. -Indefatigable with the astrolabe and the plummet, he neglected -no opportunity of pointing out to his successors both the dangers -they would have to avoid, and the harbours in which they -might find a refuge against storms, and a supply of fresh water -and provisions. His excellent method of preserving the health -of seamen from the murderous attacks of the scurvy, secures -him a lasting place among the benefactors of mankind. But he -not only anxiously watched over the welfare of his companions—his -humanity extended a no less salutary influence over the -savages with whom he came in contact. He everywhere sought to -better their condition, made them presents of useful animals and -seeds, and pointed out to them the advantages of peace and agriculture. -But his chief praise remains yet to be told, and this is, -that he owed the high position he acquired in life exclusively to -himself. He whose fame reached as far as the limits of the -civilised world, and whose death was mourned as a national -calamity, was the son of a poor labourer, and had commenced -his career as a common sailor.</p> - -<p>The most celebrated navigators during the last quarter of the -eighteenth century were Vancouver and La Peyrouse.</p> - -<p>Vancouver, who had accompanied Cook on his last and fatal -voyage, gained his chief laurels (1790) by thoroughly exploring -the north-west coast of America, which his illustrious friend had -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">« 493 »</a></span> -merely sketched in its most important outlines, having been -prevented by his untimely end from investigating it more fully -on a second visit. Vancouver began his hydrographical labours -at Cape Mendocino, examined the Straits of Juan de Fuca, and, -having convinced himself of the non-existence of a passage to -the eastward, accurately investigated the labyrinth of bays, isles, -sounds, and inlets, extending between 50° and 60° N. lat., thus -establishing the important fact of the uninterrupted continuation -of the American continent in these parts. Vancouver's Island -will transmit his name to the latest posterity, and British -Columbia remember him as the first navigator that accurately -mapped her shores.</p> - -<p>The fame of La Peyrouse is owing more to his misfortunes than -to his eminent services. After having distinguished himself as a -naval officer, he was sent by the equally unfortunate Louis XVI. -on the voyage of discovery from which he was never to return. -On the coast of Tartary and in the Japanese seas he examined a -part of the world which hitherto no European had visited, and -after having rectified many geographical errors sailed to Botany -Bay, whence he forwarded his last despatches (7th Feb. 1788) -to Europe. With the design of sailing through Torres' Straits -to the Gulf of Carpentaria, he left the new-born English colony, -but disappeared in the trackless ocean, and years and years -passed on without solving the mystery of his fate.</p> - -<p>At length, in 1826, Captain Dillon, an Englishman, was -informed by Martin Bushart, a Prussian sailor whom he found -settled on the Island of Tikopia, that many years since two -large ships had been wrecked on the neighbouring Island of -Vanikoro. Having brought this intelligence to Calcutta, he was -sent out by the East India Company in the "Research" to make -further inquiries on the scene of the catastrophe. On the 13th of -Sept., 1827, Dillon anchored at Vanikoro, and, having collected -the most interesting relics of the shipwreck, left it after a few -weeks.</p> - -<p>These facts became known at Hobart Town to the French circumnavigator -Dumont d'Urville, who immediately resolved to -sail to Vanikoro. He arrived there on the 22nd Feb., 1828, -but at first found it very difficult to persuade the suspicious -natives to point out to him the remains of the wrecked ship, until -the offer of a piece of red cloth effectually overcame their scruples. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">« 494 »</a></span> -One of the boldest immediately jumped into a boat and offered -to guide them on condition of receiving the proffered reward. -The bargain was gladly struck, and the Frenchmen, piloted by -the negro, eagerly pushed off from shore.</p> - -<p>The coral reef which forms an enormous girdle round Vanikoro -approaches the land opposite to the village of Paiou, so that the -distance between them is hardly a mile. There, in a channel -dividing the breakers, the savage caused the boat to stop, and -made signs to the Frenchmen to look down to the bottom, where -they saw anchors, cannons, and other objects scattered about and -overgrown with corals. No doubt now remained, and with deep -emotion they gazed on these last memorials of the unfortunate -expedition of La Peyrouse. Metal alone had been able to -resist the tooth of time, the rolling waters, or the gnawing ship-worm; -all wood-work was gone.</p> - -<p>I have already stated that on D'Urville's arrival he found the -natives extremely distrustful and shy, answering all his questions -by negations. It was evident that their conduct towards La -Peyrouse had been anything but hospitable, and that they now -feared the tardy vengeance of the white men. But, finding -themselves treated with invariable kindness, their fears gradually -gave way, and thus it became possible to gather some information -about the catastrophe from some old men who had witnessed -it, and from the most intelligent of the chiefs.</p> - -<p>After a dark and stormy night the islanders saw early on the -following morning an enormous <i>pirogue</i> stranded on the coral -reef on the south side of the island. The surf soon destroyed -the ship, and but a small number of the crew reached the shore -in a boat. On the following day a second large <i>pirogue</i> stranded -opposite Paiou. But this wreck lying on the lee-side of the -island, less exposed to the surf, and resting on a more even -ground, remained a longer time without going to pieces. The -whole of the crew escaped in the boats to Paiou, where they -built a small vessel, and after a stay of five months once more -embarked, and were never heard of since. Most likely they had -steered towards New Ireland, with the intention of ultimately -reaching the Moluccas or the Philippine Islands, and perished on -some unknown reef. The unhealthy condition of D'Urville's -crew prevented him from extending his researches any further -along the western coasts of the Solomon Islands. That the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">« 495 »</a></span> -stranded vessels were those of La Peyrouse is beyond all doubt; -for years before and after no other large vessels had been lost -in those seas. The heavy cannons could only have belonged to -ships of war such as La Peyrouse commanded, and several of -the instruments collected by Captain Dillon evidently belonged -to a scientific expedition.</p> - -<p>Before D'Urville left Vanikoro he resolved to raise a simple -monument to the memory of his unfortunate countrymen, a four-sided -pyramid resting on a square base. Neither nails nor iron -clasps fastened the coral blocks together, for fear of awakening -the cupidity of the savages; and, if they have kept their word -to honour the <i>Papalangi</i> monument as they would a temple -erected to their own gods, it still reminds the navigator whom -chance may lead to that secluded island, of the renown and -tragical end of the ill-fated La Peyrouse.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">« 496 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAP_XXVII" id="CHAP_XXVII">CHAP. XXVII.</a></h2> - -<div class="blockquot2">Scoresby.—The Arctic Navigators.—Ross.—Parry.—Sufferings of Franklin and -his Companions on his Overland Expedition in 1821.—Parry's Sledge-journey -to the North Pole.—Sir John Franklin.—M'Clure.—Kane.—M'Clintock.—South -Polar Expeditions.—Billinghausen.—Weddell.—Biscoe.—Balleny.—Dumont -d'Urville.—Wilkes.—Sir James Ross.—Recent scientific Voyages of -Circumnavigation.</div> - - -<p>Although the undaunted courage and indomitable perseverance -of the great navigators whom I have named in the preceding -chapters had gradually circumscribed the bounds of discovery, -and no vast ocean remained to be explored by some future Cook -or Magellan, yet at the beginning of this century many secrets -of the sea still remained unrevealed to man.</p> - -<p>The north coast of America and the Arctic Ocean beyond -were still plunged in mysterious darkness; and although Cook -in several places had advanced far into the Antarctic seas, yet -here also a wide field still lay open to the adventurous seaman.</p> - -<p>Many coasts, many groups of islands scattered over the vast -bosom of the ocean, awaited a more accurate survey, and would -no doubt have remained unexplored, if gold, as in former times, -had still been the sole magnet which attracted the seafarer to -distant parts of the world. But fortunately science had now -become a power which induced man, without any prospect of -immediate profit, to spare no expense and to shrink from no -danger, that he might become better and better acquainted with -his dwelling-place the earth.</p> - -<p>It cannot be denied that our century has laboured at the -solution of all these various geographical questions with an -energy and perseverance unexampled in the history of civilisation; -and the prominent part she has taken in their investigation -is undoubtedly one of the great glories of England. At no -other time have more voyages of discovery and more scientific -expeditions been undertaken; never have more courageous Argonauts -gone forth to conquer the golden fleece of knowledge. It -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">« 497 »</a></span> -will be the pleasing task of this closing chapter to follow these -noble mariners in their adventurous course; and, to avoid confusion, -I shall begin with a short history of Arctic discovery up -to the present day, and afterwards treat of the efforts made to -extend our knowledge towards the South Pole. In spite of the -unsuccessful efforts of a Frobisher, a Davis, a Hudson, and a -Baffin, England had never given up the hope of discovering a -northern passage to India, either direct across the Pole, or round -the north coast of America. It had been one of the chief objects -of Cook's third voyage to find a sea-path from Behring's -Straits to Baffin's or Hudson's Bay; and some years before, -while the illustrious navigator was busy exploring the Southern -Pacific, we see Captain Phipps renewing the old attempt to sail -direct to the Pole (1773). But, like his predecessor Hudson, -he reached no farther than the northern extremity of Spitzbergen, -where his vessel, surrounded by mighty ice-blocks, would have -perished but for a timely change of wind. This repulse damped -for a time the spirit of discovery; but hope revived again when -it became known that Scoresby, on a whaling expedition in the -Greenland seas (1806), had attained 81° N. lat. and thus approached -the Pole to within 540 miles. No one before him had -ever reached so far to the north, and an open sea tempted him -mightily to proceed, but as the object of his voyage was strictly -commercial, and he himself answerable to the owners of his -vessel, Scoresby felt obliged to sacrifice his inclinations to his -duty and to steer again to the south.</p> - -<p>During the continental war, England indeed had little leisure -to prosecute discoveries in the Arctic Ocean; but not long after -the conclusion of peace (1818) two expeditions were sent out -for that purpose.</p> - -<p>Captain Buchan, with the ships "Dorothea" and "Trent," -sailed with instructions to proceed in a direction as due north as -might be practicable through the Spitzbergen Sea; but, having -after much difficulty gained lat. 80° 34′ north in that polar archipelago, -he was obliged speedily to withdraw and try his fortune -off the western edge of the pack. Here however a tremendous -gale, threatening every moment to crush the ships between the -large ice-blocks heaving and sinking in the roaring billows, -induced the bold experiment of dashing right into the body of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">« 498 »</a></span> -the ice; a practice which has been resorted to by whalers in -extreme cases, as their only chance of escaping destruction.</p> - -<p>"While we were yet a few fathoms from the ice," says Admiral -Beechey, the eloquent eye-witness and narrator of the dreadful -scene, "we searched with much anxiety for a place that was -more open than the general line of the pack, but in vain; all -parts appeared to be equally impenetrable, and to present one -unbroken line of furious breakers, in which immense pieces of -ice were heaving and subsiding with the waves.</p> - -<p>"No language, I am convinced, can convey an adequate idea of -the terrific grandeur of the effect now produced by the collision -of the ice and the tempestuous ocean. The sea violently agitated, -and rolling its mountainous waves against an opposing -body, is at all times a sublime and awful sight; but when, in -addition, it encounters immense masses, which it has set in -motion with a violence equal to its own, its effect is prodigiously -increased. At one moment it bursts upon these icy fragments, -and buries them many feet beneath its wave, and the next, as -the buoyancy of the depressed body struggles for reascendency, -the water rushes in foaming cataracts over its edges; whilst -every individual mass, rocking and labouring in its bed, grinds -against and contends with its opponent until one is either split -with the shock or upheaved upon the surface of the other. Nor -is this collision confined to one particular spot, it is going on as -far as the sight can reach; and when, from this convulsive scene -below, the eye is turned to the extraordinary appearance of the -blink in the sky above, where the unnatural clearness of a calm -and silvery atmosphere presents itself bounded by a dark hard -line of stormy clouds, such as at this moment lowered over our -masts, as if to mark the confines within which the efforts of -man would be of no avail, the reader may imagine the sensation -of awe which must accompany that of grandeur in the mind of -the beholder.</p> - -<p>"At this instant, when we were about to put the strength of -our little vessel in competition with that of the great icy continent, -and when it seemed almost presumption to reckon on the -possibility of her surviving the unequal conflict, it was gratifying -in the extreme to observe in all our crew the greatest calmness -and resolution. If ever the fortitude of seamen was fairly -tried, it was on this occasion; and I will not conceal the pride I -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">« 499 »</a></span> -felt in witnessing the bold and decisive tone in which the orders -were issued by the commander of our little vessel (the since so -far-famed and lamented Franklin), and the promptitude and -steadiness with which they were executed by the crew.</p> - -<p>"We were now so near the scene of danger as to render necessary -the immediate execution of our plan, and in an instant the -labouring vessel flew before the gale. Each person instinctively -secured his own hold and with his eyes fixed upon the masts, -awaited in breathless anxiety the moment of concussion. It -soon arrived; the brig, cutting her way through the light ice, -came in violent contact with the main body. In an instant we -all lost our footing, the masts bent with the impetus, and the -cracking timbers from below bespoke a pressure which was calculated -to awaken our serious apprehensions. The vessel staggered -under the shock, and for a moment seemed to recoil; -but the next wave, curling up under her counter, drove her -about her own length within the margin of the ice, where she -gave one roll and was immediately thrown broadside to the wind -by the succeeding wave. This unfortunate occurrence prevented -the vessel from penetrating sufficiently far into the ice to escape -the effect of the gale, and placed her in a situation where she -was assailed on all sides by battering rams, if I may use the -expression, every one of which contested the small space, which -she occupied, and dealt such unrelenting blows that there appeared -to be scarcely any possibility of saving her from foundering. -Literally tossed from piece to piece, we had nothing left -but patiently to abide the issue, for we could scarcely keep our -feet, much less render any assistance to the vessel. The motion -indeed was so great, that the ship's bell, which in the heaviest -gale of wind had never struck of itself, now tolled so continually -that it was ordered to be muffled, for the purpose of -escaping the unpleasant association it was calculated to produce."</p> - -<p>By setting more head-sail, though at the risk of the masts, -already tottering with the pressure of that which was spread, the -vessels, splitting the ice and thus effecting a passage between the -pieces, were at length released from their perilous situation, but -the "Dorothea" was found to be completely disabled. A short -time at Fairhaven in Spitsbergen was spent in necessary repairs, -and even then she was unfit for any farther service than the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">« 500 »</a></span> -voyage to England. Franklin volunteered to prosecute the -enterprise with the "Trent" alone, but the Admiralty Orders -opposed such a proceeding, and the vessels returned home in -company.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile Captain John Ross, with the "Isabella" and -"Alexander," had proceeded to Baffin's Bay, but instead of -exploring Smith's, Jones's, and Lancaster Sounds, which recent -voyages have proved to be each and all grand open channels to -the Polar Sea, he contented himself with Baffin's assertion that -they were enclosed by land, and, after having thus fruitlessly -accomplished the circuit of the bay, returned to England.</p> - -<p>With Parry's first expedition, which took place in the following -year (1819), the epoch of modern discoveries in the Arctic -Ocean, may properly be said to begin. Sailing right through -Lancaster Sound, he discovered Prince Regent Inlet, Wellington -Channel, and Melville Island. Willingly would he have proceeded -farther to the west, but the ice was now rapidly gathering, the -vessels were soon beset, and, after getting free with great difficulty, -Parry was only too glad to turn back, and settle down in -Winter Harbour. It was no easy task to attain this dreary port, -as a canal two miles and a third in length had first to be cut -through solid ice of seven inches average thickness, yet such was -the energy of that splendid expedition, that the Herculean -labour was accomplished in three days. The two vessels were -immediately put in winter trim, the decks housed over, heating -apparatus arranged, and everything done to make the ten -months' imprisonment in those Arctic solitudes as comfortable -as possible.</p> - -<p>It was not before the 1st of August that the ships were able -to leave Winter Harbour, when Parry once more stood boldly -for the west, but no amount of skill or patience could penetrate -the obstinate masses of ice, or insure the safety of the vessels -under the repeated shocks they sustained. Finding the barriers -absolutely invincible he gave way, and, steering homeward, -reached London on Nov. 3, 1820, where, as may well be imagined, -his reception was most enthusiastic and cordial.</p> - -<p>While this wonderful voyage was performing, Franklin, -Richardson, and Back, with two English sailors and a troop of -Canadians and Indians, were penetrating by land to the mouth -of the Coppermine River, whence they intended to make a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">« 501 »</a></span> -boat-voyage of discovery along the coasts of the Icy Ocean. An -idea of the difficulties of this undertaking may be formed, when -I mention that the travellers started from Fort York, in Hudson's -Bay, on the 30th of August, 1819, and after a voyage of 700 -miles up the Saskatchewan, reached Fort Cumberland, where -they spent the first winter. The next found them 700 miles -further on their journey, established during the extreme cold at -Fort Enterprise. During the summer of 1821 they accomplished -the remaining 334 miles, and on the 21st of July commenced -their exploration of the Polar Sea in two birch-bark canoes. -In these frail shallops they skirted the desolate coast of the -American continent, 555 miles to the east of the Coppermine, -as far as Point Turnagain, when the rapid decrease of their -provisions and the shattered state of the canoes imperatively -compelled their return. And now began a dreadful land-journey -of two months, accompanied by all the horrors of famine. A -lichen, called by the Canadians <i>tripe de roche</i> (rock-tripe), -afforded them for some time a wretched subsistence, and, that -failing, they were glad to satisfy their hunger with scraps of -roasted leather or burnt bones, from prey which the wolves -might have abandoned. On reaching the Coppermine a raft -had to be framed, a task accomplished with the utmost difficulty -by the exhausted party. One or two of the Canadians had -already fallen behind, and never rejoined their comrades, and -now three or four sank down, and could proceed no farther. -Back, with the most vigorous of the men, had already pushed -on to send help from Fort Enterprise; and Richardson, Hood, -and Hepburn volunteered to remain with the disabled men, -near a supply of the rock-tripe, while Franklin pursued his -journey with the others capable of bearing him company. On -reaching Fort Enterprise this last party found that wretched -tenement completely deserted, and a note from Back stating that -he had gone in pursuit of the Indians. Some cast-off deer-skins -and a heap of bones, provisions worthy of the place, sustained -their flickering life-flame, and after eighteen miserable days, -they were joined in their dreary quarters by Richardson and -Hepburn, the sole survivors of <i>their</i> party. At length, when on -the point of sinking under their sufferings, three Indians sent -by Back brought them timely succour. After a while they were -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">« 502 »</a></span> -able to join this valuable friend, and the following year brought -them safely back to England.</p> - -<p>I pass over Parry's second and third voyages, undertaken in -the years 1821 and 1824, which were consumed in fruitless -endeavours to penetrate westward; the first through some unknown -channel to the north of Hudson's Bay, the second through -Prince Regent's Inlet; but his last attempt to reach the North -Pole, by boat and sledge-travelling over the ice, is of too novel -and daring a character to remain unnoticed. His hopes of -success were founded on Scoresby's descriptions, who had seen -ice-fields so free from either fissure or hummock, that, had they -not been covered with snow, a coach might have been driven -many leagues over them in a direct line, without obstruction or -danger; but when Parry reached the ice-fields to the north of -Spitzbergen he found them of a very different nature, composed -of loose rugged masses, which rendered travelling over them -extremely irksome and slow.</p> - -<p>The strong flat-bottomed boats—amphibious constructions, -half sledge, half canoe,—expressly built for an amphibious -journey over a region where solid ice was expected to alternate -with pools of water, had thus frequently to be unloaded, in order -to be raised over the intervening blocks or mounds, and repeated -journeys backward and forward over the same ground were the -necessary consequences. In some places the ice took the form -of sharp pointed crystals, which cut the boots like penknives; in -others, sixteen or eighteen inches of soft snow made the work -of boat-dragging both fatiguing and tedious. Sometimes the -men were obliged, in dragging the boats, to crawl on all-fours, -to make any progress at all, and one day, when heavy rain -melted the surface of the ice, four hours of vigorous effort -accomplished only half a mile.</p> - -<p>Yet in spite of all these obstacles they toiled cheerfully on -and on, until at length the discovery was made, that while they -were apparently advancing towards the Pole, the ice-field on -which they journeyed was moving to the south, and thus rendering -all their exertions fruitless. Yet though disappointed in -his great hope of planting his country's standard on that unattainable -goal, Parry had the glory of reaching the highest -latitude (82° 45′) ever attained by man.</p> - -<p>Before this adventurous voyage, Franklin, Richardson, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">« 503 »</a></span> -Back, forgetful of their long life and death struggle with famine -(1819), had once more (1825) with heroic perseverance bent -their steps to the north. This time they chose the mouths of -the Mackenzie for the starting-point of their discoveries, and -having separated into two parties, proceeded to the east and -west, and explored 4000 miles of unknown coast.</p> - -<p>In 1829 Captain John Ross, having for a long time vainly -solicited government to send him out once more on an Arctic expedition, -was enabled by the munificence of a private individual, -Mr. Felix Booth, to accomplish his wishes, and to purchase a -small steamer, to which the rather presumptuous name of -"Victory" was given. The selection of the vessel was no doubt -unlucky enough: for can anything be conceived more unpractical -than paddle-boxes among ice-blocks; but, to make amends for -this error, the veteran commander was fortunate in being -accompanied by his illustrious nephew, James Ross, who with -every quality of the seaman united the ardour and knowledge of -the most zealous naturalist.</p> - -<p>He it was who discovered the peninsula which in compliment -to the patron of the expedition was named Boothia Felix; to him -also we owe the discovery of the Magnetic Pole; but the voyage -is far less remarkable for these after all not very important -successes, than for its unexampled protraction during a space of -five years.</p> - -<p>The first season had a fortunate termination. On the 10th of -August, 1829, the "Victory" attained Prince Regent's Inlet, and -reached on the 13th the spot where Parry on his third voyage -had been obliged to abandon the "Fury." Of the ship itself no -traces remained; but the provisions which had providently been -stored up on land were found untouched. The solid tin boxes -had effectually preserved them from the voracity of the white -bears; and the flour, bread, wine, rum, and sugar were found as -good after four years, as on the day when the expedition started.</p> - -<p>It was to this discovery, to this "manna in the wilderness," -that Ross owed his subsequent preservation; for how else could -he have passed four winters in the Arctic waste? Never was the -hand of Providence more distinctly visible than here.</p> - -<p>On the 15th of August Cape Garry was attained, the most -southern point of the inlet which Parry had reached on his third -voyage. Fogs and drift-ice considerably retarded the progress -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">« 504 »</a></span> -of the expedition; but Ross, though slowly, moved on, so that -about the middle of September the map of the northern regions -was enriched by some 500 miles of newly discovered coast. But -now winter broke in with all its Arctic severity, and the "Victory" -was obliged to seek refuge in Felix Harbour, where the useless -steam-engine was thrown overboard as a nuisance, and the usual -preparations made for spending the cold season as agreeably as -possible.</p> - -<p>The following spring, from the 17th of May to the 13th of -June, was employed by James Ross on a sledge journey, which -led to the discovery of King William's Sound and King William's -Land; and during which that courageous mariner penetrated so -far to the west, that he had only ten days' provisions, scantily -measured out, for a return voyage of 200 miles through an -empty wilderness.</p> - -<p>After an imprisonment of full twelve months the "Victory" was -set free on the 17th of September, 1830, and proceeded once -more on her discoveries. But the period of her liberty was -short indeed, short like that of revolted slaves between two despotisms; -for, after advancing three miles in one continual battle -against the currents and the drift-ice, she again froze fast on the -27th of the same month.</p> - -<p>In the following spring we again see the indefatigable James -Ross, ever active in the cause of science, extending the circle of -his excursions and planting the British flag upon the site of the -Northern Magnetic Pole, which, however, is not invariably fixed -to one spot, as was then believed, but moves from place to place -within the glacial zone.</p> - -<p>On the 28th of August, 1831, the "Victory," after a second -imprisonment of eleven months, was warped into open water, -and, after having spent a whole month to advance <i>four</i> English -miles, was again enclosed by the ice on the 27th of September.</p> - -<p>But seven miles in two long years! According to this measure, -there was but little hope indeed of ever seeing Old England again: -the only chance left was to abandon the vessel, and endeavour -by means of the boats left among the "Fury's" stores to reach -Baffin's Bay, and get a homeward passage in some whaler. -Accordingly the colours were nailed to the mast-head of the -"Victory," and then officers and crew took leave of the ill-fated -little vessel, on the 23rd of April, 1832. Captain Ross was deeply -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">« 505 »</a></span> -moved on this occasion; for, after having served forty-two years in -thirty-five different ships, this was the first he had ever been -obliged to abandon as a wreck.</p> - -<p>Provisions and boats had now to be transported over long -tracts of rugged ice, and as their great weight rendered it impossible -to carry all at once, the same ground had to be -traversed several times. Terrific snow storms retarded the -progress of the wanderers, and invincible obstacles forced them -to make long circuits. Thus it happened that during the first -month of their pilgrimage through the wilderness, although -they had travelled 329 miles, they only gained thirty in a direct -line.</p> - -<p>On the 9th of June, James Ross, the leading spirit of the -expedition, accompanied by two men and with a fortnight's provisions, -left the main body to ascertain the state of the boats -and supplies at Fury Beach. Returning, they met their comrades -on the 25th of June, and gratified them with the intelligence, -that, though they had found three of the boats washed -away, enough still remained for their purpose, and that all the -provisions were in good condition.</p> - -<p>On the 1st of July the whole party arrived at Fury Beach, -whence, after having repaired the weather-worn boats, they set -out again on the 1st of August, and, after much buffeting among -the ice in their frail shallops, reached the mouth of the inlet by -the end of the month. But here they were doomed to disappointment; -for, after several fruitless attempts to run along Barrow's -Strait, the obstructions from the ice obliged them to haul the -boats on shore and pitch their tents.</p> - -<p>Barrow's Strait was found from repeated surveys to be one -impenetrable mass of ice. After lingering here till the third -week in September, it was unanimously agreed that their only -resource was to fall back again on the stores at Fury Beach, and -spend their fourth winter in that dreary solitude. Here they -sheltered their canvass tent with a wall of snow, and setting up an -extra stove made themselves tolerably comfortable until the increasing -severity of the winter, and the rigour of the cold, added to -the tempestuous weather, made them perfect prisoners, and sorely -tried their patience. Scurvy now began to appear, and several -of the men fell victims to the scourge. At the same time cares -for the future darkened the gloom of their situation, for, if they -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">« 506 »</a></span> -were not liberated in the ensuing summer, their diminishing -food gave them but little hope of surviving another year.</p> - -<p>It may be imagined how anxiously the aspect of the sea was -watched during the ensuing summer, and with what beating -hearts they at length embarked on the 15th of August. The -spot which the year before they had attained after the most -strenuous exertions was soon passed, and slowly winding their -way through the ice-blocks with which the inlet was encumbered, -they now saw the wide expanse of Barrow's Strait open before -them. With spirits invigorated by hope they push on, alternately -rowing and sailing, and on the night of the 25th rest in a good -harbour on the eastern shore of Navy Board Inlet. "A ship in -sight!" is the joyful sound that awakens them early on the -following morning; and never have men more hurriedly and -energetically set out, never have oars been more indefatigably -plied. But the elements are against them, calms and currents -conspire against their hopes, and to their inexpressible disappointment -the ship disappears in the distant haze.</p> - -<p>But after a few hours of suspense the sight of another vessel -lying to in a calm relieves their despair. This time their exertions -are crowned with success; and, wonderful! the vessel which -receives them on board is the same "Isabella" in which Ross -made his first voyage to these seas.</p> - -<p>They told him of his own death, and could hardly be persuaded -that it was really he and his party who now stood before -them. But when all doubts were cleared away, you should have -heard their thrice-repeated thundering hurrahs!</p> - -<p>The scene that now followed cannot better be told than in -Ross's own words:—</p> - -<p>"Every man was hungry, and was to be fed; all were ragged, -and were to be clothed; there was not one to whom washing -was not indispensable; nor one whom his beard did not deprive -of all human semblance. All, everything, too was to be done -at once. It was washing, dressing, shaving, eating, all intermingled; -it was all the materials of each jumbled together; -while in the midst of all there were interminable questions to be -asked and answered on both sides; the adventures of the "Victory," -our own escapes, the politics of England, and the news, -which was now four years old.</p> - -<p>"But all subsided into peace at last. The sick were accommodated, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">« 507 »</a></span> -the seamen disposed of, and all was done for us which -care and kindness could perform.</p> - -<p>"Night at length brought quiet and serious thoughts; and I -trust there was not a man among us who did not then express, -where it was due, his gratitude for that interposition which had -raised us all from a despair which none could now forget, and -had brought us from the very borders of a most distant grave -to life and friends and civilisation. Long accustomed, however, -to a cold bed on the hard snow or the bare rock, few could sleep -amid the comfort of our accommodations. I was myself compelled -to leave the bed which had been kindly assigned me, and -take my abode in a chair for the night, nor did it fare much -better with the rest. It was for time to reconcile us to this -sudden and violent change, to break through what had become -habit, and to inure us once more to the usages of our former -days."</p> - -<p>I have no time to relate how Ross was received in England, -and what honours were heaped upon him; honours conferred -with all the better grace that the nation had not forgotten him -during his long-protracted absence, and had no cause to blush -for culpable neglect. For Britain has ever considered it her -duty to help and assist the men who venture their lives in the -cause of science and for the advancement of her glory; nor will -she allow the officer who carries her standard into unknown -lands, and there falls a victim to nature or to man, to perish -without feeling his last moments gladdened by the conviction, -that, however distant his grave, the eye of his country rests upon -him.</p> - -<p>Thus when Back, that noble Paladin of Arctic research, -volunteered to lead a relief expedition in quest of Ross, £4000 -were immediately raised by public subscription to defray the -expenses of the undertaking. While deep in the American wilds -Back was gratified with the intelligence that the object of his -search had safely arrived in England, but, instead of returning -home, the indefatigable explorer resolved to trace the unknown -course of the Thlu-it-scho, or Great Fish River, down to the -distant outlet where it pours its waters into the polar seas. It -would take a volume to recount his adventures in this wonderful -expedition, the numberless falls, cascades, and rapids that obstructed -his progress; the storms and snow-drifts that vainly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">« 508 »</a></span> -conspired to repel him; the horrors of that iron-ribbed desert, -without a single tree on the whole line of his passage; and how -heroically he persevered to the very last, and added Back's River, -as the Thlu-it-scho has most deservedly been called, to the geographical -conquests of which England may well be proud.</p> - -<p>The present is not a detailed account of Arctic discovery, a -complete historical narrative of how step by step those dreary -regions, the refuse of the earth, have grown into distinctness on -the map; so passing over Simpson's wonderful boat-voyage -along the northern shores of America, which led to the discovery -of 1600 miles of coast (1837-1839), and Rae's important researches -on Melville Peninsula (1846, 1847), I proceed to the -last expedition of Sir John Franklin. We all know how the -veteran seaman left England in the sixtieth year of his age, -once more to try the north-western passage; how since his last -despatches, dated from the Whalefish Islands, Baffin's Bay, -July 12th, 1845, months and months, and then years and years, -elapsed without bringing any tidings of his fate; how Collinson -and M'Clure, Penny and Inglefield, Kane and Bellot, and so -many other worthies, went out to search for the "Erebus" and -"Terror," and how in spite of all their efforts mystery still overhung -the ill-fated expedition, until M'Clintock raised the veil -and informed us how miserably most of the gallant seamen -perished in those dreary wastes, but how their commander had -been spared the pangs of protracted suffering, and gone to his -eternal rest even before his country began to feel concerned -about his loss.</p> - -<p>The search for Franklin is a page in history of which a -nation may well be proud, more noble than a hundred battles -and grander than the conquest of an empire. These are no -blood-stained laurels, but palms of glory gained by matchless -energy and perseverance over the horrors of a nature inimical to -man, a theme which some future Homer will delight to sing. -Had Franklin been ever so successful, he could not possibly -have achieved so much for Arctic discovery as his loss gave rise -to; for to the disasters of his voyage we owe the knowledge of -all the coasts of that intricate conglomeration of islands which -faces the Pole, and of the channels, which opening far to the -north, lead to its profoundest, and seemingly impenetrable depths. -All these discoveries are of little commercial value, it is true, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">« 509 »</a></span> -for no trading vessel will ever plough those desert seas; but it is -no small advantage to a nation to have to register such pages in -her annals, and to leave them as a legacy and an example to -future generations.</p> - -<p>The series of modern South Polar expeditions was opened in -1819 by Smith's casual discovery of New South Shetland. -Soon afterwards a Russian expedition under Lazareff and Bellinghausen -discovered (January, 1821), in 69° 3′ south lat., the -islands Paul the First and Alexander, the most southern lands -that had ever been visited by man.</p> - -<p>The year after, Captain Weddell, a sealer, penetrated into the -icy sea as far as 74° 15′ south lat. three degrees nearer to the -pole than had been attained by the indomitable perseverance of -Cook. Swarms of petrels animated the sea, and no ice impeded -his progress, but as the season was far advanced, and Weddell -apprehended the dangers of the return voyage, he steered again -to the north. In 1831 Biscoe discovered Enderby Land, and -soon afterwards Graham's Land, to which the gratitude of geographers -has since given the discoverer's name.</p> - -<p>Then follows Balleny who in 1839 revealed the existence of -the group of islands called after him, and of Sabrina Land (69° -south lat.).</p> - -<p>About the same time three considerable expeditions appear in -the southern seas, sent out by France, the United States, and -England.</p> - -<p>Dumont D'Urville discovered <i>Terre Louis Philippe</i> (63° 30′ -south lat.) in February, 1838, and <i>Terre Adélie</i> (66° 67′ south -lat.) on the 21st of January, 1840.</p> - -<p>Almost on the same day, Wilkes, the commander of the -United States exploring expedition reached a coast which he -followed for a length of 1500 miles, and which has been called -Wilkes' Land, to commemorate the discoverer's name. But of all -the explorers of the southern frozen ocean, the palm unquestionably -belongs to Sir James Ross, who penetrated farther towards -the Pole than any other navigator before or after, and followed -up to 79° south lat. a steep coast, whose enormous glaciers -stretched far out into the sea. In 77° 5′ south lat. he witnessed -a magnificent eruption of Mount Erebus, the Etna of the extreme -south. The enormous columns of flame and smoke rising -two thousand feet above the mouth of the crater, which is elevated -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">« 510 »</a></span> -12,000 feet above the level of the sea, combined, with the -snow-white mountain-chain and the deep blue ocean, to form a -scene, the magnificence of which seemed to be enhanced by the -reflection that no human eye had ever witnessed its beauty, as -most likely none will ever witness it again. As all the efforts of -the gallant leader to penetrate still farther to the south were -baffled by a mighty ice-barrier, forming an uninterrupted mural -precipice for the length of several hundred miles, he yielded to -the invincible obstacles of nature, and returned to more genial -climes. It is worthy of notice, that Sir James Clark Ross had -accompanied Parry on his sledge-expedition to the North Pole, -and thus acquired the unique distinction of having approached -<i>both</i> poles nearer than any other man.</p> - -<p>Whether the lands discovered by Wilkes, D'Urville, Biscoe, -Balleny, and Ross form a continuous continent, or belong to a -large group of islands behind which an open sea extends to the -very Pole, is a question which most likely will never be solved, -as its determination can never be of the least use to mankind.</p> - -<p>The numerous scientific voyages of circumnavigation achieved -during the course of the present century are far more important, -with regard to the welfare and progress of humanity, than the -researches which have been made in the icy wildernesses of the -north and south. New lands and isles of great extent have indeed -not been discovered by these expeditions, but they have contributed -not less largely to the advancement of geography and the -natural sciences.</p> - -<p>The wonders of oceanic life have first been shown in a more -distinct light by the labours of Chamisso, Meyen, Lesson, Darwin, -Gray, Hooker, Robinson, Dana, &c., who accompanied Kotzebue, -Freycinet, Fitzroy, Ross, &c., on their world-encircling course; -and numerous coasts and groups of islands, situated in the -remotest seas, and formerly only superficially known, have been -accurately measured and traced on the map by the distinguished -hydrographers who took part in those far-famed voyages.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">« 511 »</a></span></p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">« 512 »</a><br /><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513">« 513 »</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX</a></h2> - -<div class="center"> -[ <a href="#A">A</a> ][ <a href="#B">B</a> ][ <a href="#C">C</a> ][ <a href="#D">D</a> ][ <a href="#E">E</a> ][ <a href="#F">F</a> ][ <a href="#G">G</a> ][ <a href="#H">H</a> ][ <a href="#I">I</a> ]<br /> -[ <a href="#J">J</a> ][ <a href="#K">K</a> ][ <a href="#L">L</a> ][ <a href="#M">M</a> ][ <a href="#N">N</a> ][ <a href="#O">O</a> ][ <a href="#P">P</a> ][ <a href="#Q">Q</a> ][ <a href="#R">R</a> ]<br /> -[ <a href="#S">S</a> ][ <a href="#T">T</a> ][ <a href="#U">U</a> ][ <a href="#V">V</a> ][ <a href="#W">W</a> ][ <a href="#Y">Y</a> ][ <a href="#Z">Z</a> ] -</div> - -<p class="p0"> -<a id="A"></a><span class="smcap">Aar</span> glacier, formation and dissolution of the, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> -Acalephæ, 348. <i>See</i> Jelly-fishes<br /> -Acephala, their organisation, <a href="#Page_299">299</a><br /> -— their food, <a href="#Page_305">305</a><br /> -— their enemies, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a><br /> -Acorn-shell, the, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> -Actiniæ, <a href="#Page_361">361</a><br /> -Actinozoa, <a href="#Page_363">363</a><br /> -Adriatic, depth of the, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> -— tides of the, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> -Africa, length of coast-line of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> -— circumnavigated by the Phœnicians, <a href="#Page_444">444</a><br /> -— Hanno's discoveries on the west coast of, <a href="#Page_444">444</a><br /> -Agar-agar, or artificial edible birds'-nests of Java, <a href="#Page_402">402</a><br /> -Agricola, Julius, sails round Scotland, <a href="#Page_422">422</a><br /> -Air-bladder of fishes, <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br /> -Air-currents. <i>See</i> Winds<br /> -Albatross, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> -Albion, New, discovery of, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br /> -Alcyonarians, <a href="#Page_363">363</a><br /> -Alexander the Great, maritime discoveries resulting from the conquests of, <a href="#Page_447">447</a><br /> -Alexandria, the Pharus or lighthouse of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br /> -Algæ, <a href="#Page_390">390</a><br /> -— changes produced by, in the colour of the sea, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> -— Russian official collecting, <a href="#Page_392">392</a><br /> -Alligators, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> -Amalfi, maritime trade of, <a href="#Page_449">449</a><br /> -— decline of, <a href="#Page_449">449</a><br /> -Amazon river, tides of the, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> -— — quantity of water which it pours into the ocean, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> -— — discovery of the river, <a href="#Page_460">460</a><br /> -America, length of coast-line of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> -— salmon of Russian America, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br /> -— discovery of, by Columbus, <a href="#Page_457">457</a><br /> -— account of early navigation along the shores of, <a href="#Page_457">457</a><br /> -Amerigo Vespucci, his discoveries, <a href="#Page_460">460</a><br /> -Ammodyte, or launce, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br /> -Ammonites, <a href="#Page_437">437</a><br /> -Amœbæ, <a href="#Page_379">379</a><br /> -— simplicity of their structure, <a href="#Page_380">380</a><br /> -Anabas of the dry tanks, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br /> -Anchovy, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br /> -Angler, or sea-devil, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br /> -Annelides, marine, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> -— general remarks on the, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> -— their beauty, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> -— their food, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> -— their enemies, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> -— tubicole, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> -Anson, Commodore, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_483">483</a><br /> -Aphrodita, or sea-mouse, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> -Arab commerce and maritime discovery, <a href="#Page_452">452</a><br /> -Arctic discovery, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> -— winter passed by Barentz, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> -Argand, his improvement in marine illumination, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> -Argonaut, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> -Argus, Scotch or Shetland, <a href="#Page_333">333</a><br /> -Ascidia mammillata, <a href="#Page_322">322</a><br /> -Asia, length of coast-line of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> -Asteriæ, <a href="#Page_335">335</a><br /> -Astræa, <a href="#Page_373">373</a><br /> -Atlantic Ocean, depth of the, according to Maury, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> -— — temperature of the, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -— — fury of the Atlantic surge, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> -— — enormous fucus banks, or floating meadows of the, <a href="#Page_397">397</a><br /> -Atolls, or lagoon islands, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br /> -Auburn, site of the village of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> -Auks, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br /> -Australia, length of coast-line of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> -— discoveries in, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> -Avosets, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> -Azores, discovery of the, <a href="#Page_456">456</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="B"></a><span class="smcap">Back's</span> arctic voyages, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> -Baffin, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_483">483</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514">« 514 »</a></span> -Baffin's Bay, discovery of, <a href="#Page_483">483</a><br /> -Balani, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> -Balanus ovularis, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> -— balanoides, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> -Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de, sketch of him and his discoveries, <a href="#Page_464">464</a><br /> -Baleen of the whale, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> -Balleny, his discoveries, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> -Baltic, depth of the, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> -Band-worm, the great, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> -Barentz, William, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> -Barnacles, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> -— their attacks on the whale, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> -Barnacle goose, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> -Barrow's Straits, discovery of, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> -Basaltic pillars of Fingal's Cave, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> -Bassora, foundation of the town of, <a href="#Page_452">452</a><br /> -Bastidas, Roderigo de, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> -Beachy Head, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br /> -Bear, white, said to attack the whale, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br /> -— organisation of the polar bear, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> -— attacks Barentz's men, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> -Bear Islands, discovery of, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> -Behring, his maritime discoveries and death, <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br /> -Belemnites, <a href="#Page_437">437</a><br /> -Bellrock lighthouse, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> -— — height of the waves at the, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> -— — in the storm of 1807, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> -Benin, discovery of, <a href="#Page_456">456</a><br /> -Bermudas, depth of the sea near the, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> -Bird Island, discovery of, <a href="#Page_490">490</a><br /> -Bird's-foot sea-star, <a href="#Page_335">335</a><br /> -Birds'-nests, edible, of Java, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br /> -— mode of gathering them, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br /> -— agar-agar, or artificial birds'-nests, <a href="#Page_402">402</a><br /> -Birds of passage, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> -Birkenhead, the Great Float at, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> -Biscoe, his discoveries, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> -Bivalves, or acephalous mollusca. <i>See</i> Acephala<br /> -Black-skimmer, or cut-water, the, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> -Blocks, erratic, of Greenland and Spitzbergen, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> -Bojador, Cape, doubling of, for the first time, <a href="#Page_455">455</a><br /> -Bonito, the, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br /> -Booth, Mr. Felix, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> -Boothia Felix, discovery of, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> -Borda, his improvements in marine illumination, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> -Borer, the, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> -Botallack, submarine mine, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> -Botrylli, <a href="#Page_324">324</a><br /> -Bougainville, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_483">483</a><br /> -Boundaries of the ocean. <i>See</i> Limits of the ocean<br /> -Brachiopods, <a href="#Page_315">315</a><br /> -Brazils, discovery of the, <a href="#Page_460">460</a><br /> -Breakwater of Cherbourg, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> -— of Plymouth, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> -— moles of Portland, Holyhead, ind Alderney, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> -Bream, sea, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br /> -Bristol Channel, high tides of the, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> -— — marine fauna, <a href="#Page_414">414</a><br /> -Britannia Tubular Bridge, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> -Bryozoa, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> -Buchan, Captain, his arctic discoveries, <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> -Buffadero, the marine cave of the, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> -Bullhead, river, its parental affection, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br /> -Burgomaster-bird, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> -Butthorn, the, <a href="#Page_335">335</a><br /> -Byron, Commodore, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_483">483</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="C"></a><span class="smcap">Cabot</span>, John and Sebastian, their discoveries, <a href="#Page_459">459</a><br /> -Cachalot, or sperm-whale, its organisation, 102-104<br /> -— its food, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br /> -Ca'ing whale, the, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> -Calamary, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> -Caledonia, New, discovery of, <a href="#Page_490">490</a><br /> -California, discovery of, <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> -Callao, colour of the sea near, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> -Calling crabs, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /> -Calms, or doldrums, causes of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> -Calycophoridæ, <a href="#Page_352">352</a><br /> -Canada acquired by France, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> -Canary Islands probably known to the Phœnicians, <a href="#Page_444">444</a><br /> -Cano, Sebastian el, first performs the circumnavigation of the globe, <a href="#Page_469">469</a><br /> -Cape de Verd Islands, depth of the sea near the, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> -Capelins, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br /> -Capri, 'azure cave' at, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -Carcinas mænas, metamorphosis of, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> -Caribbean Sea, crystalline clearness of the, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> -Carinaria, <a href="#Page_287">287</a><br /> -Carrigeen (Chondrus crispus), <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br /> -Carteret, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_483">483</a><br /> -Cartier, Jacques, voyages of, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> -Caryophyllia, <a href="#Page_370">370</a><br /> -Cat-fish, or sea-wolf, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br /> -Catalonians, their maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_452">452</a><br /> -Caves, marine, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> -— Fingal's Cave, 45-48<br /> -— azure cave of Capri, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -— the Antro di Nettuno, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -— the Cave of Hunga, 49-51<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_515" id="Page_515">« 515 »</a></span>— cave of the Skerries, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> -— the Souffleur, or Blower, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> -— the Buffadero, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> -Caviar, <a href="#Page_217">217</a><br /> -Cellulariæ, <a href="#Page_319">319</a><br /> -Cephalopods, their organisation, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> -— their locomotion, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> -— their food, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> -— their enemies, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> -— their great size in some cases, <a href="#Page_379">379</a><br /> -— the Norwegian kraken, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /> -— the argonaut, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> -— the nautilus, <a href="#Page_281">281</a><br /> -— the cephalopods of the primitive ocean, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br /> -Cessart, De, his breakwater at Cherbourg, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> -Cetaceans, general remarks on the organisation of the, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br /> -— food of whales, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> -— their enemies, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> -— large Greenland whale, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br /> -— the rorqual, or fin-back, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br /> -— the antarctic smooth-back, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> -— sperm-whale, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> -— the narwhal, or unicorn-fish, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> -— the dolphin, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br /> -— the porpoise, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> -— the grampus, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> -— history of the whale-fishery, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> -— the ca'ing whale, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> -Cetochilus australis, banks of the, in the Pacific, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> -Ceylon, or Taprobane, discovery of, <a href="#Page_447">447</a><br /> -Chætodon rostratus, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br /> -Chancellor's discovery of the White Sea, <a href="#Page_474">474</a><br /> -— his death, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> -Charybdis, vortex of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> -Chelura tenebrans, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> -Chelyosoma, <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br /> -Chepstow, high tides at, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> -Cherbourg, breakwater of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> -Chili, upheaving of the coast of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> -Chincha Islands, statistics of the guano trade of the, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br /> -Chiton squamosa, <a href="#Page_285">285</a><br /> -Chlorospermeæ, or green sea-weeds, <a href="#Page_391">391</a><br /> -Chondrus crispus, or carrigeen, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br /> -Circumnavigation of the globe first performed by Sebastian el Cano, <a href="#Page_469">469</a><br /> -Clavellina producta, <a href="#Page_322">322</a><br /> -Climate, influence of the Gulf Stream on that of the west European coasts, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> -— variety of climates in similar latitudes, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> -— Peruvian cold stream, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> -— Japanese stream, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> -— influence of forests on climates, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> -— power of man over climate, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> -Climbing fishes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br /> -Clio borealis, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br /> -Clouds, formation of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> -Coast-line of the sea, length of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> -Coasts, different formation of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br /> -— destructive power of the sea on all, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> -Cockle, the, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a><br /> -Cocoa-nut crab of the East Indies, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> -Cod, the, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br /> -— curing the cod, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> -— cod-liver oil, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> -Cœlenterata, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a><br /> -Colæus of Samos, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_446">446</a><br /> -Colour of the sea, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> -— the azure cave at Capri, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -— changes produced by algæ and sea-worms, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> -Columbus, his discovery of America, <a href="#Page_457">457</a><br /> -Compass, mariner's, invention of the, <a href="#Page_451">451</a><br /> -Composition of sea-water, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -Cone-shell, orange, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br /> -Conger-eels, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br /> -Congo, discovery of, <a href="#Page_456">456</a><br /> -Constructions, marine, 80-91<br /> -Cook, Captain, his voyages and discoveries, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> -— his first voyage, <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> -— discovery of the Society Islands, <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> -— of the east coast of New Holland, <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> -— his second voyage, and discoveries, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> -— his third voyage, <a href="#Page_491">491</a><br /> -— his death, <a href="#Page_462">462</a><br /> -Cook's Strait, discovery of, <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> -Conochilus volvox, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> -Coral, spotted, of the Indian Ocean, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> -Coral, <a href="#Page_366">366</a><br /> -— deep sea, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br /> -— fishing of the Mediterranean, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br /> -Coral-reefs, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br /> -— barrier-reef of Australia, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br /> -— how they become habitable for man, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a><br /> -Coralline zone, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br /> -Cordova, his discoveries, <a href="#Page_491">491</a><br /> -Cormorants, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> -Cortereal, Gaspar, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_460">460</a><br /> -Cortereal, John Vaez, his discoveries, <a href="#Page_458">458</a><br /> -Cortereal, Miguel, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> -Cortes, his conquest of Mexico, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> -Coryniadæ, <a href="#Page_358">358</a><br /> -Crabs, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> -— legs of crabs, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /> -— larvæ of crabs, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> -Cross-fish, the common, <a href="#Page_334">334</a><br /> -Crustacea, by what are they distinguished from the insects and spiders? 243<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_516" id="Page_516">« 516 »</a></span>— their respiratory organs, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> -Ctenophora, <a href="#Page_358">358</a><br /> -Cuba discovered, <a href="#Page_459">459</a><br /> -— circumnavigated for the first time, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> -Curlew, the, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br /> -Currents, ocean, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> -— causes of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> -— the equatorial stream, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> -— the Gulf Stream, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> -— influence of the Gulf Stream, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> -— the cold Peruvian stream, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> -— the Japanese stream, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> -— beneficial influence of the ocean currents, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> -Cushion star-fishes, <a href="#Page_335">335</a><br /> -Cuttle-fish, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> -— ova of the, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> -Cuvier's classification of fishes, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br /> -Cyclobranchiata, <a href="#Page_285">285</a><br /> -Cyclones, causes of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> -Cymospiras, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="D"></a><span class="smcap">Dampier</span>, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_483">483</a><br /> -Darien, Gulf of, discovered, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> -Darwin's theory of the formation of lagoon islands, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br /> -Davis, John, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> -Depth of the sea, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> -— of the Atlantic, according to Maury, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> -— American mode of sounding in deep water, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> -— telegraphic plateau between Newfoundland and Ireland, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> -— measurement of depth by the rapidity of tide-wave, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> -Dew, formation of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> -Diatomaceæ, <a href="#Page_402">402</a><br /> -— their importance in reference to the existence of animal life in high latitudes, <a href="#Page_403">403</a><br /> -Diaz, Bartholomew, his discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> -Diazona violacea, <a href="#Page_324">324</a><br /> -Diodons, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> -Diogenes hermit-crab, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> -Diphyes, <a href="#Page_352">352</a><br /> -Discovery, maritime, progress of, 441. <i>See</i> Maritime Discovery<br /> -Diu, Portuguese settlement of, <a href="#Page_462">462</a><br /> -Divers, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> -Docks of London and Liverpool, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> -Dogfish, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> -Dolphins, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br /> -Donax, <a href="#Page_301">301</a><br /> -Dory, <a href="#Page_242">242</a><br /> -Dragon-weever, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br /> -Drake, Sir Francis, his discoveries, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> -Duck family, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> -Dugong, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> -— skeleton of the, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> -— female dugong of Ceylon, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br /> -Dunes, formation of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br /> -Dunwich, destruction of the coast at, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -D'Urville, Dumont, his discoveries, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> -Dusky Bay, discovery of, <a href="#Page_487">487</a><br /> -Dutch, their attempts to discover a North-West passage to India, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="E"></a><span class="smcap">Earth-rind</span>, the giant book of the, <a href="#Page_432">432</a><br /> -— formation of a solid earth-crust by cooling, <a href="#Page_432">432</a><br /> -Echinus, or sea-urchin, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br /> -— mammillated, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> -— edible, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> -— dental apparatus of sea-urchins, <a href="#Page_339">339</a><br /> -Eddystone lighthouse, the, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> -— Winstanley's structure, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> -— Rudyerd's, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> -— Smeaton's, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> -Edward's Island, Prince, discovery of, <a href="#Page_491">491</a><br /> -— Land, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br /> -Eel, the common, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> -— conger, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> -— the murry, or muræna, <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br /> -Eendragt's Land, discovery of, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> -Eider-duck, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> -Electric eel, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br /> -Endeavour Strait, discovery of, <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> -Enderby Land, discovery of, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> -English navigation, retrospective view of, <a href="#Page_459">459</a><br /> -— attempts to discover the North-West passage, <a href="#Page_474">474</a><br /> -Enteromorphæ, <a href="#Page_391">391</a><br /> -Eolis coronata, <a href="#Page_284">284</a><br /> -Eozoon canadense, 381 <i>note</i><br /> -Equatorial ocean-current, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> -Equinoctial line crossed for the first time, <a href="#Page_456">456</a><br /> -Erebus, Mount, discovery of, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> -Escharæ, <a href="#Page_317">317</a><br /> -Espiritu Santo, discovery of the Archipelago of, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a><br /> -Esquimaux in his kayak, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> -Euripus, phenomenon produced by the tides of the, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -Europe, length of coast-line of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> -Euryale, warted, <a href="#Page_333">333</a><br /> -Evaporation, movement of the waters through, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> -Extent of the ocean, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="F"></a><span class="smcap">Falkland</span> Islands, sea-weeds at, <a href="#Page_396">396</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_517" id="Page_517">« 517 »</a></span>Fan-bearer, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a><br /> -Feather-star, the rosy, <a href="#Page_330">330</a><br /> -Fernandez, Juan, his discoveries, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> -Fierasfer, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> -File-fish, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> -Fin-crab, spotted, <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br /> -Fin-fish, or northern rorqual, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br /> -Fingal's Cave, 45-48<br /> -— — popular belief as to its workmanship, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> -— — Sir W. Scott's description of it, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> -Fire, sea of, <a href="#Page_434">434</a><br /> -Fish, consumption of, in London, 237 <i>note</i><br /> -Fish River, Great, course of, traced, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> -Fishes, general remarks on, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> -— their locomotive organs, <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br /> -— Cuvier's classification of fishes, 188 <i>note</i><br /> -— fins, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br /> -— air-bladder, <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br /> -— skin of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br /> -— beauty of tropical, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> -— gills of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> -— circulation of the blood of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br /> -— climbing, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br /> -— parental affection of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br /> -— organs of sense, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br /> -— offensive weapons of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> -— numerous enemies of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br /> -— luminous, <a href="#Page_422">422</a><br /> -Flamingoes, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> -Flat-fishes, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> -Florence, its commercial grandeur, <a href="#Page_450">450</a><br /> -Flounder, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> -Flying-fishes, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br /> -Flying-gurnard, <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br /> -Foraminifera, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br /> -— their immense numbers, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br /> -— simplicity of their structure, <a href="#Page_380">380</a><br /> -— various forms of Foraminifera, <a href="#Page_381">381</a><br /> -Forbes, Professor Edward, on the four zones of marine life on the British coasts, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br /> -Forests, influence of, on the formation and retention of atmospherical precipitations, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> -— formation of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> -— influence of, on climates, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> -Franklin, Sir John, his arctic voyages, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> -— his last voyage, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> -Fresnel, his improvements in marine illumination, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> -Frigate-bird, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> -Frobisher, Martin, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> -Frog-fish, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br /> -Fuci, <a href="#Page_392">392</a><br /> -— fucus banks, or floating meadows, of the Atlantic 397<br /> -Fulmar, the, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="G"></a><span class="smcap">Gades</span>, Phœnician town of, <a href="#Page_444">444</a><br /> -Gaëta, maritime trade of, <a href="#Page_451">451</a><br /> -Gama, Vasco de, doubles the Cape of Good Hope, <a href="#Page_462">462</a><br /> -Gannet, or soland goose, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> -Gar-fish, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br /> -Garry, Cape, discovery of, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> -Gasteropods, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br /> -— respiratory apparatus, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> -— growth of their shells, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br /> -— mode of locomotion, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br /> -— their food, <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br /> -— organs of sense, <a href="#Page_295">295</a><br /> -— their enemies, <a href="#Page_297">297</a><br /> -— their use to man, <a href="#Page_296">296</a><br /> -Genoa, maritime grandeur of, <a href="#Page_450">450</a><br /> -Geographical distribution of marine life, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br /> -Georgia, South, discovery of, <a href="#Page_490">490</a><br /> -Germany, its climate at the time of the Romans and at the present time, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> -Glaciers, formation and dissolution of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> -— the Aar glacier, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> -— of Greenland and Spitzbergen, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> -Glaucus, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> -Globe-fish, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> -Goa, Portuguese settlement of, <a href="#Page_462">462</a><br /> -Goby, the black, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br /> -Goniaster, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a><br /> -Good Hope, Cape of, discovery of, <a href="#Page_457">457</a><br /> -— — first doubled, <a href="#Page_462">462</a><br /> -Goodwin Sands, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> -Goose, sea, various kinds of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> -Gorgonidæ, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br /> -Grampus, the, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> -— — anecdote of one, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> -Grass wrack (Zostera marina), <a href="#Page_391">391</a><br /> -Great crab, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /> -Grebes, the, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> -Greenland, depression of the coast of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> -— olive colour of the water of the Greenland seas, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> -— glaciers of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> -— whale-fishery of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> -— discovery of, <a href="#Page_457">457</a><br /> -Grijalva, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> -Guano of the Chincha Islands, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br /> -— statistics of the trade of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> -Guillemot, black, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> -Guinea, New, discovery of, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> -Gulf Stream, the, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> -— — its influence on the climate of the west European coasts, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> -Gulls, sea, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> -Günnbjorn, his discovery of Greenland, <a href="#Page_457">457</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_518" id="Page_518">« 518 »</a></span>Gurnard, <a href="#Page_414">414</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="H"></a><span class="smcap">Haddock</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> -Hag. glutinous, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> -Haiti discovered, <a href="#Page_459">459</a><br /> -Halibut, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> -Hanno, the Carthaginian, his voyage, <a href="#Page_444">444</a><br /> -Harp-shell, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br /> -Hartburn, site of the village of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> -Hartog, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> -Hassar, land journeys of the, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br /> -Hawaii, discovery of the island of, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> -Hebrides, New, discovery of the, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a><br /> -Henry, Prince, of Portugal, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_453">453</a><br /> -Hermit-crabs, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> -Herrings, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br /> -Herring-crab, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> -Herring-fishery, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> -— history of the, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> -— statistics of the, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br /> -Herring-gull, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br /> -Hervey's Islands, discovery of, <a href="#Page_487">487</a><br /> -Hindustan, circumnavigation of, <a href="#Page_447">447</a><br /> -Hippocamp, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br /> -Hippopus, <a href="#Page_315">315</a><br /> -Hoar-frost, causes of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> -Hogg, James, his experiments with salmon, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br /> -Holland, devastations caused by storm-tides on the coast of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> -Holland, New, discoveries of, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> -— — Cook's discoveries in, <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> -Holothuriæ, <a href="#Page_339">339</a><br /> -Homer, his picture of the breaking of the waves against the shore, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> -Hood's Island, discovery of, <a href="#Page_489">489</a><br /> -Hooded seal of northern seas, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> -Huatulco, sea-cave of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> -Hudson, Henry, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_481">481</a><br /> -— his unfortunate end, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> -Hudson's Bay, discovery of, <a href="#Page_481">481</a><br /> -Hump-back whales, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> -Hunga, cave of, 49-51<br /> -Hyalæa, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br /> -Hyde, site of the village of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="I"></a><span class="smcap">Ianthinæ</span>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a><br /> -Ice-bear, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br /> -Icebergs, formation of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> -— erratic blocks carried away by, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> -Iceland, salmon of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> -— discovery and colonisation of, <a href="#Page_361">361</a><br /> -Ichthyosaurus, <a href="#Page_438">438</a><br /> -Inachus Kæmpferi of Japan, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> -India, Portuguese discovery in, <a href="#Page_462">462</a><br /> -Indian Ocean, spotted corals in the, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> -Indus, sudden rising of the spring-tide at the mouth of the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> -Inferobranchiata, <a href="#Page_284">284</a><br /> -Infusoria, marine, <a href="#Page_383">383</a><br /> -Insects, marine, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> -Isinglass, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> -Isis hippuris, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br /> -Ivory of the walrus, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="J"></a><span class="smcap">Jamaica</span> discovered, <a href="#Page_459">459</a><br /> -Japanese ocean-stream, the, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> -Java, gathering of edible birds'-nests on the south coast of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br /> -Jelly-fishes, <a href="#Page_345">345</a><br /> -— their anatomical structure, <a href="#Page_345">345</a><br /> -— their size and colours, <a href="#Page_356">356</a><br /> -— their indirect use to man, <a href="#Page_357">357</a><br /> -— their phosphorescence, <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br /> -— the Velella, <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br /> -— the Portuguese man-of-war, <a href="#Page_354">354</a><br /> -John Dory, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="K"></a><span class="smcap">Kamtschatka</span>, salmon of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> -Keeling Island, subsidence of the coast at, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> -Kerguelen's Land, discovery of, <a href="#Page_491">491</a><br /> -Kilda, St., bird-catching on, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> -King-crab, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> -Kittiwake, or tarrock, the, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br /> -Kraken, the Norwegian, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="L"></a><span class="smcap">Labrador</span>, discovery of, <a href="#Page_459">459</a><br /> -Ladrone Islands, discovery of the, <a href="#Page_468">468</a><br /> -Lagoon islands, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br /> -— — Darwin's theory of the formation of, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br /> -— — how they became habitable for man, <a href="#Page_376">376</a><br /> -Lamantins of the Atlantic Ocean, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> -Laminaria, region of the great, or tangle forests, <a href="#Page_393">393</a><br /> -Laminariæ, <a href="#Page_393">393</a><br /> -Lampreys, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> -Land-crabs, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> -Landscapes, submarine, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> -— in the Caribbean Sea, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> -— on the coast of Sicily, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> -La Perouse, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_493">493</a><br /> -— — his fate, <a href="#Page_493">493</a><br /> -Launces, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br /> -Le Maire, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> -Lepraliæ, <a href="#Page_318">318</a><br /> -Lessonias, of the Falkland Islands, <a href="#Page_396">396</a><br /> -Level of the ocean, does it remain unchanged, and every where the same? 11<br /> -Licmophora, or fan-bearer, <a href="#Page_402">402</a><br /> -Life, marine, geographical distribution of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_519" id="Page_519">« 519 »</a></span>— dependence of all created beings upon space and time, <a href="#Page_406">406</a><br /> -— influences which regulate the distribution of marine life, <a href="#Page_407">407</a><br /> -— the four bathymetrical zones of marine life on the British coasts, according to the late Professor Edward Forbes, of Edinburgh, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br /> -— first wakening of life in the bosom of the ocean, <a href="#Page_435">435</a><br /> -Lighthouses, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> -— the Eddystone lighthouse, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> -— the Bellrock, or Inchcape, lighthouse, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> -— the Skerryvore lighthouse, 85-89<br /> -— the Pharus of Alexandria, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br /> -— progress of marine illumination, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> -Lily encrinites, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> -Limacina arctica, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br /> -Limits of the ocean, progressive changes in the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> -— Goodwin Sands, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> -— alluvial deposits, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> -— upheaving of coasts, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> -— subsidence, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> -— temple of Serapis, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> -— level of the sea everywhere the same, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> -Limnoriæ, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> -Limpet, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br /> -Limuli, or king-crabs, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> -Ling, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br /> -Ling-thorn, <a href="#Page_335">335</a><br /> -Lithophytes, <a href="#Page_373">373</a><br /> -Liverpool Docks, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> -Lizards of the sea, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> -— serpent-lizard, <a href="#Page_435">435</a><br /> -Lobsters, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> -Loggerheaded duck or goose, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br /> -London Docks, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> -Long-tailed duck, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br /> -Lophobranchii, the, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> -Louse, whale, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br /> -Lucernaridæ, <a href="#Page_350">350</a><br /> -Luminous marine animals, <a href="#Page_418">418</a><br /> -Lump-sucker, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="M"></a><span class="smcap">Mackerel</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br /> -Macrocystis pyrifera, <a href="#Page_393">393</a><br /> -— — Mr. Darwin's description of it at Tierra del Fuego, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a><br /> -Madeira, depth of the sea near, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br /> -— discovery of, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> -Maelstrom, the, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> -Magellan, Ferdinand, his discoveries, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a><br /> -Magellan's Straits, discovery of, <a href="#Page_468">468</a><br /> -— — harmony of animal life in the islands of, <a href="#Page_490">490</a><br /> -Magilus antiquus, <a href="#Page_291">291</a><br /> -Malacca Islands, discovery of the, <a href="#Page_462">462</a><br /> -Malo, St., high tides of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> -Mammaria scintillans, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> -Manatee, the, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /> -Mantis crab, spotted, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> -Marco Polo, his travels and discoveries, <a href="#Page_453">453</a><br /> -Maritime discovery, progress of, <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> -— discoveries of the Phœnicians, <a href="#Page_443">443</a><br /> -— expedition of Hanno, <a href="#Page_444">444</a><br /> -— circumnavigation of Africa, under Pharaoh Necho II., <a href="#Page_444">444</a><br /> -— Ophir, <a href="#Page_339">339</a><br /> -— Colæus of Samos and Pytheas of Massilia, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> -— expedition of Nearchus, <a href="#Page_447">447</a><br /> -— circumnavigation of Hindostan, under the Ptolemies, <a href="#Page_447">447</a><br /> -— voyages of discovery of the Romans, <a href="#Page_453">453</a><br /> -— consequences of the fall of the Roman empire, <a href="#Page_448">448</a><br /> -— Amalfi, <a href="#Page_449">449</a><br /> -— Pisa, Venice, and Genoa, <a href="#Page_449">449</a><br /> -— resumption of maritime intercourse between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, <a href="#Page_451">451</a><br /> -— discovery of the compass, <a href="#Page_451">451</a><br /> -— Marco Polo, <a href="#Page_453">453</a><br /> -— other discoveries, <a href="#Page_453">453</a><br /> -— Prince Henry of Portugal, <a href="#Page_454">454</a><br /> -— discovery of Porto Santo and Madeira, <a href="#Page_455">455</a><br /> -— doubling of Cape Bojador, <a href="#Page_455">455</a><br /> -— discovery of the Azores, <a href="#Page_456">456</a><br /> -— the line crossed for the first time, <a href="#Page_456">456</a><br /> -— Benin and Congo discovered, <a href="#Page_456">456</a><br /> -— and the Cape of Good Hope, <a href="#Page_457">457</a><br /> -— discovery of America, <a href="#Page_457">457</a><br /> -— and of Iceland, <a href="#Page_457">457</a><br /> -— Greenland, <a href="#Page_457">457</a><br /> -— discoveries of John and Sebastian Cabot, <a href="#Page_459">459</a><br /> -— retrospective view of the beginnings of English navigation, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> -— Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci, <a href="#Page_460">460</a><br /> -— Vincent Yañez Pinson, <a href="#Page_460">460</a><br /> -— Cortes, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> -— Verazzani, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> -— Jacques Cartier, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> -— the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean, <a href="#Page_462">462</a><br /> -— Balboa's discovery of the Pacific Ocean, <a href="#Page_466">466</a><br /> -— Magellan, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br /> -— Sebastian el Cano, the first circumnavigator of the globe, <a href="#Page_469">469</a><br /> -— Pizarro and Cortes, <a href="#Page_470">470</a><br /> -— Urdaneta, <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> -— Juan Fernandez, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> -— Mendoza, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_520" id="Page_520">« 520 »</a></span> -— Drake, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> -— Willoughby and Chancellor, <a href="#Page_474">474</a><br /> -— Martin Frobisher, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> -— Davis, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> -— Barentz, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> -— Quiros, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> -— Torres, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> -— Schouten, Le Maire, and others, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> -— Tasman, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> -— Henry Hudson, and his unfortunate end, <a href="#Page_481">481</a><br /> -— Baffin, <a href="#Page_481">481</a><br /> -— Dampier, <a href="#Page_483">483</a><br /> -— Anson, Behring, Byron, Wallis, Carteret, and Bougainville, <a href="#Page_483">483</a><br /> -— Cook's voyages, 485-492<br /> -— arctic discovery, <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> -Marquesas de Mendoza Islands, discovery of the, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> -Mauritius, sea-cave on the, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> -Mediterranean Sea, depth of the, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> -— — height of the, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -— — temperature of the, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -— — colour of the, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -— — sides of the, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> -— — Phœnician trade in the, <a href="#Page_443">443</a><br /> -— — decline of trade in the, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br /> -— — resumption of maritime intercourse between the Mediterranean and the Adriatic, <a href="#Page_449">449</a><br /> -Medusidæ, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a><br /> -Melanospermeæ, or olive-coloured sea-weeds, <a href="#Page_392">392</a><br /> -Melville Island, discovery of, <a href="#Page_500">500</a><br /> -Mendana, Alvaro, his discoveries, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> -Menezes, Don Jorge de, his discoveries, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> -Merganser, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br /> -Mexico, discovery of the coast of, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> -— conquest of, by Cortes, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> -Microscopic life of the ocean, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br /> -Mines, submarine, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> -Mitre shells, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br /> -Mollusca, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> -— general remarks on, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> -Monsoons, north-east, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> -— south-west, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> -Moon, influence of the, on the tides, <a href="#Page_446">446</a><br /> -Mother-of-pearl, <a href="#Page_313">313</a><br /> -Mullet, grey, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br /> -Murex haustellum, <a href="#Page_291">291</a><br /> -Murry, or muræna, <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br /> -Mussels, edible, <a href="#Page_307">307</a><br /> -— history of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a><br /> -— 'bouchots,' or mussel-parks, <a href="#Page_307">307</a><br /> -Myxine, the, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="N"></a><span class="smcap">Naples</span>, maritime trade of, <a href="#Page_449">449</a><br /> -Narwhal, or unicorn-fish, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> -Nautilus, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> -— the pearly, <a href="#Page_281">281</a><br /> -Nearchus, voyage of, <a href="#Page_447">447</a><br /> -Necho II., Pharaoh, of Egypt, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_444">444</a><br /> -Nelson, Horatio, pursuing a polar bear, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> -Neptune's ruffles, <a href="#Page_318">318</a><br /> -Nereis, the, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> -Nereocystis lutkeana, the, of Norfolk Bay and Sitcha, <a href="#Page_397">397</a><br /> -Nettuno, Antro di, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -Newfoundland, discovery of, <a href="#Page_459">459</a><br /> -Noctiluca miliaris, <a href="#Page_425">425</a><br /> -Norfolk, rapid destruction of the cliffs of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> -Norfolk Island, discovery of, <a href="#Page_490">490</a><br /> -North Sea, depth of the, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> -— — colour of the, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -North-West Passage, attempts of the Dutch and English to discover the, <a href="#Page_474">474</a><br /> -Norway, treaty of commerce concluded with, <a href="#Page_459">459</a><br /> -Nova Zembla, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> -— — sufferings of Barentz and his crew during a winter at, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> -Nudibranchiata, <a href="#Page_284">284</a><br /> -Nummulina discoidalis, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="O"></a><span class="smcap">Oar-weeds</span>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a><br /> -Ocean, the primitive, <a href="#Page_433">433</a><br /> -Ojeda, discoveries of, <a href="#Page_460">460</a><br /> -Oliva hispidula, <a href="#Page_290">290</a><br /> -Onychoteuthis, arms and tentacles of an, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> -Ophir, the, of the Phœnicians, <a href="#Page_445">445</a><br /> -Ophiuridæ, or snake-stars, <a href="#Page_331">331</a><br /> -Orkney Islands, whirlpools among the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> -Ormus, taken by the Portuguese, <a href="#Page_462">462</a><br /> -Ostend, oyster-parks of, <a href="#Page_309">309</a><br /> -Otarian seals, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> -Oyster, <a href="#Page_307">307</a><br /> -— account of the oyster-trade, <a href="#Page_308">308</a><br /> -— catchers, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br /> -— oyster-dust, <a href="#Page_310">310</a><br /> -— pearl, <a href="#Page_311">311</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="P"></a><span class="smcap">Pacific Ocean</span>, depth of the, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> -— — height of the, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -— — discovery of the, <a href="#Page_466">466</a><br /> -— — Cook's voyages in, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> -Paguri, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> -Palisser Islands, discovery of the, <a href="#Page_489">489</a><br /> -Palmas, Cape, colour of the sea near, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> -Palmyra, <a href="#Page_445">445</a><br /> -Parrot-fishes, <a href="#Page_372">372</a><br /> -Parry, Sir John, his arctic discoveries, <a href="#Page_500">500</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_521" id="Page_521">« 521 »</a></span>Patagonia, discovery of, <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br /> -Pea-crab, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br /> -Pearl-oyster, <a href="#Page_311">311</a><br /> -Pearls, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a><br /> -Pectinibranchiata, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br /> -Pectunculus, <a href="#Page_302">302</a><br /> -Pegasus, swimming, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br /> -Pelamid, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br /> -Pelamys bicolor, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> -Pelicans, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br /> -Penguins, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> -— species of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> -Pentacrinus briareus, <a href="#Page_330">330</a><br /> -Periwinkle, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br /> -Peru, visited by Pizarro, <a href="#Page_471">471</a><br /> -— conquered by him, <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> -Peruvian ocean-current, the, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> -Petrels, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> -— stormy, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br /> -Philippine Islands, discovery of the, <a href="#Page_468">468</a><br /> -Philodina roseola, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br /> -Phœnicians, maritime discoveries of the, <a href="#Page_443">443</a><br /> -— their progress in the arts and sciences, <a href="#Page_445">445</a><br /> -Pholades, <a href="#Page_304">304</a><br /> -Pholas dactylus, <a href="#Page_301">301</a><br /> -— Pliny's accounts of its phosphorescence, <a href="#Page_431">431</a><br /> -— striata, <a href="#Page_302">302</a><br /> -Phosphorescence of the sea, causes of, <a href="#Page_418">418</a><br /> -— of various marine animals, <a href="#Page_418">418</a><br /> -Phyllosoma, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> -Physaliæ, the, <a href="#Page_354">354</a><br /> -Physophoridæ, <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br /> -Pilchards, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br /> -Pilot-fish, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> -Pinnæ of the Mediterranean, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a><br /> -Pinson, his discoveries, <a href="#Page_460">460</a><br /> -Pipe-fishes, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br /> -Pisa, maritime trade of, <a href="#Page_449">449</a><br /> -Pizarro, sketch of him and his companions, <a href="#Page_469">469</a><br /> -Plaice, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> -Plants, marine, <a href="#Page_390">390</a><br /> -Plectognaths, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> -Plesiosaurus, the, <a href="#Page_438">438</a><br /> -Pleuronectidæ, or flat-fishes, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> -Pliny, his geographical knowledge, <a href="#Page_448">448</a><br /> -Plover, the, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> -Plymouth breakwater, in the great storm of 1824, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> -Polycystina, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a><br /> -Polynesia, length of coast-line of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> -Polyps, <a href="#Page_345">345</a><br /> -Polyzoa, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a><br /> -Porcupine-fish, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> -Porpoise, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> -Portland, destructive action of the sea at, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> -Porto Santo, discovery of, <a href="#Page_455">455</a><br /> -Portuguese man-of-war, <a href="#Page_354">354</a><br /> -Poulp, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br /> -Prontzchitschew, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_483">483</a><br /> -Protozoa, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br /> -Pteroceras, <a href="#Page_290">290</a><br /> -Pteropods, their organisation and mode of life, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br /> -— the butterflies of the ocean, <a href="#Page_299">299</a><br /> -Ptolemies, maritime discoveries of the, <a href="#Page_447">447</a><br /> -Ptolemy, the geographer, his knowledge of the globe, <a href="#Page_449">449</a><br /> -Ptygura melicerta, <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br /> -Puffins, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> -Purbeck, destruction of the cliffs at, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> -Pyrosoma atlantica, its phosphorescence, <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br /> -Pyrosomes, <a href="#Page_325">325</a><br /> -Pytheas of Massilia, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_446">446</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="Q"></a><span class="smcap">Quantity</span> of the waters contained within the bosom of the ocean, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> -Quiros, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> -Quito, coast of, discovery of, <a href="#Page_470">470</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="R"></a><span class="smcap">Racer</span>, or rider-crab, the, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /> -Rain, formation of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> -— inequality of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> -— its return to the sea, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /> -Rays, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br /> -Razor-shell, <a href="#Page_303">303-306</a><br /> -Ré, oyster-trade of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a><br /> -Reculver, destruction of the coast at, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -Red Sea, height of the, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -— — red algæ of the, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> -— — Phœnician trade on the, <a href="#Page_445">445</a><br /> -Reef-building corals, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br /> -Regent Inlet, Prince, discovery of, <a href="#Page_500">500</a><br /> -Reptiles of the sea, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> -Rhodosperms, Florideæ, or red sea-weeds, <a href="#Page_398">398</a><br /> -— their habitat, <a href="#Page_398">398</a><br /> -Richardson, Sir John, his arctic voyages, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> -Rivers, phenomena presented by the mixture of salt and fresh water in, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> -— quantities of water which rivers pour into the ocean, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> -Rock-goose, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br /> -Roggewein, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_483">483</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_522" id="Page_522">« 522 »</a></span>Rome, ancient, maritime discoveries of, <a href="#Page_448">448</a><br /> -Rorqual, northern, or fin-fish, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br /> -— its food, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> -Ross, Sir James, on the height of waves, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> -— — — his discoveries, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> -— — John, his arctic discoveries, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> -Rotifera, the, <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br /> -Rudyerd, Mr., his lighthouse on the Eddystone rocks, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="S"></a><span class="smcap">Saavedra</span>, Alvaro de, his discoveries, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> -Sabrina Land, discovery of, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> -Sagittaria, discovery of the island of, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> -Sail-fluke, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /> -Salangana caves in Java, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br /> -Salmon, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a><br /> -— trade, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> -— salmon-spearing, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br /> -— growth of the salmon, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br /> -— abundance of salmon, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> -— introduced into Australia and New Zealand, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br /> -Salmon-leaps, <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br /> -Salpæ, <a href="#Page_325">325</a><br /> -— their alternating generations, <a href="#Page_327">327</a><br /> -Salts of the sea, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -Sand-crab, American, <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br /> -Sandhopper, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> -Sand-stars, <a href="#Page_332">332</a><br /> -Sandwich Land, discovery of, <a href="#Page_490">490</a><br /> -— Islands, discovery of, <a href="#Page_490">490</a><br /> -Sardinia, stalactite caves of the island of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -Sargasso Sea, the, <a href="#Page_397">397</a><br /> -Saurians of the past seas, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a><br /> -Scari, or parrot-fishes, <a href="#Page_372">372</a><br /> -Schouten, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> -Scissor-bill, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> -Scoopers, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br /> -Scoresby, his arctic voyages, <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> -Scyllæa, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> -Scythe, the, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br /> -Sea-anemones, <a href="#Page_361">361</a><br /> -Sea-bear, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> -Sea-birds, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> -— their vast numbers, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> -Sea-cask, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> -Sea-cucumbers, <a href="#Page_339">339</a><br /> -Sea-devil of the Pacific, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br /> -Sea-ear, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a><br /> -Sea-elephant, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> -Sea-fox, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> -Sea-hare, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a><br /> -Sea-horse, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br /> -Sea-lemon, <a href="#Page_284">284</a><br /> -Sea-lion, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> -Sea-mat, leaf-like, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> -Sea-mew, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> -Sea-otter, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br /> -— chase of the, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br /> -Sea-pen, <a href="#Page_364">364</a><br /> -— its phosphorescence, <a href="#Page_426">426</a><br /> -Sea-pie, the, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> -Sea-pinks, <a href="#Page_391">391</a><br /> -Sea-scurfs, <a href="#Page_318">318</a><br /> -Sea-snail, purple, <a href="#Page_290">290</a><br /> -Sea-snakes, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> -Sea-squirts, <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br /> -Sea-swallows, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> -Sea-urchin, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br /> -Sea-weeds, <a href="#Page_391">391</a><br /> -— luminous, <a href="#Page_423">423</a><br /> -Sea-wolf, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br /> -Seals and walruses, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> -— food of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> -— statistics of seal-fishery, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br /> -— various kinds of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> -Seine, sudden rising of the spring-tides at the mouth of the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> -Seleucidæ, maritime discoveries of the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> -Seleucus Nicator, his circumnavigation of Hindostan, and discovery of Taprobane, or Ceylon, <a href="#Page_447">447</a><br /> -Semen Deshnew, the Cossack, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_483">483</a><br /> -Sepia. <i>See</i> Cuttle-fish<br /> -Serapis, temple of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> -Serpents of the seas, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> -Serpulas, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> -Sertularia, <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br /> -Shakspeare's Cliff, destructive action of the sea on, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -Sharks, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> -— Greenland shark, an enemy of the whale, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> -— luminous, <a href="#Page_330">330</a><br /> -Sheldrake, or burrow duck, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br /> -Sheppey, Isle of, rapid decay of the coast of the, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -Sherringham, ravages of the sea on the coast at, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> -Shetland Islands, fury of the Atlantic waves at the, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> -Shetland, New South, discovery of, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> -Ship-worm (teredo), <a href="#Page_302">302</a><br /> -Shore-crab, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /> -Siberia, Cook's visits to the coasts of, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> -Sicily, submarine landscapes of the coast of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> -Siphonostomata, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> -Skerries, cave in the, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> -Skerryvore lighthouse, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> -Skimmer, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> -Sledge-journey, arctic, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> -Sly, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_523" id="Page_523">« 523 »</a></span>Smeaton, John, his lighthouse on the Eddystone rocks, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> -Smooth-back whale, the antarctic, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> -Snake-stars, <a href="#Page_437">437</a><br /> -Snow-goose, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> -Society Islands, discovery of the, <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> -Soland goose, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> -Solasters, <a href="#Page_334">334</a><br /> -Sole, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> -— skin of the, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br /> -Solen, or razor-shell, <a href="#Page_304">304</a><br /> -Solis, Juan de, his discoveries, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> -— — — his death, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> -Solomon Islands, discovery of the, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a><br /> -Souffleur, or blower, the marine cave of the, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> -Soundings, American method of taking, in deep water, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> -South Sea Islands, discovery of the, <a href="#Page_474">474</a><br /> -Speckled diver, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> -Sperm-whale, or cachalot, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> -Spiders, marine, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br /> -Spitzbergen, discovery of, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> -Spondylus, royal, <a href="#Page_314">314</a><br /> -Sponge-crab, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br /> -Sponges, <a href="#Page_385">385</a><br /> -— their remarkable growth, <a href="#Page_385">385</a><br /> -— habitat of the common sponge, <a href="#Page_388">388</a><br /> -Sprat, the, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br /> -Springs, origin of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /> -— mineral waters, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br /> -Springs of fresh water in the bottom of the sea, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> -Staffa, island of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> -Stalactite caves of the island of Sardinia, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -Star-fishes, <a href="#Page_328">328</a><br /> -— their organisation, <a href="#Page_328">328</a><br /> -Star-gazer fish, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br /> -Sterlet of the Volga, <a href="#Page_217">217</a><br /> -Stevenson, Mr. Alan, his Skerryvore lighthouse, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> -Stevenson, Mr. Robert, his lighthouse on the Bell Rock, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> -Stickleback, parental affection of the, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br /> -Stone-corals, <a href="#Page_373">373</a><br /> -Storm, the great, of 1703, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> -Storm-tides, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> -— devastations of, on flat coasts, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> -Strand-birds, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br /> -— migration of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> -— food of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> -Strombus pes pelicani, <a href="#Page_290">290</a><br /> -Sturgeons, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a><br /> -— caviar, <a href="#Page_217">217</a><br /> -Sucking-fish, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br /> -Suffolk, rapid decay of the cliffs of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> -Sun-fish, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> -— its luminousness, <a href="#Page_422">422</a><br /> -Sun, his influence on the tides, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> -Sun-star fish, <a href="#Page_334">334</a><br /> -Surgeon-fish, the, <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br /> -Sweden, gradual upheaving of the coast of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> -Sword-fish, an enemy of the whale, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> -— his weapon, <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> -Synchæta baltica, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="T"></a><span class="smcap">Tahiti</span>, discovery of, <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br /> -Tailor-bird, the, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br /> -Taprobane, or Ceylon, discovery of, <a href="#Page_447">447</a><br /> -Tartessus, Phœnician town of, <a href="#Page_444">444</a><br /> -Tasman, Abel, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> -Tasmania, discovery of, <a href="#Page_481">481</a><br /> -Tectibranchiata, <a href="#Page_284">284</a><br /> -Temperature of the sea, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> -— at various parts of the surface of the globe, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> -Teredo navalis, <a href="#Page_302">302</a><br /> -Thames, progress of the tide-wave in the, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> -Thornbacks, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br /> -Thresher, or sea-fox, an enemy of the whale, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> -Thunder-stones, <a href="#Page_437">437</a><br /> -Tide-wave, measurement of the depth of the sea by the rapidity of the, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> -— progress and course of the, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> -Tides, the, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> -— description of the phenomenon, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> -— devastations of storm-floods on flat coasts, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> -— knowledge of the ancients respecting the tides, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> -— fundamental causes of the tides revealed by Kepler and Newton, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> -Tides, height of the, at various places, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> -— vortices caused by the: the Maelstrom, Charybdis, &c., <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> -— the phenomena of the Euripus, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -Tierra del Fuego, masses of sea-weed at, <a href="#Page_394">394</a><br /> -— — — rounded by Schouten and Le Maire, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> -Tonga, discovery of, <a href="#Page_481">481</a><br /> -Top, agglutinating, <a href="#Page_296">296</a><br /> -Tornadoes, causes of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> -Tornatella fasciata, <a href="#Page_290">290</a><br /> -Torpedo, the, <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> -Torres, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> -Torso Rock, the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> -Tortoise-shell, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> -Tortoises, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> -Trade-winds, the, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> -Transparency of the sea at Capri, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_524" id="Page_524">« 524 »</a></span>— — — — in the Indian Ocean, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> -— — — — in the Caribbean, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> -Trepang, or Biche de Mer, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> -— mode of curing, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> -— the fishery in the Feejee Islands, <a href="#Page_342">342</a><br /> -Tridacna, the gigantic, <a href="#Page_314">314</a><br /> -Trigger-fish, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> -Trilobites, <a href="#Page_436">436</a><br /> -Trunk-fish, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> -Tubiporidæ, <a href="#Page_370">370</a><br /> -Tubulibranchiata, <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br /> -Tunicata, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a><br /> -Tunny, the, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br /> -— stripe-bellied, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br /> -Turbot, the, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> -Turn-stone bird, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> -Turtles, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br /> -— catching turtles in the island of St. Thomas, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> -Tynemouth Castle, destruction of the coast near, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> -Typhoons, causes of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> -Tyrian dye, <a href="#Page_446">446</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="U"></a><span class="smcap">Ulvæ</span>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a><br /> -Unicorn-fish, or narwhal, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> -Urasters, <a href="#Page_334">334</a><br /> -Urdaneta, first reaches Acapulco from Manilla, <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="V"></a><span class="smcap">Vancouver's</span> discoveries, <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> -Van Diemen's Land, discovery of, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> -Vanikoro, island of, <a href="#Page_493">493</a><br /> -Velellæ, the, <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br /> -Venice, maritime grandeur of, <a href="#Page_450">450</a><br /> -Verazzani, voyage of, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> -Vermetus, <a href="#Page_291">291</a><br /> -Virgularia mirabilis, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br /> -Vogtia pentacantha, <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="W"></a><span class="smcap">Wales</span>, Cape Prince of, discovery of, <a href="#Page_491">491</a><br /> -Wallis, his maritime discoveries, <a href="#Page_483">483</a><br /> -Walrus, or morse, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br /> -— anecdote of a fight with, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br /> -— ivory of the, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> -Walton, his mussel-beds in France, <a href="#Page_307">307</a><br /> -Water-snakes, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> -Water-spouts, causes of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> -Waves of the ocean, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br /> -— wave-motion as distinct from water motion, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> -— height and velocity of storm-waves, 26-28<br /> -— Homer's picture of the breaking of the waves against the shore, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> -— Scoresby on the height of waves in the open sea, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> -— force and height of the waves on rocky coasts, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> -— instances of the destructive action of the tidal waves on coast-lines, 28-31<br /> -Weddell, Captain, his voyages, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> -Weevers, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br /> -Wellington Channel, discovery of, <a href="#Page_500">500</a><br /> -Wentle-trap, Chinese, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br /> -Whalebone, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> -Whale-fishery, history of the, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> -Whales. <i>See</i> Cetaceans<br /> -Whelks, <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br /> -Wilkes, Captain, on the height of waves, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> -Wilkes, his explorations, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> -Willoughby, Sir Hugh, his unfortunate arctic voyage, <a href="#Page_474">474</a><br /> -Winds, origin of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> -— trade-winds, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> -— calms, or doldrums, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> -— monsoons, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> -— typhoons, tornadoes, &c., <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> -— water-spouts, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> -Wing-shells, <a href="#Page_304">304</a><br /> -Winstanley, Mr., his lighthouse on the Eddystone rocks, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> -Winter Harbour, discovery of, <a href="#Page_500">500</a><br /> -Wolf-fish, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br /> -Wolstenholme Sound, elevation of the coast at, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> -Worm-shell, <a href="#Page_291">291</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="Y"></a><span class="smcap">Yorkshire</span>, wearing away of the coast of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> -Yucatan, first exploration of, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> -<br /> -<a id="Z"></a><span class="smcap">Zostera</span> marina, <a href="#Page_391">391</a><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="smaller center pmt2 pmb4"> -PRINTED BY<br /> -SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE<br /> -LONDON<br /> -</p> - - - -<div class="trans_notes"> -<p class="caption2">Transcriber's Note</p> - - -<p>Minor typos have been corrected. Most words that sometimes have -hyphenations and other times non-hyphenated were left as written. -Illustrations were repositioned to not split paragraphs. An assumed -missing end quotation was added on <a href="#Page_353">page 353</a>.</p> -</div> - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Sea and its Living Wonders, by George Hartwig - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SEA AND ITS LIVING WONDERS *** - -***** This file should be named 62011-h.htm or 62011-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/0/1/62011/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Sharon Joiner, Tom Cosmas and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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