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diff --git a/old/62011-0.txt b/old/62011-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 5cc79e2..0000000 --- a/old/62011-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,20288 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The Sea and its Living Wonders, by George Hartwig - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: The Sea and its Living Wonders - A Popular Account of the Marvels of the Deep and of the - Progress of Martime Discovery from the Earliest Ages to - the Present Time - -Author: George Hartwig - -Release Date: May 3, 2020 [EBook #62011] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SEA AND ITS LIVING WONDERS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Sharon Joiner, Tom Cosmas and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - -[Illustration: ARCTIC SLEDGE-JOURNEY.] - - - - - THE SEA - - AND - - ITS LIVING WONDERS - - A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF - - THE MARVELS OF THE DEEP - - AND OF THE - - PROGRESS OF MARITIME DISCOVERY FROM THE - EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME - - BY - - DR. G. HARTWIG - - AUTHOR OF "THE TROPICAL WORLD" "THE HARMONIES OF NATURE" - "THE POLAR WORLD" AND "THE SUBTERRANEAN WORLD" - - SEVENTH EDITION - - _WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS AND PLATES_ - - LONDON - LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. - AND NEW YORK: 15 EAST 16^{th} STREET - 1892 - - - - -NOTICE - - -_The right of translation into French is reserved by the Author. All -necessary steps for securing the Copyright have been taken._ - - - - -PREFACE - -TO - -THE THIRD AND FOURTH EDITIONS. - - -Nothing can be more agreeable to an author anxious to merit the suffrages -of the public, than the opportunity afforded him, by a new edition, of -correcting past errors or adding improvements to his work. Should any -one of my readers think it worth his while to compare 'The Sea,' such -as it now is, with what it formerly was, I have no doubt he will do me -the justice to say that I have conscientiously striven to deserve his -approbation. - -Two new chapters--one on Marine Constructions, the other on Marine -Caves--have been added; those on the Molluscs and Cœlenterata -(Jelly-fishes, Polyps) almost entirely re-written; and those on Fishes, -Crustaceans, Microscopic Animals, the Geographical Distribution of Marine -Life, and the Phosphorescence of the Sea, considerably enlarged; not to -mention a number of minor improvements dispersed throughout the volume. - -Great attention has also been paid to the Illustrations, many of -questionable value having been omitted in the present edition, to make -room for a number of others, which will be found of great use for the -better understanding of the text. - -In one word, I have done my best to raise my work to the standard of the -actual state of science, and to render it, as far as my humble abilities -go, a complete epitome of all that the _general_ reader _cares_ to know -about the marvels of the deep. - - G. Hartwig. - - Salon Villas, Ludwigsburg: - _June 30, 1873_. - - - - -PREFACE - -TO - -THE FIRST TWO EDITIONS. - - -For years my daily walks have been upon the beach, and I have learnt to -love the ocean as the Swiss mountaineer loves his native Alps, or the -Highlander the heath-covered hills of Caledonia. May these feelings have -imparted some warmth to the following pages, and serve to render the -reader more indulgent to their faults! - - G. Hartwig. - - Göttingen: _July 17, 1860_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PART I. - - THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. - - - CHAPTER I. - - THE MAGNITUDE OF THE SEA. - - Extent of the Ocean.--Length of its Coast-Line.--Mural, Rocky, - and Flat Coasts.--How deep is the Sea?--Average Depth of the - Atlantic Ocean.--The Telegraphic Plateau between Newfoundland and - Ireland.--Measurement of Depth by the Rapidity of the Tide-Wave. - --Progressive Changes in the Limits of the Ocean.--Alluvial - Deposits.--Upheaving.--Subsidence.--Does the Level of the Sea - remain unchanged, and is it everywhere the same?--Composition and - Temperature of Sea-Water.--Its intrinsic Colour.--The Azure Grotto - at Capri.--Modification of Colour owing to Animals and Plants. - --Submarine Landscapes viewed through the Clear Waters Page 3 - - - CHAPTER II. - - THE WAVES OF THE OCEAN. - - Waves and the Mode of their Formation.--Height and Velocity of - Storm-Waves, on the High Seas, according to the Calculations of - Scoresby, Arago, Sir James Ross, and Wilkes.--Their Height and Power - on Coasts.--Their Destructive Effects along the British Shore.-- - Dunwich.--Reculver.--Shakspeare's Cliff. 24 - - - CHAPTER III. - - THE TIDES. - - Description of the Phenomenon.--Devastation of Storm-Floods on Flat - Coasts.--What did the Ancients know of the Tides?--Their Fundamental - Causes revealed by Kepler and Newton.--Development of their Theory by - La Place, Euler, and Whewell.--Vortices caused by the Tides.--The - Maelstrom.--Charybdis.--The _Barre_ at the mouth of the Seine.--The - Euripus 32 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - MARINE CAVES. - - Effects of the Sea on Rocky Shores.--Fingal's Cave.--Beautiful Lines - of Sir Walter Scott.--The Antro di Nettuno.--The Cave of Hunga.-- - Legend of its Discovery.--Marine Fountains.--The Skerries.--The - Souffleur in Mauritius.--The Buffadero on the Mexican Coast 45 - - - CHAPTER V. - - OCEAN CURRENTS. - - Causes of the Oceanic Currents.--The Equatorial Stream.--The Gulf - Stream.--Its Influence on the Climate of the West European Coasts. - --The Cold Peruvian Stream.--The Japanese Stream 54 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE AËRIAL AND TERRESTRIAL MIGRATIONS OF THE WATERS. - - Movements of the Waters through Evaporation.--Origin of Winds.-- - Trade-Winds.--Calms.--Monsoons.--Typhoons.--Tornadoes.--Water-Spouts. - --The Formation of Atmospherical Precipitations.--Dew.--Its Origin. - --Fog.--Clouds.--Rain.--Snow.--Hail.--Sources.--The Quantities of - Water which the Rivers pour into the Ocean.--Glaciers and their - Progress.--Icebergs.--Erratic Blocks.--Influence of Forests on the - Formation and Retention of Atmospherical Precipitations.-- - Consequences of their excessive Destruction.--The Power of Man over - Climate.--How has it been used as yet? 65 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - MARINE CONSTRUCTIONS. - - Lighthouses.--The Eddystone.--Winstanley's Lighthouse, 1696.--The - Storm of 1703.--Rudyerd's Lighthouse destroyed by Fire in 1755.-- - Singular Death of one of the Lighthouse Men.--Anecdote of Louis XIV. - --Smeaton.--Bell Rock Lighthouse.--History of the Erection of - Skerryvore Lighthouse.--Illumination of Lighthouses.--The Breakwater - at Cherbourg.--Liverpool Docks.--The Tubular Bridge over the Menai - Straits.--The Sub-oceanic Mine of Botallack. 80 - - - PART II. - - THE INHABITANTS OF THE SEA. - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - THE CETACEANS. - - General Remarks on the Organisation of the Cetaceans.--The Large - Greenland Whale.--His Food and Enemies.--The Fin-Back or Rorqual. - --The Antarctic Whale.--The Sperm-Whale.--The Unicorn Fish.--The - Dolphin.--Truth and Fable.--The Porpoise.--The Grampus.--History - of the Whale Fishery 95 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - SEALS AND WALRUSES. - - The Manatees and the Dugongs.--The Seals and the Esquimaux.--King - Menelaus in a Seal's Skin.--Barbarous Persecutions of the Seals in - Behring's Sea and the Pacific.--Adventures of a Sealer from Geneva. - --The Sea Calf.--The Sea Bear.--His Parental Affection.--The Sea - Lions.--The Sea Elephant.--The Arctic Walrus.--The Boats of the - "Trent" fighting with a Herd of Walruses.--The White Bear.--Touching - Example of its Love for its Young.--Chase of the Sea Otter 117 - - - CHAPTER X. - - SEA-BIRDS. - - Their Vast Numbers.--Strand-Birds.--Artifices of the Sea-Lark to - protect its Young.--Migrations of the Strand-Birds.--The Sea-Birds - in General.--The Anatidæ.--The Eider Duck.--The Sheldrake.--The - Loggerheaded Duck.--Auks and Penguins.--The Cormorant.--Its Use - by the Chinese for Fish-catching.--The Frigate Bird.--The Soland - Goose.--The Gulls.--The Petrels.--The Albatross.--Bird-catching on - St. Kilda.--The Guano of the Chincha Islands 142 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - THE REPTILES OF THE OCEAN. - - The Saurians of the Past Seas.--The Anatomical Structure of the - Turtles.--Their Size.--Their Visits to the Shores.--The Dangers - that await their Young.--Turtles on the Brazilian Coast.--Prince - Maximilian of Neuwied and the Turtle.--Conflicts of the Turtles - with Wild Dogs and Tigers on the Coast of Java.--Turtle-catching - on Ascension Island.--Tortoise-shell.--The Amblyrhynchus - cristatus.--Marine Snakes.--The Great Sea-Snake 172 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - THE MARINE FISHES. - - General Observations on Fishes.--Their Locomotive Organs.--Tail. - --Fins.--Classification of Fishes by Cuvier.--Air-Bladder.--Scales. - --Beauty of the Tropical Fishes.--The Gills.--Terrestrial Voyages - of the Anabas and the Hassar.--Examples of Parental Affection.-- - Organs of Sense.--Offensive Weapons of Fishes.--The Sea-Wolf.--The - Shark.--The Saw-Fish.--The Sword-Fish.--The Torpedo.--The - Star-Gazer.--The Angler.--The Chætodon Rostratus.--The Remora, used - for catching Turtles.--Defensive Weapons of Fishes.--The Weever. - --The Stickleback.--The Sun-Fish.--The Flying-Fish.--The numerous - Enemies of the Fishes.--Importance and History of the Herring - Fishery.--The Pilchard.--The Sprat.--The Anchovy.--The Cod.--The - Sturgeons.--The Salmon.--The Tunny.--The Mackerel Family.--The Eel. - --The Murey.--The Conger.--The Sand-Launce.--The Plectognaths.--The - Sea-Horse.--The Pipe-Fish.--The Flat-Fishes.--The Rays.--The - Fecundity of Fishes 186 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - CRUSTACEA. - - CRABS--LOBSTERS. - - How are they distinguished from the Insects?--Barnacles and - Acorn-shells.--Siphonostomata.--Entomostraca.--King-Crab. - --Edriophthalmia.--Sandhoppers.--Thoracostraca.--Compound - Eye of the higher Crustaceans.--Respiratory Apparatus of the - Decapods.--Digestive Organs.--Chelæ or Pincers.--Distribution - of Crabs.--Land Crabs.--The Calling Crab.--Modifications of - the Legs in different species.--The Pinna and Pinnotheres. - --Hermit Crabs.--The Lobster.--The Cocoa-nut Crab.--The Shrimp. - --Moulting Process.--Metamorphoses of Crabs.--Victims and - Enemies of the Crustaceans.--Their Fecundity.--Marine Spiders - and Insects 243 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - MARINE ANNELIDES. - - The Annelides in general.--The Eunice sanguinea.--Beauty of the - Marine Annelides.--The Giant Nemertes.--The Food and Enemies of - the Annelides.--The Tubicole Annelides.--The Rotifera.--Their - Wonderful Organisation.--The Synchæta Baltica 262 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - MOLLUSCS. - - The Molluscs in general.--The Cephalopods.--Dibranchiates and - Tetrabranchiates--Arms and Tentacles.--Suckers.--Hooked Acetabula - of the Onychoteuthis.--Mandibles.--Ink Bag.--Numbers of the - Cephalopods.--Their Habits.--Their Enemies.--Their Use to Man. - --Their Eggs.--Enormous size of several species.--The fabulous - Kraken.--The Argonaut.--The Nautili.--The Cephalopods of the - Primitive Ocean.--The Gasteropods.--Their Subdivisions.--Gills of - the Nudibranchiates.--The Pleurobranchus plumula.--The Sea-Hare. - --The Chitons.--The Patellæ.--The Haliotis or Sea-Ear.--The - Carinariæ.--The Pectinibranchiates.--Variety and Beauty of their - Shells.--Their Mode of Locomotion.--Foot of the Tornatella and - Cyelostoma.--The Ianthinæ.--Sedentary Gasteropods.--The Magilus. - --Proboscis of the Whelk.--Tongue of the Limpet.--Stomach of the - Bulla, the Scyllæa, and the Sea-Hare.--Organs of Sense in the - Gasteropods.--Their Caution.--Their Enemies.--Their Defences. - --Their Use to Man.--Shell-Cameos.--The Pteropods.--Their - Organisation and Mode of Life.--The Butterflies of the Ocean. - --The Lamellibranchiate Acephala.--Their Organisation.--Siphons. - --The Pholades.--Foot of the Lamellibranchiates.--The - Razor-Shells.--The Byssus of the Pinnæ.--Defences of the - Bivalves.--Their Enemies.--The common Mussel.--Mussel Gardens. - --The Oyster.--Oyster Parks.--Oyster Rearing in the Lago di - Fusaro.--Formation of new Oyster Banks.--Pearl-fishing in Ceylon. - --How are Pearls formed?--The Tridacna gigas.--The Teredo navalis. - --The Brachiopods.--The Terebratulæ.--The Polyzoa.--The Sea-Mats. - --The Escharæ.--The Lepraliæ.--Bird's Head Processes.--The - Tunicata.--The Sea-Squirts.--The Chelyosoma.--The Botrylli.--The - Pyrosomes.--The Salpæ.--Interesting Points in the Organisation - of the Tunicata 270 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - ECHINODERMATA. - - STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, AND SEA-CUCUMBERS. - - The Star-Fishes.--Their Feet or Suckers.--Voracity of the Asterias. - --The Rosy Feather-Star.--Brittle and Sand-Stars.--The real - Sea-Stars of the British Waters.--The Sea-Urchins.--The - Pedicellariæ.--The Shell and the Dental Apparatus of the - Sea-Urchins.--The Sea-Cucumbers.--Their strange Dismemberments.-- - Trepang-fishing on the Coast of North Australia.--In the Feejee - Islands 328 - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - CŒLENTERATA. - - POLYPS AND JELLY-FISHES. - - Thread-cells or Urticating Organs.--Sertulariæ.--Campanulariadæ.-- - Hydrozoic Acalephæ.--Medusidæ.--Lucernariadæ.--Calycophoridæ.-- - The Velella.--The Portuguese Man-of-war.--Anecdote of a Prussian - Sailor.--Alternating Fixed and Free-swimming Generations of - Hydrozoa.--Actinozoa.--Ctenophora.--Their Beautiful Construction. - --Sea-anemones.--Dead Man's Toes.--Sea-pens.--Sea-rods.--Red - Coral.--Coral Fishery.--Isis hippuris.--Tropical Lithophytes.-- - History of the Coral Islands.--Darwin's Theory of their - Formation.--The progress of their Growth above the level of the Sea 345 - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - PROTOZOA. - - The Foraminifera.--The Amœbæ.--Their Wonderful Simplicity of - Structure.--The Polycystina.--Marine Infusoria.--Sponges. - --Their Pores.--Fibres and Spiculæ.--The Common Sponge of - Commerce 378 - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - MARINE PLANTS. - - The Algæ.--Zostera marina.--The Ulvæ and Enteromorphæ.--The Fuci. - --The Laminariæ.--Macrocystis pyrifera.--Description of the - Submarine Thickets at Tierra del Fuego.--Nereocystis lutkeana. - --The Sargasso Sea.--The Gathering of edible Birds'-nests in the - marine Caves of Java.--Agar-Agar.--The Florideæ.--The - Diatomaceæ.--Their importance in the economy of the Seas 390 - - - CHAPTER XX. - - THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE LIFE. - - The Dependence of all created Beings upon Space and Time.--The - Influences which regulate the Distribution of Marine Life.--The - four Bathymetrical Zones of Marine Life on the British Coasts, - according to the late Professor Edward Forbes of Edinburgh. - --Abyssal Animals.--_Bathybius Haeckelii._--Deep-Sea Sponges and - Shell-Fish.--Vivid Phosphorescence of Deep-Sea Animals.--Deep-Sea - Shark Fishery--The "Challenger." 405 - - - CHAPTER XXI. - - THE PHOSPHORESCENCE OF THE SEA. - - Its Causes.--Noctiluca miliaris.--Phosphorescent Annelides and - Beroës.--Intense Phosphorescence of the Pyrosoma atlantica. - --Luminous Pholades.--The luminous Shark.--Phosphorescent Algæ. - --Citations from Byron, Coleridge, Crabbe, and Scott. 423 - - - CHAPTER XXII. - - THE PRIMITIVE OCEAN. - - The Giant-Book of the Earth-rind.--The Sea of Fire.--Formation of - a solid Earth-crust by cooling.--The Primitive Waters.--First - awakening of Life in the Bosom of the Ocean.--The Reign of the - Saurians.--The future Ocean. 433 - - - PART III. - - THE PROGRESS OF MARITIME DISCOVERY. - - - CHAPTER XXIII. - - Maritime Discoveries of the Phœnicians.--Expedition of Hanno. - --Circumnavigation of Africa under the Pharaoh Necho.--Colæus of - Samos.--Pytheas of Massilia.--Expedition of Nearchus. - --Circumnavigation of Hindostan under the Ptolemies.--Voyages of - Discovery of the Romans.--Consequences of the Fall of the Roman - Empire.--Amalfi.--Pisa.--Venice.--Genoa.--Resumption of Maritime - Intercourse between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.--Discovery - of the Mariner's Compass.--Marco Polo 443 - - - CHAPTER XXIV. - - Prince Henry of Portugal.--Discovery of Porto Santo and Madeira. - --Doubling of Cape Bojador.--Discovery of the Cape Verde Islands. - --Bartholomew Diaz.--Vasco de Gama.--Columbus.--His Predecessors. - --Discovery of Greenland by Günnbjorn.--Bjorne Herjulfson.--Leif. - --John Vaz Cortereal.--John and Sebastian Cabot.--Retrospective - View of the Beginnings of English Navigation.--Ojeda and Amerigo - Vespucci.--Vincent Yañez Pinson.--Cortez.--Verazzani.--Cartier. - --The Portuguese in the Indian Ocean 454 - - - CHAPTER XXV. - - Vasco Nuñez de Balboa.--His Discovery of the Pacific, and subsequent - Fate.--Ferdinand Magellan.--Sebastian el Cano, the first - Circumnavigator of the Globe.--Discoveries of Pizarro and Cortez. - --Urdaneta.--Juan Fernandez.--Mendoza.--Drake.--Discoveries of the - Portuguese and Dutch in the Western Pacific.--Attempts of the Dutch - and English to discover North-East and North-West Passages to India. - --Sir Hugh Willoughby and Chancellor.--Frobisher.--Davis.--Barentz. - --His Wintering in Nova Zembla.--Quiros.--Torres.--Schouten.--Le - Maire.--Abel Tasman.--Hudson.--Baffin.--Dampier.--Anson.--Byron. - --Wallis and Carteret.--Bougainville 464 - - - CHAPTER XXVI. - - What had Cook's Predecessors left him to discover?--His first Voyage. - --Discovery of the Society Islands, and of the East Coast of New - Holland.--His second Voyage.--Discovery of the Hervey Group. - --Researches in the South Sea.--The New Hebrides.--Discovery of New - Caledonia and of South Georgia.--His third Voyage.--The Sandwich - Islands.--New Albion.--West Georgia.--Cook's Murder.--Vancouver. - --La Peyrouse 485 - - - CHAPTER XXVII. - - Scoresby.--The Arctic Navigators.--Ross.--Parry.--Sufferings of - Franklin and his Companions on his Overland Expedition in 1821. - --Parry's Sledge-journey to the North Pole.--Sir John Franklin. - --M'Clure.--Kane.--M'Clintock.--South Polar Expeditions. - --Bellinghausen.--Weddell.--Biscoe.--Balleny.--Dumont d'Urville. - --Wilkes.--Sir James Ross.--Recent Scientific Voyages of - Circumnavigation 496 - - -Description of the Frontispiece. - -ARCTIC SLEDGE-JOURNEY. - - The sledge plays a very conspicuous part in the history of arctic - discovery, as it enables the bold investigators of the icy - wildernesses of the North to penetrate to many places, impervious to - navigation, to establish dépôts of provisions for future emergencies, - or even becomes the means of saving their lives when their ship has - been lost or hopelessly blocked up. Whenever dogs can be had, these - useful animals are made use of for the transport. Our plate represents - one of these sledging parties threading its way through blocks of ice, - and gives a good idea of the difficulties they have to encounter. - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - -PLATES. - - Arctic Sledge-Journey _Frontispiece._ - - FACING PAGE - - The Souffleur Rock, Mauritius 52 - - Lighthouse and Waterspout 65 - - Australian Sea-Bears 117 - - The Boats of H.M.S. "Trent" attacked by Walruses 131 - - Penguins 142 - - Subaqueous Life--Sticklebacks and Nest 195 - - Russian Official collecting Algæ 392 - - -MAP. - - Map of the Globe, showing the direction of the Ocean Currents, - Cotidal Lines, &c. _facing page 3_. - - -WOODCUTS. - - Annelidans:-- - Aphrodita, or Sea-Mouse, 264 - Nereis, 263 - Serpula, attached to a Shell, 266 - - - Beachy Head, 5 - - Bell Rock Lighthouse, 86 - - Birds:-- - Albatross, Wandering, 163 - Auk, 168 - Great, 151 - Avoset, 144 - Barnacle Goose, 146 - Cormorant, common, 155 - Curlew, 143 - Eider Duck, 146 - Flamingo, 142 - Gannet, common, 156 - Great Crested Grebe, 150 - Guillemot, Black, 165 - (winter plumage), 167 - Herring Gulls, 158 - Hooded Merganser, 404 - Pelican, 116, 154 - Penguins, 152 - Petrel, Broad-billed, 160 - Fork-tailed, 160 - Stormy, 162 - Plover, 144 - Puffins, 165, 167 - Red-breasted Merganser, 149 - Scissor-bill (Rhynchops nigra), 144 - Sheldrake, 148 - Skimmer, Black, 144 - Snow Goose, 146 - Speckled Diver, 145 - Tailor-bird, 143 - - Birds of Passage, 171 - - Bones of the Anterior Fin of a Whale, 96 - - - Cœlenterata:-- - Alcyonidium elegans, 363 - Astræa, 373 - Caryophyllia, 370 - Chrysaora hysoscella, 357 - Coryniadæ, 358 - Ctenophora, 360 - Diphyes appendiculata, 353 - Grey Sea-Pen, 365 - Isis hippuris, 369 - Jelly Fishes, 349, 350, 351 - Lucernalia auricula, 352 - Medusæ, 349, 350, 351 - Physalia caravella, 355 - Physophora Philippii, 356 - Red Coral, 367 - Sertularia tricuspidata, 347 - Stone Corals, 373, 374 - Tubipora Musica, 370 - Velella, 354 - Virgularia mirabilis, 365 - Vogtia pentacantha, 353 - - Compound Foraminiferous Protozoon, magnified, 380 - - Crustaceans:-- - American Sand-Crab, 252 - Balanus ovularis, and group of, 244 - Barnacle, 101, 244 - Calling-Crab of Ceylon, 251 - Chelura tenebrans, 247 - Diogenes Hermit-Crab, 254 - Dromia vulgaris, 249 - Jamaica Land-Crab, 250 - King Crab, 246 - Large-clawed Calling-Crab, 250 - Limnoria lignorum, 247 - Metamorphosis of Carcinus Mœnas, 258 - Pea-Crab, 253 - Phyllosoma, 258 - Pinna Augustana, 253 - Sandhopper, 246 - Seyllarus equinoxialis, 248 - square facets of, 247 - Spotted Fin-Crab, 252 - Spotted Mantis-Crab, 256 - Stenopus hispidus, 261 - Whale-Louse, 101 - - Crustaceans and Oysters, 256 - - - Dental Apparatus of the Sea-Urchin, viewed from above, 339 - - - Ear, Human, 196 - - Ear of the Perch, 196 - - Echinodermata:-- - Cross-Fish, common, 334 - Eatable Trepang, 340 - Goniaster, 336 - Lily-Encrinite, 330 - Sand-Star, 332 - Sea-Urchin, 337 - Edible, 338 - Mammillated, 338 - Warted Euryale, 333 - - Eddystone Lighthouse, 84 - - Esquimaux in his Kayak, 120 - - - Fingal's Cave, 47 - - Fishes:-- - Ammodyte, or Launce, 230 - Anabas of the dry tanks, 192 - Anchovy, 214 - Angler, 203 - Bonito, 223 - Cod, 215 - Conger Eel, 228 - Diodon, 205 - Dory, 242 - Electric Eel, 202 - European Sly, 203 - Fierasfer, 340 - File-Fish, 232 - Flounder, 238 - Flying Fish, 156, 206, 224 - Frog-Fish, 192 - Gar-Fish, 223 - Globe-Fish, 232 - Gurnard, 197, 414 - Haddock, 215 - Halibut, 236 - Herring, 101, 208 - Lamprey, 231 - Ling, 215 - Mackerel, 222 - Mullet, Grey, 415 - Red, 197, 415 - Myxine, 231 - Perch, internal ear of the, 196 - Picked Dog-Fish, 200 - Pilchard, 212 - Pilot-Fish, 225 - Plaice, 238 - Porcupine-Fish, 232 - Salmo Rossii, 220 - Salmon, 415 - Sand-Eel, 415 - Saw-Fish, 201 - Sea-Horse, 234, 344 - Shark, Blue, 200 - Hammer-headed, 199 - White, 198 - Short Sun-Fish, 232, 422 - Sole, 237 - portion of skin of, highly magnified, 190 - Sturgeon, common, 217 - Surgeon-Fish, 205 - Swimming Pegasus, 207 - Sword-Fish, 99, 201 - Thornback, 240 - Torpedo, 201 - Toxotes Jaculator, 203 - Trunk-Fish, 232 - Tunny, 221 - Turbot, 237 - Wolf-Fish, 197 - - Foraminifera, various forms of, 381 - - Fossils:-- - Ammonite, 437 - Belemnite, 437 - Ichthyosaurus communis, 172, 438 - Pentacrinus Briareus, portion of, 330 - Plesiosaurus, 438 - Trilobite, 436 - - - Hill at the Rapid on Bear Lake River - (North-West Territory, North America), 23 - - H.M.S. "Resolute" lying to in the North Atlantic, 24 - - - Ice-Bear approaching the "Dorothea" and "Trent", 137 - - - Japan Junks, 63 - - - Licmophora flabellata, 403 - - - Mammals:-- - Dolphin, 107 - Dugong, 117 - female, of Ceylon, 119 - Manatee, 117 - Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus), 134 - Porpoise, 108 - Rorqual, 101 - Sea-Otter, 140 - Seal, 119, 123, 135 - Greenland, 123 - Walrus, 129, 135 - Whale, common, 97 - Whale, Spermaceti, 102, 115 - - Mollusks:-- - Argonaut, 280 - Ascidia mammillata, 322 - Banded Dipper, 141 - Bivalve deprived of its shell, to show its various openings, 300 - Botryllus, 324 - Bulla, 294 - Calamary, 272 - Carinaria, 287 - Cellularia, 319 - Chelyosoma Macleayanum, 323, 327 - Chinese Wentle-trap (Scalaria pretiosa), 289 - Chiton squamosus, 285 - Clavellina producta, 322 - Clio borealis, 98 - Cockle, common, 303, 306 - Cuttle-Fish (Sepia), 104, 275 - Diazona violacea, 324 - Donax, 301 - Edible Mussel, 307 - Edible Oyster, 308 - Eolis, 284 - Eschara cervicornis, 318 - Gorgeous Doris, 235 - Haliotis, 287 - Harp-shell, 288 - Hippopus maculatus, 315 - Ianthina communis, 290 - Leaf-like Sea-mat, 316, 317 - Limpet and Shell, 286, 292, 411 - Magilus antiquus, 291 - Mitre-shells, 288 - Murex haustellum, 291, 296 - Oliva hispidula, 290 - Onychoteuthis, 274 - Orange Cone-shell, 288 - Pearl-Oyster, 312 - Pearly Nautilus, 280 - Periwinkle, 411 - Petunculus, 302 - Pholas striata, 302 - Pinna, 305 - Poulp (Octopus), 272, 273 - Pteroceras scorpio, 290 - Retepora cellularis, 318 - Salpa, 326 - Scyllæa, 283 - Sea-Hare, compound stomach of, 295 - Sepia, 104, 275 - Solen, or Razor-Shell, 304 - Strombus pes pelicani, 290 - Syllæa, gizzard of, 294 - Tiara, 283 - Tridacna gigas, 314 - Whelk, 413 - Worm-shell, 291 - - Muscles and Electric Batteries of the Torpedo, 202 - - - Nervous Axis of an Annelidan, 262 - - Noctiluca miliaris, 419 - - - Ova of the Cuttle-Fish, 278 - - - Protozoa:-- - Amœba, 379 - Foraminifera, 381 - Halina papillaris, 386 - Infusoria, marine, 384 - Nummulina discoidalis, 378 - Polycistina, 383 - Sponges, 385 - Tethea, 385, 386 - - - Reptiles:-- - Alligator Lucius, 173 - Tortoise, 174 - Turtle, Green, 170 - Hawk's Bill, 180 - Loggerhead, 176 - Water-Snake, 183 - - Rocky Mountains at the bend of the Bear Lake River, 79 - - Rotifera:-- - Conochilus volvox, 268 - Philodina roseola, 269 - Ptygura melicerta, 267 - - - Saw of the Saw-Fish, 100 - - Sea-Fowl Shooting, 168 - - Skeleton of the Dugong, 118 - of the Perch, 188 - of the Seal, 119 - of the Tortoise, 174 - - Skerryvore Lighthouse, 89 - - Skull and Head of Walrus, 129 - - Skull of Whale, with the Baleen, 98 - - Sockets with teeth, of Echinus esculentus, 339 - - Surirella constricta, 402 - - - Theoretic representation of the Circulation in Fishes, 192 - - Theoretic representation of the Circulation in Mammals - and Birds, 175 - - Theoretic representation of the Circulation in Reptiles, 175 - - Torso Rock, near Point Deas Thomson, in the Arctic Ocean, 9 - - - Urticating organs of Cœlenterata, 346 - - - Water-Sports, 69, 70 - - - - - PART I. - - THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE MAGNITUDE OF THE SEA. - - Extent of the Ocean.--Length of its Coast-Line.--Mural, Rocky, - and Flat Coasts.--How deep is the Sea?--Average Depth of the - Atlantic Ocean.--The Telegraphic Plateau between Newfoundland - and Ireland.--Measurement of Depth by the Rapidity of the - Tide-Wave.--Progressive Changes in the Limits of the Ocean.--Alluvial - Deposits.--Upheaving.--Subsidence.--Does the Level of the Sea - remain unchanged, and is it everywhere the same?--Composition and - Temperature of Sea-Water.--Its intrinsic Colour.--The Azure Grotto at - Capri.--Modification of Colour owing to Animals and Plants.--Submarine - Landscapes viewed through the Clear Waters. - - -Of all the gods that divide the empire of the earth, Neptune rules over -the widest realms. If a giant-hand were to uproot the Andes and cast them -into the sea, they would be engulphed in the abyss, and scarcely raise -the general level of the waters. - -The South American Pampas, bounded on the north by tropical palm-trees, -and on the south by wintry firs, are no doubt of magnificent dimensions, -yet these vast deserts seem insignificant when compared with the -boundless plains of earth-encircling ocean. Nay! a whole continent, even -America or Asia, appears small against the immensity of the sea, which -covers with its rolling waves nearly three-fourths of the entire surface -of the globe. - -A single glance over the map shows us at once how very unequally water -and land are distributed. In one part we see continents and islands -closely grouped together, while in another the sea widely spreads in -one unbroken plain; here vast peninsulas stretch far away into the -domains of ocean, while there immense gulfs plunge deeply into the bosom -of the land. At first sight it might appear as if blind chance had -presided over this distribution, but a nearer view convinces us that -providential laws have established the existing relations between the -solid and fluid surfaces of the earth. If the sea had been much smaller, -or if the greatest mass of land had been concentrated in the tropical -zone, all the meteorological phenomena on which the existence of actual -organic life depends would have been so different, that it is _doubtful_ -whether man could then have existed, and _certain_ that, under those -altered circumstances, he never would have attained his present state of -civilisation. The dependence of our intellectual development upon the -existing configuration of the earth, convinces us that Divine wisdom and -not chaotic anarchy has from all eternity presided over the destinies of -our planet. - -The length of all the coasts which form the boundary between sea and -land can only be roughly estimated, for who has accurately measured -the numberless windings of so many shores? The entire coast line of -deeply indented Europe and her larger isles measures about 21,600 miles, -equal to the circumference of the earth; while the shores of compact -Africa extend to a length of only 14,000 miles. I need hardly point out -how greatly Europe's irregular outlines have contributed to the early -development of her superior civilisation and political predominance. The -coasts of America measure about 45,000 miles, those of Asia 40,000, while -those of Australia and Polynesia may safely be estimated at 16,000. Thus -the entire coast-line of the globe amounts to about 136,000 miles, which -it would take the best pedestrian full twenty-five years to traverse from -end to end. - -How different is the aspect of these shores along which the ever-restless -sea continually rises or falls! Here steep rock-walls tower up from the -deep, while there a low sandy beach extends its flat profile as far -as the eye can reach. While some coasts are scorched by the vertical -sunbeam, others are perpetually blocked up with ice. Here the safe -harbour bids welcome to the weather-beaten sailor, the lighthouse greets -him from afar with friendly ray; the experienced pilot hastens to guide -him to the port, and all along the smiling margin of the land rise the -peaceful dwellings of civilised man. There, on the contrary, the roaring -breakers burst upon the shore of some dreary wilderness, the domain of -the savage or the brute. What a wonderful variety of scenes unrolls -itself before our fancy as it roams along the coasts of ocean from zone -to zone! what changes, as it wanders from the palm-girt coral island -of the tropical seas to the melancholy strands where, verging towards -the poles, all vegetable life expires! and how magnificently grand does -the idea of ocean swell out in our imagination, when we consider that -its various shores witness at one and the same time the rising and the -setting of the sun, the darkness of night and the full blaze of day, the -rigour of winter and the smiling cheerfulness of spring! - -[Illustration: Beachy Head.] - -The different formation of sea-coasts has necessarily a great influence -on commercial intercourse. Bold mural coasts, rising precipitously from -the deep sea, generally possess the best harbours. Rocky shores also -afford many good ports, but most frequently only for smaller vessels, and -of difficult access, on account of the many isolated cliffs and reefs -which characterise this species of coast formation. - -In places where high lands reach down to the coast, the immediate depth -of the sea is proportionably great; but wherever the surface rises gently -landwards, the sea-bed continues with a corresponding slope downwards. On -these flat coasts the tides roll over a sandy or shingly beach; and here -the aid of human industry is frequently required to create artificial -ports, or to prevent those already existing from being choked with sand. - -On many flat coasts the drift-sand has raised _dunes_, wearying the eye -by their monotonous uniformity; on others, where these natural bulwarks -are wanting, artificial embankments, or dykes protect the lowlands -against the encroachments of the sea, or else the latter forms vast -salt-marshes and lagunes. On some coasts these submerged or half-drowned -lands have been transformed by the industry of man into fertile meadows -and fields, of which the Dutch Netherlands afford the most celebrated -example; while in other countries, such as Egypt, large tracts of land -once cultivated have been lost to the sea, in consequence of long misrule -and tyranny. - - * * * * * - -How deep is the sea? How is its bottom formed? Does life still exist in -its abyssal depths? These mysteries of ocean, which no doubt floated -indistinctly before the mind of many an inquisitive mariner and -philosopher of ancient times, have only recently been subjected to a more -accurate investigation. Their solution is of the highest importance, -both to the physical geographer, whose knowledge must necessarily -remain incomplete until he can fully trace the deep-sea path of oceanic -currents, and to the zoologist, to whom it affords a wider insight into -the laws which govern the development of the innumerable forms of life -with which our globe is peopled. - -The ordinary system of sounding by means of a weight attached to a -graduated line, and "armed" at its lower end with a thick coating of soft -tallow, so as to bring up evidence of its having reached the bottom in a -sample of mud, shells, sand, gravel, or ooze, answers perfectly well for -comparatively shallow water, and for the ordinary purposes of navigation, -but it breaks down for depths much over 1000 fathoms. The weight is not -sufficient to carry the line rapidly and vertically to the bottom; and if -a heavier weight be used, ordinary sounding line is unable to draw up its -own weight along with that of the lead from great depths, and gives way, -so that by this means no information can be gained as to the nature of -the sea-bottom. To obviate this difficulty, several ingenious instruments -have been invented, such as the "Bull-dog" sounding machine, which is so -contrived that on touching the bottom the weight becomes detached, while -at the same time a pair of scoops, closing upon one another scissorwise -on a hinge, and permanently attached to the sounding-line, retain and -are able to bring up a sample of the bottom. - -With the aid of steam, dredging has also been successfully carried down -to 2,435 fathoms, so that the ocean bed may become in time as well known -to us as the bed of the Mersey or the Thames. - -Both sounding and dredging at great depths are, however, difficult and -laborious tasks, which can only be performed under very favourable -circumstances, and require a vessel specially fitted at considerable -expense. - -Many of the early deep soundings in the Atlantic, which reported the -astonishing depths of 46,000 or even 50,000 feet, are now known to have -been greatly exaggerated. In some cases bights of the line seem to be -carried along by submarine currents, and in others it is found that the -line has been running out by its own weight only, and coiling itself in -a tangled mass directly over the lead. These sources of error vitiate -very deep soundings; and consequently, in the last chart of the North -Atlantic, published on the authority of Rear-Admiral Richards in November -1870, none are entered beyond 4000 fathoms, and very few beyond 3000. - -"The general result," says Professor Wyville Thomson,[A] "to which we -are led by the careful and systematic deep-sea soundings which have been -undertaken of late years is that the depth of the sea is not so great as -was at one time supposed, and does not appear to average more than 2000 -fathoms (12,000 feet), about equal to the mean height of the elevated -table-lands of Asia. - -[Footnote A: "The Depths of the Sea," p. 228.] - -"The thin shell of water which covers so much of the face of the earth -occupies all the broad general depressions in its crust, and it is only -limited by the more abrupt prominences which project above its surface, -as masses of land with their crowning plateaux and mountain ranges. The -Atlantic Ocean covers 30,000,000 of square miles, and the Arctic Sea -3,000,000, and taken together they almost exactly equal the united areas -of Europe, Asia, and Africa--the whole of the Old World--and yet there -seem to be few depressions on its bed to a greater depth than 15,000 or -20,000 feet--a little more than the height of Mont Blanc; and, except in -the neighbourhood of the shores, there is only one very marked mass of -mountains, the volcanic group of the Açores." - -Accurate soundings are as yet much too distant to justify a detailed -description of the bed of the Atlantic. I will merely state that after -sloping gradually to a depth of 500 fathoms to the westward of the coast -of Ireland, in lat. 52° N., the bottom suddenly dips to 1700 fathoms, -at the rate of from about 15 to 19 feet in the 100. From this point to -within about 200 miles of the coast of Newfoundland, where it begins -to shoal again, there is a vast undulating plain averaging about 2000 -fathoms in depth below the surface--the "telegraph plateau" on which now -rest the cables through which the electric power transmits its marvellous -messages from one world to another. - -Our information about the beds of the Indian, the Antarctic, and the -Pacific Oceans is still more incomplete, but the few trustworthy -observations which have hitherto been made seem to indicate that neither -the depth nor the nature of the bottom of these seas differs greatly from -what we find nearer home. - -The inclosed and land-locked European seas are very shallow when compared -with the high ocean: the Mediterranean, however, has in some parts a -depth of more than 6000 feet; and even in the Black Sea, the plummet -sometimes descends to more than 3000 feet; while the waters of the -Adriatic everywhere roll over a shallow bed. - -The researches of Mr. Russell on the swiftness of the tide-wave, showing -that the rapidity of its progress increases with the depth of the waters -over which it passes, afford us another means, besides the sounding -line, of determining approximately the distance of the sea-bottom from -its surface. According to this method, the depth of the Channel between -Plymouth and Boulogne has been calculated at 180 feet; and the enormous -rapidity of the flood wave over the great open seas (300 miles an hour -and more) gives us for the mean depth of the Atlantic 14,400 feet, and -for that of the Pacific 19,500. - -Natural philosophers have endeavoured to calculate the quantity of the -waters contained within the vast bosom of the ocean; but as we are -still very far from accurately knowing the mean depth of the sea, such -estimates are evidently based upon a very unsubstantial foundation. - -So much at least is certain, that the volume of the waters of the ocean -as much surpasses all conception, as the number of their inhabitants, or -of the sands that line their shores. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Torso Rock, near Point Deas Thomson, in the Arctic Ocean.] - -The boundaries of the ocean are not invariable; while in some parts -it encroaches upon the land, in others it retreats from the expanding -coast. In many places we find the sea perpetually gnawing and undermining -cliffs and rocks; and sometimes swelling with sudden rage, it devours a -broad expanse of plain, and changes fertile meads into a dreary waste of -waters. The Goodwin Sands, notorious for the loss of many a noble vessel, -were once a large tract of low ground belonging to Earl Goodwin, father -of Harold, the last of our Saxon kings; and being afterwards enjoyed -by the monastery of St. Augustine at Canterbury, the whole surface was -drowned by the abbot's neglect to repair the wall which defended it from -the sea. In spite of the endeavours of the Dutch to protect their flat -land by dykes against the inundatory waters, the storm-flood has more -than once burst through these artificial boundaries, and converted large -districts into inland seas. - -But the spaces which in this manner the dry land has gradually or -suddenly lost, or still loses, to the chafing ocean are largely -compensated for in other places, by the vast accumulations of mud -and sand, which so many rivers continually carry along with them into -the sea. Thus at the mouths of the Nile, of the Ganges, and of the -Mississippi, large alluvial plains have been deposited, which now form -some of the most fruitful portions of the globe. The whole Delta of -Egypt, Bengal, and Louisiana, have thus gradually emerged from the waters. - -The volcanic powers, which once caused the highest mountain chains to -rise from the glowing bosom of the earth, are still uninterruptedly -active in changing its surface, and are gradually displacing the present -boundaries of sea and land, upheaving some parts and causing others to -subside. - -On the coast of Sweden, it has been ascertained that iron rings fixed to -rocks which formerly served for the fastening of boats are at present -much too high. Flat cliffs on which, according to ancient documents, -seals used to be clubbed while enjoying the warm sunbeam, are now quite -out of the reach of these amphibious animals. In the years 1731, 1752, -and 1755, marks were hewn in some conspicuous rocks, which after the -lapse of half a century were found to have risen about two feet higher -above the level of the sea. This phenomenon is confined to part of the -coast, so that it is clearly the result of a local and slowly progressive -upheaving. - -Whilst a great part of Scandinavia is thus slowly but steadily rising, -the shores of Chili have been found to rise convulsively under the -influence of mighty volcanic shocks. Thus after the great earthquake of -1822, the whole coast, for the length of a hundred miles, was found to -be three or four feet higher than before, and a further elevation was -observed after the earthquake of Feb. 21st, 1835. - -While to the north of Wolstenholme Sound, Kane remarked signs of -elevation, a converse depression was observed as he proceeded southwards -along the coast of Greenland, Esquimaux huts being seen washed by the -sea. The axis of oscillation must be somewhere about 77° N. lat. - -At Keeling Island, in the Indian Ocean, Mr. Darwin found evidence -of subsidence. On every side of the lagoon, in which the water is -as tranquil as in the most sheltered lake, old cocoa-nut trees were -undermined and falling. The foundation-posts of a store-house on the -beach, which the inhabitants had said stood seven years before just above -high-water mark, were now daily washed by the tide. Earthquakes had been -repeatedly remarked by the inhabitants, so that Darwin no longer doubted -concerning the cause which made the trees to fall, and the store-house to -be washed by the daily tide. - -On the columns of the temple of Serapis, near Puzzuoli, the astonished -naturalist sees holes scooped out by Pholades and Lithodomas, twenty-four -feet above the present level of the sea. These animals are marine -testacea, that have the power of burying themselves in stone, and -cannot live beyond the reach of low-water. How then have they been able -to scoop out those hieroglyphic marks so far above the level of their -usual abodes? for surely marble originally defective was never used -for the construction of so proud an edifice. Alternate depressions and -elevations of the soil afford us the only key to the enigma. Earthquakes -and oscillations, so frequent in that volcanic region, must first -have lowered the temple into the sea, where it was acted upon by the -sacrilegious molluscs, and then again their upheaving powers must have -raised it to its present elevation. Thus, even the solid earth changes -its features, and reminds us of the mutability of all created things. - -There can be no doubt that, in consequence of the perpetual increase of -alluvial deposits, and of the volcanic processes I have mentioned, the -present boundaries of ocean must undergo great alterations in the course -of centuries, and the general level of the sea must either rise or fall; -but the evidence of history proves to us that, for the last 2000 years at -least, there has been no notable change in this respect. - -The baths hewn out in the rocks of Alexandria, and the stones of its -harbour, have remained unaltered ever since the foundation of the city -by the Macedonian conqueror; and the ancient port of Marseilles shows -no more signs of a change of level than the old sea-walls of Cadiz. -Thus, all the elevations and depressions that have occurred in the bed -of ocean, or along its margin, and all the mud and sand that thousands -of rivers continually carry along with them into the sea, have left its -general level unaltered, at least within the historic ages. However -great their effects may appear to the eye that confines itself to local -changes, their influence, as far as the evidence of history reaches, has -been but slight upon the immensity of the sea. - -Geodesical operations have proved that the level of the ocean, with -the exception of certain enclosed seas of limited extent, is everywhere -the same. The accurate measurements of Corabœuf and Delcros show no -perceptible difference between the level of the Channel and that of the -Mediterranean. In the course of the operations for measuring the meridian -in France, M. Delambre calculated the height of Rodez above the level -of the Mediterranean at Barcelona, and its height above the ocean which -washes the foot of the tower of Dunkirk, and found the difference to be -equal to a fraction of a yard. - -The measurements which, at Humboldt's suggestion, General Bolivar caused -to be executed by Messrs. Lloyd and Filmore, prove that the Pacific is, -at the utmost, only a few feet higher than the Caribbean Sea, and even -that the relative height of the two seas changes with the tides. - -The long and narrow inlet of the Red Sea, which, according to former -measurements, was said to be twenty-four or thirty feet higher than the -Mediterranean seems, from more recent and accurate investigations, to be -of the same level, and thus to form no exception to the general rule. - - * * * * * - -The salts contained in sea water, and to which it owes its peculiar -bitter and unpleasant taste, form about three and a half per cent. of -its weight, and consist principally of common table salt (chloride of -sodium), and the sulphates and carbonates of magnesia and lime. But, -besides these chief ingredients, there is scarcely a single elementary -body of which traces are not to be found in that universal solvent. -Wilson has pointed out fluoric combinations in sea water, and Malaguti -and Durocher (Annales de Chimie, 1851) detected lead, copper, and silver -in its composition. Tons of this precious metal are dissolved in the vast -volume of the ocean, and it contains arsenic sufficient to poison every -living thing. - -Animal mucus, the product of numberless creatures, is mixed up with the -sea water, and it constantly absorbs carbonic acid and atmospheric air, -which are as indispensable to the marine animals and plants as to the -denizens of the atmospheric ocean. - -In inclosed seas, communicating with the ocean only by narrow straits, -the quantity of saline particles varies from that of the high seas. Thus -the Mediterranean, when evaporation is favoured by heat, contains about -one half per cent. more salt than the ocean; while the Baltic, which, -on account of its northern position, is not liable to so great a loss, -and receives vast volumes of fresh water from a number of considerable -rivers, is scarcely half so salt as the neighbouring North Sea. - -In the open ocean, the perpetual circulation of the waters produces an -admirable equality of composition: yet Dr. Lenz, who accompanied Kotzebue -in his second voyage round the world, and devoted great attention to -the subject, found that the Atlantic, particularly in its western part, -contains a somewhat larger proportion of salts than the Pacific; and that -the Indian Ocean, which connects those vast volumes of water, is more -salt towards the former than towards the latter. - - * * * * * - -As water is a bad conductor of caloric, the temperature of the seas is in -general more constant than that of the air. - -The equinoctial ocean seldom attains the maximum warmth of 83°, and has -never been known to rise above 87°; while the surface of the land between -the tropics is frequently heated to 129°. In the neighbourhood of the -line, the temperature of the surface-water oscillates all the year round -only between 82° and 85°, and scarce any difference is perceptible at -different times of the day. - -The wonderful sameness and equability of the temperature of the tropical -ocean over spaces covering thousands of square miles, particularly -between 10° N. and 10° S. lat., far from the coasts, and where it is -not intersected by pelagic streams, affords, according to Arago, the -best means of solving a very important, and as yet unanswered question, -concerning the physics of the globe. "Without troubling itself," -says that great natural philosopher, "about mere local influences, -each century might leave to succeeding generations, by a few easy -thermometrical measurements, the means of ascertaining whether the sun, -at present almost the only source of warmth upon the surface of the -earth, changes his physical constitution, and varies in his splendour -like most stars, or whether he has attained a permanent condition. Great -and lasting revolutions in his shining orb would reflect themselves more -accurately in the altered mean temperature of those ocean plains than in -the changed medium warmth of the dry land." - -The warmest part of the ocean does not coincide with the Equator, but -seems to form two not quite parallel bands to the north and south. - -In the northern Atlantic, the line of greatest temperature (87° F.) which -on the African coast is found but a little to the north of the Equator, -rises on the north coast of South America as high as 12° N. lat., and -in the Gulf of Mexico ranges even beyond the tropic. The influence of -the warmth-radiating land on inclosed waters is still more remarkable in -the Mediterranean (between 30° and 44° N. lat.) where during the summer -months a temperature of 84° and 85° is found, three degrees higher than -the medium warmth of the open tropical seas. - -While in the torrid zone the temperature of the ocean is generally -inferior to that of the atmosphere, the contrary takes place in the Polar -seas. Near Spitzbergen, even under 80° N. lat., Gaimard never found the -temperature of the water below +33°. Between Norway and Spitzbergen the -mean warmth of the water in summer was +39°, while that of the air only -attained +37°. - -In the enclosed seas of the Arctic Ocean, the enormous accumulation of -ice, which the warmth of a short summer is unable totally to dissolve, -naturally produces a very low temperature of the waters. Thus, in -Baffin's Bay, Sir John Ross found during the summer months only -thirty-one days on which the temperature of the water rose above freezing -point. - -In the depths of the sea, even in the tropical zone, the water is found -of a frigid temperature, and this circumstance first led to the knowledge -of the submarine polar ocean currents; "for without these, the deep sea -temperature in the tropics could never have been lower than the maximum -of cold, which the heat-radiating particles attain at the surface."[B] - -[Footnote B: Humboldt's "Kosmos."] - -It was formerly believed that while the surface temperature--which -depended upon direct solar radiation, the direction of currents, the -temperature of winds, and other temporary causes--might vary to any -amount, at a certain depth the temperature was permanent at 4° C., the -temperature of the greatest density of fresh water. Late investigations, -however, have led to the conclusion that instead of there being a -permanent deep layer of water at 4° C., the average temperature of the -deep sea in temperate and tropical regions is about 0° C., the freezing -point of fresh water. - -In the atmospheric ocean, aëronauts not seldom meet with warm air -currents flowing above others of a colder temperature; while, according -to a general law, the warmth of the air constantly diminishes as its -elevation above the surface of the sea increases. - -Similar exceptions to the general rule are met with in the ocean. In -moderate depths sometimes the whole mass of water from the surface to the -bottom is abnormally warm, owing to the movement in a certain direction -of a great body of warm water, as in the "warm area" to the north-west of -the Hebrides, where, at a depth of 500 fathoms, the minimum temperature -was found to be 6° C. On the other hand, the whole body of water is -sometimes abnormally cold, as in the "cold area," between Scotland and -Faeroe, where, at a depth of 500 fathoms, the bottom temperature is found -to average -1° C.[C] The only feasible explanation of these enormous -differences of temperature, amounting to nearly 13° F. in two areas -freely communicating with one another, and in close proximity, is that -in the area to the north-west of the Hebrides a body of water warmed -even above the normal temperature of the latitude flows northwards from -some southern source, and occupies the whole depth of that comparatively -shallow portion of the Atlantic, while an arctic stream of frigid water -creeps from the north-eastward into the trough between Faeroe and the -Shetland Islands, and fills its deeper part in consequence of its higher -specific gravity. There can be no doubt that similar phenomena occur -in various parts of the ocean, and that the deep seas are frequently -intersected by streams differing in temperature from the surrounding -waters. - -[Footnote C: "The Depths of the Sea," by Professor Wyville Thomson, p. -307.] - -In some places, owing to the conformation of the neighbouring land or -of the sea-bottom, superficial warm and cold currents are circumscribed -and localised, thereby occasioning the singular phenomenon of a patch -or stripe of warm and a patch of cold sea meeting in an invisible but -well-defined line. - -The temperature of the sea apparently never sinks at any depth below --3·5° C. This is about the temperature of the maximum density of sea -water, which contracts steadily till just above its freezing point -(-3·67° C.), when kept perfectly still. - -If we include in the tropical seas all that part of the ocean where the -surface temperature never falls below 68° F., and where consequently -living coral reefs may occur, we find that it nearly equals in size the -temperate and cold ocean-regions added together. This distribution of -the waters over the surface of the globe is of the highest importance to -mankind; for the immense extent of the tropical ocean, where, of course, -the strongest evaporation takes place, furnishes our temperate zone with -the necessary quantity of rain, and tends by its cooling influence to -diminish the otherwise unbearable heat of the equatorial lands. - -The circumstance of ice being lighter than water also contributes to the -habitability of our earth. Ice is a bad conductor of heat; consequently -it shields the subjacent waters from the influence of frost, and prevents -its penetrating to considerable depths. If ice had been heavier than -water, the sea-bottom, in higher latitudes, would have been covered -with solid crystal at the very beginning of the cold season; and during -the whole length of the polar winter, the perpetually consolidating -surface-waters would have been constantly precipitated, till finally the -whole sea, far within the present temperate zone, would have formed one -solid mass of ice. The sun would have been as powerless to melt this -prodigious body, as it is to dissolve the glaciers of the Alps, and the -cold radiating from its surface would have rendered all the neighbouring -lands uninhabitable. - - * * * * * - -The mixture of the water of rivers with that of the sea presents some -hydrostatic phenomena which it is curious enough to observe. Fresh water -being lighter, ought to keep at the surface, while the salt water, from -its weight, should form the deepest strata. This, in fact, is what Mr. -Stephenson observed in 1818 in the harbour of Aberdeen at the mouth of -the Dee, and also in the Thames near London and Woolwich. By taking up -water from different depths with an instrument invented for the purpose, -Mr. Stephenson found that at a certain distance from the mouth the water -is fresh in the whole depth, even during the flow of the tide, but that -a little nearer the sea fresh water is found on the surface, while the -lower strata consist of sea water. According to his observations it is -between London and Woolwich that the saltness of the bottom begins to be -perceptible. Thus, below Woolwich the Thames, instead of flowing over a -solid bed, in reality flows upon a liquid bottom formed by the water of -the sea, with which no doubt it is more or less mixed. - -Mr. Stephenson is of opinion that, at the flow of the tide, the fresh -water is raised as it were in a single mass by the salt water which -flows in, and which ascends the bed of the river, while the fresh water -continues to flow towards the sea. - -Where the Amazon, the La Plata, the Orinoco, and other giant streams pour -out their vast volumes of water into the ocean, the surface of the sea is -fresh for many miles from the shore; but this is only superficial, for -below, even in the bed of the rivers, the bitterness of salt water is -found. - -It is a curious fact, that in many parts of the ocean, fresh-water -springs burst from the bottom of the sea. Thus, in the Gulf of Spezzia, -and in the port of Syracuse, large jets of fresh water mingle with the -brine; and Humboldt mentions a still more remarkable submarine fountain -on the southern coast of Cuba, in the Gulf of Xagua, a couple of sea -miles from the shore, which gushes through the salt water with such -vehemence, that boats approaching the spot are obliged to use great -caution. Trading vessels are said sometimes to visit this spring, in -order to provide themselves in the midst of the ocean with a supply of -fresh water. - - * * * * * - -The sea is not colourless; its crystal mirror not only reflects the -bright sky or the passing cloud, but naturally possesses a pure bluish -tint, which is only rendered visible to the eye when the light penetrates -through a stratum of water of considerable depth. This may be easily -ascertained by experiment. Take a glass tube, two inches wide and two -yards long, blacken it internally with lamp-black and wax to within half -an inch of the end, the latter being closed by a cork. Throw a few pieces -of white porcelain into this tube, which, after being filled with pure -sea-water, must be set vertically on a white plate, and then, looking -through the open end, you will see the white of the porcelain changed -into a light blue tint. - -In the Gulf of Naples, we find the inherent colour of the water exhibited -to us by Nature on a most magnificent scale. The splendid "Azure cave," -at Capri, might almost be said to have been created for the purpose. -For many centuries its beauties had been veiled from man, as the narrow -entrance is only a few feet above the level of the sea, and it was -only discovered in the year 1826, by two Prussian artists accidentally -swimming in the neighbourhood. Having passed the portal, the cave widens -to grand proportions, 125 feet long, and 145 feet broad, and except -a small landing place on a projecting rock at the farther end, its -precipitous walls are on all sides bathed by the influx of the waters, -which in that sea are most remarkably clear, so that the smallest objects -may be distinctly seen on the light bottom at a depth of several hundred -feet. All the light that enters the grotto must penetrate the whole depth -of the waters, probably several hundred feet, before it can be reflected -into the cave from the clear bottom, and it thus acquires so deep a tinge -from the vast body of water through which it has passed, that the dark -walls of the cavern are illumined by a radiance of the purest azure, and -the most differently coloured objects below the surface of the water are -made to appear bright blue. Had Byron known of the existence of this -magic cave, Childe Harold would surely have sung its beauties in some of -his most brilliant stanzas. - -All profound and clear seas are more or less of a deep blue colour, -while, according to seamen, a green colour indicates soundings. The -bright blue of the Mediterranean, so often vaunted by poets, is found all -over the deep pure ocean, not only in the tropical and temperate zones, -but also in the regions of eternal frost. Scoresby speaks with enthusiasm -of the splendid blue of the Greenland seas, and all along the great -ice-barrier which under 77° S. lat. obstructed the progress of Sir James -Ross towards the pole, that illustrious navigator found the waters of as -deep a blue as in the classical Mediterranean. The North Sea is green, -partly from its water not being so clear, and partly from the reflection -of its sandy bottom mixing with the essentially blue tint of the water. -In the Bay of Loanga the sea has the colour of blood, and Captain Tuckey -discovered that this results from the reflection of the red ground-soil. - -But the essential colour of the sea undergoes much more frequent changes -over large spaces, from enormous masses of minute _algæ_, and countless -hosts of small sea-worms, floating or swimming on its surface. - -"A few days after leaving Bahia," says Mr. Darwin, "not far from the -Abrolhos islets, the whole surface of the water, as it appeared under a -weak lens, seemed as if covered by chipped bits of hay with their ends -jagged. Each bundle consisted of from twenty to sixty filaments, divided -at regular intervals by transverse septa, containing a brownish-green -flocculent matter. The ship passed several bands of them, one of which -was about ten yards wide, and, judging from the mud-like colour of the -water, at least two and a half miles long. Similar masses of floating -vegetable matter are a very common appearance near Australia. During two -days preceding our arrival at the Keeling Islands, I saw in many parts -masses of flocculent matter of a brownish green colour, floating in the -ocean. They were from half to three inches square, and consisted of two -kinds of microscopical confervæ. Minute cylindrical bodies, conical at -each extremity, were involved in large numbers in a mass of fine threads." - -"On the coast of Chili," says the same author, "a few leagues north of -Conception, the 'Beagle' one day passed through great bands of muddy -water; and again, a degree south of Valparaiso, the same appearance -was still more extensive. Mr. Sulivan, having drawn up some water in a -glass, distinguished by the aid of a lens moving points. The water was -slightly stained, as if by red dust, and after leaving it for sometime -quiet, a cloud collected at the bottom. With a slightly magnifying lens, -small hyaline points could be seen darting about with great rapidity, -and frequently exploding. Examined with a much higher power, their shape -was found to be oval, and contracted by a ring round the middle, from -which line curved little setæ proceeded on all sides, and these were the -organs of motion. Their minuteness was such that they were individually -quite invisible to the naked eye, each covering a space equal only to -the one-thousandth of an inch, and their number was infinite, for the -smallest drop of water contained very many. In one day we passed through -two spaces of water thus stained, one of which alone must have extended -over several square miles. The colour of the water was like that of -a river which has flowed through a red clay district, and a strictly -defined line separated the red stream from the blue water." - -In the neighbourhood of Callao, the Pacific has an olive-green colour, -owing to a greenish matter which is also found at the bottom of the sea, -in a depth of 800 feet. In its natural state it has no smell, but when -cast on the fire, it emits the odour of burnt animal substances. - -Near Cape Palmas, on the coast of Guinea, Captain Tuckey's ship seemed to -sail through milk, a phenomenon which was owing to an immense number of -little white animals swimming on the surface, and concealing the natural -tint of the water. - -The peculiar colouring of the Red Sea, from which it has derived its -name, is owing to the presence of a microscopic alga, _sui generis_, -floating at the surface of the sea and even less remarkable for its -beautiful red colour than for its prodigious fecundity. - -I could add many more examples, where, either from minute algæ or from -small animals, the deep blue sea suddenly appeared in stripes of white, -yellow, green, brown, orange or red. For fear, however, of tiring the -reader's patience, I shall merely mention the _olive-green_ water, which -covers a considerable part of the Greenland seas. It is found between -74° and 80° N. lat., but its position varies with the currents, often -forming isolated stripes, and sometimes spreading over two or three -degrees of latitude. Small yellowish Medusæ, of from one-thirtieth to -one-twentieth of an inch in diameter are the principal agents that change -the pure ultramarine of the Arctic Ocean into a muddy green. According -to Scoresby, they are about one-fourth of an inch asunder, and in this -proportion a cubic inch of water must contain 64, a cubic foot 110,592, -a cubic fathom 23,887,872, and a cubic mile nearly twenty-four thousand -billions! From soundings made in the situation where these animals were -found, the sea is probably more than a mile deep; but whether these -substances occupy the whole depth is uncertain. Provided, however, the -depth to which they extend be about 250 fathoms, the immense number of -one species mentioned above may occur in a space of two miles square; and -what a stupendous idea must we form of the infinitude of marine life, -when we consider that those vast numbers, beyond all human conception, -occupy after all only a small part of the green-coloured ocean which -extends over twenty or thirty thousand square miles! It is here that the -giant whale of the north finds his richest pasture-grounds, which at -the same time invite man to follow on his track. A small red crustacean -(_Cetochilus australis_) which forms very extensive banks in the Pacific, -and in the middle of the Atlantic about 40° S. lat., affords a similar -supply of food to the whales frequenting those seas, and exposes them to -the same dangers. - -When the sea is perfectly clear and transparent, it allows the eye to -distinguish objects at a very great depth. Near Mindora, in the Indian -Ocean, the spotted corals are plainly visible under twenty-five fathoms -of water. The crystalline clearness of the Caribbean sea excited the -admiration of Columbus, who in the pursuit of his great discoveries ever -retained an open eye for the beauties of nature. "In passing over these -splendidly adorned grounds," says Schöpf, "where marine life shows itself -in an endless variety of forms, the boat, suspended over the purest -crystal, seems to float in the air, so that a person unaccustomed to the -scene easily becomes giddy. On the clear sandy bottom appear thousands of -sea-stars, sea-urchins, molluscs, and fishes of a brilliancy of colour -unknown in our temperate seas. Fiery red, intense blue, lively green, -and golden yellow perpetually vary; the spectator floats over groves of -sea-plants, gorgonias, corals, alcyoniums, flabellums, and sponges, that -afford no less delight to the eye, and are no less gently agitated by the -heaving waters, than the most beautiful garden on earth when a gentle -breeze passes through the waving boughs." - -With equal enthusiasm De Quatrefages expatiates on the beauties of the -submarine landscapes on the coast of Sicily. "The surface of the waters, -smooth and even like a mirror, enabled the eye to penetrate to an -incredible depth, and to recognise the smallest objects. Deceived by this -wonderful transparency, it often occurred during my first excursions, -that I wished to seize some annelide or medusa, which seemed to swim -but a few inches from the surface. Then the boatman smiled, took a net -fastened to a long pole, and, to my great astonishment, plunged it deep -into the water before it could attain the object which I had supposed -to be within my reach. The admirable clearness of the waters produced -another deception of a most agreeable kind. Leaning over the boat, we -glided over plains, dales, and hillocks, which, in some places naked -and in others carpeted with green or with brownish shrubbery, reminded -us of the prospects of the land. Our eye distinguished the smallest -inequalities of the piled-up rocks, plunged more than a hundred feet -deep into their cavernous hollows, and everywhere the undulations of -the sand, the abrupt edges of the stone-blocks, and the tufts of algæ -were so sharply defined, that the wonderful illusion made us forget -the reality of the scene. Between us and those lovely pictures we saw -no more the intervening waters that enveloped them as in an atmosphere -and carried our boat upon their bosom. It was as if we were hanging in -a vacant space, or looking down like birds hovering in the air upon a -charming prospect. Strangely formed animals peopled these submarine -regions, and lent them a peculiar character. Fishes, sometimes isolated -like the sparrows of our groves, or uniting in flocks like our pigeons -or swallows, roamed among the crags, wandered through the thickets -of the sea-plants, and shot away like arrows as our boat passed over -them. Caryophyllias, Gorgonias, and a thousand other zoophytes unfolded -their sensitive petals, and could hardly be distinguished from the -real plants with whose fronds their branches intertwined. Enormous -dark blue Holothurias crept along upon the sandy bottom, or slowly -climbed the rocks, on which crimson sea-stars spread out immoveably -their long radiating arms. Molluscs dragged themselves lazily along, -while crabs, resembling huge spiders, ran against them in their oblique -and rapid progress, or attacked them with their formidable claws. -Other crustaceans, analogous to our lobsters or shrimps, gambolled -among the fuci, sought for a moment the surface waters to enjoy the -light of heaven, and then by one mighty stroke of their muscular tail, -instantly disappeared again in the obscure recesses of the deep. Among -these animals whose shapes reminded us of familiar forms appeared other -species, belonging to types unknown in our colder latitudes: _Salpæ_, -strange molluscs of glassy transparency, that, linked together, form -swimming chains; great _Beroës_, similar to living enamel; _Diphyæ_ -hardly to be distinguished from the pure element in which they move, and -finally, _Stephanomiæ_, animated garlands woven of crystal and flowers, -and which, still more delicate than the latter, disappear as they wither, -and do not even leave a cloud behind them in the vase, which a few -moments before their glassy bodies had nearly entirely filled." - -[Illustration: Hill at the Rapid on Bear Lake River. (North-West -Territory, North America.)] - - - - -CHAP. II. - -THE WAVES OF THE OCEAN. - - Waves and the Mode of their Formation.--Height and Velocity of - Storm-Waves, on the High Seas, according to the Calculations of - Scoresby, Arago, Sir James Ross, and Wilkes.--Their Height and - Power on Coasts.--Their Destructive Effects along the British - Shore.--Dunwich.--Reculver.--Shakspeare's Cliff. - - -After having admired the sea in the grandeur of its expanse, and the -profundity of its depths, I shall, in this and the two following -chapters, examine in what manner the perpetual circulation of its waters -is maintained. - -[Illustration: H.M.S. "Resolute" lying to in the North Atlantic.] - -"The movements of the sea," says Humboldt, "are of a three-fold -description: partly irregular and transitory, depending upon the winds, -and occasioning waves; partly regular and periodical, resulting from -the attraction of the sun and the moon (ebb and flood); and partly -permanent, though of unequal strength and rapidity at different periods -(oceanic currents)." - -Who has ever sojourned on the coast, or crossed the seas, and has not -been delighted by the aspect of the waves, so graceful when a light -breeze curls the surface of the waters, so sublime when a raging storm -disturbs the depths of the ocean? - -But it is easier to admire the beauty of a wave than clearly to explain -its nature, so as to convey an accurate or sufficiently general -conception of its formation to the reader's mind. Those who are placed -for the first time on a stormy sea, discover with wonder that the large -waves which they see rushing along with a velocity of many miles an hour -do not carry the floating body along with them, but seem to pass under -the bottom of the ship with scarcely a perceptible effect in carrying the -vessel out of its course. - -In like manner, the observer near the shore perceives that floating -pieces of wood are not carried towards the shore with the rapidity of -the waves, but are left nearly in the same place after the wave has -passed them as before. Nay, if the tide be ebbing, the waves may even be -observed rushing with great velocity towards the shore, while the body of -water is actually receding, and any object floating in it is carried in -the opposite direction to the waves out to sea. - -What, then, is wave-motion as distinct from water-motion? The force of -the wind, pushing a given mass of water out of its place into another, -dislodges the original occupant, which is again pushed forward on the -occupant of the next place, and so on. As the water-particles crowd -upon one another, in the act of going out of their old places into the -new, the crowd forms a temporary heap visible on the surface of the -fluid, and as each successive mass is displacing the one before it, the -undulation or oscillatory movement spreads farther and farther over the -waters. Wave-motion is, in fact, the transference of motion without the -transference of matter: of form without the substance, of force without -the agent. - -The strongest storm cannot suddenly raise high waves, they require -time for their development. Fancy the wind blowing over an even sea, -and it will set water-particles in motion all over the surface, -and thus give the first impulse to the formation of small waves. -Numberless oscillations unite their efforts, and create visible -elevations and depressions. Meanwhile, the wind is constantly setting -new particles in motion; long before the first oscillations have lost -their effect, countless others are perpetually arising, and thus the -sum of the propelling powers is constantly increasing, and gradually -raising mountain-waves, until their growth is finally limited by the -counterbalancing power of the earth's attraction. - -As the strength of the waves only gradually rises, it also loses itself -only by degrees, and many hours after the tornado has ceased to rage, -mighty billows continue to remind the mariner of its extinguished fury. -The turmoil of waters awakened by the storm propagates itself hundreds -of miles beyond the space where its howling voice was heard, and often, -during the most tranquil weather, the agitated sea proclaims the distant -war of the elements. - -The velocity of waves depends not only on the power of the impulse, but -also on the depth of the subjacent waters, as I have already mentioned in -the preceding chapter. - -For this reason, as increased velocity augments the power of the impulse, -the waves in the Atlantic or Pacific, the mean depth of which may be -estimated at 12,000 or 18,000 feet, attain a much greater height than in -the comparatively shallow North Sea. - -The breaking of the waves against the shore arises from their velocity -diminishing with their depth. As the small flat wave rolls up the beach, -its front part, retarded by the friction of the ground, is soon overtaken -by its back, moving in swifter progression, and thus arises its graceful -swelling, the toppling of its snow-white crest, and finally its pleasant -prattle among the shingles of the strand. This is one of those pictures -of nature which Homer describes with such inimitable truth in various -places of his immortal poems: he paints with admirable colours the slow -rising of the advancing wave, how it bends forward with a graceful curve, -and, crowning itself with a diadem of foam, spreads like a white veil -over the beach, leaving sea-weeds and shells behind, as it rustles back -again into the sea. - -The height which waves may attain on the open sea has been accurately -investigated by the late Rev. Dr. Scoresby, during two passages across -the Atlantic in 1847 and 1848. - -"In the afternoon of March 5th, 1848," says that eminent philosopher, -"I stood during a hard gale upon the cuddy-roof or saloon deck of the -'Hibernia:' a height, with the addition of that of the eye, of 23 feet -3 inches above the line of flotation (the ship's course being similar -to that of the waves). I am not aware that I ever saw the sea more -terribly magnificent; the great majority of the rolling masses of water -was more than 24 feet high, (including depression as well as altitude, -or reckoning above the mean-level, more than 12 feet). I then went to -the larboard paddle-box, about 7 feet higher (30 feet 2 inches up to the -eye), and found that one half of the waves rose above the level of the -view obtained. - -"Frequently I observed long ranges (200 yards), which rose so high above -the visible horizon, as to form an angle estimated at two or three -degrees when the distance of the wave's summit was about 100 yards from -the observer. This would add near 13 feet to the level of the eye, and at -least one in half-a-dozen waves attained this altitude. Sometimes peaks -or crests of breaking seas would shoot upward, at least 10 or 15 feet -higher. - -"The average wave was, I believe, fully equal to that of my sight on -the paddle-box, or more than 15 feet, and the _mean highest waves_, not -including the broken or acuminated crests, rose about 43 feet above -the level of the hollow occupied at the moment by the ship. It was a -grand storm-scene, and nothing could exceed the pictorial effect of the -partial sunbeams breaking through the heavy masses of clouds." From the -time taken by a regular wave to pass from stern to stem, Dr. Scoresby -calculated its velocity at 2875 feet in each minute, or 32·67 English -statute miles in an hour. The mean length of the wave-ridges, was from a -quarter to a third of a mile. - -To those who might be inclined to doubt the accuracy of these -measurements, the remark may suffice that our celebrated countryman had -been for years engaged in the northern whale-fishery, where he had ample -opportunities for practising his eye in measuring distances. Besides, -the conclusions of many other trustworthy observers coincide with the -evaluations of Dr. Scoresby. - -Thus Captain Wilkes, commander of the U. S. Exploring Expedition, found -the height of the waves near Orange Harbour, where they rose higher and -more regular than at any other time during the cruise, to be thirty-two -feet (depression and altitude), and their apparent progressive motion -about twenty-six and a half miles in an hour. - -Sir James Ross calculated the height of the waves on a strongly agitated -sea at twenty-two feet, and, according to the French naturalists who -sailed in the frigate "La Venus," on her voyage round the world, the -highest waves they met with never exceeded that measure. - -Thus, according to the joint testimony of the most eminent nautical -authorities, the waves in the open sea never attain the mountain-height -ascribed to them by the exuberant fancy of poets or exaggerating -travellers. But when the tempest surge beats against steep crags or rocky -coasts it rises to a much more considerable height. The lighthouse of -Bell Rock, though 112 feet high, is literally buried in foam and spray -to the very top during ground-swells, even when there is no wind. On the -20th November, 1827, the spray rose to the height of 117 feet above the -foundation or low-water mark, which, deducting eleven feet for the tide -that day, leaves 106 feet for the height of the wave. The strength of -that remarkable edifice may be estimated from the fact, that the power of -such a giant billow is equivalent to a pressure of three tons per square -foot. - -In the Shetland Islands, which are continually exposed to the full fury -of the Atlantic surge (for no land intervenes between their western -shores and America), every year witnesses the removal of huge blocks -of stone from their native beds by the terrific action of the waves. -"In the winter of 1802," says Dr. Hibbert, in his description of that -northern archipelago, "a tabular-shaped mass, eight feet two inches by -seven feet, was dislodged from its bed and removed to a distance of from -eighty to ninety feet. I measured the recent bed from which a block had -been carried away the preceding winter (A.D. 1818), and found it to be -seventeen feet and a half by seven feet, and the depth two feet eight -inches. The removed mass had been borne to a distance of thirty feet, -when it was shivered into thirteen or more lesser fragments, some of -which were carried still farther from 30 to 120 feet. A block nine feet -two inches by six feet and a half, and four feet thick, was hurried up -the acclivity to a distance of 150 feet." - -The great storm of 1824, which carried away part of the breakwater at -Plymouth, lifted huge masses of rock, from two to five tons in weight, -from the bottom of the weatherside and rolled them fairly to the top of -the pile. One block of limestone weighing seven tons was washed round -the western extremity of the breakwater, and swept to a distance of 150 -feet. In 1807, during the erection of the Bell Rock lighthouse, six large -blocks of granite which had been landed on the reef were removed by the -force of the sea and thrown over a rising ledge to the distance of twelve -or fifteen paces, and an anchor weighing about twenty-two hundredweight -was cast upon the surface of the rock. - -With such examples before our eyes, we cannot wonder that in the course -of centuries all shores exposed to the full shock of the waves, lashing -against them with every returning tide, should gradually be wasted and -worn away. One kind of stone stands the brunt of the elements longer than -another, but ultimately even the hardest rock must yield to the rage of -the billows, which when provoked by wintry gales, batter against them -with all the force of artillery. - -Thus, all along our coasts we find innumerable instances of their -destructive power. Tynemouth Castle now overhangs the sea, although -formerly separated from it by a strip of land, and in the old maps of -Yorkshire we find spots, now sand-banks in the sea, marked as the ancient -sites of the towns and villages of Auburn, Hartburn, and Hyde. The cliffs -of Norfolk and Suffolk are subject to incessant and rapid decay. At -Sherringham, Sir Charles Lyell ascertained, in 1829, some facts which -throw light on the rate at which the sea gains upon the land. There was -then a depth of twenty feet (sufficient to float a frigate) at one point -in the harbour of that port, where only forty-eight years ago there -stood a cliff fifty feet high with houses upon it! "If once in half a -century," remarks the great geologist, "an equal amount of change were -produced suddenly by the momentary shock of an earthquake, history would -be filled with records of such wonderful revolutions of the earth's -surface; but if the conversion of high land into deep sea be gradual, it -excites only local attention." On the same coast, the ancient villages of -Shipden, Wimpwell, and Eccles have disappeared, several manors and large -portions of neighbouring parishes having gradually been swallowed up; nor -has there been any intermission, from time immemorial, in the ravages -of the sea along a line of coast twenty miles in length in which these -places stood. Dunwich, once the most considerable sea-port on the coast of -Suffolk, is now but a small village with about one hundred inhabitants. -From the time of Edward the Confessor, the ocean has devoured, piece -after piece, a monastery, seven churches, the high road, the town-hall, -the gaol, and many other buildings. In the sixteenth century not -one-fourth of the ancient town was left standing, yet, the inhabitants -retreating inland, the name has been preserved,-- - - "Stat magni nominis umbra,"-- - -as has been the case with many other ports, when their ancient site has -been blotted out. - -The Isle of Sheppey is subject to such rapid decay, that the church at -Minster, now near the coast, is said to have been in the middle of the -island fifty years ago, and it has been conjectured that at the present -rate of destruction, the whole isle will be annihilated before the end of -the century. - -Another remarkable instance of the destructive action of the tidal surge -is that of Reculver, on the Kentish coast, an important military station -in the time of the Romans, now nothing but a ruin and a name. So late -as the reign of Henry VIII., Reculver was still a mile distant from the -sea; but, in 1780, the encroaching waves had already reached the site -of the ancient camp, the walls of which, cemented as they were into one -solid mass by the unrivalled masonry of the Romans, continued for several -years after they were undermined to overhang the sea. In 1804, part of -the churchyard with the adjoining houses was washed away, and then the -ancient church with its two lofty spires, a well-known landmark, was -dismantled and abandoned as a place of worship. - -Shakspeare's Cliff at Dover has also suffered greatly from the waves, and -continually diminishes in height, the slope of the hill being towards -the land. About the year 1810, there was an immense landslip from this -cliff, by which Dover was shaken as if by an earthquake, and a still -greater one in 1772. - -Thus the fame of the poet is likely to outlive for many centuries the -proud rock, the memory of which will always be entwined with his immortal -verse:-- - - "How fearful, - And dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low! - The crows, and choughs, that wing the midway air, - Show scarce so gross as beetles: half way down - Hangs one that gathers samphire; dreadful trade! - Methinks, he seems no bigger than his head. - The fishermen, that walk upon the beach, - Appear like mice; and yon tall anchoring bark, - Diminish'd to her cock; her cock, a buoy - Almost too small for sight. The murmuring surge, - That on th' unnumber'd idle pebbles chafes, - Cannot be heard so high." - -The peninsulas of Purbeck and Portland, the cliffs of Devonshire and -Cornwall, the coasts of Pembroke and Cardigan, the stormy Hebrides, -Shetland and Orcadia, all tell similar tales of destruction, a mere -summary of which would swell into a volume. - -During the most violent gales the bottom of the sea is said by different -authors to be disturbed to a depth of 300, 350, or even 500 feet, and Sir -Henry de la Bêche remarks that when the depth is fifteen fathoms, the -water is very evidently discoloured by the action of the waves on the mud -and sand of the bottom. But in the deep caves of ocean all is tranquil, -all is still, and the most dreadful hurricanes that rage over the surface -leave those mysterious recesses undisturbed. - - - - -CHAP. III. - -THE TIDES. - - Description of the Phenomenon.--Devastations of Storm-Floods on Flat - Coasts.--What did the Ancients know of the Tides?--Their Fundamental - Causes revealed by Kepler and Newton.--Development of their Theory - by La Place, Euler, and Whewell.--Vortices caused by the Tides.--The - Maelstrom.--Charybdis.--The _Barre_ at the mouth of the Seine.--The - Euripus. - - -Living on the sea-coast would undoubtedly be deprived of one of its -greatest attractions, without the phenomenon of the tides, which, -although of daily recurrence, never loses the charm of novelty, and gives -constant occupation to the fancy by the life, movement, and perpetual -change it brings along with it. How wonderful to see the sandy plain on -which, but a few hours ago, we enjoyed a delightful walk, transformed -into a vast sheet of water through which large vessels plough their way! -How agreeable to trace the margin of the rising flood, and listen to its -murmurs! Those of the rustling grove or waving cornfield are not more -melodious. And then the variety of interesting objects which the reflux -of the tide leaves behind it on the beach--the elegantly formed shell, -the feathery sertularia, the delicate fucoid, and so many other strange -or beautiful marine productions, that may well challenge the attention of -the most listless lounger. - -But the spectacle of the tides is not merely pleasing to the eye, or -attractive to the imagination; it serves also to rouse the spirit of -scientific inquiry. It is indeed hardly possible to witness their regular -succession without feeling curious to know by what causes they are -produced, and when we learn that they are governed by the attraction -of distant celestial bodies, and that their mysteries have been so -completely solved by man, that he is able to calculate their movements -for months and years to come, then indeed the pleasure and admiration -we feel at their aspect must increase, for we cannot walk upon the -beach without being constantly reminded that all the shining worlds that -stud the heavens are linked together by one Almighty power, and that -our spirit, which has been made capable of unveiling and comprehending -so many of the secrets of creation, must surely possess something of a -divine nature! - -On all maritime coasts, except such as belong to mediterranean seas -not communicating freely with the ocean, the waters are observed to be -constantly changing their level. They regularly rise during about six -hours, remain stationary for a few minutes, and then again descend during -an equal period of time, when after having fallen to the lowest ebb, they -are shortly after seen to rise again, and so on in regular and endless -succession. In this manner twelve hours twenty-four minutes elapse on an -average from one flood to another, so that the sea twice rises and falls -in the course of a day, or rather twice during the time from one passage -of the moon through the meridian to the next, a period equivalent on an -average to 1-35/1000 day, or nearly twenty-five hours. Thus the tides -retard from one day to another; least at new and full moon, when our more -active satellite accomplishes her apparent diurnal motion round the earth -in twenty-four hours, thirty-seven minutes; and most at half-moon, when, -sailing more leisurely through the skies, she takes full twenty-five -hours and twenty-seven minutes to perform her daily journey. - -As the retarding of the tides regularly corresponds with the retarding of -the moon, they always return at the same hour after the lapse of fourteen -days, so that at the end of each of her monthly revolutions, the moon -always finds them in the same position. The knowledge of this fact is -extremely useful to navigators, as it is easy to calculate the time of -any tide in a port by knowing when it is high-water on the days of new -and full moon. - -The height of the tides in the same place is as unequal and changing as -the period of their intervals, and is equally dependent on the phases -of the moon, increasing with her growth, and diminishing with her -decrease. New and full moon always cause a higher rising of the flood -(spring-tide), followed by a deeper ebb, while at half-moon the change -of level is much less considerable (neap-tide). Thus in Plymouth, for -instance, the neap-tides are only twelve feet high, while the ordinary -spring-tides rise to more than twenty feet. - -The highest tides take place during the equinoxes; and eclipses of the -sun and moon are also invariably accompanied by considerable floods, -a circumstance which cannot fail to add to the terror of the ignorant -and superstitious when a mysterious obscurity suddenly veils the great -luminaries of the sky. It has also been remarked that the tides are -stronger or weaker, according as the moon is at a greater or smaller -distance from the earth. - -Thus as the height of the floods is always regulated by the relative -position of the sun and moon, and the movements of these heavenly bodies -can be calculated a long time beforehand, our nautical calendars are able -to tell us the days when the highest spring-tides may be expected. - -This however can only be foretold to a certain extent, as the tidal -height not only depends upon the attraction of the heavenly bodies, -but also upon the casual influences of the wind, which defies all -calculation, and of the pressure of the air. Thus Mr. Walker observed -on the coasts of Cornwall and Devonshire that when the barometer falls -an inch, the level of the sea rises sixteen inches higher than would -otherwise have been the case. - -When a strong and continuous wind blows in an opposite direction to -the tide-wave, and at the same time the barometer is high, the curious -spectators will therefore be deceived in their expectations, however -promising the position of the attracting luminaries may be; while an -ordinary spring-tide, favoured by a low state of the barometer and chased -by a violent storm against the coast, may attain more than double the -usual height. When all favourable circumstances combine, an event which -fortunately but rarely occurs, those dreadful _storm-tides_ take place, -as menacing to the flat coasts of the Netherlands as an eruption of Etna -to the towns and hamlets scattered along its base, for here also a vast -elementary power is let loose which bids defiance to human weakness. It -is then that the rebel sea affords a spectacle of appalling magnificence. -The whole surface seethes and boils in endless confusion. Gigantic waves -rear their monstrous heads like mighty Titans, and hurl their whole -colossal power against the dunes and dykes, as if, impelled by a wild -lust of conquest, they were burning to devour the rich alluvial plains -which once belonged to their domain. Far inland, the terrified peasant -hears the roar of the tumultuous waters, and well may he tremble when -the mountain-waves come thundering against the artificial barriers, that -separate his fields from the raging floods, for the annals of his country -relate many sad examples of their fury, and tell him that numerous -villages and extensive meads, once flourishing and fertile, now lie -buried fathom-deep under the waters of the sea. - -Thus, on the first of November, 1170, the storm-flood, bursting through -the dykes, submerged all the land between the Texel, Medenblik, and -Stavoren, formed the island of Wieringen, and enlarged the openings by -which the Zuiderzee communicated with the ocean. The inundations of 1232 -and 1242 caused, each of them, the death of more than 100,000 persons, -and that of 1287 swept away more than 80,000 victims in Friesland alone. -The irruption of 1395 considerably widened the channels between the Flie -and the Texel, and allowed large vessels to sail as far as Amsterdam -and Enkhuizen, which had not been the case before. Whilst reading these -accounts, we are led to compare the inhabitants of the Dutch lowlands -with those of the fertile fields and vineyards that clothe the sides of -Vesuvius: both exposed to sudden and irretrievable ruin from the rage -of two different elements, and yet both contented and careless of the -future; the first behind the dykes that have often given way to the -ocean, the latter on the very brink of a menacing volcano. - -The tides which sometimes cause such dreadful devastations on the shores -of the North Sea are, as is well known, inconsiderable, or even hardly -perceptible in the Mediterranean, and thus many years passed ere the -Greeks and Romans first witnessed the grand phenomenon. The Phœnicians, -the merchant princes of antiquity, who at a very early period of history -visited the isolated Britons,-- - - "Penitus toto divisos orbe Britannos,"-- - -and sailed far away into the Indian Ocean, were of course well acquainted -with it; but it first became known to the Greeks through the voyage of -Colæus, a mariner of Samos, who, according to Herodotus, was driven by a -storm through the Straits of Hercules into the wide Atlantic 600 years -before Christ. About seventy years after this involuntary discovery, -the Phoceans of Massilia, or Marseilles, first ventured to follow on the -track of Colæus for the purpose of trading with Tartessus, the present -Cadiz; and from that time remained in constant commercial intercourse -with that ancient Phœnician colony. - -With what eager attention may their countrymen have listened to the -wondrous tale of the alternate rising and sinking of the ocean! Such -must have been the astonishment of our forefathers when the first Arctic -voyagers told them of the floating icebergs, and of the perpetually -circling sun of the high northern summer. - -Thus the tides became known to the Massilians about five centuries -before Christ, but in those times of limited international intercourse, -knowledge travelled but slowly from place to place; so that it was not -before the conquests of Alexander, which first opened the Red Sea and the -Persian Gulf to Grecian trade, that the great marine phenomenon began to -attract the general attention of philosophers and naturalists. - -The flux and reflux of the sea is evidently so closely connected with the -movements and changes of the moon, that the intimate relations between -both could not possibly escape the penetrating sagacity of the Greeks. -Thus we read in Plutarch, that Pytheas of Marseilles, the great traveller -who sailed to the north as far as the Ultima Thule, and lived in the -times of Alexander the Great, ascribed to the moon an influence over the -tides. Aristotle expressed the same opinion, and Cæsar says positively -(Commentaries, _De Bel. Gal._ book iv. 29,) that the full-moon causes the -tides of the ocean to swell to their utmost height. Strabo distinguishes -a three-fold periodicity of the tides according to the daily, monthly, -and annual position of the moon, and Pliny expresses himself still more -to the point, by saying that the waters move as if obeying the thirsty -orb which causes them to follow its course. - -This vague notion of obedience or servitude was first raised by Kepler to -the clear and well defined idea of an attractive power. According to this -great and self-taught genius, all bodies strive to unite in proportion -to their masses. "The earth and moon would mutually approach and meet -together at a point, so much nearer to the earth as her mass is superior -to that of the moon, if their motion did not prevent it. The moon -attracts the ocean, and thus tides arise in the larger seas. If the earth -ceased to attract the waters, they would rise and flow up to the moon." - -The general notion of a mutual attraction, however, did no more than -point out the way for the solution of the problem, and it was reserved -to our great Newton to accomplish the prophecy of his great predecessor, -"that the discovery of the true laws of gravitation would be accomplished -in a future generation, when it should please the Almighty Creator of -nature to reveal her mysteries to man." - -Newton was the first who proved that the tide-generating power of a -celestial body arises from the difference of the attraction it exerts on -the centre and the surface of the earth. Thus it was at once made clear -how the water not only rises on the surface facing the moon, but also -on the opposite side of the earth, as in the latter case the moon acts -more strongly on the mass of the earth than on the waters which cover the -hemisphere most distant from her. The evident consequence is that the -earth _sinks_ (so to say), on the surface turned from the moon, whereby -a deepening of the waters, or, in other words, a rising of the tide, is -occasioned. - -It now also became clear how the moon, whose attractive power upon the -earth is 160 times smaller than that of the sun, is yet able to occasion -a stronger tide, since, from her proximity to the earth, she attracts -the surface more forcibly than the centre with the thirtieth part of -her power, while the distant sun occasions a difference of attraction -on these two points equal only to one twelve-thousandth part of her -attractive force. - -Now also a full explanation was first given why the highest tides take -place at new and full moon: that is, when the moon stands between the sun -and the earth; or the latter between the sun and the moon; as then the -two celestial bodies unite their powers; while at half-moon the solar -tide corresponding with the lunar ebb, or the lunar tide with the solar -ebb, counteract each other. - -But even Newton explained the true theory of the tides only in its more -prominent and general features, and the labours of other mathematicians, -such as MacLaurin, Bernoulli, Euler, La Place, and Whewell, were required -for its further development, so as fully to explain all the particulars -of the sublime phenomenon. - -The reproach has often been made to science, that she banishes poetry -from nature, and disenchants the forest and the field; but this surely -is not the case in the present instance, for what poetical fiction -can fill the soul with a grander image than that of the eternal -restlessly-progressing tide-wave, which, following the triumphant march -of the sun and moon, began as soon as the primeval ocean was formed, and -shall last uninterruptedly as long as our solar system exists! - -Were the whole earth covered with one sea of equal depth, the tides would -regularly move onwards from east to west, and everywhere attain the same -height under the same latitude. But the direction and the force of the -tide-wave are modified by many obstacles on its way, such as coast-lines -and groups of islands, and it has to traverse seas of very unequal depth -and form. Flat coasts impede its current by friction, while it rolls -faster along deep mural coasts. From all these causes the strength of the -tides is very unequal in different places. - -They are generally low on the wide and open ocean. Thus the highest tides -at Otaheiti do not exceed eleven inches, three feet at St. Helena, one -foot and a half at Porto Rico. - -But when considerable obstructions oppose the progress of the tide-waves, -such as vast promontories, long and narrow channels, or bays of -diminishing width, and mouths of rivers directly facing its swell, it -rises to a very great height. Thus, at the bottom of Fundy Bay, which -stretches its long arm between Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, the -spring-tides rise to sixty, seventy, or even one hundred feet, while at -its entrance they do not exceed nine feet, and their swell is so rapid as -frequently to sweep away cattle feeding on the shore. - -The Bristol Channel and the bay of St. Malo in Brittany, are also -renowned for their high tides. Near Chepstow, the flux is said sometimes -to reach the surprising height of seventy feet, and at St. Malo the -floods frequently rise to forty and fifty feet. When the water is low, -this small sea-port town appears surrounded on all sides by fantastically -shaped cliffs covered with sea-weeds and barnacles. Pools of salt water -interspersed here and there among the hollowed stones, or on the even -ground between them, and harbouring many curious varieties of marine -animals, are the only visible signs of the vicinity of the ocean, whose -hoarse murmurs are heard resounding from afar. But an astonishing change -takes place a few hours after, when the town, surrounded by the sea, -would be a complete island, but for a long, narrow causeway called "_the -Sillon_," which connects it with the mainland. On the side fronting -the open sea, the tide breaks with tremendous rage against the strong -buttresses that have been raised to oppose its fury, rises foamingly to -a height of thirty or forty feet, and threatens the tardy wanderer as he -loiters on the narrow causeway. The cliffs that erewhile were seen to -surround the town are now hidden under the waters, some few excepted, -that raise their rugged heads like minute islands above the circumambient -floods. The opposite side of the causeway is also washed by the sea: but -here its motions are less tumultuous, for after having broken against -numberless rocks and made a vast circuit, it scarce retains a vestige of -its primitive strength. On this side lies the vast, but deserted harbour -of St. Malo, completely dry at ebb-tide; a wide sea during the flood. - -Two eminent French authors, Chateaubriand and Lamennais, were born at -St. Malo, and there can be no doubt that the imposing spectacle I have -briefly described must have greatly contributed to the widening of their -intellectual horizon. Daily witnesses from their early childhood of -one of the grandest phenomena of nature in all its wild sublimity, the -boundless and the infinite soon grew familiar to their mind, enriching it -with splendid imagery and bold conceptions. - -Although the sun and the moon exert some attraction upon the smaller and -inclosed seas, yet the development of a powerful flood-wave necessarily -requires that the moon should act upon a sufficiently wide and deep -expanse of ocean. Even the Atlantic is not broad enough for this purpose, -as its equatorial width measures no more than one eighth of the earth's -circumference: and the Pacific itself, notwithstanding its vast area, -is so studded with islands and shallows, that it presents a much more -obstructed basin for the action of the tide-wave than might be expected, -from its apparent dimensions and equatorial position. - -Thus it is in the Southern Ocean, where the greatest uninterrupted -surface of deep water is exposed to the influence of the moon, that we -must look for the "_chief cradle of the tides_." From this starting point -they flow on all sides to the northward, progressing like any other wave -that arises on a small scale in a pond from a gust of wind, the throwing -of a stone, or any other cause capable of producing an undulating -movement on the surface of the waters. - -The tide-wave, which ultimately reaches our shores, arrives at the Cape -of Good Hope thirteen hours after it has left Van Diemen's Land, and -thence rolls onward in fourteen or fifteen hours to the coasts of Spain, -France, and Ireland. It penetrates into the North Sea by two different -ways. One of its ramifications turns round Scotland and thence flows -onwards to the south, taking nineteen or twenty hours for the passage -from Galway to the mouth of the Thames. A tide-wave, for instance, which -appears at five in the afternoon on the west coast of Ireland, arrives at -eight near the Shetland Islands, reaches Aberdeen at midnight, Hull at -five in the morning, and Margate at noon. - -The other ramification of the same tide-wave, taking the shorter route -through the Channel, had meanwhile preceded it by twelve hours, having -reached Brest about five o'clock of the afternoon (at the same time that -the northern branch appeared at Galway), Cherbourg at seven, Brighton at -nine, Calais at eleven, and the mouth of the Thames at midnight. - -Thus, in this southern corner of the North Sea, two tide-waves unite -that belong to two successive floods; the Scotch branch having started -twelve hours sooner from the great Southern Ocean than the Channel -branch, which thus results from the next following tide. The meeting of -the two branches naturally gives rise to a more considerable rising of -the waters, so that this circumstance, by allowing large ships to sail -up the Thames, may be considered as one of the fundamental causes of the -grandeur of London. - -In other parts of the North Sea, where the two tide-waves appear at -different times, the contrary takes place, for the ebb of the one -coinciding with the rising of the other, they naturally weaken or -even neutralise each other. This occasions the low tides on the coast -of Jutland, in Denmark, where they are scarcely higher than in the -Mediterranean, and explains the otherwise startling fact of there being a -space in the North Sea where no periodical rise and fall of the waters -whatsoever takes place. - -Thus we see that the relations of the tides in the North Sea, with regard -to height and time, are of a somewhat complicated nature, which could -only be explained after the numerous observations (amounting to more -than 40,000) made by order of the British Government in all parts of the -world, under the direction of Professor Whewell, had proved that all -the floods of the seas chiefly proceed from the great tide-wave of the -Southern Ocean, which, by its numerous ramifications in narrow seas or -through groups of islands and by the unequal rapidity of its progress, -according to the depth or shallowness of the waters it traverses, -occasions all the seeming anomalies which were quite inexplicable by the -simple Newtonian theory. - -As every twelve hours a new tidal-wave originates in the Southern Ocean -which regularly follows in the same track as its predecessor, the tides -everywhere succeed each other in regular and equal periods, and can thus -everywhere be calculated beforehand. - -In narrow straits or in the intricate channels which wind through -clusters of islands, different tidal-waves meeting from opposite -directions give rise to more or less dangerous whirlpools. One of the -most famous of these vortices, though inconsiderable in itself, is the -renowned Charybdis, which gave so much trouble to Ulysses on his passing -through the strait which separates Sicily from Italy, but is at present -an object of fear scarcely even to the poor fisherman's boat. - -A much grander whirlpool, owing its celebrity, not to the fictions of -poetry, but to the magnificent scale on which it has been constructed by -nature, is the renowned Maelstrom, situated on the Norwegian coast in 68° -N. lat., and near the island of Moskoe, from whence it also takes the -name of Moskoestrom. It is four geographical miles in diameter, and in -tempestuous weather its roar, like that of Niagara, is said to be heard -several miles off. John Ramus gives us a terrible description of its -fury, and mentions that in the year 1645 it raged with such noise and -impetuosity, that on the island of Moskoe, the very stones of the houses -fell to the ground. He tells us also that whales frequently come too near -the stream, and, notwithstanding their giant strength, are overpowered by -its violence, but, unfortunately adds, that it is impossible to describe -their howlings and bellowings in their fruitless struggles to disengage -themselves--impossible, no doubt, as whales happen to have no voice at -all! - -According to more modern travellers, such as the celebrated geologist -Leopold von Buch, the Maelstrom is far from being so terrible as depicted -by Ramus and other friends of the marvellous; so that, except during -storms and spring-tides, large ships may constantly cross it without -danger. The Norwegian fishermen are even said frequently to assemble on -the field of the Maelstrom on account of the great abundance of fishes -congregating in those troubled waters, and fearlessly to pursue their -avocations, while the whirlpool moves their boats in a circular direction. - -Sir Robert Sibbald describes a very remarkable marine whirlpool among the -Orkney islands, which would prove dangerous to strangers, though it is -of no consequence to the people who are used to it. It is not fixed to -any particular place, but arises in various parts of the limits of the -sea among these islands. Wherever it appears, it is very furious, and -boats would inevitably be drawn in and perish with it, but the people -who navigate them are prepared for it and always carry a bundle of straw -or some such matter in the boat with them. This they fling into the -vortex which immediately swallows it up, and, seemingly pleased with -this propitiatory offering, subsides into smoothness, but soon after -re-appears in another place. - -A remarkable and sudden rising of the spring-tide takes place at the -mouth of several rivers, for instance, the Indus (where the surprising -phenomenon nearly caused the destruction of the fleet of Alexander the -Great), the Hooghly, the Dordogne, &c. In the Seine it is observed on -a scale of great magnitude. While the tide gradually rises near Havre -and Harfleur, a giant wave is suddenly seen to surge near Quillebœuf, -spanning the whole width of the river (from 30,000 to 36,000 feet). -After this mighty billow has struck against the quay of Quillebœuf, it -enters a more narrow bed and flows stream-upwards with the rapidity -of a race horse, overflowing the banks on both sides, and not seldom -causing considerable loss of property by its unexpected appearance. The -astonishment it causes is increased when it takes place during serene -weather, and without any signs of wind or storm. A deafening noise -announces and accompanies this sudden swelling of the waters, which owes -its first origin to the silent action of gravitation, and is the result -of the diminishing velocity of the tide-wave over a shallow bottom. - -While the tide-wave advances over the deep and open seas with an -astonishing rapidity, its progress up the channel of a river is -comparatively very slow, partly on account of the reason just mentioned, -and partly from its meeting a current flowing in an opposite direction. - -Thus, the tide takes no less than twelve hours for its progress from the -mouth of the Thames to London, about the time it requires to travel all -the way from Van Diemen's Land to the Cape of Good Hope. Consequently, -when it is high-water at the mouth of the Thames at three o'clock in the -afternoon, for instance, we have not high-water at London Bridge before -three o'clock in the following morning, when it is again high water at -the Nore. But, in the mean time, there has been low water at the Nore -and high water about half-way to London, and while the high water is -proceeding to London, it is ebbing at the intermediate places, and is low -water there when it is high water at London and at the Nore. If the tide -extended as far beyond London as London is from the Nore, we should have -three high waters with two low waters interposed. The most remarkable -instance of this kind is afforded by the gigantic river of the Amazons, -as it appears by the observations of Condamine and others, that, between -Para, at the mouth of the colossal stream, and the conflux of the Madera -and Marañon, there are no less than seven simultaneous high waters with -six low waters between them. Thus, four days after the tide-wave was -first raised in the Southern Ocean, its last undulations expire deep in -the bosom of the South American wilds. - -The Mediterranean is generally supposed to be tideless, but this opinion -is erroneous; and in the Adriatic, the flux of the sea is far from being -inconsiderable, for, at Venice, the difference between high and low water -is sometimes no less than six or even nine feet. Mr. W. Trevelyan, during -a summer residence in the old port of Antium, on the Roman coast, found -from a series of accurate observations, that the tides regularly succeed -each other and attain a height of fourteen inches. In the eastern -Mediterranean new measurements have proved that they are still more -considerable, while in the western part of that inclosed sea they are -almost imperceptible. - -The differences of level caused by the Mediterranean tides, are indeed -too inconsiderable to attract the general notice of the inhabitants on -the coast, but in the famed Euripus, the narrow channel which separates -the island of Eubœa or Negropont from continental Greece, the tide -produces the striking phenomenon of very irregular fluctuations of the -waters, from one end of the channel to the other. - -This phenomenon was of course completely inexplicable to the ancient -philosophers, and Aristotle is even said to have drowned himself in the -Euripus in a fit of despair, since, with all his prodigious sagacity, -he could not possibly solve the mystery. For us, who know that peculiar -formations of the sea-bed and coasts are capable of considerably -augmenting the force of the floods, and that tidal waves rushing into -a narrow channel in opposite directions, and at different times, must -necessarily produce irregular fluctuations of the waters, the phenomenon -of the Euripus has ceased to be a mystery. - - - - -CHAP. IV. - -MARINE CAVES. - - Effects of the Sea on Rocky Shores.--Fingal's Cave.--Beautiful - Lines of Sir Walter Scott.--The Antro di Nettuno.--The Cave - of Hunga.--Legend of its Discovery.--Marine Fountains.--The - Skerries.--The Souffleur in Mauritius.--The Buffadero on the Mexican - Coast. - - -Whoever has only observed the swelling of the tide on the flat coasts -of the North Sea, has but a faint idea of the Titanic power which it -develops on the rocky shores of the wide ocean. Even in fair weather, the -growing flood, oscillating over the boundless expanse of waters, rises -in tremendous breakers, so that it is impossible to behold their fury -without feeling a conviction that the hardest rock must ultimately be -ground to atoms by such irresistible forces. - -Day after day, year after year, they renew their fierce attacks, and -as in the high Alpine valleys the tumultuous torrents rushing from the -glaciers tear deep furrows in the flanks of the mountains, thus it is -here the sea which stamps the seal of its might on the vanquished rocks, -corrodes them into fantastic shapes, scoops out wide portals in their -projecting promontories, and hollows out deep caverns in their bosoms. - -Here, also, water appears as the beautifying element, decorating -inanimate nature with picturesque forms, and the sea nowhere exhibits -more romantic scenes than on the rocky shores against which her waves -have been beating for many a millennium. How manifold the shapes into -which the rocky shores are worn! how numberless the changes which each -varying season, nay, every hour of the day with its constant alternations -of ebb and flood, of cloud and sunshine, of storm or calm, produces in -their physiognomy! Our coasts abound in beauties such as these; but -pre-eminent above all other specimens of Ocean's fantastic architecture -is Fingal's Cave, which may well challenge the world to show its equal. - -From afar, the small island of Staffa, rising precipitously from the -sea, seems destitute of all romantic interest, but on approaching, -the traveller is struck with the remarkable basaltic columns of which -it is chiefly composed. Most of them rest upon a substratum of solid -shapeless rock, and generally form colonnades upwards of fifty feet high, -following the contours of the inlets or promontories, and overtopped with -smaller hillocks. Along the west coast of the island they are tolerably -irregular, but on the south side Staffa appears as an immense Gothic -edifice, or rather as a forest of gigantic pillars seemingly arranged -with all the regularity of art. The admiration they cause is, however, -soon effaced when the vast cave to which the remote islet owes its -world-wide celebrity bursts upon the view. Fancy a grotto measuring 250 -feet in length by 53 in width at the entrance, and spanned by an arch -117 feet high, which, though gradually sloping towards the interior, -still maintains a height of 70 feet at the farthest end of the cavern! -The walls consist of rows of huge hexagonal basaltic pillars, which seem -regularly to diminish according to the rules of perspective. The roof -of the vault is formed of the remnants of similar columns, whose shafts -have beyond a doubt been torn away by the sea, which, destroying them -one after the other, has gradually excavated this magnificent temple of -Nature. All their interstices, like those of the pillars, are cemented -with a kind of pale yellow spar, which brings out all the angles and -sides of their surfaces, and forms a pleasing contrast with the dark -purple colour of the basalt. - -The whole floor of the cave is occupied by the sea, the depth of which, -even at its farthest end, is above six feet, during ebb-tide; but -it is only in perfectly calm weather that a boat is able to venture -into the interior, for when the sea is any way turbulent (and this is -generally the case among the stormy Hebrides) it is in danger of being -hurled against the walls of the grot and dashed to pieces. Under these -circumstances, the only access into the cave is by a narrow dyke or ledge -running along its eastern wall, about fifteen feet above the water. It -is formed of truncated basaltic pillars, over which it is necessary to -clamber with great caution and dexterity, as they are always moist and -slippery from the dashing spray. Frequently there is only room enough -for one foot, and while the left hand grasps that of the guide, it is -necessary to hold fast with the right to a pillar of the wall. As this -difficult path is most dangerous in the darkest part of the cave, but -few tourists are bold enough to trust themselves to it, for the least -false step must infallibly precipitate the adventurous explorer into the -seething caldron below. Sometimes a cormorant, fearless of any accident -of this kind, has built his nest upon the top of one of the truncated -pillars, which form the pavement of the pathway, and betrays by a peevish -hissing his ill humour at being disturbed in his solitary retreat by the -intrusion of man. - -[Illustration: Fingal's Cave.] - -The narrow path ultimately widens into a more roomy and slanting space -formed of the remains of more than a thousand perpendicular truncated -shafts. The back wall consists of a range of unequally sized pillars, -arranged somewhat like the tubes of an organ. When the waves rush with -tumultuous fury into the cave and dash their flakes of snow-white foam -against its wall, it seems as if the gigantic instrument, touched by an -invisible hand, were loudly singing the triumphs of ocean. - -Among the beauties of this matchless cave, the clear light must not -be forgotten, which, penetrating through the wide portal, produces an -agreeable chiaro-oscuro even at its farthest end, so that the eye is able -to seize at one glance the full majesty of the splendid hall; nor the -pure air which, constantly renewed by the perpetual alternations of the -tides, is very different from the chilly dampness which generally reigns -in subterranean caverns. - -When we consider the resemblance which from its regularity this -magnificent work of nature bears to a production of human art, we cannot -wonder at its having been ascribed to mortal architecture. But as men -of ordinary stature seemed too weak for so colossal an enterprise, it -was attributed to a race of giants, who constructed it for their chief -and leader, Fingal, so renowned in Gaelic mythology. This belief still -lingers among the primitive people of the neighbourhood, though some, -being averse to pagan Goliahs, ascribe its workmanship to St. Columban. - -The patriotic muse of Walter Scott, who visited the cave in 1810, rises -to more than ordinary warmth while describing - - "That wondrous dome, - Where, as to shame the temples deck`d - By skill of earthly architect, - Nature herself, it seemed, would raise - A minster to her Maker's praise! - Not for a meaner use ascend - Her columns, or her arches bend; - Nor of a theme less solemn, tells - That mighty surge that ebbs and swells, - And still between each awful pause - From the high vault an answer draws - In varied tones, prolonged and high, - That mocks the organ's melody. - Nor doth its entrance front in vain - To old Iona's holy fane, - That Nature's voice might seem to say, - 'Well hast thou done, frail child of clay, - Thy humble powers that stately shrine - Task'd high and hard--but witness mine!'" - - _Lord of the Isles_, canto iv. stanza 10. - -The Mediterranean has likewise its marine grottoes of world-wide -celebrity, its azure cave of Capri,[D] which I have previously described, -and its Antro di Nettuno, in the island of Sardinia, about twelve miles -from the small sea-port of Alghero. Unfortunately this superb grotto is -very difficult of access, for any wind between the north-west and the -south prevents an entry, so that the Algherese assert that 300 out of -the 365 days it is impossible to enter it. The first vaulted cavern, -forming an antechamber about thirty feet high, has no peculiar beauty, -but on crossing a second cavern, in which are about twenty feet of -beautifully clear water, and then turning to the left, one finds oneself -in an intricate navigation among stalactites with surrounding walls and -passages of stalagmites of considerable height. Having passed them and -proceeding westerly, one reaches another cavern with a natural column in -its centre, the shaft and capital of which, supporting the immense and -beautifully fretted roof, reminds one of those in the chapter-house of -the cathedral at Wells, and the staircase of the hall at Christ Church, -Oxford. It stands, the growing monument of centuries, in all its massive -and elegant simplicity with comparatively speaking few other stalagmites -to destroy the effects of its noble solitude. In parts of the grotto -are corridors and galleries, some 300 and 400 feet long, reminding one -of the Moorish architecture of the Alhambra. One of them terminates -abruptly in a deep cavern into which it is impossible to descend; but -among many other interesting objects is a small chamber the access to -which is through a very narrow aperture. After climbing and scrambling -through it, one finds oneself in a room the ceiling of which is entirely -covered with delicate stalactites, and the sides with fretted open work, -so fantastical that one might almost imagine that it was a boudoir of the -Oceanides, where they amused themselves with making lime lace. Some of -the columns in different parts of the grotto are from seventy to eighty -feet in circumference, and the masses of drapery drooping in exquisite -elegance are of equally grand proportions. - -[Footnote D: Chap. i. p. 18.] - -If a rare chance was required to discover the narrow opening in the -cliffs of Capri, behind which one of the loveliest spectacles of nature -lies concealed, we well may wonder how the famous cave of Hunga in the -Tonga Archipelago ever became known, as its entrance even at low water -is completely hidden under the surface of the sea. Mariner, to whom we -owe our first knowledge of this wonderful play of nature, relates that -while he was one day _rat-hunting_[E] in the island of Hunga with king -Finow, who at that time reigned over Tonga, the barbarian monarch took -a fancy to drink his _kawa_[F] in the cave. Mariner, who had absented -himself for a few moments from the company, was very much astonished -when, returning to the strand, he saw one chieftain after another dive -and disappear. He had but just time to ask the last of them what they -were about. "Follow me," answered the chieftain, "and I will show thee -a place where thou hast never been before, and where Finow and his -chieftains are at present assembled." Mariner immediately guessed that -this must be the celebrated cave of which he had frequently heard, and, -anxious to see it, he immediately followed the diving chieftain, and -swimming close after him under the water, safely reached the opening -in the rock through which he emerged into the cave. On ascending to -the surface, he immediately heard the voices of the company, and still -following his guide, climbed upon a projecting ledge on which he sat -down. All the light of the cave was reflected from the sea beneath, -but yet it was sufficient, as soon as the eye had become accustomed to -the twilight, to distinguish the surrounding objects. A clearer light -being, however, desirable, Mariner once more dived, swam to the strand, -fetched his pistol, poured a good quantity of powder on the pan, wrapped -it carefully up in tapa-cloth and leaves, and, providing himself with -a torch, returned as quickly as possible to the cave. Here he removed -the cloth, a great part of which was still quite dry, and igniting it -by the flame of the powder made use of it to light his torch. This was -probably the very first time since its creation that the cave had ever -been illumined by artificial light. Its chief compartment, which on one -side branched out into two smaller cavities, seemed to be about forty -feet wide and the mean height above the water amounted to as much. The -roof was ornamented in a remarkable manner by stalactites resembling the -arches and fantastic ornaments of a Gothic hall. According to a popular -tradition, the chieftain who first discovered this remarkable cave while -diving after a turtle, used it subsequently as a place of refuge for his -mistress to screen her from the persecutions of the reigning despot. -The sea faithfully guarded his secret: after a few weeks of seclusion, -he fled with his beloved to the Feejee Islands, and on his returning to -his native home after the death of the tyrant, his countrymen heard with -astonishment of the wonderful asylum that had been revealed to him by the -beneficent sea-gods. Lord Byron adopted this graceful tale as the subject -of his poem "The Island, or Christian and his Comrades," and has thus -described the cave, no doubt largely adorning it from the stores of his -brilliant fancy: - - "Around she pointed to a spacious cave, - Whose only portal was the keyless wave - (A hollow archway, by the sun unseen, - Save through the billows' glassy veil of green, - On some transparent ocean holiday, - When all the finny people are at play). - - "Wide it was and high; - And showed a self-born Gothic canopy. - The arch upreared by Nature's architect, - The architrave some earthquake might erect; - The buttress from some mountain's bosom hurl'd, - When the poles crash'd and water was the world; - Or harden'd from some earth-absorbing fire, - While yet the globe reek'd from its funeral pyre. - The fretted pinnacle, the aisle, the nave, - Were there, all scoop'd by darkness from her cave. - There, with a little tinge of fantasy, - Fantastic faces mopp'd and mow'd on high; - And then a mitre or a shrine would fix - The eye upon its seeming crucifix. - Thus Nature played with the stalactites, - And built herself a chapel of the seas." - -[Footnote E: A favourite pastime of the Polynesian chiefs.] - -[Footnote F: An intoxicating beverage extracted from the Piper -methysticum, a species of pepper plant.] - -On many rocky shores the ocean has worn out subterraneous channels in the -cliffs against which it has been beating for ages, and then frequently -emerges in water-spouts or fountains from the opposite end. Thus, in -the Skerries, one of the Shetland Islands, a deep chasm or inlet, which -is open overhead, is continued under ground and then again opens to -the sky in the middle of the island. When the water is high, the waves -rise up through this aperture like the blowing of a whale in noise and -appearance. - -A similar phenomenon is exhibited on the south side of the Mauritius, at -a point called "The Souffleur," or "The Blower." "A large mass of rock," -says Lieutenant Taylor,[G] "runs out into the sea from the mainland, to -which it is joined by a neck of rock not two feet broad. The constant -beating of the tremendous swell, which rolls in, has undermined it -in every direction, till it has exactly the appearance of a Gothic -building with a number of arches. In the centre of the rock, which is -about thirty-five or forty feet above the sea, the water has forced two -passages vertically upwards, which are worn as smooth and cylindrical as -if cut by a chisel. When a heavy sea rolls in, it of course fills in an -instant the hollow caverns underneath, and finding no other egress, and -being borne in with tremendous violence, it rushes up these chimneys and -flies, roaring furiously, to a height of full sixty feet. The moment the -wave recedes, the vacuum beneath causes the wind to rush into the two -apertures with a loud humming noise, which is heard at a considerable -distance. My companion and I arrived there before high water, and, -having climbed across the neck of rock, we seated ourselves close to the -chimneys, where I proposed making a sketch, and had just begun when in -came a thundering sea, which broke right over the rock itself and drove -us back much alarmed. - -"Our negro guide now informed us that we must make haste to recross our -narrow bridge, as the sea would get up as the tide rose. We lost no time -and got back dry enough; and I was obliged to make my sketches from -the mainland. In about three-quarters of an hour the sight was truly -magnificent. I do not exaggerate in the least when I say that the waves -rolled in, long and unbroken, full twenty-five feet high, till, meeting -the headland, they broke clear over it, sending the spray flying over to -the mainland; while from the centre of this mass of foam, the Souffleur -shot up with a noise, which we afterwards heard distinctly between two -and three miles. Standing on the main cliff, more than a hundred feet -above the sea, we were quite wet. All we wanted to complete the picture -was a large ship going ashore." - -[Footnote G: Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, vol. -iii. 1833.] - - -THE SOUFFLEUR. - - This plate shows the sea beating against some hollow rocks on the - coast of the Mauritius, and producing the remarkable phenomenon called - "The Souffleur," or "The Blower," water-spouts issuing from the - wave-worn cavities of the cliff to a considerable height, and with a - noise distinctly audible at a distance of three miles. - -[Illustration: THE SOUFFLEUR ROCK, MAURITIUS.] - -A similar phenomenon, on a still more grand and majestic scale, occurs -near Huatulco, a small Mexican village on the coast of the Pacific. On -sailing into the bay one hears a distant noise, which might be taken for -the spouting of a gigantic whale, or the dying groans of a bull struck -by the sharp steel of the matador, or the rolling of thunder. Anxious to -know the cause, "It is the Buffadero," answer the boatmen, pointing to a -fantastically-shaped rock towards which they are rowing. On approaching, -a truly magnificent spectacle reveals itself; for a colossal fountain -springs from an aperture in the rock to a height of 150 feet, and after -having dissolved in myriads of gems, returns to the foaming element -which gave it birth. This beautiful sight renews itself as often as the -breakers rush against the rock, and must be of unequalled splendour when -a tornado sweeps across the ocean and rolls its giant billows into the -hollowed bosom of the cliff. - - - - -CHAP. V. - -OCEAN CURRENTS. - - Causes of the Oceanic Currents.--The Equatorial Stream.--The - Gulf Stream.--Its Influence on the Climate of the West European - Coasts.--The Cold Peruvian Stream.--The Japanese Stream. - - -Perpetual motion and change is the grand law, to which the whole of the -created universe is subject, and immutable stability is nowhere to be -found, but in the Eternal mind that rules and governs all things. The -stars, which were supposed to be _fixed_ to the canopy of heaven, are -restless wanderers through the illimitable regions of space. The hardest -rocks melt away under the corroding influence of time, for the elements -never cease gnawing at their surface, and dislocating the atoms of which -they are composed. Our body appears to us unchanged since yesterday, -and yet how many of the particles which formed its substance, have -within these few short hours, been cast off and replaced by others. We -fancy ourselves at rest, and yet a torrent of blood, propelled by an -indefatigable heart, is constantly flowing through all our arteries and -veins. - -A similar external appearance of tranquillity might deceive the -superficial observer, when sailing over the vast expanse of ocean, at a -time when the winds are asleep, and its surface is unruffled by a wave. -But how great would be his error! For every atom of the boundless sea is -constantly moving and changing its place; from the depth to the surface, -or from the surface to the depth; from the frozen pole to the burning -equator, or from the torrid zone to the arctic ocean; now rising in the -air in the form of invisible vapours, and then again descending upon our -fields in fertilising showers. - -The waters are, in fact, the greatest travellers on earth; they know all -the secrets of the submarine world; climb the peaks of inaccessible -mountains, shame the flight of the condor as he towers over the summit -of the Andes, and penetrate deeper into the bowels of the earth than the -miner has ever sunk his shaft. - -Leaving their wanderings through the regions of air to the next chapter, -I shall now describe the principal ocean currents, the simple, but -powerful agencies by which they are set in motion, their importance in -the economy of nature, and their influence on the climate of different -countries. - -Even in the torrid zone, the waters of the ocean, like a false friend, -are warm merely on the surface, and of an almost icy coldness at -a considerable depth. This low temperature cannot be owing to any -refrigerating influence at the bottom of the sea, as the internal warmth -of the earth increases in proportion to its depth, and the waters of -profound lakes, in a southern climate, never show the same degree of cold -as those of the vast ocean. - -The phenomenon can thus only arise from a constant submarine current of -cold water from the poles to the line, and strange as it may seem, its -primary cause is to be sought for in the _warming_ rays of the _sun_, -which, as we all know, distributes heat in a very unequal manner over the -surface of the globe. - -Heat expands all liquid bodies, and renders them lighter; cold increases -their weight by condensation. In consequence of this physical law, the -waters of the tropical seas, rendered buoyant by the heat of a vertical -sun, must necessarily rise and spread over the surface of the ocean to -the north and south, whilst colder and heavier streams from the higher -latitudes flow towards the equator along the bottom of the ocean, to -replace them as they ascend. - -In this manner, the unequal action of the sun calls forth a general and -constant movement of the waters from the poles to the equator, and from -the equator to the poles; and this perpetual migration is one of the -chief causes by which their purity is maintained. These opposite currents -would necessarily flow direct to the north or south, were they not -deflected from their course by the rotation of the earth, which gradually -gives them a westerly or easterly direction. - -The unequal influence of the sun in different parts of the globe, and the -rotation of the earth, are, however, not the only causes by which the -course of ocean-currents is determined. - -Violent storms move the waters to a considerable depth, and retard the -flow of rivers, and thus it is to be expected that continuous winds, even -of moderate strength, must have a tendency to impel the waters in the -same direction. - -The steady trade-winds of the tropical zone, and the prevailing westerly -winds in higher latitudes, consequently unite their influence with that -of the above mentioned causes, in driving the waters of the tropical seas -to the west, and those of the temperate zones to the east. - -The tides also, which on the high seas generally move from east to west, -promote the flow of the ocean in the same direction, and thus contribute -to the westerly current of the tropical seas. - -Nor must we forget that the obstacles which the ocean-currents meet on -their way; such as intervening lines of coast, sand banks, submarine -ridges, or mountain chains, have a great influence upon their course, and -may even give them a diametrically opposite direction to that which they -would otherwise have followed. - -Having thus briefly mentioned the origin and causes of the currents, -which intersect the seas like huge rivers, I shall now describe such of -them as are most important and interesting in a geographical point of -view. - -In the northern part of the Atlantic, between Europe, North Africa, and -the New World, the waters are constantly performing a vast circular or -rotatory movement. Under the tropics they proceed like the trade-winds -from east to west, assisting the progress of the ships that sail from -the Canaries to South America, and rendering navigation in a straight -line from Carthagena de Indias to Cumana (stream upwards) next to -impossible. This westerly current receives a considerable addition from -the _Mozambique_ stream, which, flowing from north to south between -Madagascar and the coast of Caffraria, proceeds round the southern -extremity of Africa, and after rapidly advancing to the north, along the -western coast of that continent, as far as the island of St. Thomas, -unites its waters with those of the equatorial current, and continues its -course right across the Atlantic. In this manner the combined tropical -streams reach the eastern extremity of South America (Cape Roque), where -they divide into two arms. The one flowing to the south follows the -south-eastern coast, and gradually takes a south-easterly direction, -between the tropic of Capricorn and the mouth of the La Plata river, -beyond the limits of the trade-winds. Its traces show themselves to the -south-east of the Cape of Good Hope, and are finally lost far in the -Indian Ocean. - -The northern arm of the equatorial stream flows along the north-eastern -coast of South America; constantly raising its temperature under the -influence of a tropical sun, and progressing with a rapidity of a hundred -miles in twenty-four hours (six feet and a half in a second), after -having been joined by the waters of the Amazon river. Thus it continues -to flow to the east, until the continent of Central America opposes -an invincible barrier to its farther progress in this direction, and -compels it to follow the windings of the coast of Costa Rica, Mosquitos, -Campeche, and Tabasco. It then performs a vast circuit along the shores -of the Mexican Gulf, and finally emerges through the Straits of Bahama -into the open ocean. - -Here it assumes a new name, and forms what navigators call the -_Gulf-stream_, a rapid current of tepid water, which, flowing in a -diagonal direction, recedes farther and farther from the coast of North -America as it advances to the north-east. Under the forty-first degree -of latitude it suddenly bends to the east, gradually diminishing in -swiftness, and at the same time increasing in width. - -Thus it flows across the Atlantic, to the south of the great bank of -Newfoundland, where Humboldt found the temperature of its stream several -degrees higher than that of the neighbouring and tranquil waters, which -form, as it were, the banks of the warm oceanic current. Ere it reaches -the western Azores, it divides into two arms, one of which is driven, -partly by the natural impulse of its stream, but principally by the -prevailing westerly and north-westerly winds, towards the coasts of -Europe; while the other, flowing towards the Canary Islands and the -western coast of Africa, finally returns into the equatorial current. - -In this manner the waters are brought back to the point from which they -came, after having performed a vast circuit of 20,000 miles, which it -took them nearly three years to accomplish. According to Humboldt's -calculations, a boat left to the current, and moving along without any -other assistance, would require about thirteen months to float from the -Canary Islands to the Caribbean Sea as far as Caraccas. From Caraccas -to the Straits of Florida, it would remain another ten months on the -way, for though the direct distance is but short, the current has to -perform an enormous circuit of 2500 miles, and flows but slowly in those -confined seas. But the accumulated waters having now to force their -passage through the narrow channel between Cuba and the Bahama Islands on -one side, and Florida on the other, attain so considerable a velocity, -that the whole distance from the Havannah to the Bank of Newfoundland, is -traversed in forty days. During this passage the Gulf-stream particularly -deserves its name, and is easily distinguished from the surrounding -waters by its higher temperature and its vivid dark blue colour. Numerous -marine animals of the tropical seas,--the flying fish, the neat velella, -the purple ianthina, the crosier nautilus, accompany it to latitudes -which otherwise would prove fatal to their existence; and, trusting its -tepid stream, float or swim along to the north or the north-east. - -At the extremity of the Bank of Newfoundland, it becomes broader, wavers -more or less in its course, according to the prevailing winds, and at the -same time decreases in rapidity, so that the boat would most likely still -require from ten to eleven months for this last station of its journey, -ere it once more reached the Canary Islands. - -The direction of the Gulf-stream explains to us how the productions of -tropical America are so frequently found on the shores of the Eastern -Atlantic. Humboldt relates that the main-mast of the "Tilbury," a ship -of the line, wrecked during the seven years' war on the coast of San -Domingo, was carried by the Gulf-stream to the North of Scotland; and -cites the still more remarkable fact, that casks of palm oil belonging -to the cargo of an English vessel, which foundered on a rock near Cape -Lopez, likewise found their way to Scotland, having thus twice traversed -the wide Atlantic; first borne from east to west by the equatorial -current, and then carried from west to east, between 45° and 55° N. -latitude, by means of the Gulf-stream. - -Major Rennell ("Investigation of Currents") relates the peregrinations of -a bottle, thrown overboard from the "Newcastle," on the 20th of January, -1819, in lat. 38° 52′, and long. 66° 20′, and ultimately found on the 2nd -of June, 1820, on the shore of the Island of Arran. - -On the 16th of April, 1853, another bottle cast into the waters in the -vicinity of the Bank of Newfoundland, on the 15th of March, 1852, was -found near Bayonne, not far from the mouth of the Adour. - -On the coasts of Orcadia, a sort of fruit, commonly known by the name of -_Molucca_, or Orkney beans, are found in large quantities, particularly -after storms of westerly wind. - -These beans are the produce of West Indian trees (_Anacardium -occidentale_), and find their way from the woods of Cuba and Jamaica, to -the Ultima Thule of the ancients, by means of the Gulf-stream. - -Large quantities of American drift-wood are transported by the same -current to the dreary shores of Iceland,--a welcome gift to the -inhabitants of a region where the highest tree is but a dwarfish shrub, -and cabbages of the size of an apple are raised, as a great rarity, in -the governor's garden. - -A short time before Humboldt visited the island of Teneriffe, the sea had -thrown out the trunk of a North American cedar-tree (_Cedrela odorata_), -covered with the mosses and lichens that had grown upon it in the virgin -forest. - -The Gulf-stream has even contributed to the discovery of America, for -it is well known that Columbus was strengthened in his belief in the -existence of a western continent, by the stranding on the Azores of -bamboos of an enormous size, of artificially carved pieces of wood, of -trunks of a species of Mexican pine, and of the dead bodies of two men, -whose features, resembling neither those of the inhabitants of Europe nor -of Africa, indicated a hitherto unknown race. But not only lifeless and -inanimate objects find their way across the wide Atlantic by means of -the Gulf-stream and its spreading waters; the living aborigines of the -distant regions of America have also sometimes been driven towards the -coasts of Europe by the combined action of the currents and the winds. -Thus, James Wallace tells us that, in the year 1682, a Greenlander in -his boat was seen by many people near the south point of the island of -Eda, but escaped pursuit. In 1684 another Greenland fisherman appeared -near the island of Wistram. An Esquimaux canoe, which the current and -the storm had cast ashore, is still to be seen in the church of Burra. -In Cardinal Bembo's "History of Venice," it is related that, in the year -1508, a small boat with seven strange-featured men, was captured by a -French vessel in the North Sea. The description given of them corresponds -exactly with the appearance of the Esquimaux; they were of a middle-size, -of a dark colour, and had a broad face with spreading features, marked -with a violet scar. No one understood their language. They were clothed -in seal-skins. They ate raw flesh, and drank blood as we do wine. Six of -these men died on the journey; the seventh, a youth, was presented to the -King of France, who at that time was residing at Orleans. - -The appearance of so-called Indians on the coast of the German Sea, -under the Othos and Frederic Barbarossa, or even, as Cornelius Nepos, -Pomponius Melas, and Pliny relate, at the time when Quintus Metellus -Celer was proconsul in Gaul, may be explained by similar effects of the -current and continuous north-easterly winds. A king of the Boians made -a present of the stranded dark-coloured men to Metellus Celer. Gomara, -in his "General History of the Indies," expresses a belief that these -Indians were natives of Labrador, which would be doubly interesting as -the first instance recorded in history of the natives of the Old and the -New World having been brought into contact with each other. We can easily -account for the appearance of Esquimaux on the North European coasts in -former times; as during the eleventh and twelve centuries, their race was -much more numerous than at present, and extended, as we know, from the -researches of Rask and Finn Magnussen, from Labrador to the good Winland, -or the shores of the present State of Massachusetts and Connecticut. - -If we compare the climates on the opposite coasts of the Northern -Atlantic, we find a remarkable difference in favour of the Old World. -The frozen regions of Labrador, lie under the same degree of latitude as -Plymouth, where the myrtle and laurel remain perpetually verdant in the -open air. In New York, which has a more southern situation than Rome, -the winter is colder than at Bergen in Norway, which lies 20° farther -to the north. While on the northern coasts of the old continent, the -waters remain open a great part of the year, even beyond the latitude of -80°, the ice never completely thaws on the opposite shores of Greenland. -What a contrast between the Feroë islands, where the harbours are never -frozen, where fertile meadows afford pasturage to numerous flocks of -sheep, and even crops of barley reward the labours of the husbandman, -and the frightful wildernesses on the shores of Hudson's Straits!--and -yet both are situated under the same latitude of 62°. - -The milder winter and earlier spring which characterise the north-west -coast of Europe, are due, in some measure, to the prevailing westerly -winds; but there can be no doubt that they are mainly owing to the -influence of the Gulf-stream, which, as we have seen, conveys the heated -waters of the Mexican Gulf far to the north-east, and thus imparts warmth -to the climate of our native isle. In both seas, on the contrary, which -bound the peninsula or island of Greenland, icy currents descend, and -continue their course to the south, along the coasts of North America. -Near Newfoundland their temperature, in May, is found to be 14° lower -than that of the air, and even in spring and the early summer they -carry along with them immense ice-blocks, which are frequently drifted -as far south as the latitude of New York, and finally disappear in the -Gulf-stream. - -It is evident that the cold of winter must be increased, and the spring -retarded along the North American coasts by these cold streams, just -as the coasts of Europe are favoured by streams of a contrary nature; -and thus the ocean-currents go a great way to explain the remarkable -differences of climate between the opposite shores of the Northern -Atlantic. - -On this occasion I cannot omit directing the reader's attention to the -influence which the far-distant barrier of Central America has upon -the climate of Great Britain. Supposing yon narrow belt of land to be -suddenly whelmed under the ocean, then instead of circuitously winding -round the Gulf of Mexico, the heated waters of the equatorial current -would naturally flow into the Pacific, and the Gulf-stream no longer -exist. We should not only lose the benefit of its warm current, but cold -polar streams, descending farther to the south would take its place, -and be ultimately driven by the westerly winds against our coasts. Our -climate would then resemble that of Newfoundland, and our ports be -blocked up during many months, by enormous masses of ice. Under these -altered circumstances, England would no longer be the grand emporium of -trade and industry, and would finally dwindle down from her imperial -station to an insignificant dependency of some other country more -favoured by Nature. - -On examining other coast-lands, in different parts of the globe, we -shall everywhere find the influence of the reigning currents producing -analogous effects to those I have already mentioned. - -The Southern Atlantic is not warmed like the European seas by tepid -streams, it is exposed on all sides to the free afflux of the cold waters -of the Antarctic Ocean, and during the summer months to the influence of -drift ice. Thus, the southern extremity of America, Terra del Fuego, the -Falkland Islands, South Georgia, Sandwich Land, and other isles of the -southern ocean, have a much colder climate than the European coasts and -islands situated under the same latitude. - -Let us for instance compare the temperature of the Falkland Islands and -of Port Famine in the Straits of Magellan, with that of Dublin, which is -situated at an equal distance from the line. - - Mean Temperature. - Latitude. Winter. Summer. Annual. - - Dublin 53° 21′ N. +4·0° R. 15·3° 9·6° - Port Famine 53° 38′ S. +0·6 10·0 5·3 - Falkland Islands 52° 0′ S. 4·36 11·8 8·24 - Feroë Islands 62° 2′ N. 3·9 11·6 7·1 - -Thus the climate of the Falkland Islands is, as we see, not very -different from that of the Feroë Islands, although the latter lie ten -degrees farther from the equator. - -In the Pacific Ocean, as well as in the Atlantic, we find a westerly -current filling the whole breadth of the tropical zone, from the coast of -America to that of Australia and the Indian Archipelago. The best known -of its affluxes is the cold Peruvian stream, which, emerging from the -Polar Sea, flows with great rapidity along the shores of Chili and Peru, -and does not take a westerly direction, before reaching the neighbourhood -of the line. It has everywhere a remarkably low temperature, -comparatively to the latitude, and this sufficiently accounts for the -equal and temperate climate on the coasts of Chili and Peru. Thus, the -mean temperature of Callao (12° S. lat.) is only 20° R. while in Rio -Janeiro (23° S. lat.), though so much farther from the line, the annual -warmth rises to 23·2° R. - -In the beginning of November, Humboldt found at Callao the temperature -of the sea within the current not higher than 15·5°, while outside the -stream it rose to 26° or even 28·5° R. - -Even in the vicinity of the equator, after the current has already -assumed a westerly direction, its mean temperature does not exceed 20·5°. -But as it advances towards the west, its temperature gradually rises to -27° or 28°. - -On the western banks of the Pacific the equatorial stream divides into -several branches. Part of its waters flow to the south, a greater -quantity penetrates through the channels of the south Asiatic Archipelago -into the Indian Ocean, the remainder turns to the north-east, on the -confines of the Chinese Sea, leaves the eastern coast of the Japanese -Islands, and then spreads its warm waters under the influence of -north-westerly winds over the northern part of the Pacific. Thus the -Japanese stream plays here the same part as the Gulf-stream in the -Atlantic, and exerts a similar, though less mighty influence over the -climate of the west coast of America, as it is neither so large nor -so warm, and, having to traverse a wider ocean, in higher latitudes, -naturally loses more of its heat during the passage. - -[Illustration: Japan Junks.] - -It is owing to this stream that Sitcha enjoys a mean annual temperature -of +7° R., while Nain in Labrador, situated under the same latitude, is -indebted to the Greenland current for a summer of +7·8°, a winter of --18·5°, and a miserable annual temperature of -3·6°. On the west coast of -North America the analogous trees grow 3° or 4° nearer to the pole, and -the aboriginal tribes go naked as far to the north as 52°, a simplicity -of toilet that would but ill suit the Esquimaux of Labrador. - -Besides their beneficial influence on different climates the -ocean-currents tend to equalise, or to maintain the equilibrium of -the saline composition of sea-water, and thus secure the existence -of numberless marine animals. Their movements also contribute to the -formation of sand-banks, where at certain seasons legions of fishes -deposit their spawn and invite the persecutions of man. - -The rapidity of currents is very different, but always important enough -to be taken into account by navigators. The well-informed seaman makes -use of them to traverse wide spaces with greater rapidity, and, after -an apparently circuitous course, arrives sooner and more safely at his -journey's end than the ignorant steersman, who vainly endeavours to -strive against their power. - -[Illustration: Pavonia lactuca, with Polypes in Natural Position.] - - -[Illustration: LIGHTHOUSE AND WATER-SPOUTS.] - -LIGHTHOUSE AND WATER-SPOUTS. - - A Lighthouse on a rocky shore is represented as just lighted, the - twilight having become darkened by a sudden storm, during which the - phenomena of "water-spouts" occur, which are represented to the left - of the Lighthouse. - - - - -CHAP. VI. - -THE AËRIAL AND TERRESTRIAL MIGRATIONS OF THE WATERS. - - Movements of the Waters through Evaporation.--Origin of - Winds.--Trade-Winds.--Calms.--Monsoons.--Typhoons.--Tornadoes.-- - Water-Spouts.--The Formation of Atmospherical Precipitations.--Dew.-- - Its Origin.--Fog.--Clouds.--Rain.--Snow.--Hail Sources.--The Quantities - of Water which the Rivers pour into the Ocean.--Glaciers and their - Progress.--Icebergs.--Erratic Blocks.--Influence of Forests on the - Formation and Retention of Atmospherical Precipitations.--Consequences - of their excessive Destruction.--The Power of Man over Climate.--How - has it been used as yet? - - -Neither storms nor ocean-currents, nor ebb and flood, however great -their influence, cause such considerable movements of the waters, or -force them to wander so restlessly from place to place as the silent and -imperceptible action of the warming sunbeam. In every zone evaporation -is constantly active in impregnating the atmosphere with moisture, but -the chief seat of its power is evidently in the equatorial regions, where -the vertical rays of the great parent of light and heat plunge, day after -day, into the bosom of ocean, and perpetually saturate the burning air -with aqueous vapours. - -In this chapter I intend following these invisible agents of fertility -and life, as they lightly ascend from the tropical seas, and accompanying -them in their various transformations, until they once more return to the -bosom of their great parent. A cursory view of the benefits they confer -on the vegetable and animal world, as they wander over the surface of the -land, will, I hope, agreeably occupy the reader, and serve to increase -his admiration for that deep and dark blue ocean without which all -organic life would soon be extinct upon earth. - -I begin with a few words on the winged carriers of marine exhalations, -the _winds_, which, although now and then detrimental or fatal to -individuals by their violence, largely compensate for these local -injuries, by the constant and inestimable benefits they confer on the -whole body of mankind. - -On taking a comprehensive view of their origin, we find that, like the -oceanic currents, they are chiefly caused by the unequal influence of -solar warmth upon the atmosphere under the line and at the poles. In the -torrid zone, the air, rarefied by intense heat, ascends in perpendicular -columns high above the surface of the earth, and there flows off towards -the poles, in the same manner as in a vase filled with cold water and -placed over the flame of a lamp, the warmed liquid rises from the bottom -and spreads over the surface. - -But cold air-currents must naturally come flowing in an opposite -direction from the poles to the equator to fill up the void, as in -the example I have cited, colder and consequently heavier water comes -streaming down the sides of the vase to replace the liquid which is -rising in the centre under the influence of heat. - -Thus the unequal distribution of solar warmth over the surface of the -earth evidently generates a constant circulation of air from the equator -to the poles, and from the icy regions to the tropics, and by this means -the purity of the atmosphere is chiefly maintained. The sun is not only -the great fountain of warmth, he is also the universal ventilator; he -not only calls forth animal life, but at the same time, by a simple and -admirable mechanism, provides for its health by constantly renewing the -air, which is essential to its existence. - -If caloric were the sole agent which influences the direction of the -winds, or if the earth were one uniform plain, the opposite air-currents -I have mentioned would naturally flow straight to the north and south; -but their course is modified or diverted in the same manner as that -of the ocean-currents by the rotation of the globe. Thus, the cold -air-current (polar-stream) which comes rushing upon us from the Arctic -regions, is felt in our latitude as the biting east or north-east wind, -so trying to our nerves and organs of respiration, while we enjoy the -warm air-current from the tropics as the mild western or south-western -breeze. - -But besides the rotation of the earth, there are many other local -influences by which the winds are deflected from their course, or by -whose agency partial air-currents are called forth. Among these we -particularly notice high chains of mountains, the unequal capacity of -sea and land in absorbing and retaining heat, which gives rise to sea -and land breezes; the increasing or diminishing power of the sun in -different seasons by which the equilibrium of the air is modified in many -countries, the difference of radiation from a sandy desert or a forest, -electrical discharges from clouds, &c. &c. - -Although subject to many of these local disturbances, the winds generally -blow with an astonishing regularity in the tropical zone; while in -our variable climate the polar and equatorial stream are engaged in a -perpetual strife, now bringing us warmth and moisture from the south and -west, now cold and dryness from the north and east. - -Thus, in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean we find the trade-winds -perpetually blowing from the east, the north-east trade-wind between 9° -and 27° N. lat., and the south-east trade-wind between 3° N. lat. and 25° -S. lat. It was by their assistance that Columbus was enabled to discover -America, and that the wretched barks of Magellan traversed the wide -deserts of the Pacific from end to end. - -Between these two regions of the trade-winds lies the dreaded zone or -girdle of the equatorial calms (doldrums), where long calms alternate -with dreadful storms, and the sultry air weighs heavily upon the spirits. - - "Down dropt the breeze, the sails dropt down, - 'Twas sad as sad could be; - And we did speak, only to break - The silence of the sea. - - "Day after day, day after day, - We stuck, nor breath, nor motion, - As idle as a painted ship - Upon a painted ocean." - -On their polar limits, the trade-wind zones are again girdled with calm -belts, the _horse latitudes_, whose mean breadth is from ten to twelve -degrees. The boundaries of these alternating regions of winds and calms -are not invariably the same, on the contrary, they are perpetually moving -to the north or south, according to the position of the sun. - -From 40° N. lat. to the pole, westerly winds begin to be prevalent, and -in the Atlantic Ocean their proportion to the easterly winds is as two to -one. - -In the Northern Indian Ocean and in the Chinese Sea we also find the -trade-wind, which is there called the _north-east monsoon_; here, -however, it only blows from October to April, as during the summer -terrestrial influences prevail which completely divert it from its course. - -From the wide plains of central Asia glowing with the rays of a -perpetually unclouded sun, the rarefied air rises into the higher -regions. Other columns of air rush from the equator to fill up the -void, and cause the trade-wind to vary its course, and change into the -_south-western monsoons_ of the Indian Ocean, which blow from May to -September. The regularly alternating monsoons materially contributed to -the early development of navigation in the Indian seas, and conducted -the Greeks and Romans as far as Ceylon, Malacca, and the Gulf of Siam. -Similar monsoons, or deflections from the ordinary course of the -trade-winds, occur also in the Mexican Gulf, in the Gulf of Guinea, and -in that part of the Pacific which borders on Central America, through the -influence of the heated plains of Africa, Utah, Texas, and New Mexico. - -The passage from one monsoon to the other is of course only gradual, -since the land also is only gradually heated and cooled. Thus at the -change of the monsoon, an atmospheric war of several weeks' continuance -occurs, during which the trade-wind and the monsoon measure their -strength, and calms alternate with dreadful storms (typhoons, cyclones, -tornadoes). - -According to the researches and observations of Franklin, Cooper, -Redfield, Reid, &c. &c., these storms are great rotatory winds, that move -along a curved line in increasing circles. In the northern hemisphere, -the rotatory movement follows a direction contrary to that of the hands -of a clock; while the opposite takes place in the southern hemisphere. -The knowledge of the laws which regulate the movements of storms is of -great importance to the mariner, since it points out to him the direction -he has to give his ship to gain the external limits of the tornado, and -thus to remove it from danger. - -_Water-spouts_ are formed by two winds blowing in opposite directions, -and raising or sucking up the water in their vortex. They generally form -a double cone; the superior part with its apex downwards, consisting -of a dense cloud, while the inferior cone, the apex of which is turned -upwards, consists of water, which is thus sometimes raised to a height of -several hundred feet. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -Water-spouts seldom last longer than half-an-hour. Their course and -movements are irregular; straight forwards; in zig-zag lines; alternately -rising and falling; stationary; slow; or progressing with the rapidity -of thirty miles an hour. The rotatory movement is also variable; its -power is often very great, but sometimes water-spouts pass over small -vessels without injuring them. They are more frequent near the coast than -on the high seas; and are more commonly seen in warm climates. They seem -to occur particularly in regions where calms frequently alternate with -storms, which is not to be wondered at, since they owe their origin to -miniature storms or whirlwinds. - -[Illustration] - -How do the aqueous vapours with which evaporation impregnates the -atmosphere, again descend upon the surface of the earth? - -Everybody knows that when in summer a bottle filled with cold water is -brought into the room, it soon gets covered with thick dew-drops, which -presently trickle down its sides, although it was perfectly dry on -entering. Whence does this moisture come from? Not from the inside of -the bottle as ignorant people might imagine, but from the surrounding -atmosphere; in consequence of the capacity of the air to absorb and -retain moisture, increasing or diminishing, as its temperature grows -warmer or colder. - -Thus when the cold bottle is introduced into the room, the warm sheet of -air, which is in immediate contact with its surface, immediately cools, -and being no longer able to retain all the moisture with which it was -impregnated, is obliged to deposit it on the sides of the vessel. This -familiar example suffices to explain the formation of dew, rain, hail, -snow, hoar-frost, and all other atmospherical precipitations. They all -result from the influence of some refrigerating cause upon the air; such -as the passage of a warm current into a cooler region; the influx of a -cold wind; a cold-radiating chain of high mountains; a forest, and so -forth. - -The very name of dew is refreshing, and calls forth a host of pleasing -ideas, associated as it is with the memory of serene skies and sunny -mornings. How beautiful are its diamonds glittering in all the colours of -the rainbow, on verdant meads, or on the blushing petals of the rose. How -suggestive of all that is lovely, pure, and innocent! - -Poetry is of older date than prose, and bards have sung long before -philosophers inquired. Thus, although the children of song from Homer and -Theocritus to Byron and Wordsworth so frequently mention dew in their -immortal strains, it is only in our time that its formation has been -fully explained by Dr. Wells, who in a very ingenious and masterly essay -on this subject, first proved that it results from the ground radiating -or projecting heat into free space, and consequently becoming colder than -the neighbouring air. During calm and clear nights, the upper surfaces of -grass-blades, for instance, radiate their caloric into the serene sky, -from which they receive none in return. The lower parts of the plant, -being slow conductors of heat, can only transmit to them a small portion -of terrestrial warmth, and their temperature consequently falling below -that of the circumambient atmosphere, they condense its aqueous vapours. -Clouds on the contrary compensate for the loss of heat the grass sustains -from radiation, by reflecting or throwing back again upon the terrestrial -surface, the caloric which would else have been dissipated in a clear -sky, and this is the reason why dew does not fall, or but slightly falls -during clouded nights. It is easy to conceive why none is formed in windy -weather, as then the air in contact with the ground is constantly removed -ere it has time to cool so far as to compel it to part with its moisture. -We can also understand why dew is more abundant in autumn and spring than -at any other season; as then very cold nights frequently follow upon warm -days; and why it is most copious in the torrid zone, as in those sultry -regions the air is more saturated with moisture than anywhere else, and -the comparatively cold nights are almost constantly serene and calm. -Hoar-frost is nothing but congealed dew, and owes its formation to the -same causes. - -When warmer air-currents are cooled by being transported into colder -regions, or from any other refrigerating cause, a great part of their -moisture generally condenses into small vesicles, but very little heavier -than the surrounding atmosphere, which then becomes visible under the -form of clouds, those great beautifiers of our changing skies, that -frequently trace such picturesque, gorgeous, or singular groups and -landscapes in the aërial regions. The inhabitants of countries where -the heavens are monotonously serene, may well envy us the charms of a -phenomenon which in some measure affords us compensation for so many -disagreeable vicissitudes of the weather. Who that has admired at sunset -the light clouds so beautifully fringed with silver and gold, or glowing -with the richest purple, and loves to follow them in all their wonderful -and fantastic transformations, will deny that they are the poesy and life -of the skies, the awakeners of pleasing fancies and delightful reveries? - -Thin wreaths of clouds have been observed, by travellers that have -ascended the most elevated mountains, floating high above the peak of -Chimborazo or Dhawalagiri, and thus shows us to what an amazing altitude -the emanations of ocean are carried by the ascending air-current. - -Sometimes when light clouds pass into a warmer atmosphere, they gradually -dissolve and vanish; more frequently the accumulating moisture, too heavy -to continue floating in the air, or condensed by electrical explosions, -descends upon the earth in rain, which, with few exceptions, visits -every part of the globe, either in its liquid form or congealed to snow -or hail. But the quantity of rain which annually falls in different -regions is very unequal, and strange to say, it is not most considerable -in those countries whose climate enjoys an unenviable notoriety for -its clouded atmosphere and the great number of its rainy days. In the -tropical regions it is generally only about the time of the summer -solstice that abundant showers of rain fall regularly every afternoon, -while the rest of the year, the sky is uninterruptedly serene; but during -the short period of the rainy season, a far greater quantity of water is -precipitated upon the earth, than in the temperate zones. - -While on the island of Guadaloupe, the annual quantity of rain amounts -to 274·2 French inches, and to 283·3 at Mahabuleshwar, on the western -declivity of the Ghauts, which, as far as has hitherto been ascertained, -is the place where most rain descends; only from 35 to 40 inches fall on -the western coast of England, where the skies are chronically weeping. - -It is a remarkable circumstance that the annual quantity of rain which -falls in the same place remains about the same from year to year; so that -by an admirable balancing of conflicting influences, nature seems to -have provided for stability in a province which of all others might be -supposed most open to the caprices of chance. - -Having thus followed the exhalations of ocean to the end of what may -be called the first stage of their journey, and seen them descend in a -condensed form upon the surface of the dry land, I will now accompany -them in their ulterior progress to the bosom of the seas. A great part -of them have many transformations and changes to undergo ere they can -accomplish their return; repeatedly rising in vapours from the solid -earth, and falling in showers upon its surface; or circulating through -the tissues of organic life: but after all these intermediate stages and -delays, they ultimately find their way into rivulets or streams, which -after many a meander restore them to the vast reservoir from which they -arose. - -The waters that descend upon solid rocks, or fall in large quantities -upon abrupt declivities, immediately flow into the brooks or rivers; -but when they gently and gradually alight upon a porous soil, they are -absorbed by the earth, and, displacing in virtue of capillary attraction, -and of their superior weight, the air which fills the interstices -between its solid particles, sink deeper and deeper until they meet with -a solid and impenetrable stratum. If this forms a hollow basin, they -naturally settle in the cavity; whence they are slowly displaced by fresh -accessions and evaporation; but if its deepest declivity lies somewhere -near the surface, they gradually gush forth under the form of sources -or springs, having unequal distances to perform before they can reach -the orifice. If no fresh supply of water falls, ere the most distant -particles have reached their journey's end, the source dries up: but if -new atmospheric precipitations continually take place, the source is -perennial, although naturally of unequal strength at different times. - -The temperature of springs varies from icy coldness to boiling heat. Cold -springs arise when the waters, by which they are fed, descend from high -mountains or do not penetrate a great way into the bowels of the earth; -but if the filtering waters reach a depth which is constantly of a higher -temperature, they then gush forth in the form of warm or even boiling -springs. - -A crowd of agreeable associations attaches itself to the idea of sources -and springs, for they are generally both pleasing and useful to man. How -we long in summer for the refreshing waters of the cool fountain issuing -from the mountain side, and murmuring through the woods. The lover of -nature spends hours near some solitary spring, and forgets the flow of -time, as he observes the bubbling and listens to the sweet music of its -crystal waters. A luxuriant vegetation marks their progress, though all -around be burnt up by the scorching sun. Along their margin many a wild -flower blooms, and herbs and shrubs and trees rejoice in a more vivid -green, and statelier growth. There also congregate such members of the -finny race, as delight in cooler streams of untainted purity, and birds -love to build their nests among the sheltering foliage. Thus a little -world forms around the gushing spring, and shows on a diminutive scale, -how all that lives and breathes depends upon the liquid element for its -existence. - -While the waters filter through the earth they naturally dissolve a -variety of substances, and all springs are more or less mixed with -extraneous particles. But many of them, particularly such as are of a -higher temperature and consequently arise from deeper strata, contain -either a larger quantity or so peculiar a combination of mineral -substances as to acquire medicinal virtues of the highest order, and to -become objects of importance to a large portion of mankind. Numberless -invalids annually flock to the hygeian fountains which nature unceasingly -pours forth from her mysterious laboratory, and are by them restored to -the enjoyments of a pleasurable existence. - -How truly wonderful is the chain of processes which first raises vapours -from the deep, and eventually causes them to gush forth from the entrails -of the earth, laden with blessings and enriched with treasures more -inestimable than those the miner toils for! - -Although a river generally has its source in mountainous regions, it -must be remembered that all the waters that descend upon the territory -of which it forms the lowest level, gradually find their way into -its current. Thus, the monarch of all streams, the Amazon River, is -the natural drain of a territory thirty times larger than England. -Thousands of rivulets and brooks, fed by the waters which descend -from the slopes of thousands of glens and valleys, or filter through -the vast forest-plains that rise but a few feet above their surface, -all contribute to swell the majesty of its current. Its sources are -in reality wherever, on that vast extent of land, water descends and -drains into any one of its innumerable affluents. When we hear that on -an average the river of the Amazons alone restores every minute half a -million of tons of water to the ocean, and then consider the countless -number of streams all alike active, that are scattered over the globe, -we may form a faint idea of the vast quantity of vapours which are -constantly rising from the deep, and of the magnitude of these silent -operations of nature. Yet such is the immensity of ocean, that supposing -all the waters it constantly loses, never to return again into its -bosom, it would require thousands of years of evaporation to exhaust the -immensity of its reservoirs! - -It might be supposed that the waters which congeal on the sides of -mountains covered with perennial snow, or fill Alpine valleys in the -form of glaciers, were eternally fixed on earth--but there also we are -deceived by delusive appearances of immobility. Every year the glacier -slowly but restlessly makes a step forwards into the valley, and while -its lower end dissolves, new supplies of snow constantly feed it from -above. It has been calculated by Agassiz that the ice masses of the Aar -glacier require 133 years to perform their descent from its summit to -its inferior extremity--a distance of ten miles--so that their sojourn -in that chilled valley far surpasses that of the oldest patriarch of -the mountains. How great must be their delight when they at last are -liberated from the spell which so long enchained them, and freely bound -along on their way to Ocean! How they must shudder at the idea of once -more returning to their desolate prison, and long for the perpetual -warmth of spicy groves and tropical gardens! - -In the colder regions of the earth, in Greenland or Spitzbergen, immense -glaciers frequently fill the valleys that open on the sea, descend even -beyond the water's edge, and, as they move along, their overhanging -masses separate from their base and plunge into the deep with a crash -louder than thunder. The icebergs that drift about the Arctic seas, -and are annually conveyed by the currents into lower latitudes, are -formed in this manner. Huge blocks of granite, detached by atmospherical -vicissitudes from the higher mountains and precipitated on the surface -of the glaciers, frequently float on the broad back of an iceberg far -away from the spot where they seemed rooted for eternity. As their -crystal support melts away in its progress to warmer climes, these rocky -fragments, which have been appropriately named _erratic blocks_, fall -to the bottom of the sea hundreds or even thousands of miles from the -starting point of their journey. Thus the great bank of Newfoundland is -covered with stones from distant Greenland, raised high in the air by -volcanic power myriads of years ago, and now condemned to an equally -long repose below the surface of ocean. When will they rise again above -the waters, and what further changes will they have to undergo ere their -compacted atoms resolve themselves into dust and assume new forms? But, -however remote their dissolution, it will inevitably come, for Time is -all-powerful, and has an eternity to work out his changes. - -The large blocks of stone that so wonderfully migrate on the wandering -iceberg form but a small and insignificant portion of the terrestrial -spoils which are transported to ocean by the returning waters. Every -river is more or less laden with earthy particles which its current -carries onwards to the sea and deposits at its mouth. In course of time -their accumulation, as I have already mentioned, forms large tracts of -fertile territory encroaching upon the maritime domains. - -I shall end with a few words on the influence of forests in attracting -or retaining the atmospherical moisture, as it is a subject of great -importance in the economy of nations, and shows us how much it is in the -power of man to improve or to defeat the provisions of nature in his -favour. - -Forests always cool the neighbouring atmosphere, for their foliage offers -an immense warmth-radiating surface, so that the vapours readily condense -above them and descend in frequent showers. At the same time their roots -loosen the soil, and the successive falling of their leaves forms a -thick layer of humus, which has an uncommon power in attracting and -retaining moisture. Their thick canopy of verdure also prevents the rays -of the sun from penetrating to the ground, and absorbing its humidity. -Thus the soil on which forests stand is constantly saturated with water, -and becomes the parent of perennial sources and rills, that spread -fertility and plenty far from the spot where they originated. - -The rain-attractive influence of forests did not escape the attention of -Columbus, who ascribed the frequent showers which refreshed and cooled -the air, as he sailed along the coasts of Jamaica, to the vast extent and -density of the woods that covered the mountains of that island. On this -occasion he mentions in his journal that formerly rain had been equally -abundant on Madeira, the Canaries, and the Azores, before their shady -forests were felled or burnt by the improvident settlers. - -The wanton destruction of woods has entailed barrenness on countries -renowned in former times for their fertility. The mountains of Greece -were covered with trees during the great epoch of her history, and -the well-watered land bore abundant fruits, and sustained a numerous -population. But man recklessly laid waste the sources of his prosperity. -Along with the woods, many brooks and rivulets disappeared, and ceased -to water the parched plains. The rain gradually washed the vegetable -earth from the sides of the naked hills, and condemned them to sterility. -When the snow of the mountains began to thaw under the warm breath of -spring, it was now no longer retained by the spongy soil of the forests, -and gradually dissolved under their cover; but, rapidly melting, filled -with its impetuous torrents the bed of the rivers, and overflowing their -banks, spread ruin and devastation far around. - -Unfortunately, forests when once destroyed are not so easily restored, -and it requires many centuries ere the bared mountain side reassumes -its pristine vesture of shady woods. First lichens, mosses, and other -thrifty herbs, content to feed upon nothing, have to prepare a scanty -humus for the reception of more pretentious guests. In course of time -some small stunted shrub makes its appearance here and there in some -peculiarly favoured spot, and after all requires vast powers of endurance -to maintain itself on the niggard soil, exposed to the full enmity of -wind and weather. This paves the way for a more vigorous and fortunate -offspring; and as every year adds something to the vegetation on the -mountain's side, and opposes increasing obstacles to the winds, the -falling leaves and decaying herbage accumulate more and more, until -dwarfish trees first find a sufficiency of soil to root upon, and -finally, the proud monarch of the forest spreads out his powerful arms -and raises his majestic summit to the skies. - -While Greece and Asia Minor have seen their fertility decrease or -vanish with the trees that once covered their hills, other countries -have improved as their vast woods have been thinned by the axe of the -husbandman. In the time of the Romans all Germany formed one vast and -continuous forest, and its climate was consequently much more rigorous -than it is at present. All the low grounds were covered with impervious -morasses, and the winter is described by historians in terms like those -we should employ to paint the cold of Siberia. - -But the scene gradually changed as tillage usurped the sylvan domain. The -excessive humidity of the soil diminished, the swamps disappeared, and -the heat of the sea, penetrating into the bosom of the earth, developed -its productive powers. Thus the chestnut and the vine now thrive and -ripen their fruits on the banks of the Rhine and the Danube, where 2000 -years ago they could not possibly have existed. But Germany would also -see her fertility decline, if the destruction of the forests which still -crown the brow of many of her hills should continue in a considerable -degree. Numerous rivulets would then be dried up during the warm season, -in consequence of the more rapid descent and thaw of vernal rains and -wintry snows, and most likely, refreshing summer showers would be far -less frequent. Even now the inundations which almost annually desolate -the banks of the Elbe, the Oder, and the Rhine, are ascribed by competent -judges to the excessive clearing of the forests in the mountainous -countries where those rivers originate. These few examples suffice to -prove to us the power of man in modifying the climates of the earth, and -the vast importance of the study of terrestrial physics. By planting -or destroying woods, he is able to compel nature to a more equitable -distribution of her gifts. In marshy and low countries, he may remove -the superfluous waters by drainage, and increase the productiveness of -arid plains by judicious irrigation. Thus man is the lord and master -of the earth; but hitherto he has done but little to reap all the -advantages he might have obtained from his dominion, or even used it -to his own detriment. Drainage, irrigation, and a judicious management -of forest-lands, are only beginning to be understood even among the -most enlightened nations. A great part of our damp island still remains -undrained, and we allow the rivers of India to pour their waters into the -sea, instead of diverting them upon her thirsty plains. But there can be -no doubt that as knowledge increases, man will gradually learn to provide -every soil with the exact measure of humidity that is requisite to make -it bring forth its fruits in the greatest abundance. Views such as these -teach us, that, far from having attained the summit of civilisation, -we are still on the threshold of her temple, and that most likely our -descendants will look down upon our present condition as we do upon that -of our barbarous ancestors. - -[Illustration: Rocky Mountains at the bend of Bear Lake River.] - - - - -CHAP. VII. - -MARINE CONSTRUCTIONS. - - Lighthouses.--The Eddystone.--Winstanley's Lighthouse, 1696.--The - Storm of 1703.--Rudyerd's Lighthouse destroyed by Fire in - 1755.--Singular Death of one of the Lighthouse Men.--Anecdote of - Louis XIV.--Smeaton.--Bell Rock Lighthouse.--History of the Erection - of Skerryvore Lighthouse.--Illumination Lighthouses.--The Breakwater - at Cherbourg.--Liverpool Docks.--The Tubular Bridge over the Menai - Straits.--The Sub-oceanic Mine of Botallack. - - -In one of the finest passages of "Childe Harold," Byron contrasts the -gigantic power of the sea with the weakness of man. He describes the -resistless billows contemptuously playing with the impotent mariner--now -heaving him to the skies, now whelming him deep in the bosom of the -tumultuous waters; he mocks the vain pride of our armadas, which are but -the playthings of ocean, and points with a bitter sneer at the wrecks -with which he strews his shores. A less misanthropic mood or a more -truthful view of things might have prompted the wayward poet to celebrate -the triumphs of man over the brute strength of the winds and waves; how, -guided by the compass, he boldly steers through the vast waste of waters, -how he excavates the artificial harbour, or piles up the breakwater to -protect his bark against the destructive agencies of the billow and the -storm, or how he erects the lighthouse to point out the neighbourhood of -dangerous shoals or the entrance of the friendly port. - -The various constructions planned and executed by man to disarm the -turbulent or perfidious seas of a great part of their terrors, are indeed -among the noblest monuments of his architectural genius, nor are any more -deserving of universal applause and gratitude. Who has ever performed a -winter voyage homewards over the wide Atlantic and not felt a thrill of -delight when the first bright flash of light beamed over the dark waters -and welcomed him back to his native isle? or what generous mind has ever -experienced this feeling without devoting the tribute of its thanks to -the wise and beneficent men whose energy and perseverance have succeeded -in lighting every headland or estuary of our rugged coast? So completely -has this been done, that in the dark and stormy night, almost as well as -in the brightest day, the homeward-bound ship need not approach danger -without receiving friendly warning, for her pathway is illuminated by -gigantic fire-beacons so thickly set that when one fades to the sight a -new one rises to the view. - -Among the numerous lighthouses with which the genius of humanity has -encircled our native shores, the Eddystone, the Bell Rock, and the -Skerryvore, are pre-eminent for the vast difficulties that had to be -surmounted in their construction, situated as they are upon solitary -rocks, exposed to the full fury of the insurgent waves; and should by -some revolution all other monuments erected by man be swept away from -the surface of our land, and these alone remain, they would suffice -to testify to future ages that these islands were once inhabited by a -highly civilised and energetic race, one well worthy to lay claim to the -dominion of the seas. - -At the distance of about twelve miles and a half from Plymouth Sound, -and intercepting, as it were, the entrance of the Channel, the -Eddystone rocks had been for ages a perpetual menace to the mariner. -The number of vessels wrecked on these perfidious shoals must have been -terrible indeed, it being even now a common thing in foggy weather for -homeward-bound ships to make the Eddystone Lighthouse as the first -point of land of Great Britain, so that in the night and nearly at high -water, when the whole range of the rocks is covered, the most careful -pilot might run his ship upon them, if nothing was placed there by way -of warning. As the trade of England increased, the number of fatal -accidents naturally augmented, rendering it more and more desirable to -crest the Eddystone with a tutelary beacon; yet years elapsed before -an architect appeared bold enough to undertake the task. At length, in -1696, Mr. Winstanley, a country gentleman and amateur engineer, made the -first attempt of raising a lighthouse on those sea-beaten rocks, but as -he was possessed of more enterprise than solid knowledge, the structure -he erected was deficient in every element of stability. Yet such was -the presumption of the man that he was known to express a wish that -the fiercest storm that ever blew might arise to test the solidity of -the fabric. The elements took him at his word, for while on a visit of -inspection to his lighthouse the dreadful storm of November 26, 1703, -arose, the only storm which in our latitude has equalled the rage of -a tropical hurricane. "No other tempest," says Macaulay in his Essay -on Addison, "was ever in this country the occasion of a Parliamentary -address or of a public fast. Whole fleets had been cast away. Large -mansions had been blown down. One Prelate had been buried beneath the -ruins of his palace. London and Bristol had presented the appearance of -cities just sacked. Hundreds of families were still in mourning. The -prostrate trunks of large trees and the ruins of houses still attested -in all the southern counties the fury of the blast." No wonder that a -tempest like this swept away the ill-constructed lighthouse like the -"unsubstantial fabric of a vision," and that neither poor Mr. Winstanley -nor any of his companions survived to recount the terrors of that -dreadful night. - -Strange to say, the task of rebuilding the Eddystone lighthouse, which -was now felt as a national necessity, once more devolved, not upon a -professed architect, but upon a Mr. Rudyerd, a linendraper of Ludgate -Hill, the son of a Cornish vagrant, who had raised himself by his -talents and industry from rags and mendicancy to a station of honourable -competence. The choice, however, was not ill made, for, with the -assistance of two competent shipwrights, the London tradesman constructed -an edifice which, though mainly of timber, was so firmly bolted to the -rock with iron branches that for nearly half a century it resisted the -fury of the billows, and might have withstood them for many a year to -come had it not been rapidly and completely destroyed by fire. This -catastrophe, which happened on December 2, 1755, was marked by a strange -accident, for while one of the light-keepers was engaged in throwing up -water four yards higher than himself, a quantity of lead, dissolved by -the heat of the flames, suddenly rushed like a torrent from the roof, -and falling upon his head, face, and shoulders, burnt him in a dreadful -manner. Having been conveyed to the hospital at Plymouth, he invariably -told the surgeon who attended him, that he had swallowed part of the -lead while looking upward; the reality of the assertion seemed quite -incredible, for who could suppose it possible that any human being could -exist after receiving melted lead into the stomach, much less that he -should afterwards be able to bear the hardships and inconvenience from -the length of time he was in getting on shore before any remedies could -be applied. On the twelfth day, however, the man died, and having been -opened a solid piece of lead, which weighed above seven ounces, was found -in his stomach.[H] - -[Footnote H: A full account of this extraordinary circumstance was sent -to the Royal Society, and printed in vol. xlix. of their Transactions, p. -477.] - -Another interesting anecdote is attached to the history of Rudyerd's -lighthouse. Louis XIV. being at war with England while it was being -built, a French privateer took the men at work upon it and carried them -to France, expecting, no doubt, a good reward for the achievement. His -hopes, however, were doomed to a grievous disappointment, for while the -captives lay in prison, the transaction reached the ears of the monarch, -who immediately ordered them to be released and the captors to be put in -their place; declaring that though he was at war with England, he was not -at war with mankind. He therefore directed the men to be sent back to -their work with presents; observing that the Eddystone lighthouse was so -situated as to be of equal service to all nations navigating the Channel. -It is gratifying to meet with this trait of natural generosity in a mind -long since obscured by the bigotry which prompted the revocation of the -Edit de Nantes. - -[Illustration: Eddystone Lighthouse.] - -After these repeated disasters, the rebuilding of Eddystone lighthouse, -in a more substantial manner than had hitherto been effected, was now no -longer confided to amateur ingenuity, but to John Smeaton, an eminent -civil engineer, one of those men who by originality of genius and -strength of character are so well entitled to rank among the worthies of -England. From his early infancy Smeaton (born May 28, 1724) gave tokens -of the extraordinary abilities which were one day to render his name -illustrious. Before he attained his sixth year his playthings were not -the playthings of children but the tools which men employ: before he -was fifteen he made for himself an engine for turning, forged his iron -and steel, and had self-made tools of every sort for working in wood, -ivory, and metals. At eighteen he by the strength of his genius acquired -the art of working in most of the mechanical trades, and such was his -untiring zeal that a part of every day was generally occupied in forming -some ingenious piece of mechanism. In 1753, his various inventions and -improvements had already attracted such notice that he was elected member -of the Royal Society; and when, a few years later, the accident happened -which burnt down the Eddystone lighthouse to the ground, he was at once -fixed upon as the person most proper to rebuild it. A better choice -could not possibly have been made, for Smeaton's lighthouse, firm as -the rock on which it stands, has now already braved the storms of more -than a century, and will no doubt continue to brave them for many ages -to come. Of him it may well be said "exegit monumentum ære perennius," -for to him is due the honour of having fixed the _best form_ to be given -to a marine lighthouse, and even now the Eddystone beacon-tower remains -a model which has hardly been surpassed by the taller and more graceful -edifices of Bell Rock and Skerryvore. Nothing could exceed the patient -ingenuity, the sagacity, and forethought with which that great engineer -mortised his tall tower to the wave-worn rock, and then dove-tailed the -whole together, so as to make rock and tower practically one stone, and -that of the very best form for deadening the action of the wave. Nor must -we forget that our great marine lighthouses, of which Smeaton gave the -model, are as remarkable from an artistic as from a utilitarian point -of view, as pleasing to the man of taste as to the friend of humanity. -"It is to be regretted," says, with perfect justice, the author of an -excellent article in the Quarterly Review,[I] "that these structures are -placed so far at sea that they are very little seen, for they are, taken -altogether, perhaps the most perfect specimens of modern architecture -which exist. Tall and graceful as the minar of an Eastern mosque, they -possess far more solidity and beauty of construction; and, in addition -to this, their form is as appropriate to the purposes for which it was -designed as anything ever done by the Greeks, and consequently meets -the requirements of good architecture quite as much as a column of the -Parthenon." - -[Footnote I: No. 228.] - -Covered to the height of fifteen feet at spring tide, and little more -than a hundred yards in its extent, the famous Bell Rock, or Inchcape, -facing the Frith of Tay at a distance of twelve miles at sea, was as -dangerous to the navigation of the eastern coast of Scotland as the -Eddystone had been to the entrance of the Channel. To erect a tower on a -spot like this was an undertaking of no common boldness, but, fired by -Smeaton's example, Mr. Robert Stevenson no less gloriously succeeded in -converting what for ages had been a source of danger into a beacon of -safety. - -[Illustration: Bell Rock Lighthouse.] - -On the opposite coast of Scotland, and placed in the same parallel of -latitude as Bell Rock, the Skerryvore Reef had a name equally dreaded by -the mariner. Situated considerably farther from the mainland than the -Bell Rock, it is less entirely submerged, some of its summits rising -above the level of high water, though the surf dashes over them; but the -extent of foul ground is much greater, and hidden dangers, even in fine -weather, beset the intervening passage between its eastern extremity -and Tyree, from which island it is distant some eleven miles. In rough -weather the sea which rises there is described as one in which no ship -could live. This terrible reef, so fatal to many a gallant bark, rendered -the erection of a lighthouse most desirable, yet such was the difficulty -of the case that although so long ago as 1814 an Act was obtained for -a light on Skerryvore, it was not before 1837 that Mr. Alan Stevenson, -son of the famous architect of the Bell Rock sea-tower, was authorised -to commence the work. That difficulty was not confined to the position -and character of the reef itself, as the neighbouring island of Tyree -afforded no resource, and all the materials for the building, even the -stone itself, had to be transported from distant quarters. At length, all -preliminary arrangements being settled, the engineer reached the rock -and commenced his work, in June 1838, by erecting a barrack-house upon -stilts--a sort of dovecot perched on poles--high out of the water on the -reef, close to the proposed site of the lighthouse. The erection of this -barrack fully occupied the first summer; and, lest it might be supposed -that this was but little work for so long a time, it may be as well to -remark that, such was the turbulence of the sea that between August 7 -and September 11, it had only been possible to be 165 hours on the rock. -Much inconvenience was occasioned by the hard and slippery nature of the -volcanic formation of the Skerryvore, to which the action of the sea had -given the appearance and the smoothness of a mass of dark-coloured glass, -so that the foreman of the masons compared the operation of landing on it -to that of climbing up the neck of a bottle. When we consider how often, -by how many persons, and under what circumstances of swell and motion, -this operation was repeated, we must look upon this feature of the spot -as an obstacle of no slight amount. - -At length, after much danger and difficulty, the barrack was completed, -but the first November storm swept it away and utterly annihilated the -work of the season. Iron stancheons had been drawn, broken, and twisted -like the wires of a champagne bottle; the smith's iron anvil had been -transported eight yards from where it was left; and a stone three-fourths -of a ton was lifted out from the bottom of a hole and sent towards the -top of the rock. - -Mortified, but nothing daunted by this disaster, which gave him a warning -of the tremendous power he had to contend with, Mr. Stevenson prepared -during the winter for the labours of 1839, which, besides the re-erection -of the barrack on an improved plan, chiefly consisted in the levelling or -blasting of a flat surface of forty-two feet diameter on the top of the -rock from which the lighthouse was to arise. This foundation pit was in -itself a work of no small magnitude, as it required for its excavation -the labours of 20 men for 217 days, the firing of 296 shots, and the -removal into deep water of 2,000 tons of material. The blasting, from -the absence of all cover and the impossibility of retiring to a distance -farther in any case than thirty feet, and often reduced to twelve, -demanded all possible carefulness. - -The only precautions available were a skilful appointment of the charge -and the covering the mines with mats and coarse netting made of old rope. -Every charge was fired by or with the assistance of the architect in -person, and no mischief occurred. - -The year 1840 had now arrived, and the construction of the lighthouse -was about to begin. Quarriers and labourers had been busily employed -in cutting blocks of stone in the quarries. Carpenters were diligently -engaged in making wooden moulds for each lighthouse block wherewith -to gauge its exact mathematical figure. In April, a reinforcement of -thirty-seven masons from Aberdeen arrived at Tyree--men expert in the -difficult work of dressing granite--and, on April 30, the first visit was -made to the rock. To the great joy of all, the barrack constructed in -the previous season was found uninjured, though a mass of rock weighing -about five tons had been detached from its bed and carried right across -the foundation pit by the violence of the waves. In this barrack the -architect and his party now took up their quarters, which from the -frequent flooding of the apartments with water and from the heavy spray -that washed the walls were anything but agreeable. "Once," says the -gallant engineer,[J] "we were fourteen days without communication with -the shore or the steamer, and during the greater part of that time we -saw nothing but white fields of foam as far as the eye could reach; -and heard nothing but the whistling of the wind and the thunder of the -waves, which was at times so loud as to make it almost impossible to -hear anyone speak. Such a scene, with the ruins of the former barrack -not twenty yards from us, was calculated to inspire the most desponding -anticipations; and I well remember the undefined sense of dread that -flashed on my mind, on being awakened one night by a heavy sea which -struck the barrack and made my cot swing inwards from the wall, and was -immediately followed by a cry of terror from the men in the apartment -above me, most of whom, startled by the _sound and the tremor_, sprang -from their berths to the floor, impressed with the idea that the whole -fabric had been washed into the sea." - -[Footnote J: Account of Skerryvore Lighthouse, by Alan Stevenson, -Engineer to the Northern Lighthouse Board. Edinburgh, 1848.] - -This spell of bad weather, though in summer, well-nigh outlasted their -provisions; and when at length they were able to make the signal that a -landing would be practicable, scarcely twenty-four hours' stock remained -on the rock. The landing of the heavy stones from the lighters was a work -of no small difficulty, considering the slippery nature of the rock, -and as the loss of one dressed stone would frequently have delayed the -whole progress of the building, the anxiety was incessant. On July 4, the -building of the tower really commenced. Six courses of masonry carried -the building to the height of 8 feet 2 inches before the autumnal gales -terminated the work of 1840, and an excellent year's work it was. The -saying that "what is well begun is half done" was illustrated here. Next -year's work was comparatively easy--so that in 1842 the tower rose to its -full height of 138 feet; and the year after the light was shedding its -beneficent rays over the thirty miles of watery waste that surround the -hidden rocks of Skerryvore. - -[Illustration: The Skerryvore Lighthouse.] - -Well may we be proud of men like Smeaton and the Stevensons; but, while -justly admiring their architectural skill, their perseverance, and their -courage, we must not forget to offer the just tribute of our gratitude -to the eminent natural philosophers without whose ingenious optical -inventions the most splendid sea-towers would be comparatively useless. -The Pharus or lighthouse of Alexandria was, probably with justice, -reckoned among the seven wonders of the world, and its several stories, -rising on marble columns to the height of 400 feet, must have presented -an imposing spectacle, but I strongly suspect that the rude brazier -on the summit of the majestic pile bore the same proportion to the -lighthouse lanterns of our time as the wretched coasting-craft of the -ancient Greeks to the ocean steamers of the present day. Among the names -of those who have contributed most effectually to the progress of marine -illumination Argand, Borda, and Fresnel are conspicuous. The hollow -cylindrical wick of the first was a sudden and immense advance in the art -of economical and effective illumination. The second, by his invention -of the parabolic mirror, multiplied the effect of the unassisted flame -by 450, and the refracting lens of Fresnel so admirably concentrates the -light as to project its warning beams to the wonderful distance of thirty -or thirty-five miles. - -In former ages the efforts of man to provide a refuge to the mariner -from the fury of the raging gale were feeble and insignificant. Content -with the harbours that nature had provided, it was then thought quite -sufficient to line a river-bank with quays or to enclose a natural pond -by walls. The idea of raising colossal breakwaters by casting whole -quarries into the deep, or of extending artificial promontories far -into the bosom of the ocean, is of modern date, and would have appeared -chimerical not only to the ancients but to our fathers not a century ago. -The first great work of this description is the famous breakwater planned -by De Cessart in 1783, and terminated in 1853, which has converted the -open roadstead of Cherbourg into a land-locked harbour. Rising from a -depth of 40 feet at low spring tides, on a coast where the floods attain -a height of 19 feet, it opposes a front of 12,700 feet to the fury of the -storm, and carries 250 pieces of the heaviest cannon on its formidable -brow. - -It far surpasses in extent and boldness of construction the breakwater at -Plymouth, nor will it be eclipsed by the moles now forming at Portland, -Holyhead, and Alderney; but although it is a more impressive spectacle to -see man struggling with the ocean and producing calmness and shelter in -the midst of the raging storm, than to contemplate his operations where -he has no such adversaries to subdue, still such buildings as those just -described are neither the largest nor the most expensive works required -for the accommodation of shipping. Witness the Cyclopean grandeur of the -Liverpool docks or of the Great Float at Birkenhead, which alone covers -an area of water of 121 acres, and whose portals, with a clear opening -of 100 feet, will admit the largest screw-steamer or sailing ship the -wildest imagination has yet conceived. Six millions of money is the cost -of this one work alone--more than would be required to raise a pyramid -like that of Cheops--and even this sum is a trifle when compared with -what has been spent on the harbours of Liverpool, London, and other great -commercial cities. - -Not satisfied with erecting his lighthouses on wave-worn rocks or defying -the waves with his colossal breakwaters, man spans bridges over arms of -the sea and excavates mines under the abysses of the deep. The locomotive -now rolls full speed 100 feet above high water over the strait which -separates Anglesea from the mainland; and in Botallack and several other -Cornish mines the workman, while resting from his subterranean labours, -hears the awful voice of the ocean rolling over his head. - -"In all these submarine mines," says Mr. Henwood, "I have heard the -dashing of the billows and the grating of the shingle when in calm -weather. I was once, however, underground in Wheal Cock during a storm. -At the extremity of the level seaward some eighty or one hundred -fathoms from the shore, little could be heard of its effects, except -at intervals, when the reflux of some unusually large wave projected a -pebble outward, bounding and rolling over the rocky bottom. But when -standing beneath the base of the cliff, and in that part of the mine -where but nine feet of rock stood between us and the ocean, the heavy -roll of the large boulders, the ceaseless grinding of the pebbles, the -fierce thundering of the billows, with the crackling and boiling as they -rebounded, placed a tempest in its most appalling form too vividly before -me ever to be forgotten. More than once doubting the protection of our -rocky shield, we retreated in affright, and it was only after repeated -trials that we had confidence to pursue our investigations." Yet the -miners, accustomed from their early youth to the fierce and threatening -roaring of the stormy sea, pursue their work from year to year, never -doubting that the thin roof which separates them from a watery grave will -continue to protect them, as it has shielded their fathers before them. - - - - -PART II. - -THE INHABITANTS OF THE SEA. - - - - -CHAP. VIII. - -THE CETACEANS. - - General Remarks on the Organisation of the Cetaceans.--The Large - Greenland Whale.--His Food and Enemies.--The Fin-Back or Rorqual.--The - Antarctic Whale.--The Sperm-Whale.--The Unicorn Fish.--The - Dolphin.--Truth and Fable.--The Porpoise.--The Grampus.--History of - the Whale Fishery. - - -Of all the living creatures that people the immensity of ocean, the -cetaceans, or the whale family, are the most perfect. Their anatomical -construction renders them in many respects similar to man, and their -heart is susceptible of a warmth of feeling unknown to the cold-blooded -fishes; for the mother shows signs of attachment to her young, and -forgets her own safety when some danger menaces her offspring. Like -man, the cetaceans breathe through lungs, and possess a double heart, -receiving and propelling streams of _warm_ red blood. The anatomical -structure of their pectoral fins bears great resemblance to that of the -human arm, as the bony structure of those organs equally consists of a -shoulder-blade, an upper arm, a radius and ulna, and five fingers. - -But the arm, which in man moves freely, is here chained to the body as -far as the hand, and the latter, which, in obedience to human volition -and intellect, executes such miracles of industry and art, is here -covered with a thick skin, and appears as a broad undivided fin or -flapper. Yet still it is destined for higher service than that of a mere -propelling oar, as it serves the mother to guide and shield her young. -The lower extremities are of course wanting, but their functions are -performed by the mighty _horizontal_ tail, by whose powerful strokes the -unwieldy animal glides rapidly through the waters. - -The cetaceans distinguish themselves, moreover, from the fishes by the -bringing forth of living young, by a greater quantity of blood, by the -smoothness of their skin, under which is found a thick layer of fat, and -by their simple or double blow-hole, which is situated at the top of the -head, and corresponds to the nostrils of the quadrupeds, though not for -the purpose of smelling, but merely as an organ of respiration. - -[Illustration: Bones of the Anterior Fin of a Whale.] - -Our knowledge of the cetaceans is still very incomplete; and this is not -to be wondered at, when we consider that they chiefly dwell in the most -inaccessible parts of the ocean, and that when met with, the swiftness -of their movements rarely allows more than a flighty view of their -external form. Thus their habits and mode of living are mostly enveloped -in obscurity; and while doubtless many cetaceans are to the present day -unknown, one and the same species has not seldom been described under -different names, to the no small confusion of the naturalist. - -The cetaceans are either without a dental apparatus, or provided with -teeth. The former, or the whalebone whales, have two blow-holes on the -top of the head, in the form of two longitudinal fissures; while in the -latter, (sperm-whales, unicorn-fish, dolphins,) which comprise by far -the greater number of species, there is but one transversal spout-hole. -In all whales the larynx is continued to the spouting canal, and deeply -inserted or closely imbricated within its tube. Thus no tones approaching -to a voice can be emitted except through the spiracles, which are -encumbered with valves, and evidently badly adapted for the transmission -of sound. Scoresby assures us that the Greenland whale has no voice, and -Bennett frequently noticed sperm-whales suffering from extreme alarm -and injury, but never heard any sound from them beyond that attending an -ordinary respiration. - -The whalebone whales are either _smooth-backs_ (Balænæ), or _fin-backs_ -(Balænopteræ), having a vertical fin rising from the lower part of -the back. To the former belongs the mighty Greenland Whale (_Balæna -mysticetus_), the most bulky of living animals, and of all cetaceans -the most useful and important to man. Its greatest length, according to -Scoresby, is from sixty to seventy feet, and round the thickest part -of its body it measures from thirty to forty feet, but the incessant -persecutions to which it is subjected scarcely ever allow it to attain -its full growth. - -The whale being somewhat lighter than the medium in which it swims, -its weight may be ascertained with tolerable accuracy; and Scoresby -tells us that a stout animal of sixty feet weighs about seventy tons, -allowing thirty to the blubber, eight or ten to the bones, and thirty -or thirty-two to the carcase. The lightness of the whale, which enables -it to keep its _crown_, in which the blow-hole is situated, and a -considerable extent of back above the water, without any effort or -motion, is not only owing to its prodigious case of fat, but also to the -lightness of its bones, most of which are very porous and contain large -quantities of fine oil; an admirable provision of nature for the wants of -a creature destined to breathe the atmospheric air, and to skim its food -from the surface of the waters. - -The unsightly animal shows disproportion in all its organs. While -the tail fin measures twenty-four feet across, the pectoral fins or -paddles are no more than six feet long. The monstrous head forms -about the third of the whole body, and is furnished with an equally -monstrous mouth, which on opening exhibits a cavity about the size of -an ordinary ship's cabin. The leviathans of the dry land, the elephant, -the rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus, are provided with tusks and teeth -corresponding to their size--huge weapons fit for eradicating trees or -crushing the bone-harnessed crocodile; but the masticatory implements -of the giant of the seas are scarcely capable of dividing the smallest -food. Instead of teeth, its enormous upper jaw is beset with about 500 -laminæ of whalebone, ranged side by side, two-thirds of an inch apart, -the thickness of blade included, and resembling a frame of saws in -a saw-mill. Their interior edges are covered with fringes of hair; -externally they are curved and flattened down, so as to present a smooth -surface to the lips. The largest laminæ, situated on both sides of the -jaw, attain a length of fifteen feet, and measure from twelve to fifteen -inches at their base; in front and towards the back of the mouth they are -much shorter. - -[Illustration: Skull of Whale, with the Baleen.] - -Besides these, there are suspended from the palate many other small -laminæ of the thickness of a quill, a few inches long, and likewise -terminating in a fringe. Thus the whole roof of the mouth resembles a -shaggy fur, under which lies the soft and spongy tongue, a monstrous mass -often ten feet broad and eighteen feet long. - -[Illustration: Clio borealis.] - -This whole formation is beautifully adapted to the peculiar nourishment -of the whale, which does not consist, as one might suppose, of the larger -fishes, but of the minute animals, (_Medusæ_, _Entomostraca_, _Clio -borealis_, and other pteropod molluscs,) with which its pasture-grounds -in the northern seas abound. To gather food, it swims rapidly with open -mouth over the surface; and on closing the wide gates, and expelling the -foaming streams, the little creatures remain entangled by thousands in -the fringy thicket as in a net; there to be crushed and bruised by the -tongue into a savoury pulp. Fancy the vast numbers requisite to keep a -monster of seventy tons in good condition. - -The back of the whale is usually of a fine glossy black, marked with -whitish rays, which have some resemblance to the veins of wood. This -mixture of colours presents an agreeable appearance, especially when -the back of the fish is illuminated with the rays of the sun. The under -part of the trunk and of the lower jaw is of a dead white. The skin is -about an inch thick, and covers a layer of fat of fifteen inches; a most -excellent coat for keeping the whale warm and increasing its buoyancy, -but at the same time the chief cause which induces man to pursue it with -the deadly harpoon. - -The usual march of the whale over the waters is rarely more than four -miles an hour, but its speed increases to an astonishing rapidity when -terror or the agonies of pain drive it madly through the sea. - -In its sportive humours it is sometimes seen to spring out of the water, -and to remain suspended for a moment in the air. On falling back again -into the sea, high foam-crested fountains spout forth on all sides, and -mighty waves propagate the tumult in widening circles over the troubled -ocean. Or else it raises its bulky head vertically on high, so that the -deceived mariner fancies he sees some black rock looming out of the -distant waters. But suddenly the fancied cliff turns round and brandishes -playfully its enormous flukes in the air, or lashes the waters with such -prodigious power, that the sound rolls far away like thunder over the -deserts of the ocean. - -Strange to say, the giant is of so cowardly a nature, that the sight of -a sea-bird often fills him with the greatest terror, and causes him to -avoid the imaginary danger by a sudden plunge into the deep. - -Besides man, a vast number of enemies, great and small, persecute the -whale and embitter his life. - -The Sword-fish (_Xiphias Gladius_) and the Thresher or Sea-fox, a species -of shark (_Carcharias Vulpes_), often attack him conjointly and in packs. -As soon as his back appears above the water, the threshers, springing -several yards into the air, descend with great violence upon the object -of their rancour, and inflict upon him the most severe slaps with their -long tails, the sound of which resembles the report of distant musketry. -The sword-fish, in their turn, attack the distressed whale, stabbing from -below; and thus beset on all sides, and bleeding from countless wounds, -the huge animal, though dealing the most dreadful blows with its enormous -tail, and lashing the crimsoned waters into foam, is obliged to succumb -at last. - -The Greenland Shark (_Squalus borealis_) is also one of the bitterest -enemies of the whale, biting and annoying it while living, and feeding -on it when dead. It scoops hemispherical pieces out of its body nearly -as big as a man's head, and continues scooping and gorging lump after -lump, until the whole cavity of its belly is filled. It is so insensible -of pain, that, though it has been run through the body, and escaped, -yet after a while Scoresby has seen it return to banquet again on the -whale at the very spot where it received its wounds. The heart, as is -frequently the case with gluttons, bears no proportion to its vast -capacity of stomach; for it is very small, and performs only six or eight -pulsations in a minute, continuing its beating for some hours after -having been taken out of the body. The body also, though separated into -any number of parts, gives evidence of life for a similar length of time. -It is therefore so difficult to kill, that it is actually unsafe to trust -the hand in its mouth though the head be separated from the body. - -Strange to say, though the whale-fishers frequently slip into the water -where sharks abound, Scoresby never heard an instance of their having -been attacked by one of these voracious monsters. Perhaps they are loth -to attack man, looking upon him as their best purveyor. - -[Illustration: Saw of the Saw-fish.] - -Fishermen relate that the whale and saw-fish, whenever they come -together, engage in deadly combat; the latter invariably making the -attack with inconceivable fury. - - "The meeting of these champions proud - Seems like the bursting thunder cloud." - -The whale, whose only defence is his tail, endeavours to strike his enemy -with it; and a single blow would prove mortal. But the saw-fish, with -astonishing agility, shuns the tremendous stroke, bounds into the air, -and returns upon his huge adversary, plunging the rugged weapon with -which he is furnished into his back. The whale is still more irritated by -this wound, which only becomes fatal when it penetrates the fat; and thus -pursuing and pursued, striking and stabbing, the engagement only ends -with the death of one of the unwieldy combatants. - -Even the white-bear is said to attack the whale, watching his approach -to the sea-shore; but the enmity of the narwhal is evidently fabulous, as -both cetaceans may frequently be seen together in perfect harmony. - -Besides these formidable attacks of what may be considered as more -or less noble foes, the whale is constantly harassed by the bites of -the vilest insects. A large species of louse adheres by thousands to -its back, and gnaws this animated pasture-ground, so as to cover it -frequently with one vast sore. In the summer, when this plague is -greatest, numbers of aquatic birds accompany the whale, and settle on his -back, as soon as it appears above the water, in order to feed upon these -disgusting parasites. - -[Illustration: Whale Louse.] - -Barnacles often cover the whale in such masses, that his black skin -disappears under a whitish mantle, and even sea-weeds attach themselves -to his vast jaws, floating like a beard, and reminding one of Birnam's -wandering forest. - -As its name testifies, the home of the Greenland whale is confined to -the high northern seas, where it has been met with in the open waters -or along every ice-bound shore as far as man has penetrated towards -the Pole. The southern limit of its excursions seems to be about 60° -N. lat. It never visits the North Sea, and is seldom found within 200 -miles of the British coasts. Its favourite resorts are the so-called -whale-grounds,[K] between 74° and 80° N. lat., where the warmth, imparted -to the water by the Gulf-stream, favours the multiplication of the small -marine animals which form the nourishment of the Leviathan of the seas. - -[Footnote K: See page 20.] - -Sometimes open spaces in the ice, abounding in minute crustaceans and -medusæ, attract a larger number of whales, but the huge creature cannot -be said to live in larger herds or associations. - -The Fin-fish or northern Rorqual (_Balænoptera boops_, _musculus_) -attains a greater length than the sleek-backed Greenland whale, but -does not equal it in bulk, having a more elongated form and a more -tapering head. Its whalebone is much shorter and coarser, being adapted -to a different kind of food, for, despising the minute medusæ and -crustaceans which form the food of its huge relation, the more nimble -rorqual pursues the herring and the mackerel on their wandering path. -Like the blubber-whale, the fin-back is black above, white below, but -distinguishes itself by long and numerous blood-red streaks or furrows, -running under the lower jaw and breast as far as the middle of the belly. -This is the species of whale which not unfrequently strands on our -shores, for though an inhabitant of the Arctic seas, it wanders farther -to the south than the Greenland whale. It is seldom harpooned, for the -produce of oil is not equivalent to the expense, the risk, and the danger -attending its capture. - -In the southern hemisphere, the Antarctic Smooth-backed Whale (_B. -antarctica_), a species similar to the Greenland whale, though of less -bulk, is the chief object of the fisherman's pursuit. It hangs much about -the coasts in the temperate latitudes, and loves the neighbouring seas, -where the discoloured waters afford the richest repasts, but is not -known in the central parts of the Pacific. In the spring it resorts to -the bays on the coasts of Chili, South Africa, the Brazils, Australia, -New Zealand, Van Diemen's Land, &c. &c., where it is attacked either by -stationary fishermen, or by whalers, who at that time leave the high seas. - -Farther towards the pole _Hump-backs_ and _Fin-backs_ abound; but these -are far from equalling the former in value. When Dumont d'Urville, -returning from his expedition to the south pole, told the whalers whom -he found in the Bay of Talcahuano of the great number of cetaceans he -had seen in the higher latitudes, their eyes glistened at the pleasing -prospect; but when he added that they were only hump-backs and fin-backs, -they did not conceal their disappointment; for the hump-back is meagre, -and not worth the boiling, and the fin-back dives with such rapidity, -that he snaps the harpoon line, or drags the boat along with him into the -water. - -The Sperm-Whale, or Cachalot (_Physeter macrocephalus_), rivals the great -smooth-backed whales both in its various utility to man and the colossal -dimensions of its unwieldy body. The largest authentically recorded size -of the uncouth animal is seventy-six feet by thirty-eight in girth; but -whalers are well contented to consider fifty-five or sixty feet the -average length of the largest examples they commonly obtain. The male, -however, alone attains these ample proportions; the adult female does not -exceed thirty or at most thirty-five feet, so that there is a greater -disproportion of size between sexes than in any other known species of -cetaceans. - -The form of the beast is without symmetry, and from the general absence -of other prominent organs than the tail or pectoral fins, can be compared -to little else than a dark rock or the bole of some giant tree. The -prevailing colour is a dull black, occasionally marked with white, -especially on the abdomen and tail. The summit of the head and trunk -presents a plane surface, until about the posterior third of the back, -whence arises a hump or spurious fin of pyramidal form, and entirely -composed of fat. From this embossed appendage an undulating series of -six or eight similar, but smaller elevations, occupies the upper margin -or ridge of the tail to the commencement of the caudal fin. The pectoral -fins or paddles are placed a short distance behind the head; they are -triangular in shape, diminutive as compared with the size of the whale, -and being connected to the trunk by a ball and socket joint, possess free -movement, either vertical or horizontal. - -[Illustration: Cuttle-fish (Sepia).] - -Owing to the flexibility of the tail, the movements of the tail-fin, or -"flukes," which sometimes measures eighteen feet across, are exceedingly -extensive, whilst its power may be estimated by the gigantic bundles of -round tendons, which pass on either side the loins, to be inserted into -its base. Whether wielded in sportive mood or in anger, its action is -marked by rapidity and ease, and when struck forcibly on the surface -of the ocean, produces a report which may be heard at a considerable -distance. In progression, the action of this organ is precisely the -reverse of that of the tail of the lobster, for whilst the latter -animal swims backward by striking the water with its tail from behind -forwards, the cachalot and other cetaceans swim forward by striking -with their flukes in the contrary direction, the fin being brought -beneath the body by an oblique and unresisting movement; while the act -of springing it back and straightening the tail propels the animal ahead -with an undulating or leaping gait. When employed offensively the tail -is curved in a direction contrary to that of the object aimed at, and -the blow is inflicted by the force of the recoil. The lower jaw appears -diminutive, slender, and not unlike the lower mandible of a bird. When -the mouth is closed it is received within the soft parts pendent from -the border of the upper jaw, and is nearly concealed by them. True and -serviceable teeth are situated only in the lower jaw, and are received -into corresponding sockets in the upper jaw. In aged males they are of -great solidity and size, attaining a weight of from two to four pounds -each; their entire structure is ivory. This powerful armament shows us at -once that the food of the cachalot must be very different from that of -the whalebone cetaceans; it generally consists of cuttle-fish, many kinds -of which are ejected from its stomach when it is attacked by the boats, -as well as after death. Owing to the great projection of the snout beyond -the lower jaw, it may be requisite for this whale to turn on its side -or back to seize its more bulky prey; a supposition strengthened by the -fact that, when the animal attacks a boat with its mouth, it invariably -assumes a reversed posture, carrying the lower jaw above the object it is -attempting to bite. As long as it continues on the surface of the sea, -the cachalot casts from its nostril a constant succession of spouts, at -intervals of ten or fifteen seconds. As in all whales, the jets are not, -as frequently imagined, water-columns, but a thick white mist ejected -by one continual effort to the height of six or eight feet, and rushing -forth with a sound resembling a moderate surf upon a smooth beach. The -peculiar fat or sperm which renders the cachalot so valuable, is chiefly -situated in the head. _Junk_ is the name given by the fishermen to a -solid mass of soft, yellow, and oily fat, weighing between two and three -tons, based on the upper jaw, and forming the front and lower part of -the snout; while the cavity called _case_ is situated beneath and to the -right of the spouting canal, and corresponds to nearly the entire length -of that tube. It is filled with a very delicate web of cellular tissue, -containing in large cells a limpid and oily fluid, which is liberated -by the slightest force. The quantity, chiefly spermaceti, contained in -this singular receptacle, is often very considerable, nearly 500 gallons -having been obtained from the case of one whale. So vast an accumulation -of fat has obviously been intended to insure a correct position in -swimming, to facilitate the elevation of the spiracle above the -surface of the sea, and to counteract the weight of the bony and other -ponderous textures of the head; objects which in the Greenland whale are -sufficiently attained by a similar accumulation of fat in the lips and -tongue, and by the more elevated situation of the spout-hole. - -While the large whalebone whales generally roam about in solitary -couples, the cachalot forms large societies. _Schools_, consisting of -from twenty to fifty individuals, are composed of females attended by -their young, and associated with at least one adult male of the largest -size, who generally takes a defensive position in the rear when the -school is flying from danger. - -_Pods_ are smaller congregations of young or half-grown males, which have -been driven from the maternal schools. Two or more schools occasionally -coalesce to a "_body of whales_," so that Bennett[L] sometimes saw the -ocean for several miles around the ship swarming with sperm leviathans, -and strewn with a constant succession of spouts. These large assemblies -sometimes proceed at a rapid pace in one determinate direction, and are -then soon lost sight of; at other times they bask and sleep upon the -surface, spouting leisurely, and exhibiting every indication of being -_at home_, or on their feeding ground. Like most gregarious animals, -the cachalots are naturally timid. A shoal of dolphins leaping in their -vicinity is sufficient to put a whole school to flight: yet occasionally -fighting individuals are met with; particularly among those morose -solitary animals that most likely from their intolerable character have -been turned out of the society of their kind. The central deserts of -ocean, or the neighbourhood of the steepest coasts, are the chief resort -of the cachalot; and so great is the difference of his _habitat_ from -that of the smooth-backed whales, that during the whole time Bennett -was cruising in quest of cachalots, he in no single instance saw an -example of the true whale. The cachalot is more especially found on -the _line-currents_, which extend from the equator to about the seventh -degree of north and south latitudes, yet it has been noticed in the -Mediterranean, and one individual, a stray sheep indeed, has even been -captured in the Thames. - -[Footnote L: Narrative of a Whaling Voyage round the Globe.] - -The Narwal, or Unicorn-fish, attains a length of from twenty to -twenty-five feet. He is of a grey-white colour, punctured with many -white spots, and as his head is not disproportionate to the length of -his body, may rank among the handsomest cetaceans. He distinguishes -himself, as is well known, from all other members of the family by -the long twisted tooth or horn projecting horizontally from the upper -jaw. This mighty weapon, the true use of which has not yet been fully -ascertained, was formerly sold at a very high price, as proceeding from -the fabulous unicorn; at present, it is only paid according to the worth -of its excellent ivory, which is harder, heavier, and less liable to -turn yellow than that of the elephant. The whalers are therefore highly -delighted when they can pick up a chance narwal, but this only succeeds -in narrow bays; for the unicorn-fish is an excellent swimmer, and -extremely watchful. In spite of his menacing appearance, he is a harmless -sociable creature, fond of gambolling and crossing swords playfully with -his compeers. It is remarkable that the opening of the mouth of so huge -an animal is scarcely large enough to admit the hand of a man. Scoresby -found in the stomach of a narwal remains of cuttle fishes, which seem to -form his chief aliment, besides pieces of skates and plaice. The narwal -is frequent about Davis' Straits and Disco Bay, but is nowhere found in -the Pacific, having most likely not yet discovered the north-western -passage. He rarely wanders into the temperate seas, yet one was caught, -in 1800, near Boston in Lincolnshire, and two others, in 1736, on the -German coast of the North Sea. - -The Dolphin tribe is distinguished from the cachalot by a more -proportionate head; from the narwal by the absence of the long horn; and -generally possesses sharp teeth in both jaws, all of one form. The number -of species is very great; Linnæus distinguished four sperm-whales and -three dolphins; now many naturalists acknowledge but one species of the -former, while the dolphins have increased to more than thirty, and many -are as yet unknown. - -[Illustration: Delphinus Delphis.] - -The most famous member of this numerous family is undoubtedly the -classical Dolphin of the ancients (_Delphinus delphis_) which attains -a length of from nine to ten feet, and is, according to Pliny, the -swiftest of all animals, so as to merit the appellation of the "arrow -of the sea." His lively troops often accompany for days the track of a -ship, and agreeably interrupt the monotony of a long sea-voyage. As if in -mockery of the most rapid sailer, they shoot past so as to vanish from -the eye, and then return again with the same lightning-like velocity. -Their spirits are so brisk that they frequently leap into the air, as -if longing to expatiate in a lighter fluid. Hence, dolphins are the -favourites of the mariner and the poet, who have vied in embellishing -their history with the charms of fiction. - -Everybody knows the wonderful story of Arion, who having been forced by -pirates to leap into the sea, proceeded merrily to his journey's end on -the back of a dolphin:-- - - "Secure he sits, and with harmonious strains - Requites his bearer for his friendly pains. - The gods approve, the dolphin heaven adorns, - And with nine stars a constellation forms." - -Pliny relates the no less astonishing tale of a boy at Baiæ, who by -feeding it with bread, gained the affections of a dolphin, so that -the thankful creature used to convey him every morning to school -across the sea to Puteoli, and back again. When the boy died, the poor -disconsolate dolphin returned every morning to the spot where he had -been accustomed to meet his friend, and soon fell a victim to his grief. -The same naturalist tells us also that the dolphins at Narbonne rendered -themselves very useful to the fishermen by driving the fish into their -nets, and were generously rewarded for their assistance with "bread -soaked in wine." A king of Caria having chained a dolphin in the harbour, -its afflicted associates appeared in great numbers, testifying their -anxiety for its deliverance by such unequivocal signs of sorrow, that the -king, touched with compassion, restored the prisoner to liberty. - -Such, and similar fables, which were believed by the naturalists of -antiquity, are laughed at even by the old women of our times. The dolphin -is in no respects superior to the other cetaceans; his musical taste is -as low as zero, and if, like the bonito and albacore, he follows a ship -for days together, it is most surely not out of affection for man, but -on account of the offal that is thrown overboard. But do not many human -friendships repose on similar selfish motives? - -[Illustration: The Porpoise.] - -The Porpoise (_Delphinus Phocœna_), which only attains a length of five -or six feet, and seems to be the smallest of all cetaceans, is frequently -confounded with the dolphin. It is at home in the whole Northern -Atlantic, in the Mediterranean, and the Euxine. While the dolphin prefers -the high sea, the porpoise loves tranquil bays and cliff-sheltered -shores, and often swims up the rivers, so that individuals have been -caught in the Elbe and Seine as high up as Dessau and Paris. The porpoise -is a no less excellent swimmer than the dolphin, making at least fifteen -miles an hour. His rapidity and sharp teeth render him a most dangerous -enemy to all the lesser fry of the ocean, whose sole refuge lies in the -shallowest waters. When he rises to the surface to draw breath, the back -only appears, the head and tail are kept under water. At the entrance -of harbours, where he is frequently seen gambolling, his undulatory or -leaping movements, now rising with a grunt, now sinking to reappear again -at some distance, afford an entertaining spectacle. - -A much more formidable animal, the largest of the whole dolphin tribe, -is the ravenous Grampus, (_Delphinus Orca_,) which measures no less than -twenty-five feet in length, and twelve or thirteen in girth. The upper -part of the body is black, the lower white: the dorsal fin rises in the -shape of a cone, to the height of three feet or more. - -All naturalists agree in describing the grampus as the most voracious -of the dolphin family. Its ordinary food is the seal and some species -of flat-fish, but it also frequently gives chase to the porpoise, and -perhaps the whale would consider the grampus as his most formidable -enemy, were it not for the persecutions of man. Pliny gives us a fine -description of the conflicts which arise between these monsters of the -deep. At the time when the whale resorts to the bays to cast its young, -it is attacked by the grampus, who either lacerates it with his dreadful -jaws, or in rapid onset endeavours to strike in its ribs, as with a -catapult. The terrified whale knows no other way to escape from these -furious attacks, than by interposing a whole sea between him and his -enemy. But the grampus, equally wary and active, cuts off his retreat, -and drives the whale into narrower and narrower waters, forcing him to -bruise himself on the sharp rocks, or to strand upon the shelving sands, -nor ceases his efforts until he has gained a complete victory. During -this fight the sea seems to rage against itself, for though no wind may -be stirring the surface, waves, such as no storm creates, rise under the -strokes of the infuriated combatants. - -While the Emperor Claudius was visiting the harbour of Ostium, a grampus -stranded in the shallow waters. The back appeared above the surface of -the sea, and resembled a ship with its keel turned upwards. The Emperor -caused nets to be stretched across the mouth of the harbour to prevent -the animal's escape, and then attacked it in person with his prætorian -guards. The soldiers surrounding the monster in boats, and hurling their -inglorious spears, exhibited an amusing spectacle to the populace. - - * * * * * - -That man ventures to pursue the leviathans of the deep among the fogs -and icebergs of the Arctic seas, and is generally successful in their -capture, may surely be considered as one of the proudest triumphs of his -courage and his skill. - -The breast of the first navigator, says Horace, was cased with triple -steel; but of what adamantine materials must that man's heart have -been formed, whose steadfast hand hurled the first harpoon against the -colossal whale? - -History has not preserved his name; like the great warriors that lived -before Agamemnon, he sank into an obscure grave for want of a Homer to -celebrate his exploits. We only know that the Biscayans were the first -_civilised_ people that in the fourteenth and fifteenth century fitted -out ships for the whale fishery. At first the bold men of Bayonne and -Santander contented themselves with pursuing their prey, (most likely -rorquals) in the neighbouring seas, but as the persecuted whales -diminished in frequency, they followed them farther to the north, until -they came to the haunts of the real whale, whose greater abundance of fat -rewarded their intrepidity with a richer spoil. - -Their success naturally roused the emulation and avidity of other -seafaring nations, and thus, towards the end of the sixteenth century, -we see the English, and soon after the Dutch, enter the lists as their -competitors. At first our countrymen were obliged to send to "Biskaie -for men skilful in catching the whale, and ordering of the oil, and one -cooper, skilful to set up the staved casks," (Hakluyt's _Voyages_, i. -414); but soon, by their skill, their industry and perseverance, together -with the aid and encouragement granted by the legislature, they learnt to -carry on the whale fishery on more advantageous terms than the original -adventurers, whose efforts became less enterprising as their success was -more precarious. - -The first attempts of the English date as far back as the year 1594, when -some ships were sent out to Cape Breton for morse and whale fishing. The -fishing proved unsuccessful, but they found in an island 800 whale fins -or whalebone, part of the cargo of a Biscayan ship wrecked there three -years before, which they put on board and brought home. This was the -first time this substance was imported into England. - -Hull took the lead in the Greenland whale fishery in 1598, thirteen years -after the first company for that purpose had been formed in Amsterdam, -and as both maritime nations gave it every encouragement, not only on -account of its profits, but also from considering it as one of the best -nurseries for their seamen, it gradually grew to a very important branch -of business. Some idea may be formed of the extent to which the Dutch -engaged in the whale fishery during the last century, by stating that for -a period of forty-six years preceding 1722, 5886 ships were employed in -it, and captured 32,907 whales. - -In the year 1788, 222 English vessels were employed in the northern -fishery. - -The earliest period at which we find the pursuit of the sperm-whale -conducted upon a scientific plan is about 1690, when it was commenced by -the American colonists. In 1775, ships were first sent out from ports of -Great Britain, but for some years it was necessary to appoint an American -commander and harpooner until competent officers could be reared. At the -same early date the sperm fishery was chiefly prosecuted in the Atlantic, -but Messrs. Enderby's ship "Emilia" having rounded Cape Horn in 1788, -first carried the sperm-whale fishery into the Pacific, where its success -opened a wide and fruitful field for future exertions. As our whalers -became better acquainted with the South Sea, many valuable resorts were -discovered. In 1819 the "Syren" (British) first carried on the fishery -in the western parts of that great ocean, and in the year 1848 the -American whaler "Superior," Captain Roys, penetrated through Behring's -Straits into the Icy Sea, and opened the fishery in those remote waters. -The year after no less than 154 vessels followed upon his track, and -the number has been increasing ever since. At present the Americans are -the people which carries on the whale fishery with the greatest energy -and good fortune. While of late years only thirty or forty British sail -have been employed in the Pacific, our cousins "across the Atlantic" -numbered in the year 1841 no less than 650 whalers, manned by 13,500 -seamen. One of the causes of their success may be, that while the whale -fishery in England is carried on by men of large capital, who are the -sole proprietors of the ship, the American interest in one vessel is -held by many men of small capital, and not unfrequently by the commander -and officers. It must, however, not be forgotten that the Australian -colonies, being more conveniently situated than the mother country, fit -out many ships for the whale fishery, which is besides conducted in -several permanent stations along the coasts of New Zealand, &c. - -Whale charts have of late years been drawn, on which the best fishing -grounds at different seasons are delineated. These maps are not only -useful guides for the fishermen, but promise the future solution of -the still undecided question of the migration of whales. While some -naturalists are of opinion that the cetaceans, flying from the pursuit -of man, abandon their old haunts for more sequestered regions, others, -like M. Jacquinot (_Zoologie, Voyage de l'Astrolabe et de la Zèlée_) -believe that if the whaler is continually obliged to look out for more -productive seas, it is not because the whale has migrated, but because he -has been nearly extirpated in one place and left unmolested in another. - -The Greenland whale fishery was for more than a hundred years confined -to the seas between Spitzbergen and Greenland; the entrance and east -shore of Davis' Straits not being frequented before the beginning of the -last century. Since then the expeditions of Ross and Parry have made the -whalers acquainted with a number of admirable stations on the farther -side of Davis' Straits and in the higher latitudes of Baffin's Bay. The -vessels destined for that quarter sail usually in March, though some -delay their departure till the middle or even the end of April. They -proceed first to the northern parts of the coast of Labrador, or to the -mouth of Cumberland Strait, carrying on what is called the south-west -fishery. After remaining there till about the beginning of May, they -cross to the eastern shore of the strait and fish upwards along the -coast, particularly in South-east Bay, North-east Bay, Kingston Bay, or -Horn Sound. - -About the month of July they usually cross Baffin's Bay to Lancaster -Sound, which they sometimes enter, and occasionally even ascend Barrow's -Strait twenty or thirty miles. In returning, they fish down the western -shore, where their favourite stations are Pond's Bay, Agnes' Monument, -Home Bay, and Cape Searle, and sometimes persevere till late in October. -The casualties are generally very great, the middle of Baffin's Bay -being filled with a compact and continuous barrier, through which, till -a very advanced period of the season, it is impossible for the navigator -to penetrate. Between this central body and that attached to the land, -there intervenes a narrow and precarious passage, where many a vessel -has been crushed or pressed out of the water and laid upon the ice. In -1819 ten ships were lost out of sixty-three, and in 1821 eleven out of -seventy-nine. Fortunately the loss of lives is seldom to be deplored, as -the weather is generally calm and the crew has time enough to escape in -another vessel. - -Whale fishing is not only a very dangerous and laborious pursuit, it -is also extremely precarious and uncertain in its results. Sometimes a -complete cargo of oil and whalebone is captured in a short time, but it -also happens that after a long cruise not a single fish is caught--a -result equally unfortunate for the ship owner and the crew, who look to a -share of the profits for their pay. - -How much the whale fishery depends upon chance is shown by the following -facts. In the year 1718 the Dutch Greenland fleet, consisting of 108 -ships, captured 1291 fish, worth at least 650,000_l._, while in the -year 1710, 137 ships took no more than 62. Various meteorological -circumstances--the prevalence of particular winds, the character of the -summer or preceding winter--are probably the causes of the extraordinary -failure and success of the fishery in different years. The Pacific is -as fallacious as the Arctic seas. Thus Dumont d'Urville met in the Bay -of Talcahuano with several whalers, one of whom had rapidly filled half -his ship, while the others had cruised more than a year without having -harpooned a single fish. In such cases the captains have the greatest -trouble in preventing their men from deserting, who, being disappointed -in their hopes, naturally enough look out for a better chance elsewhere. - -The method of whale catching has been so often and so minutely described, -that it is doubtless familiar to the reader. As soon as a whale is in -sight, boats are got out with all speed, and row or sail as silently and -quietly as possible towards the monster. One of the crew--the man of -unflinching eye and nervous arm--stands upright, harpoon in hand, ready -to hurl the murderous spear into the animal's side, as soon as the proper -moment shall have come. When struck the whale dives down perpendicularly -with fearful velocity, or goes off horizontally with lightning speed, at -a short distance from the surface, dragging after him the line to which -the barbed instrument of his agony is fixed. But soon the necessity of -respiration forces him to rise again above the waters, when a second -harpoon, followed by a third or fourth at every reappearance, plunges -into his flank. Maddened with pain and terror, he lashes the crimsoned -waters into foam, but all his efforts to cast off the darts that lacerate -his flesh are vain, and his gaping wounds, though not "as deep as -wells, nor as wide as church-doors," are still large enough to let out -sufficient blood even to exhaust a whale. His movements become more and -more languid and slow, his gasping and snorting more and more oppressed, -a few convulsive heavings agitate the mighty mass, and then it floats -inert and lifeless on the waters. As soon as death is certain--for to -the last moment a convulsive blow of the mighty tail might dash the -overhasty boat to pieces--the whale is lashed by chains to the vessel's -side, stripped of his valuable fat, and then left to float, a worthless -carcase, on the heaving ocean. - -And now, man having taken his share, there begins a magnificent feast -for birds and fishes. Crowds of fulmars, snow birds, or kittiwakes, -flock together from all sides to enjoy the delicious repast; but their -delight, so rare is perfect felicity on earth, is but too often disturbed -by their terrible rival the blue gull (_Larus glaucus_), which, while -it rivals them in rapacity, surpasses them all in strength, and forces -them to disgorge the daintiest morsels. Meanwhile sharks, saw-fishes, and -whatever else possesses sharp teeth and boldness enough to mix among such -formidable company, are busy biting, hacking, scooping, and cutting below -the water line, so that in a short time, notwithstanding its vast bulk, -the carrion disappears. - -The catching of the whale does not always end so fortunately as I have -just described. Sometimes the line becomes entangled, and drags the boat -into the abyss; or the tail of the animal, sweeping rapidly through the -air, either descends upon the shallop, cutting it down to the water's -edge, or encounters in its course some of the crew standing up (such as -the headsman or harpooner), who are carried away and destroyed. Thus Mr. -Young, chief mate of the "Tuscan," was seen flying through the air at a -considerable height, and to the distance of nearly forty yards from the -boat, ere he fell into the water, where he remained floating motionless -on the surface for a few moments, and then sank and was seen no more. - -Sometimes, particularly among the sperm-whales, desperate characters -are found, that without waiting for the attack, rush furiously against -the boats sent out against them, and seem to love fighting for its own -sake. Bennett describes an encounter of this kind which he witnessed in -the South Sea. The first effort of the whale was to rush against the -boat with his head. Having been baffled by the crew steering clear, he -next attempted to crush it with his jaws; failing again, through the -unaccommodating position of his mouth, he remedied this defect with much -sagacity, for approaching impetuously from a distance of forty yards, -he turned upon his back, raising his lower jaw to grasp the boat from -above. A lance-wound, however, applied in time, caused him to close his -mouth; but continuing to advance, he struck the boat with such force -that he nearly overturned it, and concluded by again turning on his back -and thrusting his lower jaw through the planks. Fortunately the other -boats came up to the rescue, and an addition of many tons of sperm to the -ship's cargo made up for the damaged boat. - -[Illustration: Sperm-Whale.] - -Although generally only the greater cetaceans are objects of pursuit at -sea, yet man does not disdain the capture of the several dolphin-species -when they approach his shores, and surrender themselves as it were into -his hands. The intelligence that a shoal of ca'ing whales (_Delphinus -melas_) has been seen approaching the coast, operates like an electric -shock upon the inhabitants of the Feroë Islands. The whole village, old -and young, is instantly in motion, and soon numerous boats push off -from shore to surround the unsuspecting herd. Slowly and steadily they -are driven into a bay, the phalanx of their enemies draws closer and -closer together; terrified by stones and blows, they run ashore, and lie -gasping as the flood recedes. Then begins the work of death, amid the -loud rejoicings of the happy islanders. The visits of the ca'ing whale -are extremely uncertain. From 1754 till 1776 scarce one was caught, but -on the 16th of August of the last-named year more than 800 were driven -on the strand, and changed dearth into abundance. During the four summer -months that Langbye sojourned on the islands in the year 1817, 623 of -these large dolphins, mostly from eight to ten yards long, were caught, -and served to pay one half of the imported corn. The division of spoil is -made in presence of the "_Amtmann_." Each fish is measured, and its size -marked on its skin in Roman characters. The largest whale is given to -the boat which first discovered the shoal; then others for the poor and -clergyman are selected, and the remainder divided, according to stated -rules, between the proprietor of the ground and the persons who drove -them on shore. The flesh is either eaten fresh, or cut into slices and -hung up to dry; whilst the blubber is partly converted into train oil, or -salted in casks and barrels. The fat on the sides of the fish, when hung -for a week or two, will keep for years, and is used instead of bacon by -the natives. - -The ca'ing whale, remarkable from following a leader and swimming in -large herds, also strands from time to time on the coasts of Iceland and -on the Shetland and Orkney Islands, where his appearance is hailed with -universal pleasure. - -[Illustration: Pelican.] - - -[Illustration: AUSTRALIAN SEA-BEARS.] - -AUSTRALIAN SEA-BEARS. - - The group of Australian sea-bears is taken from the "Zoology of the - voyage of H.M.S. Erebus and Terror." This animal, _Arctocephalus - lobatus_, is among the largest of the Seal family. It is occasionally - found congregating in vast numbers upon various portions of the coast - of Australia. - - - - -CHAP. IX. - -SEALS AND WALRUSES. - - The Manatees and the Dugongs.--The Seals and the Esquimaux.--King - Menelaus in a Seal's Skin.--Barbarous Persecutions of the Seals - in Behring's Sea and the Pacific.--Adventures of a Sealer from - Geneva.--The Sea Calf.--The Sea Bear.--His Parental Affection.--The - Sea Lions.--The Sea Elephant.--The Arctic Walrus.--The Boats of the - "Trent" fighting with a Herd of Walruses.--The White Bear.--Touching - Example of its Love for its Young.--Chase of the Sea Otter. - - -The Manatees or Lamantins of the Atlantic Ocean, and the now nearly -extinct Dugongs of the Indian seas, form the connecting link between the -real whales and the seals and walruses. Like the whales, these animals -have no hind feet, and a powerful tail, which is their chief instrument -of locomotion; they are distinguishable, however, from them by less -fin-like, more flexibly-jointed anterior extremities, on which they lean -while cropping the sea-weeds on the shallow shores. When they raise -themselves with the front part of their body out of the water, a lively -fancy might easily be led to imagine that a human shape, though certainly -none of the most beautiful, was surging from the deep. Hence they have -been named sea-sirens, mermaids, and mermen, and have given rise to many -extravagant fictions. Their intelligence is very obtuse, but their stolid -calf-like countenance indicates great mildness of temper. - -They live at peace with all other animals, and seem to be solely intent -upon satisfying their voracious appetite. Like the hippopotamus, they -swallow at once large masses of sea-plants or of juicy grasses growing -beyond the water's edge on the borders of rivers. - -The Manatees, or Sea-cows, as they are familiarly called, inhabit the -coasts and streams of the Atlantic between 19° S. lat. and 25° N. lat., -and attain a length of from eight to ten feet. Humboldt compares the -flesh to ham, and Von Martius says he never tasted better meat in the -Brazils. The South American monks, who have their own ideas on the -classification of animals, consider it as fish, and fare sumptuously -upon it during Lent. Besides its flesh, one single animal gives as much -as 4000 bottles of oil, which is used both in cookery and for lighting. -The thick hide is cut into stripes, from which straps or whips are made, -to flog the unfortunate negroes. Useful in many respects, defenceless -and easy to kill, particularly during the time of the inundations, when -it ascends the great rivers, the manatee or sea-cow has been nearly -extirpated in many parts where it formerly abounded, a fate which it -partakes with the East Indian dugong. These animals might easily be -enclosed and tamed, in the lagoons and bays of the tropical streams; but -it is to be feared that they will have vanished from the face of the -earth before the industry of man endeavours to introduce them, as it -were, among the domestic animals. - -[Illustration: Skeleton of the Dugong.] - -The Seal family forms a still nearer approach to the land quadrupeds, as -here hind feet begin to make their appearance. The shortness of these -extremities renders their movements upon land generally awkward and -slow, but they make up for this deficiency by an uncommon activity in -the water. Their body, tapering fish-like from the shoulders to the -tail, their abundance of fat, the lightness of which is so favourable -to swimming, the position of their feet, admirably formed for rowing, -paddling, and steering, their whole economy, in a word, is calculated for -the sea. Although citizens of two worlds, their real element is evidently -the water, from which their food is exclusively derived. - -[Illustration: Female Dugong of Ceylon. (From Sir J. Emerson Tennent's -Work on Ceylon.)] - -[Illustration: Skeleton of Seal.] - -Seals are found in almost all seas, but they particularly abound on -the coasts of the colder regions of the earth, and diminish in size -and numbers as they approach the torrid zone. Small seals are found -near Surinam, but the giants of the family, the huge, sea-elephant, the -sea-lion, the sea-bear, belong exclusively to those higher latitudes -which the sun visits only with slanting rays, or where the winter forms a -dreary and continuous night. - -[Illustration: The Seal.] - -How wonderful to see the desolate coasts of the icy seas peopled by such -herds of great warm-blooded mammalia! But there, where the dry land -produces only the scantiest vegetation, the bountiful sea teems with -fishes, affording abundance to the hungry seals. The _Merlangus polaris_ -and the _Ophidium Parryii_ in the northern hemisphere, as well as the -_Nothothenia phocæ_, which Dr. Richardson discovered off Kerguelen's -Land, seek in vain to escape from the pursuit of the seals in the hollows -and crevices of the pack-ice; and these small fish, in turn, fare -sumptuously upon the minute crustaceans and molluscs with which those -cold waters abound. Thus animal life, but sparingly diffused over the -barren land, luxuriates in the sea, where we find one species preying -upon the other, until at last, at the bottom of the scale, we come to -creatures so small as to be invisible to the naked eye. - -[Illustration: Esquimaux in his Kayak.] - -The Greenland Esquimaux, whose ice-bound fatherland affords no food but -berries, is also obliged to look to the sea for his subsistence; and the -seal plays as important a part in his humble existence as the reindeer -among the Laplanders, or the camel among the Bedouins of the desert. Its -flesh and fat form his principal food; from its skin he makes his boat, -his tent, his dress; from its sinews and bones, his thread and needles, -his fishing line, and his bow-strings. Thus on the frozen confines of the -Polar Sea, as in many other parts of the world, we find the existence of -man almost entirely depending upon that of a single class of animals. But -the Bedouin who tends the patient dromedary, or the Laplander who feeds -on the flesh and milk of the domesticated reindeer, enjoys an easy life -when compared to the Esquimaux, who, to satisfy the cravings of his sharp -appetite, is in all seasons obliged to brave all the perils of the Arctic -Ocean. Sometimes he waits patiently for hours in the cold fog until a -seal rises to the surface, or else he warily approaches a herd basking -or sleeping on the ice blocks, for the least noise awakens the watchful -animals. Sometimes he has recourse to stratagem, covers himself with a -seal skin, and, imitating the movements and gestures of the deceived -phocæ, introduces himself into the midst of the unsuspecting troop. - -We read in the _Odyssey_ how the "dark-featured hero," Menelaus, deigned -to conceal his royal limbs under a fresh seal-skin, in order to surprise -Proteus, the infallible seer; and what sufferings his olfactory organs -underwent from the - - "Unsavoury stench of oil and brackish ooze," - -until the fair sea-nymph Eidothea, whom the gallant chief implored in his -distress, - - "With nectar'd drops the sickening sense restor'd." - -Fortunately for the Esquimaux, his nose is less sensitive than that of -the son of Atreus, and without ambrosia, he willingly dons a disguise -which affords his unsophisticated taste the pleasure of a theatrical -entertainment, combined with the profit of a savoury prize. Physical -strength, dexterity, caution, quickness of eye, and acuteness of hearing, -are the indispensable qualities of the Esquimaux, and require to be -exercised and developed from his tenderest years. The boy of fifteen must -be as perfect a seal-catcher as his father, and be able to make all the -instruments necessary for the chase. In these inhospitable regions, every -one is obliged to rely upon himself alone; there, where all the powers -of the body and mind are tasked to the utmost for the mere sustenance of -life, weakness and want of dexterity must inevitably succumb. - -Besides the savages of the north, the civilised nations also give chase -to the seals, or rather wage a barbarous war of extermination against -these helpless creatures. Thus, from the year 1786 to 1833, more than -3,000,000 sea-bears were killed on the Pribilow Islands, in Behring's -Sea. At Unalaschka, the chief staple-place of the Russian Fur Company, -700,000 skins were cast into the water in the year 1803, on the same -principle as that which induced the Dutch to burn their superfluous -nutmegs, viz. "not to glut the market." As a well-merited punishment for -this stupid slaughter, the products of the chase diminished rapidly from -that time until within the last few years, when a better husbandry has -again increased the number of the sea-bears. - -Unfortunately, our own countrymen and the Americans have done no better -in the southern seas. Thousands of sea-lions used formerly to be killed -on the South American coast, while at present the number of the animals -is so much diminished as scarce to reward the sealer's trouble. Sir James -Ross informs us that the sea elephant was formerly found in great numbers -on Kerguelen's Land, and yearly attracted many vessels to those desert -islands. But at present, after such incessant persecution, the animals -have either migrated, or been almost totally extirpated. English and -American captains often set some men ashore on the uninhabited coasts -and islands of the southern seas, for the purpose of catching seals, -boiling their oil, and stripping their skins. After a few months the ship -generally returns to fetch the produce of their labours, or to bring a -fresh supply of provisions to the seal catchers, who often remain several -years in their solitary hunting grounds. But sometimes the poor wretches -are abandoned by their associates, and then their despair may be imagined -when week after week elapses without the expected sail appearing! Dumont -d'Urville found one of these adventurers in the Straits of Magellan among -a horde of Patagonians, who, though hospitably inclined, were themselves -so poor as hardly to be able to keep body and soul together. He was a -watchmaker from Geneva, who, having emigrated to New York, and finding -himself disappointed, had listened to the fair promises of a skipper, -who carried him out to Tierra del Fuego, and not finding the business -answer, had left him to his fate. The French navigator took the poor man -on board, and gave him a passage to Talcahuano in Chili. - -On the east coast of North America seal catching is still carried on -with considerable success. Newfoundland intercepts many of the immense -fields and islands of ice which in the spring move south from the Arctic -Sea. The interior parts, with the openings or lakes interspersed, remain -serene and unbroken, and form the transitory abodes of myriads of seals. -In the month of March upwards of three hundred small vessels, fitted -out for the seal fishery, are extricated from the icy harbours on the -east coast of Newfoundland; the fields are now all in motion, and the -vessels plunge directly into the edges of such as appear to have seals -on them; the crews, armed with firelocks and heavy bludgeons, there -_land_, and in the course of a few weeks destroy nearly 300,000 of these -animals. The Greenland winter, it would appear, is too severe for these -luckless wanderers, and when it sets in, they accompany the field-ice, -and remain on it until it is scattered and dissolved. Old and young -being then deserted in the ocean, nature points out to them the course -to their favourite icy haunts, and thither their herds hurry over the -deep to pass an arctic summer. Winter returns, and with it commences -again their annual migration from latitude to latitude. The Scotch ports, -particularly Aberdeen, fit out ships for the spring seal-catching on the -American coast, and are generally successful in their undertakings. - -[Illustration: Greenland Seal.] - -[Illustration: Seal.] - -According to the different numbers and forms of their canine teeth and -grinders, and to the deficiency or presence of an _outward_ ear, the seal -tribe is divided into many families, genera, and species, among which I -shall select a few of the most remarkable for further notice. The Common -Seal or Sea-calf, (_Calocephalus vitulinus_), which owes the latter name -to the unharmonious accents of its voice, attains a length of from five -to six feet. It has a large round head, small short neck, and several -strong bristles on each side of its mouth, large eyes, no external ears, -and a forked tongue. It has six fore teeth in the upper jaw, four in -the lower, a strong pointed canine tooth on each side in both jaws, -and a goodly row of sharp and jagged grinders. Woe to the poor herring -whose evil star leads him between these engines of destruction--he is -irrevocably lost! Different species of common seals inhabit the Northern -seas, from Greenland and Spitzbergen to the mouth of the Scheldt, and -from the White Sea to the eastern coast of America. Others are found in -the Antarctic seas. An excellent swimmer, the seal dives like a shot, and -rises at fifty yards' distance, often remaining full a quarter of an hour -under the water--three times longer than the most strong-breasted and -expert pearl fisher. Yet he is seldom seen more than thirty miles from -land, where he sleeps and reposes, choosing rocks surrounded by the sea -or the less accessible cliffs, left dry by the ebb of the tide, so that, -if disturbed by an enemy, he may be able to plunge immediately into the -sea. In the summer he will come out of the water to bask or sleep in the -sun on the top of large stones and ledges of rocks; and this affords our -countrymen the opportunity of shooting him. If he chances to escape, he -hastens towards his proper element, flinging dirt or stones behind him -as he scrambles along, at the same time expressing his fears by piteous -moans; but if he happens to be overtaken, he will make a vigorous defence -with his feet and teeth till he is killed. His flesh, which is tender, -juicy, and fat, was formerly, like that of the porpoise, served up at the -tables of the great, as appears from the bill of fare of a magnificent -feast that Archbishop Neville gave in the reign of Edward the Fourth. -Seals commonly bring forth two young ones at a time, which they suckle -for about a fortnight, and then carry them out to sea to instruct them -in swimming. When taken young, they may be domesticated, and will follow -their master like a dog, coming to him when called by name. According -to Pliny, no animal enjoys a deeper sleep,--"nullum animal graviore -somno premitur." This assertion is, however, contradicted by general -observation, for it is well known that seals are extremely watchful, -seldom sleeping longer than a minute without moving their heads to -ascertain whether anything suspicious is going on. - -Although without external ears, seals appear to hear well both above and -under the water. Music or whistling will draw them to the surface and -induce them to stretch their necks to the utmost extent--a curiosity -which often proves a snare for their destruction. The most effectual -way of shooting seals is by firing small shot into their eyes; for -when killed with a bullet they generally sink and are lost. They are -often seen in very large shoals on their passage from one situation to -another. In such cases, all appear every now and then at the surface -together for the sake of respiration, springing up so as to run their -heads, necks, and often their whole bodies out of the water. They shuffle -along, especially over the ice, with a surprising speed considering the -shortness of their legs. They are very tenacious of life, and able to -survive even when shockingly mangled. According to Dr. Scoresby, the -island of Jan Mayen affords excellent seal fishing in March and April. -When on detached pieces of drift ice, they are captured by the use of -boats, each boat making a descent upon a different herd. When the seals -observe the boat, they endeavour to escape before it reaches the ice; the -sailors, however, raise a long-continued shout, which frequently causes -the amazed animals to delay their retreat until arrested by blows. When -seals are abundant, the boat immediately pushes off after the slaughter -is finished, and proceeds to another piece of ice for the increase of its -harvest, leaving one man to flay off the skins and fat. But in situations -where boats cannot navigate, the seal fishers have to pursue them over -the ice, leaping from piece to piece until the capture is made; every -man then flenses his own, and drags the skins and blubber to his boat -or ship. Ships fitted out for seal fishing have occasionally procured -cargoes of four or five thousand, yielding nearly a hundred tons of oil; -but such enterprises are very hazardous, from the exposed nature of that -dreary island, and the liability to heavy and sudden storms. - -The Sea-Elephant (_Cystophora proboscidea_) deserves his name, not only -from his immense size, attaining a length of twenty, twenty-five, or -even thirty feet, but also from the singular structure of his elongated -nostrils, which hang down when he is in a state of repose, but swell -out to a foot-long proboscis when he is enraged. Then the beast has -a most formidable appearance, which, along with its gaping jaws and -dreadful roar, might strike terror into the boldest huntsman. But total -helplessness and weakness conceal themselves behind this terrible mask, -for a single blow upon the snout with a club suffices to fell the giant. -Between 35° and 55° S. lat. is the home of the sea-elephant, where he -frequents desert islands and uninhabited coasts. But even here, as I have -already mentioned, he could not escape the rapacity of man, for his tough -hide and the thick layer of blubber beneath were too tempting to remain -unnoticed. - -The Hooded Seal of the northern seas, (_Cystophora borealis_,) enjoys -the same faculty of inflating a folding, skinny crest extending on each -side from the snout to the eyes. But in spite of the menacing appearance -of these wind-bags, the seal fisher knocks him on the head, draws, -without ceremony, his skin over his ears, and throws his blubber into the -oil-kettle. - -The _Otarias_, or seals furnished with an external ear, and whose longer -and more developed feet allow them to move more freely on land, rank in -point of organisation at the head of the whole tribe. The most important -and valuable of all is the Sea-Bear (_Arctocephalus ursinus_), of which -there are probably two species; the one inhabiting the Antarctic seas, -while the other roams about the coasts and islands of the Northern -Pacific, and selects St. Paul, one of the Pribilow group in Behring's -Sea, as its favourite summer haunt. The fine-haired, black, curly skin of -the younger animals, of from four months to one year old, is particularly -esteemed, so as to be classed among the finer furs which find a ready -sale in the Chinese market, and serve to decorate the persons of the -higher rank of mandarins. The chase, which on the latter island was -formerly a promiscuous massacre, is now reduced to the slaughter of a -limited number of victims. It begins in the latter part of September, on -a cold foggy day when the wind blows from the side where the animals are -assembled on the rocky shore. The boldest huntsmen, accustomed to clamber -over stones and cliffs, open the way; then follow their less experienced -comrades, and the chief personage of the band comes last, to be the -better able to direct and survey the movements of his men, who are all -armed with clubs. The main object is to cut off the herd as quickly as -possible from the sea. All the grown-up males and females are spared, but -the younger animals are all driven landwards, sometimes to the distance -of a couple of miles, and then partly clubbed to death. Those which are -only four months old are doomed without exception; while of the others -only a certain number of the males are killed, and the females allowed to -return again to the coast, when they soon betake themselves to the water. -For several days after the massacre, the bereaved mothers swim about the -island, seeking and loudly wailing for their young. - -From the 5th of October, St. Paul is gradually deserted by the sea -bears, who then migrate to the south, and reappear towards the end of -April,--the males arriving first. Each seeks the same spot on the shore -which he occupied during the preceding year, and lies down among the -large stone blocks with which the flat beach is covered. About the middle -of May the far more numerous females begin to make their appearance, and -Otarian life takes full possession of the strand. The full-grown sea-bear -is from eight to nine feet long, measures five in girth, and acquires -a weight of from eight to nine hundred pounds. He owes his name to his -shaggy blackish fur, and not to his disposition, which is far from being -cruel or savage. He indulges in polygamy like a Turk or a Mormon, and -has often as many as fifty wives. The young are generally lively, fond -of play and fight. When one of them has thrown another down, the father -approaches with a growl, caresses the victor, tries to overturn him, -and shows increasing fondness the better he defends himself. Lazy and -listless youngsters are objects of his dislike, and these hang generally -about their mother. The male is very much attached to his wives, but -treats them with all the severity of an oriental despot. When a mother -neglects to carry away her young, and allows it to be taken, she is made -to feel his anger. He seizes her with his teeth, and strikes her several -times, not over gently, against a cliff. As soon as she recovers from -the stunning effects of these blows, she approaches her lord in the -most humble attitudes, crawls to his feet, caresses him, and even sheds -tears, as Steller, the companion of Behring's second voyage, informs us. -Meanwhile the male crawls about to and fro, gnashes his teeth, rolls his -eyes, and throws his head from side to side. But when he sees that his -young is irrevocably lost, he then, like the mother, begins to cry so -bitterly, that the tears trickle down upon his breast. In his old age -the ursine seal is abandoned by his wives, and spends the remainder of -his life in solitude, fasting, and sleeping; an indolence from which he -can only be roused by the intrusion of another animal, when a tremendous -battle is the consequence. Though extremely irascible, the sea-bears -are lovers of fair play, so that when two are fighting, the others -form a ring, and remain spectators until the contest is decided. Then, -however, they take the part of the weaker, which so enrages the victor -that he immediately attacks the peace-makers. These in turn fall out, -the dreadful roaring attracts new witnesses, and the whole ends, like an -Irish wedding, with a general fight. - -Ursine seals are also found in the southern hemisphere, on desert coasts -analogous to their residences in the north. Common seals and sea-otters -stand in great awe of these animals, and shun their haunts. They again -are in equal fear of the Leonine seals, and do not care to begin a -quarrel in their presence, dreading the intervention of such formidable -arbitrators, who likewise possess the first place on the shore. - -Steller's Sea-Lion, (_Otaria Stelleri_,) is about as large again as -the sea-bear, but its tawny hide, covered with short bristles, is -without value in the fur trade. To the Aleut, however, the animal is of -great use, for he covers his boat with its skin, makes his water-tight -_kamleika_ with its intestines, the soles of his shoes with the webs of -its feet, ornaments his cap with its long beard hair, and feasts upon -its flesh. On all the coasts and islands of the Pacific this sea-lion -is found, from 61° N. lat. to unknown southern limits, but nowhere in -such numbers as on the Pribilow Island, St. George, where its countless -herds afford a wonderful spectacle. The shapeless gigantic fat and -flesh-masses, awkward and unwieldy on land, cover, as far as the eye -can reach, a broad, rocky, naked strand-belt, blackened with oil. The -sea-birds occupy the empty places between the herds of the sea-lions, -and fly fearlessly before the gaping jaws of the huge monsters, without -caring about their hideous bellowing. In countless numbers they build -their nests in the caves of the surf-beaten cliffs, and among the large -boulders on the shore, whose tops are whitened with their dung. A thick -fog generally spreads over the desolate scene, and the hollow roaring of -the breakers unites, with the screaming of the birds and the bellowing of -the sea-lions, to form a wild and melancholy concert. - -Steller's sea-lion is furnished only with an erect and curly hair-tuft at -his neck, while a complete mane flows round the breast of the sea-lion -of the southern hemisphere, (_Otaria jubata_). The remainder of the body -is covered with short smooth hairs, or bristles. The sea-lioness has no -mane, and is darker than the male. The fore-fins have the appearance of -large pieces of black tough leather, showing, instead of nails, slight -horny elevations; the hind-fins, which are likewise black, have a closer -resemblance to feet, and the five toes are furnished with small nails. A -formidable-looking beast, eleven feet long! and well may the naturalist -start, when, walking through the high tussack grass of the Falkland -Islands, he suddenly stumbles over a huge sea-lion, stretched along the -ground, and blocking up his path. - -[Illustration: Walrus, or Morse.] - -[Illustration: Skull and Head of Walrus.] - -The Arctic Walrus forms the nearest approach to the seals in the scale -of creation, and is likewise better adapted for a marine life than for -existence on dry land. But he is completely without fore-teeth, and his -grinders have a broad furrowed crown, like those of the herbivorous -animals. This difference of dentition points to a different food, and -while the phocæ are such voracious fish-eaters that Sir James Ross found -no less than twenty-eight pounds of undigested fish in the stomach of a -southern seal, the walrus principally lives on sea-weeds and molluscs. -The Arctic walrus or sea-horse (_Trichechus rosmarus_) is one of the -largest mammals known, as he sometimes grows to the length of eighteen -feet, and so thick as to measure twelve feet about the middle of the -body. His form is very clumsy, having a small head, a strong elongated -neck, a thick body, and short legs, the hind feet uniting to a broad -fin. With such a form, no one can wonder at the clumsiness of its -movements on land. Admiral Beechey describes the gallop of a sea-horse -as probably the most awkward motion exhibited by the animal tribe, for, -like a large caterpillar, the unwieldly creature alternately lowers and -raises its head, in order to facilitate the bringing up of the hinder -parts of the body;--no easy task, when we consider the immense weight of -the animal, and the great disproportion between the length of its body -and its legs. The upper lip, which is very thick, and indented or cleft -into two large rounded lobes, furnished with thick yellow bristles, -contributes also but little to its external beauty. From under this -formidable-looking inflation protrude two large and long tusks, growing, -like those of the elephant, from the upper jaw, but bent downwards, not -outward and upwards, as is the case with the latter. Their uses are also -very different, for while the elephant employs his tusks in digging up -roots, the walrus raises by their assistance his unwieldy body upon -the ice-blocks and precipitous shores, where he loves to bask in the -sun. Both animals use them, moreover, as formidable weapons, the former -against the bounding tiger, the latter against the hungry ice-bear or the -voracious shark. - -In fine weather the walruses, like the seals, gather on the ice, -where they may be seen in herds consisting occasionally of upwards of -100 animals each. In these situations they appear greatly to enjoy -themselves, rolling and sporting about, and frequently making the air -resound with their bellowing, which bears some resemblance to that of a -bull. These diversions generally end in sleep, during which these wary -animals appear always to take the precaution of having a sentinel to warn -them of any danger to which they may be liable. So universal seems the -observance of this precaution amongst their species, that Beechey, who -had many opportunities of observing them in Spitzbergen, scarcely ever -saw a herd, however small, in which he did not notice one of the party -on the watch, stretching his long neck in the air every half-minute, to -the utmost extent of its muscles, to survey the ground about him. In the -event of any alarming appearances, the sentinel begins by seeking his -own safety; and as these animals always lie huddled upon one another, -the motion of one is immediately communicated to the whole group, which -is instantly in motion towards the water. When the herd is large, and an -alarm is given, the consequences are most ludicrous. From the unwieldy -nature of the animals, the state of fear into which they are thrown, -and their being so closely packed together, at first they tumble over -one another, get angry, and in their endeavour to regain their feet -flounder about in each other's way, till having at last scrambled to the -edge of the ice, they tumble into the water, head first, if possible, -but otherwise, in any position in which chance may have placed them, -occasioning one of the most laughable scenes it is possible to conceive. - -Though the first movement of the walruses at the approach of danger is -to seek the water, yet here, enraged by an unprovoked attack, they often -become most formidable assailants; of which Beechey recounts a remarkable -instance. - -[Illustration: THE BOATS OF H.M.S. TRENT ATTACKED BY WALRUSES.] - -THE BOATS OF H.M.S. TRENT ATTACKED BY WALRUSES. - - This plate is taken from an incident narrated in the account of the - voyage of H.M. ships Dorothea and Trent. The boat belonging to the - Trent was attacked by a shoal of walruses, which were near swamping - it; and were not driven off till a gigantic walrus, which appeared - to be the captain of the shoal, was destroyed by a shot fired into - its throat as represented in the engraving, the original of which, as - published in the account of the voyage, was taken from a sketch by an - officer present in the singular conflict. - -One evening, while the Dorothea and Trent were at anchor in Magdalena -Bay, Spitzbergen, several herds of these animals had crawled upon the -ice, to enjoy the fine weather and rest themselves. The boats, properly -equipped, and manned with some of the officers and seamen, pushed off -in pursuit of them. The first herd which was selected disappointed the -sportsmen, but another was so intent upon its gambols, that the sentinel -absolutely forgot his duty, and several of the crew managed to effect -a landing upon the ice without any alarm being given to the animals; -as soon, however, as the first musket was fired, the affrighted group -made such a desperate rush towards the edge of the ice that they nearly -overturned the whole of the assailing party, purposely stationed there -to intercept them. The seamen, finding this charge more formidable than -they expected, were obliged to separate to allow their opponents to pass -through their ranks; and being thus in their turn taken by surprise, they -suffered them, almost unmolested, to perform their somersaults towards -the sea. What with their uncertain movements, the extreme toughness of -their skin, and the respectful distance at which the men were obliged -to keep, to avoid the lashing of the head and tusks of the animals, it -was indeed no easy task to inflict any serious injury upon them. One, -however, was desperately wounded in the head with a ball, and the mate -of the brig, being determined if possible to secure his prey, resolutely -struck his tomahawk into his skull; but the enraged animal, with a twist -of its head, sent the weapon whirling in the air, and then lashing his -neck, as though he would destroy with his immense tusks everything that -came in his way, effected his escape to the water. The seamen followed -and pushed off in their boats; but the walruses, finding themselves more -at home now than on the ice, in their turn became the assailants. They -rose in great numbers about the boats, snorting with rage, and rushing -at the boats, and it was with the utmost difficulty they were prevented -upsetting or staving them by placing their tusks upon the gunwales, or by -striking at them with their heads. It was the opinion of the seamen that -in this assault the walruses were led on by one animal in particular, a -much larger and more formidable beast than any of the others, and they -directed their efforts more particularly towards him; but he withstood -all the blows of their tomahawks without flinching, and his tough hide -resisted the entry of the whale lances, which were unfortunately not -very sharp, and soon bent double. The herd was so numerous, and their -attacks so incessant, that there was not time to load a musket, which -indeed was the only effectual mode of seriously injuring them. The -purser fortunately had his gun loaded, and the whole now being nearly -exhausted with chopping and striking at their assailants, he snatched it -up, and thrusting the muzzle down the throat of the leader, fired into -his bowels. The wound proved mortal and the animal fell back amongst -his companions, who immediately desisted from the attack, assembled -round him, and in a moment quitted the boat, swimming away as hard as -they could with their leader, whom they actually bore up with their -tusks, and assiduously preserved from sinking. Whether this singular -and compassionate conduct, which in all probability was done to prevent -suffocation, arose from the sagacity of the animals, it is difficult to -say; but there is every probability of it, and the fact must form an -interesting trait in the history of the habits of the species. After the -discharge of the purser's gun, there remained of all the herd only one -little assailant, which the seamen, out of compassion, were unwilling to -molest. This young animal had been observed fighting by the side of the -leader, and from the protection which was afforded it by its courageous -patron, was imagined to be one of its young. This little animal had no -tusks, but it swam violently against the boat, and struck her with its -head, and indeed would have stove her, had it not been kept off by whale -lances, some of which made deep incisions in its young sides. These, -however, had not any immediate effect; the attack was continued, and the -enraged little animal, though disfigured with wounds, even crawled upon -the ice in pursuit of the seamen, who had _relanded_ there, until one of -them, out of compassion, put an end to its sufferings. - -The valuable ivory of its tusks, which is more solid, finer grained, and -whiter than that of the elephant, exposes the walrus to the attacks of -man, no less than his thick hide, from which a strong elastic leather is -made, and his abundance of flesh and blubber. The former are sought by -civilised nations, while the latter forms the chief food of the northern -Esquimaux and of the Tschutchi on the western shore of Behring's Straits. - -Every year a troop of Aleuts land on the northern coast of the peninsula -of Aliaska, where the young walruses assemble in great numbers during -the summer, having most likely been driven away by the older males from -their more northern haunts. The walruses herd on the lowest edge of the -coast which is within reach of the high spring-tides. When the Aleuts -prepare to attack the animals, they take leave of each other as if they -were going to face death, being no less afraid of the mighty tusks of -the walruses than of the awkwardness of their own companions. Armed -with lances and heavy axes, they stealthily approach the walruses, and -having disposed their ranks, suddenly fall upon them with loud shouts, -and endeavour to drive them from the sea, taking care that none of them -escape into the water, as in this case the rest would irresistibly follow -and precipitate the huntsmen along with them. As soon as the walruses -have been driven far enough up the strand, the Aleuts attack them with -their lances, endeavouring to strike at them in places where the hide is -not so thick, and then pressing with all their might against the spear, -to render the wound deep and deadly. The slaughtered animals fall one -over the other and form large heaps, while the huntsmen, uttering furious -shouts and intoxicated with carnage, wade through the bloody mire. They -then cleave the jaws and take out the tusks, which are the chief objects -of the slaughter of several thousands of walruses, since neither their -flesh nor their fat is made use of in the colony. Sir George Simpson, -in his "Overland Journey Round the World," relates that the bales of -fur sent to Kjachta are covered with walrus hide; then it is made to -protect the tea chests, which find their way to Moscow; and after all -these wanderings, the far-travelled skin returns again to its native -seas, when, cut into small pieces and stamped with a mark, it serves as a -medium of exchange. The carcases of the wholesale slaughter are left on -the shore to be washed away by the spring-tides, which soon erase every -vestige of the bloody scene, and in the following year the inexhaustible -north sends new victims to the coast. - -Kane gives us a vivid description of a walrus hunt in Smith's Sound, most -likely the most northern point of the earth inhabited by man. "After a -while Myouk became convinced, from signs or sounds, that walruses were -waiting for him in a small space of recently open water that was glazed -over with a few days' growth of ice, and, moving gently on, soon heard -the characteristic bellow of a bull,--the walrus, like some bipeds, -being fond of his own music. The party now formed in single file, and -moved on in serpentine approach to the recently frozen ice spots, which -were surrounded by older and firmer ice. When within half a mile the line -broke, and each man crawled towards a separate pool. In a few minutes -the walruses were in sight, five in number, rising at intervals through -the ice in a body with an explosive puff that might have been heard -for miles. Two large grim-looking males made themselves conspicuous as -leaders of the group. When the walrus is above the water, the hunter lies -flat and motionless; as it begins to sink, he is alert and ready for a -spring. The animal's head is hardly below the water line, when every man -advances in rapid run, and again, as if by instinct, before the beast -returns, all are motionless behind protecting knolls of ice. In this way -the Esquimaux have reached a plate of thin ice, hardly strong enough to -bear them, at the very brink of the pool. Myouk, till now phlegmatic, -seems to waken with excitement. A coil of walrus hide lies by his side, -and he grasps the harpoon, ready for action. Presently the water is in -motion, and, puffing with pent-up respiration, the walrus rises before -him. Myouk rises slowly, the right arm thrown back, the left flat at his -side. The walrus looks about him, shaking water from his crest, Myouk -throws up his left arm, and the animal, rising breast-high, fixes one -look before he plunges. It has cost him all that curiosity can cost, for -the harpoon lies buried under his left flipper." The wounded animal makes -a desperate spring, and endeavours to lift itself upon the ice, which -breaks under its weight. These fruitless endeavours give its physiognomy -a still more vengeful expression; its bellowing degenerates into a roar, -and crimson foam gathers round its mouth. - -[Illustration: Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus).] - -The Ice-Bear (_Ursus maritimus_) may also be reckoned among the marine -animals, as the sea affords him by far the greater part of his food. From -the common bear, whom he surpasses in strength and size, as he attains -a length of nine feet, and a height of four, he not only distinguishes -himself by his white sleek-haired fur, but also by a much longer neck. -His half-webbed feet show at once that he is born for a sea life, and -he is able to swim three miles an hour, and to dive for a considerable -length of time. On land he runs as fast again as a man, and often -surprises his prey, as his tread upon the snow is almost inaudible. He -principally lives on fish, but also on seals, birds, foxes, reindeer, -and even attacks man--particularly when pinched with hunger. But in his -turn he falls a prey to the inhabitants of the Arctic regions, who eat -the flesh, though it is very coarse, and use the skin for coverings of -various kinds. He is a cunning hunter, though not always successful. -Thus one sunshiny day, Admiral Beechey saw a large walrus rise in a -pool of water not very far from where he stood. After looking around, -the grim-visaged creature drew his greasy carcase upon the ice, where -he rolled about for a time, and at length laid himself down to sleep. A -bear, which had probably been observing his movements, crawled carefully -upon the ice on the opposite side of the pool, and began to roll about -also, but apparently more with design than amusement, progressively -lessening the distance that intervened between him and his prey. The -suspicious walrus drew himself up, preparatory to a precipitate retreat, -when immediately the bear remained motionless, as if in the act of sleep; -but after a time he began to lick his paws, and clean himself, and -occasionally to encroach a little more upon his intended victim. This -time, however, his cunning was useless, for the walrus suddenly plunged -into the pool, and though the bear, throwing off all disguise, rushed -to the spot and followed him in an instant into the water, he was most -likely disappointed of a meal that would have made up for a long period -of fasting. The ice-bear is everywhere at home within the Arctic circle, -and particularly abounds on Spitzbergen and the other small islands of -that sea. He sometimes comes floating on drift ice to the north coasts of -Iceland, Norway, and Newfoundland, but is soon killed by the inhabitants. - -[Illustration: Seal.] - -[Illustration: Arctic Walrus.] - -Manby, in his "Voyage to Spitzbergen," relates several interesting -examples of his ferocity and daring. Having perceived an ice-bear -swimming in the sea, a boat went after him to cut him off; when suddenly -the monster changed his route, faced the boat, and approached it, keeping -up a continued growling, with other indications of rage, such as showing -his frightful teeth, and elevating his head and much of his body out of -the water. Being desirous to preserve the head, Manby let him come within -twelve yards, when he fired a ball through his shoulder, which deprived -him of the use of a fore-leg. Roaring hideously, the infuriated animal -pressed towards the boat in the most ferocious manner, endeavouring to -board or upset it, but failed from the loss of his leg. He was then -attacked by the crew with lances, the thrusts of some of which he -avoided with astonishing dexterity, and, in the most resolute manner, -again made several attempts to reach the boat; but being repulsed by the -overpowering thrust of a lance from the harpooner on his flank, he was -unable longer to continue the contest. He had bitten a lance, in the heat -of the combat, with such exasperated rage, as to break one of his long -tusks; but finding his efforts fruitless, he retreated towards the ice, -swimming most astonishingly fast, considering the great propelling power -he had lost, and finally ascended it with great difficulty, having only -one fore-paw to assist him, when, exhausted by the effort, he fell down -dead, uttering a tremendous growl. - -Captain Lewis, with a party of five hunters, attacked a bear, and when at -a distance of forty yards, four of them fired, and each lodged a musket -ball in its body, two of which passed directly through the lungs. The -enraged animal ran at them with open mouth, and as it came near, the -two men who had reserved their fire gave it two wounds, and broke its -shoulder, which retarded its motion for a moment. But before they could -reload, it was so near that they were obliged to run, and before they -reached the shore the bear had almost overtaken them. Two jumped into the -canoe, the other four separated, concealed themselves behind ice blocks, -and firing as fast as they could load, struck the bear several times. But -although eight balls had passed through its body, the bear pursued two of -them so closely, that they were obliged to leap down a perpendicular bank -of twenty feet into the water. The dying animal sprang after them, and -was within a few feet of the hindermost, when his strength at last failed -him. - -Scoresby relates that in 1783, Captain Cook, of the Archangel, of Lynn, -landed on the coast of Spitzbergen, accompanied by the surgeon and -mate. While traversing the shore, the captain was unexpectedly attacked -by a bear, which seized him in an instant between its paws. At this -awful juncture, when a moment's pause must have been fatal to him, -the unfortunate man called to his surgeon to fire, who immediately, -with admirable resolution and steadiness, discharged his piece, and -providentially shot the bear through the head, thus literally saving the -master from the jaws of death. - -[Illustration: Ice-bear approaching the "Dorothea" and "Trent."] - -"One evening," says Beechey, "we set on fire some sea-horse fat, in order -to entice within reach of our muskets any bears that might be ranging -the ice; as these animals possess a very keen scent, and are invariably -attracted by burnt animal matter. About midnight we had the satisfaction -of seeing one of them drag his huge carcass out of the water, and slowly -make his way towards us. The sight of the tall masts of the ships -appeared to alarm him a little at first, for he occasionally hesitated, -threw up his head, and seemed half inclined to turn round and be off; but -the agreeable odour of the burnt blubber was evidently so grateful to his -olfactory nerves and empty stomach, that it overcame every repugnance, -and gradually brought him within range of our muskets. On receiving the -first shot he sprang round, uttered a terrific growl, and half raised -himself upon his hind legs, as if in expectation of seizing the object -that had caused him such excruciating pain; and woe to any human being -who had at that moment been within reach of his merciless paws! The -second and third ball left him writhing upon the ice, and the mate of the -Dorothea jumped out of the vessel and endeavoured to despatch him with -the butt end of a musket; but it unfortunately broke short off, and for -a moment left him at the mercy of his formidable antagonist, who showed, -by turning sharply upon his assailant, and seizing him by the thigh, that -he was not yet mastered; and he would most certainly have inflicted a -serious wound, had it not been for the prompt assistance of two or three -of his shipmates who had followed him. The animal was by no means one of -the largest of his species, being only six feet in length, and three feet -four inches in height. His stomach was quite empty, with the exception -of a garter, such as is used by Greenland sailors to tie up their boat -stockings. In his left side there was a cicatrised wound of considerable -magnitude. From what we saw of the activity and ferociousness of this -animal, added to the well-known strength of his species, we readily gave -credit to the accounts of Barentz and other early visitors to these -regions; and it may be considered a fortunate circumstance for the hero -of the Nile and Trafalgar that a natural barrier was interposed between -him and the object of his chase, when in his youth he ventured alone over -the ice in these regions in pursuit of such formidable game." - -The ferocious white bear, the enemy and the dread of all other animals -that come within its reach, is exceedingly tender and affectionate to its -young, of which the following anecdote affords a striking and interesting -example. While the "Carcase" was locked in the ice, early one morning the -man at the mast-head gave notice that three bears were making their way -very fast over the frozen ocean, and were directing their course towards -the ship. They had no doubt been invited by the scent of some blubber -of a sea-horse that the crew had killed a few days before, which had -been set on fire; for they drew out of the flames a part of the flesh -that remained unconsumed, and ate it voraciously. The crew from the ship -threw great lumps of the flesh of the sea-horse, which they had still -left, upon the ice, which the old bear fetched singly, laid every lump -before her cubs as she brought it, and dividing it, gave to each a share, -reserving but a small portion to herself. As she was fetching away the -last piece, they levelled their muskets at the cubs and shot them both -dead, and in her retreat they wounded the dam, but not mortally. It would -have drawn tears of pity from any but unfeeling minds, to have marked the -affectionate concern expressed by this poor beast in the dying moments of -her expiring young. Though she was herself dreadfully wounded, and could -but just crawl to the place where they lay, she carried the lump of flesh -she had fetched away, as she had done others before, tore it in pieces, -and laid it before them; and when she saw that they refused to eat, she -laid her paws first upon one and then upon the other, and endeavoured -to raise them up, piteously moaning all the while. When she found she -could not stir them, she went off, and when she had got at some distance, -looked back and moaned; and that not availing her to entice them away, -she returned, and smelling round them, began to lick their wounds. She -went off a second time as before, and having crawled a few paces, looked -again behind her, and for some time stood moaning. But still her cubs -not rising to follow her, she returned to them again, and with signs of -inexpressible fondness, went round one and round the other, pawing them -and moaning. Finding at last that they were cold and lifeless, she raised -her head towards the ship, and uttered a growl of despair, which the -murderers returned with a volley of musket balls. She fell between her -cubs, and died licking their wounds. - -The Sea-Otter is the last of the marine mammiferous animals that claim -our attention. Although it is also found in the southern Pacific, yet -its chief resort is in the Behring's Sea, along the chain of the Aleut -Islands. It is but a small animal, yet its long-haired, beautifully fine -and black fur, which is not seldom paid for with 400 or 500 rubles, -renders it by far the most important product of those seas. It has even -got an historical interest, since it has been the chief cause which led -the Russians from Ochotzk to Kamtschatka, and from thence over the Aleut -chain to the opposite coast of America. - -[Illustration: Sea-Otter.] - -The Aleut islanders show a wonderful dexterity in the capture of this -animal. In April or May they assemble at an appointed spot in their light -skin-boats, or _baidars_, and choose one of the most respected _tamols_, -or chiefs, for the leader of the expedition, which generally numbers from -fifty to a hundred boats. Such hunting-parties are annually organised -from the Kurile Islands to Kadjack, and consequently extend over a line -of three thousand miles. On the first fine day the expedition sets out, -and proceeds to a distance of about forty wersts from the coast, when -the baidars form into a long line, leaving an interval of about two -hundred and fifty fathoms from boat to boat as far as a sea-otter diving -out of the water can be seen; so that a row of thirty baidars occupies -a space of from ten to twelve wersts. When the number of the boats is -greater, the intervals are reduced. Every man now looks upon the sea with -concentrated attention. Nothing escapes the penetrating eye of the Aleut; -in the smallest black spot appearing but one moment over the surface of -the waters, his experienced glance at once recognises a sea-otter. The -baidar which first sees the animal, rows rapidly towards the place where -the creature dived, and now the Aleut, holding his oar straight up in -the air, remains motionless on the spot. Immediately the whole squadron -is in motion, and the long straight line changes into a wide circle, the -centre of which is occupied by the baidar with the raised oar. The otter -not being able to remain long under water, re-appears, and the nearest -Aleut immediately greets him with an arrow. This first attack is seldom -mortal; very often the missile does not even reach its over-distant mark, -and the sea-otter instantly disappears. Again the oar rises from the next -baidar; again the circle forms, but this time narrower than at first; the -fatigued otter is obliged to come oftener to the surface, arrows fly from -all sides, and finally the animal, killed by a mortal shot, or exhausted -by repeated wounds, falls to the share of the archer who has hit it -nearest to the head. If several otters appear at the same time, the boats -form as many rings, provided their number be sufficiently great. All -these movements are executed with astonishing celerity and precision, and -amidst the deepest silence, which is only interrupted from time to time -by the hissing sound of the flying arrows. - -[Illustration: Banded Dipper.] - - - - -CHAP. X. - -SEA-BIRDS. - - Their vast Numbers.--Strand-Birds.--Artifices of the Sea-Lark to - protect its Young.--Migrations of the Strand-Birds.--The Sea-Birds - in General.--The Anatidæ.--The Eider Duck.--The Sheldrake.--The - Loggerheaded Duck.--Auks and Penguins.--The Cormorant.--Its Use by the - Chinese for Fish catching.--The Frigate Bird.--The Soland Goose.--The - Gulls.--The Petrels.--The Albatross.--Bird-catching on St. Kilda.--The - Guano of the Chincha Islands. - - -[Illustration: Flamingo.] - -Countless are the birds of the wood and field, of the mountain and the -plain; and yet it is doubtful whether they equal in number those of the -fish-teeming seas. For every naked rock or surf-beaten cliff that rises -over the immeasurable deserts of ocean, is the refuge of myriads of -sea-birds; every coast, from the poles to the equator, is covered with -their legions and far from land, their swarms hover over the solitudes -of the deep. Many, unfit for swimming, seek their food along the shores; -others rival the fishes in their own native element; and others, again, -armed with indefatigable wings, pursue their prey upon the high seas. -But, however different the mode of living and destination of the numerous -tribes, families, genera, and species of the sea-birds may be, each of -them is organised in the most perfect manner for the exigencies of its -own peculiar sphere. Take, for instance, the Strand-birds, that live -on the margin of ocean, and feast upon the molluscs and sea-worms, -that inhabit the littoral zone. How admirably the light weight of -their proportionally small body suits the soft, yielding soil on which -they have to seek their food; how well their long legs are adapted for -striding through the mud of the shallow waters; and their long bill and -flexible neck, how beautifully formed for seizing their fugitive prey, -ere it can bury itself deep enough in the safe mud or sand! - -PENGUINS ON THE SOUTH POLAR ICE. - - A scene showing the immense droves of penguins which often clothe - the sea edges of the ice and rocks in the South Polar regions is - represented in the annexed plate. - - The individuals in the front are of the large species known as the - Great Penguin, _Aptenodytes Forsteri_. Beyond is a group of the - lesser, but perhaps more beautiful, species, _Aptenodytes Pennantii_. - - In the distance are seen lines of another small kind, which has been - made a separate genus, under the denomination of _Eudyptes_. It - is inferior in characteristic beauty to either of the last named. - _Eudyptes antipodes_ is, however, worthy of a better representation - than the dimensions of our plate permitted. - -[Illustration: PENGUINS ON THE SOUTH POLAR ICE.] - -[Illustration: Curlew.] - -The wonderful art with which the feathered inhabitants of the grove -construct their nests, we should in vain look for among the Strand-birds, -but the anxiety they show in protecting their young brood, and the -stratagems they use to divert the attention of the enemy, are after all -instincts no less admirable than those which prompt the Cassique or the -Tailor-bird to build their complicated dwellings. Thus on the approach -of any person to its nest, the Lapwing flutters round his head with -great inquietude, and if he persists in advancing, it will endeavour -to draw him away by running along the ground as if lame, and thereby -inviting pursuit. The Golden Plover also, when it sees an enemy---man -or dog---approach, does not await their arrival, but advances to meet -them. Then suddenly rising with a shrill cry, as if just disturbed from -its nest, it flutters along the ground as if crippled, and entices them -farther and farther from its young. The dogs, expecting to catch an easy -prey, follow the lame bird, which suddenly, however, flies off with -lightning speed, and leaves its disappointed pursuers on the beach. The -discovery of the nest is rendered still more difficult by the colour and -markings of the eggs assimilating so closely to that of the ground and -surrounding herbage. - -The Scoopers, Oyster-catchers, Avosets, and other strand-birds have -recourse to similar stratagems for the protection of their young. In New -Zealand, the French naturalists, Quoy and Gaimard, were deceived by an -oyster-catcher, which, having been shot at, feigned to be wounded, and -with hanging wing, diverted them from the right track. - -[Illustration: Avoset.] - -The strand-birds of the high northern regions fly from the winter to -coasts where milder winds are blowing. But as soon as the summer's -sun begins to exert its power, the desert shores of the Arctic Ocean -become animated with swarms of plovers, sand-pipers, rails, herons, and -phalaropes, to whom the thawed strand opens its inexhaustible supplies. -Soon, however, the approach of winter hardens once more the soil, want -follows upon abundance, and the whole long-legged host hastens to abandon -the ice-bound strand, which opposes an impenetrable armour to their beaks. - -[Illustration: Plover.] - -The food of the different kinds of strand-birds varies, and consequently -their bills are variously formed. Those that live upon worms have -generally a long thin awl-shaped bill, well fitted for picking their -prey out of the soft muddy or sandy soil. If the small creatures conceal -themselves under large stones, they are secure from these attacks; but -then comes the Turn-stone, (_Tringa interpres_,) who with his bill, a -little turned up at the top, raises the stone as with a lever, and makes -sad havoc amongst the defenceless garrison. - -[Illustration: Scissor-bill (Rhynchops nigra).] - -The Sea-pie uses its wedge-shaped bill for opening shell-fish with -great adroitness; but the industry of the Black Skimmer or Cut-water, -(_Rhynchops nigra_,) is still more remarkable. The bill of this bird, -which chiefly inhabits the hot coasts of America, is quite unique in its -kind; the under mandible, which is in fact nothing but a wedge, being -about an inch longer than the upper one, by which it is clasped. The -sandy beach of Penco, says Lesson, is full of shell-fish, which remain -nearly dry at low water in small pools. The skimmer keeps waiting close -by until one of them opens its shell, when he immediately introduces -his wedge. He then seizes the mussel, beats it to pieces upon the sand, -and devours it with all the pleasure of an epicure eating an oyster. He -is also very active in sweeping the surface of the water, from which he -skims, as it were, the smaller fish or shrimps. Thus, on all flat sandy -shores nothing exists, either soft or hard, creeping or swimming, jumping -or running, that does not find among the strand-birds its peculiar and -admirably armed enemy, or that can boast of a perfect immunity from -hostile attacks. - -[Illustration: Speckled Diver.] - -If we examine the real sea-birds, such as are formed for indefatigable -swimming or diving, or for wide flights over the deserts of ocean, we -shall find them no less wonderfully organised than the winged dwellers -on the strand. Their short compressed toes easily cleave the waters, -and by means of their membranes or webs form, as it were, broad oars. -Their muscular short legs, placed more behind than in other birds, are -beautifully adapted for rowing, although their movements on land are -awkward and slow. All creatures living on the sea of course require a -thick waterproof mantle against weather and storm; and consequently we -find the plumage of sea birds thicker, closer, and better furnished with -down than that of the other feathered tribes. And finally, the gland -which all birds have at the rump, and from which they express an oily -matter to preserve their feathers moist, is most considerable among -those that live upon the water, and contributes to make their plumage -impermeable. Surely the sea bird has no right to complain of imperfect -clothing or a deficient outfit! - -[Illustration: Snow Goose.] - -The numerous members of the duck family, or the Anatidæ, mostly live -during the summer in higher latitudes, and wander in winter in countless -swarms towards sunnier regions; as, for instance, the Snow Goose and the -Barnacle. Some remain throughout the year in Great Britain, some only -during the winter; while others, which are more particularly birds of -the Arctic zone, but very seldom make their appearance in our southern -clime. Most Anatidæ prefer the lake, the river, the pond, or the morass; -but many of them are true littoral birds, and spend a great part of their -time swimming and fishing in the sea. - -[Illustration: Barnacle Goose.] - -The Eider Duck, (_Anas mollissima_,) which attains nearly double the -size of the common duck, inhabits the higher latitudes of Europe, Asia, -and America. One of its most remarkable breeding places is on the small -island of Vidoë near Reikiavik (Iceland), where it lives under the -protection of the law; a person who should chance to kill a breeding bird -having to pay a fine of thirty dollars. - -[Illustration: Eider Duck.] - -"As our boat approached the shore," says Mackenzie, ("Voyage through -Iceland,") "we came through a multitude of these beautiful birds, who -hardly gave themselves the trouble to move out of the way. Between the -landing place and the house of the old governor the ground was covered -with them, and it was necessary to walk cautiously not to tread upon -their nests. The ganders went about with a cackle resembling the cooing -of a pigeon, and were even more familiar than our common duck. Round -about the house, on the garden wall, on the roofs, even in the inside of -the huts and the chapel, they sat breeding in great numbers. Those which -had not been long upon their nest generally left it at our approach, but -those which had more than one or two eggs remained undisturbed, allowed -themselves to be handled, and sometimes even gently used their bills to -remove our hand. The nests were lined with down, which the mother plucks -from her own breast; and near at hand a sufficient quantity was piled up -to cover the eggs when she goes to feed, which is generally at low water. -The downs are twice removed, but sometimes the poor duck is obliged to -provide for a fourth lining; and when she has no more to spare, the -gander willingly deprives himself of part of his showy snow-white and -rose-red garment. The eggs, which are considered a great delicacy, are -also partially taken away. Our Vidoë friend used to send us two hundred -at a time. When boiled, they are tolerably good, but always very inferior -to those of our domestic hen. When taken from the nest, the downs are of -course mixed with feathers and straw; and to sort and prepare them for -sale is part of the winter employment of the women. One nest furnishes -about a quarter of a pound of cleaned downs. The softness, lightness, -and elasticity of these feathers is universally known. A few handfuls -of compressed downs suffice to fill a whole coverlet, under which the -northlander bids defiance to the strongest winter cold. Almost as soon -as the young have left the egg, the mother conducts them to the water's -edge, takes them on her back, and swims a few yards with them, when she -dives, and leaves them on the surface to take care of themselves. As -soon as they have thus acquired the art of swimming, the duck returns -and becomes their leader. The broods often unite in great numbers, and -remain some weeks quite wild, after which they disappear. Long before -we left Iceland not a single duck was to be seen. No one knows to what -parts they migrate. The bird is found on the Flannen Islands, to the west -of Lewis; it is seen on the Shetland and Orkney Islands; it breeds on -May Island, at the mouth of the Frith of Forth." Even on Heligoland the -eider duck sometimes makes its appearance, but not to breed. The produce -of the eider duck, either for personal use or as an article of trade, -contributes to the comforts of many northern nations. The Esquimaux kill -these birds with darts, pursuing them in their little boats, watching -their course by the air bubbles when they dive, and always striking at -them when they rise wearied to the surface. Their flesh is valued as -food, and their skins are made into warm and comfortable under garments. - -The Long-tailed Duck and the Sheldrake or Burrow Duck, (_Anas glacialis_ -_tadorna_), likewise inhabit the northern shores of Europe, Asia, and -America. The former often remains the whole year in the high north, -bidding defiance to the icy winter of the Arctic circle, and enjoying -during the summer the light of an uninterrupted day. Often, however, -it migrates to the south, and wanders from Greenland and Hudson's Bay -as far as New York, and from Spitzbergen and Iceland to Heligoland and -the Schleswig Islands. The duck likewise lines her nest with her downs. -During the winter, the sheldrake is often seen in the west of England and -in Ireland, where it is caught in nets. On Sylt, on the Danish coast, it -is half domesticated, living in artificial burrows, and breeding even -in the villages, on walls, and in earth holes. In a pleasant valley -among the downs, which, although without trees, refreshed the eye with a -verdant carpet variegated with flowers, Naumann, the celebrated German -ornithologist, saw thousands of sheldrakes scattered in couples over -the meads, so tame that they could be approached within twenty paces, -when they flew up, but soon again alighted on the sward. He admired the -construction of the artificial nests, often thirteen in one cavity, with -a common entrance, and communicating by horizontal tunnels. Over every -nest is a perpendicular opening, decked with a sod. On this being raised -the duck is often seen sitting on her nest, so tame that it allows itself -to be stroked. Every householder possesses several of these artificial -burrows, from which he daily gathers during several weeks from twenty to -thirty eggs, leaving six in each nest to be hatched. He also takes care -to remove one half of the beautiful downs, which are no less light and -valuable than those of the eider duck. - -[Illustration: Sheldrake.] - -One of the most curious members of the duck family is the large -Loggerheaded Duck or goose (_Anas brachyptera_) of the Falkland Islands, -which sometimes weighs twenty-two pounds. It was formerly called, from -its extraordinary manner of paddling and splashing upon the water, -race-horse, but is now named, much more appropriately, steamer. Its wings -are too small and weak to allow of flight, but by their aid, partly -swimming and partly flapping the surface of the water, it moves very -quickly. The manner is something like that by which the common house -duck escapes when pursued by a dog; but Mr. Darwin, who often watched -the bird, is nearly sure that the steamer moves its wings alternately, -instead of both together, as in other birds. These clumsy logger-headed -ducks make such a noise and splashing, that the effect is exceedingly -curious. It is able to dive only a very short distance. It feeds entirely -on shell-fish from the kelp and tidal rocks; and hence its beak and head, -which it uses for the purpose of breaking them, are so surprisingly heavy -and strong, that they can scarcely be fractured with a hammer. - -Another remarkable inhabitant of the southern hemisphere is the Rock -Goose, (_Anas antarctica_,) which exclusively inhabits rocky shores, -and is often met with on the Falkland Islands, and on the west coast -of America, as far north as Chili. In the deep and retired channels of -Tierra del Fuego, the snow-white gander, invariably accompanied by his -darker consort, and standing close by each other on some distant rocky -point, is a common feature in the landscape. - -[Illustration: Red-Breasted Merganser.] - -The Mergansers differ chiefly from the sea-ducks, whom they otherwise -closely resemble both in outward form and mode of life, by their -comparatively long and slender bill, furnished with serrated edges and -hooked at the extremity. All the British species are adorned with crests, -or a tuft of long feathers, at the back of the head. The red-breasted -merganser is a beautiful bird, painted with a variety of gay colours. -"The head and throat are of a rich shining green, the neck white, except -a narrow dark line behind; at either side before the wings are numerous -large white feathers bordered by velvet-black; the lower part of the neck -and breast is chestnut-brown, varied with dark streaks, and the body and -wings are elegantly diversified with white, black, and brown feathers." -(Harvey, _Sea Side Book_.) - -The family of the Grebes and Divers approximates the duck tribe in -the order of creation, but is distinguished by a long conical bill, -and the position of the legs, which are placed so far back towards -the tail, that when the bird leaves the water it is obliged to stand -nearly erect to preserve its equilibrium. The foot in the grebes is only -partially webbed, the toes being merely lobed or finned; but the divers -are completely web-footed, like the duck. These latter do honour to -their name, being most expert and indefatigable divers, remaining down -sometimes for several minutes, and swimming rapidly under the water. The -Red-throated Diver preys much on the fish entangled in the nets, but is -often caught himself in his rapid pursuit of the fish; thus affording a -strange example of a bird caught under water. - -[Illustration: Great Crested Grebe.] - -The Arctic Diver enjoys among the Norwegians the reputation of being a -most excellent weather-prophet. When the skies are big with rain, the -birds fly wildly about, and make the most horrible hoarse noise, fearing -that the swelled waters should invade their nest; on the contrary, in -fine weather, their note is different, and seemingly in an exulting -strain. For this reason, the Norwegians, who, being mostly a maritime -population, pay the greatest attention to the aspect of the sky, think it -impious to destroy, or even to disturb, this species. - -The family of _Alcadæ_, comprising the Guillemots, Auks, Razor Bills, and -Puffins, is in form of body very similar to the Divers: the legs, which -are short and thick, are inserted very far back, and give a still more -erect carriage to the bird when on shore. The wings are short and small -in proportion to the bulk of the body, and in the (now probably extinct) -Great Auk, so much so as to be unfitted for flight. The Auks are strictly -sea-birds, and nestle on its borders, breeding in caverns and rocky -cliffs, and laying only one large egg. They obtain their food by diving, -at which they are very expert. They are of social habits, and congregate -in vast flocks on the rocky islets and head-lands of the northern coasts. -At the head of the Magdalen Bay, on Spitzbergen, for instance, there is a -high pyramidal mountain of granite, termed Rotge Hill, from the myriads -of small birds of that name (Little Auk, _Alca alce_), which frequent -its base, and which appear to prefer its environs to every other part of -the harbour. They are so numerous that Admiral Beechey frequently saw an -uninterrupted line of them extending full half-way over the bay, or to a -distance of more than three miles, and so close together that thirty fell -at one shot. This living column, on an average, might have been about six -yards broad, and as many deep; so that allowing sixteen birds to a cubic -yard, there must have been nearly four millions of birds on the wing at -one time. - -The calling or crying of the rotges amongst one another sounds at a -distance as if you heard a great many women scolding together; so that -the noise of millions uniting in a chorus must be terrific. On a fine -summer's day, when a glorious sunshine gilds the snow peaks and glaciers -of Spitzbergen, the merry cry of the little auk unites with that of -the willocks, divers, cormorants, gulls, and other aquatic birds; and -everywhere groups of walruses, basking in the sun, mingle their playful -roar with the husky bark of the seal. It is pleasant to reflect that in -those arctic wilds, uninhabitable by man, there are still millions of -creatures enjoying life, all owing their support to the inexhaustible -"garners" of the deep. - -In the Penguins of the southern hemisphere, the shortness of wing and -aptitude for swimming and diving are still more conspicuous than in the -auks of the northern regions. In the water, the penguin makes use of -its small featherless wing-stumps as paddles; on land, as fore feet, -with whose help it scales so rapidly the grass-grown cliffs, as to be -easily mistaken for a quadruped. When at sea, and fishing, it comes to -the surface for the purpose of breathing, with such a spring, and dives -again so instantaneously, that at first sight no one can be sure that it -is not a fish leaping for sport. Other sea-birds generally keep part of -their body out of the water while swimming; but this is not the case with -the penguin, whose head alone appears upon the surface; and thus it swims -with such rapidity and perseverance, as almost to defy many of the fishes -to equal it. How much it feels itself at home on the waters, may be -inferred from the fact that Sir James Ross once saw two penguins paddling -away a thousand miles from the nearest land. - -[Illustration: Antarctic Penguin.] - -On many uninhabited islands in the higher latitudes of the southern -hemisphere, this strange bird is met with in incredible numbers. On -Possession Island, for instance, a desolate rock discovered by Sir -James Ross in lat. 71° 56′, not the smallest appearance of vegetation -could be found; but inconceivable myriads of penguins completely and -densely covered the whole surface of the island, along the ledges of the -precipices, and even to the summits of the hills, attacking vigorously -the sailors as they waded through their ranks, and pecking at them with -their sharp beaks, disputing possession, which, together with their -loud coarse notes, and the insupportable stench from the deep bed of -guano which had been forming for ages, made them glad to get away again. -Sir James took possession of the island in the name of Queen Victoria; -but unfortunately its treasures of manure are hidden beyond a far too -formidable barrier of ice ever to be available to man. - -[Illustration: Penguin.] - -Duperrey ("Voyage de la Coquille,") found the Falklands swarming with -penguins. In summer and autumn these strange birds leave their burrows -early in the morning, and launch into the sea for fishing. After having -filled their capacious stomachs, they waddle on shore, and remain for a -time congregated on the strand, raising a dreadful clamour; after which -they retire to enjoy a noon-tide sleep among the high tussack grass -or in their burrows. In the afternoon the fishing recommences. Lesson -says that about sunset on fine summer evenings, which unfortunately are -but of rare occurrence on those foggy, storm-visited islands, all the -penguins together raise their discordant voices, so that at a distance -the noise might be mistaken for the hoarse murmur of a great popular -assembly. As soon as the young are sufficiently strong, the whole band -leaves the island, departing no one knows whither, though the mariners -frequenting those seas believe that they spend the winter on the ocean. -This opinion seems to be corroborated by the observations of Sir James -Ross, who, on the 4th of December, in 49° S. lat., met on the high sea a -troop of penguins that were doubtless on the way to their breeding place. -He admired the astonishing instinct of these creatures, half fish, half -bird, which leads them hundreds of miles through the pathless ocean to -their accustomed summer abodes. - -It may be imagined how the neighbouring seas must abound with fish, to be -able to nourish such multitudes of penguins, whose stomach is capable of -holding more than two pounds, and whose voracity is so great that they -are often obliged to disgorge their superabundant meal. The elongated -stomach reaches to the lower part of the abdomen, and the whole length of -the intestinal canal is twenty-five feet, fifteen times longer than the -body, so that nature has evidently provided for a most vigorous appetite, -whetted by sea-bathing and sea air. - -There are several species of penguins. The largest (_Aptenodytes -antarctica_) weighs about eighty pounds. It is a rare bird, generally -found singly, while the smaller species always associate in vast numbers. -In 77° S. lat., Sir James Ross caught three of these giant penguins, -the smallest of which weighed fifty-seven pounds. In the stomach of one -of them he found ten pounds of quartz, granite, and trap fragments, -swallowed most likely to promote digestion. - -The penguin, like his northern representative the auk, lays but one -single egg. His not unsavoury flesh is black. Besides his dense plumage, -he is protected against the cold of the higher latitudes by a thick cover -of fat under his skin. - -Humboldt's penguin (_Spheniscus Humb._) is frequently found in the Bay of -Callao. This bird is a little smaller than the common grey penguin, with -a somewhat differently coloured back and breast. The Peruvians call it -_pajaro niño_, "little darling bird," and keep it in their houses; it is -very easily tamed, gets very familiar, and follows its master like a dog. -The sight of the fat creature, awkwardly waddling about the streets on -its short feet, and violently agitating its wing-stumps to maintain its -equilibrium, is inexpressibly grotesque. Tschudi kept one of these tame -penguins, which punctually obeyed his call. At dinner it regularly stood -like a stiff footman behind his chair, and at night slept under his bed. -When "Pepe" wanted a bath, he went into the kitchen and kept striking -with his beak against an earthen jar, until some one came to pour water -over him. - -[Illustration: Common Pelican.] - -To the pelican tribe, which is generally distinguished by a surface of -naked skin about the throat, capable of considerable dilatation, and -serving as a pouch for the reception of unswallowed food, belong among -others the Cormorant (_Phalacrocorax_), the Frigate-Bird (_Tachypetes -aquila_), and the Gannet (_Sula bassana_), or Solan goose. All these -birds are of much more active habits than the last named family, with -bodies of more shapely form, more ample wings, and a stronger flight. - -The common cormorant with his long bill, bent at the point, and furnished -with a nail, his black livery, and yellowish chin-pouch, is a most -disagreeable comrade. His smell, when alive, is more rank and offensive -than that of any other bird, and his flesh is so disgusting, that it -turns the stomach even of an Esquimaux. In spite of his voracity, he -always remains thin and meagre, the picture of a hungry parasite. -But fishing he understands remarkably well, and formerly used to be -trained for this purpose in England, in the same manner as a nearly -related species is to the present day employed in China. Mr. Fortune -thus describes this original chase, which he witnessed on the Yellow -River:--"There were two boats, each containing one man, and about ten or -twelve birds. The latter stood perched on the sides of the boats, and -seemed to have just arrived upon the scene of action. Their masters now -commanded them to leave the boats; and so excellent was their training, -that they instantly obeyed, scattered themselves over the canal, and -began to look for prey. They have a splendid sea-green eye, and quick as -lightning they see and dive upon the finny tribe, which, once caught in -the sharp notched bill, finds escape impossible. As soon as a cormorant -rises to the surface with his prey in his bill, his master calls him, -when, docile as a dog, he swims to the boat and surrenders the fish, -after which he again resumes his labours. And what is more wonderful -still, when one of them has got hold of a fish so large as to be with -difficulty dragged to the boat, the others come to his assistance, and -by their united strength overpower the sprawling giant. Sometimes when -a cormorant is lazy or playful, and seems to forget his business, the -Chinaman strikes the water with a long bamboo near to the dreamer, and -calls out to him in an angry tone. Immediately the bird, like a schoolboy -caught nodding over his lesson, gives up his play, and returns to his -duty. A small string is tied round the neck of the birds, for fear they -might be tempted to swallow the fish themselves." - -[Illustration: Common Cormorant.] - -[Illustration: Frigate-Bird.] - -The frigate-bird hovers over the tropical waters. Its singularly easy and -graceful flight affords all the charm of variety. Sometimes it is seen -balanced in mid air, its wings spread, but apparently motionless, its -long forked tail expanding and closing with a quick alternate motion, and -its head turned inquisitively downwards; sometimes it wheels rapidly, -and darts to the surface of the water in pursuit of prey; and then -again it soars so as to be lost to vision, its elevation alone being -sufficient to distinguish it from all other sea birds. Sometimes it is -seen 400 leagues from land; and yet it is said to return every night to -its solitary roost. Its expanded pinions measure from end to end fourteen -feet, a prodigious extent of wings, equalling or even surpassing that of -the condor, the lordly bird of the loftiest Andes. Being unable to swim -or dive, it seizes the flying-fish, that, springing out of the water to -avoid the jaws of the bonito, often falls a prey to the frigate-bird, or -else it compels boobies or tropic birds to disgorge. On volcanic coasts -it builds its nest in the crevices of the high cliffs, and on the low -coral islands in the loftiest trees. In the Paumotu Group, Captain Wilkes -saw whole groves covered with the nests of the frigate-bird. When the -old birds flew away, they puffed up their red pouches to the size of a -child's head, so that it looked as if a large bladder full of blood was -attached to their neck. - -[Illustration: Flying Fish.] - -[Illustration: Common Gannet.] - -The Gannet or Soland-goose (_Sula Bassana_) haunts the Bass Island, a -high steep rock in the Frith of Forth, whose black precipices are painted -with dazzling stripes of white _guano_, the product of the inconceivable -number of birds which settle upon the weather-beaten ledges. The gannets -incubate in the turf of the slopes above, and you may sit down by them -and their great downy young while their mates hover over you with -discordant screams and almost touch you with their outspread pinions. -There is but one landing-place, and this sole entrance to the natural -fastness is closed by a barred gate, proclaiming that man has taken -possession of the rock. Some years ago it was let at an annual rent -of thirty-five pounds. The eggs are not collected, and no old bird is -allowed to be shot, under a penalty of five pounds; only the young -birds are persecuted. The chase begins on the 1st of August. They are -taken with the hand or knocked on the head with sticks, and sent to the -Edinburgh market, where they fetch about half a crown a piece. The gannet -breeds also on Lundy Island, in the Severn, on Ailsa, on the coast of -Ayrshire, on the island of St. Kilda, and hardly anywhere else in Europe. -As it must let itself fall before taking wing, it requires a steep -and precipitous breeding-station. Its mode of fishing is particularly -graceful. Rapidly skimming the surface of the sea, as soon as it spies a -fish swimming below, it rises perpendicularly over the spot, and then, -suddenly folding its wings, drops head-foremost on its prey swifter than -an arrow, and with almost unerring aim. The prevalent colour of the -full-plumaged bird is white, the tips of its wings only being black, and -some black lines about the face, resembling eyebrows or spectacles. The -pale yellow eyes are encircled with a naked skin of fine blue, the head -and neck are buff colour, the legs black, and greenish on the fore part. -The plumage of the young bird is very different, being blackish, dotted -irregularly with small white specks. - -The family of the Laridæ, which comprises the gulls, the sea-swallows, -the petrels, and the albatrosses, is widely spread over the whole surface -of the ocean. All the birds of this tribe have a powerful flight, and -are distinguished by the easy grace of their motions, striking the air -at long intervals with their wings, and generally gliding or soaring -with outstretched pinions. Their form is handsome and well-proportioned, -some of them resembling the swallow, others the dove; but their mode of -life does not correspond with their beauty, as they are all ill-famed -for their predatory habits and insatiable voracity. The cry of the -sea-mew is peculiar, being a mixture of screaming and laughing. When in -the solitude of a wild rocky coast it is heard mingling with the hoarse -rolling of the surge and the moaning wind, it harmonises well with the -character of the dreary scene, and produces a not unpleasing effect. It -is amusing to witness the movements of the sea-mews at the mouths of the -larger rivers, where they are seen in numbers, picking up the animal -substances which are cast on shore, or come floating down with the ebbing -tide. Such as are near the breakers will mount up the surface of the -water, and run splashing towards the crest of the wave, to get hold of -the object of their pursuit, while others are seen every now and then -diving, and reappearing with a fish in their bill. Sometimes the more -powerful sea-hawk interrupts their pleasure, pounces upon the robbers, -and scatters the screaming band. - -Many different species of gulls inhabit the northern shores, and various -are the places which they choose for breeding. The Kittiwake or Tarrock -(_Larus tridactylus_), one of the commonest sea-birds in Greenland, -Iceland, the Feroës and the Scotch islands, builds its sea-weed nest on -the highest and most inaccessible rocks. According to Faber (Prodromus of -Icelandic Ornithology), its swarms are so numerous on Grimsoe, that they -darken the sun when they fly, deafen the ear when they scream, and deck -the green-capped rocks with a white covering when they breed. - -[Illustration: Herring Gull (Young).] - -In the famous "bird-city" at the north point of Sylt, the Silvery or -Herring-gull plays a prominent part. Its great size, equal to that of -the raven, but with much longer wings--its agreeable form, its pure -white plumage, of metallic brilliancy on the back, gradually melting -into light ash-blue; the velvet-black ends of the wings, with snowy -feather tips, the lovely yellow eye, and the deep yellow beak, with its -coral-red spot, all this together forms a beautiful picture. "There we -stood," says Naumann, "surrounded by thousands, that partly hovered close -over our heads, uttering their shrill screams, partly stood before us in -pairs; some on their nests, the males keeping guard, some sleeping on -one leg, and others leisurely stretching themselves. In one word, one -hardly knew what most to admire, the uncommon cleanliness and beauty of -their plumage, the great variety and elegance of their attitudes, their -tameness, or the immense numbers collected in so small a space." - -[Illustration: Herring Gull, or Silvery Gull (Adult).] - -In the same "bird-city," but apart from the former, breed also the Common -Gull (_Larus canus_) which is much smaller and of a more slender shape, -and also the Sandwich and Caspian Terns. It is astonishing to see how -each kind of sea-bird seeks its particular spot for breeding; only the -auks and guillemots herd promiscuously. What may induce the birds to meet -in such large bodies and then always to choose some particular cliff? -The gulls yield the fortunate possessor of their district an annual -income of at least two hundred rix-dollars. More than thirty thousand -of the eggs, which are larger than those of the turkey, are collected -every year, packed up with moss in baskets, and sent to the market. Two -or three persons are busy from morning till evening, during the whole -season, collecting the eggs, and receive for their trouble those of -the smaller birds, which may also amount to about twenty thousand. But -although the terns appear in considerable numbers on Sylt, they have -chosen the small flat island, Norder Oog, to the west of Pelworm, for -their chief residence. The breeding colony of the Sandwich tern amounts -here to at least a million of individuals, so that when the birds are at -rest, the island, at the distance of a mile, resembles a white stripe -in the sea; but when their innumerable multitudes hover above it, they -seem an immense white rotatory cloud. The eggs lie in some places so -close together, that it is almost impossible to walk between them without -treading upon them; the breeding birds often touch one another, and -would not find room, if, like all sea-swallows that breed socially on -the coast, they did not sit in the same posture, with their head facing -the water. It is incomprehensible how each bird can find its eggs; it -would even seem impossible, did we not know the miracles of animal -instinct. Their noise is incessant, for even during the night they keep -up a continual and lively prattle. He who approaches them during the day -is soon surrounded by these screamers, whose whirling thousand-tongued -multitudes stun his senses; and these birds, at other times so shy, -flutter so close over his head, as often to touch him with their wings. - -On Nowaja Semlja's ice-bound coast, on the peaks of isolated cliffs, and -suffering no other bird in his vicinity, dwells the fierce imperious -Burgomaster (_Larus glaucus_). None of its class dares dispute the -authority of the lordly bird, when with unhesitating superiority it -descends on its prey, though in the possession of another. Although not -numerous, yet it is the general attendant on the whale-fisher whenever -spoils are to be obtained. Then it hovers over the scene of action, and -having marked out its morsel, descends upon it and carries it off on the -wing. On its descent, the most dainty pieces must be relinquished, though -in the grasp of fulmar, snow-bird, or kittiwake. - -The larger parasitical or raptorial gulls (_Lestris parasiticus, -catarrhactes_), are incapable of diving or plunging, their feathers being -too large in proportion to their bulk. They are therefore obliged to -live by the exertions of the lesser species, making them disgorge what -they have eaten, and dexterously catching the rejected fish before it -reaches the water. Thus we see the old feudal relations of baron and serf -established as a natural institution among the gull-tribe. - -[Illustration: Broad-billed Petrel.] - -Although the sea-swallows and sea-mews are endowed with great power of -wing, yet the petrels and albatrosses alone deserve the name of oceanic -birds, as they are almost always found on the high seas, at every -distance from land, and only during breeding-time seek the solitary -coasts and islands. Petrels are scattered over the whole extent of the -ocean, but the petrels which inhabit the northern seas are different from -those of the antarctic ocean, and between both are other species, that -never forsake the intertropical waters. - -[Illustration: Fork-tailed Petrel.] - -The Fulmar (_Procellaria glacialis_) is at home in the high north. As -soon as the whale-fisher has passed the Shetland Islands, on his way -to the Arctic Seas, this bird is sure to accompany his track, eagerly -watching for anything thrown overboard. Walking awkwardly on land, the -fulmar flies to windward in the most terrific storms. Many thousands -frequently accumulate round a dead whale, rushing in from all quarters. -The sea immediately about the ship's stern, when the men are engaged in -skinning their gigantic prey, is sometimes so completely covered with -them that a stone can scarcely be thrown overboard without striking -one of them. When anything is thus cast among the crowd, those nearest -take alarm, and so on, till a thousand are put in motion; but as in -rising they strike the water with their feet, a loud and most irregular -splashing is produced. It is amusing to observe with what jealousy they -view, and with what boldness they attack, any of their species engaged -in devouring the finest morsels, and to hear the curious chuckling -noise they make in their anxiety for despatch, lest they should be -disturbed. The voracious birds are frequently so glutted as to be unable -to fly, in which case they rest upon the water until the advancement of -digestion restores their wonted powers. They then return to the banquet -with the same gusto as before, and although numbers of the species may -have been killed with boat-hooks, and float among them, the others, -nothing daunted, and unconscious of danger to themselves, continue their -gormandising labours. When carrion is scarce, the fulmars follow the -living whale, as if they had a presentiment of his future fate, and -sometimes, by their peculiar motions while hovering on the surface of the -water, point out to the fisherman the position of the animal. As their -beak cannot make an impression on the dead whale until some more powerful -creature tears away the skin, it may be imagined how delighted they are -when man takes upon himself the trouble of peeling a whale for them. - -The Glacial Petrel (_Procellaria gelida_) does not seem to approach the -pole so near as the fulmar. He appears but seldom in Iceland, but breeds -frequently in Newfoundland. The same is the case with the Shearwater (_P. -puffinus_), which breeds in great numbers on the Feroë islands, and in -Orcadia. The tropical petrels are the least known. They do not appear to -gather troopwise, and but seldom follow ships. Towards 45° S. lat. the -first Pintados (_P. capensis_) make their appearance, and are more rarely -seen after having passed 60° S. lat. The Giant Petrel (_P. gigantea_), -extends its flight as far as the ice-banks of the south, where the -Antarctic and the Snowy (_P. antarctica et nivea_) Petrels first appear, -birds which never leave those dreary seas, and are often seen in vast -flocks floating upon the drift ice. Thus nature has set bounds to -petrels, as to all other creatures that swim or fly in and over the -ocean, and has divided the wide deserts of the sea among their different -species. Who can tell us the mysterious laws which assign to each of them -its limits? Who can show us the invisible barriers they are not allowed -to pass? - -[Illustration: Stormy Petrel.] - -The Stormy Petrel (_P. pelagica_) seems to belong to every sea. It is -about the size of a swallow, and in its general appearance and flight is -not unlike that bird. Although the smallest web-footed bird known, it -braves the utmost fury of the tempest, often skimming with incredible -velocity the trough of the waves, and sometimes gliding rapidly over -their snowy crests. Like all of its kind, it lives almost constantly at -sea, and seeks during the breeding season some lonely rock, where it -deposits in some fissure or crevice its solitary egg. - -The mode of life of the petrels corresponds but little with their -external beauty; they are in fact the crows of the ocean, and live upon -the dead animal substances floating on its surface. Wherever the carcase -of a whale, borne along by the current, covers the sea with a long stripe -of putrid oil, they are seen feasting in the polluted waters. All petrels -have the remarkable faculty of spouting oil of a very offensive smell, -from their nostrils when alarmed, and this apparently as a means of -defence. - -The Albatross (_Diomedea exulans_) is the monarch of the high seas; the -picture of a hero, who, under every storm of adverse fortune, preserves -the immoveable constancy of an undaunted heart. Proud and majestic, he -swims along in his own native element, and without ever touching the -water with his pinions, rises with the rising billow, and falls with the -falling wave. It is truly wonderful how he bids defiance to the fury of -the unshackled elements, and how quietly he faces the gale. "He seems -quite at home," say the sailors; and indeed this expression is perfectly -characteristic of his graceful ease as he hovers over the agitated ocean. - -[Illustration: Wandering Albatross.] - -The albatross exceeds the swan in size, attains a weight of from 12lbs. -to 28lbs., and extends his wings from ten to thirteen feet. His plumage -is white and black, harmonising with the wave-crest and the storm-cloud. -For weeks and months together he is seen to follow the course of a ship; -but, according to Mr. Harvey (Sea Side Book), "the time he can remain on -the wing seems to have been much exaggerated, for although, like the gull -and the petrel, he is no diving-bird, he swims with the greatest ease; -and notwithstanding the enormous length of his pinions, knows well how to -rise again into the air. He is indeed unable to take wing from a narrow -deck, but when he wishes to rise from the sea, he runs along flapping -the waters until he has acquired the necessary impetus, or meets with a -wave of a sufficient height, from whose lofty crest he starts as from a -rocky pinnacle, and resumes his extensive flight over an immense expanse -of ocean." A short-winged species frequents the waters of Kamtschatka -and Japan; but the _wandering_ albatross (_D. exulans_) belongs more -particularly to the southern hemisphere, being rarely seen to the north -of 30° S. lat., and appearing more frequently as the higher latitudes -are approached. The regions of storms--the Cape of Good Hope and Cape -Horn--are his favourite resorts, and all travellers know that the -southern point of Africa is not far distant as soon as the albatrosses -show themselves in larger numbers. These birds are the vultures of the -ocean; their crooked sharp-edged beak is better adapted to lacerate a -lifeless prey, than to seize upon the rapid fish as it darts swiftly -along below the surface of the waters. From a vast distance they smell -the floating carcase of a whale, and soon alight in considerable numbers -upon the giant carrion. They also feed upon the large cephalopods that -inhabit mid-ocean, and remains of these molluscs are generally found in -their stomach. The Auckland and Campbell islands seem to be two of their -favourite breeding-stations. When Sir James Ross visited these secluded -groups, the birds were so assiduously breeding as to allow themselves -to be taken with the hand. The nest is built of sand mixed with dried -leaves and grasses, generally eighteen inches high, with a diameter of -twenty-seven inches at the surface, and of six feet at the base. While -breeding, the snow-white head and neck of the bird project above the -grasses, and betray it from afar. On endeavouring to drive it from its -eggs it defends itself valiantly, snapping with its beak. Its greatest -enemy is a fierce raptorial gull (_Lestris antarcticus_), which is always -on the look-out, and, as soon as the albatross leaves the nest, shoots -down upon it to steal the eggs. - -Swift flies the albatross, but fancy travels with still more rapid wings -through the realms of space, and leads us suddenly from the lone islands -of the Pacific to the north of another hemisphere. Saint Kilda rises -before us--a glorious sight when the last rays of the setting sun, as -he slowly sinks upon the ocean, light up with dazzling splendour the -towering cliffs of the island, which one might almost fancy to be some -huge volcano newly emerged from the deep, or the impregnable bulwark of -some enchanted land. St. Kilda, one of the most striking examples of the -grandest rock-scenery, plunges on all sides perpendicularly into the sea, -so that although six miles in circumference, it affords but one single -landing-place, accessible only in fair weather. Four of the promontories -are perforated, and as many large caverns are formed, through which the -sea rolls its heaving billows. From the eastern extremity, which rises -nearly perpendicularly to the height of 1380 feet, and is supposed to -be the loftiest precipice in Britain, the view is of indescribable -sublimity. Far below, the long heavy swell of the ocean is seen climbing -up the dark rock, whose base is clothed with sheets of snow-white foam. -In many places the naked rock disappears under the myriads of sea-birds -sitting upon their nests; the air is literally clouded with them, and -the water seems profusely dotted with the larger fowl, the smaller ones -being nearly invisible on account of the distance. Every narrow ledge is -thickly covered with kittiwakes, auks, and guillemots; all the grassy -spots are tenanted by the fulmar, and honey-combed by myriads of puffins; -while close to the water's edge on the wet rocks, which are hollowed out -into deep recesses, sit clusters of cormorants, erect and motionless, -like so many unclean spirits, guarding the entrance of some gloomy cave. - -[Illustration: Black Guillemot.] - -On rolling down a large stone from the summit, a strange scene of -confusion ensues. Here, falling like a thunderbolt on some unfortunate -fulmar sitting upon its nest, it crushes the poor creature in an instant; -then rolling down the crags, and cutting deep furrows in the grassy -slopes, it scatters in dismay the dense groups of auks and guillemots. -Its progress all along is marked by the clouds of birds, which affrighted -shoot out from the precipice to avoid the fate to which nevertheless -many fall a prey, until at length it reaches the bottom along with -its many victims. The scared tenants of the rock now return to their -resting-places, and all is again comparatively quiet. - -[Illustration: Common Puffin.] - -Several species of gulls are of common occurrence on St. Kilda: _Larus -marinus_, _fuscus_, _canus_, and _tridactylus_. The last, or kittiwake, -is the most abundant; a social bird, choosing the most inaccessible -spots. On disturbing a colony of kittiwakes, most of the birds leave -their nests and fly about the intruder, uttering incessantly their -clamorous but not unmusical cry. The noise from a large flock is almost -deafening; the flapping of their wings and their loud screams, joined -to the deep guttural notes of the passing gannets, and the shrill tones -of the larger gulls, form a combination of sounds without a parallel -in nature. Probably on account of its vigilance, the kittiwake is not -pursued by the fowler. - -The fulmar breeds in almost incredible numbers on St. Kilda (the only -place in Britain where he is found), and is to the natives by far the -most important production of their barren land. On the crest of the -highest precipices, and only on such as are furnished with small grassy -shelves, on every spot above a few inches in extent, the fulmars have -taken possession of the rock. On being seized, they instantly disgorge a -quantity of clear amber-coloured oil, which imparts to the whole bird, -its nest and young, and even the very rock which it frequents, a peculiar -and very disagreeable odour. - -Fulmar oil is one of the most valuable productions of St. Kilda. The best -is obtained from the old bird by surprising it at night upon the rock, -and tightly closing the bill until the fowler has seized the bird between -his knees with its head downwards. By opening the bill, the fulmar is -allowed to eject about a table-spoonful, or rather more, of oil into the -dried gullet or stomach of a solan-goose. The islanders use fulmar oil -for their lamps, and consider it as an infallible remedy against chronic -rheumatism. - -It is chiefly in pursuit of the fulmar that the St. Kildian often -endangers his life. Two of the fowlers generally proceed in company, each -furnished with several coils of rope, about half an inch in diameter. -One of them fastens one of the ropes under his arm-pits, and holding -the extremity of another rope in one hand, is lowered down the cliff. -His comrade stands a little away from the edge, holding the supporting -rope firmly with both hands and letting it out very slowly, while he -allows the other, or guide-rope, to slip out as is required from under -one foot, which loosely secures it. On reaching a ledge occupied by -birds, the fowler commences his operations, easily securing the eggs -and young birds, and knocking down the old ones with a short stick, or -catching them by a noose attached to a long slender rod. He then secures -his sport by bundling the birds together, and tying them to a rope let -down from above, depositing at the same time in a small basket the eggs -he has gathered. The dexterity of these rocksmen is truly astonishing. -The smallest spot is considered by them as a sufficiently secure -standing-place, and they will creep on hands and knees, though cumbered -with a load of birds, along a narrow ledge, seemingly without concern -for their personal safety. When exhibiting before strangers, a precipice -about six hundred feet high, overhanging the sea, at a short distance -from the village, is generally chosen for a display of their agility. -About midway they strike against the rock, and rebound twelve feet or -more with all the agility of a tight-rope dancer. - -The Gannet, or Solan-goose, which abounds in the north of Scotland and on -the numberless islands and rocky fiords which line the Norwegian coast, -likewise congregates in vast numbers about St. Kilda, from whence a -portion of them take their departure every morning to fish for herrings, -their favourite food, in the bays and channels of the other Hebrides, the -nearest of which is about fifty miles distant. This bird is very select -in the choice of its breeding-places, which it occupies to the total -exclusion of every other species. None are to be found in Hirta, but the -island of Borreray is almost entirely occupied with them, as are also the -adjacent rocks, Stack Ly and Stack Narmin. These cliffs are remarkable -for their pointed summits and towering height, and appear, even from the -distance of many miles, as if they were covered with snow, the deceptive -appearance being caused by the myriads of gannets with which the rock -is thickly covered, as well as the dense clouds of these white-plumed -birds passing and repassing in the neighbourhood of their nests. Petrels, -shearwaters, puffins, guillemots, and auks, are also very abundant about -the weather-beaten cliffs of St. Kilda. - -[Illustration: Puffin.] - -If we consider that similar bird-republics are to be found on almost -every rocky coast or surf-beaten cliff of the northern seas, we must -needs be astonished at the inexhaustible prodigality of Nature, which -covers desolate rocks with such a profusion of life. The vast number of -sea-birds is the more surprising, as many species, such as the guillemot, -the auk, the fulmar, and the puffin, lay but one single egg on the -naked rock, and often in so precarious a situation, that it is almost -inconceivable how breeding can take place. When the birds are surprised -and suddenly fly off, many of the eggs tumble down into the surf. -Sea-eagles, falcons, and raptorial gulls destroy a great number, and -pounce upon the young; thousands fall a prey to the rigours of an Arctic -winter; the spring-tides sweeping over low shores, often carry away whole -generations at once, and many a maritime population lives entirely upon -the sea-fowl that breed upon the sterile soil. And yet, in spite of so -many enemies and persecutions, their numbers remain undiminished, nor -has their importance ever ceased in the domestic economy of the rude -islanders of the north. - -[Illustration: Auk.] - -[Illustration: Sea-Fowl Shooting.] - -But however valuable the eggs and the oil, the feathers and the flesh -of the hyperborean bird-republics may be to man, they are far from -equalling in importance the guano producing sea-fowl of the tropical -seas. This inestimable manure, which has become so indispensable to the -British agriculturist, is found scattered over numerous localities in -the intertropical regions. It abounds on many of the rocky islets of the -Red Sea, where the life-teeming waters afford sustenance to innumerable -sea-gulls, cormorants, and pelicans; but its most widely celebrated -stores cover the small Chincha Islands, not far from Pisco, about a -hundred miles to the south of Callao, where they form enormous layers 50 -or 60 feet deep. - -The upper strata are of a greyish-brown colour, which lower down -becomes darker; and in the inferior strata the colour is a rusty red, -as if tinged by oxide of iron. The guano becomes progressively more -and more compact from the surface downwards, a circumstance naturally -accounted for by the gradual deposit of the strata and the increasing -superincumbent weight. As is universally known, guano is formed of the -excrements of different kinds of marine birds; but the species which -Tschudi, the celebrated Peruvian traveller, more particularly enumerates -are--_Larus modestus_ (Tschudi), _Rhynchops nigra_ (Linn.), _Plotus -anhinga_ (Linn.), _Pelecanus thayus_ (Mol.), _Phalacrocorax Gaimardii_ -and _albigula_ (Tsch.), and chiefly the _Sula variegata_ (Tsch.). - -The immense flocks of these birds, as they fly along the coast, appear -like aërial islands; and when their vast numbers, their extraordinary -voracity, and the facility with which they procure their food are -considered, we cannot be surprised at the magnitude of the beds of guano -which have resulted from the uninterrupted accumulations of countless -ages. During the first year of the deposit the strata are white, and -the guano is then called _Guano blanco_. In the opinion of the Peruvian -cultivators, this is the most efficacious kind. As soon as the dealers -in guano begin to work one of the beds, the island on which it is formed -is abandoned by the birds. It has also been remarked that, since the -increase of trade and navigation, they have withdrawn from the islands in -the neighbourhood of the ports. Under the empire of the Incas, the guano -was regarded as an important branch of state economy. It was forbidden, -on pain of death, to kill the young birds. Each island had its own -inspector, and was assigned to a certain province. The whole distance -between Arica and Chaucay, a length of two hundred nautical miles, was -exclusively manured with guano. These wise provisions have been entirely -forgotten by the Spaniards, but the Peruvians now begin to discover the -error of their former masters, and look forward with anxiety to the -period when the guano will no longer suffice for the wants of husbandry. -At the present day they use it chiefly in the cultivation of maize and -potatoes. A few weeks after the seeds begin to shoot, a little hole -is made round each root and filled up with guano, which is afterwards -covered with a layer of earth. After the lapse of twelve or fifteen -hours, the whole field is laid under water, and left in that state for -about half a day. Of the guano blanco a less quantity suffices, and the -field must be more speedily and abundantly watered, otherwise the roots -would be destroyed. The effect of this manure is incredibly rapid. In a -few days the growth of the plant is doubled; if the manure is repeated -a second time, but in smaller quantity, a rich harvest is certain;--at -least the produce will be three times greater than that which would have -been obtained from the unmanured soil. The uniformity of climate, along a -coast where rain is _never_ known to fall, contributes essentially to the -superior quality of the Chincha guano, as atmospherical precipitations -naturally dissolve and wash away many of the most fertilising salts. - -The consumption of guano in Western Europe, and particularly in England, -increases with surprising rapidity. On the island of Iquique a layer -thirty feet deep, and covering a space of 220,000 square feet, has been -entirely removed within twenty-seven years. In the year 1854, 250,000 -tons were dug in the Chincha Islands, and the actual annual exportation -amounts to double the quantity. The digestive functions of the Sula and -her companions thus bring in _larger_ sums to the Peruvian Government -than all the silver mines of Cerro de Pasco, and the transport of the -guano employs larger fleets than ever Spain possessed at the brightest -period of her power. - -"The Chincha Islands," says Castelnau (_Expédition dans les Parties -Centrales de l'Amérique du Sud_; Paris, 1851), "are completely desert and -devoid of vegetation; their granite soil is clearly distinguished by its -colour from the thick stratum of guano with which it is covered, and the -surface of which looks at a distance like snow. The steep banks render -landing difficult, but facilitate at the same time the shipping of the -produce, as the vessels lie at anchor close to the pits. Digging takes -place at three places, close to one another, and the traveller has only -to compare the enormous deposits with the smallness of the excavations, -which at some distance are hardly perceptible, to convince himself of -the inexhaustible supply. Some huts have been constructed on the island, -where, in the midst of ammoniacal effluvia, some Peruvian customhouse -officers and soldiers superintend the working of the guano-mines." - -[Illustration: Birds of Passage.] - - - - -CHAP. XI. - -THE REPTILES OF THE OCEAN. - - The Saurians of the Past Seas.--The Anatomical Structure of the - Turtles.--Their Size.--Their Visits to the Shores.--The Dangers that - await their Young.--Turtles on the Brazilian Coast.--Prince Maximilian - of Neuwied and the Turtle.--Conflicts of the Turtles with Wild Dogs - and Tigers on the Coast of Java.--Turtle-catching on Ascension - Island.--Tortoise-shell.--The Amblyrhynchus cristatus.--Marine - Snakes.--The Great Sea-Snake. - - -There was a time when the reptiles were the monarchs of the sea, when the -ocean swarmed with gigantic saurians, tyrants of the fishes, combining -the swiftness of the dolphin with the rapacity of the crocodile. Had -those monsters of the deep been endowed with human intelligence, they -would most likely also, with human arrogance, have boasted of an eternal -sway. For where in the whole ocean was the enemy that could cope with -them? Did not all beings flee wherever they appeared? and did not the -inexhaustible sea promise them an everlasting supply of food? - -[Illustration: Ichthyosaurus.] - -But in spite of their colossal power, the saurians, like all created -beings, have been forced to succumb to time. - -Centuries and centuries passed on, the sea and air gradually changed, -the temperature of the elements no longer remained the same, and thus -by degrees a new ocean and a new atmosphere were formed, uncongenial to -the nature of those huge reptiles. Thus they have been effaced from the -roll of living things, and some petrified remains alone bear testimony to -their former existence. - -The most powerful saurians of the present day--the crocodile the gavial -and the alligator--have left to the dolphins, the sharks, and other -monstrous or swiftly-swimming cetaceans and fishes the dominion of the -seas, and now merely infest the rivers and swamps of the tropical zone. -The lizards also have long since retired from the scene where they once -abounded, and the ocean at present harbours no other reptiles in its -bosom than turtles and sea-snakes. - -Most of the animals belonging to this class are either dangerous or of -a disgusting appearance. Few creatures are objects of such universal -abhorrence as the crocodile--the very type of brutal cold-blooded -ferocity; as the venomous snake--the emblem of perfidy and ingratitude; -or as the loathsome, but innocent toad, to which, on account of its -ugliness, noxious properties have been ascribed which the poor animal -does not possess. The frogs, lizards, and turtles alone seem to have -escaped this general detestation, either from their more active habits, -or their well-known harmlessness, or their various utility to man. - -The anatomy of the turtle offers many points of interest; its vertebræ, -ribs, and breast-bone growing together so as to form a bony envelope -round the whole animal. This harness is covered by the skin, which in -its turn is bedecked with large scales, while all the muscles and other -soft parts are enclosed in the inner cavity. Only the head, feet, and -tail protrude through openings between the upper and under carapace, and -these can, by the land tortoises at least, be withdrawn entirely under -the former. This is the only protection which Nature has afforded these -animals against their enemies, for they have neither swiftness of flight, -nor any offensive weapon at their command. But as soon as anything -suspicious approaches, they conceal themselves under their massive cover, -and oppose to every attack by tooth or nail the passive resistance of an -impenetrable shield. Most of their enemies find it, besides, no easy task -to turn them on their back, as many species attain a very considerable -weight, so that their mere bulk constitutes a good defence. It might -be supposed that this protection could only avail for a short time, as -the want of air must soon force the animal to stretch its head out of -its hiding-place, and this indeed would be the case, if kind Nature had -not taken her measures against this emergency, by giving the creature a -_cold_ blood, so that it can remain a very long time without breathing; -long enough, at least, to tire the patience of the most obstinate foe. - -[Illustration: Skeleton of Tortoise. - - A, superior maxilla; B, inferior maxilla; C, ossiculum auditus; - D, os hyoides; E, cervical vertebræ; F, dorsal vertebræ; - G, sacrum; H, caudal vertebræ; I, dorsal ribs; K, marginal scales; - N, scapula; O, coracoid bone; P, os humeri; Q, radius; R, ulna; - S, bones of the carpus; T, metacarpal bones; U, digital phalanges; - V, pelvis; W, femur; X, tibia; Y, fibula; Z, tarsus; Æ, metatarsus; - A.V., phalanges of the foot. -] - -But how comes it, the reader may ask, that respiration, which pours a -warm current through our veins, fails in raising the temperature of the -turtle's blood? - -Without entering into a lengthened description of the human heart, I -shall merely observe that it consists of two halves (each half being -again subdivided into two separate chambers), and that the right half, -which receives venous blood and pours it into the lungs, is completely -separated by a partition from the left half, which receives arterial or -aërated blood from the lungs, and propels it into every part of the body. -Thus the two different kinds of blood are completely separated, so that -an _unmixed_ venous blood flows into the lungs, where it is converted by -the oxygen of the air into arterial blood. But this connection, like most -chemical processes, takes place under an evolution of heat, which is so -considerable that our internal temperature constantly maintains itself at -the height of 98° F. - -[Illustration: Theoretic Representation of the Circulation in Mammals and -Birds.] - -[Illustration: Theoretic Representation of the Circulation in Reptiles.] - -But the turtle's heart is differently formed, consisting, as the annexed -theoretic representation shows, of but one ventricle and two auricles, -so that a _mixed_, or only half aërated blood circulates throughout the -body, which naturally produces a torpidity of the whole vital process. -Besides, the lungs of the reptiles are incapable of aërating so great a -quantity of blood as ours, as their cells are much larger, thus offering -less surface to the action of the air; and finally, the ribs of the -turtles being immovable, they are incapable of extending the lungs, so -that the animal is absolutely obliged to swallow the necessary supply -of air, and to pump it, as it were, into the lungs, by contracting the -muscles of the throat. Thus we see that every precaution has been taken -to reduce respiration to a low standard, and prevent the evolution of -heat. With this indolence of its cold-blooded circulation, the whole -nature of the animal is in harmony; the bluntness of its senses, its want -of intelligence, its slow movements, and its long endurance of hunger, -thirst, and want of air. It leads but a drowsy dream-like existence, -and yet, we may be sure, it is far from unhappy, for all its functions -and organs agree perfectly one with the other, and when concord reigns, -enjoyment of some kind must exist. - -The turtles are distinguished from the land tortoises particularly -by their large and long fin-shaped feet, and also by a longer tail, -which serves them as a rudder. They have no teeth, but the horny upper -jaw closes over the lower like the lid of a box, thus serving them as -excellent shears, either for crushing shells or dividing the tough fibres -of the sea-grass. - -[Illustration: Green Turtle.] - -They are at home in all the warmer seas, but sometimes they are carried -by oceanic streams far away from their accustomed haunts. Thus, in the -year 1752, a Green turtle, six feet long, and weighing 900 pounds, -stranded near Dieppe; and in 1778 another, seven feet long, on the coast -of Languedoc. One taken on the coast of Cornwall in July, 1756, measured -from the tip of the nose to the end of the shell, six feet nine inches, -and the weight was supposed to be nearly 800 pounds. These few examples -show us that the turtles rank among the larger inhabitants of the ocean, -although they are far from attaining the fabulous proportions assigned to -them by Pliny (who makes the Indians use their shells as boats or roofs), -or the enormous size of some colossal extinct species, such as the fossil -tortoise from the Siwala hills, preserved in the East Indian Museum, -which measures twelve feet in length. They live almost constantly at -sea, partly on shell-fish, like the fierce Loggerhead turtle (_Testudo -Caretta_), partly on sea-grass, like the Green turtle (_T. Midas_), and -only go on shore during the warmest months of the year, for the purpose -of laying their eggs. - -[Illustration: Loggerhead Turtle.] - -"We followed the monotonous sea-coast," says Prince Maximilian of -Neuwied, in his interesting "Travels through the Brazils;" "our two -soldiers, a Negro and an Indian, frequently stopping to dig turtle-eggs -out of the sand, which, boiled in sea-water, used to form our evening -repast. Once, while they were busy gathering drift-wood for cooking, -we found at a small distance from our fire an enormous turtle busy -laying her eggs. We could not possibly have met with anything more -agreeable; the creature seemed to have crawled there for the express -purpose of providing for our supper. Our presence did not discompose her -in the least; she allowed herself to be touched, and even raised from -the ground, for which purpose four men were required. During our loud -deliberations on her future fate, she gave no other sign of uneasiness -than a blowing sound, and continued to work slowly with her hind fins, -throwing up the earth at regular intervals. - -"One of the soldiers stretched himself out at full length on the ground -near the purveyor of our kitchen, inserted his arm into the earth-hole, -and threw out the eggs as they were laid by the turtle. In this manner -above a hundred were collected in about ten minutes. A council was now -held as to the means of adding the beast to our collection, but as it -would have required an additional mule for the transport, we gave it its -life. These colossal turtles--Midas, Coriacea, and Caretta--especially -choose these desert coasts for the laying of their eggs. They emerge from -the sea in the dusk of evening, and then crawl back again into the water -one or two hours after the setting of the sun. Thus also the friendly -turtle, which had so abundantly provided for our wants, disappeared after -a short time; we found the large hole filled up, and a broad trace in the -sand showed that the animal had again retreated to its favourite element. -The Midas is said to lay from ten to twelve dozen, and the Coriacea from -eighteen to twenty dozen eggs at once." - -The wild sand coast of Bantam (Java) is annually frequented by a large -number of turtles. They are often obliged to creep over nearly a quarter -of a mile of the beach, before finding at the foot of the sand-dunes a -dry and loose soil fit for their purpose; and on this journey, which for -them is a very long one, they have many dangers to encounter. Hundreds of -their skeletons lie scattered about the strand, many of them five feet -long, and three feet broad; some bleached and cleaned by time, others -still half filled with putrid intestines, and others, again, quite fresh -and bleeding. High in the air a number of birds of prey wheel about, -scared by the traveller's approach. Here is the place where the turtles -are attacked by the wild dogs. In packs of from twenty to fifty, the -growling rabble assails the poor sea-animal at every accessible point, -gnaws and tugs at the feet and at the head, and succeeds by united -efforts in turning the huge creature upon its back. Then the abdominal -scales are torn off, and the ravenous dogs hold a bloody meal on the -flesh, intestines, and eggs of their defenceless prey. Sometimes, -however, the turtle escapes their rage, and dragging its lacerating -tormentors along with it, succeeds in regaining the friendly sea. Nor -do the dogs always enjoy an undisturbed repast. Often during the night, -the "lord of the wilderness," the royal tiger, bursts out of the forest, -pauses for a moment, casts a glance over the strand, approaches slowly, -and then with one bound, accompanied by a terrific roar, springs among -the dogs, scattering the howling band like chaff before the wind. And now -it is the tiger's turn to feast, but even he, though rarely, is sometimes -disturbed by man. Thus, on this lonely, melancholy coast, wild dogs and -tigers wage an unequal war with the inhabitants of the ocean. - -The cold-blooded turtle is obliged to confide the hatching of her eggs -to the sun, which generally accomplishes the task in three weeks. On -creeping out of the egg, the young, even those of the largest species, -are not larger than half-a-crown and of a white colour. Unprotected by -a parent's tenderness, the poor little creatures seem only to be born -for immediate death. Their first instinctive movements are towards -the element for which they are destined; slowly they drag themselves -towards the water, but the sea meets them with a rough embrace, and the -unmerciful waves generally throw them back again upon the shore. Here -they are attacked by great sea-birds, storks and herons, against which, -in spite of their smallness, they make feeble efforts of defence, or by -still more powerful beasts of prey; and thus the greater part of the -unfortunate brood is destroyed at its very first entrance into life; -while those which reach the sea, are generally devoured by sharks and -other sharp-toothed fishes. It is therefore not in vain that the turtle -lays four or five hundred eggs in the course of a single summer, for were -she less fruitful, the race would long since have been extinguished. - -I need hardly mention, that the flesh of the green turtle is everywhere -esteemed as a first-rate delicacy. The king of the Manga Reva Islands in -the South Sea keeps them in a pen for the wants of his table; and the -London alderman is said to know no greater enjoyment than swallowing -a basin of turtle soup. Hence it is no wonder that the mariner, tired -of salt-beef and dried peas, persecutes them on all the coasts of the -tropical seas, wherever solitude, a flat beach, and a favourable season -promise to reward his trouble. - -Bernardin de St. Pierre gives us the following picturesque description -of turtle-catching on Ascension Island;--"Fire-wood, a kettle, and the -great boat-sail were landed, and the sailors lay down to sleep, as the -turtles do not emerge from the sea before night-fall. The moon rose -above the horizon and illumined the solitude, but her light, which adds -new charms to a friendly prospect, rendered this desolate scene more -dreary still. We were at the foot of a black hillock, on whose summit -mariners had planted a great cross. Before us lay the plain, covered with -innumerable blocks of black lava, whose crests, whitened by the drippings -of the sea-birds, glistened in the moonbeam. These pallid heads on dark -bodies, some of which were upright, and others reclined, appeared to us -like phantoms hovering over tombs. The greatest stillness reigned over -this desolate earth, interrupted only from time to time by the breaking -of a wave, or the shriek of a sea-bird. We went to the great bay to await -the arrival of the turtles, and there we lay flat upon the sand in the -deepest silence, as the least noise frightens the turtles, and causes -them to withdraw. At last we saw three of them rising out of the water, -and slowly creeping on shore, like black masses. We immediately ran up to -the first, but our impatience caused it to drop immediately again into -the sea, where it escaped our pursuit. The second, which had already -advanced too far, was unable to retreat; we turned it on its back. In -this way we caught about fifty turtles, some of which weighed five -hundred pounds. Next morning, at ten, the boat came to fetch the produce -of our nocturnal sport. This work occupied us the whole day, and in the -evening the superfluous turtles were restored to the sea. If suffered -to remain a long time on their back, their eyes become blood-red, and -start out of their sockets. We found several on the strand that had -been allowed to perish in this position, a cruel negligence, of which -thoughtless sailors are but too often guilty." - -In the sea, also, the turtles are pursued by man. In the clear West -Indian waters, where they are frequently seen at great depths, feeding -on the sea-grass meadows, divers plunge after them and raise them to the -surface. Sometimes they are harpooned, or even caught sleeping on the -waters. - -The ancient Romans, who spent such extravagant sums upon dishes repugnant -to our taste, seem to have had but little relish for turtle flesh, which -otherwise the conquerors of the world might easily have obtained from -the Red Sea; for though we read that Vitellius feasted upon the brains -of pheasants, and the tongues of nightingales, it is nowhere mentioned, -that he ever, like the Lord Mayor of London, set seven hundred tureens of -turtle soup before his guests. - -On the other hand, they made a very extensive use of tortoise-shell, -the produce of the Hawk's-bill turtle (Testudo imbricata) a native -both of the American and Asiatic seas, and sometimes, but more rarely, -met with in the Mediterranean. The flesh of the animal is not held in -any estimation as a food, but the plates of the shell being thicker, -stronger, and cleaner than those of any other species, render it of great -importance as an article of trade. - -[Illustration: Hawk's-bill Turtle.] - -"Carvilius Pollio," says Pliny, "a man of great invention in matters -pertaining to luxury, was the first who cut the plates of the tortoise -for veneering or inlaying." The Romans imported large quantities of this -precious article from Egypt, and under the reign of Augustus, the wealthy -patricians used even to inlay the doors and columns of their palaces -with it. When Alexandria was taken by Julius Cæsar, the warehouses were -so full of tortoise-shell that the conqueror proposed to make it the -principal ornament of his triumph. - -The use of tortoise-shell for the decoration of houses and furniture -is long since out of fashion, but it is still in great request for the -making of combs and boxes. By steeping it in boiling water it softens, -and may then, by a strong pressure, be moulded into any form. When a -considerable extent of surface is required, different pieces must be -joined together. This is done by scraping thin the edges of the pieces to -be united, and laying them over each other while they are in the heated -and softened state; strong pressure being then applied, they become -completely agglutinated. It is in this way that gold, silver, and other -metals for different ornaments are made to adhere to tortoise-shell. - - * * * * * - -When, at the beginning of the chapter, I mentioned that the lizards had -entirely forsaken the ocean, I forgot that the Galapagos Islands in the -South Sea, right under the Equator, exclusively possess a maritime animal -of this kind, which, from its being the sole existing representative, -or dwindled descendant of the giant oceanic saurians of yore, is far -too interesting to be passed unnoticed. This lizard is extremely common -on all the islands throughout the Archipelago. It lives exclusively on -the rocky sea-beaches, and is never found,--at least Mr. Darwin never -saw one,--even ten yards inshore. It is a hideous-looking creature, of -a dirty black colour, stupid and sluggish in its movements. The usual -length of a full-grown one is about a yard, but there are some even -four feet long. These lizards were occasionally seen some hundred yards -from the shore, swimming about; and Captain Collnett, in his "Voyage," -says they go out to sea in shoals to fish. With respect to the object, -Mr. Darwin believes he is mistaken; but the fact, stated on such good -authority, cannot be doubted. When in the water the animal swims with -perfect ease and quickness by a serpentine movement of its body and -flattened tail; the legs, during this time, being motionless and closely -collapsed on its sides. A seaman of the "Beagle" sank one with a heavy -weight attached to it, thinking thus to kill it directly; but when an -hour afterwards he drew up the line the lizard was quite active. Their -limbs and strong claws are admirably adapted for crawling over the -rugged and fissured masses of lava, which every where form the coast. In -such situations a group of six or seven of these hideous reptiles may -oftentimes be seen on the black rocks, a few feet above the surf, basking -in the sun with outstretched legs. - -Mr. Darwin opened the stomach of several, and in each case found it -largely distended with minced sea-weed, of a kind growing at the bottom -of the sea, at some little distance from the coast. The nature of this -lizard's food, as well as the structure of its tail, and the certain fact -of its having been seen voluntarily swimming out at sea, absolutely prove -its aquatic habits; yet there is in this respect one strange anomaly, -namely, that when frightened it will not enter the water. From this cause -it is easy to drive these lizards down to any little point overhanging -the sea, where they will sooner allow a person to catch hold of their -tail than jump into the water. They do not seem to have any notion of -biting; but when much frightened they squirt a drop of fluid from each -nostril. One day Mr. Darwin carried one to a deep pool left by the -retiring tide, and threw it in several times as far as he was able. It -invariably returned in a direct line to the spot where he stood. It swam -near the bottom with a very graceful and rapid movement, and occasionally -aided itself over the uneven ground with its feet. As soon as it arrived -near the margin, but still being under water, it either tried to conceal -itself in the tufts of sea-weed, or it entered some crevice. As soon -as it thought the danger was past, it crawled out on the dry rocks and -shuffled away as quickly as it could. Mr. Darwin several times caught -this same lizard by driving it down to a point, and, though possessed -of such perfect powers of diving and swimming, nothing could induce it -to enter the water; and as often as he threw it in, it returned in the -manner above described. - -Perhaps this singular piece of apparent stupidity may be accounted for -by the circumstance that this reptile has no enemy whatever on shore, -whereas at sea it must often fall a prey to the numerous sharks. Hence, -probably urged by a fixed and hereditary instinct that the shore is its -place of safety, whatever the emergency may be, it there takes refuge. -On a comparison of this singular animal with the true iguanas, the most -striking and important discrepancy is in the form of the head. Instead -of the long pointed narrow muzzle of those species, we have here a -short obtusely truncated head, not so long as it is broad; the mouth -consequently is capable of being opened to only a very small extent. From -this circumstance, and from the crest on its head, it has received the -Latin name of _Amblyrhynchus cristatus_. - - * * * * * - -The serpent race, which thrives so abundantly in the tropical forests -and morasses, has also its marine representatives in the Indian and -Pacific Oceans, where more than fifty species of Hydrophis, Pelamys, and -Chersydra have been found. They are distinguished from their terrestrial -relations by the flattened form of their tail, the planes of which being -directed vertically give it the properties of a powerful oar, in striking -the water by lateral oscillations. These sea-snakes always appear to -prefer calms, swimming on the still surface in an undulating manner, -never raising the head much from the surface, or vaulting out of the -water. They dive with facility on the approach of danger, but do not -appear to be particularly timid. - -[Illustration: Water-Snake.] - -The Pelamys bicolor is very common from India to Otaheite. In the seas -of Mindoro and Sooloo, Mr. Adams saw thousands swimming on the top of -the water, especially in eddies and tide-ways where the ripple collects -numerous fish and medusæ, which principally constitute their prey. Their -tongue is white and forked, differing in respect of its colour from -the tongue of other snakes, which is generally black. The water-snakes, -which are frequently beautifully banded, and as thick as a man's leg, are -said to be highly venomous. Captain Cook, in one of his voyages, "saw -abundance of water-snakes, one of which was coming up the side of our -ship, and our men beat it off. The Spaniards affirm there is no cure for -such as are bit by them; and one of our blacks happened to fall under -that misfortune, and died notwithstanding the utmost care was taken by -our surgeons to recover him." - -Such are the _real_ sea-snakes as they are met with by ordinary -travellers, while _the great sea-serpent_, which from time to time -dives up in the columns of the newspapers, must, until better evidence -be brought forward for its existence, be banished to those dim regions -peopled by unicorns, griffins, krakens, and tailed men. - -Olaus Magnus, it is true, speaks of the great sea-snake as if it made its -daily appearance on the Norwegian coast. According to him, it inhabits -the rocky caves near Bergen, and wanders forth at night, particularly -by moonshine, to commit its depredations by sea and land; as calves -and pigs seem to suit its appetite as well as fishes and lobsters. The -body is covered with scales, a long mane flows along the neck, and the -head, furnished with two glistening eyes, rises like a mast out of the -water. It often attacks ships, and picks up seamen from the deck. This -description may serve as an example of the boldness with which authors -have sometimes asserted the most extravagant things. - -The Greenland missionary Egede tells us in his Journal, that "on the 6th -of July, 1734, there appeared a very large and frightful sea-monster, -which raised itself so high out of the water that its head reached above -our main-top. It had a long sharp snout, very broad flappers, and spouted -water like a whale. The body seemed to be covered with scales, the skin -was uneven and wrinkled, and the lower part was formed like a snake. -After some time the creature plunged backwards into the water, and then -turned its tail up above the surface, a whole ship-length from the head." - -It is hard to disbelieve so pious and excellent a man, whose excited -fancy no doubt gave extraordinary forms and dimensions to some commoner -sea-animal of large size; but the testimony of a Scoresby, who during his -frequent Arctic voyages never saw anything of the kind, would have been -more convincing. - -If to this account of Egede be added the reports of some other northern -divines, such as Pontoppidan, the missionary Nicholas Græmius, and -Maclean, who either pretend to have actually seen the monster or write -about it from hearsay--and the testimony of a few seamen, among others -of Captain M'Quhae of the Dædalus, who, on the 6th of August, 1848, saw -a sea-snake on his homeward voyage from the East Indies; we have all the -evidence extant in favour of the existence of the monstrous animal. - -In opposition to these testimonies, incredulous naturalists beg to -remark, that no museum possesses a single bone of the huge snake, and -that its body has nowhere been found swimming on the ocean or cast -ashore. They therefore agree with Professor Owen in regarding the -negative evidence, from the utter absence of any recent remains, as -stronger against their actual existence than the positive statements -which have hitherto weighed with the public mind in favour of their -reality; and believe that a larger body of evidence from eye-witnesses -might be got together in proof of the reality of ghosts than in proof of -the existence of the great sea-serpent. - -The plain truth seems to be that lines of rolling porpoises, resembling -a long string of buoys, first gave origin to the marvellous stories of -the fabulous monster. For, keeping in close single file, and progressing -rapidly along the calm surface of the water by a succession of leaps -or demivaults forward, part only of their uncouth forms appears to the -eye, so as to resemble the undulatory motions of one large serpentiform -animal. - - - - -CHAP. XII. - -THE MARINE FISHES. - - General Observations on Fishes.--Their Locomotive - Organs.--Tail.--Fins.--Classification of Fishes by - Cuvier.--Air-Bladder.--Scales.--Beauty of the Tropical Fishes.--The - Gills.--Terrestrial Voyages of the Anabas and the Hassar.--Examples - of Parental Affection.--Organs of Sense.--Offensive Weapons - of Fishes.--The Sea-Wolf.--The Shark.--The Saw-Fish.--The - Sword-Fish.--The Torpedo.--The Star-Gazer.--The Angler.--The Chætodon - Rostratus.--The Remora, used for catching Turtles.--Defensive Weapons - of Fishes.--The Weever.--The Stickleback.--The Sun-Fish.--The - Flying-Fish.--The numerous Enemies of the Fishes.--Importance and - History of the Herring Fishery.--The Pilchard.--The Sprat.--The - Anchovy.--The Cod.--The Sturgeons.--The Salmon.--The Tunny.--The - Mackerel Family.--The Eel.--The Murey.--The Conger.--The - Sand-Launce.--The Plectognaths.--The Sea-Horse.--The Pipe-Fish.--The - Flat-Fishes.--The Rays.--The Fecundity of Fishes. - - -The bosom of the ocean is full of mysteries; it conceals a whole world of -curiously-shaped animals, which the naturalist only superficially knows, -and may, perhaps, never be able to fathom. To observe the habits of -terrestrial animals, and accurately to determine their various species, -is a comparatively easy task; but the denser element in which fishes live -prevents us from following their motions with exactness, from studying -their instincts, and from noting with fidelity their specific differences. - -Since Pliny, who mentions but seventy-four different kinds of fishes, the -number of known species has indeed enormously increased. The ancients, -who knew only the waters of the Mediterranean and a very small part of -the ocean, had no conception of the finny multitudes inhabiting the -tropical and icy seas; but although modern science has succeeded in -describing and picturing above eight thousand different kinds of fishes, -yet there can be no doubt that many still unknown species dwell in the -depths of ocean, or in the distant seas which are but seldom visited by -the European mariner. - -If the whole economy of the world of fishes were opened to our view, -the magnificent picture would, no doubt, give us additional reasons for -admiring the infinite wisdom of the Creator; but the little we do know -suffices to convince us that the same wonderful harmony existing between -the anatomical structure and the outward relations or mode of life in -birds and mammiferous quadrupeds is also to be found in fishes, and that -these creatures, though occupying a lower grade in Creation, are no less -beautifully adapted to the peculiar element in which they are destined to -live and move. - -This strikes us at once in their external form, which, though subject to -great variety, being sometimes spherical as in the globe-fish, or cubical -as in the ostracion, or expanded as in the skate, or snake-like as in -the eel, is generally that of an elongated oval, slightly compressed -laterally, a shape which enables the fishes to traverse their native -fluid with the greatest celerity and ease. We wisely endeavour to imitate -this peculiar form in the construction of our ships, yet the rapidity -with which the fastest clipper cleaves the waters is nothing to the -velocity of an animal formed to reside in that element. The flight of -an arrow is not more rapid than the darting of a tunny, a salmon, or a -gilt-head through the water. It has been calculated that a salmon will -glide over 86,400 feet in an hour, that it will advance more than a -degree of the meridian of the earth in a day, and that it could easily -make the tour of the world in some weeks, were it desirous of emulating -the fame of a Cook or of a Magellan. Every part of the body seems exerted -in this despatch; the fins, the tail, and the motion of the whole -backbone assist progression; and it is to this admirable flexibility of -body, which mocks the efforts of art, that fishes owe the astonishing -rapidity of their movements. - -Whales and dolphins move onwards by striking the water in a vertical -direction, while fishes glide along by laterally curving and extending -the spine. In some species, such as the eel, the whole body is flexible; -but most of them paddle away with their tail to the right and left, and -are thus driven forwards by the resistance of the water. Consequently the -power of fishes is chiefly concentrated in the muscles bending the spine -sideways, and generally we find these parts so much developed as to form -the greatest part of the body. - -[Illustration: Skeleton of the Perch. - -A A, Dorsal Fins; B, Caudal; C, Anal; D, Ventral; E, Pectoral.] - -The fins are the most important auxiliary organs of locomotion in fishes. -The dorsal, caudal, and anal fins serve by their vertical position to -increase the extent of the rowing surface, and to maintain the animal's -balance, while the pectoral and ventral fins, which must be considered as -the representatives of the fore and hind limbs of other vertebrata, are, -moreover, of great assistance in directing its movements. With the help -of these organs, fishes can advance or retrograde, ascend or descend in -the water as they please, and it is curious to observe how, alternately -extending or contracting one fin or the other, they gracefully plough the -liquid element in every direction. - -It is no less wonderful how perfectly the size and texture of the fins -corresponds with the habits and necessities of the different species -of fishes. Those which traverse vast portions of the ocean, or have -frequently to struggle against swelling waves, are furnished with large -and strong fins, while these organs are soft in the species which confine -themselves to greater depths, where the winds cease to disturb the waters. - -From the great variety which is met with both in the number and position -of the fins, they are also of the greatest use in the classification of -fishes, and afford the naturalist many of the chief characters which -serve to distinguish the several orders, families, genera, and species of -these aquatic vertebrates.[M] - -[Footnote M: Cuvier divides the fishes into: - - I. Chondropterygii--Skeleton cartilaginous; fins supported by - cartilaginous rays; and - - II. Osteopterygii--Skeleton composed of true bone. - - - The Chondropterygii are subdivided into three orders: - - (_a_) Sturionidæ (sturgeons), with free gills. - - (_b_) Selacii (rays, sharks), with gills fixed and a mouth formed for - mastication. - - (_c_) Cyclostomata (lamprey, myxine), with gills fixed and a mouth - formed for suction. - -The osseous fishes, which are far more numerous, are subdivided into six -orders: - - (_a_) Acanthopterygii; distinguished by the stiff spines which - constitute the first fin-rays of the dorsal fin, or which support - the anterior fin of the back in case there are two dorsals. In some - cases the anterior dorsal fin is only represented by detached spines. - The first rays of the anal fin are likewise spinous, as well as the - first ray of the ventral fin. To this extensive order, which comprises - about three-fourths of the osseous fishes, belong, among others, the - families of the perches, gurnards, mackerels, mullets, breams, gobies, - blennies, &c. - -The three following orders of the osseous fishes have the rays that -support the fins soft and composed of numerous pieces articulated with -each other, with the exception in some cases of the first ray of the -dorsal, or of the pectoral. Their leading character is afforded by the -situation or absence of the ventral fin, which in the - - (_b_) Malacopterygii abdominales are suspended beneath the abdomen, - and behind the pectorals; in the - - (_c_) Malacopterygii subbrachiales beneath the pectorals; and in the - - (_d_) Malacopterygii apodes are totally wanting. - -To the abdominal soft-rayed fishes belong the herring, salmon, pike, sly, -and carp families; to the subbrachial, the cod family, the side-swimmers, -and the lump fishes; and, finally, to the apodal malacopterygians, the -single family of the anguilliform fishes. The small order of the - - (_e_) Lophobranchi comprises the pipe-fishes, sea-horses, in whom - the gills are not pectinated, as in the preceding subdivisions, but - consist of little round tufts; and, finally, the - - (_f_) Plectognathi--comprising the file, porcupine, and sun - fishes--are distinguished by their maxillaries and premaxillaries - being joined immovably to each other, so as to render the upper jaw - incapable of protrusion. -] - -Most fishes possess a remarkable accessory organ of locomotion in the -air-bladder or swim-bladder which extends to a greater or smaller -distance along the ventral surface of the spine, and enables them -voluntarily to increase or diminish the specific gravity of their body. -When they contract this remarkable gas-reservoir, or press out the -included air by means of the abdominal muscles, the bulk of the body -is diminished, its weight in proportion to the water is increased, and -the fish swims easily at a greater depth. The contrary takes place on -relaxing the tension of the abdominal muscles; and thus we see fishes -rise and fall in their denser element by the application of the same -physical law which is made use of by our aëronauts, to scale the heavens -or to descend again upon the earth. Those fishes which are destined to -live at the bottom of the sea or to conceal themselves in the mud, such -as eels and skates, have either no air-bladder or a very small one--for -economical Nature gives none of her creatures any organ that would be -useless to them. Even the slimy glutinous matter which is secreted from -the pores of most fishes, and lubricates their bodies, assists them in -gliding through the waters, so that no means have been neglected to -promote the rapidity of their movements. - -The skin of fishes is but seldom naked; in most species it is covered -with scales, that sometimes appear in the form of osseous plates, -as in the ostracions, or project into formidable prickles, as in -the porcupine-fish, but generally offer the aspect of thin laminæ, -overlapping each other like the tiles of a roof, and embedded, like our -nails, in furrows of the skin. In nearly all the existing fishes, the -scales are flexible and generally either of a more or less circular -form (_cycloid_), as in the salmon, herring, roach, &c., or provided -with comb-like teeth projecting from the posterior margin (_ctenoid_), -as in the sole, perch, pike, &c.; while the majority of fossil fishes -were decked with hard bony scales, either rhomboidal in their form, of -a highly polished surface, as in our sturgeons (_ganoid_), and arranged -in regular rows, the posterior edges of each slightly overlapping the -anterior ones of the next, so as to form a very complete defensive armour -to the body; or irregular in their shape and separately imbedded in the -skin (_placoid_), as in the sharks and rays of the present day. - -[Illustration: Portion of Skin of Sole highly magnified.] - -The scales of almost any fish afford admirable subjects for microscopic -observation, but more particularly those of the ctenoid kind, which -exhibit a brilliancy of reflected light, and a regularity of structure, -such as no human mosaic could ever equal. - -Many of our European fishes are richly decorated with vivid colours, -but their scaly raiment is generally far from equalling the gorgeous -magnificence of the fishes of the tropical seas. - -If in the birds of the equatorial zone a part of the plumage sparkles -with a gem-like brilliancy, all the colours of the rainbow combine -to decorate the raiment of the tropical fishes, and no human art can -reproduce the beauty of their metallic lustre, which at every movement in -the crystalline waters exhibits to the enchanted eye new combinations and -reflections of the most splendid tints. - -The gaudiest fishes live among the coral reefs. In the tepid waters, -where the zoophytes, those sensitive flowers of the ocean, build their -submarine palaces, we find the brilliant Chetodons, the gorgeous -Balistinæ, and the azure Glyphysodons gliding from coral branch to coral -branch like the playful Colibris, that over the Brazilian fields dart -from one lustrous petal to another. - -Oxygen is as necessary to fishes and other marine creatures as it is -to the terrestrial animals, but as they are obliged to draw it from a -denser element, which absorbs but a small volume of air, their gills -are necessarily differently constructed from the lungs of the creatures -breathing in the atmosphere. In most species, comprising all the bony -fishes, and the sturgeons, among those which have a cartilaginous -skeleton, we find on either side of the throat five apertures, separated -from each other by four crooked, parallel and unequal bones, and leading -to a cavity, which is closed on the outside by an operculum or cover. -In this cavity, and attached to the bones, are situated the delicate -membranes, bearded like feathers, which serve to aërate the blood. The -water constantly flows through the gills in one direction, entering -by the branchial apertures of the throat, and emerging through the -operculum. This is, in more than one respect, a most wise provision of -Nature; for if the fishes were obliged to receive and reject the water -by the same aperture, as we do the air, each expiration would evidently -drive them backwards, and consequently retard their movements. It is -also evident that the delicate fringes or folds of the gills would soon -get into disorder if the water were carried through them in two opposite -directions. - -In most of the cartilaginous fishes, such as the sharks, rays, and -lampreys, the gills are differently formed, the water not passing into -a cavity closed by a cover, but flowing directly outwards through five -(in the shark) or seven (in the lamprey) vents or spiracles. In these -species also the gills are fixed, their margins being attached. Though -the whole breathing apparatus of a fish is comprised in a small compass, -its surface, if fully extended, would occupy a very considerable space; -that of the common skate, for instance, being equal to the surface of -the human body. This single fact may convince us of the numberless -ramifications and convolutions of the gills, in which the water is -elaborated and attenuated in the course of giving out its air; and how -wonderfully Nature has contrived to effect her purpose with the greatest -economy of space. - -[Illustration: Theoretic representation of the Circulation in Fishes.] - -Respiration is a species of combustion, and this must necessarily be -very slow in an element which contains so small a portion of oxygen. No -wonder that the circulation of the blood in fishes is equally tardy. -Their heart, in comparison with _ours, is but half a one_, as it merely -serves to force the venous blood into the gills--whence the aërated blood -does not flow back to the heart as with us, to be rapidly and strongly -propelled through the body, but proceeds immediately to the arteries. -Evidently only a cold blood could be formed under such circumstances. It -may seem strange that, when fishes are taken out of the water, they die -from want of air; such, however, is the case. Their delicate breathing -membranes collapse in the atmosphere, the blood can no longer flow as -before into the innumerable small vessels with which they are interwoven, -and, by rapidly drying in the air, they soon entirely lose the faculty -of breathing. Thus those fishes whose gill-cover has a large aperture, -die soonest in the air, while those where the opening is narrow, and more -particularly those species where the gills communicate with a cellular -labyrinth containing water, which serves to keep them moist, are able to -live a much longer time in the atmosphere. - -[Illustration: The Anabas of the Dry Tanks.] - -[Illustration: Frog-Fish.--(Cheironectes.)] - -It is owing to such a moistening apparatus that _the climbing fishes_ -(Anabas) live for days out of the water, and even creep up the trees at -some distance from the shore, to catch the insects which serve them as -food--a curious instance indeed of an animal seeking its nourishment in -another element. - -The Frog-fish of the Asiatic islands and the Southern hemisphere is -not more remarkable for its hideous deformity than for its capacity of -leading a terrestrial life. Not only can it live several days out of the -water but it can crawl about the room in which it is confined, a facility -which it owes to the great strength and the peculiar position of its -pectoral fins, which thus perform the office of feet. The whole aspect of -these grotesque-looking creatures, particularly in a walking position, is -so much like that of toads or frogs, that a careless observer would at -first be at some loss to determine their real nature. - -A no less wonderful pedestrian is the Hassar (_Doras costata_), a South -American fish, that marches over land in search of water, travelling -a whole night when the pools dry up in which it commonly resides. It -projects itself forwards on its bony pectoral fins, by the elastic spring -of the tail, exerted sidewise, and in this manner proceeds nearly as fast -as a man will leisurely walk. The strong scuta or bands which envelop its -body must greatly facilitate its march, in the manner of the plates under -the belly of serpents, which are raised and depressed by a voluntary -power, in some measure performing the office of feet. The Indians say -justly that these fishes supply themselves with water for their journey. -If they find the pools and rivers everywhere dried up, they bury -themselves in the mud, and fall into a kind of asphyxia or lethargy, till -the rainy season recalls them again to life. - -The hassar is also remarkable for a parental affection, almost unexampled -among fishes. Sir Richard Schomburgk relates that it not only builds a -complete nest for its spawn but also watches over it with the utmost -vigilance till the young brood comes forth. In April, this marine artist -begins to build his little dwelling of vegetable fibres, among the -water-plants and rushes, until it resembles a hollow ball, flattened at -the top. An aperture corresponding to the size of the mother leads into -the interior. The parental affection of the fish is shamefully misused by -man for its destruction. A small basket is held before the opening; then -the nest is slightly beaten with a stick; and, furious, with extended -fins, whose sharp points are able to inflict a painful wound, the poor -hassar darts into the fatal basket. - - -[Illustration: SUBAQUEOUS LIFE--STICKLEBACKS AND NEST.] - -SUBAQUEOUS LIFE--STICKLEBACKS AND NEST. - - This plate represents a group of fifteen-spined sticklebacks busily - employed in making their nests. To the left is seen a curious piece - of marine architecture, mentioned by Mr. Couch, the well-known - ichthyologist. A pair of sticklebacks had made their nest "in the - loose end of a rope, from which the separated strands hung out about - a yard from the surface, over a depth of four or five fathoms, and to - which the materials could only have been brought, of course, in the - mouth of the fish, from the distance of about thirty feet. They were - formed of the usual aggregation of the finer sorts of green and red - sea-weed, but they were so matted together in the hollow formed by - the untwisted strands of the rope that the mass constituted an oblong - ball of nearly the size of the fist, in which had been deposited the - scattered assemblage of spawn, and which was bound into shape with a - thread of animal substance, which was passed through and through in - various directions, while the rope itself formed an outside covering - to the whole." - -The black Goby (_Gobius niger_) also prepares a nest for its eggs. This -fish inhabits the slimy bottoms of the lagoons near Venice, and burrows -galleries in the clayey soil, where it spends the greater part of the -year, protected against storms and enemies. In spring it digs more -superficial dwellings among the roots of the sea-grass, to which the -spawn attaches itself. The architect watches over the entrance of the -house, opposing sharp rows of teeth to every intruder. - -A similar care may be admired in the tiny Stickleback, which the -celebrated ichthyologist, M. Coste, has often watched building its -nest. After the fish has collected the materials, it covers them with -sand, glues the walls with a mucous secretion, and prepares a suitable -entrance. At a later period it becomes the bold and indefatigable -defender of its eggs, repelling with tooth and prickles all other -sticklebacks that approach the nest. If the enemy is too powerful, -it has recourse to artifice, darts forth, seems actively engaged in -the pursuit of an imaginary prey, and often succeeds in diverting the -aggressor's attention from its nest. The River Bullhead is likewise said -to evince the same parental affection for its ova, as a bird for its -nest, returning quickly to the spot, and being unwilling to quit it when -disturbed. It is believed, also, of the Lump-Sucker, that the male first -keeps watch over the deposited ova, and guards them from every foe with -the utmost courage. If driven from the spot by man, he does not go far, -but is continually looking back, and in a short time returns. Thus we -find among the inferior animals glimpses of a higher nature, which prove -that all created beings form a continuous chain, linked together by one -all-pervading and almighty Power. - -[Illustration: Internal Ear of Perch.] - -[Illustration: Osseous labyrinth of the Human Ear. - -_a_, Oval or vestibular fenestra; _b_, round or cochlear fenestra; _c_, -external or horizontal semicircular canal; _d_, superior or anterior -vertical semicircular canal; _e_, posterior or inferior vertical -semicircular canal; _f_, the turns of cochlea.] - -The senses of the fishes are also in perfect harmony with the -peculiarities of their mode of life. Their eyes are indeed wanting in -the fire and animation which gives so much expression to the physiognomy -of the higher animals, but the structure of these organs is admirably -calculated for the element in which they are plunged, as the spherical -form and great size of the crystalline lens, by concentrating the rays -of light, enables them to see with distinctness even through so dense a -medium as that which surrounds them. When water is clear, smooth, and -undisturbed the sight of fishes is very acute, a circumstance well known -to anglers, who prefer a breeze undulating over the surface, as they can -then approach much nearer the objects of their pursuit and practise their -_artful dodges_ with a much better chance of success. The eyes in fishes -are observed to occupy very different positions in different species, -but their situation is always such as best to suit the exigencies of -the particular fish. Thus in the star-gazer and sea-devil, that watch -their prey from a muddy concealment, they are very appropriately placed -at the top of the head, while in the flat-fishes, where an eye on the -side habitually turned towards the ground would have been useless, the -distorted head, by placing both eyes on the same level, affords them an -extensive range of view in those various directions in which they may -either endeavour to find suitable food or avoid dangerous enemies. That -fishes are not deficient in the sense of hearing may be seen at once by -the annexed illustrations, which show a marked similarity of organisation -between the human ear and that of the perch. It is well known that they -start at the report of a gun, though it is impossible for them to see -the flash. Sir Joseph Banks used to collect his fishes by sounding a -bell, and the Chinese call the gold-fish with a whistle to receive their -food. In spite of their scaly covering, the fishes are not unprovided -with organs of touch. The lips in many species are soft, and the mouths -of others, such as the red mullet--for which such enormous sums were -paid by the Roman epicures--are provided with barbules largely supplied -with nerves, which no doubt enable them to distinguish the objects with -which they come in contact. In the three elongated rays of their pectoral -fins the gurnards may be said to possess fingers to compensate for their -bony lips; and in many other fishes these modified arms or forefeet are -applied as organs of feeling to ascertain the character of the bottom of -the water. "You may witness the tactile action of the pectoral fins," -says Professor Owen,[N] "when gold-fish are transferred to a strange -vessel; their eyes are so placed as to prevent them seeing what is below -them; so they compress their air-bladder, and allow themselves to sink -near the bottom, which they sweep, as it were, by rapid and delicate -vibrations of the pectoral fins, apparently ascertaining that no sharp -stone or stick projects upwards, which might injure them in their rapid -movements round their prison." Whether fishes possess any high degree of -taste is a subject not easily proved; but, to judge by the large size of -their olfactory nerves, their sense of smell is probably acute. - -[Footnote N: "Lectures on Comparative Anatomy."] - -[Illustration: Red Mullet.] - -[Illustration: Gurnard.] - -[Illustration: Wolf-Fish.--(Anarrhicas lupus.)] - -The life of fishes is a state of perpetual warfare, a constant -alternation of flight and pursuit. Prowling through the waters, they -attack and devour every weaker being they meet, or dart away to escape -a similar lot. Many of them are provided, besides their swiftness and -muscular power, with the most formidable weapons. Thus the Sea-wolf -has six rows of grinders in each jaw, excellently adapted for bruising -the crabs and whelks, which this voracious animal grinds to pieces, -and swallows along with the shells. When caught, it fastens with -indiscriminate rage upon anything within its reach, fighting desperately, -even when out of its own element, and inflicting severe wounds if not -cautiously avoided. Schönfeld relates that it will seize on an anchor, -and leave the marks of its teeth behind, and Steller informs us that -one which he saw taken on the coast of Kamschatka frantically seized a -cutlass with which it was attempted to be killed, and broke it in pieces -as if it had been made of glass. No wonder that the fishermen, dreading -its bite, endeavour as soon as possible to render it harmless by heavy -blows upon the head. The great size of the monster, which in the British -waters attains the length of six or seven feet, and in the colder and -more extreme northern seas is said to become still larger, renders it one -of the most formidable denizens of the ocean. It commonly frequents the -deep parts of the sea, but approaches the coasts in spring to deposit -its spawn among the marine plants. Fortunately for its more active -neighbours, it swims but slowly, and glides along with the serpentine -motion of the eel. - -[Illustration: White Shark.] - -Far more dreadful, from its gigantic size and power, is the White -Shark (_Squalus carcharias_), whose jaws are likewise furnished with -from three to six rows of strong, flat, triangular, sharp-pointed, and -finely serrated teeth, which it can raise or depress at pleasure. This -tyrant of the seas grows to a length of thirty feet, and its prodigious -strength may be judged of from the fact that a young shark, only six feet -in length, is able to break a man's leg by a stroke of its tail. Thus, -when a shark is caught with a baited hook at sea, and drawn upon deck, -the sailors' first act is to chop off its tail, to prevent the mischief -otherwise to be apprehended from its enormous strength. An anecdote -related by Hughes, the well-known and esteemed author of the "Natural -History of Barbadoes," gives a good idea of the savage nature of this -monster. "In the reign of Queen Anne a merchant-ship arrived at that -island from England: some of the crew, ignorant of the danger of the -recreation, were bathing in the sea, when a large shark appeared and swam -directly towards them; being warned of their danger, however, they all -hurried on board, where they arrived safe, except one poor fellow, who -was bit in two by the shark, almost within reach of the oars. A comrade, -and intimate friend of the unfortunate victim, when he observed the -severed trunk of his companion, vowed his revenge. The voracious monster -was seen traversing the bloody surface of the waves, in search of the -remainder of his prey, when the brave youth plunged into the water. He -held in his hand a long sharp-pointed knife; and the rapacious animal -pushed furiously towards him. He had turned on his side and opened his -enormous jaws, when the youth, diving dexterously, seized the shark with -his left hand, somewhere below the upper fins, and stabbed him repeatedly -in the belly. The animal, enraged with pain, and streaming with blood, -attempted in vain to disengage himself. The crews of the surrounding -vessels saw that the combat was decided; but they were ignorant which -was slain, till the shark, exhausted by loss of blood, was seen nearer -the shore, and along with him his gallant conqueror--who, flushed with -victory, redoubled his efforts, and, with the aid of an ebbing tide, -dragged him to the beach. Finally, he ripped open the stomach of the -fish, and buried the severed half of his friend's body with the trunk in -the same grave." - -[Illustration: Hammer-headed Shark.--(Squalus Zygæna.)] - -It is no uncommon thing for the negroes, who are admirable divers, -thus to attack and vanquish the dreaded shark, but success can only be -achieved by consummate dexterity, and by those who are armed for this -express purpose. - -Ordinary swimmers are constantly falling a prey to the sharks of warm -climates. Thus Sir Brooke Watson, when in the West Indies, as a youth, -was swimming at a little distance from a ship, when he saw a shark making -towards him. Struck with terror at its approach, he immediately cried out -for assistance. A rope was instantly thrown, but, even while the men were -in the act of drawing him up the ship's side, the monster darted after -him, and at a single snap took off his leg. - -Fortunately for the friends of sea-bathing on our shores, the white -shark, like his relation, the monstrous Hammer-headed Zygæna, appears but -seldom in the colder latitudes, though both have occasionally been found -on the British coast. - -[Illustration: Picked Dog-Fish.] - -The northern ocean has got its peculiar sharks, but they are generally -either good-natured like the huge basking shark (_S. maximus_), which -feeds on sea-weeds and medusæ, or else like the _Picked_ dog-fish -(_Galeus acanthius_), of too small a size to be dangerous to man, in -spite of the ferocity of their nature. - -[Illustration: Blue Shark.] - -But the dog-fish and several other species of our seas, such as the Blue -Shark (_Carcharias glaucus_), though they do not attempt the fisherman's -life, are extremely troublesome and injurious to him, by hovering about -his boat and cutting the hooks from the lines in rapid succession. This, -indeed, often leads to their own destruction, but when their teeth do not -deliver them from their difficulty, the blue sharks, which hover about -the Cornish coast during the pilchard season, have a singular method of -proceeding, which is, by rolling the body round so as to twine the line -about them throughout its whole length; and sometimes this is done in -such a complicated manner, that Mr. Yarrell has known a fisherman give up -any attempt to unroll it as a hopeless task. To the pilchard drift-net -this shark is a still more dangerous enemy, and it is common for it -to pass in succession along the whole length of net, cutting out, as -with shears, the fish and the net that holds them, and swallowing both -together. - -[Illustration: Saw-Fish.] - -[Illustration: Sword-Fish.] - -The Saw-snouted Shark or Saw-fish (_Squalus pristis_), which grows -to fifteen feet in length, and the Sword-fish (_Xiphias gladius_, -_platypterus_), are furnished with peculiarly formidable weapons. The -long flat snout of the former is set with teeth on both sides through -its whole length, while the upper jaw of the latter terminates in a long -sword-shaped snout. A twenty-feet long sword-fish once ran his sword with -such violence into the keel of an East Indiaman, that it penetrated up to -the root, and the fish itself was killed by the violence of the shock. -The perforated beam, with the driven-in sword, are both preserved in -the British Museum, and give a good idea of the prodigious power of the -leviathans of ocean. - -[Illustration: Torpedo.] - -While most fishes only rely upon their well-armed jaws, their physical -strength, or their rapidity, for attack or defence, some of them are -provided with more mysterious weapons, and stun their victims or their -enemies by electrical discharges. - -[Illustration: Muscles and Electric Batteries of the Torpedo.] - -The Torpedo of the Mediterranean is furnished with wonderful organs -for this purpose, situated on each side of the anterior part of the -body,--perfect galvanic batteries, consisting of a multitude of small -prismatic columns, subdivided into cells, and interwoven with a multitude -of nerves, which serve to disengage the electric fluid, and discharge -it according to the will of the fish, or when it is excited by some -external stimulus. The shock of the torpedo is not so strong as that of -the electric eel (_Gymnotus electricus_) of the Orinoco, which is able -to stun a horse, but its power suffices to paralyse the arm of a man. A -Sly, or Silurus, found in the Nile or Senegal, and called by the Arabs -_raasch_, or lightning, and one of the many Tetrodons inhabiting the -tropical seas, is endowed with a similar faculty of producing galvanic -shocks. - -[Illustration: Electric Eel.] - -Some fishes, to whom nature has denied all other offensive weapons, -have recourse to stratagem for procuring their food. Hidden in the mud, -the Star-gazer (_Uranoscopus scaber_) exposes only the tip of the head, -and waving the beards with which its lips are furnished in various -directions, decoys the smaller fishes and marine insects, that mistake -these organs for worms. - -The Angler, or Sea-devil (_Lophius piscatorius_), a slow swimmer, who -would very often be obliged to fast if he had only his swiftness to -rely upon, uses a similar stratagem. Crouching close to the ground, he -stirs up the sand or mud, and, hidden by the obscurity thus produced, -attracts many a prize by leisurely moving to and fro the two slender -and elongated appendages on his head, the first of which, the better -to deceive, is broad and flattened at the end, inviting pursuit by the -shining silvery appearance of the dilated part. Even the great European -Sly, a fish which has been known to grow to the length of fifteen feet, -and to attain a weight of 300 lbs. is not ashamed to owe its food to -similar deceits. Like a true lazzarone, the fat creature lies hidden in -the mud of rivers, its mouth half open, and angling with its long beards. - -[Illustration: Angler.] - -[Illustration: European Sly.--(Silurus glanis.)] - - -But no fish catches its prey in a more remarkable manner than the Beaked, -or Rostrated Chætodon, a native of the fresh waters of India. When he -sees a fly alighting on any of the plants which overhang the shallow -water, he approaches with the utmost caution, coming as perpendicularly -as possible under the object of his meditated attack. Then placing -himself in an oblique direction, with the mouth and eyes near the -surface, he remains a moment immoveable, taking his aim like a first-rate -rifleman. Having fixed his eyes directly on the insect, he darts at it a -drop of water from his tubular snout, but without showing his mouth above -the surface, from which only the drop seems to rise, and that with such -effect, that though at the distance of four, five or six feet, it very -seldom fails to bring its prey into the water. Another small East Indian -fish, the _Toxotes jaculator_, catches its food by a similar dexterous -display of archery. - -[Illustration: Toxotes Jaculator.] - -While all other fishes hunt only for their own benefit, the Indian -Remora, or Sucking-fish (_Echeneis Naucrates_), owes to the remarkable -striated apparatus on its head, by which it firmly adheres to any -object--rock, ship, or animal,--to which it chooses to attach itself, -the rare distinction of being employed by man as a hunting-fish. When -Columbus first discovered the West Indies, the inhabitants of the -coasts of Cuba and Jamaica made use of the remora to catch turtles, by -attaching to its tail a strong cord of palm-fibres, which served to drag -it out of the water along with its prey. By this means they were able -to raise turtles weighing several hundred pounds from the bottom; "for -the sucking-fish," says Columbus, "will rather suffer itself to be cut -to pieces than let go its hold." In Africa, on the Mozambique coast, -a similar method of catching turtles is practised to the present day. -Thus a knowledge of the habits of animals, and similar necessities, have -given rise to the same hunting artifices among nations that never had -the least communication with each other. Everybody knows the fables that -have been related of the small Mediterranean remora (_Echeneis remora_). -It even owes its Latin name to the marvellous story of its being able -to arrest a ship under full sail in the midst of the ocean; and from -this imaginary physical power a no less astonishing moral influence was -inferred, for the ancients believed that tasting the remora completely -subdued the passion of love, and that if a delinquent, wishing to gain -time, succeeded in making his judge eat some of its flesh, he was sure of -a long delay before the verdict was pronounced. - -[Illustration: Sucking-fish. (Remora.)] - -[Illustration: Common Weever.] - -Most fishes have only a rapid flight to depend upon for their safety; -some, however, more favoured by nature, have been provided with peculiar -defensive weapons. Thus the dorsal fins of the Dragon-weever (_Trachinus -draco_), a small silvery fish, frequently occurring on our shores, are -armed with strong spines, that effectually provide against its being -easily swallowed by a more powerful enemy. The wounds it inflicts are -very troublesome and painful, though it does not appear that the spines -contain any poisonous matter, as the fishermen generally believe. At -all events, the dragon-weever is not nearly so dangerous as the _Clip -bagre_, a kind of silurus or sly, inhabiting the Brazilian rivers, that -inflicts with its long spines such painful wounds as to deprive the -sufferer of consciousness, and to produce an inflammation that lasts for -several weeks. The Lance-tails, or Acanthuri, have a sharp bony process, -not unlike the very large thorn of a rose-tree, placed on each side of -the tail; by this they can inflict a deep cut on the hand of any one who -is so imprudent as to seize them in that part. - -[Illustration: Surgeon Fish. (Acanthurus.)] - -I could still add a long list of spine-armed fishes, but content myself -with noticing the Stickleback, which frequently owes its preservation to -the sharp needles with which it is provided. - -[Illustration: Diodon.] - -The Tetrodons and Diodons have the power of inflating their body at -pleasure, and thus raising the small spines dispersed over their sides -and abdomen in such a manner, as to operate as a defence against their -enemies. These beautiful and remarkable fishes chiefly inhabit the -tropical waters, but sometimes wander into higher latitudes. Man is not -the only creature driven by the currents of fate far from the place of -his birth. - -The Flying-fishes (_Exoceti_) are provided with pectoral fins of so great -a length, as to be able to carry them, like wings, a great distance -through the air. According to Mr. George Bennett ("Wanderings in New -South Wales"), they cannot raise themselves when in the atmosphere, -the elevation they take depending entirely on the power of the first -spring or leap they make on leaving their native element. Their flight, -as it is called, carries them fifteen or eighteen feet high over the -water, and the lines which they traverse when they enjoy full liberty -of motion, are very low curves, and always in the direction of their -previous progress in the usual element of fishes. Their silvery wings and -blue bodies glittering beneath the rays of a tropical sun, afford a most -beautiful spectacle, when, as is frequently the case, they rise into the -air by thousands at once, and in all possible directions. The advantage -afforded them by their wing-like fins, in escaping from the pursuit of -the bonitos and albacores, often, however, leads to their destruction -in another element, where gulls and frigate-birds frequently seize them -with lightning-like rapidity, ere they fall back again into the ocean. -It is amusing to observe a bonito swimming beneath the feeble aëronaut, -keeping him steadily in view, and preparing to seize him at the moment -of his descent. But the flying-fish often eludes the bite of his enemy, -by instantaneously renewing his leap, and not unfrequently escapes by -extreme agility. - -[Illustration: Flying-Fish.] - -The specific gravity of the flying-fish can be most admirably regulated -in correspondence with the element through which it may move. The -swim-bladder, when distended, occupies nearly the entire cavity of the -abdomen, thus containing a large volume of air; and in addition to this, -there is a membrane in the mouth which can be inflated through the gills. -The pectoral fins, though so large when expanded, can be folded into an -exceedingly slender, neat, and compact form, so as to be no hindrance -to swimming. A light displayed from the chains of a vessel in a dark -night, will bring many flying-fishes on board, where they are esteemed -as a great delicacy. Their fate, thus to be persecuted in both elements -and to find security nowhere, has often been pitied in prose and verse; -but although they excite so much sentimental commiseration, they are -themselves no less predaceous than their enemies, feeding chiefly on -smaller fishes. - -The flying-fish of the West Indian waters is frequently allured by the -tepid waters of the Gulf-stream into higher latitudes, and Pennant cites -several examples of its having been found near the British coast. - -The Flying-Gurnard (_Trigla volitans_) of the Mediterranean, Atlantic, -and Indian seas, a highly singular and beautiful species, also raises -itself into the air by means of its large pectoral fins. It does not fly -very high, but swings itself as far as a musket-ball reaches, and may -thus elude even the rapidity of the dolphin. That strangely formed fish, -the _Pegasus_ of the Indian seas, is also enabled by its large pectoral -fins to support itself for some moments in the air, when it springs over -the surface of the water. - -[Illustration: Swimming Pegasus.] - -Neither the quadrupeds nor the birds are subject to so many persecutions -as the fishes, which have inexorable enemies in all classes of animals. -Numberless molluscs and zoophytes feed upon their eggs, or devour their -minute fry; myriads of sea-birds are on the look-out for them along -the strands, or on the high ocean; seals and ice-bears lie in wait for -them, while with weapons and deceit, with net, angle and harpoon, man -carries death and destruction into their ranks. It would be a difficult -task to state with any degree of exactness the number of fishermen -disseminated over the face of the globe, but if we consider that, on -a moderate calculation, at least a million of persons are directly or -indirectly engaged in fishing in Great Britain and Ireland alone, and -then cast a glance over the immense coast-line of the ocean, we may -without exaggeration affirm that at least one-fiftieth part of the -human race lives upon the produce of the seas. If we further reflect -that fishes form a great part of the food of all coast-inhabitants, and -consider in what masses they are sent into the interior,--fresh, dried, -salted, smoked, and pickled,--we cannot doubt that the great extent of -the ocean only apparently limits the numbers of the human race, for how -many thousands of square miles of the most fruitful soil would it not -require to bring forth the quantity of food which the blue and green -fields of ocean supply to man? "Bounteous mother," "_Alma parens_," was -the name given by the grateful ancients to the corn and grass-producing, -herd-feeding earth; but how much more deserving of that endearing -appellation is the sea, that, without being ploughed or manured, -dispenses her gifts with such inexhaustible profusion! Numberless indeed -are the various kinds of fishes which she furnishes to man, for almost -every species affords an equally agreeable and healthy food: but of all -the finny families or tribes that people the ocean none can compare -for utility with that of the _Clupeidæ_, or Herrings, small in size but -great in importance. In mile-long shoals, often so thickly pressed that -a spear cast into them would stand upright in the living stream, the -common herring appears annually on the coasts of north-western Europe, -pouring out the horn of abundance into all the lochs, bays, coves, and -fiords, from Norway to Ireland, and from Orcadia to Normandy. Sea-birds -without end keep thinning their ranks during the whole summer; armies of -rorquals, dolphins, seals, shell-fish, cods, and sharks devour them by -millions, and yet so countless are their numbers, that whole nations live -upon their spoils. - -[Illustration: Herring.] - -As soon as the season of their approach appears, fleets of herring boats -leave the northern ports, provided with drift-nets, about 1200 feet long. -The yarn is so thick that the wetted net sinks through its own weight, -and need not be held down by stones attached to the lower edge, for it -has been found that the herring is more easily caught in a slack net. -The upper edge is suspended from the drift-rope by various shorter and -smaller ropes, called buoy ropes, to which empty barrels are fastened, -and the whole of the floating apparatus is attached by long ropes to -the ship. Fishing takes place only during the night, for it is found -that the fish strike the nets in much greater numbers when it is dark -than while it is light. The darkest nights, therefore, and particularly -those in which the surface of the water is ruffled by a fresh breeze, -are considered the most favourable. To avoid collisions, each boat is -furnished with one or two torches. From off the beach at Yarmouth, -where often several thousand boats are fishing at the same time, these -numberless lights, passing to and fro in every direction, afford a -most lively and brilliant spectacle. The meshes of the net are exactly -calculated for the size of the herring, wide enough to receive the head -as far as behind the gill-cover, but not so narrow as to allow the -pectoral fins to pass. Thus the poor fish, when once entangled, is unable -to move backwards or forwards, and remains sticking in the net, like a -bad logician on the horns of a dilemma, until the fisherman hauls it on -board. In this manner a single net sometimes contains so vast a booty, -that it requires all the authority of a Cuvier or a Valenciennes to make -us believe the instances they mention. A fisherman of Dieppe caught in -one night 280,000 herrings, and threw as many back again into the sea. -Sometimes great sloops have been obliged to cut their nets, being about -to sink under the superabundant weight of the fish. - -The oldest mention of the herring-fishery is found in the chronicles -of the monastery of Evesham, of the year 709; while the first French -documents on the subject only reach as far as the year 1030. As far back -as the days of William the Conqueror, Yarmouth was renowned for its -herring-fishery; and Dunkirk and the Brill conducted it on a grand scale -centuries before William Beukelaer of Biervliet, near Sluys, introduced a -better method of pickling herrings in small kegs, instead of salting them -as before in loose irregular heaps. It is very doubtful whether Solon -or Lycurgus ever were such benefactors of their respective countries as -this simple uneducated fisherman has been to his native land; for the -pickled herring mainly contributed to transform a small and insignificant -people into a mighty nation. In the year 1603, the value of the herrings -exported from Holland amounted to twenty millions of florins; and in -1615, the fishery gave employment to 2000 _buysen_, or smacks, and to -37,000 men. Three years later we see the United Provinces cover the -sea with 3000 _buysen_; 9000 additional boats served for the transport -of the fishes, and the whole trade gave employment to at least 200,000 -individuals. At that time Holland provided all Europe with herrings, and -it may without exaggeration be affirmed that this small fish was their -best ally and assistant in casting off the Spanish yoke, by providing -them with money, the chief sinew of war. Had the emperor Charles V. -been able to foresee that Beukelaer's discovery would one day prove so -detrimental to his son and successor Philip II., he would hardly have -done the poor fisherman the honour to eat a herring and drink a glass of -wine over his tomb. - -But all human prosperity is subject to change; and thus towards the -middle of the sixteenth century a series of calamities ruined the Dutch -fisheries. Cromwell gave them the first blow by the Navigation Act; -Blake the second, by his victories; in 1703 a French squadron destroyed -the greatest part of their herring-smacks; and finally, the competition -of the Swedes, and the closing of their ports by the English, under the -disastrous domination of Napoleon I., completed the ruin of that branch -of trade which had chiefly raised the fortunes of their fathers. - -In the year 1814, when the Dutch first began to breathe after having -shaken off the yoke of the modern Attila, they made a faint attempt to -renew the herring-fishery with 106 boats, which, up to the year 1823, -had only increased to 128; since 1836, however, there has been a steady -progress, and herring-catching in the Zuyder Zee during the winter months -is yearly increasing in importance. - -During the second half of the last century, while the herrings began -to desert the Dutch nets, they enriched the Swedes, who, during the -year 1781, exported from Gottenburg alone 136,649 barrels, each of them -containing 1200 herrings. But some years after, the shoals on the Swedish -coasts began also to diminish, so that in 1799 there was hardly enough -for home consumption. And now commenced the rapid rise and increase of -the Scotch herring-fisheries; and it is certainly remarkable that this -should have taken place at so late a period, since the British waters are -perhaps those which most abound in herrings. When we think of the present -grandeur of British commerce, which extends to the most distant parts of -the globe, and ransacks all Nature for new articles of trade, it seems -almost incredible that up to the middle of the sixteenth century the -herring-fishery on the British coasts was left in the hands of the Dutch -and Spaniards, and that the acute and industrious Scotchmen should have -been so tardy in working the rich gold-mines lying at their gates. But if -their appearance in the market has been late, they have made up for lost -time, by completely distancing all their competitors. In 1855, the Scotch -herring-fisheries employed no less than 11,000 smacks or boats, manned -by 40,000 seamen, who were assisted by 28,000 curers and labourers, -exclusive of the vessels and men bringing salt and barrels or engaged in -carrying on the export trade. - -The English herring-fishery is also extremely important, for Yarmouth -alone employs in this branch of trade about 400 sloops, of from forty -to seventy tons, the largest of which have ten or twelve men on board. -Three of these sloops, belonging to the same proprietor, landed, in the -year 1857, 285 lasts, or 3,762,000 fishes; and as each last was sold for -£14 sterling, it is probable that no whaler made a better business that -season. The importance of the Yarmouth herring-fishery may be inferred -from the fact, that it gives employment and bread to about 5,000 persons -during several months of the year, and engages a capital of at least -£700,000. No wonder, that among the north seamen the herring-fishery is -called the "great" fishery, while that of the whale is denominated only -the "small." - -But the herring is a very capricious creature, seldom remaining long in -one place; and there is not a station along the British coast which is -not liable to great changes in its visits, as well with regard to time -as to quantity. The real causes of these irregularities are unknown; the -firing of guns, the manufacture of kelp, and the paddling of steam-boats -have been assigned as reasons, but such reasons are quite imaginary. -The progress of science promises to find, however, a remedy even for -the caprices of the herring; and if his shoals frequently appear and -disappear again in the more retired bays or fiords of Norway, before the -fishermen are apprised of his movements, the electric telegraph (the most -wonderful discovery of a time so rich in wonderful inventions), will be -used for his more effectual capture. By this time the wires are already -laid, which are to communicate along the whole Scandinavian coast, and -with the rapidity of lightning, every important movement of the marine -hosts. Poor herring! who would have thought, when Franklin made his first -experiments upon electricity, that that mysterious power should ever be -used for thy destruction! - -The supposed migration of herrings to and from the high northern -latitudes is not founded on fact; the herring has never been seen in -abundance in the northern seas, nor have our whale-fishers or Arctic -voyagers taken any particular notice of them. There is no fishery for -them of any consequence either in Greenland or Iceland. On the southern -coast of Greenland the herring is a rare fish, and, according to Crantz, -only a small variety makes its appearance on the northern shore. This -small variety, or species, was found by Sir John Franklin on the shore of -the Polar basin, on his second journey. There can be no doubt that the -herring inhabits the deep water all round our coast, and only approaches -the shores for the purpose of depositing its spawn within the immediate -influence of the two principal agents in vivification--increased -temperature and oxygen--and as soon as that essential object is -effected, the shoals that haunt the superficial waters disappear, but -individuals are found, and many are to be caught throughout the year. So -far are they from being migratory to us from the north only, that they -visit the west coast of Cork in August, arriving there much earlier than -those which come down the Irish Channel, and long before their brethren -make their appearance at places much farther north. Our common herring -spawns towards the end of October, or the beginning of November, and -it is for two or three months previous to this, when they assemble in -immense numbers, that the fishing is carried on, which is of such great -and national importance. "And here," Mr. Couch observes, "we cannot but -admire the economy of Divine Providence, by which this and several other -species of fish are brought to the shores, within reach of man, at the -time when they are in their highest perfection and best fitted to be his -food." The herring having spawned, retires to deep water, and the fishing -ends for that season. While inhabiting the depths of the ocean, its food -is said, by Dr. Knox, to consist principally of minute entomostraceous -animals, but it is certainly less choice in its selection when near the -shore. - -[Illustration: Pilchard.] - -Although the common herring of our northern seas is beyond all doubt -the most important of the tribe, yet there is no sea, no coast, where -other species of the same family are not a source of abundance to man, -and of astonishment by their vast numbers. Thus the enormous shoals of -Pilchards appearing along our south-western coasts are not less valuable -to the fishermen of Devon and Cornwall than the common herring to those -of the North Sea. The older naturalists considered the pilchard, like -the herring, as a visitor from a distant region, and they assigned to -it also the same place of resort as that fish, with which indeed the -pilchard has been sometimes confounded. To this it will be a sufficient -reply, that the pilchard is never seen in the Northern Ocean. They -frequent the French coasts, and are seen on those of Spain, but on -neither in considerable numbers or with much regularity; so that few -fishes confine themselves within such narrow bounds. On the coast of -Cornwall they are found throughout all the seasons of the year, and even -there their habits vary in the different months. In January they keep -near the bottom, and are chiefly hauled up in the stomachs of ravenous -fishes; in March they sometimes assemble in _schulls_, but this union is -only partial and not permanent and only becomes so in July; when they -regularly and permanently congregate so as to invite the fisherman's -pursuit. The season and situation for spawning, and the choice of food, -are the chief reasons which influence the motions of the great bodies -of these fish; and it is probable that a thorough knowledge of these -particulars would explain all the variations which have been noticed in -the doings of the pilchard, in the numerous unsuccessful seasons of the -fishery. - -They feed with voracity on small crustaceous animals, and Mr. Yarrell -frequently found their stomachs crammed with thousands of a minute -species of shrimp, not larger than a flea. It is probably when they are -in search of something like this, that fishermen report they have seen -them lying in myriads quietly at the bottom, examining with their mouths -the sand and small stones in shallow water. The abundance of this food -must be enormous, to satisfy such a host. - -"When near the coast," says the author of the "History of British -Fishes," "the assemblage of pilchards assumes the arrangement of a mighty -army, with its wings stretching parallel to the land, and the whole is -composed of numberless smaller bodies, which are perpetually joining -together, shifting their position, and separating again. There are three -stations occupied by this great body, that have their separate influence -on the success of the fishery. One is to the eastward of the Lizard, the -most eastern extremity, reaching to the Bay of Bigbury in Devonshire, -beyond which no fishing is carried on, except that it occasionally -extends to Dartmouth; a second station is included between the Lizard and -Land's End; and the third is on the north coast of the county, the chief -station being about St. Ives. The subordinate motions of the shoals are -much regulated by the tide, against the current of which they are rarely -known to go, and the whole will sometimes remain parallel to the coast -for several weeks, at the distance of a few leagues; and then, as if by -general consent, they will advance close to the shore, sometimes without -being discovered till they have reached it. This usually happens when the -tides are strongest, and is the period when the principal opportunity -is afforded for the prosecution of the sean-fishery." The quantity of -pilchards taken is sometimes incredibly large. In 1847, a very productive -year, 40,000 hogsheads were cured in Cornwall alone, representing -probably, after all deductions, a net value to the takers of £80,000. The -Sardine (_Clupea sardina_), a fish closely allied to the Pilchard though -smaller, is considered as the most savoury of all the herring tribe. It -is chiefly found in the Mediterranean, on the coasts of South France and -Africa, and about the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, where it plays a -no less important part than the Pilchard on the coasts of Cornwall and -Devonshire. - -Though a much less valuable fish than its larger-sized relatives, the -diminutive Sprat is not to be despised. Coming into the market in immense -quantities, and at a very moderate price, immediately after the herring -season is over, it affords during all the winter months a cheap and -agreeable food. Like all other species of the herring tribe, the sprats -are capricious wanderers, and make their appearance in exceedingly -variable numbers. The coasts of Kent, Essex, and Suffolk, are the most -productive. So great is the supply thence obtained, that notwithstanding -the immense quantity consumed by the vast population of London and its -neighbourhood, there is yet occasionally a surplus to be disposed of at -so low a price, as to induce the farmers, even so near the metropolis as -Dartford, to use them for manure. - -[Illustration: Anchovy.] - -The Mediterranean seems to be the peculiar birthplace of the Anchovy -(_Engraulis encrasicholus_), where it appears in the spawning season in -countless multitudes along the shallow coasts. It is about four inches -long, of a bluish-brown colour on the back, and silvery-white on the -belly. It is covered with large thin and easily deciduous scales, and -may be readily distinguished from the Sprat and other kindred species -by the anal fins being remarkably short. It is mostly caught in the -neighbourhood of Antibes, Frejus, and St. Tropez, and sent pickled -in enormous quantities to the fair of Beaucaire, from whence it is -transported in small tin boxes to all parts of the world. - -[Illustration: Haddock.] - -[Illustration: Ling.] - -[Illustration: Cod.] - -The Cod-family, to which among others, the Dorse, the Haddock, the -Whiting, the Hake, the Ling, and other valuable fishes belong, ranks next -to that of the herrings in importance to man. In the seas with which -Europeans are best acquainted the common Cod, the chief representative -of the tribe, is found universally, from Iceland to very nearly as far -south as Gibraltar, but appears most abundantly on the eastern side of -the American continent, and among its numerous islands, from 40° up to -66° N. lat., where it may be said to hold dominion from the outer edge -of the great banks of Newfoundland, which are more than three hundred -miles from land, to the verge of every creek and cove of the bounding -coast. To support such a mass of living beings, the ocean sends forth -its periodical masses of other living beings. At one season the cod is -accompanied by countless myriads of the Capelin (_Salmo arcticus_), -and at another by equal hosts of a molluscous animal, the Cuttle-fish -(_Sepia loligo_), called in Newfoundland the squid. The three animals are -migratory, and man, who stations himself on the shore for their combined -destruction, conducts his movements according to their migrations, -capturing millions upon millions of capelins and squids, to serve as -a bait for the capture of millions of cods. In the United Kingdom -alone this fish, in the catching, the curing, the partial consumption, -and sale, supplies employment, food, and profit to thousands of the -human race; but the banks of Newfoundland are the chief scene of its -destruction. As soon as spring appears, England sends forth 2000 ships, -with 30,000 men, across the Atlantic, towards those teeming shallows; -France about one-half the number; and the Americans as many as both -together. On an average, each ship is reckoned to catch about 40,000 -fishes; and we may form some idea of the voracity, as well as of the -numbers of the cod, when we hear that in the course of a single day a -good fisherman is able to haul up four hundred one after another with his -line--no easy task considering the size of the fish, which often attains -a length of from two to three feet and a weight of from twenty to forty -pounds. - -The captured fish have but little time left them to bewail their lot, -for a few thousands will be "dressed down"--that is, gutted, boned and -salted--in the course of two or three hours. For this purpose the crew -divide themselves into throaters, headers, splitters, salters, and -packers. First the throater passes his sharp knife across the throat of -the unfortunate cod to the bone and rips open the bowels. He then passes -it quickly to the header, who with a strong sudden wrench pulls off the -head and tears out the entrails, which he casts overboard, passing at -the same time the fish instantly to the splitter, who with one cut lays -it open from head to tail, and almost in the twinkling of an eye with -another cut takes out the backbone. After separating the sounds, which -are placed with the tongues, and packed in barrels as a great delicacy, -the backbone follows the entrails overboard, while the fish at the same -moment is passed with the other hand to the salter. Such is the amazing -quickness of the operations of heading and splitting that a good workman -will often decapitate and take out the entrails and backbone of six fish -in a minute. Every fisherman is supposed to know something of each of -these operations, and no rivals at cricket ever entered with more ardour -into their work than do some athletic champions for the palm of "dressing -down" after a "day's catch." - -Besides its excellent firm flesh, the liver-oil of the cod is used as a -valuable medicine, and serves to restore many a scrofulous or rickety -child to health. The sound-bladder is also employed by the Icelanders for -the manufacture of fish-lime or isinglass. The best quality of the latter -article, however, is afforded by a species of Sturgeon (_Accipenser -Huso_) which is chiefly found in the Black and Caspian seas, and ascends -the tributary rivers in immense numbers. - -The Common Sturgeon (_Accipenser sturio_), though principally frequenting -the seas and rivers of North-Eastern Europe, where, especially in the -Volga, extensive fisheries are established for its destruction, is also -captured on the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland, as examples are by -no means uncommon in the fish-mongers' shops of our great cities, a few -coming into the hands of the principal dealers every season. Yarrell -mentions one caught in a stake-net near Findhorn, in Scotland, in July -1833, which measured eight feet six inches in length and weighed two -hundred and three pounds; but in the Baltic specimens of a length of -eighteen feet and weighing a thousand pounds have occasionally been -captured. The body is long and slender from the shoulders backward, -somewhat pentagonal in shape, with five longitudinal rows of flattened -plates, with pointed central spines, directed backwards, and the snout -is tapering and beak-shaped, the mouth small and toothless, so that the -sturgeon, though almost equalling the white shark in size, is of a much -more harmless character and formidable only to the crustaceans, small -fish, or soft animals, he meets with at the bottom in deep water, beyond -the ordinary reach of sea-nets. Hence he is rarely caught in the open -sea, but falls an easy prey to the cunning of man when entering the -friths, estuaries, and rivers for the purpose of spawning. The sturgeon -is a highly valuable fish not only for its well-flavoured flesh but -also for its roe, which furnishes the delicate caviar of commerce. The -smallest but most highly esteemed of the sturgeons is the Sterlet of -the Volga, which sometimes fetches such extravagant prices that Prince -Potemkin has been known to pay three hundred roubles for a single tureen -of sterlet-soup. - -[Illustration: Common Sturgeon.] - -While many of the numerous members of the salmon family confine -themselves to the rivulet or to the lake, others alternate, like the -sturgeons, between the river and the sea. Of these the most remarkable -is the noble fish which has given its name to the whole tribe, and may -justly be considered as its head, not only in point of size but also for -its wide-spread utility to man. - -Every spring or summer the salmon leave the ocean to deposit their spawn -in the sweet waters, often at a distance of many hundred miles in the -interior of the Continent, so that the same fish which during part of -the year may be breasting the waves of the North Sea, may at another -be forcing the current of an Alpine stream. Their onward progress is -not easily stopped: they shoot up rapids with the velocity of arrows, -and make wonderful efforts to surmount cascades or weirs by leaping, -frequently clearing an elevation of eight or ten feet. These surprising -bounds appear to be accomplished by a sudden jerk, which is given to its -body by the animal from a bent into a straight position. If they fail -in their attempt, and fall back into the stream, it is only to rest a -short time, and thus recruit their strength for a new effort. The fall of -Kilmaroc, on the Beauly, in Inverness-shire, is one of the spots where -the leaping feats of the salmon can best be witnessed. "The pool below -that fall," says Mr. Mudie, in the _British Naturalist_, "is very large, -and as it is the head of the run in one of the finest salmon rivers in -the north, and only a few miles distant from the sea, it is literally -thronged with salmon, which are continually attempting to pass the fall, -but without success, as the limit of their perpendicular spring does not -appear to exceed twelve or fourteen feet; at least, if they leap higher -than that, they are aimless and exhausted, and the force of the current -dashes them down again before they have recovered their energy. They -often kill themselves by the violence of their exertions to ascend, and -sometimes they fall upon the rocks and are captured. It is indeed said -that one of the wonders which the Frasers of Lovat, who are lords of the -manor, used to show their guests was a voluntarily cooked salmon at the -falls of Kilmaroc. For this purpose a kettle was placed upon the flat -rock on the south side of the fall, close by the edge of the water and -kept full and boiling. There is a considerable extent of the rock where -tents were erected, and the whole was under a canopy of overshadowing -trees. There the company are said to have waited until a salmon fell into -the kettle, and was boiled in their presence. We have seen as many as -eighty taken in a pool lower down the river at one haul of the seine, and -one of the number weighed more than sixty pounds." - -As the salmon laboriously ascend the rivers, it may easily be imagined -that the cunning and rapacity of man seeks every opportunity to intercept -their progress. Nets of the most various form and construction are -employed for their capture; numbers are entrapped in enclosed spaces -formed in weirs, into which they enter as they push up the stream, and -are then prevented by a grating of a peculiar contrivance from returning -or getting out; and many are speared, a mode frequently practised at -night-time, when torches are made use of to attract them to the surface, -or to betray them by their silvery reflection to the attentive fisherman. - -The ruddy gleam illumining the river banks or sparkling in the agitated -waters, the black sky above, the deep contrasts of light and shade, -attach a romantic interest to this nocturnal sport, which has been both -practised and sung by Walter Scott. - - "'Tis blithe along the midnight tide - With stalwart arm the boat to guide, - On high the dazzling blaze to rear - And heedful plunge the barbed spear. - Rock, wood, and scour emerging bright, - Fling on the stream their ruddy light, - And from the bank our band appears - Like Genii armed with fiery spears." - -The natural history of the salmon was until lately but very imperfectly -known, as the parr (brandling, samlet) and the grilse, which are now -fully proved to be but intermediate stages of its growth, were supposed -by Yarrell to be distinct fishes. The first person who seems to have -suspected the true nature of the parr was James Hogg, the Ettrick -shepherd, who in his usual eccentric way took some pains to verify his -opinion. As an angler, he had often caught the parr in its transition -state, and had frequently captured smolts (at that time the only -acknowledged youthful salmon) with the scales barely covering the bars -or finger marks of the parr. Wondering at this, he marked a great number -of the lesser fish and offered rewards of whisky (being himself a great -admirer of the genuine mountain-dew) to the peasantry to bring him any -fish that had evidently undergone the change. These crude experiments -of the talented shepherd convinced him that the parr were the young of -the salmon in the first stage, and since then professed naturalists have -fully settled the question by watching the egg into life, and tracing -the growth of the young fish step by step until it ultimately changed -into the kingly salmon. - -This ignorance of the true nature of the parr had most disastrous -effects, as it largely contributed to the depopulation of our streams, -for the farmers and cottars who resided near the rivers used not -unfrequently, after filling the frying-pan with parr, to feed their -pigs with them, and myriads were annually killed by juvenile anglers. -This truly deplorable havoc has fortunately been arrested by Act of -Parliament, but the killing of grilse is still, I believe, a fertile -source of destruction,[O] and should undoubtedly be restrained by law, -as the wholesale slaughter of these juvenile fishes is a most lamentable -example of improvident waste. - -[Footnote O: In 1862, 8,467 salmon and 25,042 grilse were captured in the -Tweed.] - -In former times our rivers abounded with salmon, more than 200,000 -having been caught in a single summer in the Tweed alone, and 2,500 at -one haul in the river Thurso; but, besides the causes above mentioned, -over fishing or fishing at an improper season, and probably in many -cases the pollution of the streams with deleterious matter from mines -or manufactories, have considerably reduced their numbers. Fortunately, -public attention has at length been thoroughly aroused to the danger -which menaces our king of fishes; and, what with better laws for his -protection and the successful attempts that have latterly been made in -artificial fish-breeding, we may hope that more prosperous times are in -store for our salmon-fisheries. - -[Illustration: Salmo Rossii] - -The salmon not only frequents the streams of Northern Europe but ascends -in vast multitudes the giant rivers of Siberia and of North America. It -is fished by the Ostjak and the Tunguse, and speared by the Indian of the -New World. Ross's Arctic salmon, which is of a more slender form than the -common salmon, differently marked and coloured, and with a remarkably -long under jaw, is so extremely abundant in the sea near the mouths of -the rivers of Boothia Felix that 3,378 were obtained at one haul of a -small-sized seine. The rivers of Kamtschatka abound in salmon of various -kinds, so that the stream, swelling as it were with living waves, not -seldom overflows its banks and casts multitudes ashore. Steller affirms -that, in that almost uninhabited peninsula, the bears and dogs and other -animals catch more of these fishes with their mouths and feet than man in -other countries with all his cunning devices of net and angle. - -The salmon of Iceland, which formerly remained undisturbed by the -phlegmatic inhabitants, are now caught in large numbers for the British -market. A small river, bearing the significant name of Laxaa or Salmon -river, has been rented for the trifling sum of 100_l._ a year by an -English company which sends every spring its agents to the spot, -well provided with the best fishing apparatus. The captured fish are -immediately boiled and hermetically packed in tin boxes, so that they can -be eaten in London almost as fresh as if they had just been caught. Other -valuable salmon-streams in Iceland and Norway pay us a similar tribute; -and as commerce, aided by the steamboat and the railway, extends her -empire, rivers more and more distant are made to supply the deficiencies -of our native streams. More than 150,000 salmon are annually caught in -Aljaska--not a quarter of a century ago a real "ultima Thule"--and after -having been well pickled and smoked at the various fishing-stations are -chiefly sent from Sitcha to Hamburg. - -Nature has denied the salmon to the streams of Australia and New Zealand; -but as the eggs of this fish can be preserved for a very long time, they -have been transported with perfect success to those far-distant colonies. - -[Illustration: Tunny.] - -If neither the salmon, nor the common herring, nor the cod, dwell in the -Mediterranean, the fishermen of that sea rejoice in the capture of the -Tunny, the chief of the mackerel or scomberoid family. Its usual length -is about two feet, but it sometimes grows to eight or ten; and Pennant -saw one killed in 1769, when he was at Inverary, that weighed 460 pounds. -The flesh is as firm as that of the sturgeon, but of a finer flavour. - -"In May and June," says Mr. Yarrell, "the adult fish rove along the coast -of the Mediterranean in large shoals and triangular array. They are -extremely timid, and easily induced to take a new and apparently an open -course, in order to avoid any suspected danger. But the fishermen take -advantage of this peculiarity for their destruction by placing a look-out -or sentinel on some elevated spot, who makes the signal that the shoal -of tunnies is approaching, and points out the direction in which it will -come. Immediately a great number of boats set off, range themselves in a -curved line, and, joining their nets, form an enclosure which alarms the -fish, while the fishermen, drawing closer and closer, and adding fresh -nets, still continue driving the tunnies towards the shore, where they -are ultimately killed with poles. - -"But the grandest mode of catching the tunny is by means of the French -_madrague_, or, as the Italians call it, _tonnaro_. Series of long and -deep nets, fixed vertically by corks at their upper edges, and with lead -and stones at the bottom, are kept in a particular position by anchors, -so as to form an enclosure parallel to the coast, sometimes extending an -Italian mile in length; this is divided into several chambers by nets -placed across, leaving narrow openings on the land side. The tunnies -pass between the coast and the tonnaro; when arrived at the end, they -are stopped by one of the cross-nets, which closes the passage against -them, and obliges them to enter the tonnaro by the opening which is left -for them. When once in, they are driven by various means from chamber -to chamber to the last, which is called the chamber of death. Here a -strong net, placed horizontally, that can be raised at pleasure, brings -the tunnies to the surface, and the work of destruction commences. -The tonnaro fishery used to be one of the great amusements of rich -Sicilians, and, at the same time, one of the most considerable sources -of their wealth. When Louis XIII. visited Marseilles, he was invited to -a tunny-fishery, at the principal _madrague_ of Morgiou, and found the -diversion so much to his taste that he often said it was the pleasantest -day he had spent in his whole progress through the south." - -[Illustration: Mackerel.] - -The elegant shape and beautiful colouring of the common Mackerel are too -well known to require any particular description, and its qualities as -an edible fish have been long duly appreciated. It dies very soon after -it is taken out of the water, exhibits for a short time a phosphoric -light, and partly loses the brilliancy of its hues. Like all other -members of the family, it is extremely voracious, and makes great havoc -among the herring-shoals, although its own length is only from twelve to -sixteen inches. It inhabits the northern Atlantic, and is caught in large -numbers along the British coast, where it is preceded in its annual visit -by the Gar-fish, which for this reason has received also the name of -Mackerel-guide. The older naturalists ascribed to the mackerel the same -distant migrations as to the tunny, but most probably it only retires -during the winter into the deeper waters, at no very great distance -from the shores, where it appears during the summer season in such -incalculable numbers. - -[Illustration: Gar-Fish.] - -The mackerel is caught with long nets or by hand-lines. It bites greedily -at every bait, but generally such a one is preferred as best represents a -living prey darting through the water--either some silvery scaled fish, -or a piece of metal, or of scarlet cloth. With swelling sails the boat -flies along, and a sharp wind is generally considered so favourable that -it is called a "Mackerel-breeze." The line is short, but made heavy with -lead, and in this manner a couple of men can catch a thousand in one day. -The more rapid the boat the greater the success, for the mackerel rushes -like lightning after the glittering bait, taking it for a flying prey. -The chieftains of the Sandwich Islands used to catch the bonito mackerels -in a similar way, by attaching flying-fish to their hooks, and rapidly -skimming the surface of the waters. Thus everywhere man knows how to turn -to his advantage the peculiar instincts or habits of the animal creation. - -[Illustration: Bonito.] - -The author of "Wild Sports of the West" has favoured us with an animated -description of mackerel-fishing on the coast of Ireland. - -"It was evident that the bay was full of mackerel. In every direction, -and as far as the eye could range, gulls and puffins were collected, -and, to judge by their activity and clamour, there appeared ample -employment for them among the fry beneath. We immediately bore away for -the place where these birds were numerously congregated, and the lines -were scarcely overboard when we found ourselves in the centre of a shoal -of mackerel. For two hours we killed these beautiful fish, as fast as -the baits could be renewed and the lines hauled in; and when we left -off fishing, actually wearied with sport, we found that we had taken -above five hundred, including a number of the coarser species, called -Horse-mackerel. There is not, on sea or river, always excepting angling -for salmon, any sport comparable to this delightful amusement: full of -life and bustle, everything about it is animated and exhilarating; a -brisk breeze and fair sky, the boat in quick and constant motion, all is -calculated to interest and excite. He who has experienced the glorious -sensations of sailing on the Western Ocean, a bright autumnal sky above, -a deep-green lucid swell around, a steady breeze, and as much of it as -the hooker can stand up to, will estimate the exquisite enjoyment our -morning's mackerel-fishing afforded." - -Although an occasional visitor of our shores, the Bonito, or -Stripe-bellied Tunny (_Thynnus pelamys_), which is much inferior in -size to the common tunny of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, is a -true ocean-fish, and generally met with at a vast distance from land. -It inhabits the warmer seas, of which it is one of the most active and -voracious denizens. It is well known to all voyagers within the tropics -for the amusement it affords by its accompanying the vessel in its track, -and by its pursuit of the flying-fish. But in its turn the predacious -Bonito is subject to the persecutions of the huge Sperm-whale, who will -often drive whole shoals before him, and crush dozens at a time between -his prodigious jaws. - -The Pelamid (_Thynnus sarda_), which abounds in all districts of the -Mediterranean and on both sides of the Atlantic, has but very lately been -discovered in the British waters, a single specimen having been caught -a few years ago at the mouth of the North Esk. It greatly resembles the -species just mentioned in form and mode of life, prowling about the high -seas for cephalopods and flying-fishes, and is very commonly confounded -with the bonito by sailors, who also give both of them the name of -Skip-jacks, expressive of the habit which many of the large Scomberoids -have of skimming the surface of the sea, and springing occasionally into -the air. - -[Illustration: Pilot-Fish.--(Naucrates ductor.)] - -Another member of the mackerel family, the Pilot-Fish (_Naucrates -ductor_), easily recognised by the three dark-blue bands which surround -its silvery body, will frequently attend a ship during its course at sea -for weeks or even months together, most likely to profit by the offal -thrown overboard. Regardless of the useful precept, "avoid bad company," -it is frequently found attending the white shark, and owes its name to -its being supposed to act as a trusty guide or friendly monitor to that -voracious monster, sometimes directing it where to find a good meal, -and at others warning it when to avoid a dangerous bait. At all events, -the pilot-fish is well rewarded for his attendance by snatching up the -morsels which are overlooked by his companion, and as he is an excellent -swimmer, and probably keeps a good look-out, has but little reason to -fear being snatched up himself. - -"It has been observed," says Yarrell, "that when a shark and his pilot -were following a vessel, if meat was thrown overboard cut into small -pieces, and therefore unworthy the shark's attention, the pilot-fish -showed his true motive of action by deserting both shark and ship to feed -at his leisure on the morsels." - -The family of the anguilliform fishes, characterised by their -serpent-like bodies, destitute of ventral fins, and generally covered -by a slippery skin, with, in some of the genera, small scales embedded -therein, likewise comprises a number of highly interesting and useful -species, forming many generic groups. - -Its chief representative in our waters is the Common Eel (_Anguilla -vulgaris_), which, though a frequent inhabitant of our lakes, ponds, -and rivers, may also justly be reckoned among the marine fishes; for -the same wonderful instinct which prompts the salmon and the sturgeon -annually to leave the high seas and seek the inland streams for the sake -of perpetuating their race, forces also the eel to migrate, but his -peregrinations are of an opposite character, for here the full-grown -fishes descend the rivers to deposit their spawn in the sea, and the -young, after having been born in the brackish estuaries, ascend the -streams to accomplish their growth in the sweet waters. The mode of -procreation of eels, which for ages had been an enigma, has now at length -been completely elucidated by Professor Rathke, who discovered that the -eggs, which are of microscopic smallness, so as to be undistinguishable -by the naked eye from the fat in which they lie imbedded, are expelled -through an opening hardly large enough to admit the point of a needle. -The energy of the salmon in swimming stream-upwards for hundreds and -hundreds of miles, and bounding over rapids and cataracts, is truly -wonderful, but the instinctive efforts of the little eels or _elvers_ to -surmount obstacles that seem quite out of proportion to their strength -are no less admirable. Mr. Anderson, upwards of a century ago, described -the young eels as ascending the upright posts and gates of the waterworks -at Norwich until they came into the dam above; and Sir Humphry Davy, -who was witness of a vast migration of elvers at Ballyshannon, speaks -of the mouth of the river under the fall as blackened by millions of -little eels. "Thousands," he adds, "died, but their bodies remaining -moist, served as the ladder for others to make their way; and I saw some -ascending even perpendicular stones, making their road through wet moss, -or adhering to some eels that had died in the attempt. Such is the energy -of these little animals that they continue to find their way in immense -numbers to Loch Erne. Even the mighty fall of Schaffhausen (which stops -the salmon) does not prevent them from making their way to the Lake of -Constance, where I have seen many very large eels." After the little eels -have gained the summit of a fall, they rest for a while with their heads -protruded into the stream. They then urge themselves forward, taking -advantage of every projecting stone or slack water, and never get carried -back by the current. Myriads are destroyed on the way by birds or fishes; -but, as usual, their greatest enemy is man, who not only devours whole -cart-loads of little eels not larger than a knitting-needle, frying them -into cakes, which are said to be delicious, though rather queer-looking -from the number of little eyes with which they are bespangled, but after -getting tired of eating them, actually feeds his pigs with them, or even -uses them for manure. A prodigal waste which should be looked after, as -these little eels would soon increase their weight, and consequently -their value a thousand fold. On the Continent many lakes and ponds have -been stocked with elvers, packed in wet grass, and sent by the railroads -or the post far into the interior of the country. - -Eels are pre-eminently nocturnal animals. They always congregate at the -darkest parts of the stews in which they are kept, and invariably select -the darkest nights for their autumnal migration to the sea. Owing to -the smallness of their gill aperture, the membranous folds of which, -by closing the orifice when the eel is out of the water, prevents the -desiccation of the branchiæ, they have the power of living a long time -out of the water when the air is humid, and not unfrequently travel -during the night over the moist surface of meadows or gardens in quest of -frogs or other suitable food. - -That eels are not devoid of sagacity is proved by many well authenticated -anecdotes. "In Otaheite," says Ellis in his "Polynesian Researches," -"they are fed till they attain an enormous size. These pets are kept in -large holes two or three feet deep, partially filled with water. On the -sides of these pits they generally remain, excepting when called by the -person who feeds them. I have been several times with the young chief -when he has sat down by the side of the hole, and by giving a shrill sort -of whistle has brought out an enormous eel, which has moved about the -surface of the water and eaten with confidence out of his master's hand." - -The eel has many enemies, among others the common heron, who, in spite -of the slippery skin of his victim, knows how to drive his denticulated -middle claw into his body, or to strike him with his pointed bill. -Yarrell relates that a heron had once struck his sharp beak through -the head of an eel, piercing both eyes, and that the eel--no doubt -remembering that one good turn deserves another--had coiled itself so -tightly round the neck of the heron as to stop the bird's respiration: -both were dead. - -The London market is principally supplied with eels from Holland, -a country where they abound. According to Mr. Mayhew, about ten -millions of eels, amounting to a weight of 1,500,000 lbs., are -annually sold in Billingsgate market. These figures show us at once -that the multiplication of eels in our sluggish rivers, which only -contain such fish as are comparatively speaking worthless, is a matter -worth consideration, and powerfully pleads for the protection and -transplantation of the elvers wherever they are likely to prosper. - -Eels are extremely susceptible of cold; none whatever are found in the -Arctic regions, and at the approach of winter they bury themselves in -the mud, where they remain in a state of torpidity until the genial -warmth of spring recalls them to a more active state of existence. -In this condition they are frequently taken by eel-spears, and in -Somersetshire the people know how to find the holes in the banks of -rivers in which eels are laid up, by the hoar-frost not lying over them -as it does elsewhere, and dig them out in heaps. Though generally only -from two to three feet long, eels sometimes acquire a much larger size. -Specimens six feet long and fifteen pounds in weight are occasionally -captured, and Yarrell saw at Cambridge the preserved skins of two which -weighed together fifty pounds. They were taken on draining a fen-dyke at -Wisbeach. As eels are but slow in growth, these sizes speak for a great -longevity. - -[Illustration: Conger Eel.] - -The Conger is in its general appearance so nearly allied to the common -eel that it might easily be mistaken for the same species. It, however, -materially differs from it by its darker colour in the upper part, and -its brighter hue beneath, by its dorsal fin beginning near the head, and -by its snout generally projecting beyond the lower jaw. - -This marine giant of the eel tribe attains a length of ten feet, and a -weight of 130 pounds, and is well known on all the rocky parts of the -coast of the British Islands, though nowhere more abundant than on the -Cornish coast, where, according to Mr. Couch, it is not uncommon for a -boat with three men to bring on shore from five hundredweight to two -tons. The fishing for congers is always performed at night, and not -unattended with danger, as it is quite a common occurrence for a conger -to attack the fishermen with open jaws, and so great is the strength of -the large specimens that they have occasionally succeeded in pulling the -fisherman quite out of his boat, if by any chance he has fastened the -line to his arm. The congers that keep among rocks hide themselves in -crevices, where they are not unfrequently left by the retiring tide; but -in situations free from rocks, congers hide themselves by burrowing in -the ground, where it is customary on some parts of the coast of France to -employ dogs in their search. In spite of its tough flesh and exceedingly -nauseous smell, the conger was highly esteemed by Greek epicures, and -in England in the time of the Henrys considered an article of food fit -for a king. Thus, the Prince and Poins, according to Falstaff's account, -found amongst other reasons for their companionship this one: that both -of them were fond of conger and fennel sauce. In our times its flesh, -though banished from all aristocratic tables, meets a ready sale at a -low price among the poorer classes. In the Isle of Man the conger may be -said to take the place of the poor man's pig; it is his bacon, which he -would find difficult to save if it were not for these large eels, which -are caught in great abundance, and sold at the rate of 2_d._ or 3_d._ per -lb. The Manx men split the congers, and then salt them and hang them up -to dry on their cottage walls, where they do not exactly contribute to -perfume the gale. - -The Murry or Muræna differs from the common eel by the want of pectoral -fins, and its beautifully-marked skin. It is said to live with equal -facility in fresh or salt water, though generally found at sea, and it -is as common in the Pacific as it is in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. -The only specimen on record as a British fish was caught by a fisherman -of Polperro, October 8, 1834; its length was four feet four inches. The -muræna has acquired a kind of historical celebrity from the strange -fondness with which it was cherished by the Romans, who preserved large -quantities of them in their numerous vivaria, as we do the lustrous -gold-fish in the water-basins of our gardens. A certain Cajus Hirrius, -who lived in the time of Julius Cæsar, was the first that introduced -the fashion, which soon became a passion among the wealthy senators and -knights of the imperial city, who used to deck their especial pets with -all kinds of ornaments. The celebrated orator, Hortensius, the rival of -Cicero, had a _piscina_ at Bauli, on the gulf of Baiæ, where he took -great delight in a favourite murry that would come at his call and feed -from his hand. When the creature died, he was unable to stop his tears; -and another celebrated Roman, L. Licinius Crassus, appears to have had -an equally tender heart, for he, too, wept at the death of his fishy -darling. Vedius Pollio, a Roman knight, has even acquired through these -fishes a scandalous renown, by causing now and then a slave that had -been guilty of some slight offence to be cast alive and naked into their -piscina, and amusing himself with the sight of the murrys lacerating and -devouring the body. That this wretch was a friend of the Emperor Augustus -harmonises but badly with the ideas of the urbanity of his court which -we may have formed from the poems of Horace and Virgil. It is but fair, -however, to the character of the emperor to state that he reprobated -Pollio's cruelty, and ordered his fish-pond to be filled up. - -[Illustration: Ammodyte, or Launce.] - -The Launces are distinguished from the eels by their large gill openings, -and their caudal fin being separated from their dorsal and anal fins. The -common Sand Launce abounds on many parts of our shore. On account of its -silvery brightness it is highly esteemed by the fishermen as bait for -their hooks, and its remarkable habit of burrowing in the sand as the -tide recedes affords easy means of capture. While underground, it most -likely gets hold of many an unfortunate lob-worm, mollusc, or crustacean, -but on emerging from its retreat it is in its turn preyed upon by the -larger fishes. On a calm evening it is an interesting sight to see the -surface of the water broken by the repeated plunges of the voracious -mackerel as they burst upon the launces from beneath. On the sands at -Portobello, near Edinburgh, people of all ages may be seen when the tide -is out diligently searching for the sand launce, and raking them out with -iron hooks. On the south coast of Devonshire, where the sand launces are -extremely plentiful, the fishermen employ a small seine with a fine mesh, -and are frequently so successful that six or seven bushels are taken -at one haul. The usual length of the sand launce is from five to seven -inches. In many localities it is prepared for table, and considered a -great delicacy. - -Although the Lamprey essentially differs from the eel in the formation -of its gills, the softness of its cartilaginous skeleton, and its -funnel-shaped mouth provided with sharp teeth, disposed in circles, yet -it resembles it closely in its outward form. Its colour is generally -a dull brownish olive, clouded with yellowish-white variegations; the -fins are tinged with dull orange, and the tail with blue. The Marine -or Sea Lamprey inhabits the ocean, but ascends the rivers in spring. -Though capable of swimming with considerable vigour and rapidity, it -is more commonly seen attached by the mouth to some large stone or -other substance, the body hanging at rest, or obeying the motion of the -current. Its power of adhesion is so great that a weight of more than -twelve pounds may be raised without forcing the fish to quit its hold. -Like the eel, it is remarkably tenacious of life, the head strongly -attaching itself for several hours to a stone, though by far the greater -part of the body be cut away from it. The lamprey is still considered -as a delicacy; every schoolboy knows that King Henry I. died of an -indigestion caused by this favourite dish; and the town of Gloucester -still sends every Christmas a lamprey-pie to Queen Victoria, such as it -was wont to offer to its sovereign in the days of the Plantagenets and -Tudors. - -[Illustration: Myxine.] - -The Myxine, Glutinous Hag, or Borer, bears a near resemblance to the -lamprey, but stands upon a much inferior degree of organisation, having -no eyes--(the sole example of blindness among fishes), and a still softer -skeleton, so that, when boiled, it almost entirely dissolves into mucus. -In the lamprey and myxine, the branchial cells, which admit water, are -lined by the delicate membrane through which the blood is aërated. In the -former, however, the external apertures of the branchial cells are placed -on the side of the neck; while in the myxine, which feeds on the internal -parts of its prey, and buries its head and part of its body in the -flesh, the openings of the respiratory organs are removed sufficiently -far back to admit of the respiration going on while the animal's head -is so inserted. Thus, even in this lowest and meanest of all vertebrate -animals, we find a remarkable adaptation of its construction to its -wants, and the proof that it has been as well taken care of by its -Creator as the highest organised creatures of its class. - -[Illustration: Porcupine-Fish--(Diodon hystrix.)] - -[Illustration: Globe-Fish.] - -[Illustration: Short Sun-Fish.--(Orthagoriscus Mola.)] - -[Illustration: Trunk-Fish.--(Ostracion triqueter.)] - -[Illustration: File-Fish.--(Balistes erythropterus.)] - - -One of the most remarkable orders of fishes is that of the Plectognaths, -which are distinguished by having the superior maxillary bones and -the intermaxillaries soldered together so as to render the upper jaw -immovable, or incapable of projection. Among the Plectognaths, we -find among others the prickly Globe-fishes and sea-porcupines; the -curiously-shaped Sun-fishes, all head and no body; the Ostracions -or Trunk-fishes, clothed like the armadillos in a defensive coat of -mail, leaving only the tail, fins, mouth, and a small portion of the -gill-opening, capable of motion; and the gorgeous Balistæ or File-fishes, -which owe their family-name to the peculiar structure of their first -dorsal fin. The first and strongest spine of this organ is studded up -the front with numerous small projections, which, under the microscope, -look like so many points of enamel or pearl arising from the surface of -the bone and giving it the appearance of a file. The second smaller spine -has in the fore part of its base a projection which, when the spines are -elevated, locks into a corresponding notch in the posterior base of the -first spine, and fixes it like the trigger of a gun-lock; from which the -fish is called in Italy _pesce balestra_, or the cross-bow fish. The -strong spine cannot be forced down till the small one has been first -depressed and the catch disengaged. - -The Plectognaths are mostly denizens of the warmer seas, but the -pig-faced trigger-fish of the Mediterranean (_Balistes capriscus_) has -been caught three times in the British waters since 1827, and the short -sun-fish or molebut, though occurring but occasionally, may be said to -have been taken from John o' Groat's to the Land's End. It grows to an -immense size, often attaining the diameter of four feet, sometimes even -double that size, and occasionally weighing from 300 to 500 pounds. -When observed in our seas, the sun-fishes have generally appeared as -though they were dead or dying, floating lazily along on one side and -making little or no attempt to escape. It is to be presumed that in more -congenial waters they evince a greater degree of liveliness. - -The order of the Lophobranchii is in many respects too curious and -interesting to be passed over in silence. Here the gills, instead of -being as usual ranged like the teeth of a comb, are clustered into -small filamentous tufts placed by pairs along the branchial arches; -the face projects into a long tubular snout, having the mouth either -at its extremity, as in the Hippocampus and in the Pipe-fishes, or at -its base, as in the Pegasus of the Indian seas; and the body is covered -with shields or small plates, which often give it an angular form, -and encase it as it were in jointed armour. But the most interesting -feature of their economy is the pouches in which the males of the most -characteristic genera carry the eggs until they are hatched. In the -hippocampi this provision for the safety of the future generation, which -strongly reminds one of the kangaroo or the opossum, forms a perfect -sack, opening at its commencement only; in the pipe-fishes it is closed -along its whole length by two soft flaps folding over each other. Another -peculiarity of these interesting little fishes is the independent motion -of their eyes, the one glancing hither and thither while its fellow -remains motionless, or looks in different directions. This phenomenon of -_double_ vision, which was long supposed to be peculiar to the chameleon, -is, however, not confined to this singular reptile or to the hippocampi -and pipe-fishes, but has been found by Mr. Gosse to exist likewise in -the Little Weever (_Trachinus vipera_), in the Suckers (_Lepidogastri_), -a small family remarkable for the power they possess of attaching -themselves to stones or rocks by means of an adhesive disk on the under -surface of their bodies, and in several other fishes. - -When imprisoned in an aquarium, few subjects of the deep display more -intelligence or afford more entertainment than the little _Hippocampus -brevirostris_, or Sea-Horse. - -[Illustration: Sea-Horse.] - -"While swimming about," says Mr. Lukis,[P] "it maintains a vertical -position, but the tail, ready to grasp whatever meets it in the water, -quickly entwines itself in any direction round the weeds, and, when -fixed, the animal intently watches the surrounding objects, and darts -at its prey with great dexterity. When two of them approach each other, -they often twist their tails together, and struggle to separate or attach -themselves to the weeds; this is done by the under part of their cheeks -or chin, which is also used for raising the body when a new spot is -wanted for the tail to fasten upon afresh." - -[Footnote P: Yarrell, "British Fishes," 3rd edition, vol. ii. p. 396.] - -"In captivity," says Mr. Gosse, "the manners of the Worm Pipe-Fish -(_Syngnathus lambriciformis_), the smallest of our native species, are -amusing and engaging. Its beautiful eyes move independently of each -other, like those of the chameleon, and another point of resemblance to -that animal our little pipe-fish presents in the prehensile character of -its tail. It curves just the tip of this organ laterally round the stem -or frond of some sea-weed and holds on by this half-inch or so, while -the rest of its body roves to and fro, elevating and depressing the head -and fore parts, and throwing the body into the most graceful curves. All -the motions of the Pipe-fish manifest much intelligence. It is a timid -little thing, retiring from the side of the glass at which it had been -lying when one approaches, and hiding under the shadow of the sea-weeds, -which I have put in, both to afford it shelter, and also to supply food -in the numerous animalcules that inhabit these marine plants. Then it -cautiously glides among their bushy fronds, and from under their shelter -peeps with its brilliant eyes at the intruder as if wondering what he -can be, drawing back gently at any alarming motion. In swimming, it is -constantly throwing its body into elegant contortions and undulations; -often it hangs nearly perpendicular with the tail near the surface; now -and then it butts against the side of the vessel with reiterated blows of -its nose, as if it could not make out why it should not go forward where -it can see no impediment. Now it twists about as if it would tie its body -into a love knot, then hangs motionless in some one of the 'lines of -beauty' in which it has accidentally paused." - -The family of the Pleuronectidæ or Flat-fishes recommends itself to our -notice as much by the singularity of its form as by its usefulness to -man. "The want of symmetry," says Yarrell, "so unusual in vertebrated -animals, is the most striking and distinctive character of these fishes: -the twisted head with both eyes on the same side, one higher than the -other, not in the same vertical line, and often unequal in size; the -mouth cleft awry, and the frequent want of uniformity in those fins that -are in pairs, the pectoral and ventral fins of the under side being -generally smaller; and the whole of the colour of the fish confined -to one side, while the other side remains white, produce a grotesque -appearance: yet a little consideration will prove that these various and -seemingly obvious anomalies are perfectly in harmony with that station in -nature which an animal possessing such conformation is appointed to fill. - -"As birds are seen to occupy very different situations, some obtaining -their food on the ground, others on trees, and not a few at various -degrees of elevation in the air, so are fishes destined to reside in -different depths of water. The flat-fishes and the various species of -skate are, by their depressed form of body, admirably adapted to inhabit -the lowest position, where they occupy the least space among their -kindred fishes." - -"Preferring sandy or muddy shores, the place of the flat-fish is close -to the ground; where, hiding their bodies horizontally in the loose soil -at the bottom, with the head only slightly elevated, an eye on the under -side of the head would be useless; but as both eyes are placed on the -upper surface, an extensive range of view is afforded in those various -directions in which they may either endeavour to find suitable food or -avoid dangerous enemies. Light, one great cause of colour, strikes on the -upper surface only; the under surface, like that of most other fishes, -remains perfectly colourless. Having little or no means of defence, -had their colour been placed only above the lateral line on each side, -in whatever position they moved their piebald appearance would have -rendered them conspicuous objects to all their enemies. When near the -ground, they swim slowly, maintaining their horizontal position; and the -smaller pectoral and ventral fins, on the under side, are advantageous -where there is so much less room for their action than with the larger -fins that are above. When suddenly disturbed, they sometimes make a rapid -shoot, changing their position from horizontal to vertical; and, if the -observer happens to be opposite the white side, they may be seen to pass -with the rapidity and flash of a meteor. Soon, however, they sink down -again, resuming their previous motionless horizontal position, and are -then distinguished with difficulty, owing to their great similarity in -colour to the surface on which they rest." - -The number of species of the flat-fishes diminishes as the degrees of -northern latitude increase. In this country we have twenty-three species; -at the parallel of Jutland there are thirteen; on the coast of Norway -they are reduced to ten; in Iceland the number is but five, and in -Greenland only three. - -[Illustration: Halibut.] - -Many of them attain a considerable size, particularly the Halibut -(_Pleuronectes hippoglossus_). In April 1828 a specimen seven feet six -inches long and three feet six inches broad was taken off the Isle of -Man, and sent to Edinburgh market. Olafsen mentions that he saw one which -measured five ells; and we are told by the Norwegian fishermen that a -single halibut will sometimes cover a whole skiff. Let us, however, -remember that these stories proceed from the country where monstrous -krakens and sea-snakes are most frequently seen, and where the mists of -the north seem to produce strange delusions of vision. At all events, the -halibut is better entitled to the name of _maximus_ than its relation the -Turbot, to which that epithet has been improperly applied by naturalists. -The turbot, equally esteemed by the ancients and the moderns for the -delicacy of its flesh, is often confounded in our markets with the -halibut, but may be easily recognised by the large unequal and obtuse -tubercles on its upper part. - -[Illustration: Turbot.] - -The number of turbot brought to Billingsgate within twelve months, up to -a recent period, was 87,958. Though very considerable quantities of this -fish are now taken on various parts of our own coasts, from the Orkneys -to the Land's End, yet a preference is given to those caught by the Dutch -fishermen, who are supposed to draw not less than 80,000_l._ for the -supply of the London market alone. According to Mr. Low, it is rare along -our most northern shores, but increases in numbers on proceeding to the -south. - -[Illustration: Sole.] - -Next to the turbot, the Sole is reckoned the most delicate of the -flat-fishes. It inhabits the sandy shore all round our coast, where it -keeps close to the bottom, indiscriminately feeding on smaller testaceous -animals, crustacea, annelides, radiata, and the spawn and fry of other -fishes. It is found northward as far as the Baltic and the seas of -Scandinavia, and southward along the shores of Spain, Portugal, and the -Mediterranean. The consumption is enormous, for Mr. Bertram informs us -that no less than 100,000,000 soles are annually brought to the London -market.[Q] They seldom take any bait, and are caught almost entirely by -trawling. The principal fishing-ground in England is along the south -coast from Sussex to Devonshire, where the soles are much larger and -considered otherwise superior to those of the north and east. On the -Devonshire coast, the great fishing-station is at Brixham in Torbay, -where the boats, using large trawling nets from thirty to thirty-six feet -in beam, produce a continual supply. - -[Footnote Q: We are told by the same author ("Harvest of the Seas," -Murray, 1866) that 500,000 cod-fish, 25,000,000 mackerel, 35,000,000 -plaice, and 200,000,000 haddocks, &c., form the yearly supply of the -metropolis, which, besides this immense number of white-fish, consumes -50,000,000 red herrings and 1,600,000 dried cod. These, with the addition -of Molluscous shell-fish (oysters, &c.) to the amount of 920,000,000, -and a daily demand for 10,000 lobsters during the season, afford an -instructive indication of what must be the requirement of the whole -population of the United Kingdom as regards fish food. - -The Report of the Commissioners appointed in the year 1863 to enquire -into the sea-fisheries of the United Kingdom gives us the gratifying -intelligence that the number of fishermen in Great Britain has nearly -doubled within the last twenty years, while the boats are increasing -in number and size. No class of the population is said to be in a more -flourishing condition; and this prosperity is no doubt mainly due to -the railroads, which have opened throughout the whole kingdom a ready -market for the produce of the seas. In Ireland, however, there has been -a diminution of 10,583 boats and 52,127 men within the same time; a -consequence of the famine of 1848, and subsequent emigration.] - -[Illustration: Plaice.] - -The Plaice and Flounder, though far inferior to the sole in quality, are -still in great request as articles of food. On the English coast, the -plaice are obtained in abundance on all sandy banks and muddy grounds, -wherever either lines or trawl-nets can be used. On the sandy flats of -the Solway Frith, they are taken by the fishermen and their families -wading in the shoal water with bare feet. When a fish is felt, it is -pressed by the foot firmly against the bottom until it can be secured by -the hand and transferred to the basket. Long practice gives the dexterity -which renders this kind of fishing successful. - -In some parts of the North of Europe, where from the rocky nature of -the soil the sea is remarkably transparent, plaice and some other -flat-fish of large size are taken by dropping down upon them from a boat -a doubly-barbed short spear, heavily leaded, to carry it with velocity -to the bottom, with a line attached to it, by which the fish, when -transfixed, is hauled up. - -[Illustration: The Flounder.] - -The Flounder, one of the most common of the flat-fish, is found in -the sea and near the mouths of large streams all round our coast, -particularly where the bottom is soft, whether of sand, clay, or mud. It -also ascends the rivers, and is caught in considerable quantities from -Deptford to Richmond by Thames fishermen, who, with the assistance of an -apprentice, use a net of a particular sort, called a tuck-sean. "One end -of this net," says Yarrell, "is fixed for a short time by an anchor or -grapple, and its situation marked by a floating buoy; the boat is then -rowed or rather sculled by the apprentice in a circle, the fisherman near -the stern handing out and clearing the net: when the circle is completed -and a space enclosed, the net is hauled in near the starting-point in a -direction across the fixed end." - -The Sail-fluke, a species of flat-fish common among the Orkneys, where it -is highly prized as an article of food, its flesh being firm and white, -is remarkable for its curious habit of coming ashore spontaneously, with -its tail erected above the water, like a boat under sail, whence it has -derived its name. This it does generally in calm weather, and on sandy -shores, and the country people residing near such places train their dogs -to catch it. In North Ronaldshay, the northernmost island of the group, a -considerable supply is obtained in an original manner: thus described in -a letter from a resident inserted in Yarrell's "British Fishes:" "In the -winter and early spring, a pair of black-headed gulls take possession of -the South Bay, drive away all interlopers, and may be seen at daybreak -every morning, beating from side to side, on the wing, and never both in -one place, except in the act of crossing as they pass. The sail-fluke -skims the ridge of the wave towards the shore with its tail raised over -its back, and when the wave recedes is left on the sand, into which -it burrows so suddenly and completely that, though I have watched its -approach, only once have I succeeded in finding its burrow. - -"The gull, however, has a surer eye, and casting like a hawk pounces on -the fluke, from which, by one stroke of its bill, it extracts the liver. -If not disturbed, the gull no sooner gorges the luscious morsel than -it commences dragging the fish to some outlying rock, where he and his -consort may discuss it at leisure. By robbing the black backs, I have -had the house supplied daily with this excellent fish, in weather during -which no fishing-boat could put to sea. Close to the beach of South Bay, -a stone wall has been raised to shelter the crops from the sea-spray. -Behind this we posted a smart lad, who kept his eye on the soaring gulls. -The moment one of the birds made its well-known swoop, the boy rushed to -the sea-strand shouting out with all his might. He was usually in time -to scare the gull away and secure the fluke, but almost in every case -with the liver torn out. If the gull by chance succeeded in carrying his -prey off the rock, he and his partner set up a triumphant cackling, as if -deriding the disappointed lad." - -[Illustration: Thornback.] - -The Rays resemble the side-swimmers by the flatness of their form, but -differ widely from them in many other particulars. Like the sharks and -sturgeons, they belong to the cartilaginous fishes, and as their branchiæ -adhere to the cells, these respiratory membranes are not furnished with -a gill-cover, but communicate freely with the water by means of five -spiracles on either side. More unsightly fishes can hardly be conceived. -The rhomboidal broad body, the long narrow tail frequently furnished with -two and sometimes three small fins, and mostly armed with one or more -rows of sharp spines along its whole length, the dirty colour, and the -thick coat of slime with which it is covered, render them pre-eminently -disgusting. Their mode of defending themselves is very effectual, and -forms a striking contrast to the helplessness of the flat fish. The point -of the nose and the base of the tail are bent upwards towards each other, -and the upper surface of the body being then concave, the tail is lashed -about in all directions over it, and the rows of sharp spines frequently -inflict severe wounds. - -Eleven species of rays are found on the British coasts, some, like the -skates, with a perfectly smooth skin; others, like the thornback, with -an upper surface studded with spines, and some, like the sting-ray, -with a tail still more powerfully armed with a long serrated spine: a -formidable weapon, which the fish strikes with the swiftness of an arrow -into its prey or enemy, when with its winding tail it makes the capture -secure. The lacerations inflicted by the tropical sting-rays produce the -most excruciating tortures. An Indian who accompanied Richard Schomburgk -on his travels through Guiana, being hit by one of these fishes while -fording a river, tottered to the bank, where he fell upon the ground and -rolled about on the sand with compressed lips in an agony of pain. But no -tear started from the eye, no cry of anguish issued from the breast, of -the stoical savage. An Indian boy wounded in the some manner, but less -able to master his emotions, howled fearfully, and flung himself upon the -sand, biting it in the paroxysm of his anguish. Although both had been -hit in the foot, they felt the severest pain in the loins, in the region -of the heart, and in the arm-pits. A robust man, wounded by a sting-ray, -died in Demarara under the most dreadful convulsions. - -The rays are very voracious; their food consists of any sort of fish, -mollusc, annelide, or crustacean, that they can catch. So powerful are -their muscles and jaws that they are able to crush the strong shell of a -crab with the greatest ease. Even in our seas they attain a considerable -size. Thomas Willoughby makes mention of a single skate of two hundred -pounds' weight, which was sold in the fish market at Cambridge to the -cook of St. John's College, and was found sufficient for the dinner of -a society, consisting of more than a hundred and twenty persons. Dr. G. -Johnston measured a sharp-nosed ray at Berwick, which was seven feet -nine inches long and eight feet three inches broad. But our European -rays are far from equalling the colossal dimensions of the sea-devil of -the Pacific. This terrific monster swims fast, and often appears on the -surface of the ocean, where its black unwieldy back looks like a huge -stone projecting above the waters. It attains a breadth of twelve or -fifteen feet, and Lesson was presented by a fisherman of Borabora with -a tail five feet long. The Society Islanders catch the hideous animal -with harpoons, and make use of its rough skin as rasps or files in the -manufacture of their wooden utensils. - -Creatures so voracious and well armed as the rays would have attained -a dangerous supremacy in the maritime domains had they equalled most -other fishes in fecundity. Fortunately for their neighbours, they seldom -produce more than one young at a time, which, as in the sharks, is -enclosed in a four-cornered capsule ending in slender points, but not, as -in the former, produced into long filaments. - -Thus nature has in this case set bounds to the increase of a race which -else might have destroyed the balance of marine existence; in most -fishes, however, she has been obliged to provide against the danger of -extinction by a prodigal abundance of new germs. If the cod did not -annually produce more than nine millions of eggs, and the sturgeon more -than seven; if the flat-fish, mackerels, and herrings, did not multiply -by hundreds of thousands, they could not possibly maintain themselves -against the vast number of their enemies. "Not one egg too much," every -one will say who considers that of all the myriads of germs which are -deposited on the shallow sand-banks and shores to be quickened by the -fructifying warmth of the sun, not one in a hundred comes to life, as -fishes and molluscs, crabs and radiata, devour the spawn with equal -voracity; that a thousand dangers await the young defenceless fry, since -everywhere in the oceanic realms no other right is known than that of -the stronger; and that, finally, the insatiable rapacity of man is -continually extirpating millions on millions of the full-grown fishes. -But if very few of this much-persecuted race die a natural death, a life -of liberty makes them some amends for their violent end. The tortured -cart-horse or the imprisoned nightingale would, if they could reflect, -willingly exchange their hard lot and joyless existence for the free -life of the independent fish, who, from the greater simplicity of his -structure, his want of higher sensibilities, his excellent digestion, -and the more equal temperature of the element in which he lives, remains -unmolested by many of the diseases to which the warm-blooded and -particularly the domestic animals are subject. - -[Illustration: Dory.] - - - - -CHAP. XIII. - -CRUSTACEA. - -CRABS--LOBSTERS. - - How are they distinguished from the Insects?--Barnacles and - Acorn-shells.--Siphonostomata.--Entomostraca.--King-Crab. - --Edriophthalmia.--Sandhoppers.--Thoracostraca.--Compound - Eye of the higher Crustaceans.--Respiratory Apparatus of the - Decapods.--Digestive Organs.--Chelæ or Pincers.--Distribution - of Crabs.--Land Crabs.--The Calling Crab.--Modifications of the - Legs in different species.--The Pinna and Pinnotheres.--Hermit - Crabs.--The Lobster.--The Cocoa-nut Crab.--The Shrimp.--Moulting - Process.--Metamorphoses of Crabs.--Victims and Enemies of the - Crustaceans.--Their Fecundity.--Marine Spiders and Insects. - -[Illustration: Barnacle.] - -[Illustration: Balanus ovularis.] - -[Illustration: Development of Balanus balanoides.--(Acorn-shell.) - -A. Earliest form. B. Larva after second moult. C. Side view of the same. -D. Stage immediately preceding the loss of activity. _a._ Stomach. _b._ -Nucleus of future attachment.] - -The Crustaceans were included by Linnæus among his insects, but their -internal structure presents such numerous and important differences -that modern naturalists have raised them to the dignity of a separate -class. They have indeed, in common with the insects, an articulated body, -generally cased with hard materials; they are like them provided with -jointed legs, with antennæ or feelers, and their organs of mastication -are similarly formed; but insects breathe atmospheric air through lateral -pores or tracheæ, while the crustaceans, being either aquatic animals -or constantly frequenting very damp places, have a branchial or a -tegumentary respiration. The perfect insect undergoes no further change; -the crustacean, on the contrary, increases in size with every successive -year. The higher crustacean possesses a heart, which propels the blood, -after it has been aërated in the gills, to every part of the body; in the -insect the circulation of the blood is by no means so highly organised. -On the other hand many of the insects are far superior in point of -intelligence to even the best endowed crustaceans, for here we find no -parental care, no mutual affection, no joint labours for the welfare of -a large community, no traces of an amiable disposition, but frequent -outbursts of an irascible and sanguinary temper. Though the whole of the -Crustacea are formed after one and the same general type, and the same -fundamental idea may be traced throughout all their tribes, yet the rings -of which their body is composed, and the limbs or appendages attached to -these segments, undergo such extensive modifications of structure in the -various orders into which the class has been divided that even the eye -of science has with difficulty made out the true nature of many of their -lowest forms. Who, for instance, judging from outward appearances alone, -would suppose that the Barnacles and Acorn-shells which he sees riveted -to the rock or to a piece of floating timber were relations of the crab -or lobster; but a view of their early forms at once points out their real -character, for then they appear as active little animals possessing three -pairs of legs and a pair of compound eyes, and having the body covered -with an expanded shield like that of many of the lower crustaceans. -After going through a series of metamorphoses, these larvæ, tired of a -roaming life, attach themselves by their head, a portion of which becomes -excessively elongated into the "peduncle" of the Barnacles, whilst in -the Balani or acorn-shells it expands into a broad disk of adhesion. The -multivalve shell is gradually formed, the eyes are cast away as being -no longer needed, and the now useless feet are replaced by six pairs of -extremely useful _cirrhi_, long, slender, many-jointed, tendril-like -appendages fringed with delicate filaments and covered with vibratile -cilia. These cirrhi, which resemble a plume of purple feathers, and from -whose peculiar character the name of the group, Cirrhipoda, is derived, -are constantly in motion as long as they are bathed in water, projecting -outwards and expanding into an oval concave net, then retracting inwards, -and closing upon whatever may have come within their reach. They are -so judiciously placed that any small animal which becomes entangled -within them can rarely escape, and is at once conveyed to the mouth. The -currents produced in the water by their perpetual activity serve also to -aërate the blood, so that these delicate organs act both as gills and -as prehensile arms. In spite of their sessile condition, the Cirrhipeds -have not been left without protection against hostile attacks, for at the -approach of danger they shrink within their shell, and close its orifice -against a host of hungry intruders. - -Their various families are widely spread over the seas. It is well known -that the barnacles frequently attach themselves in such vast numbers to -ships' bottoms as materially to obstruct their way, and the acorn-shells -often line the coasts for miles and miles with their large white scurfy -patches. The Coronulæ settle so profusely on the skin of the Greenland -whale as often to hide the colour of its skin, while the Tubicinellæ -exclusively occur on the huge cetaceans of the South Sea. Some of the -larger sea-acorns are highly esteemed as articles of food. The Chinese, -after eating the animal of _Balanus tintinnabulum_ with salt and vinegar, -use the shell, which is about two or three inches high and an inch in -diameter, as a lamp, and the flesh of _Balanus psittacus_ on the southern -parts of the South American coast is said to equal in richness and -delicacy that of the crab. - -While the Cirrhipeds grasp their prey as in a living net, the -Siphonostomata lead a parasitic life chiefly upon fishes, sucking their -juices with a bloodthirsty proboscis. Some (Argulus, Caligus) wander -about freely on the body of their victims as grazing animals on their -pasture grounds, or even make excursions in the water, where they will -turn over and over several times in succession like mountebanks; others -(Lerneæ), after having, like the barnacles, indulged in a vagabond -existence in their first youth, remain ever after clinging to the spot -on which they originally settled, and where their body undergoes such -remarkable transformations that not a vestige of the crustacean structure -which characterised their erratic life remains. - -As we continue to proceed from the lower to the higher forms, we find, -on the next stage of crustacean life, the numerous families of the -Entomostraca; some bristly-footed (Lophyropoda), with a small number -of legs and with respiratory organs attached to the parts in the -neighbourhood of the mouth, others gill-footed (Branchiopoda), with -numerous foliaceous legs, serving both for respiration and swimming. Some -of these creatures, which are generally of such minute size as to be only -just visible to the naked eye, have an unprotected body (Branchipus), -but generally they are enclosed within a horny or shelly casing, which -sometimes closely resembles a bivalve shell in shape and in the mode -of junction of its parts, whilst in other instances it forms a kind of -buckler, an opening being left behind, through which the members project. - -[Illustration: King-Crab.] - -Though enjoying a royal title, the King-crabs, or Limuli, occupy in -reality but a low rank among the crustaceans, and are hardly superior -in organisation to the Entomostraca. They are of large size, sometimes -attaining the length of two feet, and of a very singular structure, the -bases of the legs performing the part of jaws. The best-known species -comes from the Moluccas, where they are often seen slowly swimming in the -sheltered bays, or still more slowly crawling along upon the sandy shores. - -[Illustration: Sandhopper.] - -In the Edriophthalmia are included the lower crustaceans that have -no carapace, and whose thorax and abdomen are distinctly composed of -articulated segments. The numerous legs are variously formed in the -different genera for springing, walking, or swimming; and respiration -is executed by certain portions of the extremities, modified for this -purpose in their structure. To this order belong among others the -saltatorial sandhoppers (Talitrus), which so frequently jump up before -our feet when walking on the wet sea-sand; the ill-famed Cheluræ and -Linnoriæ, whose devastations in submerged timber almost rival those of -the ship-worm, and the parasitical Cyami, which gnaw deep holes into the -skin of the whale. The sandhoppers are extremely frequent on the shores -of the arctic seas, where they emulate the tropical ants in their speedy -removal of decaying animal substances. Thus Captain Holböll relates that, -having enclosed a piece of shark's flesh in a basket, and let it down to -a depth of seventy-five fathoms, in the Greenland sea, he by this means -caught within two hours six quarts of these little creatures, while a -vast number still followed the basket as it was hauled up. - - -[Illustration: Chelura terebrans.] - -[Illustration: Limnoria lignorum.] - -[Illustration: Square facets of Scyllarus.] - -[Illustration: Hexagonal facets of Squilla.] - -As the lower crustaceans offer but few points of interest to the general -reader, they required but a few words of notice; but the highest order of -the class, the Thoracostraca, thus named from the carapace which covers -their thorax, so that only the abdomen presents an annular structure, -may justly claim a more ample description. The preceding orders had -either sessile eyes or none at all; here the movable eyes are fixed on -stalks and of a compound structure like those of the insects; each ocular -globe consisting of a number of distinct parallel columns, every one of -which is provided with its own crystalline lens, receives its separate -impression of light, and is thus in itself a perfect eye. Approaches to -this structure are seen in some of the lower crustaceans; but here the -"ocelli," as these minute individual eyes have been designated, are very -numerous. They are at once recognised, under even a low magnifying power, -by the facetted appearance of the surface of the compound eye, the facets -being either square (Scyllari, &c.) or more commonly hexagonal (Paguri, -Squillæ, &c). The auditory apparatus is likewise highly developed; the -sense of smell is known to be very acute; and the antennæ are delicate -organs of touch. - -The Thoracostraca are subdivided into the small group of the Stomatopoda, -whose branchiæ are external and the feet prehensile or formed for -swimming, and the far more numerous and important Decapods, which are -either long-tailed like the scyllarus or short-tailed like the crab. In -these the branchiæ no longer float in the water, but are enclosed in two -chambers, situated one at each side of the under surface of the broad -shelly plate which covers the back of the animal. Each of these chambers -is provided with two apertures, one in the front near the jaws, the other -behind. - -[Illustration: Scyllarus equinoxialis.] - -The disposition of the anterior or efferent orifice varies but little; -but in the long-tailed species the afferent or posterior orifice is a -wide slit at the basis of the feet, while in the short-tailed kinds it -forms a small transverse aperture generally placed almost immediately -in front of the first pair of ambulatory extremities. By means of this -formation, the short-tailed decapods or crabs, like those fishes that -are provided with a narrow opening to their gill covers, are enabled -to exist much longer out of the water than the long-tailed lobsters. -Some of them even spend most of their time on land; and, still better -to adapt them for a terrestrial life, the internal surfaces of the -branchial caverns are lined with a spongy texture, and the gill branches -separated from each other by hard partitions, so as to prevent them from -collapsing after a long penury of water and thus completely stopping the -circulation. While in fishes the water that serves for respiration flows -from the front backwards, so as not to impede their motions, we find -in the interior of the branchial cavity of the decapods a large valve -attached to the second pair of maxillary feet, which, continually falling -and rising, occasions a rapid current from behind forwards in the water -with which the cavity is filled, a structure perfectly harmonising with -their retrograde or sidelong movements. - -The digestive apparatus of the decapods is of a very complicated -structure. The mouth is here furnished with at least eight pieces or -pairs of jaws, which pass the food through an extremely short gullet -into a stomach of considerable size. This stomach is rendered curious -by having within certain cartilaginous appendages, to which strong -grinding-teeth are attached. These are placed at the outlet of the -stomach, so that the aliment, after being subjected to the action of -the jaws, is again more perfectly comminuted by the stomach-teeth -before entering the digestive tube. The different pieces composing the -masticatory apparatus of the stomach vary considerably in the different -genera, and even in the several species of the same genus; but in every -case they are always singularly in harmony with the kind of food taken -and the general habits of the animal. - -To enable the decapods to seize their victims or to defend themselves -against their enemies, their anterior thoracic extremities generally -assume the form of "chelæ," claws, or pincers of considerable strength, -armed with teeth or sharp hooks, which give them increased powers -of prehension. This form results mainly from the state of extreme -development in which the penultimate articulation frequently occurs, -and its assumption of the shape of a finger by the prolongation of one -of its inferior angles. Against the finger-like process thus produced, -which is of great strength, and quite immovable, the last articulation -can be brought to bear with immense force, as it is put into motion by -a muscular mass of great size, and in relation with the extraordinary -development of the penultimate articulation. In most cases only the -first pair of legs is converted into these formidable weapons, but in -the Dromiæ, which are very common in the warmer seas, we find the two -posterior pairs of legs, which are of a much smaller size, and raised -above the plane of the others, similarly armed. These posterior claws, -however, are not intended for active warfare, but merely for strategical -purposes, as they serve to hold fast the pieces of sponges, shells, -medusæ, and other marine productions, under whose cover the wily robber -approaches and entraps his prey. - -[Illustration: Dromia Vulgaris.] - -While the lower crustaceans abound in the polar seas, the crabs are -completely wanting in those desolate regions; their number increases -with the warmer temperature of the waters, and attains its maximum in -the tropical zone. Here we find the most remarkable and various forms, -here they attain a size unknown in our seas; and here they do not, as -with us, inhabit solely the salt waters, but also people the brooks -and rivers, or even constantly sojourn on land,--as, for instance, the -_Thelphusæ_ and _Gecarcini_. There are even some species of land-crabs -that suffocate when dipped into water. They breathe indeed through -branchiæ, but the small quantity of oxygen dissolved in water does not -suffice for the wants of their active respiration. They generally live -in the shades of the damp forests, often at a great distance from the -sea, concealing themselves in holes. At breeding time they generally seek -the shore for the purpose of washing off their spawn, and depositing it -in the sand, and no obstruction will then make them deviate from the -straight path. They feed on vegetable substances, and are reckoned very -excellent food. When taken, they will seize the person's finger with -their claw, and endeavour to escape, leaving the claw behind, which for -some time after it has been separated from the body, continues to give -the finger a friendly squeeze. In the dusk of the evening they quit their -holes, and may then be seen running about with great swiftness. - -[Illustration: Jamaica Land-Crab.] - -All sandy and muddy coasts of the tropical seas, affording sufficient -protection against a heavy sea, swarm with crabs. In the East and West -Indies the Gelasimi bore in every direction circular holes in the moist -black soil of the coast. One of the claws of these remarkable creatures -is much larger than the other, so as sometimes to surpass in size the -whole remainder of the body. They make use of it as a door, to close the -entrance of their dwelling, and when running swiftly along, carry it -upright over the head, so that it seems to beckon like an outstretched -hand. One might fancy the crab moved it as in derision of its pursuers, -telling them by pantomimic signs, "Catch me if you can!" - -[Illustration: Large-Clawed Calling-Crab.] - -As soon as the ebbing flood lays bare the swampy grounds of the mangrove -woods, myriads of animals are seen wallowing in the pestiferous mud. Here -a fish jumps about, there a holothuria crawls, and crabs run along by -thousands in every direction. The black mud along the coast of Borneo -assumes quite a brilliant blue tinge, when, at low water, during the heat -of the day, the cœrulean Gelasimi come forth to feed. - -[Illustration: Calling-Crab of Ceylon.] - -The Venetian lagoons also harbour a vast number of the common Shore-Crab -(_Portunus Mænas_), the catching of which affords a profitable employment -to the inhabitants of those swampy regions. Whole cargoes are sent to -Istria, where they are used as bait for anchovies. The fishermen gather -them a short time before they cast their shell, and preserve them in -baskets, until the moulting process has been effected, when they are -reckoned a delicacy even on the best tables. On attempting to seize this -crab, it runs rapidly sideways, and conceals itself in the mud; but when -unsuccessful, it raises itself with a menacing mien, beats its claws -noisily together, as if in defiance of the enemy, and prepares for a -valiant defence, like a true knight. - -The most valuable short-tailed crustacean of the North Sea is undoubtedly -the Great Crab (_Cancer pagurus_), which attains a weight of from four to -five pounds, and is consumed by thousands in the summer, when it is in -season and heaviest. It is caught in wicker-baskets, arranged so as to -permit an easy entrance, while egress is not to be thought of. - -The legs of the crabs are very differently formed in various species. -In those which have been called sea-spiders they are very long, thin, -and weak, so that the animal swims badly, and is a slow and uncertain -pedestrian. For greater security it therefore generally seeks a greater -depth, where, concealed among the sea-weeds, it wages war with annelides, -planarias, and small mollusks. Sea-spiders are often found on the -oyster-banks, and considered injurious by the fishermen, who unmercifully -destroy them whenever they get hold of them. - -In other species the legs are short, muscular, and powerful, so as -rapidly to carry along the comparatively light body. The tropical -land-crabs and the genera _Ocypoda_ and _Grapsus_, which form the link -between the former and the real sea-crabs, are particularly distinguished -in this respect. - -The Rider or Racer (_Ocypoda cursor_), who is found on the coasts of -Syria and Barbary, and abounds at Cape de Verde, owes his name to his -swiftness, which is such that even a man on horseback is said not to -be able to overtake him. The West Indian ocypodas dig holes three or -four feet deep, immediately above high-water mark, and leave them after -dusk. Towards the end of October they retire further inland, and bury -themselves for the winter in similar holes, the opening of which they -carefully conceal. - -[Illustration: American Sand-Crab.] - -In the Portuni, or true Sea-crabs, finally, we find the hind pair of legs -flattened like fins, so that they would cut but a sorry figure on the -land, but are all the better able to row about in their congenial element. - -[Illustration: Spotted Fin-Crab.] - -A strange peculiarity of many crabs is the quantity of parasites they -carry along with them on their backs. Many marine productions, both -of a vegetable and animal nature, have their birth and grow to beauty -on the shell of the sea-spider. Corallines, sponges, zoophytes, algæ, -may thus be found, and balani occasionally cover the entire upper -surface of the body of the crab. "All the examples of the _Inachus -Dorsettensis_ which I have taken," says the distinguished naturalist, -Mr. W. Thompson of Belfast, "were invested with sponge, which generally -covers over the body, arms, and legs; algæ and zoophytes likewise spring -from it." In this extraneous matter some of the smaller zoophytes find -shelter, and, together with the other objects, render the capture of -the _Inachus Dorsettensis_ interesting far beyond its own acquisition. -In Mr. Hyndman's collection, there is a sea-spider carrying on its back -an oyster much larger than itself, and covered besides with numerous -barnacles. Like Atlas, the poor creature groaned under a world. - -The extraneous matters which so many crabs carry along with them are, -however, far from being always a useless burden; they are often a -warlike stratagem, under cover of which the sly crustacean entraps many -a choice morsel. Thus Bennett witnessed at Otaheite the proceedings of -an interesting Hyas species, which disguised itself by investing its -body with a covering of decayed vegetable substances and coral-sand. The -better to ensnare its prey, the back was covered with rigid and incurved -bristles, calculated to retain the extraneous substances, while the short -and well concealed forceps-claws were ready for the attack, and the -ophthalmic peduncles, curving upward to raise the eyes above the pile of -materials, gave the wily crab the great advantage of seeing without being -seen. As soon as an unfortunate mollusk, unsuspicious of evil, approached -the lurking ruffian, he darted upon it like an arrow, and, ere it could -recover its presence of mind, was busy tearing it to pieces. - -[Illustration: Pea-Crab.] - -If many crabs are burdened with small animals and plants, others live -parasitically in the shells of mollusks. Thus the small _Pinnotheres -veterum_ claims the hospitality of the Pinna, a large bivalve of the -Mediterranean. The ancients supposed that this was a friendly connection, -an _entente cordiale_, formed for mutual defence: that the Pinna, -being destitute of eyes, and thus exposed when he opened his shell to -the attacks of the cuttle-fish and other enemies, was warned of their -approach by his little lodger, upon which he immediately closed his shell -and both were safe. Unfortunately, there is not a word of truth in the -whole story. The sole reason why the Pinnotheres takes up its abode under -a stranger's roof is the softness of its own integuments, which otherwise -would leave it utterly defenceless; nor does the Pinna show the least -sign of affection for its guest, who, on returning from an excursion, -often finds it very difficult to slip again into the shell. - -[Illustration: Pinna Augustana.] - -According to Mr. Thompson, the _Modiola vulgaris_, a species of mussel -very common on the Irish coast, almost always harbours several parasitic -crabs (_Pinnotheres pisum_). At Heligoland, Dr. Oetker, to whom we are -indebted for the best work on that interesting island, scarce ever found -a modiola without several guests of this description, while he never -could find any in oysters, mussels, and other nearly related species. -What may the reason be of either this predilection or that desertion? - -The numerous family of the Paguri, or Hermit crabs, is also condemned -by its formation to lead a parasitic and robber-life. The fore part of -the body is indeed, as in other crabs, armed with claws and covered with -a shield, but ends in a long soft tail provided with one or two small -hooks. How then are the poor creatures to help themselves? The hind part -is not formed for swimming, and its weight prevents them from running. -Thus nothing remains for them but to look about them for some shelter, -and this is afforded them by several conchiform shells, _buccina_, -_neritæ_, in which they so tenaciously insert their hooked tails, as if -both were grown together. So long as they are young and feeble, they -content themselves with such shells as they find empty on the strand, but -when grown to maturity, they attack living specimens, seize with their -sharp claws the snail, ere it can withdraw into its shell, and after -devouring its flesh, creep without ceremony into the conquered dwelling, -which fits them like a coat when they take a walk, and the mouth of which -they close when at rest with their largest forceps, in the same manner -as the original possessor used his operculum or lid. How remarkable that -an animal should thus find in another creature belonging to a totally -different class, the completion, as it were, of its being, and be -indebted to it for the protecting cover which its own skin is unable to -secrete! - -[Illustration: Diogenes Hermit Crab.] - -When the dwelling of the pagurus becomes inconveniently narrow, the -remedy is easy, for appropriate sea-shells abound wherever hermit crabs -exist. They are found on almost every coast, and every new scientific -voyage makes us acquainted with new species. According to Quoy and -Gaimard, they are particularly numerous at the Ladrones, New Guinea, -and Timor. The strand of the small island of Kewa, in Coupang Bay, was -entirely covered with them. In the heat of the day they seek the shade -of the bushes; but as soon as the cool of evening approaches, they come -forth by thousands. Although they make all large snail-houses answer -their purposes, they seem in this locality to prefer the large Sea -Nerites. - -The famous East Indian Cocoa-nut Crab (_Birgus latro_), a kind of -intermediate link between the short and long tailed crabs, bears a -great resemblance to the paguri. It is said to climb the palm-trees, for -the sake of detaching the heavy nuts; but Mr. Darwin, who attentively -observed the animal on the Keeling Islands, tells us that it merely -lives upon those that spontaneously fall from the tree. To extract its -nourishment from the hard case, it shows an ingenuity which is one of -the most wonderful instances of animal instinct. It must first of all be -remarked, that its front pair of legs is terminated by very strong and -heavy pincers, the last pair by others, narrow and weak. After having -selected a nut fit for its dinner, the crab begins its operations by -tearing the husk, fibre by fibre, from that end under which the three -eye-holes are situated; it then hammers upon one of them with its heavy -claws, until an opening is made. Hereupon it turns round, and by the -aid of its posterior pincers, extracts the white albuminous substance. -It inhabits deep burrows, where it accumulates surprising quantities of -picked fibres of cocoa-nut husks, on which it rests as on a bed. Its -habits are diurnal; but every night it is said to pay a visit to the sea, -no doubt for the purpose of moistening its branchiæ. It is very good to -eat, living as it does on choice vegetable substances; and the great mass -of fat, accumulated under the tail of the larger ones, sometimes yields, -when melted, as much as a quart of limpid oil. Thus our taking possession -of the Keeling Islands, as a coaling station for the steamers from -Australia to Ceylon, bodes no good to the Birgus. - -The long tail, which the paguri sedulously conceal in shells, serves the -shrimps and lobsters as their chief organ of locomotion, for although -these creatures have well-formed legs, they make but slow work of it when -they attempt to crawl. But nothing can equal the rapidity with which -they dart backwards through the water, by suddenly contracting their -tail. Thus the Lobster makes leaps of twenty feet at one single bound, -and the little shrimp equals it fully in velocity in proportion to its -size, and belongs unquestionably to the most active of the denizens of -the ocean. It swarms in incalculable numbers on the sandy shores of the -North Sea, where it is caught in nets attached to a long cross pole, -which the fishermen, walking knee-deep in the water, push along before -them. Boiled shrimps are a well known delicacy; and the _Squilla Mantis_ -of the Mediterranean, which resembles our common shrimp in outer form, -but essentially differs from it in the formation of its branchiæ, which -float freely in the water, attached to the abdominal legs, holds an equal -rank in the estimation of the South Europeans. - -[Illustration: Crustaceans and Oysters.] - -[Illustration: Spotted Mantis Crab.] - -But of all crustaceans, none approaches the Lobster in delicacy of taste. -This creature, the epicure's delight, loves to dwell in the deep clear -waters along bold rocky shores, where it is taken in wicker baskets, or -with small nets attached to iron hoops. About two millions of lobsters -are annually imported from Norway, although they are also found in great -abundance along the Scottish and Irish coasts. Thus, considering their -high price, they form a considerable article of trade; and yet they -are far from equalling in importance the minute Herring-crab (_Cancer -halecum_), which, by forming the chief nourishment of that invaluable -fish, renders in an indirect way incalculable services to man. - -The lobster breeds in the summer months, depositing many thousands of -eggs in the sand, and leaving them there to be hatched by the sun. But -few, as may easily be imagined, live to attain a size befitting them to -appear in red livery on our tables. Like all crustaceans, the lobster -casts its shell annually, and with such perfection, that the discarded -garment, with all its appendages, perfectly resembles the living animal. -The process is curious enough to deserve a few lines of description. - -When towards autumn, the time of casting the shell approaches, the -lobster retires to a silent nook, like a pious hermit to his cell, and -fasts several days. The shell thus detaches itself gradually from the -emaciated body, and a new and tender cuticle forms underneath. The old -dress seems now, however, to plague the lobster very much, to judge by -the efforts he makes to sever all remaining connection with it. Soon -the harness splits right through the back, like the cleft bark of a -tree, or a ripe seed-husk, and opens a wide gate to liberty. After much -tugging and wriggling, the legs, tail, and claws gradually follow the -body. The claws give the lobster most trouble; but he is well aware that -perseverance generally wins the day, and never ceases till the elastic -mass, which can be drawn out like india-rubber, and instantly resumes -its ordinary shape, has been forced through the narrow passage. It can -easily be supposed that, after such a violent struggle for freedom, the -lobster is not a little exhausted. Feeling his weakness, and the very -insufficient protection afforded him by his soft covering, he bashfully -retires from all society until his hardened case allows him to mix again -with his friends on terms of equality, for he well knows how inclined -they are to bite and devour a softer brother. - -The facility with which the crustacea cast off their legs, and even -their heavy claws, when they have been wounded in one of these organs or -alarmed at thunder, is most remarkable. Without the least appearance of -pain, they then continue to run along upon their remaining legs. After -some time a new limb grows out of the old stump, but never attains the -size of the original limb. - -At the beginning of the chapter I have already briefly described the -wonderful transformations of the barnacles, acorn-shells, and lerneæ, but -the changes which the young crabs, lobsters, prawns, and shrimps, have to -undergo ere they assume their perfect form are no less astonishing. Thus -in the earliest state of the small edible crab (_Carcinus mœnas_) we find -a creature with a preposterously large helmet-shaped head, ending behind -in a long spine, and furnished in front with two monstrous sessile eyes -like the windows of a lantern. By means of a long articulated tail the -restless Chimera continually turns head over heels. Claws are wanting, -and while the old crab is of course a perfect decapod, the young has only -four bifid legs, armed at the extremity with four long bristles, that are -continually pushing food towards the ciliated mouth. Who could imagine -that a creature like this should ever change into a crab, to which it -has not the least resemblance? But time does wonders. After the first -change of skin the body assumes something like its permanent shape, the -eyes become stalked, the claws are developed, and the legs resemble those -of the crab, but the tail is still long, and the swimming habit has not -yet been laid aside. At the next stage, while the little creature is -still about the eighth of an inch in diameter, the crab form is at length -completed, the abdomen folding in under the carapace. No wonder that -these larvæ were long supposed to be distinct types, and described under -the names of Zoëa and Megalops, until Mr. T. J. Thompson first discovered -their real nature. - -[Illustration: Metamorphosis of Carcinus mœnas. - -A. First stage. B. Second stage. C. Third stage, in which it begins to -assume the adult form. D. Perfect form.] - -[Illustration: Phyllosoma.] - -The life history of the Palinuri or spiny lobsters is equally curious. -They frequently weigh ten or twelve pounds each, and are distinguished -by the very large size of their lateral antennæ and by their feet -being unarmed with pincers. Surely nothing can be more dissimilar than -the glass crabs or _Phyllosomas_, thin as a leaf of paper, and so -transparent that their blue eyes are their only visible parts while -swimming in the water; and yet these flimsy creatures are nothing but the -young of the large and bulky Palinuri. - -Though several of the lower crustaceans ascend into the regions of -eternal snow, while others hide themselves in the perpetual night of -subterranean grottoes; though many delight in the sweet waters of the -river or the lake, or rapidly multiply in stagnant pools, yet the chief -seat of their class, which altogether comprises about 1,600 known -species, is in the ocean and its littoral zone, where their numbers, -their voracity, and their powerful claws, render them the most formidable -enemies of all the lower aquatic animals that are not swift or cunning -enough to escape them. Even the fishes and cetaceans are, as we have -seen, exposed to their attacks; and as the whale, the carp, the sturgeon, -the shark, the perch, have each of them their peculiar crustacean -parasites, it can easily be imagined how large the number of still -unknown species must be which feast on that vast host of fishes that has -never yet been accurately examined. On the other hand, the crustaceans -constitute a great part of the food, as well of the sea-stars, -sea-urchins, annelides, and many of the molluscs, as also of the fishes -and sea-birds; and as they are found of all sizes, from microscopical -minuteness to the gigantic proportions of the _Inachus Kæmpferi_ of -Japan, the fore-arm of which measures four feet in length, and the others -in proportion, so that it covers about 25 feet square of ground, they are -able to satisfy the wants or the voracity of a vast number of enemies, -from the rotifer or the polyp that feed on tiny entomostraca or the larvæ -of the barnacle, to man, who selects a great variety of the fat and -luscious decapods for his share of the feast. - -A great fecundity enables the crustaceans to bear up against all these -persecutions. 12,000 eggs have been found on the lobster; 6,807 on the -shrimp; 21,699 on the great crab (_Platycarcinus pagurus_). The lower -orders are still more prolific, for such is the rapidity with which -many of them come to maturity and begin to propagate that it has been -calculated that a single female Cyclops may be the progenitor in one -year of 4,442,189,120 young! Endowed with such powers, the crustaceans -are not likely to be extirpated, nor to disappoint the hopes of their -gastronomical admirers for many an age to come. - - * * * * * - -When we hear of fishes wandering about on the dry land, we cannot wonder -that some insects and arachnidans should depart so strangely from the -usual habits of their class as to select the sea for their habitation. - -"There is a minute marine spider," says Mr. Gosse, "very common on most -parts of the coast, crawling sluggishly upon the smaller sea-weeds, which -seems, from its lack of centralisation, to realise our infant ideas of -Mr. Nobody; but zoologists have designated him as _Nymphon gracile_. -Widely different from the spiders of terra firma, in which an abdomen -some ten times as bulky as all the rest of the animal put together is the -most characteristic feature, the belly of our marine friend is reduced to -an atom not so big as a single joint of one of his eight legs; though his -thorax is more considerable, this is little more than the extended line -formed by the successive points of union of the said legs. These latter, -on the other hand, are long, stout, well-armed, and many-jointed; but, -apparently from the lack of the centralising principle, they are moved -heavily, sprawled hither and thither, and dragged about like the limbs -of an unfortunate who is afflicted with the gout." This strange little -creature has four eyes gleaming like diamonds, respires by the skin, and -its stomach is prolonged into each of its eight legs, which are thus -made the seats of digestion. Mr. Nobody and his marine relations, some -of which also attach themselves to fishes, form the small group of the -_Pycnogonida_ (πυκνος, _frequent_; γὁνυ _knee_) thus -named from their many-jointed legs. - -It is a well-known fact that the winds will sometimes waft butterflies to -an immense distance from the shore. Thus _Acherontia atropos_ has been -found on the Atlantic a thousand miles from the nearest land; and while -Mr. Darwin was in the bay of San Blas, in Patagonia, he saw thousands of -butterflies hovering over the sea as far as the eye could reach. These -insects, of course, are nothing but stray wanderers on an alien and -hostile element; but _Leptopus longipes_, a species of bug, makes the -salt water its home; the Halobates, another hemipterous insect, faces the -tranquil mirror of the tropical seas as leisurely as our water-bugs sport -on the glassy surface of our ponds, and the _Gyrinus marinus_, a beetle -belonging to the family of the whirligigs, ambitiously seeks a wide -expanse, and may be seen curvetting about on the surface of the sea, and -darting down every now and then to seize its prey. - -[Illustration: Stenopus hispidus.] - - - - -CHAP. XIV. - -MARINE ANNELIDES. - - The Annelides in general.--The Eunice sanguinea.--Beauty of the - Marine Annelides.--The Giant Nemertes.--The Food and Enemies of the - Annelides.--The Tubicole Annelides.--The Rotifera--Their Wonderful - Organisation.--The Synchæta Baltica. - - -The class of the Annelides, or annulated worms--to which also our common -earth-worm and the leech belong--peoples the seas with by far the greater -number of its genera and species. All of them are distinguished by an -elongated, and generally worm-like form of body, susceptible of great -extension and contraction. The body consists of a series of rings, or -segments, joined by a common elastic skin; and each ring, with the -exception of the first or foremost, which forms the head, and the last -which constitutes the tail, exactly resembles the others, only that -the rings in the middle part of the body are larger than those at the -extremities. The head is frequently provided with eyes, and more or less -perfect feelers; the mouth is armed in many species with strong jaws, or -incisive teeth. The blood is red, and circulates in a system of arteries -and veins. - -[Illustration: Nervous Axis of an Annelidan.] - -With the idea of a worm we generally connect that of incompleteness; -we are apt to consider them as beings equally uninteresting and ugly, -and disdain to enquire into the wonders of their organisation. But a -cursory examination of the _Eunice sanguinea_, a worm about two and a -half feet long, and frequently occurring on our coasts, would alone -suffice to give us a very different opinion of these despised, but far -from despicable creatures. The whole body is divided into segments -scarce a line and a half long, and ten or twelve lines broad, and -thus consists of about three hundred rings. A brain and three hundred -ganglions, from which about three thousand nervous branches proceed, -regulate the movements, sensations, and vegetative functions of an -Eunice. Two hundred and eighty stomachs digest its food, five hundred -and fifty branchiæ refresh its blood, six hundred hearts distribute this -vital fluid throughout the whole body, and thirty thousand muscles obey -the will of the worm, and execute its snake-like movements. What an -astonishing profusion of organs! Surely there is here but little occasion -to commiserate want, or to scoff at poverty! - -And if we look to outward appearance, we shall find that many of the -marine annelides may well be reckoned among the handsomest of creatures. -They display the rainbow tints of the humming-birds, and the velvet, -metallic brilliancy of the most lustrous beetles. The vagrant species -that glide, serpent-like, through the crevices of the submarine rocks, or -half creeping, half swimming conceal themselves in the sand or mud, are -pre-eminently beautiful. The delighted naturalists have consequently given -them the most flattering and charming names of Greek mythology,--Nereis, -Euphrosyne, Eunice, Alciopa. - -[Illustration: Nereis.] - -"Talk no more of the violet as the emblem of modesty," exclaims De -Quatrefages, "look rather at our annelides, that, possessed of every -shining quality, hide themselves from our view, so that but few know of -the secret wonders that are hidden under the tufts of algæ, or on the -sandy bottom of the sea." - -[Illustration: Aphrodita, or Sea-Mouse.] - -In most of the wandering annelides, each segment is provided with -variously formed appendages, more or less developed, serving for -respiration and locomotion, or for aggression and defence; while in some -of the least perfect of the class, not a trace of an external organ is -to be found over the whole body. The great Band-worm (_Nemertes gigas_) -is one of the most remarkable examples of this low type of annelism. -It is from thirty to forty feet long, about half an inch broad, flat -like a ribbon, of brown or violet colour, and smooth and shining like -lackered leather. Among the loose stones, or in the hollows of the -rocks, where he principally lives on Anomiæ,--minute shells that attach -themselves to submarine bodies,--this giant worm forms a thousand -seemingly inextricable knots, which he is continually unravelling and -tying. When after having devoured all the food within his reach, or from -some other cause, he desires to shift his quarters, he stretches out a -long dark-coloured ribbon, surmounted by a head like that of a snake, -but without its wide mouth or dangerous fangs. The eye of the observer -sees no contraction of the muscles, no apparent cause or instrument -of locomotion; but the microscope teaches us that the Nemertes glides -along by help of the minute vibratory ciliæ with which his whole body is -covered. He hesitates, he tries here and there, until at last, and often -at a distance of fifteen or twenty feet, he finds a stone to his taste; -whereupon he slowly unrolls his length to convey himself to his new -resting place, and while the entangled folds are unravelling themselves -at one end, they form a new Gordian knot at the other. All the organs -of this worm are uncommonly simplified; the mouth is a scarce visible -circular opening, and the intestinal canal ends in a blind sack. - -Nature has not in vain provided the more perfect annelides with the -bristly feet, which have been denied to the Nemertes and the sand-worm. -Almost all of them feed on a living prey,--Planarias and other minute -creatures--which they enclasp and transpierce with those formidable -weapons. Some, lying in wait, dart upon their victims as they heedlessly -swim by, seize them with their jaws, and stifle them in their deadly -embrace; others, of a more lively nature, seek them among the thickets -of corallines, millepores and algæ, and arrest them quickly ere they can -vanish in the sand. - -But the annelides also are liable to many persecutions. The fishes are -perpetually at war with them; and when an imprudent annelide quits its -hidden lurking-place, or is uncovered by the motion of the waves, it may -reckon itself fortunate, indeed, if it escapes the greedy teeth of an -eel or a flat-fish. It is even affirmed of the latter, as it is of the -whelks, that they know perfectly well how to dig the annelides out of -the sand. The sea-spiders, lobsters, and other crustacea are the more -dangerous, as their hard shells render them perfectly invulnerable by the -bristling weapons of the annelides. - -While the greater part of these worms lead a vagrant life, others, like -secluded hermits, dwell in self-constructed retreats which they never -leave. Their cells, which they begin to form very soon after having -left the egg, and which they afterwards continue extending and widening -according to the exigencies of their growth, generally consist of a -hard calcareous mass; but sometimes they are leathery or parchment-like -tubes, secreted by the skin of the animal, not however forming, as in the -mollusks, an integral part of the body, but remaining quite unconnected -with it. Thus these tubicole annelides spend their whole life within -doors, only now and then peeping out of their prison with the front part -of their head. - -As they lead so different a life from their roaming relations, their -internal structure is very different, for where is the being whose -organisation does not perfectly harmonise with his wants? Thus, we find -here no bristling feet or lateral respiratory appendages; but instead of -these organs, which in this case would be completely useless, we find -the head surmounted by a beautiful crown of feathery tentaculæ, which -equally serve for breathing and the seizing of a passing prey. Completely -closed at the inferior extremity, the tube shows us at its upper end a -round opening, the only window through which our hermit can peep into the -world, seize his food, and refresh his blood by exposing his floating -branchiæ to the vivifying influence of the water. - -Do not, therefore, reproach him with vanity or curiosity, if you see him -so often protrude his magnificently decorated head; but rejoice rather -that this habit, to which necessity obliges him, gives you a better -opportunity for closer observation. Place only a shell or stone covered -with _serpulas_ or _cymospiras_, into a vessel filled with sea-water, and -you will soon see how, in every tube, a small round cover is cautiously -raised, which hitherto hermetically closed the entrance, and prevented -you from prying into the interior. The door is open, and soon the inmate -makes his appearance. You now perceive small buds, here dark violet or -carmine, there blue or orange, or variously striped. See how they grow, -and gradually expand their splendid boughs! They are true flowers that -open before your eye, but flowers much more perfect than those which -adorn your garden, as they are endowed with voluntary motion and animal -life. - -[Illustration: Serpula, attached to a Shell.] - -At the least shock, at the least vibration of the water, the splendid -tufts contract, vanish with the rapidity of lightning, and hide -themselves in their stony dwellings, where, under cover of the protecting -lid, they bid defiance to their enemies. - -Not all the tubicole annelides form grottos or houses of so complete -a structure as those I have just described. Many content themselves -with agglutinating sand or small shell-fragments into the form of -cylindrical tubes. But even in these inferior architectural labours of -the _Sabellas_, _Terebellas_, _Amphitrites_, &c., we find an astonishing -regularity and art; for these elegant little tubes, which we may often -pick up on the strand, where they lie mixed with the shells and algæ -cast out by the flood, consist of particles of almost equal size, so -artistically glued together, that the delicate walls have everywhere -an equal thickness. The form is cylindrical, or funnel-shaped, the -tube gradually widening from the lower to the upper end. Some of these -tubicoles live like solitary hermits, others love company; for instance, -the _Sabella alveolaris_, which often covers wide surfaces of rock, -near low-water mark with its aggregated tubes. When the flood recedes -nothing is seen but the closed orifices; but when covered with the rising -waters, the sandy surface transforms itself into a beautiful picture. -From each aperture stretches forth a neck ornamented with concentric -rings of golden hair, and terminating in a head embellished with a tiara -of delicately feathered, rainbow-tinted tentacula. The whole looks like -a garden-bed enamelled with gay flowers of elegant form and variegated -colours. - - * * * * * - -If size alone were a criterion of classification, the Rotifera would have -to be ranked among the microscopic Protozoa, as they are scarcely visible -to the naked eye; but a more complicated organisation separates them -widely from these lowest members of the animal kingdom, and entitles them -to be placed next to the worms. - -[Illustration: Ptygura mehcerta.--(A rotifer highly magnified.) - - 1. Partially expanded. - 2. Completely expanded, the cilia in action causing currents - indicated by the arrows. - 3. Contracted. _a._ Contractile vesicle. - _b._ Situation of the anal orifice. -] - -They are chiefly characterised by a remarkable rotatory or ciliary -apparatus, whose vibrating motions, whirling the water about in swift -circles or eddies, engulf in a fatal vortex their microscopic food, or -enable them to swim from place to place. Such is the crystal transparency -of these curious little creatures that their internal structure can be -easily recognised. The mouth is placed immediately below the rotatory -apparatus, and when once an unfortunate animalcule has been driven into -its gaping portals, it is presently crushed between a pair of formidable -sharp-toothed jaws, which are perpetually in motion, whether the animal -is taking food or not. After having undergone the action of this lively -apparatus, the aliment passes into a tubular stomach surrounded by a -cushion-like mass of cells commonly coloured with the hue of the food, -and, therefore, concluded to be connected with the digestive system. - -[Illustration: Conochilus volvox.--(Highly magnified.) - - _a._ Jaws and teeth. _b._ Papillæ. _c._ Glands. _d._ Ovarium. -] - -The rotifera are either naked or covered with a sheath, and many -inhabit a tube formed by themselves, attached by its lower end to some -water-plant, and open at the summit, from which the animal protrudes -when it would exercise its active instincts, and into which it retires -for repose from labour or for refuge from alarm. The majority, however, -have a furcated foot, which is often capable of contraction by a set of -telescopic sheathings or false joints, and by which they are enabled -to secure a hold of the minute stems of water-plants. This is their -ordinary position when keeping their wheels in action for a supply of -food or of water; but they have no difficulty in letting go their hold, -and either creeping along by alternate contractions and extensions or -swimming away in search of a new attachment. From the neck projects -a telescopic spur, supposed to be an organ of respiration, and just -below this are seen two minute red specks, supposed to be eyes. The -first rotifer was discovered by Leeuwenhoek, in 1702; now more than 180 -species are known, and new discoveries are constantly adding to their -numbers. They are chiefly found in sweet water, but some are inhabitants -of the sea, as, for instance, the _Synchæta baltica_, remarkable for -its luminous powers. It measures about 1/125 of an inch in length, and -but 1/350 in width, so that it is invisible to the sharpest unassisted -sight: but when viewed through a microscope, it appears as a beautiful -and richly organised creature, clear as glass and perfectly colourless, -except that its stomach is usually distended with yellow food, and that -it carries a large red eye, which glitters like a ruby. - -[Illustration: Philodina roseola.--(Highly magnified.) - - _a._ Respiratory tube. - _b._ Alimentary canal. - _c._ Cellular mass. - _d._ Terminal intestinal pouch. - _e._ Anal orifice. -] - -"Its motions too," says Mr. Gosse, "are all vivacious and elegant. It -shoots rapidly along or circles about in giddy dance, in company with its -fellows, sometimes near the surface, at others just over the bottom of -the vase in which it is kept. Occasionally the foot with the tiny toes -is drawn up into the body and then suddenly thrown down, and bent up -from side to side as a dog wags his tail. Sometimes the rotatory organs -are brought forward and then spasmodically spring back to their ordinary -position, when the little creature shoots forward with redoubled energy. -In all its actions it displays vigour and precision, intelligence and -will." - - - - -CHAP. XV. - -MOLLUSCS. - - The Molluscs in general.--The Cephalopods.--Dibranchiates - and Tetrabranchiates.--Arms and Tentacles.--Suckers.--Hooked - Acetabula of the Onychoteuthis.--Mandibles.--Ink Bag.--Numbers - of the Cephalopods.--Their Habits.--Their Enemies.--Their Use to - Man.--Their Eggs.--Enormous size of several species.--The fabulous - Kraken.--The Argonaut.--The Nautili.--The Cephalopods of the - Primitive Ocean.--The Gasteropods.--Their Subdivisions.--Gills of the - Nudibranchiates.--The Pleurobranchus plumula.--The Sea-Hare.--The - Chitons.--The Patellæ.--The Haliotis or Sea-Ear.--The Carinariæ.--The - Pectinibranchiates.--Variety and Beauty of their Shells.--Their - Mode of Locomotion.--Foot of the Tornatella and Cyclostoma.--The - Ianthinæ.--Sedentary Gasteropods.--The Magilus.--Proboscis of the - Whelk.--Tongue of the Limpet.--Stomach of the Bulla, the Scyllæa, - and the Sea-Hare.--Organs of Sense in the Gasteropods.--Their - Caution.--Their Enemies.--Their Defences.--Their Use to - Man.--Shell-Cameos.--The Pteropods.--Their Organisation and Mode - of Life.--The Butterflies of the Ocean.--The Lamellibranchiate - Acephala.--Their Organisation.--Siphons.--The Pholades.--Foot of - the Lamellibranchiates.--The Razor-Shells.--The Byssus of the - Pinnæ.--Defences of the Bivalves.--Their Enemies.--The common - Mussel.--Mussel Gardens.--The Oyster.--Oyster Parks.--Oyster Rearing - in the Lago di Fusaro.--Formation of new Oyster Banks.--Pearl-fishing - in Ceylon.--How are Pearls formed?--The Tridacna gigas.--The Teredo - navalis.--The Brachiopods.--The Terebratulæ.--The Polyzoa.--The - Sea-Mats.--The Escharæ.--The Lepraliæ.--Bird's Head Processes.--The - Tunicata.--The Sea-Squirts.--The Chelyosoma.--The Botrylli.--The - Pyrosomes.--The Salpæ.--Interesting Points in the Organisation of the - Tunicata. - - -Simple or compound, free or sessile, peopling the high seas or lining the -shores, the marine Molluscs, branching out into more than ten thousand -species, extend their reign as far as the waves of ocean roll. Though -distinguished from all other sea-animals by the common character of a -soft unarticulated body, possessing a complicated digestive apparatus, -and covered by a flexible skin or mantle, under or over which a -calcareous shell is generally formed by secretion, yet their habits are -as various as their forms. Some dart rapidly through the waters, others -creep slowly along, or are firmly bound to the rock; in some the senses -are as highly developed as in the fishes, in others they are confined to -the narrow perceptions of the polyp. Many are individually so small as -to escape the naked eye, others of a size so formidable as to entitle -them to rank among the giants of the sea; some are perfectly harmless and -unarmed, others fully equipped for active warfare. It is evident that -creatures so variously gifted, and consequently so widely dissimilar -in structure, cannot possibly be grouped together in one description, -and that each of the four orders, Cephalopoda, Gasteropoda, Pteropoda, -and Acephala (Lamellibranchiates, Brachiopods, Polyzoa, and Tunicata), -into which they have been subdivided, must be separately brought before -the reader, in order to give him a clear and faithful picture of their -organisation and mode of life. - -The Cephalopods are the most perfect specimens of the molluscan type, -as the decapods are the first among the crustaceans. These remarkable -creatures consist of two distinct parts: the trunk or body, which, -in form of a sack, open to the front, encloses the branchiæ and -digestive organs, and the well-developed head, provided with a pair of -sharp-sighted eyes, and crowned with a number of fleshy processes, arms -or feet, which encircle and more or less conceal the mouth. It is to this -formation that the cephalopod owes its scientific name, for as the feet -grow from the circumference of the mouth, it literally creeps upon its -head. - -All the cephalopods are marine animals, and breathe through branchiæ or -gills. These are concealed under the mantle, in a cave or hollow, which -alternately expands and contracts, and communicates by two openings with -the outer world. The one in form of a slit serves to receive the water; -the other, which is tubular, is used for its expulsion. - -According to the different number of their gills, the cephalopods are -divided into two groups. The first, to which the poulp and common -cuttle-fish belong, and which comprises by far the majority of living -species, has only two sets of gills; while the second, which, in the -present epoch, is only represented by a few species of Nautilus, has -four, two on each side, according to the number of their arms or -feet--for these remarkable organs serve equally well for prehension -or locomotion. The first group is again subdivided into two orders, -Octopods and Decapods, the former having only eight sessile feet, while -the latter possess an additional pair of elongated tentacles, which serve -to seize a prey that may be beyond the reach of the ordinary feet, and -also to act as anchors to moor them in safety during the agitations of a -stormy sea. - -[Illustration: Poulp (Octopus).] - -Both the arms and tentacles are furnished with suckers disposed along -the whole extent of the inner surface of the former, but generally -confined to the widened extremities of the latter, where they are closely -aggregated on the inner aspect. - -[Illustration: Calamary.] - -In all the octopods the suckers are soft and unarmed. Every sucker -is composed of a circular adhesive disk, which has a thick fleshy -circumference and bundles of muscular fibres radiating towards the -circular orifice of an inner cavity. - -This widens as it descends, and contains a cone of soft substance, rising -from the bottom of the cavity, like the piston of a syringe. When the -sucker is applied to a surface for the purpose of adhesion, the piston, -having previously been raised so as to fill the cavity, is retracted, -and a vacuum produced, which may be still further increased by the -retraction of the plicated central portion of the disk. So admirably are -these air-pumps constructed, and so tenacious is their grasp, that, when -they have once seized or fixed upon a prey, it cannot possibly disengage -itself from their murderous embrace. - -In many of the decapods, who, generally seeking their prey in the deeper -waters, have to contend with the agile, slippery, and mucus-clad fishes, -more powerful organs of prehension have been superadded to the suckers. -Thus, in the Calamary the base of the piston is enclosed by a horny -hoop, the margin of which is developed into a series of sharp-pointed -curved teeth; and in the still more formidable Onychoteuthis each hoop -is produced into the form of a long, curved, and sharp-pointed claw -(_f_), which the predacious mollusc presses firmly into the flesh of its -struggling victim, and then withdraws by muscular contraction. - -[Illustration: Section of an arm and suckers of a Poulp. - - _e._ Soft and tumid margin of the disk. - _g._ Circular aperture. -] - -Besides the hooked acetabula, a cluster of small simple unarmed suckers -may be observed at the base of the expanded part. These add greatly to -the animal's prehensile powers, for when they are applied to one another -(_e_), the tentacles are firmly locked together at that point, and the -united strength of both the elongated peduncles can be applied to drag -towards the mouth any resisting object which has been grappled by the -terminal hooks. There is no mechanical contrivance which surpasses the -admirable structure of this natural forceps. - -The size of the arms and the arrangement of the suckers differ -considerably in the various species. In the octopods or poulps, which -generally lead a more sedentary creeping life, and, hidden in the -crevices of rocks, await the passing prey, the arms, in accordance -with their wants, are with rare exceptions longer, more muscular, -and stronger, than in the actively swimming decapods, where the two -elongated tentacles or peduncles are the chief organs of prehension. In -some species we find the arms distinct--in others they are united by a -membrane. Some have a double row of suckers on each arm, others four -rows, others again but one. So wonderful are the variations which nature, -that consummate artist, plays upon a single theme--so inexhaustible are -the modifications she introduces into the formation of numerous species, -all constructed upon the same fundamental plan, and all equally perfect -in their kind. - -[Illustration: Arms and Tentacles of an Onychoteuthis. - - _e._ Parts joined together by the mutual - apposition of the armed suckers. - - _f._ Terminal expanded portions bearing - the hooks. -] - -Thus well provided with the means for seizing and overcoming the -struggles of a living prey, the Cephalopods likewise possess adequate -weapons for completing its destruction; for their mouth is most -formidably armed with two horny or calcareous jaws, shaped like the -mandibles of a parrot, playing vertically on each other, and enclosing a -large fleshy tongue bristling with recurved horny spines. Hard, indeed, -must be the crab which can resist this terrible beak; and when the -cuttle-fish has once fixed on the back of a fish, though much larger -and stronger than himself, it is in vain for the tortured victim to fly -through the water: he carries his enemy with him till he sinks exhausted -under his murderous fangs. - -Besides their arms, by help of which the Cephalopods either swim or -creep, the forcible expulsion of the water through the respiratory tube -or infundibulum serves them as a means of locomotion in a backward -direction. By those which have an elongated body and comparatively strong -muscles, this movement is performed with such violence that they shoot -like arrows through the water, or even like the flying-fish perform a -long curve through the air. - -Thus Sir James Ross tells us, that once a number of cuttle-fish not only -fell upon the deck of his ship, which rose fifteen or sixteen feet above -the water, and where more than fifty were gathered, but even bolted -right over the entire breadth of the vessel, like a sportsman over a -five-barred gate. Finally, the fin-like expansion of their mantle renders -the nimble decapods good service in swimming. In the Sepias this finny -membrane runs along the sides of the body, while in the Calamary it forms -a kind of terminal paddle. - -[Illustration: Sepia. - - _b._ Finny membrane running along the sides of the body. - _c._ Arms with four rows of suckers. - _d._ Elongated retractile tentacles. - _e._ Eyes. -] - -It might be supposed that the dibranchiate cephalopods, by their -swiftness, their arms, and their powerful jaws, were sufficiently -provided with means of attack or defence; but it must be remembered -that their body is soft and naked, and that, though well armed in -front, they may readily be attacked in the rear. To afford them the -additional protection they required, nature, ever ready to minister to -the real wants of her children, has furnished them with an internal bag -communicating with the respiratory tube, and secreting a large quantity -of an inky fluid, which they can squirt out with force in the face of -their foe, and which, mixing readily with the water, envelops them in -an opaque cloud, and thus screens them from pursuit. But this inky -fluid, thus useful to its owner, is often the cause of his destruction -by man, who applies it to his own purpose, for the Italian pigment, -called sepia, so invaluable to painters in water-colours, is prepared -from the inspissated contents of the ink bag of a cuttle-fish. Such -is the durability of this colour that even the inky fluid of fossil -species has been found to retain its chromatic property. We are told that -grains of wheat buried with Egyptian mummies three thousand years ago -have germinated; but it is surely still more astonishing that an animal -secretion, the origin of which is lost in the dark abyss of countless -ages, should remain so long unaltered. - -The cephalopods are scattered in vast numbers over the whole ocean, -from the ice-bound shores of Boothia Felix to the open main; they seem, -however, to be most abundant in temperate latitudes. Some, like the -common poulp, constantly frequent the coasts, creeping among the rocks -and stones at the bottom; others, like the Cirroteuthis and Ommastrephes, -roam about the high seas at a vast distance from the land. - -They are generally nocturnal or vespertine in their habits; they abound -towards evening and at night on the surface of the seas, but sink to a -greater depth, or retire into the crevices of the rocks, as soon as the -sun rises above the horizon. Some are of a recluse disposition, and lead -a solitary life in the anfractuosities of the littoral zone; others, of a -more social temper, wander in large troops along the shores, or over the -vast plains of ocean. - -Possessing the organs of sense, and the means of locomotion in a high -degree of development, the cephalopods may naturally be expected to be -far more active and intelligent than the inferior orders of the molluscs. -On moonlight nights, among the islands of the Indian Archipelago, -Mr. Adams frequently observed the Sepiæ and Octopi in full predatory -activity, and had considerable difficulty and trouble in securing them, -so great was their restless vivacity, and so vigorous their endeavours to -escape. "They dart from side to side of the pools," says the naturalist -in his entertaining and instructive account of his journey to those -distant gems of the tropical sea, "or fix themselves so tenaciously to -the surface of the stones by means of their suckers that it requires -great force and strength to detach them. Even when removed and thrown -upon the sand, they progress rapidly, in a sidelong shuffling manner, -throwing about their long arms, ejecting their ink-like fluid in sudden -violent jets, and staring about with their big shining eyes (which at -night appear luminous, like a cat's) in a very grotesque and hideous -manner." - -At the Cape de Verd islands, Mr. C. Darwin was also much amused by the -various arts to escape detection used by a cuttle-fish, which seemed -fully aware that he was watching it. Remaining for a time motionless, it -would then stealthily advance an inch or two, like a cat after a mouse, -and thus proceeded, till, having gained a deeper part, it darted away, -leaving a dusky train of ink, to hide the hole into which it had crawled. - -All the cephalopods are extremely voracious; they destroy on shallow -banks the hopes of the fishermen, devour along the coasts and on the -high seas countless myriads of young fish and naked molluscs, and kill, -like the tiger, for the mere love of carnage. Thus they would become -dangerous to the equilibrium of the seas if nature, to counterbalance -their destructive habits, had not provided a great number of enemies for -the thinning of their ranks. - -They form the almost exclusive food of the sperm-whales, and the -albatross and the petrels love to skim them from the surface of the -ocean. Tunnies and bonitos devour them in vast numbers, the cod consumes -whole shoals of squids, and man, as I have already mentioned, catches -many millions to serve him as a bait for this valuable fish. - -At Teneriffe, in the Brazils, in Peru and Chili, in India and China, -various species of cephalopods are used as food. Along the eastern shores -of the Mediterranean, the common sepia constitutes now, as in ancient -times, a valuable part of the food of the poor. "One of the most striking -spectacles," says Edward Forbes, "is to see at night on the shores of the -Ægean the numerous torches glancing along the shores, and reflected by -the still and clear sea, borne by poor fishermen, paddling as silently -as possible over the rocky shallows in search of the cuttle-fish, which, -when seen lying beneath the water in wait for his prey, they dexterously -spear, ere the creature has time to dart with the rapidity of an arrow -from the weapon about to transfix his soft but firm body." - -Animals exposed to the attacks of so many enemies must necessarily -multiply in an analogous ratio. Their numerous eggs are generally brought -forth in the spring. In the species inhabiting the high seas, they float -freely on the surface, carried along by the currents and winds, and form -large gelatinous bunches or cylindrical rolls, sometimes as large as a -man's leg. - -The eggs of the littoral cephalopods appear in the form of dark-coloured, -roundish or spindle-shaped bodies, of the size and colour of grapes, and -hanging together in clusters. They are soft to the touch, with a tough -skin, resembling india-rubber; one end is attenuated into a sort of point -or nipple, and the other prolonged into a pedicle, which coils round -sea-weed or other floating objects, and serves to fix the berry-like bag -in its place. At an early stage these "sea-grapes," as they are called -by the fishermen, contain a white yolk enclosed in a clear albumen, and -nearer maturity the young cuttle-fish may be found within in various -stages of formation, until finally, hatched by the heat of the sun, it -emerges from the husk perfectly formed, and launches forth into the water. - -[Illustration: Ova of the Cuttle-fish.] - -Some species of cephalopods are only about the size of a finger, while -others attain an astonishing size. Banks and Solander, in Cook's first -voyage, found the dead carcass of a gigantic cuttle-fish floating between -Cape Horn and the Polynesian islands. It was surrounded by aquatic birds, -which were feeding on its remains. From the parts of this specimen, which -are still preserved in the Hunterian collection, and which have always -strongly excited the attention of naturalists, it must have measured at -least six feet from the end of the tail to the end of the tentacles. - -Near Van Diemen's Land, Péron saw a sepia about as big as a tun -rolling about in the waters. Its enormous arms had the appearance of -frightful snakes. Each of these organs was at least seven feet long, and -measured seven or eight inches round the base. These well authenticated -proportions are truly formidable, and fully justify the dread and -abhorrence which the Polynesian divers entertain of those snake-armed -monsters of the deep; but not satisfied with reality, some writers have -magnified the size of the cephalopods to fabulous dimensions. Thus -Pernetti mentions a colossal cuttle-fish, which, climbing up the rigging, -overturned a three-masted ship; and Pliny notices a similar giant, with -arms thirty feet long and a corresponding girth. But all this is nothing -to the Norwegian kraken, a mass of a quarter of a mile in diameter, and a -back covered with a thicket of sea-weeds. When it comes to the surface, -which seems to be but rarely the case, it raises its arms mast-high into -the air, and, having enjoyed for a time the lovely daylight, sinks slowly -back again into abysmal darkness. Fishermen are said to have landed on -a kraken, and to have kindled a fire upon the supposed island for the -purpose of cooking their dinner. But even a kraken, thick-skinned as he -may be, does not like his back to be converted into a hearth, and thus -it happened that the treacherous ground gave way under the mistaken -mariners, and overwhelmed them in the waters. Strange that the oriental -tale of Sinbad the sailor should thus be re-echoed in the wild legends of -the north. - -All the dibranchiate cephalopods are destitute of an outward shell, with -the sole exception of the Spirula, a small species chiefly found in the -South Sea, and of the far more renowned Argonaut, which poets, ancient -and modern, have celebrated as the model from which man took the first -idea of navigation. Its two sail-like arms expanding in the air, and the -six others rowing in the water, the keel of its elegant shell is pictured -as dividing the surface of the tranquil sea. But as soon as the wind -rises, or the least danger appears, the cautious argonaut takes in his -sails, draws back his oars, creeps into his shell, and sinks instantly -into a securer depth. Unfortunately there is not a word of truth in -this pleasing tale. Like the common octopus, the argonaut generally -creeps about at the bottom of the sea, or when he swims, he places his -sails close to his shell, stretches his oars right out before him, and -shoots backwards like most of his class by expelling the water from his -respiratory tube. - -[Illustration: Argonaut.] - -As he sits loosely in his shell, he was supposed by some naturalists -to be a parasite enjoying the house of the unknown murdered owner; but -this is perfectly erroneous, as the young in the egg already show the -rudiments of the future shell, and the full-grown animal repairs by -reproduction any injury that may have happened to it. - -[Illustration: Pearly Nautilus.] - -The tetrabranchiate cephalopods, or Nautili, are very differently -constructed from their dibranchiate relations. Here, instead of mighty -muscular arms, furnished with suckers or raptorial claws, we find a -number of small, sheathed, and retractile tentacles (_f_), surrounding -the mouth in successive series, and amounting to little short of a -hundred. The head is further provided with a large muscular disk (_g_), -which, besides acting as a defence to the opening of the shell, serves -also in all probability as an organ for creeping along the ground, -like the foot in the Gasteropods. The mandibles are strengthened by a -dense calcareous substance fit to break up the defensive armour of the -crustacean or shell-fish on which the animal feeds. There is no ink-bag, -no organ of hearing, and the eyes (_h_) are pedunculated, and of a more -simple structure. The handsome pearl-mother and spirally wound shell -is divided by transverse partitions (_a_), perforated in the centre, -into numerous chambers (_b_). The animal takes up its abode in the -foremost and largest (_b′_), but sends a communicating tube or siphon -(_c_) through all the holes of the partitions to the very extremity of -the spirally wound shell. Though the empty conch was frequently found -swimming on the waters of the Indian Ocean, or cast ashore on the -Moluccas or New Guinea, yet it was only in 1829 that the animal was known -with any certainty, one having been caught alive by Mr. George Bennett, -near the New Hebrides, which, preserved in spirits, is now in the museum -of the College of Surgeons. Since then three different species have been -found to abound in the waters of the above-named archipelago, of New -Caledonia, and of the Feejee and Solomon Islands, where they principally -sojourn among the coral reefs at depths of from three to six fathoms. -They usually remain at the bottom of the water, where they creep along -rather quickly, supporting themselves upon their tentacula, with their -head downwards and the shell raised above. After stormy weather, as it -becomes more calm, they may be seen in great numbers floating upon the -surface of the sea with the head protruded, and the tentacula resting -upon the water, the shell at the same time being undermost; they remain, -however, but a short time sailing in this manner, as they can easily -return to their situation at the bottom of the sea, by merely drawing in -their tentacles and upsetting the shell. They are caught in baskets by -the natives, who eat them roasted as a great delicacy. - -What renders these animals peculiarly interesting is the circumstance -that they are the only living representatives of a class which once -filled in countless numbers the bosom of the primeval ocean, and whose -fossil remains (Orthoceratites, Ammonites) furnish the naturalist with -a series of historical documents, attesting the unmeasured age of our -planet. What are the ruins, thirty or forty centuries old, that speak of -the vanished glories of extinguished empires to these wonderful medals -of creation that lead our thoughts through the dim vista of unnumbered -centuries to the fathomless abyss of the past. - - * * * * * - -In point of development of organisation the Gasteropods or snails -rank immediately after the Cephalopods. They also have a head plainly -distinguishable from the rest of the body, and to which two brilliant -black eyes give an animated expression. But their nervous system is far -less developed, and while the lively cephalopod is able to swim about, -and rapidly to seize a distant prey, almost all the gasteropods creep -slowly along upon a flat disk or foot situated below the digestive -organs, a formation to which they owe their name of gasteropods or -stomach-footers. - -The marine snails are divided into several groups according to the -different position and arrangement of their gills. In some species these -organs form naked or free-swimming tufts on the back (Nudibranchiata) -but generally they are variously disposed either in special cavities or -under the folds of the mantle. Thus in the Inferobranchiata they are -arranged under its inferior border on both sides of the body, or upon -one side only, while in the Tectibranchiata they are placed, as in the -Nudibranchiata, upon the dorsal aspect of the body, but are protected by -a fold of the skin. In the Cyclobranchiata they form a fringe round the -margin of the body, between the edge of the mantle and the foot, and in -the Scutibranchiata and Pectinibranchiata they are pectinated, or shaped -like the teeth of a comb, and placed in a large hollow chamber, which -opens externally at the side of the body or above the head. - -[Illustration: Tiara.] - -[Illustration: Glaucus.] - -[Illustration: Scyllæa.] - -Nothing can be more elegant or various than the form and arrangement of -the gills in most of the nudibranchiate gasteropods. In the Glauci and -Scyllææ, we see at each side of the elongated body long arms branching -out into tufty filaments; in the Briarei a hundred furcated stems serve -for the aëration of the blood. On the back of the Eolides the gills are -arranged in rows; in the Dorides they form a wreath or garland round the -posterior intestinal aperture. - -The beauty of these animals corresponds with their charming mythological -names, for every part of them which is not sparkling like the purest -crystal shines with the liveliest colours, red, yellow, or azure. Some -inhabit the coasts, where they creep along upon a well-developed foot, -others live in the deep waters, where they cling to the stems of floating -sea-weed with a narrow and furrowed foot, or swim upon their back, -using the borders of the mantle and of the branchiæ as oars. Though -chiefly living in the warmer latitudes, they are found in every sea, -and many interesting species inhabit the British waters: such as the -Sea-lemon (_Doris tuberculata_), which, when its horns and starry wreath -of branchiæ are concealed, bears a curious resemblance in size, form, -colour, and warty surface to the half of a citron divided longitudinally; -the exquisite _Eolis coronata_, whose crowded clusters of branchial -papillæ are radiant with crimson and cerulean tints; and the crested -Antiopa, whose transparent breathing organs are tipped with silvery white. - -[Illustration: Eolis.] - -Though they have no shell to cover them, the Nudibranchiata are not left -defenceless to the mercy of their enemies. The transparency of their -body is a cause of safety to many of them. Some conceal themselves under -stones or among the branches of the madrepores, and some on contracting -cast off a part of their mantle, which they leave in possession of their -hungry foe, while they themselves make their escape. - -Among the British Inferobranchiata we find the rare golden or -orange-coloured _Pleurobranchus plumula_, thus named from its branchiæ -projecting like a plume from between the mantle and foot in crawling; and -among the Tectibranchiata the common sea-hare (_Aplysia punctata_), which -resembles a great naked snail; its back opening with two wide lobes, -which can be expanded or closed over the opening at the animal's will. -When open, they expose to view on the right side the finely fringed and -lobed branchiæ, seated in a deep hollow beneath a fold of the mantle. -The uncomely creature glides along over the stones upon its flat fleshy -foot and up the slender stems of sea-weeds by bringing the borders of the -same locomotive apparatus to meet around the stem, thus tightly grasping -it as if enclosed in a tube. While progressing, the fore part is poked -forward as a narrow neck furnished with two pair of tentacles, one pair -of which, standing erect and being formed of thin laminæ, bent round so -as to bring the edges nearly into contact, look like the ears of the -timid quadruped, from which the Aplysia has derived its common name. The -colour is a dark-brownish purple studded with rings and spots of white. -On being disturbed, the sea-hare pours out from beneath the mantle-lobes -a copious fluid of the richest purple hue, which however quickly fades, -and is of no value in the arts. - -More than forty species of Aplysiæ are known, most of them inhabitants of -the warmer seas. The acrid humour exuded by the depilatory aplysia, or -_Aplysia depilans_, of the Mediterranean is still supposed by the Italian -fishermen to occasion the loss of the hair, and was used by the ancient -Romans in the composition of their venomous potions--though it is by no -means poisonous. Such are the prejudices resulting from the propensity of -man to associate evil qualities with an unprepossessing appearance. - -[Illustration: Chiton squamosus.] - -To the Cyclobranchiate order belong the Limpets and the Chitons. The -latter, which are the only multivalve shells among the Gasteropods, are -spread in more than two hundred species over every shore from Iceland to -the Indies, but they are particularly abundant on the coasts of Peru and -Chili. Some of the smaller species inhabit our coasts, where they may be -found adhering to stones near low water mark. They are coated with eight -transverse shelly plates, folding over each other at their edges like the -plates of ancient armour, and inserted into a tough marginal band, so as -to form a complete shield to the animal. Thus encased in coat of mail, -the chitons have the power of baffling the voracity of their enemies by -rolling themselves up into a ball like the wood-louse or the armadillo: -they are also able to cling with such tenacity to the rock that it is -difficult to detach them without tearing them to pieces. The Limpets, or -Patellæ, likewise attach their shield-like shell so firmly to a hard body -that it requires the introduction of a knife between the shell and the -stone to detach them. It has been calculated that the larger species are -thus able to produce a resistance equivalent to a weight of 150 pounds, -which, considering the sharp angle of the shell, is more than sufficient -to defy the strength of a man to raise them. They often congregate in -large numbers in one place, and an old writer compares them to nail-heads -struck into the rock. More than a hundred species are known; one of -which, the _Patella cochlear_ of the Cape, is almost invariably found -squatting upon the shell of another species of limpet. The finest and -largest varieties abound on the shores of the Oriental seas and the -coasts of the Mediterranean, but several of the smaller species are very -numerous in our littoral or sub-littoral zone, where they either feast -on the green sea-weeds that we find covering at ebb-tide the stones with -a thin emerald layer, or upon the coarser olive-coloured algæ. Thus -_Patella pellucida_ and _Patella lævis_, both remarkable for longitudinal -streaks of iridescent colours on an olive-shell, may generally be found -feeding either on the broad fronds or on the roots and stems of the -Laminariæ, or Oar-weeds. To their labours may indeed be partly attributed -the annual destruction of these gigantic algæ, for, eating into the lower -part of the stems, and destroying the branches of the roots, they so far -weaken the base that it is unable to support the weight of the frond, and -thus the plant is detached and driven on shore by the waves. - -[Illustration: Limpet and Shell.] - -The beautiful Sea-ear, or Haliotis, is the chief representative of the -scutibranchiate gasteropods. The flattened shell, perforated with small -holes on one side, is characterised by a very wide mouth or aperture, the -largest in any shell except the limpet. The outside is generally rough, -or covered with marine substances; the inside presents the same enamelled -appearance as mother-of-pearl, and exhibits the most beautiful colours. -The holes with which the shell is perforated serve to admit water to the -branchiæ, and are formed at regular intervals as it increases in size. -The foot is very large, having the margin fringed all round, and is able, -like that of the chiton or the limpet, to cling firmly to the rock. More -than seventy species of Haliotis are known, the greater part occurring in -the Pacific Ocean. - -[Illustration: Haliotis. - - _c._ Series of perforations. - _d._ Eye peduncles. - _e._ Tentacles. - _g._ Foot. -] - -[Illustration: Carinaria.] - -To the scutibranchiate gasteropods also belong the strangely formed -Carinariæ, which seem to be made up of disjointed parts. The gills (_g_) -project from under a thin vitreous shell (_f_), which projects from the -dorsal surface, and has a form not unlike that of the Argonaut or of a -Phrygian cap. The foot (_b_) is not formed for creeping, but constitutes -a muscular vertical paddle or fin, that serves them for swimming on the -back, and is furnished with a sucking disk (_c_), with which they are -enabled to attach themselves to floating objects. - -The Pectinibranchiata comprise all the spiral univalve shells, and are by -far the most numerous of all the gasteropods, as their species are not -counted by hundreds, but by thousands. If their calcareous garment could -be drawn out, it would be found to consist of a tube gradually widening -from the apex to the base; but what an immense variety of form and -ornaments, what a prodigality of splendid tints, has not Nature spread -over this interminable host! The same fundamental idea appears to us in -thousands of modifications, one yet more elegant and capricious than the -other. Thus the passion of the shell collector is as conceivable as that -of the lover of choice flowers, and when we read that rich tulip-amateurs -have given thousands of florins for one single bulb, we cannot wonder -that many of the Volutes, Cones, Mitres, and Harps, are worth several -times their weight in gold; that more than a hundred pounds have been -paid for a Chinese wentle-trap, and that the _Cypræa aurora_, which the -Polynesian chiefs used to wear about the neck, is valued at thirty or -forty guineas. - -[Illustration: Orange Cone-Shell.] - -[Illustration: Mitre-Shells.] - -[Illustration: Harp-shell.] - -The mode in which these beautifully painted structures are formed is very -similar to what takes place among bivalve shells. They are secreted by -the glandular margin of the mantle or soft skin which clothes the upper -part of the body of the snail, and their form depends on the shape of the -body they are destined to cover, while the outline of the border is alike -regulated by that of the mantle. In the border of the mantle are placed -the glands through which colouring matter is added to the lime of which -the shell consists, and here also the whole of the outer coat of the -shell is formed by constant annual additions to the lip. The after-growth -of the shell proceeds, layer over layer, from the general surface of the -mantle, so that the calcareous robe constantly increases in thickness -with the age of the animal. - -[Illustration: Chinese Wentle-trap.--(Scalaria pretiosa.)] - -However different the form of a shell may be, its use is invariably -the same, affording the soft-bodied animal a shield or retreat against -external injuries. In this respect it is not uninteresting to remark that -those species which inhabit the littoral zone, and are most exposed to -the violence of the waves, have a stronger shell than those which live in -greater depths, and that the fresh-water molluscs have generally a much -more delicate and fragile coat than those which live in the ocean. The -greater the necessity of protection the better has Nature provided for -the want. Thus most of the gasteropods, besides possessing a stone-hard -dwelling, are also furnished at the extremity of the foot with an -operculum, or calcareous lid, which fits exactly upon the opening of -their house, and closes it like a fortress against the outer world. But -no animal exists that is safe against every attack, for the large birds -sometimes carry the ponderous sea-snails, whose entrance they cannot -force with their beaks, high up into the air, and let them fall upon the -rocks, where they are dashed to pieces. - -The ordinary mode of locomotion of the testaceous sea-snails is by -creeping along on their foot: those that have a very heavy house to -carry, such as the Cassis or the Pteroceras, generally move along -very slowly, while others, such as the Olivæ, that are possessed of a -comparatively strong and broad foot, have rapid and lively movements, -and quickly raise themselves again when they have been overturned. The -Strombidæ and Rostellariæ place their powerful and elastic foot under -the shell in a bent position, when suddenly by a muscular effort they -straighten that organ and roll and leap over and over. The structure -of the foot of the _Tornatella fasciata_, an inhabitant of our coast, -is most remarkable: beaten incessantly by the waves, in the cavities -of rocks which it frequents, nearly on a level with the surface of the -sea, to the violence of which it is always exposed, it has need of -additional powers for retaining its hold; its foot is therefore divided -into two adhering portions, placed at each extremity, and separated by a -wide interval; when it crawls, it fixes the posterior disc and advances -the other, which it attaches firmly to the place of progression, and -this being effected, the hinder sucker is detached and drawn forwards, -locomotion being accomplished by the alternate adhesion of these two -prehensile discs. In Cyclostoma the foot is likewise furnished with two -longitudinal adhering lobes, which are advanced alternately. But the foot -of the marine snails is not merely an instrument of progression on a -solid surface, for in many species it is convertible at the will of the -animal into a boat, by means of which the creature can suspend itself in -an inverted position at the surface of the water, where by the aid of its -mantle and tentacles it can row itself from place to place. - -[Illustration: Pteroceras scorpio.] - -[Illustration: Oliva hispidula.] - -[Illustration: Strombus pes pelicani.] - -[Illustration: Ianthina communis.] - -The Ianthinæ, or purple Sea-Snails, carry under their foot a vesicular -organ like a congeries of foam-bubbles, that prevents creeping, but -serves as a buoy to support them at the surface of the water. - -[Illustration: Murex haustellum.] - -When the sea is quiet, these little creatures, - - Like little wanton boys that swim on bladders, - -appear in vast shoals on the surface, but as soon as the wind ruffles -the ocean, or an enemy approaches, they at once empty their air-cells, -contract their float, and sink to the bottom, pouring out at the same -time a darkened fluid like that of the Aplysia or the Murex, which no -doubt serves them as a defence against their foes, and, according to -Lesson, furnished the celebrated purple of the ancients. The Ianthinæ -inhabit the Mediterranean and the warmer regions of the Atlantic, but -especially towards the close of summer they are frequently drifted by the -Gulf Stream to the west coast of Ireland. - -[Illustration: Magilus antiquus.] - -[Illustration: Worm-Shell.] - -While the vast majority of the gasteropods either creep or swim, some are -doomed to the sedentary life of the oyster, and remain for ever fixed -to the spot where they first attached themselves as small free-swimming -larvæ. Thus the _Magilus antiquus_, which in its young state presents -all the characters of a regular spiral univalve, establishes itself in -the excavations of madrepores, and as the coral increases around it, the -Magilus is obliged, in order to have its aperture on a level with the -surrounding surface, to construct a tube, lengthening with the growth of -the coral. As the tube goes on increasing, the animal abandons the spiral -for the tubular part of the shell, and in the operation it leaves behind -no partitions, but secretes a compact calcareous matter which reaches -to the very summit of the spiral part, so that in an old specimen the -posterior part of the shell presents a solid mass. - -The Siliquariæ are generally found embedded in a similar manner in -sponges or other soft bodies, while the Vermetus, or Worm-Shell, usually -attaches itself, like the Serpulæ, to rocks, coral-reefs, or shells. - -In these genera, which have been arranged by Cuvier in a separate order -(Tubulibranchiata), the foot is naturally reduced to the state of an -adhesive organ, its chief functions consisting in opening and closing the -lid. - -The sea-snails are either predaceous or herbivorous; among the -pectinibranchiates, those with circular mouths to the shell are vegetable -feeders, while such as have an aperture ending in a canal are animal -feeders. Considerable modifications of internal structure indicate this -difference of food; and the external organs, particularly about the -mouth, exhibit a corresponding variety of form. In those which feed on -vegetables the mouth is generally a slit furnished with more or less -perfect lips, armed with a simple cutting apparatus, which is often -powerful enough to divide or dismember comparatively hard substances. - -In most animal feeders the mouth presents the appearance of a proboscis -that can be protruded or shortened at the will of the animal, and -which, grasping the food, conveys it to a spine-armed tongue, by the -aid of which it is propelled into the gullet without mastication or any -preparatory change. - -In the Whelk and its shell-boring allies, the alternate protrusion and -retraction of the proboscis, which is here of a much more complicated -structure, causes the sharp tongue to act as a rasp or auger, capable of -drilling holes into the hardest shells. It is this circumstance which -renders the whelk so formidable an enemy to mussel and oyster banks. -During the erection of Bell Rock lighthouse, an attempt was made to plant -a colony of mussels on the wave-beaten cliff, as they were likely to be -of great use to the workmen, and especially to the light keepers, the -future inhabitants of the rock; but the mussels were soon observed to -open and die in great numbers. "For some time," says Mr. Stevenson in his -interesting narrative, "this was ascribed to the effects of the violent -surge of the sea, but the Buccinum lapillus having greatly increased, -it was ascertained that it had proved a successful enemy to the mussel. -The buccinum was observed to perforate a small hole in the shell, and -thus to suck out the finer parts of the body of the mussel; the valves -of course opened, and the remainder of the shell-fish was washed away -by the sea. The perforated hole is generally upon the thinnest part of -the shell, and is perfectly circular, of a champhered form, being wider -towards the outward side, and so perfectly smooth and regular as to have -all the appearance of the most beautiful work of an expert artist. It -became a matter extremely desirable to preserve the mussel, and it seemed -practicable to extirpate the buccinum. But after we had picked up and -destroyed many barrels of them, their extirpation was at length given -up as a hopeless task. The mussels were consequently abandoned as their -prey; and, in the course of the third year's operations, so successful -had the ravages of the buccinum been that not a single member of the -imported mussel colony was to be found upon the rock." Thus the engineer, -whose skill and perseverance had gained so proud a triumph over the waves -of the stormy ocean, was defeated by an ignoble whelk. - -[Illustration: Limpet's tongue.] - -In the genera which have no proboscis, the tongue, acting as a prehensile -and rasping or abrading organ, is frequently of considerable length; -thus, in the Ear-shell, it is half as long as the body, and in the common -Limpet even three times longer than the entire animal. From the two -cartilaginous pieces (_b b_), placed on each side of its root, arise the -short and powerful muscles which wield the organ. The surface of this -curious piece of mechanism, a magnified view of which is given at B, is -armed with minute, though strong, teeth, placed in transverse rows, and -arranged in three series; each central group consists of four spines, -while those on the sides contain but two a-piece. It is only at its -anterior extremity (_d_), however, that the tongue, so armed, presents -that horny hardness needful for the performance of its functions, the -posterior part being comparatively soft; so that, probably in proportion -as the anterior part is worn away, the parts behind it gradually assume -the necessary firmness, and advance to supply its place. In the upper -part of the circumference of the mouth, we find a semicircular horny -plate, resembling an upper jaw, and the tongue, by triturating the food -against this, gradually reduces substances however hard. On opening the -limpet, the tongue is found doubled upon itself, and folded in a spiral -manner beneath the viscera. - -Many of the Gasteropods which live on coarse and refractory materials are -provided with several digestive cavities, resembling in some degree the -stomachs of the ruminating quadrupeds; and frequently the triturating -power of these organs is still further increased by their being armed -with teeth variously disposed. - -[Illustration: Bulla.] - -In the Bulla, for instance, a genus belonging, like the sea-hares, to the -tectibranchiate order, the gizzard, or second stomach, contains three -plates of stony hardness attached to its walls, and so disposed that they -perform the part of a most efficacious grinding mill. - -On opening the gizzard of the Scyllæa, it is found to be still more -formidably armed, for in its muscular walls there are embedded no less -than twelve horny plates (_e_), which are extremely hard and as sharp as -the blades of a knife. - -[Illustration: Gizzard of Bulla.] - -[Illustration: Gizzard of Syllæa.] - -The Sea-hare, however, furnishes us with the most curious form of these -stomachal teeth, for here we see not only the gizzard (_b_) armed with -horny pyramidal plates, whose tuberculated apices, meeting in the centre -of the organ, must necessarily bruise by their action whatever passes -through that cavity, but the third stomach (_d_) is also studded with -sharp-pointed hooks (_c_), resembling canine teeth, and admirably adapted -to pierce and subdivide the tough leathery fronds of the olive sea-weeds -on which the animal feeds. Thus these deformed and disgusting molluscs -afford us one of the most interesting examples of the adaptation of -organs to their functions, which an enlightened research is continually -finding in creation. - -[Illustration: Compound stomach of Sea-Hare.] - -Though not so gifted as the cephalopods, many of the gasteropods possess -all the organs of sense. Like them, they have an apparatus specially -calculated to appreciate sonorous undulations, and consisting of a -membranous vesicle attached to an auditive nerve, and containing either -a single spherical otolithe or a larger number of similar smaller -calcareous bodies, which by their vibrations communicate the impression -of sound to the nerve. Their minute eyes are short-sighted, it is true, -and frequently either entirely wanting or, as in the Nudibranchiates, -scarcely able to distinguish light from darkness; but their inactive -habits require no wide field of vision, and thus they see as much of the -external world as is necessary for their humble sphere of existence. The -organs of sight are generally situated either on a prominence at the base -of the superior pair of tentacles or, as, for instance, in the Murex, at -the extremity of these organs (_a_, _b_), a position which enables the -animal to direct them readily to different objects. - -[Illustration: Tentacles and eye of Murex. - -_c._ Eye highly magnified.] - -Many of the Gasteropods are evidently capable of perceiving odours; thus, -animal substances let down in a net to the bottom will attract thousands -of Nassæ in one night. We also may infer that they are not deficient -in taste from the presence of papillæ at the bottom of their mouth, -analogous to those found on the tongue of other animals; but, of all -their senses, that of touch is undoubtedly the most perfect. The whole -soft surface of the body is indeed of exquisite sensibility, but more -especially the vascular foot, and the tentacles, or horns, which vary -both in number and in shape in different genera. Yet, in spite of this -delicacy in the organisation of the skin, which makes it so sensible of -contact, it appears to have been beneficently ordered that animals so -helpless and exposed to injury from every quarter are but little sensible -to pain. Although they are deprived of all higher instincts, we find -among the Gasteropods a few examples of concealment under extraneous -objects, which remind us of the masks and artifices frequently employed -by the insects and crustaceans. - -The Agglutinating Top (_Trochus agglutinans_) covers itself with small -stones and fragments of shells, and thus shielded from the view escapes -the voracity of many an enemy but little suspecting the savoury morsel -hidden under the mound of rubbish which he disdainfully passes by. - -In animals which are only provided with passive means of defence, we may -naturally expect a considerable degree of caution, and in this respect -the gasteropods might give many useful lessons to man. How carefully they -protrude their tentacles as far as possible to sound every obstacle in -their way, before they creep onwards, and how rapidly they withdraw into -their shell at the least symptom of danger! What an example to so many of -us that leap before they look, and frequently break their necks in the -fall! - -Yet, in spite of all their prudence and of the protection of their -stony dwellings, they serve as food to a host of powerful enemies. The -sea-stars, their most dangerous foes, not only swallow the young fry but -also seize with their long rays the full-grown gasteropods, and clasp -them in a murderous embrace. - -They are preyed upon by fishes, crustaceans, and sea-birds, who pick them -up along the shores; but it will sometimes happen that a crow, while -endeavouring to detach a limpet for its food, is caught by the tip of its -bill, and held there until drowned by the advancing tide. - -Man also consumes a vast number of sea-snails, for on every coast there -are some edible species; and it may be said that, with the exception of -very few that have a disagreeable taste, they are all of them used as -food by the savage. The miserable inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego chiefly -live upon a large limpet that abounds on the rocky shores of their -inhospitable land, and but for this resource would most likely long since -have been extirpated by hunger. - -Many of the univalve shells are, moreover, highly prized as objects of -ornament or use both by savage and civilised nations. The South Sea -Islander makes use of a Triton as a war conch; the Patagonian drinks -out of the Magellanic volute, the Arab of the Red Sea employs a large -Buccinum as a water-jug, and the _Cypræa moneta_ is well known in -commerce as the current coin of the natives of many parts of Africa. -In Europe the iridescent Haliotis is frequently used for the inlaying -of tables or boxes, and various species of Helmet-shells and Strombi -(_Cassis rufa madagascariensis_, _Strombus gigas_), peculiar as being -formed of several differently coloured layers, placed side by side, are -in great request for the cutting of cameos, as they are soft enough -to be worked with ease, and hard enough to resist wear. More than two -hundred thousand of these shells are annually imported into France, -and the value of cameos produced in Paris alone amounts to more than a -hundred thousand pounds. A large number are also cut in the small town of -Oberstein on the Nahe (a river flowing into the Rhine at Bingen), which -has long been famous for the manufactory of agate ornaments and trinkets, -and has now added this new branch of industry to the more ancient sources -of its prosperity. - - * * * * * - -The Pteropods, or Wing-footers, move about by means of two fin-like -flaps, proceeding wing-like from the fore part of the body. They have no -disk to walk upon, nor arms for the seizure of prey, like the cephalopods -and gasteropods, but resemble them by the possession of a head distinct -from the rest of the body, which some, like the Hyaleas and Cleodora, -conceal in a thin transparent or translucent shell, in which they also -hide their head and wings at the approach of danger, and immediately sink -to the bottom; while others, like the blue and violet Clios, beautifully -variegated with light red spots, are perfectly naked. They generally -inhabit the high seas, and are but rarely drifted by storms or currents -into the neighbourhood of the land. They mostly swim about freely, -but sometimes also they are found clinging by their wings to floating -sea-weeds. They are small creatures, but propagate so fast that the _Clio -borealis_ and _Limacina arctica_ form the chief food of the colossal -whale. - -[Illustration: Hyalea globulosa.] - -While these two little pteropods, in spite of their minute proportions, -deserve to rank among the most important inhabitants of the northern -seas, the Mediterranean species belong mainly to the genera Hyalea, -Cleodora, and Criseis--forms wholly unknown to our own fauna except as -waifs. Vast shoals of these animals frequent the deeper parts of that -sea, leaving their remains strewed over its bed, between depths of from -one hundred to two hundred fathoms; they are short-lived creatures, and -have their seasons, being met with near the surface during spring and -winter, sparkling in the water like needles of glass. - -"The pteropods are the winged insects of the sea," says M. Godwin-Austen, -"reminding us, in their free circling movements and crepuscular habits, -of the gnats and moths of the atmosphere; they shun the light, and if the -sun is bright, you may look in vain for them during the life-long day--as -days sometimes are at sea; a passing cloud, however, suffices to bring -some Cleodoræ to the surface. It is only as day declines that their true -time begins, and thence onwards the watches of the night may be kept by -observing the contents of the towing-net, as the hours of a summer day -may be by the floral dial. The Cleodoræ are the earliest risers; as the -sun sets, _Hyalæa gibbosa_ appears, darting about as if it had not a -moment to spare, and, indeed, its period is brief, lasting only for the -Mediterranean twilight. Then it is that _Hyalæa trispinosa_ and _Cleodora -subula_ come up; _Hyalæa tridentata_, though it does not venture out till -dusk, retires early, whilst some species, such as _Cleodora pyramidata_, -are to be met with only during the midnight hours and the darkest nights. -This tribe, like a higher one, has its few irregular spirits, who manage -to keep it up the whole night through. All, however, are back to their -homes below before dawn surprises them." - - * * * * * - -The lamellibranchiate Acephala, or headless molluscs with comb-like -gills, are distinguished from the preceding orders of molluscs by a -more simple organisation and the peculiar formation of their external -coverings. They are all contained within a bivalve shell, articulated -after the manner of a hinge, and to which some of their families are -attached by one strong muscle (Monomyaria), others by two (Dimyaria). -In this shell, which is secreted by two large flaps or folds of their -skin or mantle, they generally lie concealed like a book in its binding, -and bid defiance to many of their enemies. When danger menaces, the -sea-snail withdraws its head and closes the entrance of its hermitage -with a lid, but the bivalve shuts its folding-doors when it wishes to -avoid a disagreeable intruder. A strong elastic ligament connects the -two valves, and opens them wide as soon as the muscular contraction which -closed them ceases to act. - -While the sea-snail creeps along upon a mighty foot, the bivalve is -frequently doomed to a sedentary life, and the former protrudes from its -shell a well-formed head, while the latter, like many a biped, has no -head at all. The lamellibranchiate Acephala have, however, been treated -by nature not quite so step-motherly as might be supposed from this -deficiency, for many of them have eyes, or at least ocular spots, which -enable them to distinguish light from darkness; and even auditory organs -have been discovered in many of them. Their circulation is performed by -a heart generally symmetrical, and their respiration by means of four -branchial leaflets equal in size, and symmetrically arranged on either -side of the body. The mouth is a simple orifice without any teeth, -bordered by membranous lips, and placed at one end of the body between -the two inner leaves of the branchiæ. The digestive apparatus consists of -a stomach or intestine of different lengths, a liver, and several other -accessory organs. A simple nervous system brings all the parts of the -body into harmonious action. - -[Illustration: Bivalve deprived of shell, to show its various openings.] - -In many lamellibranchiates the folds of the mantle are disjoined, as, for -instance, in the oyster, which, on opening its shell, at once admits the -water to its delicately fringed branchiæ; in others they are more or less -united, so as to form a closed sack with several openings, an anterior -one (_h_) for the passage of the foot, and two posterior ones (_g_, _f_) -for the ingress and egress of the water which the animal requires for -respiration. These posterior openings are often prolonged into shorter -or longer tubes or siphons, sometimes separate, and sometimes grown -together so as to form a single elongated fleshy mass. The use of these -prolongations becomes at once apparent when we consider that they are -chiefly developed in those species which burrow in sand, mud, wood, or -stone, and which therefore require to be specially guarded against the -danger of suffocation. The interior of these siphonal canals is lined -with innumerable vibratory cilia, by the action of which the water is -drawn towards the branchial orifice and conveyed in a current through the -canal over the surface of the gills; then, having been deprived of its -oxygen, it is expelled by a similar mechanism through the other tube; -and it is by the force of this anal current that the passage is kept -free from the deposit of mud or other substances, which would otherwise -soon choke it up. The cleaning action of the anal current is assisted by -the faculty the burrowing molluscs possess of elongating and contracting -their siphons, and the degree to which this may be accomplished depends -on the depth of the cavity which the species is accustomed to make. Yet -since many particles of matter float even in clear water, which from -their form or other qualities might be injurious to the delicate tissue -of the viscera to be traversed, how is the entrance of these to be -guarded against in an indiscriminating current? A beautiful contrivance -is provided for this necessity. The margin of the branchial siphon, -and sometimes, though more rarely, of the anal one, is set round with -a number of short tentacular processes, endowed with an exquisite -sensibility and expanding like feathery leaves. In _Pholas dactylus_ -this apparatus, which is here confined to the oral tube, is of peculiar -beauty, forming a network of exquisite tracery, through the interstices -or meshes of which the water freely percolates, while they exclude -all except the most minute floating atoms of extraneous matter. Thus -admirably has the health and comfort of the lowly shell-fish been provided -for that spend their whole life buried in sepulchres of stone or sand. - -[Illustration: Donax. - -_a_, _b_. Siphons.] - -The fragile shell of the pholades seems to have prompted them to seek -a better protection in the hard rock; a similar necessity may have -induced the ship-worm to drill a dwelling in wood. Its shells, which -are only a few lines broad, are very small compared with the size of -the vermiform body, and are therefore completely inadequate for its -defence. For better security it bores deep passages in submerged timber, -which it lines with a calcareous secretion, closing the opening with two -small lids. Unfortunately, while thus taking care of itself, it causes -considerable damage to the works of man. It is principally to guard -against the attacks of this worm that ships are sheathed with copper, -and the beams of submarine constructions closely studded with nails. -During the last century, the Teredo caused such devastations in the dykes -which guard a great part of Holland against the encroachments of an -overwhelming ocean that the Dutch began to tremble for their safety; and -thus a miserable worm struck terror in the hearts of a nation which had -laughed to scorn the tyranny of Philip II., and bid defiance to the -legions of Louis XIV. - -[Illustration: Pholas striata.] - -[Illustration: Ship-worm.--(Teredo navalis.)] - -But while blaming the teredo for its damages, justice bids us not pass -over in silence the services which it renders to man. If it here and -there destroys useful constructions, on the other hand, it removes the -wrecks that would otherwise obstruct the entrance of rivers and harbours; -and we may ask whether these services do not outweigh the harm it causes. -The pholades also belong to the noxious animals; they perforate the -walls and calcareous jetties which man opposes to the fury of the sea, -or raises for the creation of artificial harbours and landing places, -destroy their foundations, and gradually cause their destruction. - -[Illustration: Petunculus. - -_a._ Foot.] - -The foot of the lamellibranchiates presents a great variety of form, -and is found in various degrees of development, gradually passing into -a rudimentary state, until finally it is completely wanting in the -oyster family. In most of those which live at large it is strong and -muscular, serving either as an excellent spade for speedy concealment -in the sand when an enemy approaches, or to dig a furrow into which -the animal forces itself partially, and then advances slowly by making -slight see-saw or balancing motions, or even to jump along with tolerable -rapidity. Thus, the common Cockle protrudes its foot to its utmost -length, bending it and fixing it strongly against the surface on which it -stands; then by a sudden muscular spring it throws itself into the air, -and, by repeating the process again and again, hops along at a pace one -would hardly expect to meet with in a shell-bound mollusc. - -Even some of those which have but a very rudimentary foot, incapable of -subserving locomotion, are able to move from place to place by the sudden -opening or shutting of their valves. In this manner the scallop, which -inhabits deep places, where it lies on a rocky or shelly bottom, swims or -flies through the water with great rapidity, and the file or rasp mussel, -a closely related genus, principally occurring in the Indian Ocean, -glides so swiftly through the water that the French naturalists Quoy and -Gaimard were hardly able to overtake it. - -[Illustration: Cockle. - -_a._ Foot.] - -In the stone or wood-boring bivalves the functions of the foot with -regard to locomotion are much more limited than in the Cockle, or -Tellina, as they merely consist in moving the animal up and down in the -cavity where it has fixed its residence. In the Razor-Shells, which will -sometimes burrow to the depth of two feet, and very rarely quit their -holes, the cylindrical foot, no longer fit for horizontal locomotion, -serves the animal for rising or sinking in the sand, for when about to -bore, it attenuates it into a point, and afterwards contracts it into a -rounded form so as to fix it by its enlargement when it desires to rise. - -In places where the razor-shells abound, they are sought after as bait -for fish, and taken in spite of their mole-like facility of concealment, -for when the tide is low, their retreat is easily recognised by the -little jet of water they eject when alarmed by the motion of the -fishermen above. Having thus detected their burrow, the wily enemy who -is well aware that, though inhabiting the salt water, the Solen does not -like too much of a good thing, merely throws some salt into the hole, -which, sadly irritating the nerves of the poor creature, generally brings -it to the surface. He must, however, be very quick in grasping it firmly, -for should he fail, the animal speedily sinks again into the sand and -will remain there, being either insensible to the additional irritation -or its instinct of self-preservation teaching it to remain beneath. - -The pholades, which have very delicate milk-white valves, burrow holes in -limestone or sandstone rocks, though occasionally they content themselves -with houses of clay or turf. How creatures invested with shells as thin -as paper and as brittle as glass are able to work their way through hard -stone has long been a puzzle to naturalists, some of whom asserted that -they attained their object by means of an acid solvent, others that -they bored like an auger by revolving; but recent investigations have -discovered that their short and truncated foot is the chief instrument -they use in their mining operations, being provided at its base with a -rough layer of sharp crystals of flint, which, when worn off, are soon -replaced by others, and act as excellent files. - -[Illustration: Solen, or Razor-Shell. - -_a._ Foot.] - -In several of the sedentary genera the rudimentary foot, though incapable -of locomotion, makes itself useful by spinning a bundle of silken -threads, called _byssus_, or beard, which serve to anchor the animal to -any solid submarine object as firmly as a ship in harbour. Generally -the connection is permanent, but some species, among others the edible -mussel, are able to detach the filaments from the glandular pedicle -situated at the inferior base of the foot which originally secreted them, -and then to seek another point of attachment. - -If the byssus be examined under a powerful lens, before any of the -filaments are torn, it is easy to perceive that these are fixed to -submarine bodies by means of a small disc-like expansion of their -extremities of various extent, according to the genus and species. -Certain genera are celebrated for the abundance and fineness of their -byssus; that of the Pinnæ, or Wing-Shells, among others, which are very -common in some parts of the Mediterranean, and attain a considerable -size, is so long and firm that in Naples it is sometimes manufactured -into gloves and other articles of dress, though more as an object of -curiosity than for use. - -Thus we find in the same class of animals the same organ most variously -modified in form and structure; now serving as a foot, now as a spade, -or as a rasp, or as a spinning machine, and, throughout all these -modifications, admirably adapted in every case to the mode of life of its -possessor. - -[Illustration: Pinna. - - _c._ Pedicle from which the filaments are detached. - _d._ Inferior base of the foot. -] - -The whole construction, and generally the extremely restricted -locomotion, of the bivalves tells us at once that they are unable -to attack their prey, but must be satisfied with the food which the -sea-currents bring to the door of their shells, or within the vortex -of their branchial siphons. But they have as little reason to complain -as the equally slow or sessile polyps, bryozoa, and ascidians, for the -waters of the ocean harbour such incalculable multitudes of microscopic -animals and plants that their moderate appetite never remains long -unsatisfied. The same streams which aërate their blood also convey to -their mouth all the food which they require. - -Deprived of more active weapons, most bivalves rely upon their shells -as their best means of defence, and to answer this purpose, their stony -covering must naturally increase in solidity the more its owner is -exposed to injury. The pholades, lithodomes, and teredines, which scoop -out their dwellings in stone or wood, and thus enjoy the protection of -a retrenched camp, can do with a thin and brittle or even with a mere -rudimentary shell. The solens, which at the least alarm bury themselves -deeper and deeper in the sand, likewise require no closely-fitting -valves; but the oysters or mussels, which have no external fortress to -retire to, and are unable to move from the spot, would be badly off -indeed if they could not entirely conceal themselves within their thick -shells, and keep them closed by strong muscular contraction. - -Bernardin de St. Pierre, in his "Studies of Nature," points out another -admirable provision for the safety of molluscs. Thus, those which crawl -and travel, and can consequently choose their own asylums, are in general -those of the richest colours. Such, among the Gasteropods, are the -gaudily-tinted Nerites, and the polished marbled Cowries, the Olives, -richly ornamented with three or four colours, and the Harps, which have -tints as rich as the most beautiful tulips; while among the bivalves -the vivacious Pectens, coloured scarlet and orange, and a host of other -travelling shells, are impressed with the most lively colours. But those -which do not swim, as the Oysters, which are adherent always to the -same rocks, or those which are perpetually at anchor, as the Pinnas and -Mussels, or those which repose on the bosom of Madrepores, such as the -Arcs, or those which are entirely buried in the calcareous rocks, as the -Lithodomi, or those which immovably, by reason of their weight, pave the -surface of the reefs, as the Tridacna, are of the colour of the bottoms -or floors which they respectively inhabit, in order, no doubt, that they -shall be less perceived by their enemies. - -But even so the best guarded of the bivalves fall a prey to innumerable -enemies, and when we see the strand covered for miles and miles with -their débris, we may rest assured that but few of the quondam inmates -of these fragmentary shells have died a natural death. Annelides -and Sea-snails, crustaceans and star-fishes, strand birds and even -quadrupeds, all fatten upon their delicate flesh, and man devours -incalculable numbers. - -[Illustration: Edible Cockle.] - -In vain the Pholas buries itself in stone, or the cockle in the sand; -their security was at an end as soon as man had found out that they -were grateful to the palate. The former was reckoned a delicacy by the -ancients, and the latter is preferred by some to the oyster itself. So -much is certain, that, during the years of famine caused by the potato -disease, it preserved the lives of many of the poor Shetlanders and -Orcadians. - -The Razor-Shells, particularly when roasted, and the Clam-Mussels, which -are not only a favourite repast of the Greenlander but also of the white -bear and arctic fox, are equally reckoned among the most delicate of -bivalves. - -The common Mussel (_Mytilus edulis_), which is found in the littoral -zone on almost every rocky shore, is eaten in vast numbers by the coast -inhabitants, and carried in enormous masses into the interior of the -country; it furnishes an equally cheap and agreeable food, but is not -easy of digestion, and sometimes produces symptoms of poisoning, which -have been ascribed to the eggs of asterias, on which it feeds during the -summer. In the northern countries it is also in great request as a bait -for cod, ling, rays, and other large fishes that are caught by the line. -In the Frith of Forth alone from thirty to forty millions of mussels are -used for this purpose, and in many places they are enclosed in _gardens_, -the ground of which is covered with large stones, to which they attach -themselves by their byssus or beard. - -[Illustration: Edible Mussel.] - -It is a curious fact that the rearing of mussels should have been -introduced into France as far back as the year 1235, by an Irishman -of the name of Walton. This man, who had been shipwrecked in the Bay -de l'Aiguillon, and gained a precarious living by catching sea-birds, -observed that the mussels, which had attached themselves to the poles -on which he spread his nets over the shallow waters, were far superior -to those that naturally grow in the mud, and immediately made use -of his discovery by founding the first "_bouchot_," or mussel-park, -consisting of stakes and rudely interwoven branches. His example soon -found imitators, and, strange to say, the method of construction adopted -by Walton, six centuries ago, has been maintained unaltered to the -present day. It may give some idea of the immense resources that might -be obtained from so many utterly neglected lagunes when we hear that -the fishermen of l'Aiguillon, although they sell three hundredweight of -mussels for the very low sum of five francs, or four shillings, annually -export or send them into the interior to the amount of a million or -twelve hundred thousand francs. - -The praise which Pliny bestowed on the oyster, calling it the palm or -glory of the table, is still re-echoed by thousands of enthusiastic -admirers. We know that this king of the molluscs congregates in enormous -banks, often extending for miles and miles, particularly on rocky ground, -though it is also found on a sandy or even on a muddy bottom. Along the -shallow alluvial shores of many tropical lands, great quantities of -oysters are often found attached to the lower branches of the mangroves, -where they are so situated as to be covered when the flood sets in, and -to remain suspended in the air when it retires, swinging about as the -wind agitates their movable support. The oyster inhabits all the European -seas from the shores of the Mediterranean to the Westenfiord in Norway, -where it finds its northern boundary, lat. 68° N., but the British -waters may be considered as its headquarters, for nowhere is it found -in greater abundance and of a richer flavour. After the ancient Romans -had once tasted the oysters of Kent--the renowned _Rutupians_--they -preferred them by far to those of the Lucrine lake, of Brindisi, and of -Abydos, and Macrobius tells us that the Roman epicures in the fourth -century never failed to have them at table. The "Pandores" of Edinburgh, -and the "Carlingfords" of Dublin, are likewise celebrated for their -delicious flavour; and if we turn to the Continent, we find the Bay -of Biscay, and the coasts of Brittany and Normandy, of Holland and of -Schleswig-Holstein, renowned for the excellence of their oysters. - -Three sorts of oysters are distinguished in the trade. The first -comprises those which are dredged from the deeper banks. These are the -largest-sized, but also the least valued. The second consists of those -that are gathered on a more elevated situation. Being accustomed to -the daily vicissitudes of ebb and flood, they retain their water much -longer, and can therefore be transported to much greater distances than -the former. Those are preferred that grow on a clear bottom near the -estuaries of rivers. The third and most valued sort of oysters are those -that are cleaned and fattened in artificial _parks_ or stews. - -This branch of industry was already known to the Romans, and Pliny -tells us that Sergius Orata, a knight, was the first who established an -artificial basin for the cultivation of oysters, and realised large sums -of money by this ingenious invention. At present Harwich, Colchester, -Whitstable, and many other sea-ports along our coast are famed for their -oyster-stews, as are, in France and Belgium, Marennes, Havre, Dieppe, -Tréport, and Ostend, where real British natives are cleaned and fattened -for continental consumption. - -The renowned oyster-parks of Ostend, the oldest of which celebrated its -hundredth anniversary in 1860, are extensive walled basins, communicating -by sluices with the open sea, so that the water can be let in and out -with every returning tide. As microscopic algæ and animalculæ are -produced in much greater numbers in these tranquil reservoirs than in -the boisterous sea, the oysters find here much more abundant food, and -being detached one from the other, they can also open and close their -shells with greater facility, so that nothing hinders their growth. Thus -fostered and improved by constant attention, they are greatly superior -in flavour to the rough children of nature that are sent without any -further preparation to market and condemned to the knife soon after -having been dragged forth from their submarine abode. The highly prized -_green_ oysters owe their colour to the number of ulvæ, enteromorphæ, and -microscopic infusoriæ, that are abundantly generated in the parks, and -communicate their verdant tinge to the animal that swallows them. - -In spite of their high price, which unfortunately debars the poorer -classes from their enjoyment, the consumption of oysters is immense; so -that in a commercial point of view they are by far the most important of -all the mollusc tribes. Of the quantities eaten in London alone, it is -impossible to give even an approximate guess, as no reliable statistics -can be arrived at. Exclusive of those bred in Essex and Kent, in the -rivers Crouch, Blackwater, and Colne, and in the channel of the Swale and -the Medway, vast numbers are brought from Jersey, Poole, and other places -along the coast. The Channel Islands alone, which export about 100,000 -bushels a year, send a great part of their oysters to the metropolitan -market. - -The luxurious tables of Paris likewise consume unnumbered millions, and -when we consider that, thanks to the railroad, even the most distant -inland towns of the Continent may now be supplied with Ostend oysters, we -cannot wonder that their price has risen enormously with the constantly -increasing demand. - -This great augmentation of value has naturally directed attention to -the creation of new oyster-banks, and to the better management of those -already existing, and fortunately the manner in which the mollusc -propagates renders its culture in appropriate localities a by no means -difficult task. - -The oyster spawns from June to September. Instead of immediately -abandoning its eggs to their fate, as is the case with so many -sea-animals, it keeps them for a time in the folds of its mantle, between -the branchial lamellæ, and it is only after having thus acquired a more -perfect development that the microscopic larvæ, furnished with a swimming -apparatus and eyes, emerge from the shell, and are then driven about -by the floods and currents, until they find some solid body to which -they attach themselves for life. In this manner the oyster produces in -one single summer a couple of millions of young, which, however, mostly -perish during the first wandering stage of their existence. Thus we see -what rich rewards may be gained by protecting and fixing the oyster-larvæ -at an early date; and that this can be done in many places without any -great outlay of capital is proved to us by successful examples both in -ancient and modern times. - -Between the Lucrine Lake, the ruins of Cumæ, where of yore the Sibyl -uttered her ambiguous oracles, and the promontory of Misenum, lies a -small salt-water lake, about a league in circumference, generally from -three to six feet deep, and reposing on a volcanic, black, and muddy -bottom. This is the old Acheron of Virgil, the present Fusaro. Over -its whole extent are spread from space to space great heaps of stones, -that have been originally stocked with oysters brought from Tarentum. -Round each of these artificial mounds stakes are driven into the ground, -tolerably near each other, and projecting from the water, so as to be -pulled up easily. Other stakes stand in long rows several feet apart, -and are united by ropes, from which bundles of brushwood hang down into -the water. All these arrangements are intended to fix the _oyster-dust_, -that annually escapes from the parental shells, and to afford it a vast -number of points to which it may attach itself. After two or three years -the microscopic larvæ have grown into edible oysters. Then, at the proper -season, the stakes and brushwood bundles are taken out of the water, and -after the ripe berries of the marine vineyard have been plucked, they -are again immersed into the lake, until a new generation brings a new -harvest. Thus the indolent Neapolitans have for ages given an example -which has but recently been imitated by the men of the North. In 1858 -a mason named Beef (a name which, if not misspelt, would seem to point -out an English origin) inaugurated the modern era of oyster cultivation, -at the island of Ré, near La Rochelle, by laying down a few bushels of -growing oysters among a quantity of large stones on the fore shore. His -success encouraged his neighbours to follow his example, so that now -already upwards of 4,000 beds or _claires_ extend along the coast. - -Between March and May 1859 a quantity of oysters taken from different -parts of the sea were distributed in ten longitudinal beds in the Bay of -St. Brieux, on the coast of Brittany. The bottom was previously covered -with old oyster-shells and boughs of trees arranged like fascines, which -afford a capital holding-ground for the spat. In 1860 three of the -fascines were taken up indiscriminately from one of the banks, and found -to contain about 20,000 oysters each, of from one inch to two inches in -diameter. The total expense for forming the above bank was 221 francs, -and reckoning the number of oysters on each of the 300 fascines laid down -on it at only 10,000, these sold at the low price of 20 francs a thousand -would produce the sum of 60,000 francs, thus yielding a larger profit -than any other known branch of industry. - -Encouraged by these successful examples, an English company has obtained -a grant by Act of Parliament of a piece of fore shore lying between the -Whitstable and Faversham Oyster Companies' beds, and thus admirably -situated for receiving a large quantity of floating spawn from these -establishments. There can be no doubt that oyster cultivation will -spread further and further, and that ultimately all the worthless bays -and lagunes along our coasts will be converted into rich oyster-fields, -yielding a good profit to their owners and enjoyment to millions of -consumers. - -A shell nearly related to the oyster produces the costly pearls of the -East that have ever been as highly esteemed as the diamond itself. -The most renowned pearl-fisheries are carried on at Bahrein, in the -Persian Gulf, and in the Bay of Condatchy, in the island of Ceylon, on -banks situated a few miles from the coast. Before the beginning of the -fishery, the government causes the banks to be explored, and then lets -them to the highest bidder, very wisely allowing only a part of them -to be fished every year. The fishing begins in February, and ceases by -the beginning of April. The boats employed for this purpose assemble in -the bay, set off at night at the firing of a signal-gun, and reach the -banks after sunrise, where fishing goes on till noon, when the sea-breeze -which arises about that time warns them to return to the bay. As soon as -they appear within sight, another gun is fired, to inform the anxious -owners of their return. Each boat carries twenty men and a chief; ten -of them row and hoist up the divers, who are let down by fives,--and -thus alternately diving and resting keep their strength to the end of -their day's work. The diver, when he is about to plunge, compresses his -nostrils tightly with a small piece of horn, which keeps the water out, -and stuffs his ears with bees'-wax for the same purpose. He then seizes -with the toes of his right foot a rope to which a stone is attached, to -accelerate the descent, while the other foot grasps a bag of network. -With his right hand he lays hold of another rope, and in this manner -rapidly reaches the bottom. He then hangs the net round his neck, and -with much dexterity and all possible despatch collects as many oysters -as he can while he is able to remain under water, which is usually about -two minutes. He then resumes his former position, makes a signal to -those above by pulling the rope in his right hand, and is immediately -by this means hauled up into the boat, leaving the stone to be pulled -up afterwards by the rope attached to it. Accustomed from infancy to -their work, these divers do not fear descending repeatedly to depths of -fifty or sixty feet. They plunge more than fifty times in a morning, -and collect each time about a hundred shells. Sometimes, however, the -exertion is so great that, upon being brought into the boat, they -discharge blood from their mouth, ears, and nostrils. - -[Illustration: Ceylon Pearl-Oyster.] - -While the fishing goes on, a number of conjurors and priests are -assembled on the coast, busily employed in protecting the divers by their -incantations against the voracity of the sharks. These are the great -terror of the divers, but they have such confidence in the skill or -power of their conjurors that they neglect every other means of defence. -The divers are paid in money, or receive a part of the oyster-shells in -payment. Often, indeed, they try to add to their gains by swallowing -here or there a pearl, but the sly merchant knows how to find the stolen -property. The oysters, when safely landed, are piled up on mats, in -places fenced round for the purpose. As soon as the animals are dead, the -pearls can easily be sought for and extracted from the gaping shells. -After the harvest has been gathered, the largest, thickest, and finest -shells, which furnish mother-of-pearl, are sorted, and the remaining heap -is left to pollute the air. Some poor Indians, however, often remain for -weeks on the spot, stirring the putrid mass in the hopes of gleaning some -forgotten pearls from the heap of rottenness. The pearls are drilled and -stringed in Ceylon, a work which is performed with admirable dexterity -and quickness. For cleaning, rounding, and polishing them, a powder of -ground pearls is made use of. - -The Pacific also furnishes these costly ornaments to wealth and beauty, -but the pearls of California and Tahiti are less prized than those of the -Indian Ocean. - -Pearl-like excrescences likewise form on the inner surface of our oysters -and mussels, and originate in the same manner as the true pearls. -The formation of the pearl, however, is not yet quite satisfactorily -accounted for. Some naturalists believe that the animal accumulates -the pearl-like substance to give the shell a greater thickness and -solidity in the places where it has been perforated by some annelide or -gasteropod; and according to Mr. Philippi, an intestinal worm stimulates -the exudation of the pearl-like mass, which, on hardening, encloses and -renders it harmless. - -Brilliancy, size, and perfect regularity of form are the essential -qualities of a beautiful pearl. Their union in a single specimen is rare, -but it is of course still more difficult to find a number of pearls of -equal size and beauty for a costly necklace or a princely tiara. - -Nature has given the bivalves the same beauty of colouring and wonderful -variety of elegant or capricious forms as to the sea-snails; so that -they are equally esteemed in the cabinets of wealthy amateurs. Among the -most costly are reckoned the Spondyli, which are found in the tropical -seas, where they grow attached to rocks. They are distinguished by -the brilliancy of their colours, but particularly by the long thorny -excrescences with which their shells are covered. A Parisian professor -once pawned all his silver spoons and forks to make up the sum of six -thousand francs which was asked for a _Royal Spondylus_; but on returning -home was so _warmly_ received by his lady that, overwhelmed by the -hurricane, he flung himself on a chair, when the terrific cracking of the -box containing his treasure reminded him too late that he had concealed -it in his skirt-pocket. Fortunately but two of the thorns had been broken -off, and the damage was susceptible of being repaired; his despair, -however, was so great that his wife had not the heart to continue her -reproaches, and in her turn began to soothe the unfortunate collector. - -[Illustration: Tridacna gigas.] - -The gigantic Tridacna, which is now to be found in the shop of every -dealer in shells, was formerly an object of such rarity and value that -the Republic of Venice once made a present of one of them to Francis I., -who gave it to the Church of St. Sulpice in Paris, where it is still made -use of as a basin for holy water. The tridacna attains a diameter of -five feet, and a weight of five hundred pounds, the flesh alone weighing -thirty. The muscular power is said to be so great as to be able to cut -through a thick rope on closing the shell. It is found in the dead rocks -on the coral reefs, where there are no growing lithophytes except small -tufts. Generally only an inch or two in breadth of the ponderous shell -is exposed to view, for the tridacna, like the pholas, has the power of -sinking itself in the rock, by removing the lime about it. Without some -means like this of security, its habitation would inevitably be destroyed -by the roaring breakers. A tuft of byssus, however strong, would be a -very imperfect security against the force of the sea for shells weighing -from one to five hundred pounds. It is found in the Indian Ocean and the -Pacific as far as the coral zone extends. The animal of the tridacna, -and of the nearly related Hippopus, distinguishes itself by the beauty -of its colours. The mantle of the _Tridacna safranea_, for instance, -has a dark blue edge with emerald-green spots, gradually passing into a -light violet. When a large number of these beautiful creatures expand the -velvet brilliancy of their costly robes in the transparent waters, no -flower-bed on earth can equal them in splendour. - -[Illustration: Hippopus maculatus.] - - * * * * * - -Like the Lamellibranchiate Acephala, the Brachiopods are covered with -a bivalve shell, but their internal organisation is very different. -Instead of being disposed in separate gills, their respiratory system is -combined with the ciliated mantle on which the vascular ramifications are -distributed, but their most striking feature is the possession of spiral -fringed arms or buccal appendages which serve to open the shell and -occupy the greater part of its cavity. These curious organs are in some -Brachiopods quite free, in others attached to a complicated cartilaginous -or calcareous skeleton. None of the existing molluscs of this class are -capable of changing place, but are either fixed to extraneous substances -by the agglutination of one of their valves or by a muscular peduncle -passing through a perforation of their shells. There are no more than -forty-nine living species, chiefly belonging to the genera Terebratula -and Crania, and generally found at great depths in the Southern Ocean; -but the fossil remains of 1,370 species prove their importance in the -primitive seas, where they rivalled the lamellibranchiates in numbers and -variety. Though now so rare or so local in the British seas that ordinary -collectors are not likely to meet with any, they abound in many of our -oldest rocks. "A visit to the quarries at Dudley," says E. Forbes, "or -an Irish lime-kiln, or an oolitic section on the Dorsetshire coast, or -a green sand ravine in the Isle of Wight, will afford more information -about the Brachiopods than an examination of the finest collection of the -living species. In each of the above excursions a different set of forms -would be collected, for many of the palæozoic genera have altogether -disappeared when we rise among the secondary rocks, and in the latter -we find forms which closely remind us of existing species, but which, -though very near, are yet unquestionably distinct. In formations of all -epochs, a few generic types are common, and the Lingulæ of the earliest -sedimentary formations, presenting traces of organic life, strikingly -remind us of the species of that curious group living in exotic seas at -the present day." - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Leaf-like Sea-Mat.] - -At the lower extremity of the great series of molluscous animals we find -the Polyzoa (Bryozoa, or Sea-Mosses) and Tunicata. The former, which -comprise the Sea-Mats (Flustræ, Escharæ), the Sea-Scurfs (Lepraliæ), the -Retepores, the Cellulariæ, and several other families, were formerly -reckoned among the polyps, whom they greatly resemble in appearance -and mode of life, but far surpass by the complexity of their internal -organisation. The Sea-Mats are among the commonest objects which the tide -casts out upon our shores, for you will hardly ever walk upon the strand -without finding their blanched skeletons among the relics of the retiring -flood. Their flat leaf-like forms might easily cause them to be mistaken -for dried sea-weeds, but a pocket-lens suffices to show that they are -built up of innumerable little oblong cells, placed back to back like -those of a honey-comb, and each crowned by four stout spines, which give -their surface a peculiarly harsh feel when the finger is passed over it -from the apex to the base. "The individual cells," says Mr. Gosse, "are -shaped like a child's cradle, and if you will please to suppose some -twenty thousand cradles stuck side to side in one plane, and then turned -over, and twenty thousand more stuck on to these bottom to bottom, you -will have an idea of the framework of a flustra. And do not think the -number outrageous, for it is but an ordinary average. I count in an area -of half an inch square sixty longitudinal rows, each of which contains -about twenty-eight cells in that space; this gives 6,720 cells per square -inch on each surface. Now a moderate-sized polyzoary contains an area -of three square inches, i. e. six on both surfaces, which will give the -high number of 40,320 cells on such a specimen. Many, however, are much -larger." - -Before the stormy tide detached them from the bottom of the sea, and -left them to perish on the shore, each of the cells contained a living -creature whose mouth was surrounded by a coronet of filiform and ciliated -tentacles, destined to produce a vortex in the water, and thus to provide -the tiny owner with its food. The body was bent on itself somewhat like -the letter V, the one branch (_a_) being the mouth and throat, the other -(_b_) the rectum, opening by an anus, and the middle part (_c_) the -stomach. Each of these tiny members of the flustra colony possessed a -considerable number of muscles; each was furnished with a movable lip or -lid to block up the entrance of his cell when he courted retirement; each -had his individual nerves, and consequently his individual sensations, -though feeling and moving simultaneously with his fellow citizens by the -agency of a system of nerves common to the whole republic, and sending -forth a delicate filament to the inmate of each cell. - -[Illustration: Flustra in its cell. (Highly magnified.)] - -Such are the wonders which but for the microscope would for ever have -remained unknown to man. - -The Escharæ greatly resemble the Flustræ, for here also the cells -are disposed side by side upon the same plane, so as to form a broad -leaf-like polyzoary, which, however, is not of a horny or coriaceous -texture, as in the latter genus, but completely calcified, so as to -present something of the massiveness of the stony corals. The annexed -wood-cuts, showing us _Eschara cervicornis_, first A, in its natural -size; then B, a few cells magnified twenty diameters, and ultimately C, -a single individual so highly magnified as to reveal some of the details -of its otherwise invisible structure, give us a good idea of the truly -remarkable organisation of the Polyzoa. - -In the Escharæ and Flustræ the cellular extension of the common stock -or polyzoary is unbroken, and opening on both surfaces, while in the -Retepores we find the cells opening only on one side, and the leaf-like -expansion pierced like network. - -[Illustration: Eschara cervicornis. (Natural size.)] - -[Illustration: Portion of a branch of the polypary of Eschara cervicornis, - magnified twenty diameters, to show the form and arrangement of cells.] - -In cabinets of natural history, the species commonly called Neptune's -ruffles will rarely be found wanting. It is a native of the -Mediterranean, but individuals of a smaller size are also found in the -British seas. - -[Illustration: An individual of Eschara cervicornis, highly magnified. - - _a._ Tentacula - _b._ First digestive cavity. - _d._ Stomach. - _f._ Anus. -] - -[Illustration: Retepora cellulosa. (Neptune's Ruffle.)] - -The Lepraliæ, or Sea-Scurfs, form thin calcareous crusts of a -white-yellow or reddish colour on rocks, shells, and sea-weeds. To the -naked eye they appear as rude unsightly eruptions, so as to justify -their name derived from the hideous leprosy of the East, but, when -magnified, their cells, generally disposed in regular concentric rows, -exhibit a surprising diversity and elegance of structure. Forty species -are found in the North Sea alone; hence we may judge how great the number -of still unknown forms must be that spread their microscopic traceries -over the algæ and shells of every zone. - -It would lead me too far were I minutely to describe the Cellulariæ with -their cells disposed in alternating rows on narrow bifurcated branches; -the Tubulipores, with their mouths at the termination of tubular cells -without any movable appendage or lip; the Bowerbankias and Lagunculas, -with their creeping stems and separate cells; suffice it to say that a -wonderful exuberance of fancy displays itself in the structure of the -numerous varieties of the Polyzoa. - -[Illustration: A. Portion of a Cellularia, magnified. - -B. A Bird's Head Process, more highly magnified, and seen in the act of -grasping another.] - -But a closer inspection reveals still greater miracles to the marine -microscopist, for most genera, and chiefly the Cellulariæ, possess -very remarkable appendages, or processes, presenting the most striking -resemblance to the head of a bird. Each of these processes, or -"aviculariæ," as they have been named, has two "mandibles," of which one -is fixed like the upper jaw of a bird, the other movable like its lower -jaw; the latter is opened and closed by two sets of muscles, which are -seen in the interior of the head, and between them is a peculiar body, -furnished with a pencil of bristles, which is probably a tactile organ, -being brought forwards when the mouth is open, so that the bristles -project beyond it, and being drawn back when the mandible closes. During -the life of the polyzoon, these tiny "vulture-heads," which are either -sessile or pedunculated, keep up a continual motion, and it is most -amusing to see them see-sawing and snapping and opening their jaws, and -then sometimes in their incessant activity even closing upon the beaks of -their neighbours. - -It is still very doubtful what is their precise function in the economy -of the animal; whether it is to retain within reach of the ciliary -current bodies that may serve as food, or whether it is like the -pedicellariæ of the sea-urchins to remove extraneous particles that may -be in contact with the surface of the polyzoary. The latter would seem to -be the function of the "vibracula," which are likewise pretty generally -distributed among the polyzoa. Each of these long bristle-shaped organs, -springing at its base out of a sort of cup, that contains muscles by -which it is kept in almost constant motion, sweeps slowly and carefully -over the surface of the polyzoary, and removes what might be injurious -to the delicate inhabitants of the cells, when their tentacles are -protruded. So carefully have these lowly molluscs been provided for! - -The polyzoa can neither hear nor see, at least as far as we are able to -ascertain, but the delicacy of their sense of touch is very great. "When -left undisturbed in a glass of fresh sea-water," says Dr. Johnston,[R] -"they push their tentacula beyond the mouth of the cell by straightening -the body, and then expanding them in the form of a funnel or bell, -they will often remain quiet and apparently immovable for a long time, -presenting a very pretty and most interesting object to an observer of -the 'minims of nature.' If, however, the water is agitated, they withdraw -on the instant, probably by aid of the posterior ligament or muscle; the -hinder part of the body is pushed aside up the cell, the whole is sunk -deeper, and by this means the tentacula, gathered into a close column, -are brought within the cell, the aperture of which is shut by the same -series of actions. The polyzoa of the same polyzoary often protrude their -thousand heads at the same time, or in quick but irregular succession, -and retire simultaneously, or nearly so, but at other times I have often -witnessed a few only to venture on the display of their glories, the -rest remaining concealed, and if, when many are expanded, one is singled -out and touched with a sharp instrument, it alone feels the injury, and -retires, without any others being conscious of the danger, or of the -hurt inflicted on their mate. The polyzoa propagate by gemmation and by -ova or eggs, which, germinating on the inner surface, escape at a later -period into the visceral cavity, and are finally discharged into the wide -sea, so to fulfil their mission in creation, and people the shores of -every clime with myriads of busy workers in horn and in lime, which, with -subtle chemistry, they draw from a fluid quarry and build up in textures -of admirable beauty and heaven-ordered designs." - -[Footnote R: "History of the British Zoophytes," 2nd edit. vol. i. p. -259.] - -Each polyzoon begins with a single ovum. The original or seminal cell -of a flustra or lepralia has no sooner fixed itself upon some stone, -shell, or alga, than new buds begin to shoot forth, which in their turn -produce others from their unattached margins, so as rapidly to augment -the number of cells to a very large amount. Thus a common specimen of -_Flustra carbasea_ presents more than 18,000 individual polyzoa, and as -each of these has about twenty-two tentacula, which are again furnished -with about a hundred ciliæ a piece, the entire polyzoary presents no less -than 396,000 tentacula and 39,600,000 ciliæ. The Rev. David Landsborough -calculated that a specimen of _Flustra membranacea_ five feet in length -by eight inches in breadth had been the work and the habitation of above -two millions of inmates, so that this single colony on a submarine island -was about equal in number to the population of Scotland. As the tentacula -are numerous in this species, four thousand millions of ciliæ must have -provided for its wants, about four times the number of the inhabitants of -this globe! - -[Illustration: Clavellina producta. Group of two adult and several young -individuals, magnified about five times. - - _c._ Branchial orifice. - _e._ Branchiæ. - _i._ Anal orifice. - _l._ Stomach. - _o._ Heart. - _u_, _u′_, _u″_. Reproductive - buds, springing from the abdomen of the adults. -] - -[Illustration: Ascidia mammillata. - - _a._ Branchial orifice, open. - _b._ Anal orifice, closed. -] - -The Tunicata are so called because their soft parts are not enclosed in -a calcified shell such as invests the majority of their class, but in a -more or less coriaceous envelope or tunic which is either bag-shaped, and -provided with two apertures, or tube-shaped, and open at the ends. They -present a strong resemblance to the Polyzoa, not merely in their general -plan of conformation, but also in their tendency to produce composite -structures by gemmation; they may, however, be at once distinguished from -them by the absence of the ciliated tentacula which form so conspicuous -a feature in the external aspect of a flustra or a retepore. Their -branchiæ, which have generally the form of ridges (_e_), occupy a large -sac, forming, as it were, the antechamber of the alimentary canal, which -is barely distinguishable into gullet, stomach, and intestine, and always -convoluted or folded once on itself. The Tunicata are exclusively marine, -and widely spread from the arctic to the tropical seas. All of them are -free during the earlier parts of their existence; some remain permanently -so (Pyrosomidæ, Salpæ), but the generality (Ascidiæ, Botrylli) become -fixed to shells and other marine bodies; some exist as distinct -individuals (Ascidiæ, Cynthia), whilst various degrees of combination are -effected by others (Botryllus, Clavellina, Pyrosoma), and some are simple -in one generation and combined in the next (Salpæ). - -Thus the whole family is divisible into two groups, the _simple_ and the -_aggregate_; both branching out into numerous genera, of which my limits -only allow me to mention some of the most remarkable. The simple Ascidiæ, -or Sea-Squirts, are very common on our shores. "Rarely," says Forbes, -"is the dredge drawn up from any sea-bed at all prolific in submarine -creatures without containing few or many of their irregularly shaped -leathery bodies, fixed to sea-weed, rock, or shell, by one extremity, or -by one side, free at the other, and presenting two more or less prominent -orifices, from which, on the slightest pressure, the sea-water is ejected -with great force. On the sea-shore, when the tide is out, we find similar -bodies attached to the under surface of rough stones. They are variously, -often splendidly, coloured, but otherwise are unattractive or even -repulsive in aspect. Some are of a large size, several inches in length. -As may easily be imagined, they lead a very inactive life, except in the -young state, when by means of a long tail they rapidly swim about, until -finally settling in some convenient spot, they gradually assume the form -and adopt the quiet life of the parent from which they sprang." - -[Illustration: Chelyosoma Macleayanum. - - _a._ Branchial orifice. - _b._ Anal orifice. - _c._ Coriaceous envelope of the sides. - _d._ Stone to which the animal is fixed. -] - -To the simple Tunicata belong also the Chelyosomata, whose coriaceous -envelope, consisting of eight somewhat horny angular plates, reminds -one of the carapace of the turtle. Their small and prominent orifices, -perforating the plated surface, are each surrounded by six triangular -valvules. - -Some species of simple Ascidians on the coasts of the Channel and the -Mediterranean are valued as articles of food. At Cette sea-squirts -are taken regularly to market, and _Cynthia microcosmus_, although so -repulsive externally, furnishes a very delicate morsel. - -[Illustration: Botryllus violaceus. Two of the stems magnified. - - _a._ Common test. - _b._ Some of the branchial orifices. - _c._ The common anal orifice of one of the systems. -] - -[Illustration: Diazona violacea (magnified).] - - -While in the Clavellinidæ the animals are connected by creeping tubular -prolongations of the common tunic through which the blood circulates, -the Botrylli form translucent jelly-like masses of various hues of -orange, yellow, purple, blue, grey, and green; sometimes nearly uniform -in tint, sometimes beautifully variegated, and very frequently pencilled -as if with stars of gorgeous device; now encrusting the surface of the -rock, now descending from it in icicle-like projections. They are also -frequently attached to the broad-leaved fuci, investing the stalks, or -clothing with a glairy coat the expanse of the fronds. "In examining -their bodies," says the distinguished naturalist previously quoted, -"we find that it is not a single animal which is before us, but a -commonwealth of beings bound together by common and vital ties. Each star -is a family, each group of stars a community. Individuals are linked -together in systems, systems combined into masses. Few bodies among the -forms of animal life exhibit such exquisite figures as those which we see -displayed in the combinations of these compound Ascidians." - -In the genus Diazona, which has its chief seat in the Mediterranean, the -animals, which are very prominent and arranged in concentric circles, -form a single system expanded into a disc like that of a flower or of an -Actinia. The anal orifices, it will be seen, are situated close to the -branchial apertures at the free end of the single animals, while in the -Botrylli they open into a central excretory cavity. - -[Illustration: A single individual of Pyrosoma giganteum, cut out of the -common test and magnified. - - _a._ Branchial or external orifice. - _b._ Anal or internal orifice. - _d._ Stomach. - _e._ Liver. - _f._ Branchiæ. -] - -In the Pyrosomes we find large colonies of small individuals aggregated -in the form of a cylinder open at one end. Their mouths or anterior -extremities are situated on the exterior of this hollow body, which they -bristle with large and longish tubercles (_a_), whilst the opposite or -anal orifices (_b_) open into the cavity of the cylinder, whose smooth -wall they perforate with numerous small holes. By a simultaneous action -the central cavity is either narrowed or enlarged, and by this means the -strange social republic glides slowly through the waters. - -The Pyrosomes inhabit the Mediterranean and the warmer parts of the -ocean. In the former at times their abundance is a source of great -annoyance to the fishermen, sometimes even completely clogging their -nets, and on the high seas they are not seldom met with in almost -incredible profusion. Their delicate and transparent forms, their -elegant tints, and their unrivalled phosphorescence render them objects -of admiration to the voyager, and entitle them to rank amongst the most -resplendent living gems of the ocean. - -[Illustration: Salpa maxima. - - _a._ Upper lip or posterior orifice. - _b._ Anterior orifice. - _c._ Prolongations of the test by which the - animal is adherent to its neighbours. -] - -[Illustration: Salpæ, isolated and associated. - - A. _Salpa runcinata_, solitary. - B. _Salpa runcinata_, associated. - C. _Salpa zonaria_, aggregated. -] - - -While the sessile Ascidiæ remind one of the polyps, the transparent -Salpæ, freely swimming in the sea, bear a great resemblance to the -pellucid jelly-fishes. Each resembles a crystalline tube, through -which one can distinctly see the internal coloured parts. Sometimes -these animals, which abound in the warmer seas, are found solitary, -at other times associated in circular or lengthened groups, termed -garlands, ribands, and chains; but, strange to say, these two forms so -different in outward appearance are only the alternating generations -of one and the same animal. The chained Salpæ produce only solitary -ones, and the latter only chains, or, as Chamisso, to whom we owe the -discovery of this interesting fact, expresses himself, "a salpa mother -never resembles her daughter, or her own mother, but is always like her -sister, her grand-daughter, or her grand-mother." When Chamisso first -made known his discovery, he was laughed at as a fanciful visionary, but -all later observations have not only fully confirmed his statement but -also discovered similar or even more wonderful metamorphoses among the -jelly-fish, polyps, crustacea, sea-urchins, and other marine animals. -Thus Chamisso gave the first impulse to a whole series of highly -interesting observations, and his rank is now as well established among -naturalists as it has long been among the most distinguished poets of -Germany. The Salpæ progress by the alternate contractions and dilatations -of their tubular body. In this manner the chains, as if obeying a common -impulse, glide along with a serpentine movement, and are often regarded -by sailors as sea-snakes. - -[Illustration: Inner or under side of the superior plated surface of -Chelyosoma Macleayanum. - - _a._ Branchial orifice. - _b._ Anal orifice. - _c._ Muscles bordering the carapace-plates. - _d._ Central hexagonal plate. - _e._ Surrounding plates. - _f._ The nerve-ganglion and nerve-fibres. - _g_, _h_. Auditory apparatus. - _i._ Row of tentacles, anterior to the œsophagus. - _j._ Stomach. - _k._ Part of the intestine. -] - -Before quitting the Tunicata, a few points of interest in their simple -history remain to be noticed. Despite their humble organisation, they -have a heart which, as may easily be ascertained in the transparent -species, is subject to strange alternations of action. For after -having received for a minute or two the blood _from_ the branchiæ, and -propelled it _to_ the system at large, it will at once cease to pulsate -for a moment or two, and then propel the blood _to_ the branchial sac, -receiving it at the same time _from_ the system generally. After this -reversed course has continued for some time, another pause occurs, -and the first course is resumed. It is very probable that many of the -Tunicata are able to hear and to see. In Chelyosoma, organs have been -discovered whose structure seems to indicate that they are destined -for the transmission of sound, and the Ascidiæ have frequently around -the extremity of their tubes a row of coloured points similar to the -imperfect organs of sight present in the majority of the bivalve -Acephalans. Thus a closer examination of the lower animals is constantly -bringing new faculties to light, and the further we penetrate into the -secrets of their life the more we find occasion to admire the power and -wisdom of their Maker! - - - - -CHAP. XVI. - -ECHINODERMATA. - -STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, AND SEA-CUCUMBERS. - - The Star-Fishes.--Their Feet or Suckers.--Voracity of - the Asterias.--The Rosy Feather-Star.--Brittle and - Sand-Stars.--The real Sea-Stars of the British Waters.--The - Sea-Urchins.--The Pedicellariæ.--The Shell and the Dental - Apparatus of the Sea-Urchin.--The Sea-Cucumbers.--Their strange - Dismemberments.--Trepang-fishing on the Coast of North Australia.--In - the Feejee Islands. - - -"As there are stars in the sky, so are there stars in the sea," is -the poetical exordium of Link's treatise on Star-fishes, the first -ever published on the subject; and James Montgomery tells us in rather -bombastic style, that the seas are strewn with the images of the -constellations with which the heavens are thronged. - -This is no doubt highly complimentary to the star-fishes, but is far -from being merited by any particularly shining or radiant quality; as -they occupy a very inferior grade among the denizens of the sea, and -merely owe their stellar name to their form, which somewhat resembles the -popular notion of a star. - -But if they are of an inferior rank to most marine animals; if even the -stupid oyster boasts of a heart, which they do not possess; yet a closer -inspection of their organisation shows us many wonderful peculiarities, -and proves to us once more that nature has impressed the stamp of -perfection as well upon her lowest and most simple creations, as upon -those beings that rank highest in the scale of life. - -Every one knows the common Star-fish, with its lanceolate arms; its -generally orange-coloured back, thickly set with tubercles, and the pale -under-surface, with its rows of feet, feelers, or suckers, which serve -both for locomotion and the seizure of food. - -When one of these creatures is placed on its back, in a plate filled -with sea-water, it is exceedingly curious to watch the activity which -those numberless sucking feet display. At first the star-fish is -motionless; for, offended by the rough handling it has undergone, the -feet have all shrunk into the body; but soon they are seen to emerge -like so many little worms from their holes, and to grope backwards and -forwards through the water, evidently seeking the nearest ground to lay -hold of. Those that reach it first immediately affix their suckers, and, -by contracting, draw a portion of the body after them, so as to enable -others to attach themselves, until, pulley being added to pulley, their -united power is sufficient to restore the star-fish to its natural -position. - -[Illustration: Star-Fish. - - The upper tuberculated surface is shown, with some of the spines of - the under surface projecting at the sides of the rays. At one of the - angles between the rays, on the right side, is seen the eccentric - calcareous plate, or madreporic tubercle, which indicates the - existence of a bilateral symmetry.] - -This act of volition is surely remarkable enough in so simple an animal, -which scarcely possesses the rudiments of a nervous system, but the -simple mechanism by which the suckers are put into motion is still more -wonderful. Each of these little organs is tubular, and connected with -a globular vesicle filled with an aqueous fluid, and contained within -the body of the star-fish immediately beneath the hole from which the -sucker issues. When the animal wishes to protrude its feet, each vesicle -forcibly contracts, and, propelling the fluid into the corresponding -sucker, causes its extension; and, when it desires to withdraw them, -a contraction of the suckers drives back the fluid into the expanding -vesicles. The internal walls of the suckers and their vessels are -furnished with vibratory cilia, and by this simple means a continual -circulation of the fluid they contain goes on within them. - -[Illustration: Lily-Encrinite.] - -Numerous species of star-fishes are so very common in our waters, -that in many places the sea-bottom is literally paved with them. They -likewise abounded in the primeval ocean, for deep beds of carboniferous -limestone and vast strata of the triassic muschelkalk are often formed -by the accumulation of little else than the skeletons of Encrinites and -Pentacrinites, which, unlike the sea-stars which every storm drifts -upon our shores, did not move about freely, but were affixed to a -slender flexible stalk, composed of numerous calcareous joints connected -together by a fleshy coat. The feathered bifurcated arms of the Crinoids -are unprovided with suckers, which would have been perfectly useless -to creatures not destined to pursue their game to any distance, but -passively to receive the nutriment which the current of sea-water set -in motion by their richly-ciliated pinnules conveys to the mouth. These -beautiful creatures were formerly supposed to be nearly extinct, for up -to within the last few years only two living stalked crinoids were known -in the ocean of the present period, but the dredge has latterly brought -up new and remarkably fine species from depths of more than 2000 fathoms, -and there is every reason to believe that these animals still form an -important element in the abyssal fauna.[S] - -[Footnote S: See page 420.] - -[Illustration: Portion of the Pentaorinus Briareus. (Fossil.)] - -Of freely-swimming Crinoids but one single representative is known in the -northern seas, the Rosy Feather-star (_Comatula rosacea_), whose long -and delicately fringed rays and deep rose colour dotted with brown may -serve to give us an idea of the beauty of the submarine landscapes where -_Pentacrinus Wyville-Thomsoni_ or _Bathycrinus gracilis_ abound. During -the earlier stage of its existence, the comatula is attached to a stalk; -a discovery for which science is indebted to Mr. T. V. Thompson, who in -1823 dredged in the Cove of Cork a singular little pedunculated crinoid -animal (_Pentacrinus europæus_), which he found attached to the stems -of zoophytes. It measured about three-fourths of an inch in height, and -resembled a minute _comatula_ mounted on the stalk of a _pentacrinus_. -When this pygmy representative of the ancient lily-stars was first -dragged up from its submarine haunts, it created a great sensation among -naturalists, as it was the first recent animal of the encrinite kind -which had ever been seen in the seas of Europe. At first it was supposed -to be a distinct species, but Mr. Thompson, by carefully following it -through all the stages of its growth, succeeded in proving that it was -merely the hitherto unnoticed young of the rosy feather-star. - -This elegant crinoid is found all round our coasts, and its range -extends from Norway to the shores of the Mediterranean. In swimming, the -movements of its arms exactly resemble the alternating stroke given by -the medusa to the liquid element, and have the same effect, causing the -animal to raise itself from the bottom and to advance back foremost, even -more rapidly than the medusa. When dying, either in fresh water or in -spirits, it emits a most beautiful purple colour, which tinges the liquid -in which it is killed. - -The _Ophiuridæ_, or _snake-stars_, are essentially distinguished from -the true _star-fishes_ by the long serpent or worm-like arms, which are -appended to their round, depressed, urchin-like bodies. They have no true -suckers with which to walk, their progression being effected (and with -great facility) by the twisting or wriggling of their arms, which are -moreover in many species furnished with spines on the sides, assisting -locomotion over a flat surface. These arms are very different from those -of the true star-fishes, which are lobes of the animal's body, whereas -the arms of the Ophiuridæ are mere processes attached or superadded to -the body. - -These animals are very generally distributed through the seas of our -earth, both of its northern and southern hemispheres, but are found -largest in the tropical ocean. In our own waters they are very abundant, -and are among the most curious and beautiful game pursued by the dredger. - -[Illustration: Sand-star.] - -The British Ophiuridæ belong to two generic types, that of the -_Ophiuræ_ and that of the _Euryales_. The former, to which the sand and -brittle-stars belong, have simple arms; the latter, arms ramifying into -many processes. - -The rays of the Sand-stars have a whip-like or lizard-tail appearance, -while those of the Brittle-stars look like so many centipedes or -annelides attached at regular distances round a little sea-urchin. We -have ten native brittle-stars, the most common of which (_Ophiocoma -rosula_, Forbes) is also one of the handsomest, presenting every variety -of variegation, and the most splendid displays of vivid hues arranged in -beautiful patterns. Not often are two specimens found coloured alike. It -is the most brittle of all brittle-stars, separating itself into pieces -with wonderful quickness and ease. Touch it, and it flings away an arm; -hold it, and in a moment not an arm remains attached to the body. "The -common brittle-star," says Edward Forbes, "often congregates in great -numbers on the edges of scallop-banks, and I have seen a large dredge -come up completely filled with them; a most curious sight, for when the -dredge was emptied, these little creatures, writhing with the strangest -contortions, crept about in all directions, often flinging their arms in -broken pieces around them; and their snake-like and threatening attitudes -were by no means relished by the boatmen, who anxiously asked permission -to shovel them overboard, superstitiously remarking that the things -weren't altogether right." - -Fancy the naturalist's vexation, who has no other means of preserving a -brittle-star entire than by quickly plunging it into cold fresh water, -which acts as a poison on the Ophiuræ as well as on most other marine -animals, and kills them so instantaneously that even the most brittle -species have no time to make the contraction necessary to break off their -rays. - -The _Ophiocoma rosula_ seems to be equally abundant on all parts of the -coast of Britain and Ireland. It is fond of rocky places, and grows in -Shetland to a much larger size than elsewhere. It is said to prey on -little shells and crabs, and is greatly relished by the cod in its turn, -great numbers being often found in the stomach of that voracious fish. - -[Illustration: Warted Euryale.] - -The Scotch or Shetland Argus (_Euryale verrucosum_, Lamarck), a very rare -animal, of which the adjoining wood-cut represents a segment, is the only -British _Euryale_. It measures a foot or more across, and its singular -aspect has long excited admiration among naturalists. "So odd a creature -as this," remarks Bradley in his "Works of Nature," "is well worth the -contemplation of such curious persons as live near the sea, where every -day they have subjects enow to employ their curiosity and improve their -understanding." Grew says that "as he swims he spreads and stretches out -all his branches to their full length, and so soon as he perceives his -prey within his reach, he hooks them all in, and so takes it as it were -in a net." - -The British species of true star-fishes may be arranged under four -families. The _Urasters_ are distinguished from all others by having four -rows of suckers in each of the avenues which groove the under surface of -their rounded rays. In consequence of the great number of these singular -organs, the under surface of a living cross-fish presents a sight -truly curious and wonderful. Hundreds of worm-like suckers, extending -and contracting, coiling and feeling about, each apparently acting -independently of the others, give the idea rather of an assemblage of -polypi than of essential parts of _one_ animal. They are sensitive in the -extreme, for, if we touch one of those singular tubes when outstretched, -all those in its neighbourhood are thrown into a state of agitation; -and when it shrinks from our touch, changing from a lengthy fibre to a -little shrunk tubercle, some of its neighbours, as if partaking in its -fears, contract themselves in like manner. - -[Illustration: Common Cross-fish.] - -The common Cross-fish (_Uraster rubens_) abounds on most parts of our -shores, so as in some places to be used for manure in large quantities. -"It is a sworn enemy to oysters, and as it is frequently found with one -or more of its rays broken off, the fishermen fancy that it loses them -in consequence of its oyster-hunting propensities; that it insinuates an -arm into the incautious oyster's gape, with the intent of whipping out -its prey, but that sometimes the apathetic mollusk proves more than a -match for its radiate enemy, and closing on him, holds him fast by the -proffered finger; whereupon the cross-fish preferring amputation and -freedom to captivity and dying of an oyster, like some defeated warrior -flings his arms away, glad to purchase the safety of the remaining whole -by the reparable loss of a part, as it has the power of reproducing the -broken rays. - -"There is, however, reason to think that the cross-fish destroys his prey -in a very different manner from that just narrated; for star-fishes are -not unfrequently found feeding on shell-fish, enfolding their prey within -their arms, and seeming to suck it out of its shell with their mouths, -pouting out the lobes of the stomach, which they are able to project in -the manner of a proboscis. Possibly the stomach secretes an acrid and -poisonous fluid, which, by paralysing the shell-fish, opens the way to -its soft and fleshy parts."--_Forbes's Star Fishes._ - -The _Solasters_ are "suns in the system of sea-stars," and are entitled -to this distinguished rank among the marine constellations by their many -rays and brilliant hues. The _Solaster papposa_, or common Sun-star, with -rays varying in number from twelve to fifteen, is one of the commonest, -and at the same time handsomest, of all the British species. Sometimes -the whole upper surface is deep purple, and frequently the disk is red, -and the rays white tipped with red. It grows to a considerable size, -having been found eleven inches broad. - -The Goniasters, or Cushion-stars, are distinguished from the allied -species by their pentagonal form. One of the most singular of our native -species is the Birdsfoot Sea-star (_Palmipes membranaceus_), being the -thinnest and flattest of all its class. When alive it is flexible, like -a piece of leather, and a person who had never seen it before would be -apt to mistake it for the torn off dorsal integument of some gibbous -goniaster. The colour is white, with a red centre and five red rays, -proceeding one to each angle. The whole upper surface is covered with -tufts of minute spines arranged in rows. - -The Asteriæ, with their stellate body and flat rays, are very different -in aspect from the Goniasters. The Butt-thorn (_Asterias aurantiaca_) -owes its name to one of those strange superstitions which originate in -some inexplicable manner, and are handed down by one credulous generation -to the next. "The first taken by the fishermen at Scarborough is -carefully made a prisoner, and placed on a seat at the stern of the boat. -When they hook a butt (halibut) they immediately give the poor star-fish -its liberty and commit it to its native element; but if their fishery is -unsuccessful it is left to perish, and may eventually enrich the cabinet -of some industrious collector." - -To the family of the Asteriæ belongs also the Ling-thorn (_Luidia -fragilissima_), the largest, and one of the most interesting of our -British species. When full grown, it measures two feet across, and would -appear to exceed that size occasionally, judging from fragments. The rays -are from five to seven in number, quite flat, and generally five times -as long as the disk is broad. The colour is brick-red above, varying in -intensity, the under surface being straw-coloured. The wonderful power -which the Luidia possesses, not merely of casting away its arms entire, -but of breaking them voluntarily into little pieces with great rapidity, -approximates it to the brittle-stars, and renders the preservation of a -perfect specimen a very difficult matter. - -"The first time I ever took one of these creatures," says Edward Forbes, -"I succeeded in getting it into the boat entire. Never having seen one -before, and quite unconscious of its suicidal powers, I spread it out on -a rowing-bench, the better to admire its form and colours. On attempting -to move it for preservation, to my horror and disappointment I found -only an assemblage of rejected members. My conservative endeavours -were all neutralised by its destructive exertions, and it is now badly -represented in my cabinet by an armless disk and a diskless arm. Next -time I went to dredge on the same spot, determined not to be cheated out -of a specimen in such a way a second time, I brought with me a bucket of -cold fresh water, to which article star-fishes have a great antipathy. -As I expected, a luidia came up in the dredge, a most gorgeous specimen. -As it does not generally break up before it is raised above the surface -of the sea, cautiously and anxiously I sunk my bucket to a level with -the dredge's mouth, and proceeded in the most gentle manner to introduce -luidia to the purer element. Whether the cold air was too much for him, -or the sight of the bucket too terrific, I know not, but in a moment he -proceeded to dissolve his corporation, and at every mesh of the dredge -his fragments were seen escaping. In despair I grasped at the largest, -and brought up the extremity of an arm with its terminating eye, the -spinous eyelid of which opened and closed with something exceedingly like -a wink of derision." - -[Illustration: Goniaster.] - -The Sea-star might be called a flattened sea-urchin, with radiated -lobes, and the Sea-urchin, a contracted or condensed sea-star, so near -is their relationship. In both we find the same radiating construction, -in which the number five is so conspicuous, and in both also the rows -of suckers, which, starting from a centre, are set into motion by a -similar mechanism, and used for the same purpose. In all the sea-urchins -finally, and in many of the sea-stars, we find the surface of the -body covered with numerous exceedingly minute, two- or three-forked -pincers, that perpetually move from side to side, and open and shut -without intermission. These active little organs, which have been named -_Pedicellariæ_, were formerly supposed to be parasites, working on their -own account, but they are now almost universally recognised as organs -subservient to the nutrition of the animal, and destined to seize the -food floating by, and to convey it to the mouth, one passing it to -the other. Even in their outward appearance, the sea-urchins are not -so very different from the sea-stars as would be imagined on seeing a -Butt-thorn near a globular urchin, for both orders approach each other -by gradations; thus, the Goniasters, with their cushion-shaped disks and -shortened rays, approximate very much in shape to the sea-urchins; and -among the latter we also find a gradual progression from the flattened -to the globular form. Still there are notable differences between the -two classes. Thus in the sea-urchins the digestive organs form a tube -with two openings, while in the true sea-stars they have but one single -orifice. Their mode of life is, however, identical. - -[Illustration: Shell of Echinus, or Sea-Urchin. - -On the right side covered with spines, on the left the spines removed.] - -The Echinidæ move forward by means of the joint action of their suckers -and spines, using the former in the manner of the true star-fishes, and -the latter as the snake-stars. They also make use of the spines, which -move in sockets, to bury themselves in the fine sand, where they find -security against many enemies. - -Some species even entomb themselves pholas-like in stone, inhabiting -cavities or depressions in rocks, corresponding to their size, and -evidently formed by themselves. Bennett describes each cavity of the -edible _Echinus lividus_ as circular, agreeing in form with the urchin -within it, and so deep as to embrace more than two-thirds of the bulk of -the inhabitant. It is large enough to admit of the creature's rising a -little, but not of its coming out easily. The echinus adheres so firmly -to this cavity by its suckers, as to be forced from it with extreme -difficulty when alive. On the coasts of the county of Clare thousands -may be seen lodged in the rock, their purple spines and regular forms -presenting a most beautiful appearance on the bottoms of the grey -limestone rock-pools. How the boring is performed has, like many other -secrets, not yet been settled by naturalists. The first perforation is -most likely effected by means of the teeth, and then the rock softened by -some secreted solvent. - -[Illustration: Mammillated Sea-Urchin.] - -Sea-urchins are found in all seas, but as they are extremely difficult to -preserve, and many of them have such long and delicate spines that it is -almost impossible to procure perfect specimens, probably not one tithe of -their species is known. - -On our coasts the common "egg-urchin" affords the poor a somewhat scanty -repast; but, throughout the Mediterranean, its greater size, and also -that of its allies, _Echinus melo_ and _E. sardicus_, render them, when -"in egg," important articles of food. In Sicily these animals are in -season about the full moon of March; there the _E. esculentus_ is still -called the "King of Urchins;" whilst the larger melon-urchin is popularly -considered to be its mother. The size and abundance of these edible -species are among the striking peculiarities of the fish markets of the -Mediterranean sea-board. - -[Illustration: Edible Sea-Urchin.] - -The calcareous shell of the "sea-urchin" seems, at first sight, to be -composed of one simple crust, but proves, on nearer inspection, to be -a masterpiece of mosaic consisting of several hundred parts, mostly -pentagonal. These are so closely united that their junctions are hardly -visible, but on allowing the shell to macerate for some days in fresh -water, it falls to pieces. This complicated structure is by no means -a mere architectural fancy, a useless exuberance of ornament, but -essentially necessary to the requirements of the animal's growth. A -simple hard crust would not have been capable of distension, whereas -a complicated shell, such as the sea-urchin possesses, can grow in the -same ratio as the internal parts, by continual deposits on the edges of -the individual pieces. On closely examining a living sea-urchin, we find -the whole surface of the shell and spines covered with a delicate skin, -which, in spite of their close connexion, penetrates into the intervals -of the several pieces. This membrane secretes the chalk of which the -shell is composed, and deposits fresh layers on the edges of the plates, -so that in this manner the shell continually widens until the animal has -attained its perfect size. The spines are secreted in the same manner, -and show under the microscope an admirable beauty and regularity of -structure. So bountifully has the great Architect of worlds provided for -the poor insignificant sea-urchin! - -[Illustration: Dental Apparatus of the Sea-urchin, viewed from above.] - -The dental apparatus of the animal--the so-called lantern of -Aristotle--is another masterpiece in its way. Fancy five triangular -bones or jaws, each provided with a long, projecting, movable tooth. A -complicated muscular system sets the whole machinery going, and enables -the jaws to play up and down, and across, so that a more effective -grinding-mill can scarcely be imagined. - -[Illustration: - - A. Two sockets with teeth, of Echinus esculentus. B. Single socket - with its tooth viewed on the outside.] - -The _Holothuriæ_, or Sea-cucumbers, may be regarded in one light as -soft sea-urchins, and in another as approximating to the Annelides or -worms. Their suckers are similar to those of the true star-fishes and -sea-urchins. Besides progression by means of these organs, they move, -like annelides, by the extension and contraction of their bodies. The -mouth is surrounded by plumose tentacula, the number of which, _when -they are complete_, is always a multiple of five. They all have the power -of changing their shapes in the strangest manner, sometimes elongating -themselves like worms, sometimes contracting the middle of their bodies, -so as to give themselves the shape of an hour-glass, and then again -blowing themselves up with water, so as to be perfectly globular. - -[Illustration: Fierasfer.] - -The great Sea-cucumber is the largest of all the known European species, -and probably one of the largest _Cucumeriæ_ in the world, measuring when -at rest fully one foot, and capable of extending itself to the length -of three. Under the influence of terror, it dismembers itself in the -strangest manner. Having no arms or legs to throw off, like its relations -the luidia and the brittle-star, it simply disgorges its viscera, and -manages to live without a stomach; no doubt a much greater feat than -if it contrived to live without a head. According to the late Sir -James Dalyell, the lost parts are capable of regeneration, even if the -process of disgorgement went so far as to leave but an empty sac behind. -Considering the facility with which the sea-cucumber separates itself -from its digestive organs, it is the more to be wondered how it tolerates -the presence of a very remarkable parasite, a fish belonging to the genus -_Fierasfer_, and about six inches long. This most impudent and intrusive -comrade enters the mouth of the cucumber, and, as the stomach is too -small for his reception, tears its sides, quartering himself without -ceremony between the viscera and the outer skin. The reason for choosing -this strange abode is as yet an enigma. - -[Illustration: Eatable Trepang.] - -The _Holothuriæ_, which in our part of the globe are very little noticed, -play a much more important part in the Indian Ocean, where they are -caught by millions, and, under the name of _Trepang_ or _Biche de mer_, -brought to the markets of China and Cochin-China. Hundreds of praos are -annually fitted out in the ports of the Sunda Islands for the gathering -of trepang; and sailing with help of the western monsoon to the -eastern parts of the Indian Archipelago, or along the northern coast of -Australia, return home again by favour of the eastern monsoon. The bays -of the inhospitable treeless shores of tropical New Holland, the abode -of a few half-starved barbarians, are enlivened for a few months by the -presence of the trepang fishers. - -"During my excursions round Raffles Bay," says Dumont d'Urville, ("Voyage -to the South Pole,") "I had remarked here and there small heaps of -stones surrounding a circular space. Their use remained a mystery until -the Malayan fishers arrived. Scarce had their praos cast anchor, when -without loss of time they landed large iron kettles, about three feet -in diameter, and placed them on the stone heaps, the purpose of which -at once became clear to me. Close to this extemporised kitchen they -then erected a shed on four bamboo stakes, most likely for the purpose -of drying the holothurias in case of bad weather. Towards evening, -all preliminaries were finished, and the following morning we paid a -visit to the fishermen, who gave us a friendly reception. Each prao had -thirty-seven men on board, and carried six boats, which we found busily -engaged in fishing. Seven or eight Malays, almost entirely naked, were -diving near the ship, to look for trepang at the bottom of the sea. The -skipper alone stood upright, and surveyed their labours with the keen eye -of a master. A burning sun scorched the dripping heads of the divers, -seemingly without incommoding them; no European would have been able -to pursue the work for any length of time. It was about noon, and the -skipper told us this was the best time for fishing, as the higher the -sun, the more distinctly the diver is able to distinguish the trepang -crawling at the bottom. Scarce had they thrown their booty into the boat -when they disappeared again under the water, and as soon as a boat was -sufficiently laden, it was instantly conveyed to the shore, and succeeded -by another. - -"The holothuria of Raffles Bay is about six inches long, and two inches -thick. It forms a large cylindrical fleshy mass, almost without any -outward sign of an organ, and as it creeps very slowly along is easily -caught. The essential qualities of a good fisherman are great expertness -in diving, and a sharp eye to distinguish the holothurias from the -similarly coloured sea-bottom. - -"The trepang is first thrown into a kettle filled with boiling sea-water. -After a few minutes, it is taken out of its hot-bath and ripped open -with a knife to cleanse it of its intestines. It is then thrown into a -second kettle, where a small quantity of water and the torrefied rind of -a mimosa produce dense vapours. This is done to smoke the trepang for -better preservation. Finally, it is dried in the sun, or in case of bad -weather under the above-mentioned shed. I tasted the trepang, and found -it had some resemblance to lobster. In the China market the Malays sell -it to the dealers for about fifteen rupees the picul of 125 pounds. From -the earliest times, the Malays have possessed the monopoly of this trade -in those parts, and Europeans will never be able to deprive them of -it, as the economy of their outfit and the extreme moderation of their -wants forbid all competition. About four in the afternoon the Malays had -terminated their work. In less than half an hour the kettles and utensils -were brought on board, and before night-fall we saw the praos vanish from -our sight." - -The inhabitants of the island of Waigiou, to the north of New Guinea, -prepare the trepang in the Malay manner, and barter it for cotton and -woollen stuffs, which are brought to them by some Chinese junks. "In -every hut," says Lesson, "we found great heaps of this dried leathery -substance, which has no particular taste to recommend it, and is so -highly esteemed by the Chinese for no other reason than because they -ascribe to it,--as to some other gelatinous substances, as agar-agar, -shark-fins, and edible bird's nests,--peculiar invigorating properties, -by means of which their enervated bodies are rendered fit for new -excesses." - -The Feejee islanders have the reputation of being the greatest cannibals -and the most perfidious savages of the whole Pacific, yet the trepang -fishery attracts many American and European speculators to that dangerous -archipelago. Captain Wilkes, of the United States Exploring Expedition, -found there a countryman, Captain Eagleston, who had been successful in -more than one of these expeditions, and obligingly communicated to him -all the particulars of his adventurous trade. There are six valuable -sorts of biche de mer, or trepang; the most esteemed is found on the -reefs one or two fathoms deep, where it is caught by diving. The inferior -sorts occur on reefs which are dry, or nearly so, at low water, where -they are picked up by the natives, who also fish the biche de mer on -rocky coral bottoms by the light of the moon or of torches, as they come -forth by night to feed. The most lucrative fisheries are on the northern -side of Viti Levu. They require a large building for drying, with rows -of double staging, on which reeds are placed. Slow fires are kept up by -natives underneath, about fifteen hands being required to do the ordinary -work of a house. - -Before beginning, the services of some chief must be secured, who -undertakes the building of the house, and sets his dependants at work to -fish. The usual price is a whale's tooth for a hogshead of the animals -just as they are taken on the reef; but they are also bought with -muskets, powder, balls, vermilion, blue beads, and cotton cloth of the -same colour. When the animals are brought on shore, they are measured -into bins containing about fifty hogsheads, where they remain until next -day. They are then cut along the belly for a length of three or four -inches, taking care not to cut too deep, as this would cause the fish to -spread open, which would diminish its value. They are then thrown into -boilers, two men attending each pot, and relieving each other, so that -the work may go on night and day. No water need be added, as the fish -itself yields moisture enough to prevent burning. After draining on a -platform for about an hour, they are taken to the house and laid four -inches deep upon the lower battens, and afterwards upon the upper ones, -where they remain three or four days. Before being taken on board they -are carefully picked, all damp pieces being removed. They are stowed -in bulk, and sold in Manilla or Canton by the picul, which brings from -fifteen to twenty-five dollars. In this manner Captain Eagleston had -collected in the course of seven months, and at a trifling expense, a -cargo of 1200 piculs, worth about 25,000 dollars. The outfit is small, -but the risk is great, as no insurance can be effected; and it requires -no small activity and enterprise to conduct this trade. A thorough -knowledge of native character is essential to success, and the utmost -vigilance and caution must always be observed to prevent surprise, or -avoid difficulties. - -No large canoes should ever be allowed to remain alongside the vessel, -and a chief of high rank should be kept on board as a hostage. That -these precautions are by no means unnecessary, is proved by the frequent -attempts of the savages to cut off small vessels trading on their -coasts. One of the most frequent methods is to dive and lay hold of the -cable; this, when the wind blows fresh to the shore, is cut, in order -that the vessel may drift upon it, or in other cases a rope is attached -to the cable by which the vessel may be dragged ashore. The time chosen -is just before daylight. The moment the vessel touches the land, it is -treated as a prize sent by the gods, and the crew murdered, roasted, and -devoured. - -[Illustration: Sea-horse.] - - - - -CHAP. XVII. - -CŒLENTERATA. - -POLYPS AND JELLY-FISHES. - - Thread-cells or Urticating - Organs.--Sertulariæ.--Campanulariadæ.--Hydrozoie - Acalephæ.--Medusidæ.--Lucernariadæ.--Calycophoridæ.--The - Velella.--The Portuguese Man-of-war.--Anecdote of a - Prussian Sailor.--Alternating Fixed and Free-swimming - Generations of Hydrozoa.--Actinozoa.--Ctenophora.--Their - Beautiful Construction.--Sea-anemones.--Dead Man's - Toes.--Sea-pens.--Sea-rods.--Red Coral.--Coral Fishery.--Isis - hippuris.--Tropical Lithophytes.--History of the Coral - Islands.--Darwin's Theory of their Formation.--The progress of their - Growth above the level of the Sea. - - -Despite the low rank they occupy in the hierarchy of animal life, the -Cœlenterata, comprising the numerous families of the Jelly-fishes and -Polyps, play a most important part in the household of the ocean, for the -sea is frequently covered for miles and miles with their incalculable -hosts, and whole archipelagos and continents are fringed with the -calcareous structures they raise from the bottom of the deep. - -Their organisation is more simple than that of the preceding classes, -for they have neither the complex intestinal tube of the polyzoa or the -sea-urchins nor the jointed rays or arms of the star-fishes; their whole -digestive apparatus is but a simple sac, and their instincts are reduced -to the mere prehension of the food that the currents bring within reach -of their tentacles, or to the retraction of these organs when exposed to -a hostile attack. - -But, simple as they are, they have been provided by Nature with a -comparatively formidable weapon in those remarkable "thread-cells," or -urticating organs, which are so constantly met with in their integuments, -and chiefly in their tentacles. - -The thread-cells are composed of a double-walled sac having its open -extremity produced into a short sheath terminating in a long thread. -A number of barbs or hooks are sometimes disposed spirally around the -sheath, the thread itself being often delicately serrated. Under pressure -or irritation the thread-cell suddenly breaks, its fluid escapes, and the -delicate thread is so rapidly projected that the eye is utterly unable to -follow the process. The violent protrusion of this barbed missile, along -with the acrid secretion of the cell, causes many a worm or crustacean -of equal or superior strength, that might have gone forth as victor from -the struggle of life, to succumb to the cœlenterate, and is even in -many cases exceedingly irritating to the human skin. Besides enabling -its possessor to derive his subsistence from animals whose activity, as -compared with his own, might be supposed to have removed them altogether -out of the reach of danger, these stings serve also as admirable weapons -of defence, and many a rapacious crab or annelide that would willingly -have feasted upon a sea-anemone is no doubt repelled by the venomous -properties of its urticating tentacles. - -[Illustration: Urticating Organs of Cœlenterata. - - _a_, _e_, _f_. Threads and thread-cells of _Caryophyllia Smithii_. - _b._ Thread-cell of _Corynactis Allmani_. - _c._ Peculiar receptacle of _Willsia stellata_, containing thread-cells. - _d._ A single thread-cell of the same. - _g._ Thread-cell of _Actinia crassicornis_.--(All magnified.) -] - -The Cœlenterata have been subdivided into two great classes: the -Hydrozoa, in which the wall of the digestive sac is not separated from -that of the cavity of the body, and the Actinozoa, in which the stomach -forms a distinct bag separated from the wall of the cavity of the body by -an intervening space, subdivided into chambers by a series of vertical -partitions. Each of these two classes comprises a number of families of -various forms and habits of life. Thus among the Hydrozoa, with whom I -begin my brief survey of cœlenterate life, some are of a compound nature -(Sertularidæ, &c.), and, having once settled, remain permanently attached -to the site of their future existence; while others (Rhizostomidæ, &c.) -continue freely to roam through the water, and others again appear in -the various stages of their development either as sessile polyps or as -free-swimming Medusæ. - -The sertularian tribes are remarkable for the elegance of their forms, -resembling feathers more or less stiff and angular, more or less flexible -and plumose. Their bleached skeletons are among the commonest objects -thrown out by the waves, and so plant-like is their appearance and manner -of growth that, like the Flustræ, they might easily be mistaken for -sea-weeds. - -[Illustration: Sertularia tricuspidata. - - _a._ Skeleton (natural size). - _b._ Portion of the same, highly magnified. - _κ._ _Cœnosarc_, or common trunk. - _π′._ _Hydrotheca_, or protective envelope of individual polyp. - _ρ′._ _Gonoblastidium_, or reproductive germ or body. -] - -Originally produced from a single ovulum, every species, by the evolution -of a succession of buds, after an order peculiar to each, grows up to a -populous colony, and simultaneously with its growth the fibres by which -it is rooted extend, and at uncertain intervals give existence to similar -bodies, whence new polypiferous shoots take their origin, for these root -fibres are full of the same medullary substance with the rest of the -body. Thus the graceful sea-fir (_Sertularia cupressina_), the largest -of our native species, may attain a height of two or three feet, and bear -on its branches no less than 100,000 distinct microscopical polypi, each -with its own crown of tentacles, and each of these armed with numerous -thread-cells, as formidable in their way as the crustacean's claw or -the annelide's embrace. But though each polyp has a certain share of -independence yet its body is continuous with the more fluid pulp that -fills the branches and stem of the common trunk, and by this means all -the polyps of it are connected together by a living thread, and made to -constitute a family whose workings are all regulated by one harmonious -instinct. Each of these plant-like structures may therefore be considered -as one animal furnished with a multitude of armed heads and mouths, and -in all the other compound cœlenterates we find a similar organisation. -All the soft parts of a sertularian polypary are enclosed in a horny -sheath (_hydrosoma_) which develops peculiar cup-shaped processes -(_hydrothecæ_) for the protection of each individual polyp, and capsules -for the reproductive bodies (_gonoblastidia_) in which the ova are -produced. The various modifications of form and structure of the polyps, -of their hydrothecæ and gonoblastidia, give rise to a number of families, -genera, and species. Thus in the Sertulariæ the polypites are sessile, -biserial, alternate, or paired; sessile and uniserial in the Plumulariæ, -and stalked in the Campanulariadæ. - -[Illustration: - - _a._ _Laomedea neglecta_, natural size. - _b._ Portion of the same, magnified. - _c._ Reproductive body of _Campanularia volubilis_. - _e._ Reproductive body of _C. syringa_. -] - -The free-swimming Jelly-fishes, or Acalephæ, as they have been named by -Aristotle on account of the stinging properties due to their urticating -cells, are likewise among the commonest objects left upon our shores -by the retreating tide. When stranded, they appear like gelatinous -masses, disgusting to the sight; but these shapeless objects were -beautiful while they moved along in their own element, and their simple -organisation shows no less the masterhand of the Creator than the complex -structure of the higher stages of animal existence. With the exception -of the Ctenophora, they all belong to the hydrozoic class, and from the -great diversity of their structure have been ranged under four orders, -Medusidæ, Lucernaridæ, Calycophoridæ, and Physophoridæ. - -[Illustration: - - _a._ Medusid seen in profile. - _b._ The same viewed from below. - _c._ Its polypite. - _d._ Part of its marginal canal, and other structures in - connection therewith. - ν. Disk or swimming organ. - π. Polypite. - ψ. Veil. - τ. Tentacle. - χ. Radiating canal. - χ′. Marginal canal. - ω. Reproductive organ. - ο′. Coloured spot. - ο″. Marginal vesicle. -] - -The Medusidæ are distinguished by their globular or bell-shaped disc, -which by its alternate contractions and expansions forces them forward -through the water. By contracting the whole or only part of its disc, -the medusa has it in its power to direct its movements, and while thus -swimming along with the convex side of the disc directed forwards, and -its oral lobes and tentacles following behind like "streamers long and -gay," it may well rank among the most elegant children of the sea. - -From the roof of the disc a single polypite is suspended, whose mouth, -generally produced into four lobes, though in some forms it is much -more divided, passes into the central cavity (stomach) of the swimming -organ, from which canals (either four in number, or multiples of four) -radiate to join a circular vessel surrounding the margin of the bell. -A shelf-like membrane or veil, extending around the margin, and highly -contractile, assists locomotion by narrowing more or less the aperture -of the bell, and thus concentrating its efforts upon a narrower space. -More or less numerous tentacles generally depend from the margin, and -around it are disposed two kinds of remarkable bodies--"vesicles" and -"pigment spots," or "eye-specks"--which are supposed to be able to -communicate the impressions of light and sound. This complexity of -organisation in creatures which Réaumur contemptuously styled mere lumps -of animated jelly is all the more wonderful when we consider that they -consist almost entirely of water, and shrink to a mere nothing when -abandoned by their vital power. Thus of a medusa originally weighing many -pounds but few traces remain after death; the ground is covered with a -light varnish; all the rest has been absorbed by the thirsty sands. - -[Illustration: Various forms of Medusidæ. - - _a._ _Aequorea formosa_, seen in profile. - _b._ The same, viewed from above. - _c._ Upper view of _Willsia stellata_. - _d._ _Slabberia conica._ - _e._ Portion of the marginal canal of _Tiaropsis Pattersonii_. - _f._ Polypite of _Bougainvillea dinema_. - _g._ Part of its marginal canal. - _h._ _Steenstrupia Owenii._ (_a_, _b_, and _d_ are about the natural - size; the others are magnified.) -] - -The oceanic or free-swimming forms of the Lucernaridæ resemble the -Medusidæ by their bell-shaped umbrella, but differ from them by their -internal structure, by the absence of a marginal veil, by the nature of -their canal system and marginal bodies, and by their mode of development. -The radiating canals, never less than eight in number, send off numerous -branches, which form a very intricate network, and the vesicles and -pigment-spots, here united into a single organ, termed the lithocyst, are -each protected externally by a sort of hood, whence these jelly-fishes -have been named "Stegonophthalmia," or "covered-eyed," by Forbes, to -distinguish them from the naked-eyed "Gymnophthalmia," or Medusidæ. The -Pelagidæ (Chrysaora), which form one of the divisions of this group, -are simple, and have their margin surrounded with tentacles like the -Medusidæ, while the Rhizostomidæ have no marginal tentacles, and consist -of numerous polyps studding the trunks of a dependent tree. These animals -have consequently no central mouth, but hundreds of little mouths all -active for the welfare of the community. - -[Illustration: Oceanic forms of Lucernaridæ. - - _a._ _Rhizostoma pulmo._ - _b._ _Chrysaora hysoscella._ - _c._ Its lithocyst.--(All reduced.) -] - -The sessile Lucernaridæ differ from the other members of the order by the -narrow disc or stalk which serves to fix their body when at rest. Their -quadrangular mouth is in the centre of the umbrella expansion, and round -the margin of the cup arise a number of short tentacles, disposed in -eight or nine tufts in Lucernaria, and forming one continuous series in -Carduella. - -[Illustration: Lucernalia auricula. (Natural size.)] - -Though generally preferring to lie at anchor, the Lucernaridæ are able -to detach themselves, and to swim in an inverted position by the slowly -repeated movements of their cup-like umbrella. When in a state of -expansion, few marine creatures exceed them in beauty and singularity -of form; when contracted, they are shapeless, and easily overlooked. -"Their mode of progression," says Mr. Couch, "differs under different -circumstances. If intending to move to any great distance, they do so by -loosening their attachments, and then, by various and active contortions, -they waft themselves away till they meet with any obstruction, where they -rest; and if the situation suits them, they fix themselves; if not, they -move on in the same manner to some other spot. If the change be only for -a short distance, as from one part of a leaf to another, they bend their -campanulate rims, and bring the tentacula in contact with the jaws, and -by them adhere to it. The foot-stalk is then loosened and thrown forward -and twirled about till it meets with a place to suit it; it is then -fixed, and the tentacula are loosened, and in this way they move from one -spot to another. Sometimes they advance like the Actiniæ, by a gliding -motion of the stalk. In taking their prey, they remain fixed with their -tentacula expanded, and if any minute substance comes in contact with any -of the tufts, that tuft contracts, and is turned to the mouth, while the -others remain expanded watching for prey." - -The Calycophoridæ are distinguished by the cup-shaped swimming organs, -which form the most prominent part of their body. Generally transparent -like glass, their course upon distant inspection is only revealed by the -bright tints of some of their appendages. In Diphyes, the type of the -group, the two cups (ν, ν′′) fit into each other so as to form a -more or less perfect close canal. The common stem of the numerous polyp -colony freely glides up and down the chamber thus formed, into which it -can be completely retracted, and along its sides are placed the several -appendages of the compound creature, consisting chiefly of polypites -(π), tentacles, and organs of reproduction. Large specimens of -Diphyes attain, when fully extended, a length of several inches, the stem -giving support to at least fifty different polypites. The other genera -of the order exhibit a great variety in the form and arrangement of -their various parts; thus, in Vogtia, each of the swimming organs (ν) -is produced into five points, of which the three upper are much longer -and stronger than the two lower. The individual polyps (π), large in -size, but few in number, are congregated immediately under the swimming -apparatus, and are provided with long and formidable tentacula. - -[Illustration: _a._ Diphyes appendiculata.] - -[Illustration: _b._ Vogtia pentacantha. (Natural size.)] - -In the Physophoridæ the basal end of the common polyp stem is modified -so as to form a float or aëriform sac, which is, however, extremely -different in shape, structure, and size in the various families. In -the Velellæ, the float, whose under surface is studded, besides one -larger central polypite, with numerous small nutritive, reproductive, -and tentacular bodies, forms a horizontal disc traversed by a diagonal -triangular crest, and divided into numerous hollow chambers. Thus -equipped, the semi-transparent velella, beautifully tinged with -ultramarine, sails on the surface of the warmer seas, but the currents -of the Gulf Stream, and the westerly winds, frequently drift it to the -coast of Ireland, where it is often found on the beach, entangled in -masses of sea-weed. Of the vast numbers in which it sometimes occurs, -Herr von Kittlitz relates an interesting instance in his "Travels to -Russian America and Micronesia." "Having passed 30° N. lat. in the -Pacific, the sea was suddenly found covered with myriads of Velellæ, of a -size somewhat greater than the Atlantic species." Two days long the ship -sailed through these floating masses, when suddenly the scene changed, -and large clusters of barnacles appeared, which, having no doubt devoured -the soft parts of the Velellæ, now invested their horny skeletons. As -the ship advanced, the number of the barnacle clusters augmented, which, -to judge from the various sizes of the individuals, must have taken -some time for their formation, and were apparently destined to increase -until the final destruction of the Velellæ hosts, into which, from their -greater weight, they were continually drifting deeper and deeper by the -action of the currents. Again two or three days elapsed, and as the -surface of the sea occupied by both species of animals extended at the -least over four degrees of latitude, a faint idea may be formed of their -numbers. Shoals of dolphins and sperm-whales were busy exterminating -the barnacles, as these had devoured the Velellæ. The whole scene was -an example on the grandest scale of the destruction and regeneration -perpetually going on in the wastes of the ocean. - -[Illustration: - - _a_. _Velella spirans_, somewhat enlarged. - _b._ One of its smaller polypites, much magnified. - ν. Crest. - λ. Liver. - ο. Mouth of polypite. - δ. Its digestive cavity. - φ′. Rounded elevations, containing thread-cells. - ρ. Medusiform zoöids. -] - -[Illustration: Physalia caravella.--(Considerably reduced.) - - α. Pneumatophore, or float-bladder. - π. Polypites. - τ. Tentacles. -] - - -The Physaliæ, which far surpass the Velellæ in size and beauty, are -also inhabitants of the warmer seas, where the _Physalia caravella_, -or "Portuguese man-of-war," is the mariner's admiration. On a large -float-bladder eight or nine inches long and three inches broad, whose -transparent crystal shines in every shade of purple and azure, rises a -vertical comb, the upper border of which sparkles with fiery red. This -beautiful float has a small opening at either end, and strong muscular -walls, so that by their contraction its cavity can be considerably -diminished. And thus partly by the escape of air forced out through the -openings, and partly by the compression of what remains, the specific -gravity is so much altered as to admit of the animal's sinking into -the deep when danger threatens. Numerous polyps proceed from the lower -surface, accompanied by tentacles having a sac-like extension at their -base, and hanging down in beautifully blue and violet coloured locks -or streamers. When fully extended, these tentacles form fishing lines -fifteen or sixteen feet long, which, as their thread-cells are uncommonly -large, at once paralyse the resistance of the fish or cephalopod they -meet with. Then rolling together, they convey the senseless prey to the -numerous mouths of the compound animal, which, sucking like leeches, pump -out its nutritious juices. In this manner the greedy physalia devours -many a bonito or flying-fish of a size far superior to its own, and such -is the corrosive power of its tentacles that even man is punished with -excruciating pains when heedlessly or ignorantly he comes within their -reach. "One day," says Dutertre in his "History of the Antilles," "as -I was sailing in a small boat, I saw a physalia, and as I was anxious -to examine it more closely, I tried to get hold of it. But scarcely -had I stretched out my hand when it was suddenly enveloped by a net of -tentacles, and after the first impression of cold (for the animal has a -cold touch) it seemed as if my arm had been plunged up to the shoulder in -a caldron of boiling oil, so that I screamed with pain." In his journey -round the world, Dr. Meyen also relates the case of a sailor who jumped -overboard to catch a physalia. But scarce had he come within reach of its -tentacles when the excruciating pain almost deprived him of sensation, -and he was with great difficulty hauled out of the water. A severe fever -was the consequence, and his life was for some time despaired of. - -Several of the Physophoridæ are provided, besides the float, with -swimming-bells (_nectocalyces_) and peculiar appendages or bracteæ -(_hydrophyllia_), which, overlapping the polypites, serve for their -protection. The graceful _Athorybia rosacea_ possesses from twenty to -forty of these organs inserted in two or three circlets immediately below -the pneumatocyst, and above a much smaller number of polypites. - -It has the power of alternately raising and depressing them so as to -render them agents of propulsion. - -The Physophoræ have no hydrophyllia, but their swimming-bells are -considerably developed, and serve as powerful instruments of locomotion. -They are also provided with certain processes termed "hydrocysts," which -some observers appear disposed to regard as organs of touch. Such are but -a few of the numerous genera of the Physophoridæ. - -[Illustration: Physophora Philippii. - - α. Pneumatophore. - ν. Swimming-bells. - φ. Hydrocysts. - π. Polypites. - τ. Tentacles. -] - -Of the jelly-fishes in general it may be remarked that, though they are -denizens of the frigid as well as of the temperate and tropical seas, -their beauty increases on advancing towards the equator, for while the -Medusæ in our latitudes are generally dull and obscure, those of the -torrid zone appear in all the splendour of the azure, golden-yellow, or -ruby-red tints which distinguish the birds and fishes of those sunny -regions. They are indeed of no immediate use to man, but their indirect -services are not to be despised. They partly nourish the colossal whale, -and thus, converted into oil, attract thousands of hardy seamen to the -icy seas; numberless Crustacea and molluscs also live upon their hosts, -and are in their turn devoured by the mighty herring shoals, whose -capture gives employment and wealth to whole nations of fishermen. - -[Illustration: Development of Chrysaora hysoscella. - - _a._ Ova with gelatinous investment. - _b_ and _c_. Free ova. - _d._ Young Hydratuba developed therefrom. - _e._ The same with eight tentacles. - _f._ Hydratuba in its ordinary condition. - _g_, _h_. More advanced forms, with constrictions. - _i._ A specimen undergoing fission, in which the tentacles are seen - to arise from below the constricted portion, while its upper - segments separate and become free-swimming zoöids (_k_). -] - -Armed with that wonderful instrument, the microscope, naturalists have -been taught to disunite in many cases animals which from their external -resemblance were formerly supposed to belong to the same class or family; -and to join others to all appearances extremely dissimilar. Thus the -Bryozoa have been detached from the polyps, in spite of their similitude -of growth, while the roaming and fixed Hydrozoa have been found in many -cases to be but alternating generations or various phases of development -of the same animal. Take, for instance, _Chrysaora hysoscella_ (see -preceding figure, page 351), one of our commonest jelly-fishes. The ova -this free-swimming creature produces might naturally be supposed to -develop themselves into equally free-swimming Chrysaoræ; but instead -of this they soon become attached, and grow into a colony of sessile -Hydratubæ, as, at this stage of their career, they have been termed. -For years they may thus continue, but then the evolutions shown in the -annexed illustration take place until free-swimming zoöids are detached, -which eventually become similar to the huge Chrysaora, from one of whose -ova the primitive hydratube was produced. - -[Illustration: Various forms of Coryniadæ. - - _a_ and _b_. _Vorticlava humilis._ - _c._ Four polypites of _Hydractinia echinata_, growing on - a piece of shell. - _d._ Portion of _Syncoryne Sarsii_, with medusiform zoöids (ρ), - budding from between the tentacles (τ) of the polypite (ο). - --(All, except _a_, magnified.) -] - -In a similar manner the Coryniadæ, a family of hydrozoic polyps, which, -unpossessed of the firm investment of the sertularians, are frequently -found decking sea-weeds and stones with dense arborescent structures, -give birth to detached medusiform zoöids. On the other hand, many medusid -forms produce organisms directly resembling their parents, and many fixed -Hydrozoa, such as the Sertularidæ, do not give birth to free-swimming -medusoids, but to ciliated gemmules, which, escaping from the capsules -in which they had been formed, soon evolve themselves into true polyps. -A great part of this "strange eventful history" is still enveloped -in darkness, as the life of comparatively but few Hydrozoa has been -thoroughly investigated; so much is certain that future observations will -bring many new interesting relationships to light, and add new links to -the chain which binds together the various members of the hydrozoic class. - -Although the Ctenophora, thus named from the ciliated bands which -constitute so obvious a feature in their physiognomy, closely resemble -the Medusæ by their gelatinous consistence and their mode of life, -yet a more complex organisation assigns them the highest rank among -the Actinozoa, and approximates them to the sea-anemones. The elegant -_Pleurobrachia pileus_, which in the summer so often appears on our -coasts in countless multitudes, is the species that has been longest -known. The melon-shaped body, from half an inch to nearly an inch -in length, is clear as crystal, and divided by eight longitudinal -equidistant ribs into eight equally large segments or fields. These -ribs are covered with numberless flat paddles or ciliæ, placed one -above another, and obeying the will of the animal. When it wishes to -swim backwards or forwards, it sets all its paddles in motion, whose -united power drives the living crystal rapidly and gracefully through -the water; and when it wishes to turn, it merely stops their movements -on one side. In sunlight, the ribs of the pleurobrachia sparkle with all -the colours of the rainbow; in darkness they emit a beautiful cerulean -phosphorescence. - -The prehensile apparatus of the elegant little creature is no less -beautifully organised than its locomotive mechanism. It consists of two -long tentacles emerging from the under part of the body, and capable -of so wonderful a contraction as entirely to disappear within its -cavity, where they are lodged in tubular sheaths. On one side they are -provided at regular intervals with shorter and much thinner filaments, -which roll together spirally when the chief tentacle contracts, and -expand when it is stretched forth. On the secondary branches themselves -still more minute threads are said to have been observed. Words are -unable to express the beauty which the entire apparatus presents in the -living animal, or the marvellous ease with which it can be alternately -contracted, extended, and bent at an infinite variety of angles. - -Most of the Ctenophora are spheroidal or ovate, but in Cestum elongation -takes place to an extraordinary extent, at right angles to the direction -of the digestive track, a flat ribbon-shaped body, three or four feet in -length, being the result. The Callianiræ are remarkable for having their -ciliated ribs elevated on prominent wing-like appendages, and the Beroës, -which have no tentacles, receive their nourishment through a widely -gaping mouth, whose size makes them amends for the deficiency of other -prehensile organs. Such are but a few of the varieties exhibited by the -beautiful and interesting Ctenophora. - -In habit they resemble the oceanic Hydrozoa, like them swimming near -the surface in calm weather, and again descending on the approach of a -squall. Like them also, their delicate structures rapidly disappear when -removed from the sea-water and exposed to the rays of the sun, an almost -imperceptible film remaining the only trace of what was erewhile an -active and beautiful organism. Yet in spite of their aqueous consistence -the Ctenophora are very voracious, feeding on a number of floating marine -animals, among which their own kindred seem especially to be preferred. -The prey once swallowed is assimilated with a rapidity which to some may -seem strange when the simple structure of the digestive apparatus is -considered. - -[Illustration: Various forms of Ctenophora. - - _a. Cestram Veneris._ _b. Eurhamphæa vexilligera._ _c. Beroë - rufescens._ _d. Callianira triploptera._ _e. Pleurobrachia pileus._ - (_a_ is considerably reduced; _b_ slightly so; _c_ and _e_ are about - the natural size; the size of _d_ is uncertain.) -] - -The land has its flowers; they bloom in our gardens, they adorn our -meadows, they perfume the skirts of the forest, they brave the winds that -blow round the high mountain peaks, they conceal themselves in the clefts -of rocks, or spring forth out of ruins; wherever a plant can find room -there Flora appears with her lovely gifts. - -But the ocean also has its large radiate anemones, whose lustrous petals, -still more wonderful than those of the land, for they are endowed with -animal life, form the chief ornament of the crystal tide-pools, or of the -sheltered basins of our rock-bound shores. - -More than twenty species of these marine flowers, many of them displaying -a gorgeous wreath of richly coloured tentacles, are denizens of the -British waters; but the finest and largest are found along the margin of -the equatorial ocean, where they occasionally measure a foot in diameter. -Their tints are as various as the arrangement of their prehensile crown; -fiery red and apple-green, yellow and white as driven snow. Sometimes the -tentacles form a gorgon's head of long thick worms, clothed in satin and -velvet, and sometimes a thicket of delicate filaments. - -Nothing seems more inoffensive than a sea-anemone expanding its disc in -the tranquil waters, but woe to the wandering annelide, to the shrimp, or -whelk, or nimble entomostracon, that comes within reach of its urticating -tentacles, for, plunged into a fatal lethargy, it is soon hurried to -the gaping mouth of its voracious enemy, ever ready to engulf it in a -living tomb. The morsel thus swallowed is retained in the stomach for -ten or twelve hours, when the undigested remains are regurgitated, -enveloped in a glairy fluid, not unlike the white of an egg. The size of -the prey is frequently in unseemly disproportion to the preyer, being -often equal in bulk to itself. Thus Dr. Johnstone mentions a specimen of -_Actinia crassicornis_, that might have been originally two inches in -diameter, and that had somehow contrived to swallow a scallop-valve of -the size of an ordinary saucer. The shell fixed within the stomach was -so placed as to divide it completely into two halves, so that the body, -stretched tensely over, had become thin and flattened like a pancake. -All communication between the inferior portion of the stomach and the -mouth was of course prevented; yet instead of emaciating and dying of an -atrophy, the animal had availed itself of what undoubtedly had been a -very untoward accident to increase its enjoyments and chances of double -fare. A new mouth, furnished with two rows of numerous tentacula, was -opened upon what had been the base, and led to the under stomach; the -individual had indeed become a sort of Siamese twin, but with greater -intimacy and extent in its unions. - -From this instance we may naturally infer that the Actiniæ are no mean -adepts in the art of accommodating themselves to circumstances. They may -be kept without food for upwards of a year; they may be immersed in water -hot enough to blister their skins, or exposed to the frost, or placed -within the exhausted receiver of the air-pump, and their hardy vital -principle will triumph over all these ordeals. Their reproductive powers -are truly astonishing. Cut off their tentacles, and new ones sprout -forth; repeat the operation, and they germinate again. Divide their -bodies transversely or perpendicularly through the middle, and each half -will develop itself into a more or less perfect individual. - -But these apparently indestructible creatures die almost instantly when -plunged into fresh water, which is for them, or for so many other marine -animals, a poison no less fatal than prussic acid to man. - -Though generally firmly attached by means of a glutinous secretion from -their enlarged base to rocks, shells, and other extraneous bodies, -the sea-anemones can leave their hold, and remove to another station, -whensoever it pleases them, either by gliding along with a slow and -almost inperceptible movement or by reversing the body and using the -tentacula as feet; or, lastly, inflating the body with water so as to -diminish its specific weight, they detach themselves, and are driven to a -distance by the random motion of the waves. They are extremely sensible -not only to external irritations--the slightest touch causing them to -shrink into a shrivelled shapeless mass--but also of atmospherical -changes. They hide their crown under a glare of light; but in a calm -and unclouded sky expand and disclose every beauty, while they remain -contracted and veiled in cloudy or stormy weather. The Abbé Dicquemare -has even found, from several experiments, that they foretell changes of -the weather as certainly as the barometer. When they remain naturally -closed there is reason to fear a storm, high wind, and a troubled sea; -but a fair and calm season is to be anticipated when they lie relaxed -with expanded tentacula. The ova of the Actiniæ are detained for some -time after their separation in the interseptal spaces, or even in the -stomach, and there hatched, as it were, into their lasting form. On -emerging into the open ocean, they already resemble their full-grown -relatives, the only difference consisting in a smaller number of -tentacles and septa. The sea-anemones were consequently supposed to be -viviparous, an error which more accurate observations have fully refuted. - -[Illustration: Alcyonidium elegans. - - _a._ Branch to which the polypary is fixed. - _b._ Foot. - _c._ Trunk. - _d._ Polyp-bearing branches. - _e._ Polyps contracted within the foot. -] - -Both the Ctenophora and the Sea-Anemones are single or solitary, but the -vast majority of the Actinozoa consist of aggregated animals attached to -one another by lateral appendages, or by their posterior extremity, and -participating in a common life, while at the same time each member of the -family enjoys its independent and individual existence. These compound -polyps are all either _Alcyonarians_, in which each polyp is furnished -with eight pinnately fringed tentacles, or _Zoantharians_, in which the -tentacula are simple or variously modified, and generally disposed in -multiples of five or six. The Alcyonarians are again subdivided into the -four families of the Alcyonidæ, the Pennatulidæ, the Gorgonidæ, and the -Tubiporidæ. - -The Alcyonidæ vary much in form, being either lobed, branched, rounded, -or existing in a shapeless mass or crust, while the interior substance -is of a spongy or cork-like nature, surrounded by tubular rays enclosed -in a sort of tough fleshy membrane. The _Alcyonium digitatum_ is one of -our most common marine productions, so that on many parts of the coast -scarce a shell or stone can be dredged from the deep that does not -support one or more specimens. As it lies on the shore, it certainly -offers few inducements from its beauty to recommend it to further -notice, and seems fully to warrant the more expressive than elegant -names of "cow's paps," "dead man's toes," or "dead man's hands," which -the fishermen have conferred on it. On putting one of these shapeless -masses into a glass of sea-water, however, and allowing it to remain -for a little time undisturbed, its real nature becomes apparent, and a -series of most interesting phenomena present themselves. The dull orange -mass, which was at first opaque and of a dense texture, slowly swells and -becomes more diaphanous, apparently by the absorption of the surrounding -water into its substance, until, having attained its full dimensions, -numerous dimples appear, studding its entire surface, each of which, as -it gradually expands, reveals itself to be a cell, the residence of a -polyp, which, gradually protruding itself, pushes out a cylindrical body, -clear as crystal, fluted like a column, and terminated by a coronet of -eight delicately fringed tentacula. The unsightly aspect of the trunk, -which reminded us of cadaverous fingers or toes, is now forgotten, just -as we forget the uncouth branches of a cactus when we see it clothed with -its gorgeous flowers. All the polyp-cells are connected by a complicated -system of inosculating canals, bound together by a fibrous network, -and lying imbedded in a transparent jelly, which forms the fleshy part -of the compound animal. The eggs are lodged in the tubes, and at length -discharged through the mouth. - -The Sea-Pens, or Pennatulæ, are remarkable from the circumstance that, -although they possess an internal calcareous support, they are not -permanently attached to foreign bodies. The lower portion of the stem, -which strikingly resembles the barrel of a quill, is naked, and, when -found in the bays upon our coast, is generally stuck into the mud at -the bottom like a pen into an inkstand, whilst the upper two thirds of -the stem are feathered with long closely set pinnæ, comparable to the -barbs of a quill, from the margin of which are protruded the rows of -polyps which minister to the support of the common body of the compound -animal. The purple-red _Pennatula phosphorea_, which is found in great -plenty sticking to the baits on the fishermen's lines, especially when -they use muscles to bait their hooks, is one of the most singular -and elegant of the British sea-pens. Some authors believe that it -is capable of using its fin-like arms like oars, but observations -are wanting in corroboration. The pale orange fawn _Virgularia -mirabilis_, an allied species, has a more elongated slender form than -the pennatula. Its rod-like body, from six to ten inches long, is -furnished with short fin-like lobes of a crescent shape, which approach -in pairs, but are not strictly opposite; they are about the eighth of -an inch asunder, and are furnished along the margins with a row of -urn-shaped polyp-cells. These very delicate and brittle animals seem -to be confined to a small circumscribed part of the coast, which has a -considerable depth and a muddy bottom, and the fishermen accustomed to -dredge at that place believe from the cleanness of the Virgulariæ, when -brought to the surface, that they stand erect at the bottom with one -end fixed in the mud or clay. - -[Illustration: Grey Sea-Pen.] - -[Illustration: Virgularia mirabilis.] - - -The Gorgonidæ (Gorgonia, Primnoa, Corallium, Isis, Mopsea) mainly differ -from the Alcyonidæ in having an erect and branching stem, firmly rooted -by its expanded base. A soft and fleshy crust, studded with numerous -polyps, envelops a solid horny or calcareous axis, which serves as a -support to the arborescent structure, and enables it to rise to a height -of several feet, or even, if we are to credit the Norway fishermen, to -rival our forest-trees in magnitude. This they conclude to be the case -from their nets being sometimes entangled on the trunk or stem of the -_Primnoa lepadifera_, as this large species of gorgon is called, when the -united strength of several men is unable to free the nets. "They have -even assured me," says Sir A. Capell de Brooke, "that the corals grow -to the height of fifty or sixty feet, as they judge from the following -circumstance, which seems clear and simple. The lines for the red-fish, -which is found in the greatest plenty where the primnoa grows, are set in -very deep water at the distance of about six feet from the bottom, and -in the parts where it is flat and level, which they can tell from their -soundings. On drawing up the lines at the distance of forty, fifty, or -sixty feet, and sometimes even more from the bottom, they get entangled -with some of the upper parts or branches of the gorgon, which are thus -torn off, and hence they reasonably conclude that the animal rises to -this height." - -The Gorgonidæ either branch away irregularly like shrubs, or else their -branches inosculate and form a kind of net or fan, as in the _Flabellum -Veneris_, a beautiful Indian species, which some naturalist of more than -usual fancy has appropriated to the use of Venus. - -Four British species of Gorgonia are recorded. _G. verrucosa_, the -commonest of these, abounds in deep water along the whole of the south -coast of England. It is more than twelve inches in height, and fifteen or -seventeen in breadth, and expands laterally in numerous cylindrical and -warty branches. It is somewhat fan-shaped, but does not form a continuous -network. Its coral has a dense black axis, with a snow-white pith in the -centre, and is covered, while living, with a flesh-coloured crust. The -flexible corneous stem of the Gorgonias enables them to bend beneath the -passing current, and thus prevents their long and slender ramifications -from breaking, while the hard calcareous branches of the valuable red -coral (_Corallium nobile_) are sufficiently short and strong to resist -the violence of the sea. This beautiful marine production, though also -occurring in the Ethiopic Ocean and about Cape Negro, is chiefly found in -the Mediterranean, on the shores of Provence, about the isles of Majorca -and Minorca, on the south of Sicily, and on the coast of Africa. It grows -on rocky bottoms, and frequently in an inverted position, or downwards -from the under surface of stones, generally at a depth of several hundred -feet. - -[Illustration: Red Coral. - -Gorgonia nobilis. (A small detached portion magnified.)] - -When alive, the soft rind which invests the valuable central stony axis -is studded with snow-white polyps. The fishery is still carried on in -the same way as it was described by Marsigli 150 years ago. The net is -composed of two strong rafters of wood tied crosswise, with leads fixed -to them; to these they fasten a quantity of hemp twisted loosely round -and intermingled with some loose netting. This apparatus is let down, and -while the boat is sailing or being rowed along, alternately raised and -dropped so as to sweep a certain extent of the bottom and to entangle -the corals in its coarse meshes. The labour, as may be imagined, is very -great; frequently, after a long toil, the net is brought up empty, or -filled only with other marine productions, which, however interesting -they may be to the naturalist, are perfectly worthless in the eyes of the -coral-fisher; and not seldom immense exertions are required to loosen it -from the rocks, among which it has got entangled. - -The chief seat of the coral-fishery is at present along the coasts -of Algeria and Tunis, where it is almost exclusively carried on by -the Italians, who fit out more than 400 small ships, or "corallines," -of from five to sixteen tons, for this purpose. In spring this fleet -of nut-shells leaves the ports of Torre del Greco, Sicily, Sardinia, -and Genoa, and proceeds to its various points of destination, where -it remains until the autumnal gales compel the fragile "corallines" -to retire. Every month or fortnight the products of the fishery are -delivered up to agents in Bona or La Calle, under whose direction the -corals are sorted, packed in cases, and sent to Naples, Leghorn, or -Genoa, where they are cut, polished, and manufactured into necklaces and -other ornaments or trinkets. About 4,000 sailors are employed in the -fishery, each man receiving an average pay of 380 franks for the season, -which he almost entirely brings home with him, his trifling expenses on -land being generally defrayed by the small pieces of coral he manages -to conceal from the sharp eye of the "padrone." The average quantity of -corals fished by each "coralline" amounts to about six hundredweight, and -the total value of the fishery to more than 200,000_l._, without taking -into account the produce of the fisheries at Stromboli, in the Straits of -Messina, and other parts of the Italian coast. - -The manufactured articles sell of course for a much higher price, so -that the "red coral" is a by no means inconsiderable article of trade. -Great quantities are exported to India, and in Leghorn and Genoa several -large manufactories work exclusively for that distant market, where the -blood-red corals, whose colour harmonises with the dark complexion of the -native ladies, are particularly in demand, while those of a roseate hue -are preferred in Europe. - -The fishermen have a strange belief that the corals are by nature soft, -but immediately turn into stone from terror when entangled by the net. -There is also a legendary tale of an enchanted coral-tree, large and -powerful as an oak, which is said to grow in a deep grotto at the foot of -Mont Alban, on the Ligurian coast. It extends its arms when no danger is -nigh, but immediately withdraws them, like a cuttle-fish, at the approach -of an insidious enemy. This superstition is so firmly rooted that, while -Professor Vogt was at Villafranca in 1865, a "coralline" arrived from -Torre del Greco for the purpose of fishing for this imaginary prey. -The "padrone" swore he would not leave the neighbourhood before he had -secured his prize, hoping to enrich himself with the spoils, but doomed, -no doubt, to a grievous disappointment, and a considerable loss, on a -coast where but few ordinary corals are found. - -[Illustration: Isis hippuris.] - -In the elegant _Isis hippuris_, which grows in the Indian Ocean, and is -frequently found in cabinets of natural history, the horny and calcareous -matter of the axis is disposed in alternate joints, so as to unite -flexibility with firmness. A similar structure of alternately disposed -calcareous and horny segments occurs in Mopsea. In Isis branches are -developed from the calcareous, in Mopsea from the horny segments of the -axis. - -[Illustration: Tubipora Musica.] - -The Tubiporidæ are confined to the narrow limits of a single genus -containing but few species. Here the polypary is composed of distinct -calcareous tubes rising from a fleshy or membranaceous basis, and -arranged in successive stages. These tubes are separated from each -other by considerable intervals, but mutually support each other by the -interposition of external horizontal plates, formed of the same dense -substance as themselves, by which they are united together, so that -a mass of these tubes exhibits an arrangement something like that of -the pipes in an organ, whence the beautiful Indian species, _Tubipora -musica_, has derived its name. From the upper ends of the tubes the -polyps are protruded, and being, when alive, of a bright grass-green -colour, they contrast very beautifully with the rich crimson of the tubes -they inhabit. - -[Illustration: Caryophyllia.] - -In our seas, the coralligenous Zoophytarians, distinguished by the hard -calcareous skeletons they deposit within their tissues are but feebly -represented by a few straggling Caryophylliæ, but in the tropical -ocean they branch out into numerous families, genera, and species, and -play a highly important part in the economy of the maritime domain. -Originally proceeding from single ova, which at first freely move by -means of vibratile ciliæ, and become fixed after a short period of -erratic existence, they multiply by gemmation, and grow into an immense -variety of forms, of which the following description by one who has -long and attentively studied them in their native haunts may serve to -give an idea. "Trees of coral," says Professor Dana, "are well known; -and although not emulating in size the oaks of our forests--for they do -not exceed six or eight feet in height--they are gracefully branched, -and the whole surface blooms with coral polyps in place of leaves and -flowers. Shrubbery, tufts of rushes, beds of pinks, and feathery mosses, -are most exactly imitated. Many species spread out in broad leaves or -folia, and resemble some large-leaved plant just unfolding; when alive, -the surface of each leaf is covered with polyp-flowers. The cactus, the -lichen clinging to the rock, and the fungus in all its varieties, have -their numerous representatives. Besides these forms imitating vegetation, -there are gracefully modelled vases, some of which are three or four feet -in diameter, made up of a network of branches and branchlets, and sprigs -of flowers. There are also solid coral hemispheres like domes among the -vases and shrubbery, occasionally ten or even twenty feet in diameter, -whose symmetrical surface is gorgeously decked with polyp-stars of purple -and emerald-green." - -Under such aspects appear the living organisms whose combined efforts -have mainly constructed those reefs and islands of coral origin which -now lie scattered far and wide over the surface of the equatorial ocean. -Words are inadequate to express the splendour of the submarine gardens -with which the lithophytes clothe the rocky shores of the tropical seas. - -"There are few things more beautiful to look at," says Captain Basil -Hall, "than these corallines when viewed through two or three fathoms -of clear and still water. It is hardly an exaggeration to assert that -the colours of the rainbow are put to shame on a bright sunny day by -what meets the view on looking into the sea in those fairy regions." And -Ehrenberg was so struck with the magnificent spectacle presented by the -living polyparia in the Red Sea that he exclaimed with enthusiasm, "Where -is the paradise of flowers that can rival, in variety and beauty, these -living wonders of the ocean!" - -Besides the charms of their own growth, the tropical coral gardens afford -a refuge or a dwelling-place to numberless animals clothed in gorgeous -apparel. Fishes attired in azure, scarlet, and gold, crustaceans, -sea-urchins, sea-stars, sea anemones, annelides, of a brilliancy of -colour unknown in the northern seas, glide or swim along through their -tangled shrubberies; and frequently the gigantic tridacna, embedded in -their calcareous parterres, discloses, on opening her ponderous valves, -her violet mantle tinted with emerald-green. The enchanted naturalist -lingers for hours over the magnificent spectacle, and forgets the lapse -of time, as wonders upon wonders crowd on his enraptured gaze. - -But the tropical coral-gardens serve not only as a harbour of refuge -to the numberless creatures that frequent their labyrinthine recesses, -for many annelides, crustaceans, asterias, and even fishes, feed upon -their animal flowrets. Among these, the Scari are provided with a very -remarkable dental apparatus to protect their mandibles from injury -while biting the calcareous corals. These fishes have their jaws, -which resemble the beak of a parrot (whence they receive their usual -appellation "parrot fishes"), covered externally with a kind of pavement -of teeth, answering the same purpose as the horny investment of the -mandibles of the bird. The teeth that form this pavement are perpetually -in progress of development towards the base of the jaw, whence they -advance forward, when completed, to replace those which become worn away -in front by the constant attrition to which they are subjected. Thus -armed, the Scari browse without difficulty on the newest layers of the -stony corals, digesting the animal matter therein contained, and setting -free the carbonate of lime in a chalky state. Many of the Diodons, -Chætodons, and Balistæ or file-fishes, of which Kittlitz saw some new -species, one still more splendid than the other, in every lagoon-island -he visited in the long range of the Carolines, likewise feed upon corals, -and possess a dental apparatus fit for masticating their refractory -aliment. The Diodons have grooved teeth, excellently adapted to crush and -bruise, and the Balistæ have eight strong conical teeth in every jaw, -with which they easily nip off the shoots of the coral bushes. - -Of the reef-building corals it may well be said that they build for -eternity. The bones of the higher animals vanish after a few years, but -the stony skeleton of the polyp remains attached to the spot of its -formation, and serves as a basement or stage for new generations to -build upon. Life and death are here in concurrent or parallel progress; -generally the whole interior of a corallum is dead. The large domes of -the astræas are in most species covered with a hemispherical living -shell, about half an inch thick; and in some porites of the same size the -whole mass is lifeless, except the exterior for a sixth of an inch in -depth. - -[Illustration: Astræa.] - -We are astonished when travellers tell us of the vast extent of certain -ancient ruins; but how utterly insignificant are the greatest of these -when compared with the piles of stone accumulated in the course of ages -by these minute, and individually so puny architects! The history of -the formation of coral-reefs is no less wonderful than their extent. -They have been divided, according to their geological character, into -three classes. The first fringes the shores of continents or islands -(shore-reefs); the second, rising from a deep ocean, at a greater -distance from the land, encircles an island, or stretches like a barrier -along the coast (encircling-reefs, barrier-reefs); the third, enclosing -a lagoon, forms a ring or annular breakwater round an interior lake -(atolls, or lagoon-islands). - -[Illustration: Stone Corals.] - -Many of the high rocky islands of the Pacific lie, like a picture in -its frame, in the middle of a lagoon encircled by a reef. A fringe of -low alluvial land in these cases generally surrounds the base of the -mountains; a girdle of palm-trees, backed by abrupt heights, and fronted -by a lake of smooth water, only separated from the deep blue ocean by -the breakers roaring against the encircling reef; such, for instance, is -the scenery of Tahiti, so justly named "the queen of islands." But the -encircling reefs are often at a much greater distance from the shore. -Thus in New Caledonia they extend no less than 140 miles beyond the -island. - -As an example of barrier-reefs, I shall cite that which fronts the -north-east coast of Australia. It is described by Flinders as having a -length of nearly a thousand miles, and as running parallel to the shore -at a distance of between twenty and thirty miles from it, and in some -parts even of fifty and seventy. The great arm of the sea thus inclosed, -has a usual depth of between ten and twenty fathoms. This probably is -both the grandest and most extraordinary reef now existing in any part of -the world. - -[Illustration: Stone Corals.] - -The atolls, or lagoon-islands, are numerously scattered over the face -of the tropical ocean. The Marshall and Caroline islands, the Paumotic -group, the Maldives and Lacadives, and many other groups or solitary -islets of the Pacific or Indian Ocean, are entirely built up of coral; -every single atom, from the smallest particle to large fragments of -rock, bearing the stamp of having been subjected to the power of organic -arrangement. A narrow rim of coral-reef, generally but a few hundred -yards wide, stretches around the enclosed waters. When a lagoon-island -is first seen from the deck of a vessel, only a series of dark points is -descried just above the horizon. Shortly after, the points enlarge into -the plumed tops of cocoa-nut trees, and a line of green, interrupted at -intervals, is traced along the water's surface. - -The long swell produced by the gentle but steady action of the trade -wind, always blowing in one direction over a wide area, causes breakers -which even exceed in violence those of our temperate regions, and which -never cease to rage. It is impossible to behold these waves without -feeling a conviction that a low island, though built of the hardest rock, -would ultimately yield, and be demolished by such irresistible forces. -Yet the insignificant coral-islets stand and are victorious; for here -another power, antagonistic to the former, takes part in the contest. -The organic forces separate the atoms of carbonate of lime one by one -from the foaming breakers, and unite them in a symmetrical structure. Let -the hurricane tear up its thousand huge fragments, yet what will this -tell against the accumulated labours of myriads of architects at work -night and day, month after month. Thus do we see the soft and gelatinous -body of a polyp, through the agency of vital laws, conquering the great -mechanical power of the waves of an ocean, which neither the art of man -nor the inanimate works of nature could successfully resist. - -The reef-building corals, so hardy in this respect, are extremely -sensitive and delicate in others. They absolutely require warmth for -their existence, and only inhabit seas the temperature of which never -sinks below 60° Fahr. They also require clear and transparent waters. -Wherever streams or currents are moving or transporting sediment, there -no corals grow, and for the same reason we find no living zoophytes upon -sandy or muddy shores. - -As within one cast of the lead coral-reefs rise suddenly like walls from -the depths of ocean, it was formerly supposed that the polyps raised -their structures out of the profound abysses of the sea; but this opinion -could no longer be maintained, after Mr. C. Darwin and other naturalists -had proved that the lithophytes cannot live at greater depths than twenty -or at most thirty fathoms. - -Hereupon Quoy and Gaimard broached the theory that corals construct their -colonies on the summits of mountain ridges, or the circular crests of -submarine craters, and thus accounted both for the great depths from -which the coral-walls suddenly rise, and the annular form of lagoon -islands. Yet this theory, ingenious as it was, could not stand the test -of a closer examination: for no crater ever had such dimensions as, for -instance, one of the Radack Islands, which is fifty-two miles long by -twenty broad; and no chain of mountains has its summits so equally high, -as must have been the case with the numerous reef-bearing submarine -rocks, considering the small depth from which the lithophytes build. -Another seemingly inexplicable fact was, that, although corals hardly -exist above low-water mark, reefs are found at Tongatabu or Eua, for -instance, at elevations of forty and even three hundred feet above the -level of the ocean. - -Mr. Charles Darwin was the first to give a satisfactory explanation -of all the phenomena of coral formations, by ascribing them to the -oscillations of the sea bottom, to its partial upheaving or subsidence. - -It is now perfectly well known that large portions of the continent of -South America, Scandinavia, North Greenland, and many other coasts, are -slowly rising, and that other terrestrial or maritime areas are gradually -subsiding. Thus on every side of the lagoon of the Keeling Islands, in -which the water is as tranquil as in the most sheltered lake, Mr. Darwin -saw old cocoa-nut trees undermined and falling. The foundation-posts of -a store-house on the beach, which, the inhabitants said, had stood seven -years before just above high water, were now daily washed by the tide. - -Supposing on one of these subsiding areas an island-mountain fringed with -corals, the lithophytes, keeping pace with the gradual sinking of their -basis, soon raise again their solid masses to the level of the water; but -not so with the land, each inch of which is irreclaimably gone. Thus the -fringing reef will gradually become an encircling one; and, if we suppose -the sinking to continue, it must by the submergence of the central land, -but upward growth of the ring of coral, be ultimately converted into a -lagoon-island. - -The numerous _atolls_ of the Pacific and Indian Ocean give us a far -insight into the past, and exhibit these seas overspread with lofty lands -where there are now only humble monumental reefs dotted with verdant -islets. Had there been no growing coral, the whole would have passed -away without a record; while, from the actual extent of the coral-reefs -and islands, we know that the entire amount of the high land lost to -the Pacific was at least 50,000 square miles. But as other lands may -have subsided too rapidly for the corals to maintain themselves at the -surface, it is obvious that the estimate is far below the truth. - -As living coral-reefs do not grow above low-water mark, it may well be -asked how habitable islands can form upon their crests. The breakers -are here the agents of construction. They rend fragments and blocks -from the outer border of the reef and throw them upon the surface. -Corals and shells are pulverised by their crushing grinding power, -and gradually fill up the interstices. In this manner the pile rises -higher and higher, till at last even the spring tides can no longer wash -over it into the lagoon, on the border of which the fine coral sand -accumulates undisturbed. The seeds which the ocean-currents often carry -with them from distant continents find here a congenial soil, and begin -to deck the white chalk with an emerald carpet. Trees, drifting from the -primeval forest, where they have been uprooted by the swelling of the -river on whose banks they grew, are also conveyed by the same agency to -the new-formed shore, and bring along with them small animals, insects, -or lizards, as its first inhabitants. Before the stately palm extends -its feathery fronds sea-birds assemble on this new resting-place, and -land-birds, driven by storms from their usual haunts, enjoy the shade -of the rising shrubbery. At last, after vegetation has completed its -work, man appears on the scene, builds his hut on the fruitful soil -which falling leaves and decaying herbs have gradually enriched, and -calls himself the master of this little world. In this manner all the -coral-reefs and islands of the tropical seas have gradually become -verdant and habitable; thus has arisen the kingdom of the Maldives, whose -sultan, Ibrahim, glories in the title of sultan of the thirteen atolls -and twelve thousand isles. May his shadow never be less! - - - - -CHAP. XVIII. - -PROTOZOA. - - The Foraminifera.--The Amœbæ--Their Wonderful Simplicity of - Structure.--The Polycystina.--Marine Infusoria.--Sponges--Their - Pores--Fibres and Spiculæ--The Common Sponge of Commerce. - - -Think not, reader, that the life of the ocean ends with the innumerable -hosts of fishes, molluscs, crustacea, medusæ, and polyps we have -reviewed, and that the waters of the sea or the sands of the shore have -now no further marvels for us to admire. The naked eye indeed may have -attained the limits of life, but the microscope will soon reveal a new -and wonderful world of animated beings. - -Take only, for instance, while wandering on the beach, a handful of -drift-sand, and examine it through a magnifying glass. You will then not -seldom find, among the coarser grains of inorganic silica, a number of -the most elegant shells; some formed like ancient amphoræ, others wound -like the nautilus, but all shaped in their minuteness with a perfection -which no human artist could hope to equal in the largest size. - -[Illustration: Nummulina discoidalis. - - _a._ Natural size. - _b._, _c._ The same, highly magnified. -] - -The knowledge of these charming little marine productions is of modern -date, for they were first observed in the sand of the Adriatic by -Beccaria in 1731, and for some time believed to belong exclusively to -that gulf. At a later period some species were discovered here and there -in England and France, but their universality and importance in the -economy of the ocean were first pointed out in 1825, by the distinguished -French naturalist Alcide d'Orbigny. - -The sand of many sea-coasts is so mixed with Foraminifera, as they have -been called from the openings with which their shells are pierced, that -they often form no less than half its bulk. Plancus counted 6000 in an -ounce of sand from the Adriatic, and d'Orbigny reckoned no less than -3,849,000 in a pound of sand from the Antilles. Along the whole Atlantic -coast of the United States, the plummet constantly brings up masses -of foraminiferous shells from a depth of ninety fathoms, so that the -vast extent of ocean-bottom, which itself forms but a small part of the -domains they occupy, is literally covered with their exuviæ. - -Thus their numbers surpass all human conception, nor can any other series -of beings be compared to them in this respect; not even the minute -crustaceans which colour thousands of square miles on the surface of the -sea, and, according to Scoresby, form almost exclusively the food of -the huge Greenland whale; nor the infusory animals of the fresh-water, -whose shields compose the Bilin slate quarries in Bohemia; for these are -limited in their distribution, whereas the Foraminifera occur in all -parts of the world. - -[Illustration: Amœba.] - -[Illustration: Amœba, showing the extemporaneous feet formed by -evanescent projections of the general plastic mass of the animal.] - -The resemblance of the Foraminifera to the nautili and ammonites at first -led naturalists to suppose that they formed part of the same class, which -in a long course of centuries had dwindled down in less congenial seas -to almost invisible dimensions; but a closer investigation proved them -to belong to a much lower order of beings, nearly related to the Amœbæ, -which likewise occur all over the ocean. Other animals excite our wonder -by their complicated structure, but the amœba raises our astonishment by -the excessive simplicity of its organisation. The amœba is nothing more -than a living globule of mucus, a transparent, colourless, contractile -substance, or plastic mass, the individual life of which shows itself in -manifold changes of form, bearing the character of voluntary motion. When -an amœba approaches another minute animal or plant unable to move out of -its reach, it sends out extemporaneous feet, which soon clasp the prey -on all sides, and the prisoner lies embedded in the living mucus until -all his soluble parts have been absorbed. There is absolutely no trace of -particular organs in the amœba; all its constituent particles may be used -for any purpose, all equally move and digest, and each can at any time -perform the organic functions pertaining to the whole. - -[Illustration: A Compound Foraminiferous Protozoon, magnified. - -The shell is perforated with holes, through which the different lobes -of the animal communicate, and thread-like portions are protruded -externally.] - -In their internal simplicity the Foraminifera are on a par with the -amœbæ, and differ from them only in respect of their outward form. The -amœbæ are naked, while the Foraminifera are covered with a shell, out -of which, through one or numerous openings, the animal protrudes the -processes which it requires for creeping or seizing its prey. These -processes or filaments of mucus frequently ramify, closing as they -spread, and sometimes covering an area of several lines in diameter, in -the centre of which the animal inclosed in its shell waits for its prey, -like a spider in its net. - -The extended filaments appear to have something venomous about them; -for Dr. Schultze, to whom we owe an interesting monograph on the -Foraminifera, frequently saw small and sprightly parameciæ, colpodes, and -other infusoria drop down paralysed as soon as they touched the net. - -[Illustration: Various forms of Foraminifera. - - _a. Lagena striata._ - _a′. Nodosaria rugosa._ - _b. Marginulina raphanus._ - _b′._ Longitudinal section of shell of ditto. - _c. Polystomella crispa_, with its pseudopodia protruded. - _d. Nummulites lenticularis_, shown in horizontal section. - _e. Cassidulina lævigata._ - _f. Textularia globulosa._ - _g. Miliolina seminulum._ - _g′._ Animal of Miliolina removed from its shell. -] - -The amazing variety of form of the Foraminifera is no less remarkable -than the elegance of their delicately chiselled shells, and may well be -called immense, as no less than 2,400 living and fossil species have -already been distinguished by naturalists, and a far greater number is -probably still nameless and unknown. Though generally so minute that the -diameter of the pores through which they protrude their filaments usually -only ranges from 1/3000 to 1/10000 of an inch yet the diminutive world -of the Foraminifera has also its giants, particularly among the fossil -species, such as the Nummulites, which occur in such prodigious numbers -in the limestone of the Egyptian pyramids, and whose flattened lenticular -coin-like forms (d) attain the comparatively gigantic diameter of several -inches. Thus the material with which the proud Pharaohs of the Nile -constructed their colossal tombs was originally piled up at the bottom of -the sea by countless generations of shell-cased Protozoa. - -The Foraminifera are among the oldest inhabitants of our globe,[T] and -as the present ocean contains them in countless multitudes, thus have -they swarmed in the waters of the primeval seas from the first dawn of -creation, and piled up the monuments of their existence in vast strata -of limestone. A great part of the rocky belt from Rügen to the Danish -isles, the white chalk cliffs which, beginning in England, extend through -France as far as Southern Spain, are chiefly composed of the shells -of Foraminifera, and the zone of Nummulite limestone, which served to -build the huge quadrilateral monument of Cheops, forms a band, often -1,800 miles in breadth, and frequently of enormous thickness, from the -Atlantic shores of Europe and Africa through Western Asia up to North -India and China; enough to satisfy the most extravagant architectural -folly of millions of despots. So important is the part which these -beings, individually so minute, have performed and still perform in the -geological annals of the globe. - -[Footnote T: The _Eozoon canadense_, the oldest of known organic remains, -found in the Upper Laurentian series, which preceded the Cambrian -formation, is a Foraminifer. Millions of years must have passed since it -first felt and moved.] - -Many of these "minims of nature" consist of only one chamber, and -hence are called unilocular or monothalamous; but a vast proportion -consist of several chambers, and hence are called multilocular or -polythalamous. The latter, however numerous their chambers or seemingly -complex their structure, always originate as a single shell. The -primitive jelly-sphere, or first sarcode segment, secretes around itself -its appropriate calcareous envelope. Having grown too large for its -habitation, it protrudes a portion of itself without, and thus forms -a second segment. If by a process of spontaneous fission this segment -becomes quite detached from its parent, and repeats the life and method -of reproduction of the latter, a series of monothalamous shells will be -formed. But if by means of a sarcode band the primitive segment maintains -its connection with its immediate offspring, and this, repeating the -reproductive process, does the same, a compound shell will, of course, be -the result. - -Among the microscopic denizens of the ocean, the Polycystina rival the -Foraminifera both by their number and their wonderful elegance of form -and structure. Their body consists of the same viscid homogeneous plastic -mass, termed "sarcode" by the naturalists; like them they are capable of -protruding it through the foramina with which their shell is pierced, -and consequently they are ranked with them among the Rhizopods, or -root-footed animalcules, that form the lowest order of the Protozoa, the -lowest class of the animal world. - -[Illustration: Polycystina. - -_a. Podocyrtis Schomburgkii. b. Haliomma Humboldtii._] - -It is a peculiar feature of these beautiful little shells (whose delicate -sculpture frequently reminds the observer of the finest specimens of -the hollow ivory balls carved by the Chinese) that they are usually -surmounted by a number of spine-like projections, very frequently having -a radiate disposition. Some have an oblong shape (Podocyrtis), others a -discoid form (Haliomma), from the circumference of which the silicious -spines project at regular intervals, so as to give them a star-like -aspect. They are generally of a smaller size than even the Foraminifera, -appear to be almost as widely diffused, and have also largely contributed -to the structure of the earth-rind. They were first discovered by -Professor Ehrenberg at Cuxhaven, on the North Sea; they were afterwards -found by him in collections made in the antarctic seas, and have been -brought up by the sounding lead from the bottom of the Atlantic at depths -of from 1,000 to 2,000 fathoms. - -The term Infusoria, which formerly comprised a most heterogeneous -assemblage of minute plants and animals, is now confined to the highest -order of the Protozoa, distinguished from the Rhizopods by the possession -of a mouth and of ciliary filaments, whose vibrations serve them both -for progression through the water and for drawing alimentary particles -into the interior of their body. Though most of the Infusoria live in -ponds, morasses, pools, wells, or cisterns, yet many are marine, as, for -instance, the _Carchesium polypinum_, which is frequently found attached -to corallines, and the _Vaginicola valvata_, which from its sheath and -valve strongly reminds one of a tubicolar annelide. - -[Illustration: Marine Infusoria. - - _a._ _Vaginicola valvata_, showing animal extended, and - valve (φ) raised. - _a′._ The same, showing animal contracted within its sheath, and - valve (φ′) shut down. - _b._ _Lagotia viridis_, showing rotatory organ (ξ). - _b′._ Young animal of preceding. -] - -The wide diffusion both in time and space of the marine Protozoa, and -chiefly of the Foraminifera and Polycystina, is a sufficient proof of -their vast importance in the household of the seas. Along with the -Diatoms and other microscopical forms of vegetation on which their own -existence depends, they evidently constitute the basis on which the -superstructure of all the higher orders of the animal life of the ocean -reposes. Hosts of minute crustaceans, annelides, acalephæ, and molluscs, -feed upon their inexhaustible legions, and serve in their turn to sustain -creatures of a larger and still larger size until finally Man is enabled -to feast on the abundance of the seas. - -The Porifera, or Sponges, were formerly supposed to belong to the -vegetable kingdom, but their animal nature is now fully ascertained, for -modern researches have proved that the soft glairy substance with which -their skeleton is invested during life consists of "sarcode," similar to -that which forms the soft parts of the Foraminifera and Polycystina. It -is by this animated or organic gelatine, which can generally be pressed -out with the finger, and in some species is copious even to nauseousness, -that the solid parts of the sponge are deposited, and from it the whole -growth of the mass proceeds. The framework or skeleton of the Porifera is -usually composed of horny fibres of unequal thickness, which ramify and -interlace in every possible direction, anastomosing with each other so as -to form innumerable continuous cells and intricate canals, the walls of -which in the recent sponge are crusted over with the gelatinous living -cortex. - -[Illustration: Single interspace or open cell, and surrounding finer -meshwork of the skeleton of a sponge.] - -[Illustration: Needle-like and starred spicula of a Tethea. (Highly -magnified.)] - -Generally this fibrous mass is interwoven with numerous mineral spicules -of a wonderful elegance and variety of forms, for their shapes are not -only strictly determinate for each species of sponge but each part of -the sponge, it is believed, has spiculæ of a character peculiar to -itself. Sometimes they are pointed at both ends, sometimes at one only, -or one or both ends may be furnished with a head like that of a pin, or -may carry three or more diverging points, which sometimes curve back -so as to form hooks. Sometimes they are triradiate, sometimes stellar; -in some cases smooth, in others beset with smaller spinous projections -like the lance of the saw-fish. In many species they are embedded in the -horny framework; in others, as, for instance, in Tethea Cranium, or in -Halichondria, they project from its surface like a tiny forest of spears. -They are generally composed of silex or flint, but in the genus Grantia -they consist of carbonate of lime. Though the skeleton of most sponges is -formed both of horny fibres and of mineral spicules yet the proportions -of these two component parts vary considerably in different species. In -the common sponge, for instance, the fibrous skeleton is almost entirely -destitute of spicules, a circumstance to which it owes the flexibility -and softness that render it so useful to man, while they predominate -in the Halichondriæ, and sometimes even, as in the Grantiæ, completely -supersede the horny fabric. - -[Illustration: Minute portion of the surface of Tethea Cranium, -magnified, spicula projecting beyond the surface.] - -[Illustration: Halina papillaris. - -Currents passing inwards through the pores (_a a_), traversing the -internal canals (b), and escaping by the larger vents (_c_, _d_).] - -On examining a sponge, the holes with which the substance is everywhere -pierced may be seen to be of two kinds; one of larger size than the rest, -few in number, and opening into wide channels and tunnels which pierce -the sponge through its centre; the other minute, extremely numerous, -covering the wide surface, and communicating with the innumerable -branching passages which make up the body of the skeleton. Through the -smaller openings or pores the circumambient water freely enters the -body of the sponge, passes through the smaller canals, and, ultimately -reaching the larger set of vessels, is evolved through the larger -apertures or oscula. Thus by a still mysterious agency (for the presence -of cilia has as yet been detected but in one genus of full-grown marine -sponges) a constant circulation is kept up, providing the sponge with -nourishing particles and oxygen, and enabling its system of channels -to perform the functions both of an alimentary tube and a respiratory -apparatus. - -Dr. Grant describes in glowing terms his first discovery of this highly -interesting phenomenon: "Having put a small branch of sponge with some -sea-water into a watch-glass, in order to examine it with the microscope, -and bringing one of the apertures on the side of the sponge fully into -view, I beheld for the first time the spectacle of this living fountain, -vomiting forth from a circular cavity an impetuous torrent of liquid -matter, and hurling along in rapid succession opaque masses, which it -strewed everywhere around. The beauty and novelty of such a scene in the -animal kingdom long arrested my attention, but after twenty-five minutes -of constant observation, I was obliged to withdraw my eye from fatigue, -without having seen the torrent for one instant change its direction or -diminish in the slightest degree the rapidity of its course. I continued -to watch the same orifice at short intervals for five hours, sometimes -observing it for a quarter of an hour at a time, but still the stream -rolled on with a constant and equal velocity." - -Subsequent observations have proved that the living sponge has the power -of opening and closing at pleasure its oscula, which are capable of -acting independently of each other, thus fully establishing the animal -nature of these simple organisations, in whom latterly even traces of -sensibility have been detected, such as one would hardly expect to meet -with in a sponge. For these creatures, as we are entitled to call them, -are able to protrude from their oscula the gelatinous membrane which -clothes their channels, and on touching these protruded parts with a -needle, they were seen by Mr. Gosse to shrink immediately--a proof that -the sponge, however low it may rank in the animal world, is yet far from -being so totally inert or lifeless as was formerly imagined. - -The propagation of the sponges is provided for in a no less wonderful -manner than their respiration and nourishment. Minute globular particles -of sarcode sprout forth as little protuberances from the interior of -the canals. As they increase in size, they are gradually clothed with -vibratile cilia, and, finally detaching themselves, are cast out through -the oscula into the world of waters. Here their wanderings continue for -a short time, until, if they be not devoured on the way, they reach some -rock or submarine body on which, tired of their brief erratic existence, -they fix themselves for ever, and, bidding adieu to all further rambles, -lead henceforth the quiet sedentary life of their parents. In this manner -the sponges, which otherwise would have been confined to narrow limits, -spread like a living carpet over the bottom of the seas, and in spite of -their being utterly defenceless, maintain their existence from age to -age. At the same time they serve to feed a vast number of other marine -animals, for the waters frequently swarm with their eggs, and these -afford many a welcome repast to myriads of sessile molluscs, annelides, -polyps, and other creatures small or abstemious enough to be satisfied -with feasting on atoms. - -Sponges inhabit every sea and shore, and differ very much in habit of -growth. For whilst some can only be obtained by dredging at considerable -depths, others live near the surface, and others, again, attach -themselves to the surfaces of rocks and shells between the tide marks. -Like the corals, they revel in every variety of shape and tint, imitate -like them every form of vegetation, and adorn like them the submarine -grounds with their fantastic shrubberies. The fine collection of West -Indian sponges exhibited in the Crystal Palace, but to which fancy must -add the additional ornament of colour, may serve to give some idea of -their prodigal versatility of growth. More than sixty different species -have been discovered in the British waters alone, and as they go on -increasing in numbers, size, and beauty, until they attain their highest -development along the shores of the tropical ocean, they no doubt hold -a conspicuous rank among the living wonders of the sea. The branched -sponges, with a compact feltred tissue, are more common than others in -the colder maritime domains, where the species of a loose texture, which -grow in large massive forms, either do not exist or are very rare. Many -sponges are of considerable size, such as the vase-like tropical species -known under the name of Neptune's cup; others are almost microscopical; -and while by far the greater number grow superficially from a solid base, -some penetrate like destructive parasites into the texture of other -animals. Thus the _Halichondria celata_ establishes itself in the small -holes which some of the smaller annelides drill in the shell of the -oyster, eat further and further into the unfortunate mollusc's vitals, -causing the softer parts of the shell to rot away, and spread through -its whole substance, like the dry-rot fungus through a solid beam of -timber, until, sinking under the weight of his misery, the poor victim -perishes, and his loosened shell is cast to the mercy of the waves. On -the other hand, some marine Acorn-shells nestle habitually in a sponge, -the normal construction of the base of the shell being altered to suit -the peculiarities of its habitation, so that in this instance, as in many -others, there is a foreseen relation between two very dissimilar animals. -Amongst the reticulated fibres of its spongy dwelling, the Acorn-shell -finds a secure refuge in its infant state, and is soon enclosed by the -growing fabric of the sponge-animal, except a small opening, which is -kept clear by the vortex occasioned by the constant motion of its feelers -or tentacula. - -But very few of the manifold species of sponges are of any use to man. -The common sponge of commerce (_Spongia communis_), so serviceable in -our households, is most abundant in the Lycian seas, where it is found -attached to rocks at various depths between three fathoms and thirty. -When alive, it is of a dull bluish black above, and dirty white beneath. -There are several qualities, possibly indicating as many distinct species. - -"The most valued kinds," says Edward Forbes, "are sought for about the -Gulf of Macri, along the Carian coast, and round the opposite islands. -The species which live immediately along the shore near the water's edge, -though often large, are worthless. These are of many colours; some of -the brightest scarlet or clear yellow form a crust over the faces of -submarine rocks; others are large and tubular, resembling holothuriæ -in form and of a gamboge colour, which soon turns to dirty brown when -taken out of the water; others are again lobed or palmate, studded with -prickly points, and perforated at intervals with oscula. These grow to -a considerable size, but, like the former, are useless, since their -substance is full of needles of flint." - -Large quantities of excellent sponge (_Spongia usitatissima_) are -likewise imported from the West Indies. - - - - -CHAP. XIX. - -MARINE PLANTS. - - The Algæ.--Zostera marina.--The Ulvæ and Enteromorphæ.--The Fuci.--The - Laminariæ.--Macrocystis pyrifera.--Description of the Submarine - Thickets at Tierra del Fuego.--Nereocystis lutkeana.--The Sargasso - Sea.--The Gathering of edible Birds'-nests in the marine Caves of - Java.--Agar-Agar.--The Florideæ.--The Diatomaceæ.--Their importance in - the economy of the Seas. - - -The dry land develops the most exuberant vegetation on the lowest -grounds, the plains and deep valleys, and the size and multiplicity of -plants gradually diminish as we ascend the higher mountain regions, until -at last merely naked or snow-covered rocks raise their barren pinnacles -to the skies: but the contrary takes place in the realms of ocean; for -here the greater depths are completely denuded of vegetation, and it -is only within 600 or 800 feet from the surface that the calcareous -nullipores begin to cover the sea-bottom, as mosses and lichens clothe -the lofty mountain-tops. Gradually corallines and a few algæ associate -with them, until finally about 80 or 100 feet from the surface begins the -rich vegetable zone which encircles the margin of the sea. The plants -of which it is composed do not indeed attain the same high degree of -development as those of the dry land, being deprived of the beauties of -flower and fruit: but as the earth at different heights and latitudes -constantly changes her verdant robe, and raises our highest admiration -by the endless diversity of her ornaments, thus also the forms of the -sea-plants change, whether we descend from the brink of ocean to a -greater depth, or wander along the coast from one sea to another; and -their delicate fronds are as remarkable for beauty of colour and elegance -of outline, as the leaves of terrestrial vegetation. - -The difference of the mediums in which land- and sea-plants exist -naturally requires a different mode of nourishment, the former -principally using their roots to extract from a varying soil the -substances necessary for their perfect growth, while the latter absorb -nourishment through their entire surface from the surrounding waters, and -use their roots chiefly as holdfasts. - -The constituent parts of the soil are of the greatest importance to -land-plants, to whose organisation they are made to contribute; while to -the sea-plant it is generally indifferent whether the ground to which it -is attached be granite, chalk, slate, or sandstone, provided only its -roots find a safe anchorage against the unruly waters. - -Flat rocky coasts, not too much exposed to the swell of the waves, and -interspersed with deep pools in which the water is constantly retained, -are thus the favourite abode of most algæ, while a loose sandy sea-bottom -is generally as poor in vegetation as the Arabian desert. - -But even on sandy shores extensive submarine meadows are frequently -formed by the Grass Wrack (_Zostera marina_), whose creeping stems, -rooting at the joints and extending to a considerable depth in the sand, -are admirably adapted for seeming a firm position on the loose ground. -Its long riband-like leaves, of a brilliant and glossy green, wave freely -in the water, and afford shelter and nourishment to numerous marine -animals and plants. In the tropical seas it forms the submarine meadows -on which the turtles graze, and in the North of Europe it is used for the -manufacture of cheap bedding. It also furnishes an excellent material for -packing brittle ware. - -Sea-weeds are usually classed in three great groups, green, -olive-coloured, and red; and these again are subdivided into numerous -families, genera, and species. - -On the British coasts alone about 400 different species are found, -and hence we may form some idea of the riches of the submarine flora. -Thousands of algæ are known and classified, but no doubt as many more at -least still wait for their botanical names, and have never yet been seen -by human eye. - -The _Green_ sea-weeds, or Chlorospermeæ, generally occur near high-water -mark, and love to lead an amphibious life, half in the air and half in -salt-water. The delicate Enteromorphæ, similar to threads of fine silk, -and the broad brilliant Ulvæ, which frequently cover the smooth boulders -with a glossy vesture of lively green, belong to this class. Many of them -are remarkable for their wide geographical distribution. Thus the _Ulva -latissima_ and the _Erderomorpha compressa_ of our shores thrive also -in the cold waters of the Arctic Sea, fringe the shores of the tropical -ocean, and project into the southern hemisphere as far as the desolate -head-lands of Tierra del Fuego. But few animals or plants possess so -pliable a nature, and such adaptability to the most various climates. - -The _Olive-coloured_ group of sea-weeds, or Melanospermeæ, plays a much -more considerable part in the economy of the ocean. The common fuci, -which on the ebbing of the tide impart to the shore cliffs their peculiar -dingy colour, belong to this class; as well as the mighty Laminariæ, -which about the level of ordinary low water, and one or two fathoms -below that limit, fringe the rocky shore with a broad belt of luxuriant -vegetation. - -The first olive-coloured sea-weed we meet with on the receding of the -flood is the small and slender _Fucus canaliculatus_, easily known by -its narrow grooved stems and branches, and the absence of air-vessels. -Then follows _Fucus nodosus_, a large species, with tough thong-like -stems, expanding at intervals into knob-like air-vessels, and covered -in winter and spring with bright yellow berries. Along with it we find -the gregarious _Fucus vesiculosus_, with its forked leaf traversed by a -midrib, and covered with numerous air-vessels situated in pairs at each -side of the rib. Finally, about the level of half-tide, a fourth species -of fucus appears, _Fucus serratus_, distinguished from all the rest by -its toothed margin and the absence of air-vessels. - -These four species generally occupy the littoral zone of our sea-girt -isle, being found in greatest abundance on flat rocky shores, -particularly on the western coasts of Scotland and Ireland, where they -used formerly to be burnt in large quantities for the manufacture of kelp -or carbonate of soda, which is now obtained by a less expensive process. -In Orcadia alone more than 20,000 persons were employed during the whole -summer in the collection and incineration of sea-weeds, a valuable -resource for the poverty-stricken islanders, of which they have been -deprived by the progress of chemical science. - -The fuci are, however, still largely used, either burnt or in a fermented -state, as a valuable manure for green crops. Thus every year several -small vessels are sent from Jersey to the coast of Brittany, to fetch -cargoes of sea-weeds for the farmers of that island. - - -A RUSSIAN OFFICIAL, ATTENDED BY A SOLDIER, COLLECTING ALGÆ ON THE SHORES -OF THE NORTH PACIFIC. - - The annexed plate is taken from the frontispiece of the magnificent - folio volume by Messrs. Ruprecht and Postels, on the Algæ of the North - Pacific. This work, in which even the largest of the marine plants of - that region are represented of their natural size, was published at - the expense of the Russian Government, and copies were presented to - some of the principal libraries of Europe. - - In the middle distance, a Russian official belonging to one of the - settlements is seen gathering algæ, attended by a soldier. - - In the front of the picture the water is supposed to be so clear as to - show distinctly the growth of sea-weeds of various kinds, which clothe - the submarine rocks in that region. Some species of these have been - added to the number shown in the original composition. - - In the centre, with the light fully upon them, are streaming plants - of a gigantic _Alaria_, whose fronds sometimes extend to a length - of 40 feet. Immediately beneath it, to the right, is the curiously - perforated _Agarium Gmelini_, the singular perforations of which are - indicated by small white patches. - - To the right is the curious "flower-bearing" sea-weed known as the - Sea Rose, _Constantinea Rosa marina_, the flower-like growth of - which, combined with the pink colour of its seeming flowers, is very - remarkable. - - In front, and rather to the right of the last, is a dark mass of the - splendid _Iridæa Mertensiana_, the dark velvety masses of which, of a - deep crimson colour, are often more than a foot across. - - To the right of the last, in the corner, is one of the most beautiful - of the ulvæ, _Ulva fenestrata_, a name which may be popularised as the - "windowed" ulva, in allusion to its extremely perforated character, - the openings being of considerable size, and often separated from - each other only by the slenderest divisions, thus forming a kind of - vegetable lace-work. - -[Illustration: A RUSSIAN OFFICIAL ATTENDED BY A SOLDIER COLLECTING ALGÆ -ON THE SHORES OF THE NORTH PACIFIC.] - -The largest of indigenous sea-weeds are the _Laminaria saccharina_ and -_digitata_, or the sugary and fingered oar-weeds. Their stout woody -stems, and broad tough glossy leaves of dark olive-green, often twelve -or fourteen feet long, must be familiar to every one who has sojourned -on the coast. When gliding over their submerged groves in a boat, their -great fronds floating like streamers in the water afford the interesting -spectacle of a dense submarine thicket, through whose palm-like tops the -fishes swim in and out, emulating in activity the birds of our forests. - -But our native oar-weeds, large as they seem with regard to the other -fuci among which they grow, are mere pygmies when compared with the -gigantic species which occur in the colder seas. - -None of the members of this family grow in the tropical waters, but -they extend to the utmost polar limits, and seem to increase in size -and multiplicity of form as they advance to the higher latitudes. The -northern hemisphere has generally different genera from the southern. To -the former belong the gigantic Alarias with their often forty feet long -and several feet broad fronds, the singularly perforated Thalassophyta, -and the far-spreading Nereocystis, which is only found in the Northern -Pacific; while the genera Macrocystis and Lessonia are denizens of the -Southern Ocean. - -In the numerous channels and bays of Tierra del Fuego, the enormous and -singular _Macrocystis pyrifera_ is found in such incredible masses as -to excite the astonishment of every traveller. "On every rock," says -Mr. Darwin, perhaps the best observer of nature that ever visited those -dreary regions, and certainly their most poetical describer, "the plant -grows from low-water mark to a great depth, both on the outer coast and -within the channels. I believe, during the voyages of the Adventure -and Beagle, not one rock near the surface was discovered which was not -buoyed by this floating weed. The good service it thus affords to vessels -navigating near this stormy land is evident, and it certainly has saved -many a one from being wrecked. I know few things more surprising than -to see this plant growing and flourishing amidst those great breakers -of the western ocean, which no mass of rock, let it be ever so hard, -can long resist. The stem is round, slimy, and smooth, and seldom has a -diameter of so much as an inch. A few taken together are sufficiently -strong to support the weight of the large loose stones to which in the -inland channels they grow attached; and some of these stones are so -heavy, that when drawn to the surface they can scarcely be lifted into a -boat by one person." - -"Captain Cook, in his second voyage says, that 'at Kerguelen's Land -some of this weed is of most enormous length, though the stem is not -much thicker than a man's thumb. I have mentioned that, on some of -these shoals on which it grows, we did not strike ground with a line -of twenty-four fathoms; the depth of water, therefore, must have been -greater. And as this weed does not grow in a perpendicular direction, -but makes a very acute angle with the bottom, and much of it afterwards -spreads many fathoms on the surface of the sea, I am well warranted to -say that some of it grows to the length of sixty fathoms and upwards.' - -"Certainly at the Falkland Islands, and about Tierra del Fuego, extensive -beds frequently spring up from ten and fifteen fathoms water. I do -not suppose the stem of any other plant attains so great a length as -360 feet, as stated by Captain Cook. Its geographical range is very -considerable; it is found from the extreme southern islets near Cape -Horn, as far north on the eastern coast as lat. 43°, and on the western -it was tolerably abundant, but far from luxuriant, at Chiloe, in lat. -42°. It may possibly extend a little further northward, but is soon -succeeded by a different species. - -"We thus have a range of 15° in latitude, and as Cook, who must have been -well acquainted with the species, found it at Kerguelen's Land, no less -than 140° in longitude. - -"The number of living creatures, of all orders, whose existence -intimately depends on the kelp, is wonderful. A large volume might be -written, describing the inhabitants of one of these beds of sea-weed. -Almost every leaf, except those that float on the surface, is so thickly -incrusted with corallines as to be of a white colour. We find exquisitely -delicate structures, some inhabited by simple hydra-like polypi, others -by more organised kinds and beautiful compound ascidiæ. On the flat -surfaces of the leaves, various patelliform shells, trochi, uncovered -mollusks, and some bivalves are attached. Innumerable crustacea frequent -every part of the plant. On shaking the great entangled roots, a pile -of small fish, shells, cuttle-fish, crabs of all orders, sea-eggs, -star-fish, beautiful holothuriæ (some taking the external form of the -nudibranch mollusks), planariæ, and crawling nereidous animals of a -multitude of forms, all fall out together. Often as I recurred to a -branch of the kelp, I never failed to discover animals of new and curious -structure. In Chiloe, where, as I have said, the kelp did not thrive very -well, the numerous shells, corallines, and Crustacea were absent, but -there yet remained a few of the Flustraceæ, and some compound ascidiæ; -the latter, however, were of different species from those in Tierra del -Fuego. We here see the fucus possessing a wider range than the animals -which use it as an abode. - -"I can only compare these great aquatic forests of the southern -hemisphere with the terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions. Yet, -if the latter should be destroyed in any country, I do not believe nearly -so many species of animals would perish, as under similar circumstances -would happen with the kelp. Amidst the leaves of this plant numerous -species of fish live, which nowhere else would find food or shelter; with -their destruction the many cormorants, divers, and other fishing-birds, -the otters, seals, and porpoises, would soon perish also; and lastly the -Fuegian savage, the miserable lord of this miserable land, would redouble -his cannibal feast, decrease in numbers, and perhaps cease to exist." - -For many a day's sail before reaching Cape Horn, large bundles of the -macrocystis detached by the storm announce to the navigator that he is -approaching the desolate coasts of Tierra del Fuego. - -"We succeeded," says Professor Meyen, in his _Reise um die Welt_, -"in getting hold of one of these floating islands, which, amid loud -acclamations, was hauled upon deck by the exertions of five men. It was -quite impossible to disentangle the enormous mass; we could only detach, -to the length of about sixty feet, what we considered to be the chief -stem; the branches were from thirty to forty feet long, and as thick -as the principal trunk from which they sprang. We estimated the total -length of the plant at about two hundred feet; the pear-shaped air -vessels at the basis of the leaves were often six or seven inches long, -and the leaves themselves measured seven or eight feet. On these swimming -fucus-islands lived a vast multitude of various animals; thousands upon -thousands of barnacles and sertulariæ, of crustaceans and annelides. - -"The admiration which the gigantic sea-weeds of Tierra del Fuego excited -in our minds equalled that which had been raised by the exuberant -vegetation of the virgin forests of Brazil. One single plant of the -_Macrocystis pyrifera_ would suffice, like one of the mammoth-trees of -those luxuriant woods, to cover a large space of land with its leaf-like -substance. The quantity of small algæ, of sertularias, cellarias, and -other minute animals dwelling on these swimming islands, surpasses in -variety the multitude of parasitical plants bedecking the trees in a -tropical forest. It seems as if, in these desolate and dreary regions, -the generative powers of the planet were solely confined to the gigantic -growth of submarine vegetation." - -On the rocky coasts of the Falkland Islands are found no less -astonishing masses of enormous sea-weeds, chiefly belonging to the -genera Macrocystis, Lessonia, and Durvillea. Rent from the rocks to -which they were attached, and cast ashore, they are rolled by the heavy -surf into prodigious vegetable cables, much thicker than a man's body -and several hundred feet long. Many of the rarest and most beautiful -algæ may be here discovered, which have either been wrenched from -inaccessible rocks far out at sea, along with the larger species, or have -attached themselves parasitically to their stems and fronds. Many of -them remind the botanist, by some similarity of form, of the sea-weeds -of his distant home, while others tell him at once that he is far away -in another hemisphere. The gigantic lessonias particularly abound about -these islands. Their growth resembles that of a tree. The stem attains -a height of from eight to ten feet, the thickness of a man's thigh, and -terminates in a crown of leaves two or three feet long, and drooping like -the branches of a weeping-willow. They form large submerged forests, and, -like the thickets of the macrocystis, afford a refuge and a dwelling to -countless sea animals. - -A similar abundance of colossal algæ is found in the Northern Pacific, -about the Kurile and Aleutic Islands, and along the deeply indented and -channel-furrowed north-west coast of America. - -Thus the _Nereocystis lutkeana_ forms dense forests in Norfolk Bay and -all about Sitcha. Its stem, resembling whipcord, and often above 300 -feet long, terminates in a large air-vessel, six or seven feet long, and -crowned with a bunch of dichotomous leaves, each thirty or forty feet in -length. Dr. Mertens assures us that the sea-otter, when fishing, loves -to rest upon the colossal air-vessels of this giant among the sea-weeds, -while the long tenacious stems furnish the rude fishermen of the coast -with excellent tackle. The growth of the nereocystis must be uncommonly -rapid, as it is an annual plant, and consequently develops its whole -gigantic proportions during the course of one brief summer. - -Before proceeding to the third chief group of marine plants, the red -sea-weeds, or Rhodosperms, I must mention the enormous fucus banks, or -floating meadows of the Atlantic, which form undoubtedly one of the -greatest wonders of the ocean. - -We know that the mighty Gulf Stream, which rolls its indigo-blue floods -from America to the opposite coasts of the Old World, flows partly -southwards in the neighbourhood of Azores, and is ultimately driven -back again to America. In the midst of these circuitous streams, from -22° to 36° N. lat., and from 35° to 65° W. long., extends a sea without -any other currents than those resulting from the temporary action of -the winds. This comparatively tranquil part of the ocean, the surface -of which surpasses at least twenty times that of the British Isles, is -found more or less densely covered with floating masses of _Sargassum -bacciferum_. Often the sea-weed surrounds the ship sailing through these -savannas of the sea, in such quantities as to retard its progress, and -then again hours may pass when not a single fucus appears. While Columbus -was boldly steering through the hitherto unknown fields of the Sargasso -Sea, the fears of his timorous associates were increased by this singular -phenomenon, as they believed they had now reached the bounds of the -navigable ocean, and must inevitably strike against some hidden rock, if -their commander persevered in his audacious course. - -It is an interesting fact that the Sargasso Sea affords the most -remarkable example of an aggregation of plants belonging to one single -species. Nowhere else, according to Humboldt, neither in the savannas -of America, nor on the heaths or in the pine forests of Northern Europe, -is such a uniformity of vegetation found as in those boundless maritime -meadows. - -"The masses of sea-weeds," says Meyen, "covering so vast an extent -of ocean have ever since the time of Columbus been the object of -astonishment and inquiry. Some navigators believe, that they are driven -together by the Gulf Stream, and that the same species of Sargassum -plentifully occurs in the Mexican Sea; this is however perfectly -erroneous. - -"Humboldt was of opinion that this marine plant originally grows on -submarine banks, from which it is torn by various forces; I for my part -have examined many thousands of specimens, and venture to affirm that -they never have been attached to any solid body. Freely floating in the -water, they have developed their young germs, and sent forth on all sides -roots and leaves, both of the same nature." - -Thus the Sargassum seems to be the indigenous production of the sea where -it appears, and to have floated there from time immemorial. Its swimming -islands afford an abode and nourishment to a prodigious amount of animal -life. They are generally covered with elegant sertularias, coloured -vorticellas, and other strange forms of marine existence. Various naked -or nudibranchiate mollusks and annelides attach themselves to the fronds, -and afford nourishment to hosts of fishes and crustaceans, the beasts of -prey of this little world. - -Similar aggregations of sea-weeds are also met with in the Indian and -Pacific Oceans, in the comparatively tranquil spaces encircled by -rotatory currents. Their rare occurrence on the surface of the sea may -serve as a proof of the restless motion of its waters. Were the ocean not -everywhere intersected by currents, it would most likely be covered with -sea-weeds, opposing serious, if not invincible obstacles to navigation. - -The _Red_ sea-weeds, Rhodosperms or Florideæ, are by far the most -numerous in species, and undoubtedly the most beautiful and perfect of -all the algæ. They love neither light nor motion, and generally seek the -shade of larger plants on the perpendicular sides of deep tide-pools -removed from the influences of the tides and gales. They mostly grow -close to low-water mark, and are to be seen only for an hour or two at -the spring-tides, during which, as is well known, the deepest ebbs take -place. To this group belong the wonderfully delicate polysiphonias, -callithamnias, plocamias, and delesserias, whose elegant rosy scarlet -or purple leaves are the amateur's delight, and when laid out on paper -resemble the finest tracery, defying the painter's art to do justice to -their beauty. It likewise numbers among its genera the chalky corallines -and nullipores, which on account of the hardness of their substance were -formerly considered to be polyps, but whose true nature becomes apparent -on examining their internal structure. - -The _Chondrus crispus_, or Carrigeen, which grows in such vast quantities -on the coasts of the British Isles, also belongs to the rhodosperms, -though when growing, as it frequently does, in shallow tide-pools, -exposed to full sunlight, its dark purple colour fades into green or -even yellowish white. When boiled it almost entirely dissolves in the -water, and forms on cooling a colourless and almost tasteless jelly, -which of late years has been largely used in medicine as a substitute -for Iceland moss. Similar nutritious gelatines, which also serve for the -manufacture of strong glues, are yielded by other species of rhodosperms, -among others by the _Gracillaria spinosa_ of the Indian Ocean, which the -Salangana (_Hirundo esculenta_), a bird allied to the swallow, is said -principally to use for the construction of her edible nest. - -The steep sea-walls along the south coast of Java are clothed to the very -brink with luxuriant woods, and screw-pines strike everywhere their roots -into their precipitous sides, or look down by thousands from the margin -of the rock upon the unruly sea below. The surf of incalculable years has -worn deep caves into the chalk cliffs, and here the Salangana builds her -nest. Where the sea is most agitated whole swarms are observed flying -about, and purposely seeking the thickest wave-foam. From a projecting -cape, on looking down upon the play of waters, may be seen the mouth of -the cave of Gua Rongkop, sometimes completely hidden under the waves, and -then again opening its black recesses, into which the swallows vanish, or -from which they dart forth with the rapidity of lightning. While at some -distance from the coast the blue ocean sleeps in undisturbed repose, it -never ceases to fret and foam against the foot of the mural rocks, where -the most beautiful rainbows glisten in the eternally rising vapours. - -Who can explain the instinct which prompts the birds to glue their -nests to the high dark vaults of those deep, and apparently so -inaccessible, caverns? Did they expect to find them a safe retreat from -the persecutions of man? Then surely their hopes were vain, for where is -the refuge to which his insatiable avidity cannot find the way? At the -cavern of Gua-gede, the brink of the precipitous coast lies eighty feet -above the level of the sea at ebb-tide; the wall first bends inwards, -and then, at a height of twenty-five feet from the sea, throws out a -projecting ledge which is of great use to the nest-gatherers, serving -as a support for a rotang ladder let down from the cliff. The roof of -the cavern's mouth lies only ten feet above the sea, which, even at -ebb-tide, completely covers the floor of the cave, while at flood-tide -the opening of the vast marine grotto is entirely closed by every wave -that rolls against it. To penetrate into the interior is thus only -possible at low water, and during very tranquil weather; and even then it -could not be done, if the rugged roof were not perforated and jagged in -every direction. The boldest and strongest of the nest-gatherers wedges -himself firmly in the hollows, or clings to the projecting stones, while -he fastens rotang ropes to them, which then depend four or five feet -from the roof. To the lower ends of these ropes long rotang cables are -attached, so that the whole forms a kind of suspension bridge throughout -the entire length of the cavern, alternately falling and rising with -its inequalities. The cave is 100 feet broad and 150 long as far as -its deepest recesses. If we justly admire the intrepidity of the St. -Kildans, who, let down by a rope from the high level of their rocky -birthplace, remain suspended over a boisterous sea, we must needs also -pay a tribute of praise to the boldness of the Javanese nest-gatherers. -Before preparing their ladders for the plucking of the birds' nests, -they first offer solemn prayers to the goddess of the south-coast, and -sometimes deposit gifts on the tomb where the first discoverer of the -caverns and their treasures is said to repose. Thus in all zones and in -every stage of civilisation, man is directed by an inward voice to seek -the protection of the invisible powers when about to engage in a great -and perilous undertaking. - -As I have already mentioned, the Salangana builds her nest of sea-weeds, -which she softens in her stomach and then disgorges. During its -construction new layers, which soon grow hard in the air, are continually -deposited on the margin, until it has attained the proper size. When -gathering time approaches, some of the pluckers daily visit the cavern -to examine the state of the brood. As soon as they find that most of -the young are beginning to be provided with feathers, their operations -commence. These nests form the first quality; those in which the young -are still completely naked, the second; while those which only contain -eggs, and are consequently not yet ripe, rank third. The nests with -young whose feathers are completely developed are over-ripe, black, and -good for nothing. All the young and eggs are thrown into the sea. The -gathering takes place three times a year; the birds breed four times -a year. In spite of these wholesale devastations their numbers do not -diminish; as many of the young have no doubt flown away before the day of -execution, or other swallows from still unexplored caverns may fill up -the void. In this manner about 50 piculs are annually collected, which -the Chinese pay for at the rate of 4000 or 5000 guilders the picul. Each -picul contains on an average 10,000 nests. Dividing these 500,000 nests -among three gatherings, and reckoning two birds to each nest, we find -that more than 333,000 swallows inhabit at the same time the Javanese -coast caverns. - -In the interior of the island, in the chalkstone grottos of Bandong, the -Salangana also breeds, but in far inferior numbers, as here the annual -collection amounts on an average to no more than 14,000 nests. In these -inland caves swallows and bats reside together, but without disturbing -each other, as the former when not breeding leave their caverns at -sunrise, disappear in the distance, and only return late in the evening, -when the bats are already enjoying their vespertine or nocturnal flight. - -In Sumatra and some other islands of the Indian archipelago, birds'-nests -are likewise collected, but nowhere in such numbers as in Java. They are -brought to the Chinese market, where they are carefully cleaned before -being offered for sale to the consumer. The addition of costly spices -renders them one of the greatest delicacies of Chinese cookery, but as -for themselves they are nothing better than a fine sort of gelatine. - -The Japanese have long been aware that these costly birds' nests are -in fact merely softened algæ. They consequently pulverise the proper -species of sea-weeds, which are abundantly found on their own coasts, -boil them to a thick jelly, and bring them to market under the name of -_Dschin-schan_, as artificial birds'-nests. The Dutch call it Agar-agar, -and make great use of it; simple boiling sufficing to convert the dried -substance into a thick uniform jelly, which is both nourishing and easy -of digestion. Thus we see that the algæ, which the Romans considered -so perfectly worthless that, when they wished to express their utter -contempt of an object, they declared it to be still viler than the vile -sea-weed, are by no means deserving of so hard a sentence. Man himself -might be much more justly reproached for neglecting the abundant stores -of nourishment which nature has gratuitously provided for him on all flat -and rocky coasts. For not only the species I have mentioned are eatable, -but also some of the commonest fuci of our seas (_Fucus nodosus_, _F. -vesiculosus_, _Laminaria saccharina_), as well as the gigantic alarias -and durvilleas of the colder oceanic regions. And yet how rare is their -use, notwithstanding the increasing wants of a rapidly growing population! - -[Illustration: Surirella constricta. - -A. Front view. B. Binary subdivision.--(Highly magnified.)] - -Besides the larger forms of vegetation, the ocean contains a vast -number of microscopical plants. Among these the most remarkable are -the Diatomaceæ, simple vegetable cells enclosed in a flinty envelope, -consisting of two plates closely applied to each other like the two -valves of a mussel. The forms of these minute organisms are no less -curious than those of the Foraminifera, for they exhibit regular -mathematical figures, and their surface is often most delicately -sculptured. Multiplying by spontaneous fissure, many of the Diatoms are -met with entirely free after the process of duplicative subdivision -has once been completed, while others, such as the Licmophora, or -Fan-bearer, an elegant native species, habitually remain coherent one to -another, producing clusters or filaments of various shapes, connected -by a gelatinous investment or by a stalk-like appendage, which serves -to attach them to other plants or to stones and to pieces of wood. -Though individually invisible to the naked eye, they appear, when thus -congregated, as patches of a green or brownish slimy mass, or as little -glittering tufts a line or two in height. Some of their numerous species -are natives of fresh water, but by far the majority are denizens of -the sea, where they are found from the equator to the poles. The brown -scum floating upon the surface of the antarctic waters near the mighty -ice barrier which arrested Sir James Ross's progress to the south pole -was found to consist almost solely of Diatomaceæ, and they are equally -abundant in the Arctic Ocean. - -It is remarked by Dr. Hooker that the universal presence of this -invisible vegetation throughout the South Polar Seas is a most important -feature, since there is a marked deficiency in this region of higher -forms of vegetation, so that without the Diatoms there would neither be -food for aquatic animals nor (if it were possible for these to maintain -themselves by preying on one another) could the ocean waters be purified -of the carbonic acid which animal respiration would be continually -imparting to it. Thus it is not in vain that they abound in the most -inhospitable seas, where but for them no sea-bird would flap its wings, -and no dolphin dart through the desert waters. - -[Illustration: Licmophora flabellata. (Highly magnified.)] - -From the indestructible nature of their flinty coverings the Diatoms play -a no less conspicuous part in the geological history of our globe than -the calcareous Foraminifera. - -Extensive rocky strata, chains of hills, beds of marl--once deposited -at the bottom of the ocean, and raised by subsequent changes of level -from the depth of the waters--contain the remains of these little -plants in greater or less abundance. No country is destitute of such -monuments, and in some they constitute the leading features in the -structure of the soil. Under the whole city of Richmond, in Virginia, -and far beyond its limits, over an area of unknown extent, they form a -stratum of eighteen feet in thickness, and similar deposits are found -to alternate in the neighbourhood of the Mediterranean with calcareous -strata chiefly composed of Foraminifera. At first sight it may seem a -gross exaggeration to attribute so vast an agency to beings individually -so minute, but when we recollect how quickly they multiply by division, -and how their activity dates from the first dawn of organic creation, -their architectural powers no longer seem incredible. In forty-eight -hours a single diatom may multiply to 8,000,000, and in four days to -140,000,000,000,000, when the silicious coverings of its enormous -progeny will already suffice to fill up a space of two cubic feet. No -wonder, then, that during the course of ages these microscopic plants -have been able to form prodigious strata wherever circumstances favoured -their propagation. In no case is the power of numbers more forcibly -exemplified, for where can we find results more vast, proceeding from -the infinite multiplication of the smallest individuals, than that whole -tracts of country should literally be built up of the skeletons of -Foraminifera and Diatomaceæ? - -[Illustration: Hooded Merganser.] - - - - -CHAP. XX. - -THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE LIFE. - - The Dependence of all created Beings upon Space and Time.--The - Influences which regulate the Distribution of Marine Life.--The - four Bathymetrical Zones of Marine Life on the British Coasts, - according to the late Professor Edward Forbes of Edinburgh.--Abyssal - Animals.--_Bathybius Haeckelii._--Deep-Sea Sponges and - Shell-Fish.--Vivid Phosphorescence of Deep-Sea Animals.--Deep-Sea - Shark Fishery.--The "Challenger." - - -The wanderer to distant lands sees himself gradually surrounded by a new -world of animals and plants. On crossing the Alps, for instance, the -well-known vegetable forms of our native country leave us one after the -other; the beech, the fir, the oak, no longer meet the eye, or appear -but rarely, and of more stunted growth, while in their stead citron and -olive-trees decorate the landscape; and finally, on the shores of the -Mediterranean the world of palms begins to disclose its beauties. - -Thus during a long journey our early companions drop off one after the -other, until at last we see ourselves surrounded by a crowd of new -associates, who were strangers to us at the beginning of our pilgrimage. - -We may cross the earth from pole to pole, or follow the sun in his -diurnal course; in all directions, from north to south and from east to -west, Nature will be found to change her garments as we proceed, and -never to resume again those she has once cast off. The plants and animals -of the temperate and cold regions of the north are different from those -of the analogous regions in the southern hemisphere; and in the tropical -zone each part of the world nourishes its peculiar inhabitants. - -Similar changes meet our eye on ascending from the plains to the -summits of high mountains. At the foot of Etna flourishes the luxuriant -vegetation of a warmer sky, the palmetto (_Chamærops humilis_) and -the pomegranate, even the cotton shrub and the sugar-cane; higher up, -the cool shade of magnificent chestnut woods refreshes our path; then -follows the stately oak; until finally we attain the dreary height where -all vegetation ceases in the dreadful cold of an eternal winter. With -every thousand feet we rise above the level of the sea, we seem to have -advanced nearer and nearer to the pole. - -This wonderful change of form, which decorates the various regions of the -earth with such an endless variety of organised existence, alike prevails -in the realms of ocean. Here we find every larger sea-basin nourishing -its peculiar inhabitants, and discover at various vertical distances -beneath the surface of the sea, changes in organic nature similar to -those we observed at different distances above its level. - -Thousands of extinct animal and vegetable forms, which have successively -flourished and disappeared, teach us the important lesson, that all -created beings are made but for a season. It is only during a determined -epoch of planetary life that each genus or species finds that combination -of outward circumstances, under which it is able to attain its highest -perfection. But imperceptibly, in the course of ages, the external world -modifies its nature; families once flourishing in a different atmosphere -decline and wither; they are no longer able to maintain themselves -against new forms of life starting up in all the vigour of youth, and -disappear from the scene, supplanted by races which must one day vanish -in their turn. - -Organic life is no less dependent on place than it is on time. Of the -numberless animal and vegetable forms that people the earth, each -finds in only one spot the scene of its greatest size and its greatest -profusion. Some endowed with a more pliable or energetic nature occupy a -large space upon the surface of the globe; we find them in the enjoyment -of healthy existence scattered far and wide over whole hemispheres, while -others are obliged to content themselves with the narrowest birthplace, -and are not seldom confined to a single bay, or a single mountain side. - -A great part of the magic charm of nature is owing no doubt to this -deep and mysterious connexion between the soil and its productions. -Here all is harmony; we feel it in our hearts; and our eye delights in -the consonance of forms and colours, as our ear in the concord of sweet -sounds. And where is the mortal artist whose paintings could rival the -ever-changing panorama which the Master of all worlds unfolds through all -zones, from pole to pole? His pictures constantly fade away; but they -are perpetually succeeded by new creations of equal beauty. Happy the -man whose eye is open to their charms! Every ramble through the woods and -fields is to him a banquet of pure and inexhaustible delight. - -The causes which confine the life of animals and plants to circumscribed -localities are in many cases easily to be traced. The warmth or coldness -of the sea, resulting from currents, geographical position, and depth; -tranquil or disturbed, pure or troubled waters; abundance or scarcity -of food, solidity or softness of the ground, sufficiently explain why -many species of marine animals appear in some places in considerable -numbers, while in others they are totally wanting. A superficial view of -their organisation often shows us at once the physical properties their -_habitat_ must necessarily possess. By looking at a fucus we immediately -see whether it requires the protection of tranquil waters, or is able to -bid defiance to the floods; whether it is made to anchor upon the rock, -or to sink its roots into a more yielding soil. - -In many cases, however, the causes which regulate the distribution of the -sea-animals are still enveloped in darkness, and we no more know why the -tropical seas bring forth in some places numerous coral-reefs, and none -at all in other to all appearance just as favourably situated localities, -than we do why the tea-plant is confined to a small corner of Asia, or -the Peruvian cinchonas to a narrow girdle on the Andes. - -Evidently, besides the influences known to us, there are many other -hidden ones at work, whose conflicting powers draw round every living -creature a mysterious circle, whose bounds it is unable to transgress. -Their discovery belongs to the future, and certainly forms one of the -most interesting subjects for the naturalist's inquiries. - -The geographical distribution of the terrestrial plants and animals is -undoubtedly much easier to be ascertained than that of the denizens of -the ocean. The naturalist is able to climb the highest mountains beyond -the extreme limit of vegetation, and far above their most towering peaks -his eye, piercing the transparent atmosphere, sees the condor soar in -solitary majesty; he can wander through the deepest glens, or even, -penetrating into the bowels of the earth, examine and collect the forms -of the subterranean flora; but it has not been given him to perambulate -the submarine meads, or to force his way leisurely through dense thickets -of algæ, and explore their hidden wonders. - -Yet, in spite of these natural impediments, his inventive genius, fired -by his insatiable avidity of knowledge, has given him the means of -interrogating the abyss, and partly raising the veil behind which marine -life conceals its secret operations. Armed with a dredge, he fetches from -the bottom of the sea plants, polypi, mollusks, and annelides, and learns -to distinguish the various depths assigned for their abode; or he puts on -the helmet of the submarine diver, and passes whole hours in collecting -and observing beneath the clear waters of the sea; or he drops the -plummet hundreds of fathoms deep into the ocean, and draws it up again -coated with specimens of corals or Foraminifera. - -To the late Professor Edward Forbes of Edinburgh science is indebted for -the first investigations of this nature that have been undertaken on a -greater scale; and, to give the reader some idea of the causes which -regulate the distribution of marine life, I cannot do better than cite a -few of the general results of that eminent naturalist's researches.[U] - -[Footnote U: Natural History of the European Seas, by the late Professor -E. Forbes. Edited by R. Godwin Austen, 1859.] - -As the animals and plants of the land are grouped together into distinct -zoological and botanical provinces, so likewise is the population of the -sea gathered into geographical groups, which, though well marked in their -more central and most developed portions, imperceptibly merge at their -margins into those of neighbouring realms. "These submarine provinces -have a more or less direct correspondence with those of the neighbouring -lands, though sometimes they differ very considerably from the latter in -their extent; since the physical features which may constitute boundaries -in the one, may not be sufficiently extended or developed in the other -to impede the spread of peculiar species of animals or plants. Marine -creatures, owing to their organisation and the transporting powers of -the element in which they live, are much more capable of diffusion, as -a whole, than the terrestrial organisms; hence we should expect to find -the regions they respectively inhabit, beneath the waves, of much vaster -dimensions than those occupied by similar geographical assemblages -of their terrestrial brethren; and such is to a great extent true. -Nevertheless, the inequalities of the sea-bed, the modifications of the -temperature of the ocean produced by currents pouring through it like -mighty rivers, the projection of promontories, and the more important -interruptions caused by the great gulfs and abysses of the deep, or by -vast and comparatively desert tracts of unprolific sand, which in many -places are spread out in extensive shallows, are all-powerful influences, -determining their diffusion within certain and more or less defined -limits." - -The _structure of the coast_, as far as the mineral character of its -rocks is concerned, may seriously affect the distribution of particular -tribes. Since many shell-fish, for instance, bore only in limestone or -rocks containing abundance of lime, a very ordinary difference in the -nature of the strata must necessarily determine their presence or absence. - -The _outline of a coast_ has also great influence in regulating the -diffusion of species. A much indented region is very favourable to -submarine life; a straight coast-line, exposed to the full rolling of the -surf, is usually unfavourable, though there are a few creatures which -delight in the dash of the waves, and hardily, though some of them are -small and exceedingly delicate, brave the full force of the ocean storms, -reminding us, as Mr. Godwin Austen quaintly remarks, "of those sturdy -people, not uncommon in this stormy life, who thrive best in troubles, -and feel happiest under conditions that make most men miserable." - -The _nature of the sea-bottom_, according as it consists of mud, sand, -gravel, nullipore, broken shells, loose stones, or rock, determines, to a -great extent, the presence or absence of peculiar forms of shell-fish and -other invertebrata, and of fish also, since the distribution of the food -regulates that of the devourers. - -The _rise and fall of the tides_ are most important in determining the -presence or absence of the species inhabiting the littoral zone. The -_currents_, besides their agency as modifiers of climate, act as means -of transport, by carrying the germs and larvæ of numerous creatures from -region to region. - -The _influence of climate_ is conspicuously manifested in the diminution -of the number of genera and species as we proceed northwards to the Icy -Ocean. - -The _composition of the waters_ has also a most important effect on the -distribution of aquatic animals, as the degree of saltness or freshness -determines the presence or absence of numerous forms of both fishes and -invertebrate animals; and last, not least, the _influence of depth_, in -which _pressure_ and the _diminution of light_ are doubtless important -elements, is everywhere manifest over the ocean, "for everywhere we -find creatures, whether animal or vegetable, distributed in successive -belts or regions, from high-water mark down to the deepest abysses from -which living beings have been drawn up. Peculiar types inhabit each of -the zones, and are confined within their destined limits, whilst others -are common to two or more, and not a few appear capable of braving all -bathymetrical conditions. Nevertheless, so marked is the appearance -of the inhabitants of any given region of depth, that the sight of a -sufficient assemblage of them from any one locality will enable the -naturalist at once to declare the soundings within certain limits, and -without the aid of line or plummet." - -In the British seas _four_ distinct and well-marked zones of life succeed -each other in vertical extension. The first of these is the _littoral -zone_, equivalent to the tract between tide-marks, but quite as manifest -in those portions of the coast-line where the tides have a fall of only -a foot or two, or even less, as in districts where the fall is very -great. This important belt, which again forms four subdivisions, and is -inhabited by animals and plants capable of enduring periodical exposure -to the air, to the glare of light, the heat of the sun, the pelting of -rain, and often to being more or less flooded with fresh water when the -tide has receded, claims many genera as well as species peculiar to -itself. "The verge of continual air is generally distinguished by the -abundant presence of _Fucus canaliculatus_, among whose roots may be -found crowds of small varieties of the periwinkle, called _Littorina -rudis_, which indeed range out of the water considerably, and may be -found adhering to rocks many feet above high-water mark." The second -sub-region is marked by the abundance of a small dark rigid sea-weed, -called _Lichina_, painting the rock sides as if with a dingy stripe. -With it we find the larger forms of _Littorina rudis_, abundance of the -common limpet (_Patella vulgata_), the common mussel (_Mytilus edulis_), -and myriads of small seaside barnacles, often striping the sea-wall in -a broad white band. "Where the shore shelves a little, and rocky ledges -decline gradually into the sea, the common mussel delights to live, -firmly anchored by its byssal cable in the crevices of rocks or among -masses of gravel, the pebbles of which are tied together by its silky -filaments." The rock sides and the floors of transparent pools are here -often thickly coated with a nullipore, forming a hard pale red crust. -The region of half-tide forms a third subdivision of the littoral zone, -and is exceedingly prolific in marine animals and plants. "Here we find -_Fucus articulatus_, with its graceful even-edged rich brown fronds, -mingled occasionally with the less elegant _Fucus nodosus_. Here limpets -throng, and dog-periwinkles (_Purpura lapillus_) crawl observantly, -seeking to bore more passive mollusks and extract their juicy substance. -This is the home of the best of periwinkles, the large black _Littorina -littorea_, gathered in thousands for the London market. On our western -coasts we find it in company with the purple-striped top-shell (_Trochus -umbilicatus_), and towards the south with the larger _Trochus crassus_. -Here also sea-anemones love to expand their many-armed disks, often -glowing with the most brilliant colours." A fourth sub-region succeeds, -the lowest belt above low-water mark, and is distinguished by the -presence of the black saw-toothed sea-weed (_Fucus serratus_), so much -used in the packing of lobsters for market. On its fronds creeps the -lowest in grade of the periwinkles, the variously tinted _Littorina -neritoides_, exhibiting every colour in its obtuse and thickened shell. - -[Illustration: Limpet.] - -[Illustration: Periwinkle.] - -"At the verge of low-water mark, immediately below it, wherever the coast -is rocky, there are all round the British shores, within a space of a few -inches, a remarkable series of more or less distinctly defined belts, -each consisting of a different species of sea-weed. These in succession -are, the _Laurencia pinnatifida_ uppermost; then the green _Conferva -rupestris_; then the elegant and firm, often iridescent, fronds of -_Chondrus crispus_; and, lowermost, the thong-weed or _Himanthalia -lorea_." - -Succeeding the shore-band, or littoral zone, we have the _region of -the great laminaria or tangle forests_, or in sandy places the waving -meadows of zostera, or grass-wrack. It extends from the edge of low -water to a depth varying in different localities, but seldom exceeding -fifteen fathoms, and is itself divided into sub-regions, marked by -belts of differently tinted algæ. This zone above all others swarms -with life, and is the chief residence of fishes, mollusks, crustaceans, -and invertebrata of all classes, remarkable for brightness and variety -of colouring. "Here," says Mr. Godwin Austen, "is the chosen haunt of -the nudibranchiate mollusks, animals of exceedingly delicate texture, -extraordinary shapes, elegance of organs, and vividness of painting. -Their bodies exhibit hues of a brilliancy and intensity such as can match -the most gorgeous setting of a painter's palette. Vermilion red, intense -crimson, pale rose, golden yellow, luscious orange, rich purple, the -deepest and the brightest blues, even vivid greens and densest blacks, -are common tints, separate or combined, disposed in infinite varieties -of elegant patterns, in this singular tribe. Our handsomest fishes -are congregated here, the wrasses especially, some of which are truly -gorgeous in their painting. Here are gobies and more curious blennies, -swimming playfully among these submarine groves. Strange worms crawl -serpent-like about their roots, and formidable crustacea are the wild -beasts who prowl amid their intricacies. The old stalks, and the surfaces -of the rocky or stony ground on which they usually grow, are incrusted -like the trunks of ancient trees or faces of barren rocks with lichenous -investments. But whereas in the air these living crusts are chiefly if -not all of vegetable origin, in the sea they are more often constructed -out of animal organisms. Some of them are sponges, others are true -zoophytes, others polyzoa or bryozoa, beings that have proved to belong -to the class of mollusks, however unlike they may seem to shell-fish. - -"In the middle and lower part of the Laminarian region around our shores -the tangles become less plentiful as we descend, and at last become -exceptional and disappear. But other sea-weeds are very abundant, -especially those that delight in red or purple hues. Tender sea-mosses, -exquisitely delicate in form and colouring, abound. Where none of these -are very plentiful, we often find the coral-weed or nullipore in vast -quantities, and assuming many strange modifications of form. Among these -vegetable corals numbers of shells and articulate animals delight to -live, and probably not a few feed upon their stony fronds. The Lima, a -shell-fish related to the scallop, gathers the broken branches by means -of prehensile tentacles, and constructs for itself a comfortable nest -lined with a woven cloth of byssal threads. Numerous fishes resort to -these rugged pastures in order to deposit their spawn among the gnarled -branchlets." - -To the laminarian succeeds the _coralline zone_, extending in most -places some thirty fathoms or more. Plants, indeed, are rare, but here -the horny plant-like sertularias love to rear their graceful feathery -branches, and form miniature gardens of fairy-like delicacy and beauty; -and here carnivorous mollusks, whelks above all, prowl in great numbers. -Bivalves of remarkable elegance, especially clams and scallops, are -found buried in multitudes beneath its gravels and muddy sands; and no -less plentifully congregate the spider-crabs, with many other peculiar -crustaceans. As a natural consequence of this well-furnished table, -fishes abound, and many of our deep sea and white fisheries owe their -value to the zoological features of the coralline zone. - -Last and lowest of our regions of submarine existence is that of -_deep-sea corals_, so named on account of the great stony zoophytes -characteristic of it in the oceanic seas of Europe. Many sea-stars and -sea-urchins are likewise found in this region, in the depths of which the -number of peculiar creatures is few, yet sufficient to give it a marked -character. - -[Illustration: Whelk.] - -[Illustration: Gurnard.] - -The aspect of the British submarine fauna is in general more remarkable -for elegance of form and neat simplicity than for glaring or vivid hues. -"The smaller kinds of sponges are not seldom brilliantly dyed, but the -more conspicuous kinds are tawny or brownish. The sea-anemones are -elegantly variegated with rich colours, but the majority of zoophytes are -not strikingly tinted. The star-fishes, as a group, are most remarkable -among the invertebrata for gorgeous painting, but our sea-urchins -are sombre when compared with their relatives from warmer seas. The -jelly-fish are occasionally tinged with delicate hues, and some of the -smaller kinds even showily ornamented; but those which most figure in -our waters are not conspicuous on account of colour, however elegant in -their contours. Our marine shells, though often pretty, are not gaudy or -attractive, except in rare instances. The same may be said with almost -equal truth of our marine crustaceans, though, on close inspection, -the elegance of device on the carapaces of many species is exceedingly -admirable." - -Our fishes are not distinguished by brilliancy of colour. "Their hues -are quaker-like, though sufficiently lustrous for sober tinting. The -cod and flounder tribes are among the most characteristic, and such of -the more common fishes as belong to families of which we have but few -representatives are in most instances clothed in sober grey and silver. -Beauty of no mean description may, however, be displayed by these modest -vestments; as, for instance, in the mackerel and the herring. Our -gorgeously decorated wrasses form the chief exception to the general -rule, but these belong to a family more characteristic of the southern -seas. A like deficiency in the numbers of the gurnard and mackerel tribes -seriously affects the aspect of our piscine fauna when compared with -denizens of the Mediterranean." The sharks and rays too are comparatively -deficient, although a few species, as we have seen in a former chapter, -are, to the great annoyance of our fishermen, over-abundant. The sea-eels -are also few, though in the common conger and the larger sand-eel -(_Ammodytes lancea_) we have two very conspicuous species. - -[Illustration: Sand-Eel.] - -[Illustration: Grey Mullet.] - -[Illustration: Red Mullet.] - -[Illustration: Salmon.] - -As the surface of the British islands exhibits a transition as it were -from a northern to a southern character, from the firs of Scotland to the -free-growing myrtles of the Devon coast, so the inhabitants of our seas -pass through a great variety of form, from a northern to a southern type. -While the rorqual of the Frozen Ocean not seldom strands on our northern -and eastern coasts; the flying-fish of the equinoctial seas sometimes -appears within view of our southern shores; and it is this peculiar -position of our insular empire, fronting the colder and the warmer seas, -which enriches its waters with such a variety of marine life. "Several -characteristic boreal forms find their southern limit within the northern -half of our waters, and there some of the most striking and abundant -kinds are chiefly developed in numbers, such as the cat-fish or sea-wolf -(_Anarhicas lupus_), the scythe (_Merlangus carbonarius_), the ling -(_Lota molva_), the cod (_Gadus morrhua_), the lump-sucker (_Cyclopterus -lumpus_), and even the herring (_Clupea harengus_). On the other hand, -along the southern shores of England we find fishes becoming frequent -which are distinctly of a southern type, such as the grey and red mullets -(_Mugil cephalus_ and _Mullus barbatus_), the sea-bream, and, far more -plentifully, the John Dory (_Zeus aper_) and the pilchard (_Clupea -pilchardus_)."[V] - -[Footnote V: Godwin Austen, Natural History of the European Seas, pp. -103, 104.] - -Although very inferior in beauty to the tropical fishes, our finny -tribes are far superior in flavour, and may well challenge the world to -produce their equals for the table. The turbot, cod, whiting, herring, -whitebait, mackerel, sole, and even the salmon, though it belongs rather -to fluviatile history than to the chronicles of the sea, may fairly be -cited to testify to the truth of this assertion; so that surely we have -no reason to complain of having been but indifferently provided for in -the geographical distribution of fishes, which of all marine productions -are the most important to man. - -The researches of Forbes led him to believe that "as we descend deeper -and deeper, the denizens of the sea become fewer and fewer, indicating -our approach towards a silent and desolate abyss, where life is either -extinguished or exhibits but faint glimmerings to mark its lingering -presence;" but subsequent deep-sea soundings, performed with improved -dredging apparatuses, have led to the surprising result that the bottom -of the ocean, even in its abyssal depths, far from being a dreary void, -as was formerly imagined, is in reality a busy scene, absolutely teeming -with life. And in this case, as in so many others, we have a fine -instance of the truth of the observation that every new invention or -discovery casts a new light upon some other province of human knowledge; -for to the submarine telegraph we are indebted for the first certain -proof of the existence of highly organised animals living at abyssal -depths. - -In 1860 the submarine cable between Sardinia and Bona, on the coast of -Africa, having completely failed, was picked up from a depth exceeding -one thousand fathoms, and found encrusted with various shells and corals. -All previous observations with reference to the existence of living -creatures at extreme depths had been liable to doubt from two sources. In -the first place the methods of deep-sea soundings were still so imperfect -that there was always a possibility, from the action of deep currents -upon the sounding-line or from other causes, of a greater depth being -indicated than really existed; and, secondly, there was no absolute -certainty that the animals entangled on the sounding instrument had -actually come up from the bottom. They might have been caught on the way. - -But now all doubt was removed. A submarine cable lies on the ground -throughout its whole length. Before laying it, its course is carefully -surveyed and the real depth accurately ascertained. Fishing it up is a -delicate and difficult operation, and during its progress the depth is -checked again and again. When, therefore, as in this case, the animals -dragged up with a cable from depths of upwards of one thousand fathoms -are found, not sticking loosely to it, but moulded upon its outer -surface, or cemented to it by horny or calcareous excretions, it is -evident that they must have lived and grown upon it at the bottom of the -deep sea. - -The subsequent dredging cruises of H.M.SS. "Porcupine" and "Lightning" in -1868, 1869, and 1870, under the scientific direction of Dr. Carpenter, -Professor Wyville Thomson, and Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, afforded additional -and convincing proofs that life abounds in the abyssal regions of the -ocean. During these several cruises 57 hauls of the dredge were taken at -depths beyond 500 fathoms, and 16 at depths beyond 1,000 fathoms, and -in all cases life was abundant. In 1869 two casts were taken in depths -greater than 2,000 fathoms, and proved equally successful in bringing up -specimens of deep-sea life. With the deepest cast, 2,435 fathoms, off -the mouth of the Bay of Biscay, living, well-marked, and characteristic -specimens of all the five invertebrate sub-kingdoms were taken. "And -thus," says Professor Wyville Thomson,[W] "the question of the existence -of abundant animal life at the bottom of the sea has been finally -settled, and for all depths, for there is no reason to suppose that the -depth anywhere exceeds between three and four thousand fathoms; and if -there be nothing in the conditions of a depth of 2,500 fathoms to prevent -the full development of a varied fauna, it is impossible to suppose that -even an additional 1,000 fathoms would make any great difference." - -[Footnote W: The Depths of the Sea. London, 1873.] - -It may be asked how the deep-sea animals bear the enormous pressure at -these great depths, which seems at first sight alone sufficient to put -any idea of life out of the question? There was a curious popular notion -that on descending deeper and deeper the sea water became gradually, -under the pressure, heavier and heavier, so that at last it became more -weighty than molten gold. But water is, in fact, almost incompressible; -so that its density at 2,000 fathoms is scarcely appreciably increased. -Any free air suspended in the water, or contained in any compressible -tissue of an animal at 2,000 fathoms, would of course be reduced to a -mere fraction of its bulk; but the animals subject to the pressure of -the deep seas, being permeated throughout their whole organisation by -incompressible fluids at the same pressure, are consequently as capable -of bearing it as we do the pressure of the atmosphere. The absence of -light seemed another circumstance incompatible with the existence of -animal life at abyssal depths, as all plants depend upon light for -their growth, and their absence apparently involves that of vegetable -food, which, as we all know, forms everywhere the substratum of animal -existence. We have as yet very little exact knowledge as to the distance -to which the sun's light penetrates into the water of the sea. According -to some recent experiments it would appear that the rays capable of -affecting a delicate photographic film are very rapidly cut off, their -effect being imperceptible at the depth of only a few fathoms; and though -probably some portions of the sun's light possessing certain properties -may penetrate to a much greater distance, it is certain that, beyond the -first fifty fathoms, plants to whose existence light is essential are -barely represented, and after two hundred fathoms entirely absent. - -But though plant-life is thus limited to the more superficial parts of -the ocean, the analysis of sea water, taken in all localities and at all -depths, has shown that it everywhere contains a very appreciable and very -uniform quantity of organic matter in solution and in suspension. It -is thus quite intelligible that numberless protozoa--whose distinctive -character is that they are capable of being supported by the absorption -of organic matter through the surface of their bodies--are able to exist -in the dark abysses of the sea, and in their turn afford nourishment to -more highly organised animals. - -After these general remarks on the creatures of the deep, I will now give -a brief account of their various groups. - -Over an enormous extent the abyssal ocean bottom is found covered with a -sheet of almost formless beings, absolutely devoid of internal structure, -and consisting merely of living and moving expansions of jelly-like -matter. Whether this form of life, still more simple than the Amœba,[X] -to which Professor Huxley has given the name of _Bathybius Haeckelii_, be -continuous in one vast sheet or broken up into circumscribed individual -particles, it is equally an object of wonder; and as no living thing, -however slowly it may live, is ever perfectly at rest, it shows us that -the bottom of the sea is, like its surface, the theatre of perpetual -change. - -[Footnote X: See Chapter XVIII., p. 380.] - -Living among and upon this Bathybius we find a multitude of other -protozoa, foraminifera and other rhizopods, radiolarians, and sponges. - -Such is the countless number of the Foraminifera inhabiting the deep -seas, that their remains form the chief mass of the soft oozy bottom of -the ocean. In the surface layer of the deposit the shells of _Globigerina -bulloides_, the prevailing species, are found fresh, whole, and living, -and in the lower layers dead and gradually crumbling down by the -decomposition of their organic cement and by the pressure of the layers -above. Countless generations are thus piled one upon the other; and each -successive stratum, weighing upon those of older date, is laying the -foundation of future rocks, which subsequent revolutions may perhaps -heave out of the deep and raise in towering pinnacles to the skies. - -Sponges[Y] of wonderful beauty and lustre appear to extend in endless -variety over the whole of the bottom of the sea. Some (_Holtenia -Carpenteri_) anchor in the ooze by means of a perfect maze of delicate -glassy filaments, like fine white hair, spreading out in all directions -through the sea's fluid mud; while others (_Hyalonema_) send right down -a coiled whisp of strong spicules, each as thick as a knitting-needle, -which open out into a brush as the bed gets firmer, and fix the sponge -in its place somewhat on the principle of a screw-pile. "A very singular -sponge, from deep water off the Loffoden Islands, spreads into a thin -circular cake, and adds to its surface by sending out a flat border of -silky spicules, like a fringe of white floss silk round a little yellow -mat; and the lovely Euplectella, whose beauty is imbedded up to its -fretted lid in the grey mud of the seas of the Philippines, is supported -by a frill of spicules standing up round it like Queen Elizabeth's -ruff."[Z] - -[Footnote Y: Ibid. pp. 385-389.] - -[Footnote Z: The Depths of the Sea, p. 73.] - -The stalked sea-stars, which, as the fossil pentacrinites and encrinites -testify, abounded in the past periods of the earth's history, were, until -now, supposed to be on the verge of extinction; but when we consider -that the first few scrapes of the dredge at great depths have brought -new species to light, we are entitled to believe that they constitute an -important element in the abyssal fauna, and probably pave large tracts -of the sea-bottom with a carpet of animated flowers. Freely-moving -sea-stars and sea-urchins have likewise been hauled up in great numbers -from abyssal depths; crustaceans have not been found wanting, and the -captured shell-fish have shown that the deep-sea molluscs are by no means -deficient in colour, though as a rule they are paler than those from -shallow water. - -_Dacrydium vitreum_, dredged from 2,435 fathoms, a curious little -mytiloïd shell-fish, which makes and inhabits a delicate flask-shaped -tube of foraminifera and other foreign bodies cemented together -by organic matter and lined by a delicate membrane, is of a fine -reddish-brown colour dashed with green, and the animals of one or two -species of Lima from extreme depths are of the usual vivid orange scarlet. - -Some of the abyssal molluscs have even been found provided with organs -of sight. A new species of Pleurotoma, from 2,090 fathoms, had a pair -of well-developed eyes on short foot-stalks, and a Fusus from 1,207 -fathoms was similarly provided. The presence of organs of sight at these -great depths leaves little room to doubt that light must reach even -these abysses from some source, and as from many considerations it can -scarcely be sunlight, Professor Wyville Thomson throws out the suggestion -"that the whole of the light beyond a certain depth may be due to -phosphorescence, which is certainly very general, particularly among the -larvæ and young of deep-sea animals." - -Thus many of the creatures dredged in the Northern Atlantic, off the -west coast of Ireland,[AA] in depths varying from 557 to 584 fathoms, -were most brilliantly phosphorescent. In some places nearly everything -brought up seemed to emit light, and the mud itself was perfectly -full of luminous specks. The alcyonarians, the brittle-stars, and -some annelids were the most brilliant. The Pennatidæ, the Virgulariæ, -and the Gorgoniæ shone with a lambent white light, so bright that it -showed quite distinctly the hour on a watch, while the light from -_Ophiacantha spinulosa_ was of a brilliant green, coruscating from the -centre of the disk, now along one arm, now along another, and sometimes -vividly illuminating the whole outline of the star-fish. While the -Ophiacantha shines like a star of the most vivid uranium green, the -sea-pen (_Pavonaria quadrangularis_) is resplendent with a pale lilac -phosphorescence like the flame of cyanogen gas, not scintillating like -the green light of Ophiacantha, but almost constant, sometimes flashing -out at one point more vividly, and then dying gradually into comparative -dimness, but still sufficiently bright to make every portion of the polyp -visible. - -[Footnote AA: Ibid., Chapter III. Cruise of the "Porcupine," pp. 98-149.] - -Such numbers of the Pavonaria were brought up at one haul of the dredge -in the Sound of Skye, that the "Porcupine" had evidently passed over a -forest of them. While the darkness of winter frowns over the surface -of the Northern Atlantic, the animated shrubs at its bottom are thus -glowing with light, and a kind of magical day prevails in depths which -were supposed to be shrouded with perpetual night. But it might have been -better for many of the luminous denizens of the abyss if a more obscure -existence had been their lot; for in a sea swarming with predaceous -crustaceans with great bright eyes phosphorescence must surely be a fatal -gift. - -Off the coast of Portugal there is a great fishery of sharks -(_Centroscymnus Cœlolepis_), carried on at a depth of 500 fathoms. If an -animal so highly organised as a shark can thus bear without inconvenience -the enormous pressure of more than half a ton on the square inch existing -at that depth, it is a sufficient proof that the pressure is applied -under circumstances which prevent its affecting it to its prejudice, -and there seems to be no reason why it should not tolerate equally well -a pressure of one or two tons, or why many other fishes--though the -dredge, in consequence of their facility of locomotion, will hardly ever -be able to bring them to light--should not abound in the still waters of -the abyssal deep. - -The "Challenger" Exploring Expedition will no doubt reveal to us still -many an unknown wonder of those interesting regions, and make us -acquainted with a world of new animals which even the profundity of the -ocean vainly strives to hide from the curiosity of man. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAP. XXI. - -THE PHOSPHORESCENCE OF THE SEA. - - Its Causes.--Noctiluca miliaris.--Phosphorescent Annelides and - Beroës.--Intense Phosphorescence of the Pyrosoma atlantica.--Luminous - Pholades.--The luminous Shark.--Phosphorescent Algæ.--Citations from - Byron, Coleridge, and Crabbe. - - -He who still lingers on the shore after the shades of evening have -descended, not seldom enjoys a most magnificent spectacle; for lucid -flashes burst from the bosom of the waters, as if the sea were anxious -to restore to the darkened heavens the light it had received from them -during the day. On approaching the margin of the rising flood to examine -more closely the sparkling of the breaking wave, the spreading waters -seem to cover the beach with a sheet of fire. Each footstep over the -moist sands elicits luminous star-like points, and a splash in the water -resembles the awakening of slumbering flames. - -The same wonderful and beauteous aspect frequently gladdens the eye of -the navigator who ploughs his way through the wide deserts of ocean, -particularly if his course leads him through the tropical seas. - -"When a vessel," says Humboldt, "driven along by a fresh wind, divides -the foaming waters, one never wearies of the lovely spectacle their -agitation affords; for, whenever a wave makes the ship incline sideways, -bluish or reddish flames seem to shoot upwards from the keel. Beautiful -beyond description is the sight of a troop of dolphins gambolling in the -phosphorescent sea. Every furrow they draw through the waters is marked -by streaks of intense light. In the Gulf of Cariaco, between Cumana and -the peninsula of Maniquarez, this scene has often delighted me for hours." - -But even in the colder oceanic regions the brilliant phenomenon appears -from time to time in its full glory. During a dark and stormy September -night, on the way from the Sea-lion island, Saint George, to Unalaschka, -Chamisso admired as beautiful a phosphorescence of the ocean as he -had ever witnessed in the tropical seas. Sparks of light, remaining -attached to the sails that had been wetted by the spray, continued to -glow in another element. Near the south point of Kamtschatka, at a -water-temperature hardly above freezing point, Ermann saw the sea no less -luminous than during a seven months' sojourn in the tropical ocean. This -distinguished traveller positively denies that warmth decidedly favours -the luminosity of the sea. - -At Cape Colborn, one of the desolate promontories of the desolate -Victoria Land, the phosphoric gleaming of the waves on the 6th September, -when darkness closed in, was so intense that Simpson assures us he had -seldom seen anything more brilliant. The boats seemed to cleave a flood -of molten silver, and the spray dashed from their bows, before the fresh -breeze, fell back in glittering showers into the deep. - -Mr. Charles Darwin paints in vivid colours the magnificent spectacle -presented by the sea, while sailing in the latitudes of Cape Horn on a -very dark night. - -There was a fresh breeze, and every part of the surface, which during -the day is seen as foam, now glowed with a pale light. The vessel drove -before her bows two billows of liquid phosphorus, and in her wake she was -followed by a milky train. As far as the eye reached, the crest of every -wave was bright, and the sky above the horizon, from the reflected glare -of these livid flames, was not so utterly obscure as over the rest of the -heavens. - -While "La Venus" was at anchor before Simon's Town, the breaking of the -waves produced so strong a light that the room in which the naturalists -of the expedition were seated was illumined as by sudden flashes of -lightning. Although more than fifty paces from the beach where the -phenomenon took place, they tried to read by this wondrous oceanic light, -but the successive glimpses were of too short duration to gratify their -wishes. - -Thus we see the same nocturnal splendour which shines forth in the -tropical seas, and gleams along our shores, burst forth from the arctic -waters, and from the waves that bathe the southern promontories of the -old and the new worlds. - -But what is the cause of the beautiful phenomenon so widely spread over -the face of ocean? How comes it that at certain times flames issue from -the bosom of an element generally so hostile to their appearance? - -Without troubling the reader with the groundless surmises of ancient -naturalists, or repeating the useless tales of the past, I shall at -once place myself with him on the stage of our actual knowledge of this -interesting and mysterious subject. It is now no longer a matter of doubt -that many of the inferior marine animals possess the faculty of secreting -a luminous matter, and thus adding their mite to the grand phenomenon. -When we consider their countless multitudes, we shall no longer wonder -at such magnificent effects being produced by creatures individually so -insignificant. - -[Illustration: Noctiluca miliaris. (Highly magnified.)] - -In our seas it is chiefly a minute gelatinous animal, the _Noctiluca -miliaris_, most probably an aberrant member of the infusorial group, -which, as it were, repeats the splendid spectacle of the starry heavens -on the surface of the ocean. In form it is nearly globular, presenting -on one side a groove, from the anterior extremity of which issues a -peculiar curved stalk or appendage, marked by transverse lines, which -might seem to be made use of as an organ of locomotion. Near the base -of this tentacle is placed the mouth, which passes into a dilatable -digestive cavity, leading, according to Mr. Huxley, to a distinct -anal orifice. From the rather firm external coat proceed thread-like -prolongations through the softer mass of the body, so as to divide it -into irregular chambers. This little creature, which is just large enough -to be discerned by the naked eye when the water in which it may be -swimming is contained in a glass jar exposed to the light, seems to feed -on diatoms, as their loricæ may frequently be detected in its interior. -It multiplies by spontaneous fission, and the rapidity of this process -may be inferred from the immensity of its numbers. A single bucket of -luminous sea-water will often contain thousands, while for miles and -miles every wave breaking on the shore expands in a sheet of living -flame. It was first described by Forster in the Pacific Ocean; it occurs -on all the shores of the Atlantic, and the Polar Seas are illuminated by -its fairy light. "The nature of its luminosity," says Dr. Carpenter, "is -found by microscopic examination to be very peculiar; for what appears to -the eye to be a uniform glow is resolvable under a sufficient magnifying -power into a multitude of evanescent scintillations, and these are given -forth with increased intensity whenever the body of the animal receives -any mechanical shock." - -The power of emitting a phosphorescent light is widely diffused both -among the free-swimming and the sessile Cœlenterata. Many of the -Physophoridæ are remarkable for its manifestation, and a great number of -the jelly-fishes are luminous. Our own _Thaumantias lucifera_, a small -and by no means rare medusid, displays the phenomenon in a very beautiful -manner, for, when irritated by contact of fresh water, it marks its -position by a vivid circlet of tiny stars, each shining from the base of -a tentacle. A remarkable greenish light, like that of burning silver, -may also be seen to glow from many of our Sertularians, becoming much -brighter under various modes of excitation. - -Among the Ctenophora the large _Cestum Veneris_ of the Mediterranean is -specially distinguished for its luminosity, and while moving beneath the -surface of the water gleams at night like a brilliant band of flame. - -The Sea-pens are eminently phosphorescent, shining at night with a -golden-green light of a most wonderful softness. When touched, every -branchlet above the shock emits a phosphoric glow, while all the polyps -beneath remain in darkness. When thrown into fresh water or alcohol, they -scatter sparks about in all directions, a most beautiful sight; dying, as -it were, in a halo of glory. - -But of all the marine animals the Pyrosomas, doing full justice to their -name (fire-bodies) seem to emit the most vivid coruscations. Bibra -relates in his "Travels to Chili" that he once caught half a dozen -of these remarkable light-bearers, by whose phosphorescence he could -distinctly read their own description in a naturalist's vade-mecum. -Although completely dark when at rest the slightest touch sufficed to -elicit their clear blue-green light. During a voyage to India, Mr. -Bennett had occasion to admire the magnificent spectacle afforded -by whole shoals of Pyrosomas. The ship, proceeding at a rapid rate, -continued during an entire night to pass through distinct but extensive -fields of these molluscs, floating and glowing as they floated on all -sides of her course. Enveloped in a flame of bright phosphorescent -light, and gleaming with a greenish lustre, the Pyrosomes, in vast -sheets, upwards of a mile in breadth, and stretching out till lost in the -distance, presented a sight, the glory of which may be easily imagined. -The vessel, as it cleaved the gleaming mass, threw up strong flashes of -light, as if ploughing through liquid fire, which illuminated the hull, -the sails, and the ropes, with a strange unearthly radiance. - -In his memoir on the Pyrosoma, M. Péron describes with lively colours -the circumstances under which he first made its discovery, during a -dark and stormy night, in the tropical Atlantic. "The sky," says this -distinguished naturalist, "was on all sides loaded with heavy clouds; -all around the obscurity was profound; the wind blew violently, and the -ship cut her way with rapidity. Suddenly we discovered at some distance -a great phosphorescent band stretched across the waves, and occupying -an immense tract in advance of the ship. Heightened by the surrounding -circumstances, the effect of this spectacle was romantic, imposing, -sublime, rivetting the attention of all on board. Soon we reached the -illuminated tract, and perceived that the prodigious brightness was -certainly and only attributable to the presence of an innumerable -multitude of largish animals floating with the waves. From their swimming -at different depths they took apparently different forms: those at the -greatest depth were very indefinite, presenting much the appearance -of great masses of fire, or rather of enormous red-hot cannon balls; -whilst those more distinctly seen near the surface perfectly resembled -incandescent cylinders of iron. - -"Taken from the water, these animals entirely resembled each other in -form, colour, substance, and the property of phosphorescence, differing -only in their sizes, which varied from three to seven inches. The -large, longish tubercles with which the exterior of the Pyrosomes was -bristled were of a firmer substance, and more transparent than the rest -of the body, and were brilliant and polished like diamonds. These were -the principal scene of phosphorescence. Between these large tubercles, -smaller ones, shorter and more obtuse, could be distinguished; these -also were phosphorescent. Lastly, in the interior of the substance of -the animal, could be seen, by the aid of the transparency, a number of -little, elongated, narrow bodies (viscera), which also participated in a -high degree in the possession of the phosphoric light." - -In the Pholades or Lithodomes, that bore their dwellings in the hard -stone, as other shell-fish do in the loose sands, the whole mass -of the body is permeated with light. Pliny gives us a short but -animated description of the phenomenon in the edible date-shell of the -Mediterranean (_Pholas dactylus_):-- - -"It is in the nature of the pholades to shine in the darkness with -their own light, which is the more intense as the animal is more juicy. -While eating them, they shine in the mouth and on the hands, nay, even -the drops falling from them upon the ground continue to emit light, a -sure proof that the luminosity we admire in them is associated with -their juice." Milne-Edwards found this observation perfectly correct, -for wishing to place some living pholades in alcohol, he saw a luminous -matter exude from their bodies, which on account of its weight sank -in the liquid, covering the bottom of the vessel, and there forming a -deposit as shining as when it was in contact with the air. - -Several kinds of fishes likewise possess the luminous faculty. The -sun-fish, that strange deformity, emits a phosphoric gleam; and a species -of Gurnard (_Trigla lucerna_) is said to sparkle in the night, so as to -form fiery streams through the water. - -[Illustration: Short Sun-Fish.] - -With regard to the luminosity of the larger marine animals, Ermann, -however, remarks that he so often saw small luminous crustacea in the -abdominal cavity of the transparent _Salpa pinnata_, that it may well -be asked whether the phosphorescence of the larger creatures is not in -reality owing to that of their smaller companions. - -According to Mr. Bennett, "Whaling Voyage round the Globe," a species -of shark first discovered by himself is distinguished by an uncommonly -strong emission of light. When the specimen, taken at night, was removed -into a dark apartment, it afforded a very interesting spectacle. The -entire inferior surface of the body and head emitted a vivid and greenish -phosphorescent gleam, imparting to the creature by its own light a truly -ghastly and terrific appearance. The luminous effect was constant, and -not perceptibly increased by agitation or friction. When the shark -expired, (which was not until it had been out of the water more than -three hours,) the luminous appearance faded entirely from the abdomen, -and more gradually from other parts; lingering longest around the jaws -and on the fins. - -The only part of the under surface of the animal which was free from -luminosity was the black collar round the throat; and while the inferior -surface of the pectoral, anal, and caudal fins shone with splendour, -their superior surface (including the upper lobe of the tail fin) was in -darkness, as were also the dorsal fins, and the back and summit of the -head. - -Mr. Bennett is inclined to believe that the luminous power of this -shark resides in a peculiar secretion from the skin. It was his first -impression that the fish had accidentally contracted some phosphorescent -matter from the sea, or from the net in which it was captured; but the -most rigid investigation did not confirm this suspicion, while the -uniformity with which the luminous gleam occupied certain portions of the -body and fins, its permanence during life, and decline and cessation upon -the approach and occurrence of death, did not leave a doubt in his mind -but that it was a vital principle essential to the economy of the animal. -The small size of the fins would appear to denote that this fish is not -active in swimming; and, since it is highly predaceous and evidently of -nocturnal habits, we may perhaps indulge in the hypothesis, that the -phosphorescent power it possesses is of use to attract its prey, upon the -same principle as the Polynesian islanders and others employ torches in -night-fishing. - -Some of the lower sea-plants also appear to be luminous. Thus, over a -space of more than 600 miles (between lat. 8° N. and 2° S.), Meyen saw -the ocean covered with phosphorescent Oscillatoria, grouped together -into small balls or globules, from the size of a poppy-seed to that of a -lentil. - -But if the luminosity of the ocean generally proceeds from living -creatures, it sometimes also arises from putrefying organic fibres -and membranes, resulting from the decomposition of those living -light-bearers. "Sometimes," says Humboldt, "even a high magnifying power -is unable to discover any animals in the phosphorescent water, and yet -light gleams forth wherever a wave strikes against a hard body and -dissolves in foam. The cause of this phenomenon lies then most likely in -the putrefying fibres of dead mollusks, which are mixed with the waters -in countless numbers." - -Summing up the foregoing in a few words, it is thus an indisputable fact, -that the phosphorescence of the sea is by no means an electrical or -magnetic property of the water, but exclusively bound to organic matter, -living or dead. But although thus much has been ascertained, we have as -yet only advanced one step towards the unravelling of the mystery, and -its proximate cause remains an open question. Unfortunately, science -is still unable to give a positive answer, and we are obliged to be -contented with a more or less plausible hypothesis. When we consider that -the phosphorescence most commonly resides only in the outward mucous -covering of the body, in which a number of particles cast off by the skin -are continually undergoing decomposition, the phenomenon seems to be a -simple chemical process, during which more or less phosphorus may be -disengaged, which by agitation or friction gives rise to the emission of -light. It is more difficult to explain those cases in which the entire -mass of the body is luminous (as in Pholas), or the muscular substance -(as in some Annelides), or the vibratory cilia (as in the Beroës); and -here we do better to confess our entire ignorance, than to resort to the -hypothesis of electrical discharges, extremely improbable in an element -which is so excellent an electrical conductor, and particularly when we -consider that no emission of light takes place in the few and powerful -electrical fishes we are acquainted with. - -We know as little of what utility marine phosphorescence may be. Why do -the countless myriads of Mammariæ gleam and sparkle along our coasts? Is -it to signify their presence to other animals, and direct them to the -spot where they may find abundance of food? So much is certain, that so -grand and wide-spread a phenomenon must necessarily serve some end equally -grand and important. - -As the phosphorescence of the sea is owing to living creatures, it must -naturally show itself in its greatest brilliancy when the ocean is at -rest; for during the daytime we find the surface of the waters most -peopled with various animals when only a slight zephyr glides over the -sea. In stormy weather, the fragile or gelatinous world of the lower -marine creatures generally seeks a greater depth, until the elementary -strife has ceased, when it again loves to sport in the warmer or more -cheerful superficial waters. - -In the tropical zone, Humboldt saw the sea most brilliantly luminous -before a storm, when the air was sultry, and the sky covered with clouds. -In the North Sea we observe the phenomenon most commonly during fine -tranquil autumnal nights; but it may be seen at every season of the year, -even when the cold is most intense. Its appearance is, however, extremely -capricious; for, under seemingly unaltered circumstances, the sea may one -night be very luminous, and the next quite dark. Often months, or even -years, pass by without witnessing it in full perfection. Does this result -from a peculiar state of the atmosphere, or do the little animals love to -migrate from one part of the coast to another? - -It is remarkable that the ancients should have taken so little notice of -oceanic phosphorescence. The "Periplus" of Hanno contains perhaps the -only passage in which the phenomenon is described. To the south of Cerne -the Carthaginian navigator saw the sea burn, as it were, with streams -of fire. Pliny, in whom the miracle (_miraculum_, as he calls it) of -the date-shell excited so lively an admiration, and who must often have -seen the sea gleam with phosphoric light, as the passage proves where he -mentions in a few dry words the luminous gurnard (_lucerna_) stretching -out a fiery tongue, has no exclamation of delight for one of the most -beautiful sights in nature. Homer also, who has given us so many charming -descriptions of the sea in its ever-changing aspects, and who so often -leads us with long-suffering Ulysses through the nocturnal floods, never -once makes them blaze or sparkle in his immortal hexameters. - -Even modern poets mention the phenomenon but rarely. Camoens himself, -whom Humboldt, on account of his beautiful oceanic descriptions, calls, -above all others, the "poet of the sea," forgets to sing it in his -Lusiad. Byron in his "Corsair" has a few lines on the subject: - - "Flash'd the dipt oars, and, sparkling with the stroke, - Around the waves phosphoric brightness broke;" - -but contents himself, as we see, with coldly mentioning a phenomenon so -worthy of all a poet's enthusiasm. In Coleridge's wondrous ballad of -"The ancient Mariner" we find a warmer description: - - "Beyond the shadow of the ship - I watch'd the water-snakes: - They moved in tracks of shining white, - And, when they rear'd, the elfish light - Fell off in hoary flakes. - - "Within the shadow of the ship - I watch'd their rich attire-- - Blue, glossy green, and velvet black: - They coiled and swam, and every track - Was a flash of golden fire." - -These indeed are lines whose brilliancy emulates the splendour of the -phenomenon they depict, but even they are hardly more beautiful than -Crabbe's admirable description: - - "And now your view upon the ocean turn, - And there the splendour of the waves discern; - Cast but a stone, or strike them with an oar, - And you shall flames within the deep explore; - Or scoop the stream phosphoric as you stand, - And the cold flames shall flash along your hand; - When, lost in wonder, you shall walk and gaze - On weeds that sparkle, and on waves that blaze." - -Or than the graphic numbers of Sir Walter Scott: - - "Awak'd before the rushing prow, - The mimic fires of ocean glow, - Those lightnings of the wave; - Wild sparkles crest the broken tides. - And flashing round, the vessel's sides - With elfish lustre lave; - While, far behind, their livid light - To the dark billows of the night - A blooming splendour gave." - - - - -CHAP. XXII. - -THE PRIMITIVE OCEAN. - - The Giant-Book of the Earth-rind.--The Sea of Fire.--Formation of a - solid Earth-crust by cooling.--The Primitive Waters.--First awakening - of Life in the Bosom of the Ocean.--The Reign of the Saurians.--The - future Ocean. - - -The greatest of all histories, traced in mighty characters by the -Almighty himself, is that of the earth-rind. The leaves of this giant -volume are the strata which have been successively deposited in the -bosom of the sea, or raised by volcanic powers from the depths of the -earth; the wars which it relates are the Titanic conflicts of two hostile -elements, water and fire, each anxious to destroy the formations of its -opponent; and the historic documents which bear witness to that ancient -strife lie before us in the petrified or carbonified remains of extinct -forms of organic existence--the medals of creation. - -It is only since yesterday that science has attempted to unriddle the -hieroglyphics in which the past history of our planet reveals itself to -man, and it stands to reason that in so difficult a study truth must -often be obscured by error; but although the geologist is still a mere -scholar, endeavouring to decipher the first chapters of a voluminous -work, yet even now the study of the physical revolutions of our globe -distinctly points out a period when the molten earth wandered, a ball -of liquid fire, through the desert realms of space. In those times, -so distant from ours that even the wildest flight of imagination is -unable to carry us over the intervening abyss, the waters of the ocean -were as yet mixed with the air, and formed a thick and hazy atmosphere -through which no radiant sunbeam, no soft lunar light, ever penetrated -to the fiery billows of molten rock, which at that time covered the -whole surface of the earth. What pictures of desolation rise before our -fancy, at the idea of yon boundless ocean of fluid stone, which rolled -from pole to pole without meeting on its wide way anything but itself. -Ever and ever in the dark-red clouds shone the reflection of that vast -conflagration, witnessed only by the eye of the Almighty, for organic -life could not exist on a globe which exclusively obeyed the physical and -chemical laws of inorganic nature. - -But while the fiery mass with its surrounding atmosphere was circling -through the icy regions of ethereal space (the temperature of which is -computed to be lower than 60° R. below freezing point), it gradually -cooled, and its hitherto fluid surface began to harden to a solid crust. -Who can tell how many countless ages may have dropped one after the other -into the abyss of the past, ere thus much was accomplished; for the dense -atmosphere constantly threw back again upon the fiery earth-ball the heat -radiating from its surface, and the caloric of the vast body could escape -but very slowly into vacant space? - -Thus millions of years may have gone by before the aqueous vapours, now -no longer obstinately repelled by the cooling earth-rind, condensed -into rain, and, falling in showers, gave birth to an incipient ocean. -But it must not be supposed that the waters obtained at once a tranquil -and undisturbed possession of their new domain, for, as soon as they -descended upon the earth, those endless elementary wars began, which, -with various fortunes, have continued to the present day. - -As soon as the cooling earth-rind began to harden, it naturally -contracted, like all solid bodies when no longer subject to the influence -of expanding heat, and thus in the thin crust enormous fissures and -rents were formed, through which the fluid masses below gushed forth, -and, spreading in wide sheets over the surface, once more converted into -vapours the waters they met with in their fiery path. - -But after all these revolutions and vicissitudes which opposed the birth -of ocean, perpetually destroying its perpetually renewed formation, -we come at last to a period when, in consequence of the constantly -decreasing temperature of the earth-rind, and its increasing thickness, -the waters at last conquered a permanent abode on its surface, and the -oceanic empire was definitively founded. - -The scene has now changed; the sea of fire has disappeared, and water -covers the face of the earth. The rind is still too thin, and the -eruptions from below are still too fluid to form higher elevations above -the general surface: all is flat and even, and land nowhere rises above -the mirror of a boundless ocean. - -This new state of things still affords the same spectacle of dreary -uniformity and solitude in all its horrors. The temperature of the waters -is yet too high, and they contain too many extraneous substances, too -many noxious vapours arise from the clefts of the earth-rind, the dense -atmosphere is still too much impregnated with poisons, to allow the -hidden germs of life anywhere to awaken. A strange and awful primitive -ocean rises and falls, rolls and rages, but nowhere does it beat against -a coast; no animal, no plant, grows and thrives in its bosom; no bird -flies over its expanse. - -But meanwhile the hidden agency of Providence is unremittingly active in -preparing a new order of things. The earth-rind increases in thickness, -the crevices become narrower, and the fluid or semi-fluid masses escaping -through the clefts ascend to a more considerable height. - -Thus the first islands are formed, and the first separation between the -dry land and the waters takes place. At the same time no less remarkable -changes occur, as well in the constitution of the waters as in that of -the atmosphere. The farther the glowing internal heat of the planet -retires from the surface, the greater is the quantity of water which -precipitates itself upon it. The ocean, obliged to relinquish part of its -surface to the dry land, makes up for the loss of extent by an increase -of depth, and the clearer atmosphere allows the enlivening sunbeam to -gild here the crest of a wave, there a naked rock. - -And now also life awakens in the seas, but how often has it changed its -forms, and how often has Neptune displaced his boundaries since that -primordial dawn. Alternately rising or subsiding, what was once the -bottom of the ocean now forms the mountain crest, and whole islands and -continents have been gradually worn away and whelmed beneath the waves of -the sea, to arise and to be whelmed again. In every part of the world we -are able to trace these repeated changes in the fossil remains embedded -in the strata that have successively been deposited in the sea, and -then again raised above its level by volcanic agencies, and thus, by a -wonderful transposition, the history of the primitive ocean is revealed -to us by the tablets of the dry land. The indefatigable zeal of the -geologists has discovered no less than thirty-nine distinct fossiliferous -strata of different ages, and as many of these are again subdivided into -successive layers, frequently of a thickness of several thousand feet, -and each of them characterised by its peculiar organic remains, we may -form some idea of the vast spaces of time required for their formation. - -[Illustration: Trilobite.] - -The annals of the human race speak of the rise and downfall of nations -and dynasties, and stamp a couple of thousand years with the mark of high -antiquity; but each stratum or each leaf in the records of our globe has -witnessed the birth and the extinction of numerous families, genera, and -species of plants and animals, and shows us organic Nature as changeable -in time as she appears to us in space. As, when we sail to the southern -hemisphere, the stars of the northern firmament gradually sink below the -horizon, until finally entirely new constellations blaze upon us from the -nightly heavens; thus in the organic vestiges of the palæozoic seas we -find no form of life resembling those of the actual times, but every class - - "Seems to have undergone a change - Into something new and strange." - -Then spiral-armed Brachiopods were the chief representatives of the -molluscs; then crinoid star-fishes paved the bottom of the ocean; then the -fishes, covered with large thick rhomboidal scales, were buckler-headed -like the Cephalaspis, or furnished with wing-like appendages like the -Pterichthys; and then the Trilobites, a crustacean tribe, thus named from -its three lobed skeleton, swarmed in the shallow littoral waters where -the lesser sea-fry afforded them an abundant food. From a comparison of -their structure with recent analogies, it is supposed that these strange -creatures swam in an inverted position close beneath the surface of -the water, the belly upwards, and that they made use of their power of -rolling themselves into a ball as a defence against attacks from above. -The remains of seventeen families of Trilobites, including forty-five -genera and 477 species, some of the size of a pea, others two feet long, -testify the once flourishing condition of these remarkable crustaceans, -yet but few of their petrified remains, so numerous in the Silurian and -Devonian strata, are found in the carboniferous or mountain limestone, -and none whatever in formations of more recent date. Thus, long before -the wind ever moaned through the dense fronds of the tree ferns and -calamites which once covered the swampy lowlands of our isle, and long -before that rich vegetation began, to which we are indebted for our -inexhaustible coal-fields, now frequently buried thousands of feet below -the surface on which they originally grew, the Trilobites belonged -already to the things of the past! - -[Illustration: Ammonites, or Snake-Stones.] - -In the seas of the mesozoic or mediæval period, new forms of life appear -upon the scene. A remarkable change has taken place in the cephalopods; -for the chambered and straightened Orthoceratites and many other families -of the order have passed away, and the spiral Ammonites, branching -out into numerous genera, and more than 600 species, now flourish in -the seas, so that in some places the rocks seem, as it were, composed -of them alone. Some are of small dimensions, others upwards of three -feet in diameter. They are met with in the Alps, and have been found -in the Himalaya Mountains, at elevations of 16,000 feet, as eloquent -witnesses of the vast revolutions of which our earth has been the scene. -Carnivorous, and resembling in habits the Nautili, their small and feeble -representatives of the present day, their immense multiplication proves -how numerous must have been the molluscs, crustaceans, and annelides, on -which they fed, all like them widely different from those of the present -day. - -[Illustration: Belemnites. - - _a._ B. acutus. - _b._ Belemnite (restored). -] - -Then also flourished the Belemnites (Thunder-stones), supposed by the -ancients to be the thunderbolts of Jove, but now known to be the -petrified internal bones of a race of voracious ten-armed cuttle-fishes, -whose importance in the oolitic or cretaceous seas may be judged of -by the frequency of their remains, and the 120 species that have been -hitherto discovered. Belemnites two feet long have been found, so that, -to judge by analogies, the animals to which they belonged as cuttle-bones -must have measured eighteen or twenty feet from end to end, a size which -reduces the rapacious Onychoteuthis of the present seas to dwarfish -dimensions. - -[Illustration: Ichthyosaurus communis.] - -But of all the denizens of the mesozoic seas none were more formidable -than the gigantic Saurians, whose approach put even the voracious sharks -to flight. The first of these monsters that raises its frightful head -above the waters is the dreadful Ichthyosaurus, a creature thirty or -even fifty feet long, half fish, half lizard, and combining in strange -assemblage the snout of the porpoise, the teeth of the crocodile, and the -paddles of the whale. Singular above all is the enormous eye, in size -surpassing a man's head. Woe to the fish that meets its appalling glance! -No rapidity of flight, no weapon, be it sword or saw, avails, for the -long-tailed gigantic saurian darts like lightning through the water, and -its dense harness bids defiance to every attack. Not only have fifteen -distinct species of Ichthyosauri been distinguished, but the remains of -crushed and partially digested fish-bones and scales, which are found -within their skeleton, indicate the precise nature of their food. Their -fossil remains abound along the whole extent of the lias formation, from -the coasts of Dorset, through Somerset and Leicestershire to the coast of -Yorkshire, but the largest specimens have been found in Franconia. - -[Illustration: Plesiosaurus.] - -Along with this monster, another and still more singular deformity makes -its appearance, the Plesiosaurus, in which the fabulous chimæras and -hydras of antiquity seem to start into existence. Fancy a crocodile -twenty-seven feet long, with the fins of a whale, the long and flexible -neck of a swan, and a comparatively small head. With the appearance of -this new tyrant, the last hope of escape is taken from the trembling -fishes; for into the shallow waters, inaccessible to the more bulky -Ichthyosaurus, the slender Plesiosaurus penetrates with ease. - -A race of such colossal powers seemed destined for an immortal reign, for -where was the visible enemy that could put an end to its tyranny? But -even the giant strength of the saurians was obliged to succumb to the -still more formidable power of all-changing time, which slowly but surely -modified the circumstances under which they were called into being, and -gave birth to higher and more beautiful forms. - -In the tertiary period, the dreadful reptiles of the mesozoic seas have -long since vanished from the bosom of the ocean, and cetaceans, walruses, -and seals, unknown in the primitive deep, now wander through the waters -or bask on the sunny cliffs. With them begins a new era in the life of -the sea. Hitherto it has only brought forth creatures of base or brutal -instinct, but now the Divine spark of parental affection begins to -ennoble its more perfect inhabitants, and to point out the dim outlines -of the spiritual world. - -During all these successive changes the surface of the earth has -gradually cooled to its present temperature, and many plants and animals -that formerly enjoyed the widest range must now rest satisfied with -narrower limits. The sea-animals of the north find themselves for ever -severed from their brethren of the south, by the impassable zone of -the tropical ocean; and all the fishes, molluscs, and zoophytes, whose -organisation requires a greater warmth, confine themselves to the -equatorial regions. - -As the tertiary period advances towards the present epoch, the species -which flourished in its prime become extinct, like the numberless races -which preceded them; new modifications of life, more and more similar to -those of the present day, start into existence; and, finally, creation -appears with increasing beauty in her present rich attire. - -Thus old Ocean, after having devoured so many of his children, has -transformed himself at last into our contemporaneous seas, with their -currents and floods, and the various animals and plants growing and -thriving in their bosom. - -Who can tell when the last great revolutions of the earth-rind took -place, which, by the upheaving of mighty mountains or the disruption of -isthmuses, drew the present boundaries of land and sea? or who can pierce -the deep mystery which veils the future duration of the existing phase of -planetary life? - -So much is certain, that the ocean of the present day will be transformed -as the seas of the past have been, and that "all that it inhabit" are -doomed to perish like the long line of animal and vegetable forms which -preceded them. - -We know by too many signs that our earth is slowly but unceasingly -working out changes in her external form. Here lands are rising, while -other areas are gradually sinking; here the breakers perpetually gnaw -the cliffs, and hollow out their sides, while in other places alluvial -deposits encroach upon the sea's domain. - -However slowly these changes may be going on, they point to a time when -a new ocean will encircle new lands, and new animal and vegetable forms -arise within its bosom. Of what nature and how gifted these races yet -slumbering in the lap of time may be, He only knows whose eye penetrates -through all eternity; but we cannot doubt that they will be superior to -the present denizens of the ocean. - -Hitherto the annals of the earth-rind have shown us uninterrupted -progress; why, then, should the future be ruled by different laws? At -first the sea only produces weeds, shells, crustacea; then the fishes and -reptiles appear; and the cetaceans close the vista. But is this the last -word, the last manifestation of oceanic life, or is it not to be expected -that the future seas will be peopled with beings ranking as high above -the whale or dolphin as these rank above the giant saurians of the past? - - - - -PART III. - -THE PROGRESS OF MARITIME DISCOVERY. - - - - -CHAP. XXIII. - - Maritime Discoveries of the Phœnicians.--Expedition of - Hanno.--Circumnavigation of Africa under the Pharaoh - Necho.--Colæus of Samos.--Pytheas of Massilia.--Expedition of - Nearchus.--Circumnavigation of Hindostan under the Ptolemies.--Voyages - of Discovery of the Romans.--Consequences of the Fall of the Roman - Empire.--Amalfi.--Pisa.--Venice.--Genoa.--Resumption of Maritime - Intercourse between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.--Discovery of - the Mariner's Compass.--Marco Polo. - - -Among the nations of antiquity, navigation, as may well be supposed, -was in a very rude and imperfect state. Unacquainted with the mariner's -compass, which during the darkest and most tempestuous nights safely -leads the modern seaman over the pathless ocean, the sparkling -constellations of a serene sky, or the position of the sun, were the only -guides of the ancient navigator. He therefore rarely ventured to lose -sight of land, but cautiously steering his little bark along the shore, -was subject to all the delays and dangers of coast navigation. Even under -the mild sky and in the calm waters of the Mediterranean, it was only -during the summer months that he dared to leave the port; to brave the -fury of the wintry winds was a boldness he never could have thought of. -Under such adverse circumstances, it is surely far less astonishing that -the geographical knowledge of the ancients was so extremely limited when -compared with ours, than that with means so scanty they yet should have -known so much of the boundaries of ocean. - -But the spirit of commercial enterprise triumphs over every difficulty. -Stimulated by the love of gain, and the hope of discovering new sources -of wealth, the Phœnicians, the first great maritime nation mentioned in -history, were continually enlarging the limits of the known earth, until -the fatal moment when the sword of the conqueror destroyed their cities, -and extinguished their power for ever. - -The first periods of Phœnician greatness are veiled in the mysterious -darkness of an unknown past, yet so much is certain, that their date -must have been very remote; as, according to the accounts which Herodotus -received from the priests, the foundation of Tyre took place thirty -centuries before the Christian era. - -Long before the expedition of the Argonauts, the Phœnicians had already -founded colonies on the Bithynian coast of the Black Sea (Pronectus, -Bithynium); and that at a very early time they must have steered through -the Straits of Grades into the Atlantic is proved by the fact, that, as -far back as the eleventh century before Christ, they founded the towns of -Grades and Tartessus on the western coast of Southern Spain. Penetrating -farther and farther to the north, they discovered Britain, where they -established their chief station on the Scilly Isles, at present so -insignificant and obscure, and even visited the barbarous shores of the -Baltic in quest of the costly amber. They planted their colonies along -the north-west coast of Africa, even beyond the tropic; and, 2000 years -before Vasco de Gama, Phœnician mariners are said to have circumnavigated -that continent, for Herodotus relates that a Tyrian fleet, fitted out by -Necho II., Pharaoh of Egypt (611-595 B.C.), sailed from a port in the Red -Sea, doubled the southern promontory of Africa, and, after a voyage of -three years, returned through the Straits of Grades to the mouth of the -Nile. - -Less wonderful, but resting on better historical proof, is the celebrated -voyage of discovery to the south which Hanno performed by command of the -senate of Carthage, the greatest of all Phœnician colonies, eclipsing -even the fame of Tyre itself. Sailing from Cerne, the principal Phœnician -settlement on the western coast of Africa, and which was probably -situated on the present island of Arguin, he reached, after a navigation -of seventeen days, a promontory which he called the West Horn (probably -Cape Palmas), and then advanced to another cape, to which he gave the -name of South Horn, and which is manifestly Cape de Tres Puntas, only -5° north of the line. During daytime the deepest silence reigned along -the newly discovered coast, but after sunset countless fires were seen -burning along the banks of the rivers, and the air resounded with music -and song, the black natives spending, as they still do now, the hours -of the cool night in festive joy. Most likely the Canary Islands were -also known to the Phœnicians, as the summit of the Peak of Teneriffe is -visible from the heights of Cape Bojador. - -The progress of the great mariners of old in the Indian Ocean was no -less remarkable than the extension of their Atlantic discoveries. Far -beyond Bab-el-Mandeb their fleets sailed to Ophir or Supara, and returned -with rich cargoes of gold, silver, sandal-wood, jewels, ivory, apes, -and peacocks, to the ports of Elath and Ezion-Geber at the head of the -Red Sea. These costly productions of the south were then transported -across the Isthmus of Suez to Rhinocolura, the nearest port on the -Mediterranean, and thence to Tyre, which ultimately distributed them over -the whole of the known world. - -The true position of Ophir is an enigma which no learned Œdipus will -ever solve. While some authorities place it on the east coast of Africa, -others fix its situation somewhere on the west coast of the Indian -peninsula; and Humboldt is even of opinion that the name had only a -general signification, and that a voyage to Ophir meant nothing more -than a commercial expedition to any part of the Indian Ocean, just as at -present we speak of a voyage to the Levant or the West Indies. - -But whatever Ophir may have been, it is certain that the Phœnicians -carried on a considerable trade with the lands and nations beyond the -Gates of the Red Sea. Their trade in the direction of the Persian Gulf -was no less extensive. Through the Syrian desert, where Palmyra, their -chief station or emporium, proudly rose above the surrounding sands, -their caravans slowly wandered to the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, -to provide Nineveh and Babylon with the costly merchandise of Sidon -and Tyre. Following the course of the great Mesopotamian streams, they -reached the shores of the Persian Gulf, where they owned the ports of -Tylos and Aradus and the rich pearl islands of Bahrein, and, having -loaded their empty camels with the produce of Iran and Arabia, returned -by the same way to the shores of the Mediterranean. How far their ships -may have ventured beyond the mouth of the Persian Gulf is unknown, but -the researches of the learned orientalists, Gesenius, Benfey, and Lassen, -render it extremely probable, that, taking advantage of the regularly -changing monsoons, they sailed through the Straits of Ormus to the coast -of Malabar. - -The progress of the Phœnician race in the technical arts, as well as in -the astronomical and mathematical sciences so highly important for the -improvement of their navigation, was no less remarkable for the age in -which they lived, than the vast extension of a commercial intercourse -which reached from Britain to the Indus, and from the Black Sea to the -Senegal. They wove the finest linen, and knew how to dye it with the most -splendid purple. They were unsurpassed in the workmanship of metals, and -possessed the secret of manufacturing white and coloured glass, which -their caravans and ships exchanged for the produce of the north and of -the south. By the invention of the alphabet, which with many other useful -sciences and arts, they communicated to the Greeks and other nations with -whom they traded, they no less contributed to the progress of mankind -than by the humanising influence of commerce. - -Thus when we consider the services which these merchant-princes of -antiquity rendered to their contemporaries, wherever their flag was seen -or their caravans appeared, the annihilation of the maritime power of -Tyre by Alexander (332 B.C.), and the destruction of Carthage by the -Romans (146 B.C.), must strike us as events calamitous to the whole human -race. Had the Carthaginians, so distinguished by their commercial spirit -and ardour for discovery, triumphed over the semi-barbarous Romans, who, -then at least, had not yet learned to imitate the arts of plundered -Greece, there is every probability that some Punic Columbus would have -discovered America at least a thousand years sooner, and the world at -this day be in possession of many secrets still unknown, and destined to -contribute to the comforts or enjoyments of our descendants. - -In the times of Homer, when the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic had long -been known to the Phœnicians, the geographical knowledge of the Greeks -was still circumscribed by the narrow limits of the Eastern Mediterranean -and part of the Euxine, and many a century elapsed ere their ships -ventured beyond the Straits of Gades. Colæus of Samos (639 B.C.) is said -to have been the first seafarer of Hellenic race who sailed forth into -the Atlantic, compelled by adverse winds, and was able on his return -from his involuntary voyage to tell his astonished countrymen of the -wondrous rising and falling of the oceanic tides. It was seventy years -later before the Phoceans of Massilia, the present Marseilles, ventured -to follow the path he had traced out, and to visit the Atlantic port of -Tartessus. - -The town of Massilia had the additional honour of reckoning among her -sons the great traveller Pytheas, the Marco Polo of antiquity. This -far-wandering philosopher, who lived about 330 years before Christ, had -visited all the coasts of Europe, from the mouths of the Tanais or Don to -the shores of Ultima Thule, which, according to Leopold von Buch, was not -Iceland, nor Feroë, nor Orcadia, but the Norwegian coast. His narrative -first made the Greeks acquainted with North-western Europe, and remained -for a long time their only geographical guide to those hyperborean lands. - -While the horizon of the Greeks was thus considerably expanding towards -the regions of the setting sun, the conquests of Alexander opened to them -a new world in the distant Orient. Greek navigators now for the first -time unfurled their sails on the Indian Ocean. The Macedonian, desirous -not only of subduing Asia but of firmly attaching it to the nations of -the Mediterranean by the bonds of mutual interest, and hoping by this -means to consolidate his vast conquests, sent a fleet under the command -of Nearchus, from the mouths of the Indus to the head of the Persian -Gulf, to establish if possible a new road for a regular commercial -intercourse between India and Mesopotamia. The performance of this voyage -was reckoned by the conqueror one of the most glorious events of his -reign, but it may serve as a proof of the slowness of ancient navigation, -that Nearchus took ten months to perform a journey which one of our -steamers might easily accomplish in five days. - -After the disruption of the Macedonian empire, the circle of the Greek -discoveries in the Indian Ocean was widened by the enterprising spirit of -the Seleucidæ and Ptolemies. Seleucus Nicator is said to have penetrated -to the mouths of the Ganges, and the fleets of the Egyptian kings sailed -round the peninsula of Hindostan and discovered the coasts of Taprobane -or Ceylon, the spicy odours of whose cinnamon-groves are said to be -wafted far out to sea, so that-- - - "for many a league, - Pleased with the grateful scent, old Ocean smiles." - -But now came the time when earth-ruling Rome called the whole civilised -world her own, and her victorious eagles expanded their triumphant wings -from the Red Sea to the coasts of the Northern Ocean. What discoveries -might not have been expected from such a power, if the Romans had -possessed but one tithe of the maritime spirit of conquered Carthage? -But even this military empire contributed something to the enlargement -of maritime knowledge. Under the reign of Augustus a Roman fleet sailed -round the promontory of Skagen, discovered about sixteen years after the -birth of Christ the Island of Fionia or Fünen, and is even supposed to -have reached the entrance of the Gulf of Finland. In the year 84 A.C. -Julius Agricola, the conqueror of Britain, sailed for the first time -round Scotland, and discovered the Orcadian Isles. - -In Pliny's time the real magnitude of the earth was still so imperfectly -known that, according to the calculations of that great though rather -over-credulous naturalist, Europe occupied the third part, Asia only the -fourth, and Africa about the fifth, of its whole extent. - -The geographer Ptolemy, who lived about the middle of the second century, -under the reigns of Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius, describes the limits -of the earth as far as they were known in his time. To the west, the -coast of Africa had been explored as far as Cape Juby; and the Fortunate -Islands or Hesperides, the present Canaries, rose from the ocean as the -last lands towards the setting sun. - -To the north discovery had reached as far as the Shetland Isles, and -the promontory Perispa at the entrance of the Gulf of Finland; while -on the east coast of Africa Cape Brava formed the ultimate boundary of -the known world. Soon after Ptolemy's time the whole coast of Malacca -(_Aurea Chersonesus_) and the Siamese Sea, as far as the Cape of Cambogia -(_Notium promontorium_), was explored, and the Romans even appear to have -had some knowledge of the great islands of the Indian archipelago, Java, -Sumatra, and Borneo. - -And yet, notwithstanding all this progress towards the East, it may well -be asked whether the Phœnicians had not embraced a wider horizon than the -Romans in the full zenith of their fortunes. Even though we reject the -circumnavigation of Africa under Necho, and the discovery of America by -Punic navigators, as not fully proved or fabulous, it is quite certain -that they had explored the west coast of Africa to a much greater extent -than the Romans, and extremely probable that they knew at least as much -of the lands which bound the Indian Ocean. But, as from a narrow-minded -mercantile policy they kept many of their discoveries profoundly secret, -all knowledge of them perished with their ruin. In ancient times, when -the defeat of a people too often led to its complete destruction, -or at least to the extinction of its peculiar civilisation, and the -difficulties of intercourse rendered the diffusion of knowledge extremely -difficult and slow, it not unfrequently happened that useful discoveries -were erased from the memory of mankind, a danger which, thanks to the -printing-press and the steam-engine, is now no longer to be feared. - -Thus a darkening or eclipse of intellectual life took place to a vast -extent when the western Roman Empire succumbed to the barbarians of -the North, and the bands which for centuries had united the cities of -the east and west were violently sundered. Under that fatal blight -Civilisation vanished from the lands which had so long been her chosen -seat, only to dawn again after a long and obscure night. Commercial -intercourse ceased between the sea-ports of the Mediterranean, all -communication with distant countries was cut off, and the boundaries -of the known earth became more and more narrow, as the ignorance of a -barbarous age increased. - -It is not before the beginning of the ninth century that we perceive the -first glimpses of a better day in the rising fortunes of some Italian -sea-ports, where favourable circumstances had given birth to liberal -institutions. As early as the year 840 Amalfi possessed a considerable -number of trading-vessels, and carried on a lucrative commerce with -the Levant. The maritime code of this little republic regulated the -commercial transactions of all the Mediterranean sea-ports; as in a later -century the law-book of Wisby served as a guide to the merchants of the -Baltic. A few years after its submission in 1131 to the arms of King -Roger of Sicily, Amalfi was plundered by the Pisanese and almost entirely -destroyed. The neglected harbour was gradually choked with sand, and the -little town, which now numbers no more than 3000 inhabitants, has nothing -to console it for its actual poverty but the remembrance of a glorious -past. Along with Amalfi, Gaëta, Naples, and Pisa, rose to considerable -eminence in commerce, though far from equalling the power and splendour -of Genoa and Venice, the great republics of northern Italy. - -As far back as the beginning of the sixth century, the city of the -lagunes fits out a small fleet to purge the Adriatic of Istrian pirates. -By a prudent course of policy she renders herself indispensable to the -Byzantine court, and acquires great privileges in Constantinople. It is -here she purchases the costly productions of the East, with which during -the ninth and tenth centuries, she provides Northern Italy and a great -part of Germany. About the beginning of the eleventh century her trade -with Egypt and Syria begins to flourish, and soon raises her to the -pinnacle of her power and wealth. In the year 1080 she extends her rule -over Croatia and Dalmatia, and gains in 1204 considerable advantages by -assisting the western crusaders in the conquest of Constantinople. Pera, -numerous coast towns from the Hellespont to the Ionian Sea, a great part -of the Morea, Corfu, and Candia fall to the winged lion's share, and -requite the services of "blind old Dandolo." The silk manufacture is -transported, as a valuable fruit of conquest, from the Morea to Venice, -and becomes a new source of wealth to the Adriatic Tyre. The Euxine opens -her ports to the Venetian seamen, treaties of commerce are concluded with -Trebizond and Armenia, and a factory is established at Tana, at the mouth -of the Don. - -While thus the power of Venice rises more and more in the East, Genoa, -which already in the tenth century carried on a flourishing trade, -acquires by degrees the supremacy in the Western Mediterranean. -The aid afforded by the republic to the Greek emperor Michael -Palæologus contributes largely to the overthrow of the Latin throne -of Constantinople, and opens the Bosphorus and the Black Sea to the -enterprise of her merchants. The grandeur of Genoa now reaches its -height; she holds fortified possession of Pera and Galata, and covers the -coasts of the Crimea with her strong-holds and castles. - -At a later period the Florentines appear on the scene, and assume the -rank formerly held by Pisa in Mediterranean commerce. The acquisition of -the sea-port of Leghorn (1421) opens the barriers of the ocean to the -birthplace of Dante and Galileo. - -After their deliverance from the Moorish yoke in the ninth century, a -fresh and vigorous spirit begins also to animate the Catalans. They -conclude treaties of commerce with Genoa and Pisa, and towards the end of -the thirteenth century the ships of Barcelona are found visiting all the -ports of the Mediterranean. - -But in spite of the growth of trade and navigation in Italy and Spain, -many years had yet to elapse after the fall of the Roman empire ere the -gates of the Atlantic were once more opened to the navigators of the -Mediterranean. It was not before the middle of the thirteenth century, -after Seville and a great part of the Andalusian coast had been wrested -from the Moors by Ferdinand of Castile, that the Italian and Catalonian -seafarers, encouraged by privileges and remissions of duties, began to -visit the port of Cadiz, where they met with merchants from Portugal and -Biscay. Soon after, and most probably in consequence of the connexions -thus formed, we find Italian ships visiting the ports of England and the -Netherlands. About 1316, Genoese vessels began to carry goods to England; -and somewhat later the Venetians, whose visits are not mentioned by the -chroniclers before 1323. - -Thus after a long interruption we see the seamen of the Mediterranean at -length resuming the track to the Atlantic ports that had been struck out -more than thirty centuries before by their predecessors the Phœnicians. -But their voyages to the western ocean took place under circumstances -much more favourable than those which had attended the men of Tyre -and Carthage in their adventurous expeditions. Not only the better -construction of their ships, but still more the use of the mariner's -compass, for which Europe is probably indebted to the Arabs, who in -their turn owed its knowledge to the Chinese, enabled them to steer more -boldly into the open sea, and regardless of the bendings of the coasts -to reach their journey's end by a less circuitous route. The period when -the magnetic needle was first made use of by the Mediterranean navigators -is not exactly known, but so much is certain that it did good service -long before the time of Flavio Gioja (1302), to whom its discovery has -been erroneously ascribed, though he may have introduced some improvement -in the arrangement of the compass. Humboldt tells us in his "Cosmos," -that in the satirical poem of Guyot de Provens, "La Bible" (1190), and -in the description of Palestine by Jaques de Vitry, bishop of Ptolemais -(1204-1215), the sea-compass is mentioned as a well-known instrument. -Dante also speaks of the needle which points to the stars (Paradise, xii. -29); and in a nautical work by Raimundus Lullus of Majorca, written in -the year 1286, we find another proof of a much earlier knowledge of the -compass than before the beginning of the fourteenth century, since its -use by the mariners of his time is expressly mentioned by that author. - -Confidently following this unerring guide, the Catalonians sailed at -an early period to the north coast of Scotland, and even preceded the -Portuguese in their discoveries on the west coast of Africa, since -Don Jayme Ferrer penetrated to the mouth of the Rio de Ouro as early -as August 1346. About the same time the long-forgotten Canary Islands -were rediscovered by the Spaniards; and at a later period (1402-1405) -conquered and depopulated by some Norman adventurers, the Bethencourts. - -While thus the South-European navigators unfurled their sails on the -Atlantic, and gave the first impulse to the glorious discoveries that -in the following century were destined to open up the ocean, and reveal -its hitherto unknown greatness to mankind, the Indian Sea still remained -closed to their enterprise; for though the Venetians by this time -rivalled, if they did not surpass the ancient maritime greatness of the -Tyrians in the Mediterranean, they did not, like them, directly fetch the -rich produce of the South in their own ships from the East-African and -Indian ports, but received them at second hand from the Arabian masters -of Syria and Egypt. - -But though no ship of theirs was ever seen in the Indian seas, through -them the knowledge of the Arabian discoveries in those parts penetrated -to Europe, and widely extended the knowledge of the ocean. For when the -Arabs, fired by the prophetic ardour of Mahomet, suddenly emerged from -the obscurity of pastoral life, and appeared as conquerors before the -astonished world, the trade of the Indian Ocean fell into the hands of -these new masters of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, who soon learnt to -pursue it with an energy which the Romans and Persians had never known. -The town of Bassora was founded by the caliph Omar on the western shore -of the great stream formed by the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates, -and soon emulated Alexandria herself in the greatness of its commerce. -From Bassora the Arabs sailed far beyond the Siamese Gulf, which had -formerly bounded European navigation. They visited the unknown ports of -the Indian archipelago, and established so active a trade with Canton, -that the Chinese emperor granted them the use of their own laws in that -city. - -This progress of the Arabs, and the vast treasures accruing to Venice -from the overland Indian trade, could not fail to excite the envy of -the other seafaring powers, and to call forth an increasing desire -of discovering a new maritime route to the wealth-teeming regions of -Southern Asia. - -The wonderful narratives of the first travellers who wandered by land to -the distant East likewise contributed in no small degree to foment the -ardour of discovery. The most celebrated of these geographical pioneers -was Marco Polo, a noble Venetian who had resided many years at the court -of the Mongol ruler, Kublai Khan, and visited the most remote regions -of Asia. He was the first European that ever sailed along the western -shores of the Pacific, the first that told his astonished countrymen of -the magnificence of Cambalu or Peking, the capital of the great kingdom -of Cathay, and of the splendour of Zipanga or Japan situated on the -confines of a vast ocean extending to the east. He also made more than -one sea-voyage in the Indian Ocean, and to him Europe owed her first -knowledge of the Moluccas, the east coast of Africa, and the island of -Madagascar. - -This greatest of all the mediæval travellers, who without exaggeration -may be said to have enlarged the boundaries of the known earth as much as -Alexander the Great, was followed by Oderich of Portenau, who travelled -as far as India and China (1320-1330); by Sir John Mandeville, who -visited almost all the lands described by Marco Polo; by Schildberger -of Munich, who accompanied the barbarous Tamerlane on his locust -expeditions; and finally by Clavigo, sent in the year 1403 by the Spanish -court on an embassy to Samarcand. The truths which these bold travellers -communicated to their countrymen about the riches and the commerce of the -nations they had visited, as well as the fables in which their credulity -or their extravagant fancy indulged, made an enormous impression on the -European mind, and raised to a feverish heat the longing after those -sunny lands and isles which imagination adorned with all the charms of an -earthly paradise. - - - - -CHAP. XXIV. - - Prince Henry of Portugal.--Discovery of Porto Santo and - Madeira.--Doubling of Cape Bojador.--Discovery of the Cape Verde - Islands.--Bartholomew Diaz.--Vasco de Gama.--Columbus.--His - Predecessors.--Discovery of Greenland by Günnbjorn.--Bjorne - Herjulfson.--Leif.--John Vaz Cortereal.--John and Sebastian - Cabot.--Retrospective View of the Beginnings of English - Navigation.--Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci.--Vincent Yañez - Pinson.--Cortez.--Verazzani.--Cartier.--The Portuguese in the Indian - Ocean. - - -The reigning idea of a century finds always one or more eminent spirits, -in whom and through whose agency the desires and hopes of thousands ripen -into deeds, and are changed from dreams into realities. One of these -rare and highly gifted men was Prince Henry of Portugal, a son of King -John I., who made it the chief aim of his life to extend the boundaries -of maritime discovery, and devoted with glowing ardour all the powers -of his energetic mind, and all the influence of rank and riches to the -attainment of this noble object. From the castle of Sagres near Cape St. -Vincent, where, far from the court, he had fixed his residence in order -to be less disturbed in his favourite studies, his eye glanced over -the Atlantic, which constantly reminded him of the unknown lands which -held out such brilliant prospects to the navigator who should venture -to steer southwards along the African coast. The experienced seamen and -learned geographers that surrounded him confirmed him in his hopes, and -encouraged him to attempt the realisation of his generous ideas. - -Fortunately all outward circumstances combined to favour the prince's -projects. At that time Portugal was not plunged, as at present, in a -state of slothful lethargy, but full of the bold and enterprising spirit -which the expulsion of the Moors and long intestine wars had called to -life. The geographical position of the country, bounded on every side by -the dominions of a mightier neighbour, forbade all extension by land, and -pointed to the ocean as the only field in which a comparatively small -but spirited people could hope to reap a rich harvest of wealth and glory. - -The first two ships which Prince Henry sent out on a voyage of discovery -along the African coast (1412) did not reach farther than Cape Bojador, -whose rocky cliffs stretching far out into the Atlantic intimidated their -inexperienced commanders. Six years later (1418) Juan Gonsalez Zarco and -Tristan Vaz Tejeira were intrusted with a new expedition, and sailed with -express commands to double that ill-famed promontory; but a terrible gale -drove them out to sea, and forced them to seek a refuge on an unknown -island, to which they thankfully gave the name of Porto Santo. This -discovery, though extremely unimportant in itself, served to confirm the -prince in his projects, and encouraged him to send out in the following -year a new expedition under the same commander, to take possession of the -island. - -This led to a more important discovery, for on landing on Porto Santo -the attention of the Portuguese was struck by a black and prominent -spot, rising above the southern horizon. To this they now directed their -course, and were equally delighted and surprised to see it swell out as -they approached to the ample proportions of a large island; to which, -on account of the dense forests which at that time covered its verdant -hill-slopes up to the very top, they gave the name of Madeira. Prince -Henry immediately equipped a considerable fleet to carry a colony of his -countrymen to the new land of promise, and furnished them with the vine -of Cyprus, and the sugar-cane of Sicily, which throve so well on the -Atlantic isle, that after a few years the produce of Madeira began to be -of consequence in the trade of the mother country. - -Thus the first undertakings of Prince Henry were not left unrewarded; -but, besides the commercial advantages arising from the possession of -Madeira, it encouraged the Portuguese navigators no longer servilely to -creep along the coasts, but boldly to steer into the open sea. Thus Don -Gilianez, by avoiding the shore-currents, succeeded at last in doubling -the dreaded Cape Bojador (1433), and opening a new sphere to navigation. -One discovery now rapidly followed another. Gonsalez and Nuño Tristan -(1440-1442) penetrated as far as the Senegal; Cape de Verd was reached in -1446; and three years later, the limits of the known earth were extended -as far as the islands of the same name and the Azores, those advanced -sentinels in the bosom of the Atlantic. It may easily be imagined how -much these successes contributed to encourage the universal ardour for -discovery. Adventurers from all countries hastened to Portugal, hoping to -gratify their ambition or avarice under the auspices of a prince who had -already achieved so much; and even many Venetians and Genoese, who were -at that time superior to all other nations in naval science, reckoned it -as an honour to serve under a flag which might justly be considered as -the high school of the seaman. Thus before Prince Henry closed his eyes -(1463) the aim of his glorious life had been attained; for, though he did -not live to see his countrymen penetrate into the Indian Ocean, yet he -witnessed the mighty impulse which in a short time was to lead to that -important result. - -In the year 1471 the line was crossed for the first time, and the -Portuguese thus detected the error of the ancients, who believed that -the intolerable heat of a vertical sun rendered the equatorial regions -uninhabitable by man. - -Under John the Second a mighty fleet discovered the kingdoms of Benin and -Congo (1484), followed the coast above 1500 miles beyond the equator, and -revealed to Europe the constellations of another hemisphere. - -The farther their ships penetrated to the south, the higher rose the -flood tide of their hopes. As the African continent appeared sensibly -to contract itself, and to bend towards the East as they proceeded, -they no longer doubted that the way to the Indian Ocean would now soon -be found, and give them the exclusive possession of a trade which had -enriched Venice, and made that city the envy of the world. The ancient -long-forgotten tale of the Phœnician circumnavigation of Africa now -found belief, and Bartholomew Diaz sailed from Lisbon for the purpose -of solving the important problem. The storms of an unknown ocean, the -famine caused by the loss of his store-ship, and the frequent mutinies of -a dispirited crew, could not stop the progress of this intrepid mariner, -who, boldly advancing in the face of a thousand difficulties, at length -discovered the high promontory which forms the southern extremity of -Africa. But, as his weather-beaten ships were no longer able to confront -the mountain-billows and furious gales foaming or roaring round that -stormy headland, he was obliged, sore against his will, to give up the -attempt to double the Cape of Tempests, Cabo tormentoso, as he called -it, but to which the king gave the more inviting name of the Cape of -Good Hope. Yet before Vasco de Gama set sail from Lisbon to accomplish -the great work (1498) and win the prize to which so many navigators had -gradually paved the way, the astounding intelligence had flashed through -Europe that on the 12th of October, 1492, Columbus had discovered a new -world in the west. The history of this most famous, and most important -in its results, of all sea-voyages, is so well known that I may well -refrain from entering into any details on the subject: at all events the -reader will be much more interested by a short account of the intrepid -navigators who, long before the great Genoese, found their way to the -shores of the new continent. - -While Tropical America is separated from Europe and Africa by a vast -tract of intervening ocean, and even the advanced posts of the Azores -and Cape de Verd Islands are far distant from the western shores of the -Atlantic, Iceland and Greenland appear to us in the north as stations -linking at comparatively easy distances the Old World and the New. It is, -therefore, by no means surprising that the discovery of Iceland by the -Norwegian _Viking_ or pirate Nadod, and the somewhat later colonisation -of the island by Ingolf, in the year 875, should in the following century -have led the Norsemen to the discovery of America, particularly when we -consider that no people ever equalled them in daring and romantic love of -adventure: - - "Kings of the main their leaders brave, - Their barks the dragons of the wave." - -Greenland, discovered by Günnbjorn in the year 876 or 877, was indeed not -colonised by the Icelanders before 983; a delay excusable enough when -we consider the uninviting climate of that dreary peninsula or island, -but three years after the latter date, we already find Bjorne Herjulfson -undertaking a cruise from the new settlement to the south-west, and -successively discovering Nantucket, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, though -without making any attempts to land. Bjorne was followed about the -year 1000 by Leif, a son of Erick the Red, the founder of the Greenland -colony; who, sailing along the American coast as far as 41-1/2° north -lat. discovered the _good Winland_, which received its name from the -wild vines which Tyrker, a German who accompanied the expedition, -found growing there in abundance. The fertility and mild climate of -this coast, when compared with that of Labrador and Greenland, induced -the discoverers to settle, and to found the first European colony on -the American continent. Frequent wars with the Eskimos or Skrelingers -(dwarfs), who at that time, as I have already mentioned in the fourth -chapter, extended far more to the south than at present, soon however -destroyed the colony; and the last account of Norman America we find in -the old Scandinavian records is the mention of a ship which, in the year -1347, had sailed from Greenland to Markland (Nova Scotia) to gather wood, -and was driven by a storm to Stamfjord on the west coast of Iceland. -About this time also the colonies in Greenland, which until then had -enjoyed a tolerable state of prosperity, decayed and ultimately perished -under the blighting influence of commercial monopolies, of wars with the -aborigines, and above all of the _black death_ (1347-1351), that horrible -plague of the fourteenth century, which, after having depopulated Europe, -vented its fury even upon those remote wilds. Thus the knowledge of the -Norman discovery of America gradually faded from the memory of man, -and thus also it happened that the names and deeds of Leif and Bjorne -Herjulfson remained totally unknown to the southern navigators, who at -that time moreover, had little intercourse with the nations of Northern -Europe. - -Besides his well-authenticated Norman predecessors, Columbus may possibly -have had others. Traces of early Irish and Welsh discoveries are pointed -out by the Northern historians, and John Vaz Cortereal, a Portuguese -navigator, is said to have visited the coasts of Newfoundland some time -previous to the voyages of Columbus and Cabot. - -If before the first voyage of the great Genoese navigator a mighty -longing to penetrate to distant countries pervaded the public mind of -Europe, it may be imagined to what a feverish glow this reigning idea -of the century was excited, when the wonderful accounts of the gold -and enchanting beauty of Haiti spread from land to land. As in former -times, half Europe had thrown itself upon the Orient to liberate the -tomb of our Saviour from the tyranny of the Moslem; so now one flood of -adventurers followed another to the new land of promise, which held out -such glittering prospects of wealth and enjoyment. Obeying the mighty -impulse, England and France now entered upon the path on which Portugal -and Spain had so gloriously preceded them, and, as the fruit of this -general emulation, we see after a few years the whole western shore of -the great Atlantic basin drawn into the circle of the known earth. - -If Columbus was undoubtedly the first discoverer of the West Indian -islands (the Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti, 1492; Lesser Antilles, 1493; Jamaica, -1494), the honour of having preceded him on the American continent -belongs to John Cabot, a Venetian merchant settled in Bristol, and to -the youthful energy of his son Sebastian, since they landed on the coast -of Labrador (24th June, 1497) seventeen months before the continent of -Tropical America, in the delta of the Orinoco, was discovered by Columbus -on his third voyage. - -Thus Genoa and Venice, the great Mediterranean rivals, divide the glory -of having revealed a new world to mankind, but it was ordained that -the laurels of their sons should bloom under a foreign flag, and the -fruits of their endeavours be reaped by other nations. For as Columbus -steered into the western ocean in the service of the Spanish monarch, the -Cabots were sent by Henry the Seventh of England across the Atlantic to -discover a north-western passage to India. This, of course, they did not -accomplish, but the discovery of Newfoundland and of the coast of America -from Labrador to Virginia rewarded their efforts, and laid the foundation -of Britain's colonial greatness. Their voyage is also remarkable as -having been the first expedition of the kind that ever left the shores of -England, which at that time held a very inferior rank among the maritime -nations, and gave but taint indications of her future naval supremacy. On -this occasion it may not be uninteresting to cast a retrospective glance -on the modest beginnings of British navigation. In the year 1217 the -first treaty of commerce was concluded with Norway, and in the beginning -of the fourteenth century Bergen was the most distant port to which -English vessels resorted. Soon afterwards they ventured into the Baltic, -and it was not before the middle of the following century that they began -to frequent some of the Castilian and Portuguese ports. Towards the end -of the fifteenth century the English flag was still a stranger to the -Mediterranean, and direct intercourse with the Levant only began with the -sixteenth. Edward the Second, preparing for his great Scottish war, was -obliged to hire five galleys from Genoa, the same town whence a few years -back our giant steamers transported a whole Sardinian army to the shores -of the Crimea, where centuries before the Genoese had been established -as lords and masters. Such are the changes in the relative position of -nations that have been brought about by the power of time! - -After this short digression I return to America, where, in 1499, Ojeda -and Amerigo Vespucci were the first to sail along the coast of Paria. -The following year was uncommonly rich in voyages of discovery, as -well in the south as in the north. In the western ocean the line was -first crossed by Vincent Yañez Pinson, who doubled Cape Saint Augustin, -discovered the mouths of the Amazon river, and thence sailed northwards -along the coast as far as the island of Trinidad, which Columbus had -discovered two years before. About the same time a Portuguese fleet, -sailing under the command of Pedro Alvarez Cabral to the Indian Ocean, -was driven by adverse winds to the coast of the Brazils; so that, if the -genius of Columbus had not evoked, as it were, America out of the waves, -chance would have effected her discovery a few years later. - -A third voyage, which renders the year 1500 remarkable in maritime -annals, is that of Gaspar Cortereal, a son of John Vaz Cortereal whom I -have already mentioned as one of the doubtful precursors of Columbus. - -Hoping to realise the dream of a north-west passage to the riches of -India, Gaspar appeared on the inhospitable shores of Labrador, and -penetrated into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Storms and ice-drifts forced -him to retreat, but firmly resolved to prosecute his design, he again set -sail in the following year with two small vessels. It is supposed that on -this second voyage he penetrated into Frobisher Bay, but here floating -ice-masses and violent gales separated him from his companion ship, -which returned alone to Portugal. - -As in our times the uncertain fate of Franklin has called forth a series -of heroic deeds, so the doubtful destiny of the Portuguese explorer -allowed his brother Miguel no rest, whom in the following spring we -find hastening with three ships on the traces of the lost Gaspar. But -Miguel also disappeared for ever among the ice-fields of the north. A -third brother of this high-minded family yet remained, who earnestly -implored the king that he also might be allowed to go forth and seek for -his missing kindred. But Emanuel steadfastly refused permission, saying -that these deplorable enterprises had already cost him two of his most -valuable servants, and he could afford to lose no more. - -In the year 1501 Rodrigo de Bastidas sailed to the coast of Paria, and -discovered the whole shore-line from Cape de Vela to the Gulf of Darien. -In the year 1502 the aged Columbus, entering with youthful ardour upon -his fourth and last voyage, set sail with four wretched vessels, the -largest of which was only seventy tons burthen, and discovered the coast -of the American continent from Cape Gracias á Dios to Porto-Bello. The -east coast of Yucatan was explored in the year 1508 by Juan Diaz de Solis -and Vincent Yañez Pinson, and the island of Cuba circumnavigated for the -first time by Sebastian de Ocampo. - -In 1512 Juan Ponce de Leon is led by his evil star to Florida, where, -instead of finding as he hoped the fountain of eternal youth, he is -doomed to a miserable end; and in 1517 the above-mentioned Solis sails -along the coasts of the Brazils to the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, -where he is killed in a conflict with the Indians. In 1518 Cordova makes -his countrymen acquainted with the north and west coasts of Yucatan, and -in the same year Grijalva discovers the Mexican coast from Tabasco to San -Juan de Ulloa. In 1518 he is followed by the great Cortez, who lands at -Vera Cruz, overthrows the empire of Montezuma after a series of exploits -unparalleled in history, and renders the whole coast of Mexico far to the -north subject to the Spanish crown. - -The voyages of Verazzani (1523) who sailed along the coast of the United -States, and of Jacques Cartier (1524) who investigated the Bay of -St. Lawrence, did not indeed widely extend geographical knowledge, as -these navigators, who had been sent out by Francis I., did no more than -examine more closely the previous discoveries of Cabot and Cortereal; -their explorations however had the result of giving France possession of -Canada, and of entitling her to a share in the fisheries of Newfoundland. -Thus within half a century after the ever memorable day when Columbus -first landed on Guanahani, we find almost the whole eastern coast of -America rising into light from the deep darkness of an unknown past. - -But while the western shores of the Atlantic were thus unrolling -themselves before the wondering gaze of mankind, the Indian Ocean was -the scene of no less remarkable events; for in the same year (1498) that -Columbus first visited the American continent, Vasco de Gama doubled -the Cape of Good Hope, which thus fully justified its auspicious name, -crossed the Eastern Ocean, and on the 22nd of May landed at Calicut on -the coast of Malabar, ten months and two days after leaving the port of -Lisbon. - -And now, as if by magic, the great revolution in commerce took place -which the Venetians long had feared and the Portuguese had no less -anxiously hoped for; for the latter lost no time in reaping the golden -fruits of the glorious discoveries of Gama and his predecessors. In less -than twenty years their flag waved in all the harbours of the Indian -Ocean, from the east coast of Africa to Canton; and over this whole -immense expanse a row of fortified stations secured to them the dominion -of the seas. Their settlements in Diu and Goa awed the whole coast of -Malabar, and cut off the intercourse of Egypt with India by way of -the Red Sea. They took possession of the small island of Ormus, which -commands the entrance of the Persian Gulf, and rendered this important -commercial highway likewise tributary to their power. In the centre of -the East-Indian world rose their chief emporium, Malacca, and even in -distant China Macao obeyed their laws. The discovery of the Molucca -Islands gave them the monopoly of the lucrative spice trade, which was -destined at a later period, and more permanently, to enrich the thrifty -Dutchman. - -What vast changes had taken place since Prince Henry's first expeditions -to the coast of Africa! How had old Ocean enlarged his bounds! He who as -a child had still known the earth with her old and narrow confines might, -before his hair grew white, have seen the Atlantic assume a definite -form; Africa project like an enormous peninsula into the boundless world -of waters, and one single ocean bathe all the coasts from Canton to the -West Indies. - -Yet a few years and the Pacific opens its gates, and all the discoveries -of Columbus and Vasco seem small when compared with the vast regions -which Magellan reveals to man. - - - - -CHAP. XXV. - - Vasco Nuñez de Balboa.--His Discovery of the Pacific, and - subsequent Fate.--Ferdinand Magellan.--Sebastian el Cano, the - first Circumnavigator of the Globe.--Discoveries of Pizarro and - Cortez.--Urdaneta.--Juan Fernandez.--Mendoza.--Drake.--Discoveries - of the Portuguese and Dutch in the Western Pacific.--Attempts - of the Dutch and English to discover North-East and - North-West Passages to India.--Sir Hugh Willoughby and - Chancellor.--Frobisher.--Davis.--Barentz.--His Wintering in - Nova Zembla.--Quiros.--Torres.--Schouten.--Le Maire.--Abel - Tasman.--Hudson.--Baffin.--Dampier.--Anson.--Byron.--Wallis and - Carteret.--Bougainville. - - -The riches which the Indian trade had poured into the lap of Venice, and -which at a later period fell to the share of the Portuguese, formed the -chief incitement to the great maritime discoveries which illustrated the -end of the fifteenth and the first half of the sixteenth century. - -The hope to discover a new road to India had not only animated the -Portuguese navigators, but also led Columbus and Cabot across the -Atlantic. It caused the unfortunate Cortereal to sail into the Gulf of -St. Lawrence, induced Juan de Solis to penetrate into the mouth of the -Rio de la Plata, and was finally the chief end and aim of the wondrous -expedition of Magellan. The time is now come when the barriers of -the Pacific are to fall, but before crossing its vast bosom with the -illustrious navigator who first traversed it from end to end, I shall -detain the reader a few moments on the shores of the Gulf of Darien, -where the wretched remains of the colony of Santa Maria el Antigua, -founded by Ojeda in 1509, had, after the departure of that unfortunate -adventurer, freely elected Vasco Nuñez de Balboa to be their governor. -This great man, who would have emulated the fame of a Cortez or Pizarro -if his good fortune had been equal to his merit, omitted no opportunity -of justifying the choice of his comrades by the unremitting zeal he -displayed for their welfare. Making up for the scantiness of his -resources by unceasing activity, he subdued the neighbouring caciques, -and collected a great quantity of gold, which abounded more in that part -of the continent than in the islands. - -It happened during one of his frequent excursions that a young Cacique, -witnessing a very angry dispute among the Spaniards about a few grains of -gold, asked them in a contemptuous tone why they quarrelled about such -a trifle; and added, that, if they set such an exorbitant value upon a -metal comparatively worthless in his eyes, he could gratify their utmost -wishes by pointing out to them a land where gold was so plentiful that -even common utensils were made of it. And when Balboa eagerly asked where -that happy country was situated, "Six days' journey to the south," was -the answer, "will bring you to another ocean along whose coast it lies!" - -This was the first time the Spaniards ever heard of the Pacific and of -gold-teeming Peru, and the intelligence was well calculated to inflame -the enterprising spirit of their leader. Balboa immediately concluded -that this sea must be that which Columbus and so many other navigators -had vainly sought for, and that its discovery would beyond all doubt -open the way to India, which, according to the geographical error of the -times, was supposed to be far less distant from America than it really is. - -The most brilliant prospects rose before his fancy, and he would -immediately have gone forth to realise them, if prudence had not -warned him first to provide all the means necessary to insure success. -He therefore endeavoured before all to gain the good-will of the -neighbouring Indian chiefs, and sent some trustworthy agents to -Hispaniola with a considerable quantity of gold, whereby many adventurers -were induced to flock to his standard. Having thus reinforced himself, he -thought he might now safely undertake his important expedition. - -The Isthmus of Darien, over which he had to force his way, is not above -sixty miles broad, but this short distance was rendered difficult, or -rather impervious, by the innumerable obstacles of a tropical wilderness. -The high mountains running along the neck of land were covered with -dense forests, and the low grounds beneath filled with deep swamps, from -which arose exhalations deadly to a European constitution. Wild torrents -rushed down the ravines, and often forced them to retrace their steps. A -march through a country like this, thinly peopled by a few savages, and -without any other guides than some Indians of doubtful fidelity, was an -enterprise worthy of all the energies of a Balboa. - -On the 1st of September, 1513, after the end of the rainy season, he set -out with a small but well chosen band of 190 Spaniards, accompanied by -1000 Indian carriers. As long as he remained on the territories of the -friendly Caciques his progress was comparatively easy, but scarce had -he penetrated into the interior, when, besides the almost invincible -obstacles of nature--forests, swamps, and swollen torrents,--he had to -encounter the deadly enmity of the Indians. As he approached, some of -the Caciques fled to the mountains, after having destroyed or carried -along with them all that might have been of use to the hated strangers; -while others, of more determined hostility, opposed his progress by force -of arms. Although the Spaniards had been led to expect that a six days' -march would bring them to their journey's end, they had already spent no -less than twenty-five days in forcing their way through the wilderness, -amidst incessant attacks and hardships. The greater part of them were -rapidly giving way under fatigues almost surpassing the limits of mortal -endurance, and even the strongest felt that they could not hold out much -longer. But Balboa, ever the foremost to face danger or difficulty, -whose spirits no reverse could damp, and whose fiery eloquence painted -in glowing colours the glorious reward of their present privations, -knew how to inspire his men with his own unconquerable spirit, so that -without a murmur they kept toiling on through swamp and forest. At length -the Indian guides pointed out to them a mountain-crest from which they -promised them the view of the longed-for ocean. Filled with new ardour -they climbed up the steep ascent, but before they reached the summit -Balboa ordered them to halt, that he might be the first to enjoy the -glorious prospect. As soon as he saw the Pacific stretch out in endless -majesty along the verge of the distant horizon, he fell on his knees and -poured forth his rapturous thanks to heaven for having awarded him so -grand a discovery. And now also his impatient companions hurried on, and -soon the primeval forest--accustomed only to the howlings of the brute -or the eagle's scream--resounded with the loud exclamations of their -astonishment, gratitude, and joy. - -It was from the small mountain-chain of Quarequa, on the 25th of -September, 1513, that the Spaniards first saw the sea-horizon, but they -had still several days to march before they reached the Gulf of San -Miguel. Here Alonzo Martin de Don Benito was the first white man that -ever floated in a canoe on the Eastern Pacific, even before Balboa, armed -with sword and shield, descended into the water to take possession of the -newly discovered ocean in the name of the king his master. - -Although the subsequent fortunes of this great man are foreign to my -subject, yet it may not be uninteresting to the reader to be informed -how his important services were requited. Unfortunately the ingratitude -of the Spanish court, which so scandalously embittered the declining -years of Columbus and Cortez, reached its lowest depth in the case of -Balboa. Those great men had at least in the beginning enjoyed some show -of favour, but the discoverer of the Pacific was treated throughout with -the basest indignity. The governorship of Darien, to which his splendid -achievements had given him so undeniable a claim, was conferred upon -a certain Pedrarias Davila, a wretch who, after having persecuted and -thwarted the hero in every possible way, caused him at length to be -beheaded, under a false accusation of high treason. - -Six years after Balboa had first seen the Pacific, two years after his -execution, Ferdinand of Magellan made his appearance in that great -ocean. A Portuguese of noble birth, this eminent navigator had served -with distinction under Albuquerque, the conqueror of Malacca. His plan -of seeking a new road to India across the Atlantic being but coldly -received in his native country, he transferred his services to Spain, -where his distinguished merit found better judges in Cardinal Ximenes, -and his youthful master, Charles V. With five ships, the largest of which -did not carry more than 120 tons, and with a crew of 236 men, partly -the sweepings of the jails, he sailed on the 20th of September, 1519, -from the port of San Lucar, and spent the following summer (the winter -of the southern hemisphere) on the dreary coast of Patagonia. In this -uncomfortable station he lost one of his squadron; and the Spaniards -suffered so much from the excessive rigour of the climate, that the crews -of three of his ships, headed by their officers, rose in open mutiny, -and insisted on relinquishing the visionary project of a desperate -adventurer, and returning directly to Spain. This dangerous insurrection -Magellan suppressed by an effort of courage no less prompt than intrepid, -and inflicted exemplary punishment on the ringleaders. - -He now continued his journey to the south, and reached, near 53° south -lat., the celebrated straits which bear his name. Here again he had to -exert his full authority to induce his reluctant followers to accompany -him into the unknown channel that was to lead them to an equally unknown -ocean. One of his ships immediately deserted him and returned to Europe, -but the others remained true to their commander, and, after having spent -twenty days in winding through those dangerous straits, they at last, -on the 27th of November, 1521, emerged into the open ocean, the sight -of which amply repaid Magellan for all the anxieties and troubles he -had undergone. They now pursued their way across the wide expanse of -waters, of whose enormous extent they had no conception, and soon had -to endure all the miseries of hunger and disease. But the continuous -beauty of the weather, and the steady easterly wind, which, swelling the -sails of Magellan, drove him straight onwards to the goal, kept up his -courage; and induced him to give to the ocean which greeted him with -such a friendly welcome the name of the Pacific, which it still, though -undeservedly, retains. During three months and twenty days he sailed to -the north-west, and, by a singular mischance, without seeing any land -in those isle-teeming seas, except only two uninhabited rocks which he -called the "Desventuradas," or the "Wretched." At last, after the longest -journey ever made by man through the deserts of the ocean, he discovered -the small but fruitful group of the Ladrones (March 6, 1521), which -afforded him refreshments in such abundance, that the vigour and health -of his emaciated crew was soon reestablished. From these isles, to which -his gratitude might have given a more friendly name, he proceeded on his -voyage, and soon made the more important discovery of the islands now -known as the _Philippines_. In one of these he got into an unfortunate -quarrel with the natives, who attacked him in great numbers and -well-armed; and, while he fought at the head of his men with his usual -valour, he fell by the hands of those barbarians, together with several -of his principal officers. - -Thus Magellan lost the glory of accomplishing the first circumnavigation -of the globe; the performance of which now fell to the share of his -companion, Sebastian El Cano, who returned to San Lucar in the "Victoria" -by the Cape of Good Hope, having sailed round the globe in the space of -three years and twenty-eight days. - -But although Magellan did not live fully to achieve his glorious -undertaking, the astonishing perseverance and ability with which he -performed the chief and most difficult part of his arduous task have -secured him an immortal renown. Nor has posterity been unmindful of his -services, having awarded his name an imperishable place in the memory of -man, both in the straits, the portal of his grand discovery, and in the -"Magellanic clouds," those dense clusters of stars and nebulæ which so -beautifully stud the firmament of the southern hemisphere. - -After Magellan, Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, shines as a discoverer -in the South Sea. The history of his memorable feats by land does not -belong to this narrative, but I may well accompany him on his adventurous -navigation along the unknown coast of South America, and relate the -hardships he had to endure before he was enabled to reap the rewards of -victory. - -Soon after the execution, or rather the murder, of Balboa, Pedrarias -Davila obtained permission to transfer the colony of Darien to Panama, -which, although equally unhealthy, yet from its situation on the Pacific -afforded greater facilities for the prosecution of discovery on the -south-west coast, to which now all the hopes and plans of the Spanish -gold-seekers were directed. Several expeditions left the new colony in -rapid succession, but all proved unsuccessful. Their timorous leaders, -none of whom had ventured beyond the dreary coasts of _Tierra firme_, -gave such dismal accounts of their hardships and the wretched aspect -of the countries they had seen, that the ardour for discovery was -considerably damped, and the opinion began to gain ground that Balboa -must have founded chimerical hopes on the idle tales of an ignorant or -deceitful savage. - -But there were three men in Panama, Francisco Pizarro, Diego de Almagro, -and Hernando Luque, who, far from sharing the general opinion, remained -fully determined to seek the unknown gold-land. Pizarro and Almagro -were soldiers, Luque was a priest. They formed an association approved -of by the governor, each agreeing to devote all his energies to the -common interest. Pizarro, the poorest of the three, took upon himself -the greater part of the hardships and dangers of the enterprise, and -volunteered to command the first expedition that should be fitted out; -Almagro engaged to follow him with the necessary reinforcements; and -Luque, the man of peace, promised to watch in Panama over the interests -of the association. - -On the 14th of November, 1524, Pizarro sailed from Panama with 112 men, -closely packed together in one small vessel. Unfortunately he had chosen -the worst season of the year for his departure, as the periodical winds -raging at the time blew quite contrary to the course he intended to -pursue, and thus it happened that after seventy days he had advanced -no farther to the south-east than an experienced navigator will now -traverse in as many hours. During this tedious journey he landed in -different parts of the coast of Tierra firme, but, finding all the -previous descriptions of its inhospitable nature fully confirmed, he -saw himself obliged to await the promised reinforcements in Chuchama, -opposite to the Pearl Islands. Here he was soon joined by Almagro, who -had suffered similar hardships, and moreover lost an eye in a fight with -the Indians. But, as he had advanced farther to the south, where the -country and people wore a more favourable aspect, this slight glimpse of -hope encouraged the adventurers to persevere in spite of all the miseries -they had endured. Almagro returned to Panama, where with the greatest -difficulty he could levy fourscore men, his sufferings and those of his -companions having given his countrymen a very unfavourable idea of the -service. - -With this small reinforcement the associates did not hesitate to renew -their enterprise, and at length, after a passage no less tedious than the -first, reached the Bay of Saint Matthew on the coast of Quito (1526). In -Tecumez, to the south of the Emerald River, they were delighted with the -aspect of a fine well-cultivated country, inhabited by a people whose -clothing and dwellings indicated a higher degree of civilisation and -wealth. But, not venturing to attempt its conquest with a handful of men -enfeebled by fatigue and disease, they retired to the small island of -Gallo, where Pizarro waited, while Almagro once more returned to Panama, -hoping that the better accounts he could give of their second journey -would procure reinforcements large enough for the conquest of the newly -discovered countries. - -But the new governor of Panama, Pedro de los Rios, interdicted all -further volunteering for an enterprise he considered chimerical, and -even sent a vessel to the island of Gallo to bring back Pizarro and his -companions. The associates, on the other hand, were less inclined than -ever to give up their enterprise, now that better prospects had opened, -so that Pizarro peremptorily refused to obey the governor's commands, and -used all his eloquence in persuading his men not to abandon him. But the -hardships they had endured, and the prospect of soon revisiting their -families and friends, pleaded so strongly against him, that when he drew -a line with his sword upon the sand, and told those that wished to leave -him to pass over it, only thirteen of his veterans remained true to his -fortunes. - -With this select band of heroes Pizarro now retired to the desert island -of Gorgona, where, as it lay further from the coast, he could await -with greater security the reinforcements which he trusted the zeal of -his associates would soon be able to procure. Nor was he deceived, for -Almagro and Luque, by their repeated solicitations, at length prevailed -upon the governor to send out a small vessel to his assistance, though -without one landsman on board, that he might not be encouraged to any -new enterprise. Meanwhile Pizarro and his faithful "thirteen" had spent -five long months on their wretched island, their eyes constantly turned -to the north, until, heart-sick and despairing from hope deferred, they -resolved to intrust themselves to the inconstant waves upon a miserable -raft, rather than remain any longer in that dreadful wilderness. But now -at last the vessel from Panama appeared, and raised them so thoroughly -from the deepest despondency to the most extravagant hopes, that Pizarro -easily induced not only his old friends, but also the crew of the vessel, -to sail farther to the south instead of returning at once to Panama. - -This time the winds were favourable, and after a voyage of twenty days -they at length reached the town of Tumbez on the coast of Peru, where -the magnificent temple of the sun and the palace of the Incas, with its -costly golden vases, exceeded their most sanguine expectations. But -once more Pizarro, too weak to attempt invasion, was obliged to content -himself with the view of the riches he one day hoped to possess, and -returned to Panama after an absence of three years. - -Amidst interminable delays and difficulties, which, although not to be -compared to those he had endured, would still have totally discouraged a -mind of a less iron mould, five years more elapsed before the matchless -perseverance of Pizarro met with its reward. On the 14th of April, 1531, -he landed in Peru for the second time, and in a few months the empire of -the Incas lay prostrate at his feet. The poor adventurer of Gorgona was -now one of the richest men on earth. - -From this time the stream of conquest and discovery continuously rolled -on to the south, so that after a few years the whole coast of Peru and -Chili, as far as the wilds of Patagonia, was either known or subject to -the Spaniards. - -But while Pizarro and his comrades were thus opening the south-west -coast of America to the knowledge of mankind, the conqueror of Mexico -was no less anxious to add to his laurels the glory of discovery in the -Northern Pacific, whose shores his warriors had reached in 1521, soon -after the fall of the Aztec capital. Desirous of opening a new passage to -the East Indies, he fitted out a fleet (1526), which, under the command -of his kinsman Alvaro de Saavedra, was to sail to the Moluccas, and most -likely discovered part of the Radack and Ralick Archipelago, visited and -described three centuries later by Kotzebue and Chamisso. - -In the year 1536 Cortez himself undertook a maritime expedition to -the north, discovered the peninsula of California, and explored the -greater part of the long and narrow bay which separates it from the -mainland. After the return of this great man to Spain, where, loaded with -ingratitude, he died in 1547, Rodriguez Cabrillo (1543) sailed as far -as Monterey, and subsequently the pilot of the expedition, Bartholomew -Ferreto, reached 43° N. lat., where Vancouver's Cape Oxford is situated. - -In the year 1542 Villalobos made the first attempt to establish a colony -on the Philippine Islands with settlers from Mexico, but, having failed, -the colonisation did not take place before 1565. The intelligence of -this success was brought to America by the pilot and monk, Fray Andreas -Urdaneta, who sailed on the 1st of June from Manilla and arrived on the -3rd of October in the Mexican port of Acapulco. All previous attempts -to sail from Asia to America had failed, on account of the opposing -trade-winds; but Urdaneta sailed northward till he encountered the -favourable west wind, which carried him to the New World across the -wide bosom of the Pacific. The discovery of this new ocean route was of -considerable importance to the Spaniards, and, to perpetuate the memory -of Urdaneta's nautical ability, they continued to call the passage by his -name. - -About the same time another Spanish pilot, Juan Fernandez, discovered the -proper sea route from Callao to Chili, by first sailing far out to sea, -and thus avoiding the coast-currents from the south. He also discovered -the island which still bears his name, and has become so celebrated by -the adventures of Alexander Selkirk, and the immortal tale of Daniel -Defoe. - -In the year 1567 an expedition sailed from Callao under Alvaro Mendana, -which discovered the Solomon Islands; and in 1595 the group of the -Marquesas de Mendoza was first brought to light by the same navigator. -Before the last expedition of Mendana, Drake, the first circumnavigator -of the globe (1577-1580) after Magellan and El Cano, penetrated into the -Pacific, by rounding Cape Horn, and subsequently discovered the coasts of -New Albion as far as 48° N. lat. - -After having thus rapidly followed the course of the discoveries which -during the sixteenth century made Europe acquainted with the whole -western coast of America, from Cape Pillares in Tierra del Fuego to the -mouth of the Columbia River, I return to the Indian Ocean, where in the -beginning of the century we left the Portuguese in the full bloom of -their power, and, to judge by the progress already made, likely to add -largely to the stock of geographical knowledge. But whether the masters -of the Indian Ocean had no desire to extend still farther the circle of -their conquests, or the fiery spirit of enterprise which had animated -Vasco de Gama and Diaz was prematurely extinguished, the discoveries of -the Portuguese in the Pacific by no means corresponded to the gigantic -flight which in less than a quarter of a century had led them from Cape -de Verde to the extremity of the Malayan Archipelago. New Guinea was -indeed discovered by Don Jorge de Menezes (1526) and Alvaro de Saavedra -(1528), and some old maps prove that before 1542 a part of the coast of -New Holland was known to the Portuguese, who had penetrated to the north -as far as Formosa and Japan, yet at the end of the sixteenth century the -western boundaries of the Pacific were only known from 40° N. lat. to 10° -S. lat., and all beyond was enveloped in darkness. As little was known -of the innumerable South Sea islands, for although some of the groups had -been seen or visited by the Spaniards, their existence was kept secret -lest other seafaring nations should be tempted to explore the wastes of -the Pacific. - -I have already mentioned that the desire to find a shorter route to the -wealth of India was the chief inducement which led to the discoveries of -Vasco de Gama, Columbus, and Magellan; this same motive also called forth -the first attempts of the Dutch and English to find a northern passage to -the southern seas. - -In the year 1553 Sir Hugh Willoughby and Chancellor left England on their -memorable voyage of Arctic discovery, and steered to the north-east. -In a stormy night they parted company, never to meet again. For a long -time nothing was heard of Willoughby, until some Russian sailors found -on the dreary coast of Lapland two wrecks tenanted only by the dead. -A note, dated January 1554, proved that then at least some of the -unfortunate navigators were still alive; but this was the last and only -memorial of the mysterious end of the first Britons that ever ventured -into the frozen seas. Chancellor was more fortunate. After having for -a long time been driven about by storms, he discovered the White Sea, -and on landing heard for the first time of Russia and her sovereign the -Czar Ivan Vasiliovitch, who resided in a great town called Moscow. This -unknown potentate the indefatigable seaman resolved to visit in his -capital, where he was graciously received, and obtained permission for -his countrymen to frequent the port of Archangel. Soon after his return -to England he was sent back to Russia by Queen Mary, for the purpose -of settling the terms of a treaty of commerce between the two nations; -and, having satisfactorily accomplished his mission, once more set sail -from the White Sea, accompanied by a Muscovite ambassador. But this time -the return voyage was extremely unfortunate; two of the ships, richly -laden with Russian commodities, ran ashore on the coast of Norway, and -Chancellor's own vessel was driven by a dreadful storm as far as Pitsligo -in Scotland, in which bay it was wrecked. Chancellor endeavoured to save -the ambassador and himself in a boat, but the small pinnace was upset, -and, although the Russian reached the strand, the Englishman, after -having escaped so many dangers in the Arctic Ocean, was doomed to an -untimely end within sight of his native shores. - -Twenty years afterwards, Martin Frobisher set sail with three small -vessels of thirty-five, thirty, and ten tons, on no less an errand than -the discovery of a north-west passage to Asia. With these wretched -nut-shells he reached the coasts of Greenland and Labrador, but was -prevented by the ice from effecting a landing. - -This first voyage was little remarkable in itself, but its accidental -results tended much to the advancement of northern research, for -Frobisher brought home some glittering stones, the lustre of which was -erroneously attributed to gold; a circumstance which, as may well be -imagined, greatly contributed to pave the way for a second expedition -to "Meta Incognita." This time Frobisher sailed with three ships, of a -much larger size, that they might be able to hold more of the anticipated -treasure; and, besides securing 200 tons of the imaginary gold, -discovered the entrance of the strait which bears his name. - -His geographical knowledge may be inferred from the fact that he firmly -believed the land on one side of this channel to be Asia, and on the -other America; and, though we may be tempted to smile at his ignorance, -yet the lion-hearted seaman is not the less to be admired, who with such -inadequate means ventured to brave the unknown terrors of the Frozen -Ocean. - -The gales and floating ice which greeted Frobisher as he endeavoured to -force a passage through the strait put a stop to all farther progress -to India; but, as the gold delusion still continued, the expedition was -considered eminently successful. A large squadron of fifteen vessels was -consequently fitted out for the summer of 1578, and commissioned not -only to bring back an untold amount of treasure, but also to take out -materials and men to establish a colony on those desolate shores. - -But this grand expedition, which sailed forth with such extravagant -hopes, was doomed to end in disappointment. One of the largest vessels -was crushed by an iceberg at the entrance of the strait, and the others -were so beaten about by storms and obstructed by fogs, that the whole -summer elapsed, and they were fain to return to England without having -done anything for the advancement of geographical knowledge. - -The utter worthlessness of the glittering stones having meanwhile been -discovered, Frobisher relinquished all further attempts to push his -fortunes in the northern regions, and sought new laurels in a sunnier -clime. He accompanied Drake to the West Indies, commanded subsequently -one of the largest vessels opposed to the Spanish Armada, and ended his -heroic life while attacking a small French fort on behalf of Henry IV., -during the war with the League. He was one of those adventurous spirits -always thirsting for action, and too uneasy ever to enjoy repose. - -In the year 1585, John Davis, with the ships "Sunshine" and "Moonshine," -carrying besides their more necessary equipments a band of music "to -cheer and recreate the spirits of the natives," made his first voyage in -quest of the north-west passage, and discovered the broad strait which -leads into the icy deserts of Baffin's Bay. But neither in this attempt -nor in his two following ones was he able to effect the object for -which he strove; and these repeated failures cooled for a long time the -national ardour for northern discovery. - -In the year 1594 the Dutch appear upon the scene. This persevering and -industrious people, which in the following century was destined to play -so important a part in the politics of Europe, had just then succeeded in -casting off the Spanish yoke, and was laudably endeavouring to gain by -maritime enterprise a position among the neighbouring states, which the -smallness of its territory seemed to deny to its ambition. All the known -roads to the treasures of the south were at that time too well guarded by -the jealous fleets of Spain and Portugal to admit of any rivalry; but, -if fortune should favour them in finding the yet unexplored northern -passage to India, they might still hope to secure a lion's share in that -most lucrative of trades. Animated by the bold spirit of adventure which -the dawn of independence always calls forth in a nation, a company of -Amsterdam merchants fitted out an expedition of northern discovery, which -it intrusted to the superintendence and pilotage of William Barentz, one -of the most experienced seamen of the day. - -Barentz left the Texel on the 6th of June, 1594, reached the northern -extremity of Nova Zembla, and returned to Holland. Meanwhile his -associate, penetrating through a strait to which he gave the very -appropriate name of Waigats or "Wind-hole," battled against the floating -ice of the Sea of Kara, until, rounding a promontory, he saw a blue -and open sea extending before him, and the Russian coast trending away -towards the south-east. He now no longer doubted that he had sailed round -the famous cape "Tabis" of Pliny, an imaginary promontory which according -to that erroneous guide formed the northern extremity of Asia, and whence -the voyage was supposed to be short and easy to its eastern and southern -shores. He had only reached the Gulf of Obi, and within the Arctic -Circle the continent of Asia still stretched 120 degrees to the east; -but this was then unknown, and the Dutchman, satisfied with the prospect -of success, did not press onward to test its reality, but started in -full sail for Holland, to rouse the sluggish fancy of his phlegmatic -countrymen with chimerical hopes and golden visions. - -On the receipt of this glad intelligence six large vessels were -immediately fitted out, and richly laden with goods suited to the taste -of the Indians. A small swift-sailing yacht was added to the squadron -to bear it company as far as the imaginary promontory of Tabis, and -thence to return with the good news that it had safely performed what was -supposed to be the most perilous part of the voyage, and had been left -steering with a favourable wind right off to India. - -But, as may well be imagined, these sanguine hopes were destined to -meet with a woeful disappointment, for the Wind-hole Strait, doing -full justice to its name, did not allow them to pass; and, after many -fruitless endeavours to force their way through the mighty ice-blocks -that obstructed that inhospitable channel, they returned dejected and -crest-fallen to the port whence they had sailed a few months before, -elated with such brilliant expectations. - -Although great disappointment was felt at this failure, the scheme -however was not abandoned, and on the 16th of May, 1596, Heemskerk, -Barentz, and Cornelis Ryp once more started for the north-east. Bear -Island and Spitzbergen were discovered, whereupon the ships separated; -Cornelis and Heemskerk returning to Holland, while Barentz, enclosed by -the ice, was obliged to spend a long and dreary winter in the dreadful -solitudes of Nova Zembla. Fortunately a quantity of drift-wood was found -on the strand, which served the Dutchmen both for the construction of -a small hut and for fuel. At the same time it raised their courage, as -they now no longer doubted that Providence, which had sent them this -unexpected succour in the wilderness, would guide them safely through all -their difficulties. And indeed they stood in need of this consolatory -belief, for as early as September the ground was frozen so hard that -they tried in vain to dig a grave for a dead comrade, and their cramped -fingers could hardly proceed with the building of the hut. - -The attacks of the white bears also gave them great trouble. One day -Barentz, from the deck of the vessel, seeing three bears stealthily -approaching a party of his men who were labouring at the hut, shouted -loudly to warn them of their peril, and the men, startled at the near -approach of danger, sought safety in flight. One of the party, in his -haste and perturbation, fell into a cleft in the ice; but the hungry -animals fortunately overlooked him, and continued their pursuit of the -main body. These gained the vessel and began to congratulate themselves -on their safety, when, to their horror, they perceived that their foes, -instead of retreating from a hopeless pursuit, were actually scaling -the ship's sides, evidently determined to have their meal. Matters now -became serious. One of the sailors was despatched for a light, but in -his hurry and agitation could not get the match to take fire (Enfields -and revolvers were then unknown), and the muskets being thus rendered -useless, the sailors in despair kept their enemies off by pelting -them with whatever articles came first to hand. This unequal conflict -continued for some time, until a well-directed blow on the snout of the -largest bear caused the _barking_[AB] monster to retire from the field -followed by his two companions, - - "who, seeing Hector flee, - No longer dared to face the enemy." - -[Footnote AB: "I did not hear them roar as ours do, but they only -bark."--_Marten's Voyage to Spitzbergen._] - -By the middle of October the hut was completed; and though the -accommodations it afforded were extremely scanty, they were glad to take -up their abode in it at once. - -And now began the long, dreary, three months' night of the 77th degree -of latitude, during which snow-drifts and impetuous winds confined them -to their miserable dwelling. "We looked pitifully one upon the other," -says Gerret De Veer, the simple narrator of the sufferings of that Arctic -winter, "being in great fear that if the extremity of the cold grew to -be more and more, we should all die there of cold; for that what fire -soever we made would not warm us." The ice was now two inches thick upon -the walls and even on the sides of their sleeping-cots, and the very -clothes they wore were whitened with frost, so that as they sat together -in their hut they "were all as white as the countrymen used to be when -they came in at the gates of the towns in Holland with their sleads, and -have gone all night." - -Yet in the midst of all their sufferings these hardy men maintained brave -and cheerful hearts, and so great was their elasticity of spirit that, -remembering the 5th of January was "Twelfth Even," they determined to -celebrate it as best they might. "And then," says the old chronicler, "we -prayed our maister that we might be merry that night, and said that we -were content to spend some of the wine that night which we had spared, -and which was our share (one glass) every second day; and so that night -we made merry and drew for king. And therewith we had two pounds of -meale, whereof we made pancakes with oyle, and every man had a white -biscuit, which we sopt in the wine. And so, supposing that we were in our -own country, and amongst our friends, it comforted as well as if we had -made a great banket in our owne house." Blessed Content! arising from a -simple heart and a life of honest and healthful toil, never didst thou -celebrate a greater triumph, or more forcibly show thy power, than in -that dreary hut on Nova Zembla! - -Some weeks afterwards the sun appeared once more above the horizon; and -the glorious sight, though it soon vanished again into darkness, was a -joyful one indeed, full of delightful images of a return to friends and -home. Now, also, the furious gales and snow-storms ceased; and, though -the severity of the cold continued unabated, they were able to brave the -outer air and recruit their strength by exercise. - -When summer came, it was found impossible to disengage the ice-bound -vessel, and the only hopes of escaping from their dreary prison now -rested on two small boats, in which they ventured on the capricious -ocean. On the fourth day of their voyage, their fragile barks became -surrounded by immense quantities of floating ice, which so crushed and -injured them, that the crews, giving up all hope, took a solemn leave -of each other. But in this desperate crisis they owed their lives to -the presence of mind and agility of De Veer, who with a well-secured -rope leaped from one fragment of ice to another till he gained a firm -field, on which first the sick, then the stores, the crews, and finally -the boats themselves, were safely landed. Here they were obliged to -remain while the boats underwent the necessary repairs, and during this -detention upon a floating ice-field the gallant Barentz closed the -eventful voyage of his life. He died as he had lived, calmly and bravely, -thinking less of himself than of the safety of his crew, for his last -words were directions as to the course in which they were to steer. -Even the joyful prospect of a return to their families and home could -not console his surviving comrades for the loss of their leader, whom -they loved and revered as a friend and father. After a most tedious and -dangerous passage, they at length arrived at Kola in Russian Lapland, -where to their glad surprise they found their old comrade, John Cornelis, -who received them on board his vessel and conveyed them to Amsterdam. - -During the seventeenth century the most remarkable maritime discoveries -were made by the English, Dutch, and Spaniards, though by the latter -only at its commencement. In the year 1605 Quiros sailed from Callao, -discovered the island of Sagittaria, since so renowned under the name of -Otaheite, and the archipelago of Espiritu Santo, or the New Hebrides of -Cook. On this journey he was accompanied by Torres, the bold seaman who -some years after gave his name to the strait which separates New Guinea -from Australia. - -While the declining sun of Spain was thus gilding with its last rays the -northern shore of New Holland, the meridian splendour of the Batavian -republic cast forth bright beams of light over the wide Pacific. - -Schouten and Le Maire, penetrating through the strait which is still -named after the latter, sailed in the year 1616 round Tierra del Fuego; -and about the same time Hartog discovered Eendragt's Land, on the west -coast of Australia. The successive voyages of Jan Edel (1619), Peter -Nuyts (1627), and Peter Carpenter (1628), brought to light the northern -and southern shores of the vast island, which thus began to assume a -rude shape on the map of the geographer. In the year 1642, Abel Tasman, -the greatest of the Dutch navigators, drew a mighty furrow through the -South Sea, discovered Van Diemen's Land, which posterity desirous of -perpetuating his fame has called Tasmania, saw the northern extremity of -New Zealand emerge from the ocean, and finally unveiled to the world the -hidden beauties of Tonga. - -While the Dutch navigators were thus dissipating the darkness of -Australia, Hudson and Baffin were immortalising their names in the Arctic -Ocean. - -In the year 1627 Henry Hudson made the first attempt to steer right on to -the pole, and to cross to India over the axis of the globe. He reached -the northern extremity of Spitzbergen, but all his attempts to penetrate -deeper into the polar ocean were baffled by the mighty ice-fields that -opposed his progress. But though he failed in his undertaking to sail -through the region of eternal winter to the spicy groves of India, -yet the numerous morses and seals he had seen basking on the coast of -Spitzbergen opened such cheering prospects of future profit, that the -"Muscovy Company," which had fitted out the expedition, was by no means -discontented with the issue of his voyage. - -Three years after we find the gallant Hudson once more attempting -to discover the north-west passage in a vessel of fifty-five tons, -provisioned for six months. The crew which he commanded was unfortunately -utterly unworthy of such a leader, and quailed as soon as they had to -encounter the fog and ice-fields of the Frozen Ocean. - - "And now there came both mist and snow, - And it grew wondrous cold; - And ice mast-high came floating by, - As green as emerald. - - And through the drifts the snowy clifts - Did send a dismal sheen, - Nor shapes of men nor beasts we ken, - The ice was all between." - -But, in spite of the murmurs and repinings of his faint-hearted -followers, the dauntless commander pressed on through the strait which -bears his name, until at last his little bark emerged into a boundless -deep blue sea. Hudson's Bay lay before him, but the delighted discoverer -was happy in the belief that the grand object of his voyage was attained, -and the shortest road to India laid open to the mariners of England. It -was about the beginning of August, and the spiritless crew considering -the passage accomplished, urged an immediate return; but Hudson was -determined on completing the adventure, and wintering if possible on the -sunny shores of India. - -Three months long he continued tracking the coasts of that vast northern -Mediterranean, now for the first time explored by civilised man, vainly -hoping to see a new channel opening to the west, until at length November -came and imprisoned his small vessel in adamantine fetters. A long -and dreary winter awaited the ice-bound seamen, with almost exhausted -provisions, and unfortunately without that heroic patience and serene -concord which had sustained the sufferings of Barentz and his companions. -It must indeed have been a melancholy winter for poor Hudson, solitary -and friendless among scowling ruffians, hating him as the cause of their -bitter misery; but spring came at last with its consolatory sunshine, and -hope once more dawned in his tortured breast. The ship is again afloat, -and on the 21st of June, 1611, the captain comes forth from his cabin, -refreshed by the sleep of a quiet conscience, and strong in body and -mind to meet the duties of the day. But as he steps on deck his arms are -suddenly pinioned, and he finds himself in the power of a mutinous crew. -He looks around for some trace of sympathy, but hatred meets him in every -eye. Inquiry, remonstrance, entreaty, command, all alike fail to move -their stubborn resolution, and now Hudson resigns himself bravely to his -fate, with all the quiet dignity of a noble nature, and looks calmly at -the ominous preparations going forward. A small open boat is in waiting, -and into this he is lowered, some powder and shot and the carpenter's box -come next, followed by the carpenter himself, a strong brave fellow, the -captain's _one_ devoted adherent among the rebellious crew; the sick and -infirm complete the unfortunate cargo. A signal is given, the boat is -cast adrift, and soon the last faint cry for mercy expires in the breeze -which carries the vessel onwards on its homeward course. - -Thus perished the high-minded Hudson, without further tiding or trace, -on the scene of his glory; but the vengeance of heaven soon overtook -the ringleaders of that dark conspiracy. Some fell in a fight with the -Eskimos, and others died on the homeward voyage, which was performed -under the extremity of famine. Whatever horrors may have attended the -last moments of Hudson, his sufferings were less, for his conscience was -undefiled by guilt. - -In the year 1616 Baffin sailed round the enormous bay to which his name -has been given, but without attempting to penetrate through any one of -those wide sounds that have led the Arctic navigators of our days to so -many glorious discoveries. - -From the times of Tasman, whose bold voyage through the wastes of -the Southern Pacific has already been mentioned, to those of our own -immortal Cook, but very little was done for the progress of geography, -as if, after so many heroic endeavours, the spirit of maritime discovery -had required a long repose to recruit its energies, ere the greatest -navigator of modern times was destined to unveil the mysterious darkness -which still concealed one half of the vast Pacific from the knowledge of -mankind. The voyages most worthy of remark during this period were those -of the Cossack Semen Deshnew (1654), who sailed from the mouth of the -Kolyma River round the eastern promontory of Asia, and must be considered -as the discoverer of Behring's Straits; of the adventurous Dampier -(1689-1691), that strange combination of the buccaneer, the author, -and the naturalist, who first discovered the strait which separates -New Guinea from New Ireland; of the Dutchman Roggewein (1721-23), who -made known some islands in the Pacific; of the brothers Laptew and of -Prontschitschew (1734-1743), who unveiled the greatest part of the -Siberian coast; of Commodore Anson (1740-1744), whose heroic sufferings -and successes in the Pacific still live in the memory of his countrymen; -and of the unfortunate Behring (1730-1741), who terminated his second -unsuccessful exploring expedition by a miserable death on a desert island. - -After the peace of Aix la Chapelle England felt that the dominion of -the seas imposed upon her the obligation of extending the bounds of -geographical knowledge, and thus in rapid succession Byron (1764) and -Wallis and Carteret (1766-1768) were sent forth to discover unknown -shores, while France made a simultaneous effort to refresh the somewhat -meagre laurels she had reaped by the voyages of Verazzani and Cartier. -The consequences of this emulation were not unimportant. Bougainville -(1766-1768) completed the discovery of the Solomon Islands, which Mendana -had only partly seen; Wallis made the world acquainted with the beauties -of Tahiti, and Byron explored the unvisited coasts of Patagonia. But the -fame of these worthy mariners was soon eclipsed by a greater renown, for, -in the same year that Wallis returned from his expedition, Cook sailed -from the port of Plymouth on his first voyage round the world. - - - - -CHAP. XXVI. - - What had Cook's Predecessors left him to discover?--His first - Voyage.--Discovery of the Society Islands, and of the East Coast - of New Holland.--His second Voyage.--Discovery of the Hervey - Group.--Researches in the South Sea.--The New Hebrides.--Discovery of - New Caledonia and of South Georgia.--His third Voyage.--The Sandwich - Islands.--New Albion.--West Georgia.--Cook's Murder.--Vancouver.--La - Peyrouse. - - -To form a correct estimate of Cook's discoveries, it is necessary that, -before following the track of that great seaman, we should glance -over the vast regions of the Pacific previously unknown to man. Many -navigators indeed, since Magellan, had traversed that immense ocean, but -the greater part of its expanse still lay buried in obscurity. - -To the north of the line, the Spaniards, sailing from Manilla to -Acapulco, still servilely followed the route which Urdaneta had pointed -out, and all beyond was unexplored. - -The regions to the south of the line were better known, but here also -maritime discoverers, with the sole exception of Tasman, had confined -themselves to the tropical waters. No one had yet tried to sail through -the boundless space which to the south of the 25th degree of latitude -extended between New Zealand and America. Of Australia only the western -coast was known; the existence of Torres' Strait had long since been -forgotten, and New Guinea and New Holland were supposed to form one -connected land. To the south no one knew whether Australia and Van -Diemen's Land were joined together, or severed by a channel; and the -eastern coast of the fifth part of the world still awaited a discoverer. -The boundaries of New Zealand were buried in the same obscurity. Tasman -had only visited the west coast of the northern island, which, as -far as was then known, might have extended a thousand miles farther -on towards Chili. In one word, the great geographical problem of an -enormous southern continent, the existence of which was formerly supposed -necessary to form the counterpoise of the northern lands, still remained -unsolved. The discoveries already made had indeed narrowed the limits -which during the sixteenth century were still assigned to that imaginary -continent, but in the unexplored bosom of the South Sea there yet was -room enough for lands surpassing the whole of Europe in extent. Many of -the South Sea islands moreover, though discovered before Cook's voyages, -had vanished again from the memory of the world, or, according to -Humboldt's expression, "wavered, as if badly rooted on the map, for want -of exact astronomical measurements." Thus two hundred and fifty years -after Magellan the Pacific still offered an enormous field for discovery, -and when Cook set sail on the 30th of July, 1768, on his first voyage of -circumnavigation, nearly one half of the globe lay open to his researches. - -The first service he rendered on this voyage was the discovery that the -route to the Pacific through the Strait of Le Maire and round Cape Horn -was preferable to that which until then had been followed, through the -Straits of Magellan. - -After having observed at Otaheite the transit of Venus across the sun, -which was one of the chief objects of the expedition, he soon after -landed on the shores of Huaheine, Ulietea, and Borabora, which had never -yet been visited by a European mariner, and gave to the whole group the -name of the Society Islands, on account of their close vicinity to each -other. Thence he sailed to New Zealand, which he was the first to find -consisted of two large islands, separated by the strait which bears his -name. With unwearied industry he spent no less than six months on the -accurate survey of the New Zealand group, and then sailed to New Holland, -the eastern coast of which he first discovered, and closely examined -in its full length of 2000 miles. He also found that the continent of -Australia was separated from New Guinea by a channel which he called -"Endeavour Strait," but to which the justice of posterity has restored -or awarded the name of Torres, its first explorer. This whole sea is so -full of dangerous reefs and shoals that for months the sounding line was -scarce ever laid aside, and any less experienced and prudent navigator -must inevitably have been wrecked during these constant cruises in such -perilous waters. Even Cook owed more than once his preservation to what -may well be called a miraculous interposition of Providence, of which I -shall cite a remarkable example. It was on the 10th of June, 1770, in -the latitude of Trinity Bay. The vessel sailed, under a fresh breeze -and by clear moonlight, through a sea the depth of which the plummet -constantly indicated at 20 to 21 fathoms, so that not the least danger -was apprehended. But suddenly the depth diminished to four fathoms, and -before the lead could be heaved again the vessel struck and remained -immoveable, except as far as she was heaved up and down and dashed -against the rocks by the surge. The general anxiety may be imagined, -and indeed the situation was such as to warrant the most serious -apprehensions. It was found that the ship had been lifted over the ledge -of a rock and lay in a hollow, inside of the reef, where the water in -some places was three or four fathoms deep and in others hardly as many -feet. The sheathing boards were knocked off and floating round the ship -in great numbers, and at last the false keel also was destroyed, while -the constant grating of the vessel against the rock seemed to announce -its speedy disruption. It was now necessary to lighten the vessel as much -as possible, and soon more than 50 tons' weight was thrown overboard. - -On the following morning land was seen at the distance of eight miles; -but no islet lay between, on which, in case the vessel went to pieces, a -speedy refuge might be found. To add to their distress, the vessel drew -so much water that three pumps could hardly master it; and, finally, -it was found that even the rising of the flood, on which they mainly -reckoned, was unavailing to extricate them from their perilous position. -All that could possibly be spared was now therefore cast into the sea, -still more to lighten the vessel, and thus the next tide was patiently -expected, when, after incredible exertion, the ship righted, and they got -her over the ledge of the rock into deep water. - -But the men were by this time so much exhausted by their uninterrupted -labour that they could not stand to the pumps more than five or six -minutes at a time, after which they threw themselves flat on the -streaming deck, where they lay till others exhausted like themselves -took their places, on which they started up again and renewed their -exertions. In this desperate situation one of the midshipmen, named -Monkhouse, bethought himself of a means by which a ship, having sprung -a leak admitting more than four feet of water in an hour, had yet been -able to perform the whole journey from Virginia to London. He took a -lower studding-sail, and, having mixed a large quantity of oakum and wool -together, stitched them down by handfuls as lightly as possible. The sail -was then hauled under the ship's bottom by means of ropes which kept it -extended. When it came under the leak, the wool and oakum, with part of -the sail, were forced inwards by the pressure of the water, which thus -prevented its own ingress in such an effectual manner that one pump, -instead of three, was now sufficient to keep it under. In this way they -got the ship into a convenient port on the coast of New Holland, where -they repaired the injury. Here it was found that their preservation was -not entirely owing to that ingenious expedient, for one of the holes in -the ship's bottom was almost entirely plugged by a piece of rock which -had broken off and stuck in it; and this hole was so large, that, had it -not been filled up in this truly extraordinary manner, the vessel must -undoubtedly have sunk. Some persons, leading a tranquil life unvexed by -storm or wave, might perhaps be inclined to ascribe so miraculous an -escape to chance, but the seaman, who has had death before his eyes, will -always in such a case recognise the hand of an Almighty protector: and -who can doubt that a thrill of intense gratitude flashed through the soul -of Cook on the discovery of the cause to which he owed the preservation -of his life? - -With a vessel thus shattered, and a crew thus worn with fatigue, further -discoveries were no more to be thought of, and Cook hastened to return by -way of Batavia and the Cape to England, where he arrived on the 11th of -June, 1771. - -The object of his second voyage (1772-1775) was to determine finally the -question of the existence of a great southern continent, and to extend -the geography of that part of the globe to its utmost limits. Sir Joseph -Banks and Dr. Solander had accompanied him on his first voyage, this time -John Reinhold Forster and his son George were engaged by government to -explore and collect the natural history of the countries through which -they should pass. - -On the 13th of July, 1772, Cook sailed from Plymouth, and reached the -Cape without having a single man sick. Well aware how much cleanliness -and pure air contribute to health, he had neglected none of the means -necessary to insure it. Every day the beds were aired, the linen of the -sailors was frequently washed, and in rainy weather fire often made -between decks, to dispel unwholesome damps and effluvia. - -He now sailed to the south far into a desert and unknown sea, crossed -it in various directions, and after having spent 117 days on the ocean, -mostly among floating ice-fields, and without having once seen land, he -steered northwards to the well-known coast of New Zealand, where on the -25th of January, 1773, he cast anchor in Dusky Bay. The feelings of the -seaman may be imagined, when, after long wanderings over the waste of -waters, he sees land, mountains, forests, and green plains rise above -the horizon, when singing-birds take the place of the wild sea-mew, and -friendly faces greet him on the strand. A beneficent mind is ever anxious -to do good, and thus before sailing farther on to Otaheite, Cook caused -a little garden to be planted, in which European vegetable seeds were -sown and confided with proper instructions to the care of the intelligent -savages, who were moreover presented with goats and pigs. - -On the return voyage from Tahiti to New Zealand, where he intended to -provide himself with fire-wood and provisions, before advancing once -more into the high southern latitudes, he was pleased with the discovery -of the small but lovely Harvey Islands, whose green girdle of cocoa-nut -palms mirrors itself in the dark blue waters. - -And now again he cruised in all directions through the icy sea, over an -extent of 65° of longitude and as far as the 71st degree of southern -latitude, without having seen any land; and having thus satisfied -himself of the non-existence of a southern continent, or at least of its -circumscription within bounds which must ever render it perfectly useless -to man, he left those dreary regions of eternal winter, to continue his -discoveries under a less inclement sky. - -He first visited Easter Island and the Marquesas, where a new discovery -received the name of Hood's Island, and on the way thence to Tahiti -added the Palisser Group to the map of the world. We now follow him to -the extensive archipelago of Espiritu Santo, first seen by Quiros in -1606, who took it for a part of the imaginary southern continent. Since -then it had only been visited by Bougainville (1768), who however had -contented himself with landing on the Isle of Lepers, and ascertaining -the fact that it did not form part of a continent but of a considerable -group of islands. Cook on his part examined the whole archipelago in such -an accurate manner, ascertaining the situation of many of the islands -and discovering such numbers of new ones, that he justly thought he had -acquired the right to rebaptize them under the name of the New Hebrides. - -From these islands he sailed for the third time to New Zealand, and -discovered on his passage New Caledonia and the romantic Norfolk Island. - -Leaving New Zealand on the 10th of November, 1774, once more to search -for the southern continent, he traversed a vast extent of sea for 17 -days, from 43° to 55° 48′ S. lat., when he gave up all thoughts of -finding any more land in that part of the ocean, and determined to steer -directly for the west entrance of the Straits of Magellan, with a design -of coasting the southern part of Tierra del Fuego, quite round Cape Horn -to Le Maire's Straits. Those wild, deeply indented, rocky coasts, the -region of eternal storms and fogs, form the most striking contrast to -the smiling shores of the South Sea islands. But, if in the latter the -splendour of tropical vegetation enchants the eye of the spectator, the -exuberance of animal life in the Magellanic Archipelago may well raise -his astonishment. In one of the small islands near Staaten Land Cook -admired the remarkable harmony reigning among the different species of -mammifera and birds. The sea-lions occupied the greatest part of the -sea-coast, the bears the inland; the shags were posted on the highest -cliffs, the penguins in such places as had the best access to the sea; -and the other birds chose more retired places. Occasionally, however, -all these animals were seen to mix together like domestic cattle and -poultry in a farmyard, without one attempting to hurt the other in the -least. Even the eagles and the vultures were frequently observed sitting -together on the hills among the shags, while none of the latter, either -old or young, appeared to be disturbed at their presence. No doubt the -poor fishes had to pay for the touching union of this "happy family." - -Having fully explored the southern extremity of America, we once more see -the indefatigable navigator steer forth into the deserts of the southern -Polar Ocean, where he discovers some snow-clad isles, Bird Island, South -Georgia, Sandwich Land, the southern Thule; and finally returns to -England (30th July, 1775) after an absence of three years and seventeen -days. - -His third voyage (1776) was undertaken for the purpose of exploring the -Northern Pacific, and casting the same broad light over those unvisited -waters as over the southern part of that vast ocean. To the south-east of -the Cape of Good Hope he discovered Prince Edward's Islands, and thence -proceeded to explore Kerguelen's Land, discovered six years previously -by the Frenchman of that name. This wintry island bears neither tree nor -shrub, but in the bays the gigantic sea-weeds form submarine forests, and -countless penguins make the dreary shores resound with their deep braying -voice. - -Van Diemen's Land, New Zealand, and the Friendly and Society Isles were -now visited for the last time. Steering to the north, Cook discovered -in the last days of the year 1777 the Sandwich Islands, most likely -previously known to the Spaniards, but kept secret from the world; and -reached on the 7th of March, 1778, the mountainous forest-girt coast of -New Albion, along which two centuries before Drake had sailed as far as -48° N. lat. Penetrating farther and farther to the north, he at length -reached the most westerly point of the American continent, Cape Prince -of Wales, which, stretching far out into the Straits of Behring, is only -thirty-nine miles distant from the east coast of Siberia. Both pillars of -this water-gate, according to Chamisso's description, are high mountains -within sight of each other, rising abruptly from the sea on the Asiatic -side, while on the American their foot is bordered by a low alluvial -plain. On the Asiatic side the sea has its greatest depth, and the -current, which sets from the south into the channel with a rapidity of -two or three knots an hour, its greatest strength. Whales and numberless -herds of walruses are seen only on the Asiatic side. - -Through these famous straits, which Deshnew had first passed, and -which Behring most likely never saw, Cook penetrated into the Arctic -Ocean, examined a part of the Siberian coast, and then sailed to the -opposite shores of America, where he discovered and explored the coast -of West Georgia as far as 70° 44′ N. lat., until fields of ice opposed -an impenetrable barrier to his progress. - -After having thus illumined with the torch of science the farthest -extremities of the earth, Cook once more steered to the south and -discovered Hawaii, the largest of the Sandwich Islands. But better had it -been for him if the glory of this discovery had fallen to the share of -some other navigator, for it was here that the illustrious seaman, who -had thrice circumnavigated the globe, was doomed to fall by the club of a -barbarous savage. - -No navigator has ever made so many important discoveries at such -distances from each other as Cook, or done more for the progress of -geographical knowledge. The wide Pacific he so thoroughly explored, -that his successors found only single ears to glean where he had reaped -the richest harvest. With the firm resolution and the indomitable -perseverance of the ancient mariners who preceded him on that vast ocean, -he combined a scientific knowledge they never possessed. What they -had only flightily observed, or imperfectly described, he in reality -discovered, and indelibly marked upon the map of the globe. Indefatigable -with the astrolabe and the plummet, he neglected no opportunity of -pointing out to his successors both the dangers they would have to avoid, -and the harbours in which they might find a refuge against storms, and a -supply of fresh water and provisions. His excellent method of preserving -the health of seamen from the murderous attacks of the scurvy, secures -him a lasting place among the benefactors of mankind. But he not only -anxiously watched over the welfare of his companions--his humanity -extended a no less salutary influence over the savages with whom he -came in contact. He everywhere sought to better their condition, made -them presents of useful animals and seeds, and pointed out to them the -advantages of peace and agriculture. But his chief praise remains yet to -be told, and this is, that he owed the high position he acquired in life -exclusively to himself. He whose fame reached as far as the limits of -the civilised world, and whose death was mourned as a national calamity, -was the son of a poor labourer, and had commenced his career as a common -sailor. - -The most celebrated navigators during the last quarter of the eighteenth -century were Vancouver and La Peyrouse. - -Vancouver, who had accompanied Cook on his last and fatal voyage, gained -his chief laurels (1790) by thoroughly exploring the north-west coast -of America, which his illustrious friend had merely sketched in its -most important outlines, having been prevented by his untimely end -from investigating it more fully on a second visit. Vancouver began -his hydrographical labours at Cape Mendocino, examined the Straits of -Juan de Fuca, and, having convinced himself of the non-existence of a -passage to the eastward, accurately investigated the labyrinth of bays, -isles, sounds, and inlets, extending between 50° and 60° N. lat., thus -establishing the important fact of the uninterrupted continuation of the -American continent in these parts. Vancouver's Island will transmit his -name to the latest posterity, and British Columbia remember him as the -first navigator that accurately mapped her shores. - -The fame of La Peyrouse is owing more to his misfortunes than to his -eminent services. After having distinguished himself as a naval officer, -he was sent by the equally unfortunate Louis XVI. on the voyage of -discovery from which he was never to return. On the coast of Tartary -and in the Japanese seas he examined a part of the world which hitherto -no European had visited, and after having rectified many geographical -errors sailed to Botany Bay, whence he forwarded his last despatches (7th -Feb. 1788) to Europe. With the design of sailing through Torres' Straits -to the Gulf of Carpentaria, he left the new-born English colony, but -disappeared in the trackless ocean, and years and years passed on without -solving the mystery of his fate. - -At length, in 1826, Captain Dillon, an Englishman, was informed by -Martin Bushart, a Prussian sailor whom he found settled on the Island -of Tikopia, that many years since two large ships had been wrecked on -the neighbouring Island of Vanikoro. Having brought this intelligence to -Calcutta, he was sent out by the East India Company in the "Research" to -make further inquiries on the scene of the catastrophe. On the 13th of -Sept., 1827, Dillon anchored at Vanikoro, and, having collected the most -interesting relics of the shipwreck, left it after a few weeks. - -These facts became known at Hobart Town to the French circumnavigator -Dumont d'Urville, who immediately resolved to sail to Vanikoro. He -arrived there on the 22nd Feb., 1828, but at first found it very -difficult to persuade the suspicious natives to point out to him the -remains of the wrecked ship, until the offer of a piece of red cloth -effectually overcame their scruples. One of the boldest immediately -jumped into a boat and offered to guide them on condition of receiving -the proffered reward. The bargain was gladly struck, and the Frenchmen, -piloted by the negro, eagerly pushed off from shore. - -The coral reef which forms an enormous girdle round Vanikoro approaches -the land opposite to the village of Paiou, so that the distance between -them is hardly a mile. There, in a channel dividing the breakers, the -savage caused the boat to stop, and made signs to the Frenchmen to look -down to the bottom, where they saw anchors, cannons, and other objects -scattered about and overgrown with corals. No doubt now remained, and -with deep emotion they gazed on these last memorials of the unfortunate -expedition of La Peyrouse. Metal alone had been able to resist the tooth -of time, the rolling waters, or the gnawing ship-worm; all wood-work was -gone. - -I have already stated that on d'Urville's arrival he found the natives -extremely distrustful and shy, answering all his questions by negations. -It was evident that their conduct towards La Peyrouse had been anything -but hospitable, and that they now feared the tardy vengeance of the white -men. But, finding themselves treated with invariable kindness, their -fears gradually gave way, and thus it became possible to gather some -information about the catastrophe from some old men who had witnessed it, -and from the most intelligent of the chiefs. - -After a dark and stormy night the islanders saw early on the following -morning an enormous _pirogue_ stranded on the coral reef on the south -side of the island. The surf soon destroyed the ship, and but a small -number of the crew reached the shore in a boat. On the following day a -second large _pirogue_ stranded opposite Paiou. But this wreck lying on -the lee-side of the island, less exposed to the surf, and resting on a -more even ground, remained a longer time without going to pieces. The -whole of the crew escaped in the boats to Paiou, where they built a small -vessel, and after a stay of five months once more embarked, and were -never heard of since. Most likely they had steered towards New Ireland, -with the intention of ultimately reaching the Moluccas or the Philippine -Islands, and perished on some unknown reef. The unhealthy condition of -d'Urville's crew prevented him from extending his researches any further -along the western coasts of the Solomon Islands. That the stranded -vessels were those of La Peyrouse is beyond all doubt; for years before -and after no other large vessels had been lost in those seas. The heavy -cannons could only have belonged to ships of war such as La Peyrouse -commanded, and several of the instruments collected by Captain Dillon -evidently belonged to a scientific expedition. - -Before d'Urville left Vanikoro he resolved to raise a simple monument to -the memory of his unfortunate countrymen, a four-sided pyramid resting on -a square base. Neither nails nor iron clasps fastened the coral blocks -together, for fear of awakening the cupidity of the savages; and, if they -have kept their word to honour the _Papalangi_ monument as they would a -temple erected to their own gods, it still reminds the navigator whom -chance may lead to that secluded island, of the renown and tragical end -of the ill-fated La Peyrouse. - - - - -CHAP. XXVII. - - Scoresby.--The Arctic Navigators.--Ross.--Parry.--Sufferings - of Franklin and his Companions on his Overland Expedition - in 1821.--Parry's Sledge-journey to the North Pole.--Sir - John Franklin.--M'Clure.--Kane.--M'Clintock.--South Polar - Expeditions.--Billinghausen.--Weddell.--Biscoe.--Balleny.--Dumont - d'Urville.--Wilkes.--Sir James Ross.--Recent scientific Voyages of - Circumnavigation. - - -Although the undaunted courage and indomitable perseverance of the great -navigators whom I have named in the preceding chapters had gradually -circumscribed the bounds of discovery, and no vast ocean remained to be -explored by some future Cook or Magellan, yet at the beginning of this -century many secrets of the sea still remained unrevealed to man. - -The north coast of America and the Arctic Ocean beyond were still plunged -in mysterious darkness; and although Cook in several places had advanced -far into the Antarctic seas, yet here also a wide field still lay open to -the adventurous seaman. - -Many coasts, many groups of islands scattered over the vast bosom of -the ocean, awaited a more accurate survey, and would no doubt have -remained unexplored, if gold, as in former times, had still been the sole -magnet which attracted the seafarer to distant parts of the world. But -fortunately science had now become a power which induced man, without -any prospect of immediate profit, to spare no expense and to shrink from -no danger, that he might become better and better acquainted with his -dwelling-place the earth. - -It cannot be denied that our century has laboured at the solution of all -these various geographical questions with an energy and perseverance -unexampled in the history of civilisation; and the prominent part she -has taken in their investigation is undoubtedly one of the great glories -of England. At no other time have more voyages of discovery and more -scientific expeditions been undertaken; never have more courageous -Argonauts gone forth to conquer the golden fleece of knowledge. It -will be the pleasing task of this closing chapter to follow these noble -mariners in their adventurous course; and, to avoid confusion, I shall -begin with a short history of Arctic discovery up to the present day, -and afterwards treat of the efforts made to extend our knowledge towards -the South Pole. In spite of the unsuccessful efforts of a Frobisher, a -Davis, a Hudson, and a Baffin, England had never given up the hope of -discovering a northern passage to India, either direct across the Pole, -or round the north coast of America. It had been one of the chief objects -of Cook's third voyage to find a sea-path from Behring's Straits to -Baffin's or Hudson's Bay; and some years before, while the illustrious -navigator was busy exploring the Southern Pacific, we see Captain Phipps -renewing the old attempt to sail direct to the Pole (1773). But, like his -predecessor Hudson, he reached no farther than the northern extremity of -Spitzbergen, where his vessel, surrounded by mighty ice-blocks, would -have perished but for a timely change of wind. This repulse damped for a -time the spirit of discovery; but hope revived again when it became known -that Scoresby, on a whaling expedition in the Greenland seas (1806), had -attained 81° N. lat. and thus approached the Pole to within 540 miles. -No one before him had ever reached so far to the north, and an open sea -tempted him mightily to proceed, but as the object of his voyage was -strictly commercial, and he himself answerable to the owners of his -vessel, Scoresby felt obliged to sacrifice his inclinations to his duty -and to steer again to the south. - -During the continental war, England indeed had little leisure to -prosecute discoveries in the Arctic Ocean; but not long after the -conclusion of peace (1818) two expeditions were sent out for that purpose. - -Captain Buchan, with the ships "Dorothea" and "Trent," sailed with -instructions to proceed in a direction as due north as might be -practicable through the Spitzbergen Sea; but, having after much -difficulty gained lat. 80° 34′ north in that polar archipelago, he was -obliged speedily to withdraw and try his fortune off the western edge of -the pack. Here however a tremendous gale, threatening every moment to -crush the ships between the large ice-blocks heaving and sinking in the -roaring billows, induced the bold experiment of dashing right into the -body of the ice; a practice which has been resorted to by whalers in -extreme cases, as their only chance of escaping destruction. - -"While we were yet a few fathoms from the ice," says Admiral Beechey, the -eloquent eye-witness and narrator of the dreadful scene, "we searched -with much anxiety for a place that was more open than the general line of -the pack, but in vain; all parts appeared to be equally impenetrable, and -to present one unbroken line of furious breakers, in which immense pieces -of ice were heaving and subsiding with the waves. - -"No language, I am convinced, can convey an adequate idea of the terrific -grandeur of the effect now produced by the collision of the ice and -the tempestuous ocean. The sea violently agitated, and rolling its -mountainous waves against an opposing body, is at all times a sublime and -awful sight; but when, in addition, it encounters immense masses, which -it has set in motion with a violence equal to its own, its effect is -prodigiously increased. At one moment it bursts upon these icy fragments, -and buries them many feet beneath its wave, and the next, as the buoyancy -of the depressed body struggles for reascendency, the water rushes in -foaming cataracts over its edges; whilst every individual mass, rocking -and labouring in its bed, grinds against and contends with its opponent -until one is either split with the shock or upheaved upon the surface of -the other. Nor is this collision confined to one particular spot, it is -going on as far as the sight can reach; and when, from this convulsive -scene below, the eye is turned to the extraordinary appearance of the -blink in the sky above, where the unnatural clearness of a calm and -silvery atmosphere presents itself bounded by a dark hard line of stormy -clouds, such as at this moment lowered over our masts, as if to mark the -confines within which the efforts of man would be of no avail, the reader -may imagine the sensation of awe which must accompany that of grandeur in -the mind of the beholder. - -"At this instant, when we were about to put the strength of our little -vessel in competition with that of the great icy continent, and when it -seemed almost presumption to reckon on the possibility of her surviving -the unequal conflict, it was gratifying in the extreme to observe in all -our crew the greatest calmness and resolution. If ever the fortitude of -seamen was fairly tried, it was on this occasion; and I will not conceal -the pride I felt in witnessing the bold and decisive tone in which the -orders were issued by the commander of our little vessel (the since so -far-famed and lamented Franklin), and the promptitude and steadiness with -which they were executed by the crew. - -"We were now so near the scene of danger as to render necessary the -immediate execution of our plan, and in an instant the labouring vessel -flew before the gale. Each person instinctively secured his own hold -and with his eyes fixed upon the masts, awaited in breathless anxiety -the moment of concussion. It soon arrived; the brig, cutting her way -through the light ice, came in violent contact with the main body. In an -instant we all lost our footing, the masts bent with the impetus, and the -cracking timbers from below bespoke a pressure which was calculated to -awaken our serious apprehensions. The vessel staggered under the shock, -and for a moment seemed to recoil; but the next wave, curling up under -her counter, drove her about her own length within the margin of the ice, -where she gave one roll and was immediately thrown broadside to the wind -by the succeeding wave. This unfortunate occurrence prevented the vessel -from penetrating sufficiently far into the ice to escape the effect of -the gale, and placed her in a situation where she was assailed on all -sides by battering rams, if I may use the expression, every one of which -contested the small space, which she occupied, and dealt such unrelenting -blows that there appeared to be scarcely any possibility of saving her -from foundering. Literally tossed from piece to piece, we had nothing -left but patiently to abide the issue, for we could scarcely keep our -feet, much less render any assistance to the vessel. The motion indeed -was so great, that the ship's bell, which in the heaviest gale of wind -had never struck of itself, now tolled so continually that it was ordered -to be muffled, for the purpose of escaping the unpleasant association it -was calculated to produce." - -By setting more head-sail, though at the risk of the masts, already -tottering with the pressure of that which was spread, the vessels, -splitting the ice and thus effecting a passage between the pieces, were -at length released from their perilous situation, but the "Dorothea" was -found to be completely disabled. A short time at Fairhaven in Spitsbergen -was spent in necessary repairs, and even then she was unfit for any -farther service than the voyage to England. Franklin volunteered to -prosecute the enterprise with the "Trent" alone, but the Admiralty Orders -opposed such a proceeding, and the vessels returned home in company. - -Meanwhile Captain John Ross, with the "Isabella" and "Alexander," had -proceeded to Baffin's Bay, but instead of exploring Smith's, Jones's, and -Lancaster Sounds, which recent voyages have proved to be each and all -grand open channels to the Polar Sea, he contented himself with Baffin's -assertion that they were enclosed by land, and, after having thus -fruitlessly accomplished the circuit of the bay, returned to England. - -With Parry's first expedition, which took place in the following year -(1819), the epoch of modern discoveries in the Arctic Ocean, may properly -be said to begin. Sailing right through Lancaster Sound, he discovered -Prince Regent Inlet, Wellington Channel, and Melville Island. Willingly -would he have proceeded farther to the west, but the ice was now rapidly -gathering, the vessels were soon beset, and, after getting free with -great difficulty, Parry was only too glad to turn back, and settle down -in Winter Harbour. It was no easy task to attain this dreary port, as a -canal two miles and a third in length had first to be cut through solid -ice of seven inches average thickness, yet such was the energy of that -splendid expedition, that the Herculean labour was accomplished in three -days. The two vessels were immediately put in winter trim, the decks -housed over, heating apparatus arranged, and everything done to make the -ten months' imprisonment in those Arctic solitudes as comfortable as -possible. - -It was not before the 1st of August that the ships were able to leave -Winter Harbour, when Parry once more stood boldly for the west, but no -amount of skill or patience could penetrate the obstinate masses of -ice, or insure the safety of the vessels under the repeated shocks they -sustained. Finding the barriers absolutely invincible he gave way, and, -steering homeward, reached London on Nov. 3, 1820, where, as may well be -imagined, his reception was most enthusiastic and cordial. - -While this wonderful voyage was performing, Franklin, Richardson, and -Back, with two English sailors and a troop of Canadians and Indians, were -penetrating by land to the mouth of the Coppermine River, whence they -intended to make a boat-voyage of discovery along the coasts of the Icy -Ocean. An idea of the difficulties of this undertaking may be formed, -when I mention that the travellers started from Fort York, in Hudson's -Bay, on the 30th of August, 1819, and after a voyage of 700 miles up the -Saskatchewan, reached Fort Cumberland, where they spent the first winter. -The next found them 700 miles further on their journey, established -during the extreme cold at Fort Enterprise. During the summer of 1821 -they accomplished the remaining 334 miles, and on the 21st of July -commenced their exploration of the Polar Sea in two birch-bark canoes. -In these frail shallops they skirted the desolate coast of the American -continent, 555 miles to the east of the Coppermine, as far as Point -Turnagain, when the rapid decrease of their provisions and the shattered -state of the canoes imperatively compelled their return. And now began a -dreadful land-journey of two months, accompanied by all the horrors of -famine. A lichen, called by the Canadians _tripe de roche_ (rock-tripe), -afforded them for some time a wretched subsistence, and, that failing, -they were glad to satisfy their hunger with scraps of roasted leather or -burnt bones, from prey which the wolves might have abandoned. On reaching -the Coppermine a raft had to be framed, a task accomplished with the -utmost difficulty by the exhausted party. One or two of the Canadians -had already fallen behind, and never rejoined their comrades, and now -three or four sank down, and could proceed no farther. Back, with the -most vigorous of the men, had already pushed on to send help from Fort -Enterprise; and Richardson, Hood, and Hepburn volunteered to remain with -the disabled men, near a supply of the rock-tripe, while Franklin pursued -his journey with the others capable of bearing him company. On reaching -Fort Enterprise this last party found that wretched tenement completely -deserted, and a note from Back stating that he had gone in pursuit of the -Indians. Some cast-off deer-skins and a heap of bones, provisions worthy -of the place, sustained their flickering life-flame, and after eighteen -miserable days, they were joined in their dreary quarters by Richardson -and Hepburn, the sole survivors of _their_ party. At length, when on -the point of sinking under their sufferings, three Indians sent by Back -brought them timely succour. After a while they were able to join this -valuable friend, and the following year brought them safely back to -England. - -I pass over Parry's second and third voyages, undertaken in the years -1821 and 1824, which were consumed in fruitless endeavours to penetrate -westward; the first through some unknown channel to the north of Hudson's -Bay, the second through Prince Regent's Inlet; but his last attempt to -reach the North Pole, by boat and sledge-travelling over the ice, is -of too novel and daring a character to remain unnoticed. His hopes of -success were founded on Scoresby's descriptions, who had seen ice-fields -so free from either fissure or hummock, that, had they not been covered -with snow, a coach might have been driven many leagues over them in a -direct line, without obstruction or danger; but when Parry reached the -ice-fields to the north of Spitzbergen he found them of a very different -nature, composed of loose rugged masses, which rendered travelling over -them extremely irksome and slow. - -The strong flat-bottomed boats--amphibious constructions, half sledge, -half canoe,--expressly built for an amphibious journey over a region -where solid ice was expected to alternate with pools of water, had thus -frequently to be unloaded, in order to be raised over the intervening -blocks or mounds, and repeated journeys backward and forward over the -same ground were the necessary consequences. In some places the ice took -the form of sharp pointed crystals, which cut the boots like penknives; -in others, sixteen or eighteen inches of soft snow made the work of -boat-dragging both fatiguing and tedious. Sometimes the men were obliged, -in dragging the boats, to crawl on all-fours, to make any progress at -all, and one day, when heavy rain melted the surface of the ice, four -hours of vigorous effort accomplished only half a mile. - -Yet in spite of all these obstacles they toiled cheerfully on and on, -until at length the discovery was made, that while they were apparently -advancing towards the Pole, the ice-field on which they journeyed was -moving to the south, and thus rendering all their exertions fruitless. -Yet though disappointed in his great hope of planting his country's -standard on that unattainable goal, Parry had the glory of reaching the -highest latitude (82° 45′) ever attained by man. - -Before this adventurous voyage, Franklin, Richardson, and Back, -forgetful of their long life and death struggle with famine (1819), had -once more (1825) with heroic perseverance bent their steps to the north. -This time they chose the mouths of the Mackenzie for the starting-point -of their discoveries, and having separated into two parties, proceeded to -the east and west, and explored 4000 miles of unknown coast. - -In 1829 Captain John Ross, having for a long time vainly solicited -government to send him out once more on an Arctic expedition, was -enabled by the munificence of a private individual, Mr. Felix Booth, to -accomplish his wishes, and to purchase a small steamer, to which the -rather presumptuous name of "Victory" was given. The selection of the -vessel was no doubt unlucky enough: for can anything be conceived more -unpractical than paddle-boxes among ice-blocks; but, to make amends for -this error, the veteran commander was fortunate in being accompanied by -his illustrious nephew, James Ross, who with every quality of the seaman -united the ardour and knowledge of the most zealous naturalist. - -He it was who discovered the peninsula which in compliment to the patron -of the expedition was named Boothia Felix; to him also we owe the -discovery of the Magnetic Pole; but the voyage is far less remarkable for -these after all not very important successes, than for its unexampled -protraction during a space of five years. - -The first season had a fortunate termination. On the 10th of August, -1829, the "Victory" attained Prince Regent's Inlet, and reached on the -13th the spot where Parry on his third voyage had been obliged to abandon -the "Fury." Of the ship itself no traces remained; but the provisions -which had providently been stored up on land were found untouched. The -solid tin boxes had effectually preserved them from the voracity of the -white bears; and the flour, bread, wine, rum, and sugar were found as -good after four years, as on the day when the expedition started. - -It was to this discovery, to this "manna in the wilderness," that Ross -owed his subsequent preservation; for how else could he have passed -four winters in the Arctic waste? Never was the hand of Providence more -distinctly visible than here. - -On the 15th of August Cape Garry was attained, the most southern point -of the inlet which Parry had reached on his third voyage. Fogs and -drift-ice considerably retarded the progress of the expedition; but -Ross, though slowly, moved on, so that about the middle of September -the map of the northern regions was enriched by some 500 miles of newly -discovered coast. But now winter broke in with all its Arctic severity, -and the "Victory" was obliged to seek refuge in Felix Harbour, where the -useless steam-engine was thrown overboard as a nuisance, and the usual -preparations made for spending the cold season as agreeably as possible. - -The following spring, from the 17th of May to the 13th of June, was -employed by James Ross on a sledge journey, which led to the discovery -of King William's Sound and King William's Land; and during which that -courageous mariner penetrated so far to the west, that he had only ten -days' provisions, scantily measured out, for a return voyage of 200 miles -through an empty wilderness. - -After an imprisonment of full twelve months the "Victory" was set free on -the 17th of September, 1830, and proceeded once more on her discoveries. -But the period of her liberty was short indeed, short like that of -revolted slaves between two despotisms; for, after advancing three miles -in one continual battle against the currents and the drift-ice, she again -froze fast on the 27th of the same month. - -In the following spring we again see the indefatigable James Ross, ever -active in the cause of science, extending the circle of his excursions -and planting the British flag upon the site of the Northern Magnetic -Pole, which, however, is not invariably fixed to one spot, as was then -believed, but moves from place to place within the glacial zone. - -On the 28th of August, 1831, the "Victory," after a second imprisonment -of eleven months, was warped into open water, and, after having spent a -whole month to advance _four_ English miles, was again enclosed by the -ice on the 27th of September. - -But seven miles in two long years! According to this measure, there -was but little hope indeed of ever seeing Old England again: the only -chance left was to abandon the vessel, and endeavour by means of the -boats left among the "Fury's" stores to reach Baffin's Bay, and get a -homeward passage in some whaler. Accordingly the colours were nailed to -the mast-head of the "Victory," and then officers and crew took leave of -the ill-fated little vessel, on the 23rd of April, 1832. Captain Ross -was deeply moved on this occasion; for, after having served forty-two -years in thirty-five different ships, this was the first he had ever been -obliged to abandon as a wreck. - -Provisions and boats had now to be transported over long tracts of rugged -ice, and as their great weight rendered it impossible to carry all at -once, the same ground had to be traversed several times. Terrific snow -storms retarded the progress of the wanderers, and invincible obstacles -forced them to make long circuits. Thus it happened that during the first -month of their pilgrimage through the wilderness, although they had -travelled 329 miles, they only gained thirty in a direct line. - -On the 9th of June, James Ross, the leading spirit of the expedition, -accompanied by two men and with a fortnight's provisions, left the main -body to ascertain the state of the boats and supplies at Fury Beach. -Returning, they met their comrades on the 25th of June, and gratified -them with the intelligence, that, though they had found three of the -boats washed away, enough still remained for their purpose, and that all -the provisions were in good condition. - -On the 1st of July the whole party arrived at Fury Beach, whence, after -having repaired the weather-worn boats, they set out again on the 1st of -August, and, after much buffeting among the ice in their frail shallops, -reached the mouth of the inlet by the end of the month. But here they -were doomed to disappointment; for, after several fruitless attempts to -run along Barrow's Strait, the obstructions from the ice obliged them to -haul the boats on shore and pitch their tents. - -Barrow's Strait was found from repeated surveys to be one impenetrable -mass of ice. After lingering here till the third week in September, it -was unanimously agreed that their only resource was to fall back again on -the stores at Fury Beach, and spend their fourth winter in that dreary -solitude. Here they sheltered their canvass tent with a wall of snow, and -setting up an extra stove made themselves tolerably comfortable until the -increasing severity of the winter, and the rigour of the cold, added to -the tempestuous weather, made them perfect prisoners, and sorely tried -their patience. Scurvy now began to appear, and several of the men fell -victims to the scourge. At the same time cares for the future darkened -the gloom of their situation, for, if they were not liberated in the -ensuing summer, their diminishing food gave them but little hope of -surviving another year. - -It may be imagined how anxiously the aspect of the sea was watched during -the ensuing summer, and with what beating hearts they at length embarked -on the 15th of August. The spot which the year before they had attained -after the most strenuous exertions was soon passed, and slowly winding -their way through the ice-blocks with which the inlet was encumbered, -they now saw the wide expanse of Barrow's Strait open before them. With -spirits invigorated by hope they push on, alternately rowing and sailing, -and on the night of the 25th rest in a good harbour on the eastern shore -of Navy Board Inlet. "A ship in sight!" is the joyful sound that awakens -them early on the following morning; and never have men more hurriedly -and energetically set out, never have oars been more indefatigably -plied. But the elements are against them, calms and currents conspire -against their hopes, and to their inexpressible disappointment the ship -disappears in the distant haze. - -But after a few hours of suspense the sight of another vessel lying to in -a calm relieves their despair. This time their exertions are crowned with -success; and, wonderful! the vessel which receives them on board is the -same "Isabella" in which Ross made his first voyage to these seas. - -They told him of his own death, and could hardly be persuaded that it was -really he and his party who now stood before them. But when all doubts -were cleared away, you should have heard their thrice-repeated thundering -hurrahs! - -The scene that now followed cannot better be told than in Ross's own -words:-- - -"Every man was hungry, and was to be fed; all were ragged, and were to be -clothed; there was not one to whom washing was not indispensable; nor one -whom his beard did not deprive of all human semblance. All, everything, -too was to be done at once. It was washing, dressing, shaving, eating, -all intermingled; it was all the materials of each jumbled together; -while in the midst of all there were interminable questions to be asked -and answered on both sides; the adventures of the "Victory," our own -escapes, the politics of England, and the news, which was now four years -old. - -"But all subsided into peace at last. The sick were accommodated, the -seamen disposed of, and all was done for us which care and kindness could -perform. - -"Night at length brought quiet and serious thoughts; and I trust there -was not a man among us who did not then express, where it was due, his -gratitude for that interposition which had raised us all from a despair -which none could now forget, and had brought us from the very borders -of a most distant grave to life and friends and civilisation. Long -accustomed, however, to a cold bed on the hard snow or the bare rock, -few could sleep amid the comfort of our accommodations. I was myself -compelled to leave the bed which had been kindly assigned me, and take -my abode in a chair for the night, nor did it fare much better with the -rest. It was for time to reconcile us to this sudden and violent change, -to break through what had become habit, and to inure us once more to the -usages of our former days." - -I have no time to relate how Ross was received in England, and what -honours were heaped upon him; honours conferred with all the better -grace that the nation had not forgotten him during his long-protracted -absence, and had no cause to blush for culpable neglect. For Britain has -ever considered it her duty to help and assist the men who venture their -lives in the cause of science and for the advancement of her glory; nor -will she allow the officer who carries her standard into unknown lands, -and there falls a victim to nature or to man, to perish without feeling -his last moments gladdened by the conviction, that, however distant his -grave, the eye of his country rests upon him. - -Thus when Back, that noble Paladin of Arctic research, volunteered to -lead a relief expedition in quest of Ross, £4000 were immediately raised -by public subscription to defray the expenses of the undertaking. While -deep in the American wilds Back was gratified with the intelligence that -the object of his search had safely arrived in England, but, instead of -returning home, the indefatigable explorer resolved to trace the unknown -course of the Thlu-it-scho, or Great Fish River, down to the distant -outlet where it pours its waters into the polar seas. It would take -a volume to recount his adventures in this wonderful expedition, the -numberless falls, cascades, and rapids that obstructed his progress; the -storms and snow-drifts that vainly conspired to repel him; the horrors -of that iron-ribbed desert, without a single tree on the whole line of -his passage; and how heroically he persevered to the very last, and added -Back's River, as the Thlu-it-scho has most deservedly been called, to the -geographical conquests of which England may well be proud. - -The present is not a detailed account of Arctic discovery, a complete -historical narrative of how step by step those dreary regions, the refuse -of the earth, have grown into distinctness on the map; so passing over -Simpson's wonderful boat-voyage along the northern shores of America, -which led to the discovery of 1600 miles of coast (1837-1839), and Rae's -important researches on Melville Peninsula (1846, 1847), I proceed to -the last expedition of Sir John Franklin. We all know how the veteran -seaman left England in the sixtieth year of his age, once more to try -the north-western passage; how since his last despatches, dated from the -Whalefish Islands, Baffin's Bay, July 12th, 1845, months and months, -and then years and years, elapsed without bringing any tidings of his -fate; how Collinson and M'Clure, Penny and Inglefield, Kane and Bellot, -and so many other worthies, went out to search for the "Erebus" and -"Terror," and how in spite of all their efforts mystery still overhung -the ill-fated expedition, until M'Clintock raised the veil and informed -us how miserably most of the gallant seamen perished in those dreary -wastes, but how their commander had been spared the pangs of protracted -suffering, and gone to his eternal rest even before his country began to -feel concerned about his loss. - -The search for Franklin is a page in history of which a nation may -well be proud, more noble than a hundred battles and grander than the -conquest of an empire. These are no blood-stained laurels, but palms of -glory gained by matchless energy and perseverance over the horrors of a -nature inimical to man, a theme which some future Homer will delight to -sing. Had Franklin been ever so successful, he could not possibly have -achieved so much for Arctic discovery as his loss gave rise to; for to -the disasters of his voyage we owe the knowledge of all the coasts of -that intricate conglomeration of islands which faces the Pole, and of -the channels, which opening far to the north, lead to its profoundest, -and seemingly impenetrable depths. All these discoveries are of little -commercial value, it is true, for no trading vessel will ever plough -those desert seas; but it is no small advantage to a nation to have to -register such pages in her annals, and to leave them as a legacy and an -example to future generations. - -The series of modern South Polar expeditions was opened in 1819 by -Smith's casual discovery of New South Shetland. Soon afterwards a Russian -expedition under Lazareff and Bellinghausen discovered (January, 1821), -in 69° 3′ south lat., the islands Paul the First and Alexander, the most -southern lands that had ever been visited by man. - -The year after, Captain Weddell, a sealer, penetrated into the icy sea -as far as 74° 15′ south lat. three degrees nearer to the pole than had -been attained by the indomitable perseverance of Cook. Swarms of petrels -animated the sea, and no ice impeded his progress, but as the season was -far advanced, and Weddell apprehended the dangers of the return voyage, -he steered again to the north. In 1831 Biscoe discovered Enderby Land, -and soon afterwards Graham's Land, to which the gratitude of geographers -has since given the discoverer's name. - -Then follows Balleny who in 1839 revealed the existence of the group of -islands called after him, and of Sabrina Land (69° south lat.). - -About the same time three considerable expeditions appear in the southern -seas, sent out by France, the United States, and England. - -Dumont d'Urville discovered _Terre Louis Philippe_ (63° 30′ south lat.) -in February, 1838, and _Terre Adélie_ (66° 67′ south lat.) on the 21st -of January, 1840. - -Almost on the same day, Wilkes, the commander of the United States -exploring expedition reached a coast which he followed for a length of -1500 miles, and which has been called Wilkes' Land, to commemorate the -discoverer's name. But of all the explorers of the southern frozen ocean, -the palm unquestionably belongs to Sir James Ross, who penetrated farther -towards the Pole than any other navigator before or after, and followed -up to 79° south lat. a steep coast, whose enormous glaciers stretched -far out into the sea. In 77° 5′ south lat. he witnessed a magnificent -eruption of Mount Erebus, the Etna of the extreme south. The enormous -columns of flame and smoke rising two thousand feet above the mouth of -the crater, which is elevated 12,000 feet above the level of the sea, -combined, with the snow-white mountain-chain and the deep blue ocean, -to form a scene, the magnificence of which seemed to be enhanced by the -reflection that no human eye had ever witnessed its beauty, as most -likely none will ever witness it again. As all the efforts of the gallant -leader to penetrate still farther to the south were baffled by a mighty -ice-barrier, forming an uninterrupted mural precipice for the length of -several hundred miles, he yielded to the invincible obstacles of nature, -and returned to more genial climes. It is worthy of notice, that Sir -James Clark Ross had accompanied Parry on his sledge-expedition to the -North Pole, and thus acquired the unique distinction of having approached -_both_ poles nearer than any other man. - -Whether the lands discovered by Wilkes, d'Urville, Biscoe, Balleny, and -Ross form a continuous continent, or belong to a large group of islands -behind which an open sea extends to the very Pole, is a question which -most likely will never be solved, as its determination can never be of -the least use to mankind. - -The numerous scientific voyages of circumnavigation achieved during the -course of the present century are far more important, with regard to the -welfare and progress of humanity, than the researches which have been -made in the icy wildernesses of the north and south. New lands and isles -of great extent have indeed not been discovered by these expeditions, but -they have contributed not less largely to the advancement of geography -and the natural sciences. - -The wonders of oceanic life have first been shown in a more distinct -light by the labours of Chamisso, Meyen, Lesson, Darwin, Gray, Hooker, -Robinson, Dana, &c., who accompanied Kotzebue, Freycinet, Fitzroy, Ross, -&c., on their world-encircling course; and numerous coasts and groups of -islands, situated in the remotest seas, and formerly only superficially -known, have been accurately measured and traced on the map by the -distinguished hydrographers who took part in those far-famed voyages. - - - - -INDEX - - -INDEX. - - - Aar glacier, formation and dissolution of the, 75 - Acalephæ, 348. _See_ Jelly-fishes - Acephala, their organisation, 299 - -- their food, 305 - -- their enemies, 305, 306 - Acorn-shell, the, 244 - Actiniæ, 361 - Actinozoa, 363 - Adriatic, depth of the, 8 - -- tides of the, 43 - Africa, length of coast-line of, 4 - -- circumnavigated by the Phœnicians, 444 - -- Hanno's discoveries on the west coast of, 444 - Agar-agar, or artificial edible birds'-nests of Java, 402 - Agricola, Julius, sails round Scotland, 422 - Air-bladder of fishes, 189 - Air-currents. _See_ Winds - Albatross, 163 - Albion, New, discovery of, 467 - Alcyonarians, 363 - Alexander the Great, maritime discoveries resulting from the - conquests of, 447 - Alexandria, the Pharus or lighthouse of, 89 - Algæ, 390 - -- changes produced by, in the colour of the sea, 19 - -- Russian official collecting, 392 - Alligators, 172 - Amalfi, maritime trade of, 449 - -- decline of, 449 - Amazon river, tides of the, 43 - -- -- quantity of water which it pours into the ocean, 75 - -- -- discovery of the river, 460 - America, length of coast-line of, 4 - -- salmon of Russian America, 221 - -- discovery of, by Columbus, 457 - -- account of early navigation along the shores of, 457 - Amerigo Vespucci, his discoveries, 460 - Ammodyte, or launce, 230 - Ammonites, 437 - Amœbæ, 379 - -- simplicity of their structure, 380 - Anabas of the dry tanks, 193 - Anchovy, 214 - Angler, or sea-devil, 203 - Annelides, marine, 262 - -- general remarks on the, 262 - -- their beauty, 263 - -- their food, 264 - -- their enemies, 265 - -- tubicole, 266 - Anson, Commodore, his maritime discoveries, 483 - Aphrodita, or sea-mouse, 264 - Arab commerce and maritime discovery, 452 - Arctic discovery, 474, 496 - -- winter passed by Barentz, 478 - Argand, his improvement in marine illumination, 90 - Argonaut, 280 - Argus, Scotch or Shetland, 333 - Ascidia mammillata, 322 - Asia, length of coast-line of, 4 - Asteriæ, 335 - Astræa, 373 - Atlantic Ocean, depth of the, according to Maury, 7 - -- -- temperature of the, 14 - -- -- fury of the Atlantic surge, 28, 29 - -- -- enormous fucus banks, or floating meadows of the, 397 - Atolls, or lagoon islands, 374 - Auburn, site of the village of, 29 - Auks, 151, 168 - Australia, length of coast-line of, 4 - -- discoveries in, 480, 486 - Avosets, 143, 144, 146 - Azores, discovery of the, 456 - - - Back's arctic voyages, 507 - Baffin, his maritime discoveries, 483 - Baffin's Bay, discovery of, 483 - Balani, 244 - Balanus ovularis, 244 - -- balanoides, 244 - Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de, sketch of him and his discoveries, 464 - Baleen of the whale, 98 - Balleny, his discoveries, 509 - Baltic, depth of the, 8 - Band-worm, the great, 264 - Barentz, William, his maritime discoveries, 476 - Barnacles, 244 - -- their attacks on the whale, 17 - Barnacle goose, 146 - Barrow's Straits, discovery of, 505 - Basaltic pillars of Fingal's Cave, 46 - Bassora, foundation of the town of, 452 - Bastidas, Roderigo de, his maritime discoveries, 461 - Beachy Head, 5 - Bear, white, said to attack the whale, 100 - -- organisation of the polar bear, 10 - -- attacks Barentz's men, 478 - Bear Islands, discovery of, 477 - Behring, his maritime discoveries and death, 484 - Belemnites, 437 - Bellrock lighthouse, 28, 86 - -- -- height of the waves at the, 28 - -- -- in the storm of 1807, 29 - Benin, discovery of, 456 - Bermudas, depth of the sea near the, 7 - Bird Island, discovery of, 490 - Bird's-foot sea-star, 335 - Birds'-nests, edible, of Java, 399 - -- mode of gathering them, 399 - -- agar-agar, or artificial birds'-nests, 402 - Birds of passage, 171 - Birkenhead, the Great Float at, 91 - Biscoe, his discoveries, 509 - Bivalves, or acephalous mollusca. _See_ Acephala - Black-skimmer, or cut-water, the, 144 - Blocks, erratic, of Greenland and Spitzbergen, 76 - Bojador, Cape, doubling of, for the first time, 455 - Bonito, the, 223, 224 - Booth, Mr. Felix, 503 - Boothia Felix, discovery of, 503 - Borda, his improvements in marine illumination, 90 - Borer, the, 231 - Botallack, submarine mine, 91 - Botrylli, 324 - Bougainville, his maritime discoveries, 483 - Boundaries of the ocean. _See_ Limits of the ocean - Brachiopods, 315 - Brazils, discovery of the, 460 - Breakwater of Cherbourg, 90 - -- of Plymouth, 90 - -- moles of Portland, Holyhead, ind Alderney, 90 - Bream, sea, 415 - Bristol Channel, high tides of the, 38 - -- -- marine fauna, 414 - Britannia Tubular Bridge, 91 - Bryozoa, 316 - Buchan, Captain, his arctic discoveries, 497 - Buffadero, the marine cave of the, 52 - Bullhead, river, its parental affection, 195 - Burgomaster-bird, 159 - Butthorn, the, 335 - Byron, Commodore, his maritime discoveries, 483 - - - Cabot, John and Sebastian, their discoveries, 459 - Cachalot, or sperm-whale, its organisation, 102-104 - -- its food, 104 - Ca'ing whale, the, 115 - Calamary, 272 - Caledonia, New, discovery of, 490 - California, discovery of, 472 - Callao, colour of the sea near, 20 - Calling crabs, 250, 251 - Calms, or doldrums, causes of, 67 - Calycophoridæ, 352 - Canada acquired by France, 461 - Canary Islands probably known to the Phœnicians, 444 - Cano, Sebastian el, first performs the circumnavigation of - the globe, 469 - Cape de Verd Islands, depth of the sea near the, 7 - Capelins, 162 - Capri, 'azure cave' at, 18, 49 - Carcinas mænas, metamorphosis of, 258 - Caribbean Sea, crystalline clearness of the, 21 - Carinaria, 287 - Carrigeen (Chondrus crispus), 399 - Carteret, his maritime discoveries, 483 - Cartier, Jacques, voyages of, 461 - Caryophyllia, 370 - Cat-fish, or sea-wolf, 415 - Catalonians, their maritime discoveries, 452 - Caves, marine, 45 - -- Fingal's Cave, 45-48 - -- azure cave of Capri, 18, 49 - -- the Antro di Nettuno, 49 - -- the Cave of Hunga, 49-51 - -- cave of the Skerries, 51 - -- the Souffleur, or Blower, 52 - -- the Buffadero, 53 - Caviar, 217 - Cellulariæ, 319 - Cephalopods, their organisation, 271 - -- their locomotion, 274 - -- their food, 277 - -- their enemies, 277 - -- their great size in some cases, 379 - -- the Norwegian kraken, 279 - -- the argonaut, 280 - -- the nautilus, 281 - -- the cephalopods of the primitive ocean, 282 - Cessart, De, his breakwater at Cherbourg, 90 - Cetaceans, general remarks on the organisation of the, 95 - -- food of whales, 98 - -- their enemies, 99 - -- large Greenland whale, 101 - -- the rorqual, or fin-back, 101 - -- the antarctic smooth-back, 102 - -- sperm-whale, 102 - -- the narwhal, or unicorn-fish, 106 - -- the dolphin, 107 - -- the porpoise, 108 - -- the grampus, 108 - -- history of the whale-fishery, 109 - -- the ca'ing whale, 115 - Cetochilus australis, banks of the, in the Pacific, 21 - Ceylon, or Taprobane, discovery of, 447 - Chætodon rostratus, 203 - Chancellor's discovery of the White Sea, 474 - -- his death, 475 - Charybdis, vortex of, 41 - Chelura tenebrans, 247 - Chelyosoma, 323 - Chepstow, high tides at, 38 - Cherbourg, breakwater of, 90 - Chili, upheaving of the coast of, 10 - Chincha Islands, statistics of the guano trade of the, 169 - Chiton squamosa, 285 - Chlorospermeæ, or green sea-weeds, 391 - Chondrus crispus, or carrigeen, 399 - Circumnavigation of the globe first performed by Sebastian el Cano, 469 - Clavellina producta, 322 - Climate, influence of the Gulf Stream on that of the west European - coasts, 51 - -- variety of climates in similar latitudes, 52 - -- Peruvian cold stream, 53 - -- Japanese stream, 54 - -- influence of forests on climates, 78 - -- power of man over climate, 78 - Climbing fishes, 193 - Clio borealis, 298 - Clouds, formation of, 71, 72 - Coast-line of the sea, length of, 4 - Coasts, different formation of, 5 - -- destructive power of the sea on all, 29 - Cockle, the, 303, 306 - Cocoa-nut crab of the East Indies, 254 - Cod, the, 415 - -- curing the cod, 216 - -- cod-liver oil, 216 - Cœlenterata, 345, 357 - Colæus of Samos, his maritime discoveries, 446 - Colour of the sea, 17 - -- the azure cave at Capri, 18 - -- changes produced by algæ and sea-worms, 19 - Columbus, his discovery of America, 457 - Compass, mariner's, invention of the, 451 - Composition of sea-water, 12 - Cone-shell, orange, 288 - Conger-eels, 222 - Congo, discovery of, 456 - Constructions, marine, 80-91 - Cook, Captain, his voyages and discoveries, 485 - -- his first voyage, 486 - -- discovery of the Society Islands, 486 - -- of the east coast of New Holland, 486 - -- his second voyage, and discoveries, 492 - -- his third voyage, 491 - -- his death, 462 - Cook's Strait, discovery of, 486 - Conochilus volvox, 268 - Coral, spotted, of the Indian Ocean, 21 - Coral, 366 - -- deep sea, 367 - -- fishing of the Mediterranean, 367 - Coral-reefs, 374 - -- barrier-reef of Australia, 374 - -- how they become habitable for man, 375, 376 - Coralline zone, 413 - Cordova, his discoveries, 491 - Cormorants, 154, 155 - Cortereal, Gaspar, his maritime discoveries, 460 - Cortereal, John Vaez, his discoveries, 458 - Cortereal, Miguel, 461 - Cortes, his conquest of Mexico, 461 - Coryniadæ, 358 - Crabs, 246 - -- legs of crabs, 251 - -- larvæ of crabs, 258 - Cross-fish, the common, 334 - Crustacea, by what are they distinguished from the insects and - spiders? 243 - -- their respiratory organs, 244 - Ctenophora, 358 - Cuba discovered, 459 - -- circumnavigated for the first time, 461 - Curlew, the, 143 - Currents, ocean, 54 - -- causes of, 54, 55 - -- the equatorial stream, 56 - -- the Gulf Stream, 57 - -- influence of the Gulf Stream, 60 - -- the cold Peruvian stream, 62 - -- the Japanese stream, 63 - -- beneficial influence of the ocean currents, 64 - Cushion star-fishes, 335 - Cuttle-fish, 275 - -- ova of the, 278 - Cuvier's classification of fishes, 188 - Cyclobranchiata, 285 - Cyclones, causes of, 68 - Cymospiras, 266 - - - Dampier, his maritime discoveries, 483 - Darien, Gulf of, discovered, 461 - Darwin's theory of the formation of lagoon islands, 375 - Davis, John, his maritime discoveries, 476 - Depth of the sea, 6 - -- of the Atlantic, according to Maury, 7 - -- American mode of sounding in deep water, 6 - -- telegraphic plateau between Newfoundland and Ireland, 7 - -- measurement of depth by the rapidity of tide-wave, 8 - Dew, formation of, 68 - Diatomaceæ, 402 - -- their importance in reference to the existence of animal life in - high latitudes, 403 - Diaz, Bartholomew, his discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, 476 - Diazona violacea, 324 - Diodons, 178 - Diogenes hermit-crab, 254 - Diphyes, 352 - Discovery, maritime, progress of, 441. _See_ Maritime Discovery - Diu, Portuguese settlement of, 462 - Divers, 150 - Docks of London and Liverpool, 91 - Dogfish, 200 - Dolphins, 107 - Donax, 301 - Dory, 242 - Dragon-weever, 204 - Drake, Sir Francis, his discoveries, 473 - Duck family, 146 - Dugong, 117 - -- skeleton of the, 118 - -- female dugong of Ceylon, 119 - Dunes, formation of, 5 - Dunwich, destruction of the coast at, 30 - d'Urville, Dumont, his discoveries, 509 - Dusky Bay, discovery of, 487 - Dutch, their attempts to discover a North-West passage to - India, 474, 476 - - - Earth-rind, the giant book of the, 432 - -- formation of a solid earth-crust by cooling, 432 - Echinus, or sea-urchin, 337 - -- mammillated, 338 - -- edible, 338 - -- dental apparatus of sea-urchins, 339 - Eddystone lighthouse, the, 81 - -- Winstanley's structure, 81 - -- Rudyerd's, 82 - -- Smeaton's, 83 - Edward's Island, Prince, discovery of, 491 - -- Land, 415 - Eel, the common, 225 - -- conger, 228 - -- the murry, or muræna, 229 - Eendragt's Land, discovery of, 480 - Eider-duck, 146 - Electric eel, 202 - Endeavour Strait, discovery of, 486 - Enderby Land, discovery of, 509 - English navigation, retrospective view of, 459 - -- attempts to discover the North-West passage, 474 - Enteromorphæ, 391 - Eolis coronata, 284 - Eozoon canadense, 381 _note_ - Equatorial ocean-current, 57 - Equinoctial line crossed for the first time, 456 - Erebus, Mount, discovery of, 509 - Escharæ, 317 - Espiritu Santo, discovery of the Archipelago of, 480, 490 - Esquimaux in his kayak, 120 - Euripus, phenomenon produced by the tides of the, 44 - Europe, length of coast-line of, 4 - Euryale, warted, 333 - Evaporation, movement of the waters through, 65 - Extent of the ocean, 1 - - - Falkland Islands, sea-weeds at, 396 - Fan-bearer, 402, 403 - Feather-star, the rosy, 330 - Fernandez, Juan, his discoveries, 473 - Fierasfer, 340 - File-fish, 232 - Fin-crab, spotted, 252 - Fin-fish, or northern rorqual, 101 - Fingal's Cave, 45-48 - -- -- popular belief as to its workmanship, 48 - -- -- Sir W. Scott's description of it, 48 - Fire, sea of, 434 - Fish, consumption of, in London, 237 _note_ - Fish River, Great, course of, traced, 507 - Fishes, general remarks on, 186 - -- their locomotive organs, 187 - -- Cuvier's classification of fishes, 188 _note_ - -- fins, 188 - -- air-bladder, 189 - -- skin of, 190 - -- beauty of tropical, 191 - -- gills of, 191 - -- circulation of the blood of, 191, 192 - -- climbing, 193 - -- parental affection of, 194 - -- organs of sense, 196 - -- offensive weapons of, 198 - -- numerous enemies of, 207 - -- luminous, 422 - Flamingoes, 142 - Flat-fishes, 235 - Florence, its commercial grandeur, 450 - Flounder, 238 - Flying-fishes, 156, 205, 224 - Flying-gurnard, 206 - Foraminifera, 378 - -- their immense numbers, 378 - -- simplicity of their structure, 380 - -- various forms of Foraminifera, 381 - Forbes, Professor Edward, on the four zones of marine life on the - British coasts, 408 - Forests, influence of, on the formation and retention of atmospherical - precipitations, 76 - -- formation of, 77 - -- influence of, on climates, 78 - Franklin, Sir John, his arctic voyages, 501 - -- his last voyage, 508 - Fresnel, his improvements in marine illumination, 90 - Frigate-bird, 155 - Frobisher, Martin, his maritime discoveries, 475 - Frog-fish, 193, 194 - Fuci, 392 - -- fucus banks, or floating meadows, of the Atlantic 397 - Fulmar, the, 195 - - - Gades, Phœnician town of, 444 - Gaëta, maritime trade of, 451 - Gama, Vasco de, doubles the Cape of Good Hope, 462 - Gannet, or soland goose, 156 - Gar-fish, 223 - Garry, Cape, discovery of, 503 - Gasteropods, 282 - -- respiratory apparatus, 283 - -- growth of their shells, 289 - -- mode of locomotion, 289 - -- their food, 294 - -- organs of sense, 295 - -- their enemies, 297 - -- their use to man, 296 - Genoa, maritime grandeur of, 450 - Geographical distribution of marine life, 405 - Georgia, South, discovery of, 490 - Germany, its climate at the time of the Romans and at the present - time, 78 - Glaciers, formation and dissolution of, 75 - -- the Aar glacier, 75 - -- of Greenland and Spitzbergen, 76 - Glaucus, 283 - Globe-fish, 232 - Goa, Portuguese settlement of, 462 - Goby, the black, 194 - Goniaster, 335, 336 - Good Hope, Cape of, discovery of, 457 - -- -- first doubled, 462 - Goodwin Sands, 9 - Goose, sea, various kinds of, 146 - Gorgonidæ, 365 - Grampus, the, 108 - -- -- anecdote of one, 109 - Grass wrack (Zostera marina), 391 - Great crab, 251 - Grebes, the, 150 - Greenland, depression of the coast of, 10 - -- olive colour of the water of the Greenland seas, 20 - -- glaciers of, 76 - -- whale-fishery of, 110 - -- discovery of, 457 - Grijalva, his maritime discoveries, 461 - Guano of the Chincha Islands, 169 - -- statistics of the trade of, 170 - Guillemot, black, 165, 167 - Guinea, New, discovery of, 473 - Gulf Stream, the, 57, 58 - -- -- its influence on the climate of the west European coasts, 59 - Gulls, sea, 157 - Günnbjorn, his discovery of Greenland, 457 - Gurnard, 414 - - - Haddock, 215 - Hag. glutinous, 231 - Haiti discovered, 459 - Halibut, 236 - Hanno, the Carthaginian, his voyage, 444 - Harp-shell, 288 - Hartburn, site of the village of, 29 - Hartog, his maritime discoveries, 480 - Hassar, land journeys of the, 194 - Hawaii, discovery of the island of, 492 - Hebrides, New, discovery of the, 480, 490 - Henry, Prince, of Portugal, his maritime discoveries, 453 - Hermit-crabs, 254 - Herrings, 208, 415 - Herring-crab, 256 - Herring-fishery, 208 - -- history of the, 209 - -- statistics of the, 210 - Herring-gull, 158 - Hervey's Islands, discovery of, 487 - Hindustan, circumnavigation of, 447 - Hippocamp, 129, 234 - Hippopus, 315 - Hoar-frost, causes of, 72 - Hogg, James, his experiments with salmon, 219 - Holland, devastations caused by storm-tides on the coast of, 35 - Holland, New, discoveries of, 473 - -- -- Cook's discoveries in, 486 - Holothuriæ, 339 - Homer, his picture of the breaking of the waves against the shore, 27 - Hood's Island, discovery of, 489 - Hooded seal of northern seas, 125 - Huatulco, sea-cave of, 52, 53 - Hudson, Henry, his maritime discoveries, 481 - -- his unfortunate end, 482 - Hudson's Bay, discovery of, 481 - Hump-back whales, 102 - Hunga, cave of, 49-51 - Hyalæa, 298 - Hyde, site of the village of, 29 - - - Ianthinæ, 290 - Ice-bear, 100, 134 - Icebergs, formation of, 76 - -- erratic blocks carried away by, 76 - Iceland, salmon of, 220 - -- discovery and colonisation of, 361 - Ichthyosaurus, 438 - Inachus Kæmpferi of Japan, 259 - India, Portuguese discovery in, 462 - Indian Ocean, spotted corals in the, 21 - Indus, sudden rising of the spring-tide at the mouth of the, 42 - Inferobranchiata, 284 - Infusoria, marine, 383 - Insects, marine, 261 - Isinglass, 216 - Isis hippuris, 369 - Ivory of the walrus, 132 - - - Jamaica discovered, 459 - Japanese ocean-stream, the, 63 - Java, gathering of edible birds'-nests on the south coast of, 399 - Jelly-fishes, 345 - -- their anatomical structure, 345 - -- their size and colours, 356 - -- their indirect use to man, 357 - -- their phosphorescence, 420 - -- the Velella, 353 - -- the Portuguese man-of-war, 354 - John Dory, 415 - - - Kamtschatka, salmon of, 220 - Keeling Island, subsidence of the coast at, 10 - Kerguelen's Land, discovery of, 491 - Kilda, St., bird-catching on, 164 - King-crab, 246 - Kittiwake, or tarrock, the, 158 - Kraken, the Norwegian, 279 - - - Labrador, discovery of, 459 - Ladrone Islands, discovery of the, 468 - Lagoon islands, 374 - -- -- Darwin's theory of the formation of, 375 - -- -- how they became habitable for man, 376 - Lamantins of the Atlantic Ocean, 117 - Laminaria, region of the great, or tangle forests, 393 - Laminariæ, 393 - Lampreys, 230, 231 - Land-crabs, 250 - Landscapes, submarine, 21 - -- in the Caribbean Sea, 21 - -- on the coast of Sicily, 21 - La Perouse, his maritime discoveries, 493 - -- -- his fate, 493 - Launces, 230 - Le Maire, his maritime discoveries, 480 - Lepraliæ, 318 - Lessonias, of the Falkland Islands, 396 - Level of the ocean, does it remain unchanged, and every where the - same? 11 - Licmophora, or fan-bearer, 402 - Life, marine, geographical distribution of, 405 - -- dependence of all created beings upon space and time, 406 - -- influences which regulate the distribution of marine life, 407 - -- the four bathymetrical zones of marine life on the British coasts, - according to the late Professor Edward Forbes, of Edinburgh, 408 - -- first wakening of life in the bosom of the ocean, 435 - Lighthouses, 80 - -- the Eddystone lighthouse, 81 - -- the Bellrock, or Inchcape, lighthouse, 85 - -- the Skerryvore lighthouse, 85-89 - -- the Pharus of Alexandria, 89 - -- progress of marine illumination, 90 - Lily encrinites, 340 - Limacina arctica, 298 - Limits of the ocean, progressive changes in the, 9 - -- Goodwin Sands, 10 - -- alluvial deposits, 10 - -- upheaving of coasts, 10 - -- subsidence, 10 - -- temple of Serapis, 11 - -- level of the sea everywhere the same, 11 - Limnoriæ, 247 - Limpet, 285, 294 - Limuli, or king-crabs, 246 - Ling, 215, 415 - Ling-thorn, 335 - Lithophytes, 373 - Liverpool Docks, 91 - Lizards of the sea, 173, 181 - -- serpent-lizard, 435 - Lobsters, 256, 257 - Loggerheaded duck or goose, 148 - London Docks, 91 - Long-tailed duck, 148 - Lophobranchii, the, 233 - Louse, whale, 101 - Lucernaridæ, 350 - Luminous marine animals, 418 - Lump-sucker, 415 - - - Mackerel, 222 - Macrocystis pyrifera, 393 - -- -- Mr. Darwin's description of it at Tierra del Fuego, 393, 396 - Madeira, depth of the sea near, 1 - -- discovery of, 505 - Maelstrom, the, 41 - Magellan, Ferdinand, his discoveries, 467, 468 - Magellan's Straits, discovery of, 468 - -- -- harmony of animal life in the islands of, 490 - Magilus antiquus, 291 - Malacca Islands, discovery of the, 462 - Malo, St., high tides of, 38 - Mammaria scintillans, 275 - Manatee, the, 116 - Mantis crab, spotted, 256 - Marco Polo, his travels and discoveries, 453 - Maritime discovery, progress of, 441 - -- discoveries of the Phœnicians, 443 - -- expedition of Hanno, 444 - -- circumnavigation of Africa, under Pharaoh Necho II., 444 - -- Ophir, 339 - -- Colæus of Samos and Pytheas of Massilia, 340 - -- expedition of Nearchus, 447 - -- circumnavigation of Hindostan, under the Ptolemies, 447 - -- voyages of discovery of the Romans, 453 - -- consequences of the fall of the Roman empire, 448 - -- Amalfi, 449 - -- Pisa, Venice, and Genoa, 449 - -- resumption of maritime intercourse between the Mediterranean and - the Atlantic, 451 - -- discovery of the compass, 451 - -- Marco Polo, 453 - -- other discoveries, 453 - -- Prince Henry of Portugal, 454 - -- discovery of Porto Santo and Madeira, 455 - -- doubling of Cape Bojador, 455 - -- discovery of the Azores, 456 - -- the line crossed for the first time, 456 - -- Benin and Congo discovered, 456 - -- and the Cape of Good Hope, 457 - -- discovery of America, 457 - -- and of Iceland, 457 - -- Greenland, 457 - -- discoveries of John and Sebastian Cabot, 459 - -- retrospective view of the beginnings of English navigation, 461 - -- Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci, 460 - -- Vincent Yañez Pinson, 460 - -- Cortes, 461 - -- Verazzani, 461 - -- Jacques Cartier, 461 - -- the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean, 462 - -- Balboa's discovery of the Pacific Ocean, 466 - -- Magellan, 467 - -- Sebastian el Cano, the first circumnavigator of the globe, 469 - -- Pizarro and Cortes, 470 - -- Urdaneta, 472 - -- Juan Fernandez, 473 - -- Mendoza, 473 - -- Drake, 473 - -- Willoughby and Chancellor, 474 - -- Martin Frobisher, 475 - -- Davis, 476 - -- Barentz, 476 - -- Quiros, 480 - -- Torres, 480 - -- Schouten, Le Maire, and others, 480 - -- Tasman, 480 - -- Henry Hudson, and his unfortunate end, 481 - -- Baffin, 481 - -- Dampier, 483 - -- Anson, Behring, Byron, Wallis, Carteret, and Bougainville, 483 - -- Cook's voyages, 485-492 - -- arctic discovery, 496 - Marquesas de Mendoza Islands, discovery of the, 473 - Mauritius, sea-cave on the, 52 - Mediterranean Sea, depth of the, 8 - -- -- height of the, 12 - -- -- temperature of the, 14 - -- -- colour of the, 18 - -- -- sides of the, 43 - -- -- Phœnician trade in the, 443 - -- -- decline of trade in the, 33 - -- -- resumption of maritime intercourse between the Mediterranean and - the Adriatic, 449 - Medusidæ, 349, 350 - Melanospermeæ, or olive-coloured sea-weeds, 392 - Melville Island, discovery of, 500 - Mendana, Alvaro, his discoveries, 473 - Menezes, Don Jorge de, his discoveries, 473 - Merganser, 149, 404 - Mexico, discovery of the coast of, 461 - -- conquest of, by Cortes, 461, 472 - Microscopic life of the ocean, 378 - Mines, submarine, 91 - Mitre shells, 288 - Mollusca, 270 - -- general remarks on, 270 - Monsoons, north-east, 68 - -- south-west, 68 - Moon, influence of the, on the tides, 446 - Mother-of-pearl, 313 - Mullet, grey, 415 - Murex haustellum, 291 - Murry, or muræna, 229 - Mussels, edible, 307 - -- history of, 307 - -- 'bouchots,' or mussel-parks, 307 - Myxine, the, 231 - - - Naples, maritime trade of, 449 - Narwhal, or unicorn-fish, 106 - Nautilus, 280 - -- the pearly, 281 - Nearchus, voyage of, 447 - Necho II., Pharaoh, of Egypt, his maritime discoveries, 444 - Nelson, Horatio, pursuing a polar bear, 138 - Neptune's ruffles, 318 - Nereis, the, 263 - Nereocystis lutkeana, the, of Norfolk Bay and Sitcha, 397 - Nettuno, Antro di, 49 - Newfoundland, discovery of, 459 - Noctiluca miliaris, 419 - Norfolk, rapid destruction of the cliffs of, 29 - Norfolk Island, discovery of, 490 - North Sea, depth of the, 8 - -- -- colour of the, 18 - North-West Passage, attempts of the Dutch and English to discover - the, 474 - Norway, treaty of commerce concluded with, 459 - Nova Zembla, 476, 477 - -- -- sufferings of Barentz and his crew during a winter at, 478 - Nudibranchiata, 284 - Nummulina discoidalis, 378 - - - Oar-weeds, 393 - Ocean, the primitive, 433 - Ojeda, discoveries of, 460 - Oliva hispidula, 290 - Onychoteuthis, arms and tentacles of an, 274 - Ophir, the, of the Phœnicians, 445 - Ophiuridæ, or snake-stars, 331 - Orkney Islands, whirlpools among the, 42 - Ormus, taken by the Portuguese, 462 - Ostend, oyster-parks of, 309 - Otarian seals, 126 - Oyster, 307 - -- account of the oyster-trade, 308 - -- catchers, 143 - -- oyster-dust, 310 - -- pearl, 311 - - - Pacific Ocean, depth of the, 7 - -- -- height of the, 12 - -- -- discovery of the, 466 - -- -- Cook's voyages in, 492 - Paguri, 254 - Palisser Islands, discovery of the, 489 - Palmas, Cape, colour of the sea near, 20 - Palmyra, 445 - Parrot-fishes, 372 - Parry, Sir John, his arctic discoveries, 500 - Patagonia, discovery of, 484 - Pea-crab, 253 - Pearl-oyster, 311 - Pearls, 311, 312 - Pectinibranchiata, 288 - Pectunculus, 302 - Pegasus, swimming, 207 - Pelamid, 224 - Pelamys bicolor, 183 - Pelicans, 116, 154 - Penguins, 142, 152 - -- species of, 153 - Pentacrinus briareus, 330 - Periwinkle, 411 - Peru, visited by Pizarro, 471 - -- conquered by him, 472 - Peruvian ocean-current, the, 62 - Petrels, 160 - -- stormy, 162 - Philippine Islands, discovery of the, 468 - Philodina roseola, 269 - Phœnicians, maritime discoveries of the, 443 - -- their progress in the arts and sciences, 445 - Pholades, 304 - Pholas dactylus, 301 - -- Pliny's accounts of its phosphorescence, 431 - -- striata, 302 - Phosphorescence of the sea, causes of, 418 - -- of various marine animals, 418 - Phyllosoma, 258 - Physaliæ, the, 354 - Physophoridæ, 353 - Pilchards, 212, 415 - Pilot-fish, 225 - Pinnæ of the Mediterranean, 253, 304, 305 - Pinson, his discoveries, 460 - Pipe-fishes, 233, 234 - Pisa, maritime trade of, 449 - Pizarro, sketch of him and his companions, 469 - Plaice, 238 - Plants, marine, 390 - Plectognaths, 232 - Plesiosaurus, the, 438 - Pleuronectidæ, or flat-fishes, 235 - Pliny, his geographical knowledge, 448 - Plover, the, 144 - Plymouth breakwater, in the great storm of 1824, 29 - Polycystina, 382, 383 - Polynesia, length of coast-line of, 4 - Polyps, 345 - Polyzoa, 316, 320 - Porcupine-fish, 232 - Porpoise, 108 - Portland, destructive action of the sea at, 31 - Porto Santo, discovery of, 455 - Portuguese man-of-war, 354 - Poulp, 272, 273 - Prontzchitschew, his maritime discoveries, 483 - Protozoa, 378 - Pteroceras, 290 - Pteropods, their organisation and mode of life, 298 - -- the butterflies of the ocean, 299 - Ptolemies, maritime discoveries of the, 447 - Ptolemy, the geographer, his knowledge of the globe, 449 - Ptygura melicerta, 267 - Puffins, 165, 167 - Purbeck, destruction of the cliffs at, 31 - Pyrosoma atlantica, its phosphorescence, 420 - Pyrosomes, 325 - Pytheas of Massilia, his maritime discoveries, 446 - - - Quantity of the waters contained within the bosom of the ocean, 8 - Quiros, his maritime discoveries, 480 - Quito, coast of, discovery of, 470 - - - Racer, or rider-crab, the, 251 - Rain, formation of, 72 - -- inequality of, 72 - -- its return to the sea, 73 - Rays, 240 - Razor-shell, 303-306 - Ré, oyster-trade of, 311 - Reculver, destruction of the coast at, 30 - Red Sea, height of the, 12 - -- -- red algæ of the, 20 - -- -- Phœnician trade on the, 445 - Reef-building corals, 374 - Regent Inlet, Prince, discovery of, 500 - Reptiles of the sea, 172 - Rhodosperms, Florideæ, or red sea-weeds, 398 - -- their habitat, 398 - Richardson, Sir John, his arctic voyages, 501 - Rivers, phenomena presented by the mixture of salt and fresh - water in, 16 - -- quantities of water which rivers pour into the ocean, 75 - Rock-goose, 149 - Roggewein, his maritime discoveries, 483 - Rome, ancient, maritime discoveries of, 448 - Rorqual, northern, or fin-fish, 101 - -- its food, 102 - Ross, Sir James, on the height of waves, 28 - -- -- -- his discoveries, 509 - -- -- John, his arctic discoveries, 500, 503 - Rotifera, the, 267 - Rudyerd, Mr., his lighthouse on the Eddystone rocks, 82 - - - Saavedra, Alvaro de, his discoveries, 473 - Sabrina Land, discovery of, 509 - Sagittaria, discovery of the island of, 480 - Sail-fluke, 239 - Salangana caves in Java, 399 - Salmon, 217, 324 - -- trade, 220 - -- salmon-spearing, 219 - -- growth of the salmon, 219 - -- abundance of salmon, 220 - -- introduced into Australia and New Zealand, 221 - Salmon-leaps, 218 - Salpæ, 325 - -- their alternating generations, 327 - Salts of the sea, 12 - Sand-crab, American, 252 - Sandhopper, 246 - Sand-stars, 332 - Sandwich Land, discovery of, 490 - -- Islands, discovery of, 490 - Sardinia, stalactite caves of the island of, 49 - Sargasso Sea, the, 397 - Saurians of the past seas, 172, 438 - Scari, or parrot-fishes, 372 - Schouten, his maritime discoveries, 480 - Scissor-bill, 144 - Scoopers, 143 - Scoresby, his arctic voyages, 497 - Scyllæa, 283 - Scythe, the, 415 - Sea-anemones, 361 - Sea-bear, 117, 126 - Sea-birds, 128, 142 - -- their vast numbers, 142 - Sea-cask, 142 - Sea-cucumbers, 339 - Sea-devil of the Pacific, 241 - Sea-ear, 286, 287 - Sea-elephant, 125 - Sea-fox, 99 - Sea-hare, 284, 295 - Sea-horse, 129, 234 - Sea-lemon, 284 - Sea-lion, 128 - Sea-mat, leaf-like, 316 - Sea-mew, 157 - Sea-otter, 139 - -- chase of the, 139 - Sea-pen, 364 - -- its phosphorescence, 426 - Sea-pie, the, 144 - Sea-pinks, 391 - Sea-scurfs, 318 - Sea-snail, purple, 290 - Sea-snakes, 183 - Sea-squirts, 323 - Sea-swallows, 157 - Sea-urchin, 337 - Sea-weeds, 391 - -- luminous, 423 - Sea-wolf, 197 - Seals and walruses, 117 - -- food of, 120 - -- statistics of seal-fishery, 121 - -- various kinds of, 123 - Seine, sudden rising of the spring-tides at the mouth of the, 42 - Seleucidæ, maritime discoveries of the, 42 - Seleucus Nicator, his circumnavigation of Hindostan, and discovery - of Taprobane, or Ceylon, 447 - Semen Deshnew, the Cossack, his maritime discoveries, 483 - Sepia. _See_ Cuttle-fish - Serapis, temple of, 11 - Serpents of the seas, 183 - Serpulas, 266 - Sertularia, 347 - Shakspeare's Cliff, destructive action of the sea on, 30 - Sharks, 198 - -- Greenland shark, an enemy of the whale, 99 - -- luminous, 330 - Sheldrake, or burrow duck, 148 - Sheppey, Isle of, rapid decay of the coast of the, 30 - Sherringham, ravages of the sea on the coast at, 29 - Shetland Islands, fury of the Atlantic waves at the, 28 - Shetland, New South, discovery of, 509 - Ship-worm (teredo), 302 - Shore-crab, 251 - Siberia, Cook's visits to the coasts of, 492 - Sicily, submarine landscapes of the coast of, 21 - Siphonostomata, 245 - Skerries, cave in the, 51 - Skerryvore lighthouse, 85 - Skimmer, 169 - Sledge-journey, arctic, 502 - Sly, 202 - Smeaton, John, his lighthouse on the Eddystone rocks, 83 - Smooth-back whale, the antarctic, 102 - Snake-stars, 437 - Snow-goose, 146 - Society Islands, discovery of the, 486 - Soland goose, 156 - Solasters, 334 - Sole, 237 - -- skin of the, 190 - Solen, or razor-shell, 304 - Solis, Juan de, his discoveries, 461 - -- -- -- his death, 461 - Solomon Islands, discovery of the, 473, 483 - Souffleur, or blower, the marine cave of the, 52 - Soundings, American method of taking, in deep water, 6 - South Sea Islands, discovery of the, 474 - Speckled diver, 145 - Sperm-whale, or cachalot, 102 - Spiders, marine, 260 - Spitzbergen, discovery of, 477 - Spondylus, royal, 314 - Sponge-crab, 249 - Sponges, 385 - -- their remarkable growth, 385 - -- habitat of the common sponge, 388 - Sprat, the, 214 - Springs, origin of, 73 - -- mineral waters, 74 - Springs of fresh water in the bottom of the sea, 17 - Staffa, island of, 46 - Stalactite caves of the island of Sardinia, 49 - Star-fishes, 328 - -- their organisation, 328 - Star-gazer fish, 202 - Sterlet of the Volga, 217 - Stevenson, Mr. Alan, his Skerryvore lighthouse, 86 - Stevenson, Mr. Robert, his lighthouse on the Bell Rock, 85 - Stickleback, parental affection of the, 195 - Stone-corals, 373 - Storm, the great, of 1703, 82 - Storm-tides, 34 - -- devastations of, on flat coasts, 34, 35 - Strand-birds, 143 - -- migration of, 144 - -- food of, 144 - Strombus pes pelicani, 290 - Sturgeons, 216, 217 - -- caviar, 217 - Sucking-fish, 203 - Suffolk, rapid decay of the cliffs of, 29 - Sun-fish, 232, 233 - -- its luminousness, 422 - Sun, his influence on the tides, 37 - Sun-star fish, 334 - Surgeon-fish, the, 205 - Sweden, gradual upheaving of the coast of, 10 - Sword-fish, an enemy of the whale, 99 - -- his weapon, 201 - Synchæta baltica, 269 - - - Tahiti, discovery of, 484 - Tailor-bird, the, 143 - Taprobane, or Ceylon, discovery of, 447 - Tartessus, Phœnician town of, 444 - Tasman, Abel, his maritime discoveries, 480 - Tasmania, discovery of, 481 - Tectibranchiata, 284 - Temperature of the sea, 13 - -- at various parts of the surface of the globe, 14 - Teredo navalis, 302 - Thames, progress of the tide-wave in the, 43 - Thornbacks, 240 - Thresher, or sea-fox, an enemy of the whale, 99 - Thunder-stones, 437 - Tide-wave, measurement of the depth of the sea by the rapidity of the, 8 - -- progress and course of the, 40, 43 - Tides, the, 32 - -- description of the phenomenon, 32 - -- devastations of storm-floods on flat coasts, 34, 35 - -- knowledge of the ancients respecting the tides, 35 - -- fundamental causes of the tides revealed by Kepler and Newton, 36, 37 - Tides, height of the, at various places, 38 - -- vortices caused by the: the Maelstrom, Charybdis, &c., 41 - -- the phenomena of the Euripus, 44 - Tierra del Fuego, masses of sea-weed at, 394 - -- -- -- rounded by Schouten and Le Maire, 480 - Tonga, discovery of, 481 - Top, agglutinating, 296 - Tornadoes, causes of, 68 - Tornatella fasciata, 290 - Torpedo, the, 201 - Torres, his maritime discoveries, 480 - Torso Rock, the, 9 - Tortoise-shell, 180 - Tortoises, 176 - Trade-winds, the, 67 - Transparency of the sea at Capri, 18 - -- -- -- -- in the Indian Ocean, 21 - -- -- -- -- in the Caribbean, 21 - Trepang, or Biche de Mer, 340 - -- mode of curing, 340 - -- the fishery in the Feejee Islands, 342 - Tridacna, the gigantic, 314 - Trigger-fish, 233 - Trilobites, 436 - Trunk-fish, 232 - Tubiporidæ, 370 - Tubulibranchiata, 292 - Tunicata, 316, 321 - Tunny, the, 221 - -- stripe-bellied, 224 - Turbot, the, 236, 237 - Turn-stone bird, 144 - Turtles, 173 - -- catching turtles in the island of St. Thomas, 172 - Tynemouth Castle, destruction of the coast near, 29 - Typhoons, causes of, 68 - Tyrian dye, 446 - - - Ulvæ, 391 - Unicorn-fish, or narwhal, 106 - Urasters, 334 - Urdaneta, first reaches Acapulco from Manilla, 472 - - - Vancouver's discoveries, 472 - Van Diemen's Land, discovery of, 480 - Vanikoro, island of, 493 - Velellæ, the, 353 - Venice, maritime grandeur of, 450 - Verazzani, voyage of, 461 - Vermetus, 291 - Virgularia mirabilis, 365 - Vogtia pentacantha, 353 - - - Wales, Cape Prince of, discovery of, 491 - Wallis, his maritime discoveries, 483 - Walrus, or morse, 117, 129, 135 - -- anecdote of a fight with, 130 - -- ivory of the, 132 - Walton, his mussel-beds in France, 307 - Water-snakes, 183 - Water-spouts, causes of, 68 - Waves of the ocean, 24 - -- wave-motion as distinct from water motion, 25 - -- height and velocity of storm-waves, 26-28 - -- Homer's picture of the breaking of the waves against the shore, 26 - -- Scoresby on the height of waves in the open sea, 27 - -- force and height of the waves on rocky coasts, 28 - -- instances of the destructive action of the tidal waves on - coast-lines, 28-31 - Weddell, Captain, his voyages, 509 - Weevers, 204 - Wellington Channel, discovery of, 500 - Wentle-trap, Chinese, 289 - Whalebone, 96 - Whale-fishery, history of the, 109 - Whales. _See_ Cetaceans - Whelks, 292 - Wilkes, Captain, on the height of waves, 28 - Wilkes, his explorations, 509 - Willoughby, Sir Hugh, his unfortunate arctic voyage, 474 - Winds, origin of, 66 - -- trade-winds, 67 - -- calms, or doldrums, 67 - -- monsoons, 68 - -- typhoons, tornadoes, &c., 68 - -- water-spouts, 68 - Wing-shells, 304 - Winstanley, Mr., his lighthouse on the Eddystone rocks, 81 - Winter Harbour, discovery of, 500 - Wolf-fish, 197 - Wolstenholme Sound, elevation of the coast at, 10 - Worm-shell, 291 - - - Yorkshire, wearing away of the coast of, 29 - Yucatan, first exploration of, 461 - - - Zostera marina, 391 - - - PRINTED BY - SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE - LONDON - - - -Transcriber's Note - - -Minor typos have been corrected. Most words that sometimes have -hyphenations and other times non-hyphenated were left as written. -Illustrations were repositioned to not split paragraphs. 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