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diff --git a/old/61993-0.txt b/old/61993-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 8d1c114..0000000 --- a/old/61993-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9249 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sketches of Imposture, Deception, and -Credulity, by R. A. (Richard Alfred) Davenport - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Sketches of Imposture, Deception, and Credulity - -Author: R. A. (Richard Alfred) Davenport - -Release Date: May 2, 2020 [EBook #61993] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SKETCHES OF IMPOSTURE, DECEPTION, CREDULITY *** - - - - -Produced by MFR, Robert Tonsing, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - SKETCHES - OF - IMPOSTURE, DECEPTION, - AND - CREDULITY. - - PHILADELPHIA: - G. B. ZIEBER & CO. - - 1845. - - C. SHERMAN, PRINTER. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. -Effects of Incredulity and Credulity--Knowledge supposed to be - Remembrance--Purpose of this Volume--Progress of rational - Belief--Resemblance of Error to Truth--Contagious Nature of - Excitement--Improved State of the Human Mind in Modern Times 13 - - - CHAPTER II. - -Remote Origin of Oracles--Influence of Oracles--Opinions respecting - them--Cause of the Cessation of Oracles--Superstition early - systematized in Egypt--Bœotia early famous for Oracles--Origin of - the Oracle of Dodona--Ambiguity of Oracular Responses--Stratagem - of a Peasant--Oracles disbelieved by Ancient Philosophers--Cyrus - and the Idol Bel--Source of Fire-Worshipping--Victory of Canopus - over Fire--The Sphinx--Sounds heard from it--Supposed Cause of - them--Mysterious Sounds at Nakous--Frauds of the Priests of - Serapis--The Statue of Memnon--Oracle of Delphi--Its Origin--Changes - which it underwent--The Pythoness--Danger attendant on her - office--Tricks played by Heathen Priests--Origin of the Gordian - Knot--The Knot is cut by Alexander--Ambrosian, Logan or Rocking - Stones--Representations of them on Ancient Coins--Pliny’s Description - of a Logan Stone in Asia--Stones at Sitney, in Cornwall, and at - Castle Treryn--The latter is overthrown, and replaced--Logan Stones - are Druidical Monuments 17 - - - CHAPTER III. - -Susceptibility of the Imagination in the East--Mahomet--His - Origin--He assumes the Title of the Apostle of God--Opposition to - him--Revelations brought to Him by the Angel Gabriel--His Flight - to Medina--Success of his Imposture--Attempt to poison him--His - Death--Tradition respecting his Tomb--Account of his Intercourse - with Heaven--Sabatai Sevi, a false Messiah--Superstitious Tradition - among the Jews--Reports respecting the Coming of the Messiah--Sabatai - pretends to be the Messiah--He is assisted by Nathan--Follies - committed by the Jews--Honours paid to Sabatai--He embarks for - Constantinople--His Arrest--He embraces Mahometanism to avoid - Death--Rosenfeld, a German, proclaims himself the Messiah--His - knavery--He is whipped and imprisoned--Richard Brothers announces - himself as the revealed Prince and Prophet of the Jews--He dies in - Bedlam--Thomas Muncer and his Associates--Their Fate--Matthias, - John of Leyden, and other Anabaptist Leaders--They are defeated - and executed--The French Prophets--Punishment of them--Miracles - at the Grave of the Deacon Paris--Horrible Self-inflictions - of the Convulsionaries--The Brothers of Brugglen--They are - executed--Prophecy of a Lifeguardsman in London--Joanna - Southcott--Her Origin, Progress, and Death--Folly of her - Disciples--Miracles of Prince Hohenlohe 34 - - - CHAPTER IV. - -Account of Pope Joan--Artifice of Pope Sextus V.--Some Christian - Ceremonies borrowed from the Jews and Pagans--Melting of the Blood - of St. Januarius--Addison’s opinion of it--Description of the - Performance of the Miracle--Miraculous Image of our Saviour at - Rome--Ludicrous Metamorphosis of a Statue--Relics--Head of St. John - the Baptist--Sword of Balaam--St. Ursula and the Eleven Thousand - Virgins--Self-Tormenting--Penances of St. Dominic the Cuirassier--The - Crusades--Their Cause and Progress, and the immense numbers engaged - in them. 62 - - - CHAPTER V. - -Pretenders to Royalty numerous--Contest between the Houses of York and - Lancaster gives rise to various Pretenders--Insurrection of Jack - Cade--He is killed--Lambert Simnel is tutored to personate the Earl - of Warwick--He is crowned at Dublin--He is taken Prisoner, pardoned, - and made Scullion in the Royal Kitchen--Perkin Warbeck pretends - to be the murdered Duke of York--He is countenanced by the King - of France--He is acknowledged by the Duchess of Burgundy--Perkin - lands in Scotland, and is aided by King James--He is married - to Lady Catherine Gordon--He invades England, but fails--His - Death--Pretenders in Portugal--Gabriel de Spinosa--He is hanged--The - Son of a Tiler pretends to be Sebastian--He is sent to the - Galleys--Gonçalo Alvarez succeeds him--He is executed--An Individual - of talents assumes the Character of Sebastian--His extraordinary - Behaviour in his Examinations--He is given up to the Spaniards--His - Sufferings and dignified Deportment--His Fate not known--Pretenders - in Russia--The first false Demetrius--He obtains the Throne, but - is driven from it by Insurrection, and is slain--Other Impostors - assume the same Name--Revolt of Pugatscheff--Pretenders in - France--Hervegault and Bruneau assume the Character of the deceased - Louis XVI. 73 - - - CHAPTER VI. - -Disguise of Achilles--Of Ulysses--Of Codrus--Fiction employed by Numa - Pompilius--King Alfred disguised in the Swineherd’s Cottage--His - Visit, as a Harper, to the Danish Camp--Richard Cœur de Lion takes - the Garb of a Pilgrim--He is discovered and imprisoned--Disguises - and Escape of Mary, Queen of Scots--Escape of Charles the Second, - after the Battle of Worcester--Of Stanislaus from Dantzic--Of Prince - Charles Edward from Scotland--Peter the Great takes the Dress of a - Ship Carpenter--His Visit to England--Anecdote of his Conduct to a - Dutch Skipper--Stratagem of the Princess Ulrica of Prussia--Pleasant - Deception practised by Catherine the Second of Russia--Joan of - Arc--Her early Life--Discovers the King when first introduced at - Court--She compels the English to raise the Siege of Orleans--Joan - leads the King to be crowned at Rheims--She is taken Prisoner--Base - and barbarous Conduct of her Enemies--She is burned at Rouen--The - Devil of Woodstock--Annoying Pranks played by it--Explanation of the - Mystery--Fair Rosamond 86 - - - CHAPTER VII. - -Characteristic Mark of a skilful General--Importance anciently - attached to military Stratagems--The Stratagem of Joshua at - Ai, the first which is recorded--Stratagem of Julius Cæsar in - Gaul--Favourable Omen derived from Sneezing--Artifice of Bias at - Priene--Telegraphic Communication--Mode adopted by Hystiæus to convey - Intelligence--Relief of Casilinum by Gracchus--Stratagem of the - Chevalier de Luxembourg to convey Ammunition into Lisle--Importance - of concealing the Death of a General--The manner in which the - Death of Sultan Solyman was kept secret--Stratagem of John - Visconti--Stratagem of Lord Norwich at Angoulème--Capture of Amiens - by the Spaniards--Manner in which the Natives of Sonia threw off the - Yoke 109 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - -Former Prevalence of Malingering in the Army; and the Motives for - it--Decline of the Practice--Where most Prevalent--The means of - Simulation reduced to a System--Cases of simulated Ophthalmia - in the 50th Regiment--The Deception wonderfully kept up by many - Malingerers--Means of Detection--Simulated Paralysis--Impudent - Triumph manifested by Malingerers--Curious case of Hollidge--Gutta - Serena, and Nyctalopia counterfeited--Blind Soldiers employed in - Egypt--Cure, by actual cautery, of a Malingerer--Simulation of - Consumption and other Diseases--Feigned Deafness--Detection of a Man - who simulated Deafness--Instances of Self-mutilation committed by - Soldiers--Simulation of Death 118 - - - CHAPTER IX. - -The Bottle Conjuror--Advertisements on this Occasion--Riot produced - by the Fraud--Squibs and Epigrams to which it gave rise--Case of - Elizabeth Canning--Violent Controversy which arose out of it--She is - found guilty of Perjury and transported--The Cock Lane Ghost--Public - Excitement occasioned by it--Detection of the Fraud--Motive for - the Imposture--The Stockwell Ghost--The Sampford Ghost--Mystery in - which the Affair was involved--Astonishing Instance of Credulity - in Perigo and his Wife--Diabolical Conduct of Mary Bateman--She is - hanged for Murder--Metamorphosis of the Chevalier d’Eon--Multifarious - Disguises of Price, the Forger--Miss Robertson--The fortunate - Youth--The Princess--Olive--Caraboo--Pretended Fasting--Margaret - Senfrit--Catherine Binder--The Girl of Unna--The Osnaburg Girl--Anne - Moore 126 - - - CHAPTER X. - -Controversy respecting the Works of Homer; Arguments of - the Disputants--Controversy on the supposed Epistles of - Phalaris--Opinion of Sir William Temple on the Superiority of - the Ancients--Dissertation of Dr. Bentley on the Epistles of - Phalaris--He proves them to be a Forgery--Doubts as to the Anabasis - being the Work of Xenophon--Arguments of Mr. Mitford in the - Affirmative--Alcyonius accused of having plagiarised from, and - destroyed, Cicero’s Treatise “De Gloria”--Curious Mistake as to - Sir T. More’s Utopia--The Icon Basilike--Disputes to which it gave - rise--Arguments, pro and con, as to the real Author of it--Lauder’s - Attempt to prove Milton a Plagiarist--Refutation of him by Dr. - Douglas--His interpolations--George Psalmanazar--His Account of - Formosa--His Repentance and Piety--Publication of Ossian’s Poems by - Mr. Macpherson--Their Authenticity is doubted--Report of the Highland - Society on the Subject--Pseudonymous and anonymous Works--Letters of - Junius--The Drapier’s Letters--Tale of a Tub--Gulliver’s Travels--The - Waverley Novels--Chatterton and the Rowley Poems--W. H. Ireland and - the Shakspearian Forgeries--Damberger’s pretended Travels--Poems of - Clotilda de Surville--Walladmor--Hunter, the American--Donville’s - Travels in Africa 147 - - - CHAPTER XI. - -Fashion of decrying modern Artists--M. Picart asserts the Merit - of modern Engravers--Means employed by him to prove the Truth - of his Assertions--“The innocent Impostors”--Goltzius imitates - perfectly the Engravings of Albert Durer--Marc Antonio Raimondi is - equally successful--Excellent Imitation of Rembrandt’s Portrait - of Burgomaster Six--Modern Tricks played with respect to Engraved - Portraits--Sir Joshua Reynolds metamorphosed into “The Monster.” 191 - - - CHAPTER XII. - -Ancient Memorials of Geographical Discoveries--Mistakes arising - from them--Frauds to which they gave occasion--Imposture of - Evemerus--Annius of Viterbo wrongfully charged with forging - Inscriptions--Spurious works given to the World by him--Forged - Inscriptions put on statues by ignorant modern Sculptors--Spurious - Medals--Instances of them in the Cabinet of Dr. Hunter--Coins - adulterated by Grecian Cities--Evelyn’s Directions for ascertaining - the Genuineness of Medals--Spurious Gold Medals--Tricks of the - Manufacturers of Pseudo-Antique Medals--Collectors addicted to - pilfering Rarities--Medals swallowed by Vaillant--Mistakes arising - from Ignorance of the Chinese Characters. 195 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - -First Opening of the Regalia to public Inspection--Edwards appointed - Keeper--Plan formed by Blood to steal the Regalia--He visits the - Tower with his pretended Wife--Means by which he contrived to become - intimate with Edwards--His Arrangements for carrying his Scheme into - Execution--He knocks down Edwards, and obtains Possession of the - Jewels--Fortunate Chance by which his Scheme was frustrated--He is - taken--Charles II. is present at his Examination--Blood contrives to - obtain a Pardon, and the Gift of an Estate from the King. 201 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - -Horrible nature of the Superstition of Vampyrism--Persons attacked - by Vampyres become Vampyres themselves--Signs by which a Vampyre - was known--Origin of one of the signs--Effect attributed to - Excommunication in the Greek church--Story of an excommunicated - Greek--Calmet’s theory of the origin of the Superstition respecting - Vampyres--St. Stanislas--Philinnium--The Strygis supposed to have - given the idea of the Vampyre--Capitulary of Charlemagne--Remedy - against attacks from the Demon--Anecdote of an impudent - Vampyre--Story of a Vampyre at Mycone--Prevalence of Vampyrism in the - north of Europe--Walachian mode of detecting Vampyres. 205 - - - CHAPTER XV. - -Feats of Jugglers formerly attributed to witchcraft--Anglo-Saxon - Gleemen--Norman Jugglers or Tregatours--Chaucer’s Description - of the Wonders performed by them--Means probably employed by - them--Recipe for making the Appearance of a Flood--Jugglers - fashionable in the Reign of Charles II.--Evelyn’s Account of a - Fire-eater--Katterfelto--Superiority of Asiatic and Eygptian - pretenders to magical Skill--Mandeville’s Account of Juggling at the - Court of the Great Khan--Extraordinary Feats witnessed by the Emperor - Jehanguire--Ibn Batuta’s Account of Hindustanee Jugglers--Account of - a Bramin who sat upon the Air--Egyptian Jugglers--Mr. Lane’s Account - of the Performance of one of them--Another fails in satisfying - Captain Scott. 212 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - -Hold taken on the public Mind by Prodigies--Dutch Boy with Hebrew - Words on the Iris of each Eye--Boy with the word Napoleon - in the Eye--Child with a Golden Tooth--Speculations on the - Subject--Superstition respecting changeling Children in the Isle of - Man--Waldron’s Description of a Changeling--Cases of extraordinary - Sleepers--The Seven Sleepers of Ephesus--Men supposed, in the - northern Regions, to be frozen during the Winter, and afterwards - thawed into Life again--Dr. Oliver’s Case of a Sleeper near Bath--Dr. - Cheyne’s Account of Colonel Townshend’s power of voluntarily - suspending Animation--Man buried alive for a Month at Jaisulmer--The - Manner of his Burial, and his Preparation for it. 221 - - - CHAPTER XVII. - -Origin of Alchemy--Argument for Transmutation--Golden Age of - Alchemy--Alchemists in the 13th century--Medals metaphorically - described--Jargon of Dr. Dee--The Green Lion--Roger Bacon--Invention - of Gunpowder--Imprisonment of Alchemists--Edict of Henry - VI.--Pope John XXII.--Pope Sixtus V.--Alchemy applied to - Medicine--Paracelsus--Evelyn’s hesitation about Alchemy--Narrative - of Helvetius--Philadept on Alchemy--Rosicrucians--A Vision--Hayden’s - description of Rosicrucians--Dr. Price--Mr. Woulfe--Mr. Kellerman. - 230 - - CHAPTER XVIII. - -Supposed Origin of Astrology--Butler on the Transmission of - Astrological Knowledge--Remarks on Astrology by Hervey--Petrarch’s - Opinion of Astrology--Catherine of Medicis--Casting of - Nativities in England--Moore’s Almanack--Writers for and against - Astrology--Horoscope of Prince Frederick of Denmark--Astrologers - contributed sometimes to realize their own Predictions--Caracalla - 244 - - - CHAPTER XIX. - -State of Medicine in remote Ages--Animals Teachers of - Medicine--Gymnastic Medicine--Cato’s Cure for a Fracture--Dearness - of ancient Medicines and Medical Books--Absurdity of the - ancient Materia Medica: Gold, Bezoar, Mummy--Prescription for a - Quartan--Amulets--Virtues of Gems--Corals--Charms--Charm for sore - Eyes--Medicine connected with Astrology--Cure by Sympathy--Sir - Kenelm Digby--The real Cause of the Cure--The Vulnerary Powder, - &c.--The Royal Touch--Evelyn’s Description of the Ceremony--Valentine - Greatrakes--Morley’s Cure for Scrofula--Inoculation--Vaccination--Dr. - Jenner--Animal Magnetism--M. Loewe’s Account of it--Mesmer, and - his Feats--Manner of Magnetizing--Report of a Commission on the - Subject--Metallic Tractors--Baron Silfverkielm and the Souls in - White Robes--Mr. Loutherbourg--Empirics--Uroscopy--Mayersbach--Le - Febre--Remedies for the Stone--The Anodyne Necklace--The Universal - Medicine 250 - - - CONCLUDING CHAPTER. - -Superstition of the Hindoos--The Malays--Asiatic Superstitions--The - Chinese--Miracle of the Blessed Virgin--Stratagem of an - Architect--Michael Angelo’s Cupid--Statue of Charles I.--Ever-burning - Sepulchral Lamps--Lamp in the Tomb of Pallas--The art of - Mimicry--Superiority of the Ancients--Fable of Proteus--Personation - of the insane Ajax--Archimimes at funerals--Demetrius the cynic - converted--Acting portraits and historical pictures--War dances of - the American Indians--The South Sea Bubble--Gay the poet--Law’s - Mississippi Scheme--Numerous Bubbles--Speculations in 1825 274 - - - - - SKETCHES - - OF - - IMPOSTURE, DECEPTION, - - AND - - CREDULITY. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - - INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. - - Effects of Incredulity and Credulity--Knowledge supposed to be - Remembrance--Purpose of this Volume--Progress of rational - Belief--Resemblance of Error to Truth--Contagious Nature of - Excitement--Improved State of the Human Mind in Modern Times. - - -Incredulity has been said, by Aristotle, to be the foundation of all -wisdom. The truth of this assertion might safely be disputed; but, on -the other hand, to say that credulity is the foundation of all folly, -is an assertion more consonant to experience, and may be more readily -admitted; and the contemplation of this subject forms a curious chapter -in the history of the human mind. - -A certain extent of credulity, or, more properly, belief, may, indeed, -be considered as absolutely necessary to the well-being of social -communities; for universal scepticism would be universal distrust. -Nor could knowledge ever have arrived at its present amazing height, -had every intermediate step in the ladder of science, from profound -ignorance and slavery of intellect, been disputed with bigoted -incredulity. - -It has been said, that all knowledge is remembrance, and all ignorance -forgetfulness,--alluding to the universal knowledge which, in the -opinion of the schoolmen, our first father, Adam, possessed _before -the fall_,--and that the subsequent invention of arts and sciences was -only a partial recovery or recollection, as it were, of what had been -originally well known. The undefined aspirations of many minds, to seek -for what is distant and least understood, in preference to that near at -hand and more in unison with our general state of knowledge, seem to -favour this idea. - -It will be the endeavour of the following pages to show that the -credulity of the many--in some cases synonymous with the foolish--has -been, from the beginning, most readily imposed upon by the clever -and designing few. It is a curious task to investigate the gradual -developement of rational belief, as exhibited in the proportionate -disbelief and exposure of those things which, in earlier ages, were -considered points of faith, and to doubt which was a dangerous heresy; -and how, at first, the arts and sciences were weighed down and the -advantages to be derived from them neutralized, by the fallacies -of misconception or fanaticism. We are, in spite of ourselves, the -creatures of imagination, and the victims of prejudice, which has -been justly called the wrong bias of the soul, that effectually keeps -it from coming near the path of truth; a task the more difficult to -accomplish, since error often bears so near a resemblance to it. Error, -indeed, always borrows something of truth, to make her more acceptable -to the world, seldom appearing in her native deformity; and the -subtilty of grand deceivers has always been shown in grafting their -greatest errors on some material truths, and with such dexterity, that -Ithuriel’s spear alone, whose touch - - “No falsehood can endure,” - -would have power to reveal them. - -Many, and even contradictory, causes might be assigned for the constant -disposition towards credulity; the mind is prone to believe that for -which it most anxiously wishes; difficulties vanish in _desire_, which -thus becomes frequently the main cause of success. Thus, when Prince -Henry, _believing_ his father dead, had taken the crown from his -pillow, the King in reproach said to him,[1] - - “Thy _wish_ was father, Harry, to that thought.” - -Belief is often granted on trust to such things as are above common -comprehension, by some, who would thus flatter themselves with a -superiority of judgment; on the other hand, what all around put faith -in, the remaining few will, from that circumstance, easily believe. -This is seen in times of popular excitement, when an assertion, -quite at variance with common sense or experience, will run like a -wild-fire through a city, and be productive of most serious results. -It would appear that this springs from that inherent power of -imitation, which is singularly exemplified even in particular kinds -of disease,--comitial, as they were called by the Romans, from their -frequent occurrence in assemblies of the people,--and, more fatally, -when it impels us to “follow a multitude to do evil.” - -After a long and dreary period of ignorance, the nations of Europe -began to arouse themselves from the lethargy in which they had been -plunged; _religious enthusiasm then awakened the ardour of heroism_, -and the wild but fascinating spirit of chivalry--whose actions were -the offspring of disinterested valour, that looked for no reward -but the smile of favouring beauty or grateful tear of redressed -misfortune,--taught the world that humanity and benevolence were no -less meritorious than undaunted courage and athletic strength. - -Knowledge, however, advanced with slow and timid steps from the cells -of the monks, in which she had been obliged to conceal herself, whilst -her rival, Ignorance, had been exalted to palaces and thrones. From the -period which succeeded that twilight of the Goths and Vandals, when all -the useful arts were obscured and concealed by indolent indifference, -we shall find that each succeeding age happily contributed to enlighten -the world by the revival and gradual improvement of the arts and -sciences; a corresponding elevation in the general sagacity of the -human mind was the natural consequence: this can readily be shown by -the proportionate decrease of the numerous methods by which specious -impostors lived upon the credulity of others. - -Few, it is to be hoped, in the present day seek consolation for -disappointment in the mysteries of astrological judgments, or attribute -their ill-success in life to an evil conjunction of the stars, as -revealed by the deluding horoscope of a caster of nativities. - -That age has at length passed away, when the search after the -philosopher’s stone, or the universal solvent, terminated a life of -incredible toil and hopeless expectation, in poverty and contempt. -But there are still many who neglect the experience of the past, and, -anxious to know their future fate, seek it in the fortune-teller’s -cards; or, unhappily, a prey to some of those ills that flesh is heir -to, would rather seek to expedite their cure by some specious but -empirical experiment, than wait for the slower but surer results of -time and experience. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - - ON ANCIENT ORACLES, ETC. - - Remote Origin of Oracles--Influence of Oracles--Opinions respecting - them--Cause of the Cessation of Oracles--Superstition early - systematized in Egypt--Bœotia early famous for Oracles--Origin of - the Oracle of Dodona--Ambiguity of Oracular Responses--Stratagem - of a Peasant--Oracles disbelieved by Ancient Philosophers--Cyrus - and the Idol Bel--Source of Fire-Worshipping--Victory of - Canopus over Fire--The Sphinx--Sounds heard from it--Supposed - Cause of them--Mysterious Sounds at Nakous--Frauds of the - Priests of Serapis--The Statue of Memnon--Oracle of Delphi--Its - Origin--Changes which it underwent--The Pythoness--Danger - attendant on her office--Tricks played by Heathen Priests--Origin - of the Gordian Knot--The Knot is cut by Alexander--Ambrosian, - Logan or Rocking Stones--Representations of them on Ancient - Coins--Pliny’s Description of a Logan Stone in Asia--Stones - at Sitney, in Cornwall, and at Castle Treryn--The latter is - overthrown, and replaced--Logan Stones are Druidical Monuments. - - -The knowledge of the origin of the ancient oracles is lost in the -distance of time; yet it seems reasonable to suppose, that traditionary -accounts and confused recollections of the revelations graciously -vouchsafed to Noah, to Abraham, and the Patriarchs, more especially -Moses, may have been the foundation of these oracles, which were -venerated in ancient times; and established in temples, which were, in -some instances, supposed to be even the abode of the gods themselves: -thus, Apollo was supposed to take up his occasional residence at -Delphos, Diana at Ephesus, and Minerva at Athens. - -The manner of prophecy was various, but that employed by oracles -enjoyed the greatest repute; because they were believed to proceed, -in a most especial manner, from the gods themselves. Every thing of -essential consequence being, therefore, referred to them by the heads -of states, oracles obtained a powerful influence over the minds of the -people; and this popular credulity offered tempting opportunities to -the priests for carrying on very lucrative impostures, nor did they -disdain or neglect to take advantage of those opportunities. Added to -this, the different functions of the gods, and the different and often -opposite parts which they were made to take in human affairs by the -priests and poets, were plentiful sources of superstitious rites, and -therefore of emolument to those who, in consequence either of office -or pretension, were supposed to have immediate communications with the -deity in whose temples they presided. - -Much has been written on this subject; and some have even gone so far -as to suppose that Divine permission was granted to certain demons, -or evil spirits, to inhabit pagan shrines, and thence, by ambiguous -answers, to deceive, and often to punish, those who sought by their -influence to read the forbidden volume of futurity. - -This doctrine was strenuously opposed by Van Dale; and Mœbius (of -Leipsic), although opposed to Van Dale’s opinion, allows that oracles -did not cease to grant responses _immediately_ at the coming of Christ; -and this has been considered a sufficient proof as well as argument, -that demons did not deliver oracular responses; but that those -responses were impostures and contrivances of the priests themselves. - -The true cause of the cessation of oracular prophecy, however, appears -to be, that the minds of men became enlightened by the wide-spreading -of the Christian faith; and by the circumstance, that their -superstition was compromised by the metamorphoses of their favourite -heroes and deities into saints and martyrs. As an instance of which, -it will hereafter be shown, that the statues of the ancient gods, even -to this day, are allowed to stand and hold places in the churches and -cathedrals of many Catholic countries. - -Those who argue that oracles _ceased_ immediately at the coming of -Christ, relate, in confirmation of their opinion, that Augustus having -grown old, became desirous of choosing a successor, and went, in -consequence, to consult the oracle at Delphos. No answer was given, at -first, to his inquiry, though he had spared no expense to conciliate -the oracle. At last, however, the priestess is reported to have said, -“the Hebrew Infant, to whom all gods render obedience, chases me hence; -He sends me to the lower regions; therefore depart this temple, without -speaking more.” - -Superstition was formed into a system in Egypt at an age prior to -our first accounts of that country. Vast temples were built, and -innumerable ceremonies established; the same body, forming the -hereditary priesthood and the nobility of the nation, directed with a -high hand the belief and consciences of the people; and prophecy was -not only among their pretensions, but perhaps the most indispensable -part of their office. - -Bœotia was also a country famous for the number of its oracles, -and from its localities was well suited for such impostures, being -mountainous and full of caverns, by means of which sounds and echoes, -apparently mysterious, could be easily multiplied to excite the -astonishment and terror of the supplicants. - -Herodotus informs us, that one of the first oracles in Greece was -imported from the Egyptian Thebes. It happened, says Mr. Mitford in his -History of Greece, that the master of a Phœnician vessel carried off -a woman, an attendant of the temple of Jupiter, at Thebes on the Nile, -and sold her in Thesprotia, a mountainous tract in the northwestern -part of Epirus, bordering on the Illyrian hordes. Reduced thus -unhappily to slavery among barbarians, the woman, however, soon became -sensible of the superiority which her education in a more civilized -country gave her over them; and she conceived hopes of mending her -condition, by practising upon their ignorance what she had acquired of -those arts which able hands imposed upon a more enlightened people. She -gave out that she possessed all the powers of prophecy to which the -Egyptian priests pretended; that she could discover present secrets, -and foretell future events. - -Her pretensions excited curiosity, and brought numbers to consult her. -She chose her station under the shade of a spreading oak, where, in -the name of the god Jupiter, she delivered answers to her ignorant -inquirers; and shortly her reputation as a prophetess extended as far -as the people of the country themselves communicated. - -These simple circumstances of her story were afterwards, according to -the genius of those ages, turned into a fable, which was commonly told, -in the time of Herodotus, by the Dodonæan priests. A black pigeon, -they said, flew from Thebes in Egypt to Dodona, and, perching upon an -oak, proclaimed with human voice, “That an oracle of Jupiter should be -established there.” Concluding that a divinity spoke through the agency -of the pigeon, the Dodonæans obeyed the mandate, and the oracle was -established. The historian accounts for the fiction thus: the woman on -her arrival speaking in a foreign dialect, the Dodonæans said she spoke -like a pigeon; but afterwards, when she had acquired the Grecian speech -and accent, they said the pigeon spoke with a human voice. - -The trade of prophecy being both easy and lucrative, the office of the -prophetess was readily supplied both with associates and successors. A -temple for the deity and habitations for his ministers were built; and -thus, according to the evidently honest, and apparently well-founded -and judicious, account of Herodotus, arose the oracle of Jupiter at -Dodona, the very place where tradition, still remaining to the days of -that writer, testified that sacrifices had formerly been performed only -to the nameless god. - -The responses of the oracles, though given with some appearance of -probability, were for the most part ambiguous and doubtful; but it -must be acknowledged that the priests were very clever persons, since, -while they satisfied for the time the wishes of others, they were so -well able to conceal their own knavery. A fellow, it is said, willing -to try the truth of Apollo’s oracle, asked what it was he held in his -hand--holding at the time a sparrow under his cloak--and whether it -was dead or alive--intending to kill or preserve it, contrary to what -the oracle should answer--but it replied, that it was his own choice -whether that which he held should live or die. - -Many of the sages and other great men evidently paid no regard, or real -veneration, to the oracles, beyond what policy dictated to preserve -their influence over others. - -The researches of modern antiquaries and travellers have discovered the -machinery of many artifices of the priests of the now deserted fanes, -which sufficiently account for the apparent miracles exhibited to the -eye of ignorance. There remain many instances of this kind to show how -general this system of imposture has been in all ages; and, as may -be supposed, the priests did not fail to exact a liberal payment in -advance. - -Cyrus,--according to the apocryphal tradition,--a devout worshipper of -the idol Bel, was convinced by the prophet Daniel of the imposture of -this supposed mighty and living god, who was thought to consume every -day twelve measures of fine flour, forty sheep, and six vessels of -wine, which were placed as an offering on the altar. These gifts being -presented as usual, Daniel commanded ashes to be strewed on the floor -of the temple, round the altar on which the offerings were placed; and -the door of the temple to be sealed in the presence of the king. Cyrus -returned on the following day, and seeing the altar cleared of what -was placed thereon, cried out “Great art thou, O Bel, and in thee is no -deceit!” but Daniel, pointing to the floor, the king continues, “I see -the footsteps of women and children!” The private door at the back of -the altar leading to the dwellings of the priests was then discovered; -their imposture clearly proved, they were all slain, and the temple was -destroyed. - -The circumstance of fire being so frequently an object of veneration -amongst pagans, is thought to have arisen thus: the sun, as a source of -light and heat, was the most evident and most benignant of the natural -agents; and was worshipped, accordingly, as a first cause, rather than -as an effect; as however it was occasionally absent, it was typified by -fire, which had the greatest analogy to it. - -This element, first respected only as the representative of the sun, -in time became itself the object of adoration among the Chaldeans; and -Eusebius relates the following circumstance with respect to it. The -Chaldeans asserted that their god was the strongest and most powerful -of all gods; since they had not met with any one that could resist his -force; so that whenever they happened to seize upon any deities, which -were worshipped by other nations, they immediately threw them into -the fire, which never failed of consuming them to ashes, and thus the -god of the Chaldeans came to be publicly looked upon as the conqueror -of all other gods: at length a priest of Canopus, one of the Egyptian -gods, found out the means to destroy the great reputation which fire -had acquired. He caused to be formed an idol of a very porous earth, -with which pots were commonly made to purify the waters of the Nile; -the belly of this statue, which was very capacious, was filled with -water, the priest having first made a great many little holes and -stopped them with wax. He then challenged the fire of the Chaldeans to -dispute with his god Canopus. The Chaldeans immediately prepared one, -and the Egyptian priest set his statue on it; no sooner did the fire -reach the wax than it dissolved, the holes were opened, the water -passed through, and the fire was extinguished. Upon this a report was -soon spread, that the god Canopus had conquered and destroyed the god -of the Chaldeans. As a memorial of their victory, the Egyptians always -afterwards made their idols with very large bellies. - -The celebrated sphinx, still more interesting as a wonderful production -of art, is said to have been made by an Egyptian king, in memory of -Rhodope of Corinth, with whom he was passionately in love: yet it -was subsequently considered as an oracle, which, if consulted at the -rising of the sun, gave prophetic answers. There has lately been -discovered a large hole in the head; in which the priests are supposed -to have concealed themselves, for the purpose of deluding the people. -At sunrise music was said to be heard. The latter might even occur -from natural causes. Messieurs Jomard, Jollois, and Devilliers heard -at _sunrise_, in a monument of granite, placed in the centre of that -spot on which the palace of Karnak stood, a noise resembling that of -a string breaking; this was found on attentive examination to proceed -from a natural phenomenon, occurring near the situation of the sphinx. -Of this circumstance the ingenuity of the priests would no doubt be -sure to avail themselves; and this may also account for the hour of -sunrise being chosen for the oracular responses. - -To confirm the probability of this solution of the mystery, it may be -mentioned that Baron Humboldt was informed by most credible witnesses, -that subterranean sounds, like those of an organ, are heard towards -sunrise by those who sleep upon the granite rocks on the banks of the -Oroonoko. Those sounds he philosophically supposes may arise from the -difference of temperature between the external air and that contained -in the narrow and deep crevices of the rocks; the air issuing from -which may be modified by its impulse against the elastic films of -mica projecting into the crevices; producing, in fact, a natural and -gigantic eolina, the simple but beautiful arrangement of musical chords -which is now so commonly heard. - -A somewhat similar phenomenon, which gives rise to an Arab -superstition, occurs about three leagues from Tor, on the Red Sea. The -spot, which is half a mile from the sea, bears the name of Nakous, or -the Bell. It is about three hundred feet high, and eighty feet wide, -presents a steep declivity to the sea, and is covered by sand, and -surrounded by low rocks, in the form of an amphitheatre. The sounds -which it emits are not periodical, but are heard at all hours and at -all seasons. The place was twice visited by Mr. Gray. On the first -visit, after waiting a quarter of an hour, he heard a low continuous -murmuring sound beneath his feet, which, as it increased in loudness, -gradually changed into pulsations, resembling the ticking of a clock. -In five minutes more it became so powerful as to resemble the striking -of a clock, and, by its vibrations, to detach the sand from the -surface. When he returned, on the following day, he heard the sound -still louder than before. Both times the air was calm, and the sky -serene; so that the external air could have had no share in producing -the phenomenon; nor could he find any crevice by which it could -penetrate. The noise is affirmed by the people of Tor to frighten and -render furious the camels that hear it; and the Arabs of the desert -poetically ascribe it to the bell of a convent of monks, which convent -they believe to have been miraculously preserved under ground. Seetzen, -another visiter, attributes the phenomenon to the rolling down of the -sand. - -Rufinus informs us that, when it was destroyed by order of Theodosius, -the temple of Serapis at Alexandria was found to be full of secret -passages and machines, contrived to aid the impostures of the priests; -among other things, on the eastern side of the temple, was a little -window, through which, on a certain day of the year, the sunbeams -entering fell on the mouth of the statue of Memnon. At the same moment -an iron image of the sun was brought in, which, being attracted by a -large loadstone fixed in the ceiling, ascended up to the image. The -priests then cried out, that the sun saluted their god. - -This Memnon was said to be the son of Tithonus and Aurora, and a -statue of him in black marble was set up at Thebes. It is also related -that the mouth of the statue, when first touched by the rays of the -rising sun, sent forth a sweet and harmonious sound, as though it -rejoiced when its mother Aurora appeared; but, at the setting of the -sun, it sent forth a low melancholy tone, as if lamenting its mother’s -departure. - -On the left leg of one of the colossal figures called Memnon are -engraved the names of many celebrated personages, who have borne -witness, at different times, of their having heard the musical tones -which proceeded from the statue on the rising and setting of the sun. -Strabo was an _ear_-witness to the fact that an articulate sound was -heard, but doubted whether it came from the statue. - -The oracle which held the greatest reputation, and extended it over -the world, was Delphi; yet upon what slight grounds were the minds of -people led captive by the love of the marvellous and a proneness to -superstition! Of this celebrated place so many fables are related, some -of them referring to times long before any authentic account of the -existence of such an oracle, that it is difficult to decide upon the -real period. - -On the southern side of Mount Parnassus, within the western border of -Phocis, against Locris, and at no great distance from the seaport towns -of Crissa and Cirrha, the mountain-crags form a natural amphitheatre, -difficult of access, in the midst of which a deep cavern discharged -from a narrow orifice a vapour powerfully affecting the brain of those -who came within its influence. This was first brought into public -notice by a goatherd, whose goats, browsing on the brink, were thrown -into singular convulsions; upon which the man, going to the spot, and -endeavouring to look into the chasm, became himself agitated like -one frantic. These extraordinary circumstances were communicated -through the neighbourhood; and the superstitious ignorance of the age -immediately attributed them to a deity residing in the place. Frenzy -of every kind among the Greeks, even in more enlightened times, was -supposed to be the effect of divine inspiration; and the incoherent -speeches of the frantic were regarded as prophetical. This spot, -formerly visited only by goats, now became an object of extensive -curiosity. It was said to be the oracle of the goddess Earth. The -rude inhabitants from all the neighbouring parts resorted to it, for -information concerning futurity; to obtain which any one of them -inhaled the vapour, and whatever he uttered in the ensuing intoxication -passed for prophecy. This was found dangerous, however, as many, -becoming giddy, fell into the cavern and were lost; and in an assembly -it was agreed that one person should alone receive the inspiration, -and render the responses of the divinity. A virgin was preferred for -the sacred office, and a frame prepared, resting on three feet, whence -it was called tripod. The place bore the name of Pytho, and thence -the title of Pythoness, or Pythia, became attached to the prophetess. -By degrees, a rude temple was built over the cavern, priests were -appointed, ceremonies were prescribed, and sacrifices were performed. -A revenue was necessary. All who would consult the oracle henceforward -must come with offerings in their hands. The profits produced by the -prophecies of the goddess Earth beginning to fail, the priests asserted -that the god Neptune was associated with her in the oracle. The -goddess Themis was then reported to have succeeded mother Earth. Still -new incentives to public credulity and curiosity became necessary. -Apollo was a deity of great reputation in the islands, and in Asia -Minor, but had at that time little fame on the continent of Greece. -At this period, a vessel from Crete came to Crissa, and the crew -landing proceeded up Mount Parnassus to Delphi. It was reported that -the vessel and crew, by a preternatural power, were impelled to the -port, accompanied by a dolphin of uncommon magnitude, who discovered -himself to be Apollo, and who ordered the crew to follow him to Delphi -and become his ministers. Thus the oracle recovered and increased -its reputation. Delphi had the advantage of being near the centre of -Greece, and was reported to be the centre of the earth; miracles were -invented to prove so important a circumstance, and the navel of the -earth was among the titles which it acquired. Afterwards vanity came -in aid of superstition, in bringing riches to the temple: the names -of those who made considerable presents were always registered, and -exhibited in honour of the donors. - -The Pythoness was chosen from among mountain cottagers, the most -unacquainted with mankind that could be found. It was required that -she should be a virgin, and originally taken when very young; and -once appointed, she was never to quit the temple. But, unfortunately, -it happened that one Pythoness made her escape; her singular beauty -enamoured a young Thessalian, who succeeded in the hazardous attempt to -carry her off. It was afterwards decreed that no Pythoness should be -appointed under fifty years of age. - -This office appears not to have been very desirable. Either the -emanation from the cavern, or some art of the managers, threw her into -real convulsions. Priests, entitled prophets, led her to the sacred -tripod, force being often necessary for the purpose, and held her on -it, till her frenzy rose to whatever pitch was in their judgment most -fit for the occasion. Some of the Pythonesses are said to have expired -almost immediately after quitting the tripod, and even on it. The -broken accents which the wretch uttered in her agony were collected and -arranged by the prophets, and then promulgated as the answer of the -god. Till a late period, they were always in verse. The priests had -it always in their power to deny answers, delay them, or render them -dubious or unintelligible, as they judged most advantageous for the -credit of the oracle. But if princes or great men applied in a proper -manner for the sanction of the god to any undertaking, they seldom -failed to receive it in direct terms, provided the reputation of the -oracle for truth was not liable to immediate danger from the event. - -Theophrastus, bishop of Alexandria, showed the inhabitants of that -town the hollow statue into which the former priests of the pagan -oracle had privately crept whilst delivering their responses; and a -modern traveller corroborates this fact, by a similar discovery made -among the excavations at Pompeii. “In the temple of Isis,” says Dr. -J. Johnson, “we see the identical spot where the priests concealed -themselves, whilst delivering the oracles that were supposed to proceed -from the mouth of the goddess. There were found the bones of the -victims sacrificed; and in the refectory of the abstemious priests -were discovered the remains of ham, fowls, eggs, fish, and bottles of -wine. These jolly friars were carousing most merrily, and no doubt -laughing heartily at the credulity of mankind, when Vesuvius poured out -a libation on their heads which put an end to their mirth.”[2] - -“To cut the Gordian knot” has long been proverbial for an independent -and unexpected way of overcoming difficulties, however great. It took -its rise from a circumstance related with some variations by several -ancient authors, and with great simplicity by Arrian; it is the more a -curiosity as coming from a man of his eminence in his enlightened age. - -At a remote period, says he, a Phrygian yeoman, named Gordius, was -holding his own plough on his own land, when an eagle perched on the -yoke and remained whilst he continued his work. Wondering at a matter -so apparently preternatural, he deemed it expedient to consult some -person among those who had reputation for expounding indications of -the divine will. In the neighbouring province of Pisidia the people of -Telmissus had wide fame for that skill; it was supposed instinctive -and hereditary in men and women of particular families. Going thither, -as he approached the first village of the Telmissian territory, he saw -a girl drawing water at a spring; and making some inquiry, which led -to further conversation, he related the phenomenon. It happened that -the girl was of a race of seers; she told him to return immediately -home, and sacrifice to Jupiter the king. Satisfied so far, he remained -anxious about the manner of performing the ceremony, so that it might -be certainly acceptable to the deity; and the result was that he -married the girl, and she accompanied him home. - -Nothing important followed till a son of this match, named Midas, had -attained manhood. The Phrygians then, distressed by violent civil -dissensions, consulted an oracle for means to allay them. The answer -was, “that a cart would bring them a king to relieve their troubles.” -The assembly was already formed to receive official communication -of the divine will, when Gordius and Midas arrived in their cart to -attend it. Presently the notion arose and spread, that one of those in -that cart must be the person intended by the oracle. Gordius was then -advanced in years. Midas, who already had been extensively remarked for -superior powers of both body and mind, was elected king of Phrygia. -Tranquillity ensued among the people; and the cart, predesigned by -heaven to bring a king the author of so much good, was, with its -appendages, dedicated to the god, and placed in the citadel, where it -was carefully preserved. - -The yoke was fastened with a thong, formed of the bark of a cornel -tree, so artificially that no eye could discover either end; and rumour -was become popular of an oracle, which declared that whosoever loosened -that thong would be lord of Asia. The extensive credit which this -rumour had obtained, and the reported failure of the attempts of many -great men, gave an importance to it. Alexander, in the progress of his -campaign in Asia, arrived at Gordium, and of course visited the castle -in which was preserved the Gordian knot. While, with many around, he -was admiring it, the observation occurred that it being his purpose -to become lord of Asia, he should, for the sake of popular opinion, -have the credit of loosening the yoke. Some writers have reported that -he cut the knot with his sword; but Aristobulus, who, as one of his -generals, is likely to have been present, related that he wrested the -pin from the beam, and so, taking off the yoke, said that was enough -for him to be lord of Asia. - -Thunder and lightning on the following night, says Arrian, confirmed -the assertion that Alexander had effected what the oracle had declared -was to be done only by one who should be lord of Asia. Accordingly -on the morrow he performed a magnificent thanksgiving sacrifice, in -acknowledgment of the favour of the gods, thus promised: a measure as -full of policy as devotion. - -In Cornwall are to be found enormous piles of stone, which bear -the name of Ambrosian, Logan, or Rocking Stones. Structures of this -kind, as they may, perhaps, reasonably be called, are of very great -antiquity, being represented on medals of Tyre. They appear to have -been composed of cones of rock let into the ground, with other stones -adapted to their points, and so nicely balanced, that the wind could -move them; and yet so ponderous, that no human force, unaided by -machinery, could displace them. The figures of Apollo Didymus, on the -Syrian coins, are placed sitting on the point of the cone, on which the -more rude and primitive symbol of the Logan stone is found poised; and -we are told, that the oracle of the god near Miletus existed before -the emigration of the Ionian colonies, more than eleven hundred years -before Christ. - -Pliny, in his second book, relates that there was one to be seen at -Harpasa in Asia, exactly answering the description of those found in -Cornwall. “Lay one finger on it, and it will stir; but thrust against -it with your whole body, and it will not move.” Hephæstion mentions the -Gigonian stone, near the ocean, which may be moved with the stalk of an -asphodel, but cannot be removed by any force. Several of these stones -may be seen in the neighbourhood of Heliopolis, or Baalbeck, in Syria; -and one in particular has been seen in motion by the force of the wind -alone. - -The famous Logan stone, commonly called Minamber, stood in the parish -of Sithney, Cornwall. The top stone was so accurately poised on the one -beneath, that a little child could move it; and all travellers went -that way to see it; but in Cromwell’s time, one Shrubsoll, Governor of -Pendennis, with much ado caused it to be undermined and thrown down, to -the great grief of the country: thus its wonderful property of moving -so easily to a certain point was destroyed. The cause which induced -the Governor to overthrow it appears to have been that the vulgar used -to resort to the place at particular times, and pay the stone more -respect than was thought becoming good Christians. - -A similar destructive act was committed, a few years since, by one -of his majesty’s officers, the commander of a revenue cutter. His -achievement had, however, not even the excuse of a mistaken religious -feeling to plead in its behalf; it seems to have been prompted merely -by the spirit of mischief. Having landed a part of his crew, he, with -infinite labour, succeeded in overturning the most celebrated Logan -stone in Cornwall. But such was the odium with which he was visited -in consequence of his exploit, that he undertook the gigantic task of -restoring the stone to its original situation; and he was fortunate or -skilful enough to succeed. A description of the situation and magnitude -of the enormous mass which he had to raise will give some idea of the -difficulty which he had to encounter. It is situated “on a peninsula of -granite, jutting out two hundred yards into the sea, the isthmus still -exhibiting some remains of the ancient fortification of Castle Treryn. -The granite which forms this peninsula is split by perpendicular and -horizontal fissures into a heap of cubical or prismatic masses. The -whole mass varies in height from fifty to a hundred feet; it presents -on almost every side a perpendicular face to the sea, and is divided -into four summits, on one of which, near the centre of the promontory, -the stone in question lies. The general figure of the stone is -irregular: its lower surface is not quite flat, but swells out into a -slight protuberance, on which the rock is poised. It rests on a surface -so inclined, that it seems as if a small alteration in its position -would cause it to slide along the plane into the sea, for it is within -two or three feet of the edge of the precipice. The stone is seventeen -feet in length, and above thirty-two in circumference near the middle, -and is estimated to weigh nearly sixty-six tons. The vibration is -only in one direction, and that nearly at right angles to the length. -A force of a very few pounds is sufficient to bring it into a state -of vibration; even the wind blowing on its western surface, which is -exposed, produces this effect in a sensible degree. The vibration -continues a few seconds.” - -Such immense masses being moved by means so inadequate must naturally -have conveyed the idea of spontaneous motion to ignorant persons, and -have persuaded them that they were animated by an emanation from the -Deity or Great Spirit, and, as such, might be consulted as oracles. - - “Behold yon huge - And unhewn sphere of living adamant, - Which, poised by magic, rests its central weight - On yonder pointed rock; firm as it seems, - Such is its strange and virtuous property, - It moves obsequious to the gentlest touch.” - -It cannot be doubted that those Logan stones are druidical monuments; -but it is not certain what particular use the priests made of them. -Mr. Toland thinks that the Druids made the people believe that they -could only be moved miraculously, and by this pretended miracle they -condemned or acquitted an accused person. It is likely that some of -these stones were of natural formation, and that the Druids made and -consecrated others; by such pious frauds increasing their private gain, -and establishing an ill-grounded authority by deluding the common -people. The basins cut on the top of these stones had their part to -act in these juggles; and the ruffling or quiescence of the water was -to declare the wrath or testify the pleasure of the god consulted, and -somehow or other to confirm the decision of the Druids. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - - FALSE MESSIAHS, PROPHETS, AND MIRACLES. - - Susceptibility of the Imagination in the East--Mahomet--His - Origin--He assumes the Title of the Apostle of God--Opposition to - him--Revelations brought to Him by the Angel Gabriel--His Flight - to Medina--Success of his Imposture--Attempt to poison him--His - Death--Tradition respecting his Tomb--Account of his Intercourse - with Heaven--Sabatai Sevi, a false Messiah--Superstitious - Tradition among the Jews--Reports respecting the Coming - of the Messiah--Sabatai pretends to be the Messiah--He is - assisted by Nathan--Follies committed by the Jews--Honours - paid to Sabatai--He embarks for Constantinople--His Arrest--He - embraces Mahometanism to avoid Death--Rosenfeld, a German, - proclaims himself the Messiah--His knavery--He is whipped and - imprisoned--Richard Brothers announces himself as the revealed - Prince and Prophet of the Jews--He dies in Bedlam--Thomas - Muncer and his Associates--Their Fate--Matthias, John of - Leyden, and other Anabaptist Leaders--They are defeated and - executed--The French Prophets--Punishment of them--Miracles - at the Grave of the Deacon Paris--Horrible Self-inflictions - of the Convulsionaries--The Brothers of Brugglen--They are - executed--Prophecy of a Lifeguardsman in London--Joanna - Southcott--Her Origin, Progress, and Death--Folly of her - Disciples--Miracles of Prince Hohenlohe. - - -The earlier species of superstitious belief are now passed away, and -the remembrance of them only serves to adorn poetic fiction. In eastern -countries, where the imagination is more susceptible, men have yielded -a religious faith to one, the rapid extension of whose tenets, though -subsequent indeed to his death, was as astonishing as the boldness and -effrontery of his attempt; which may be considered without a parallel -in the annals of imposture. - -Mahomet, the original contriver and founder of the false religion so -extensively professed in the East, has always been designated, _par -excellence_, “The Impostor.” He was born at Mecca, in the year of our -Lord 571, of the tribe of the Koreshites, the noblest and most powerful -in the country. In his youth he was employed by his uncle, a merchant, -as a camel-driver; and, as a term of reproach, and proof of the lowness -of his origin, his enemies used to call him “The Camel-driver.” When he -was once in the market-place of Bostra with his camels, it is asserted, -that he was recognised by a learned monk, called Bahira, as a prophet; -the monk pretended to know him by a halo of divine light around his -countenance, and he hailed him with joy and veneration. - -In his twenty-fifth year Mahomet married a rich widow; this raised him -to affluence, and he appeared at that time to have formed the secret -plan of obtaining for himself sovereign power. He assumed the character -of superior sanctity, and every morning retired to a secret cave, -near Mecca, where he devoted the day to prayer, abstinence, and holy -meditation. - -In his fortieth year, he took the title of Apostle of God, and -increased his fame by perseverance, and the aid of pretended visions. -He made at first but few proselytes; his enemies, who suspected his -designs, and perhaps foresaw his bold and rapid strides to power, -heaped on him the appellations of impostor, liar, and magician. But -he overcame all opposition in promulgating his doctrine, chiefly by -flattering the passions and prejudices of his nation. In a climate -exposed to a burning sun, he allured the imagination, by promising -as rewards, in the future state, rivers of cooling waters, shady -retreats, luxurious fruits, and immaculate houris. His system -of religion was given out as the command of God, and he produced -occasionally various chapters, which had been copied from the archives -of Heaven, and brought down to him by the Angel Gabriel; and if -difficulties or doubts were started, they were quickly removed, as this -obliging Angel brought down fresh revelations to support his character -for sanctity. When miracles were demanded of him, in testimony of his -divine mission, he said with an air of authority, that God had sent -Moses and Christ with miracles, and men would not believe; therefore, -he had sent him in the last place without them, and to use a sword in -their stead. This communication exposed him to some danger, and he was -compelled to fly from Mecca to Medina; from which period is fixed the -Hegira, or flight, at which he began to propagate his doctrines by the -sword. His arms were successful. In spite of some checks, he ultimately -overcame or gained over all his foes, and within ten years after his -flight, his authority was recognised throughout the Arabian peninsula. -Among the tribes subjugated by his sword was the Jewish tribe of -Khaibar. He put to death Kenana, the chief, who assumed the title of -King of the Jews; and after the victory, he took up his abode in the -house of a Jew, whose son, Marhab, had fallen in the contest. This -circumstance nearly cost him his life. Desirous to avenge her brother, -Zeinab, the sister of Marhab, put poison in a shoulder of mutton, which -was served up to Mahomet. The prophet was saved by seeing one of his -officers fall, who had begun before him to eat of the dish. He hastily -rejected the morsel which he had taken into his own mouth; but so -virulent was the poison, that his health was severely injured, and his -death is thought to have been hastened by it. On being questioned as -to the motive which had prompted her, Zeinab boldly replied, “I wished -to discover whether you are really a prophet, in which case you could -preserve yourself from the poison; and, if you were not so, I sought -to deliver my country from an impostor and a tyrant.” - -Mahomet died at Medina, and a fabulous tradition asserts that his body -in an iron coffin, was suspended in the air, through the agency of two -loadstones concealed, one in the roof, and the other beneath the floor -of his mausoleum. - -The success of this impostor, during his life, is not more astonishing -than the extent to which his doctrines have been propagated since his -death. The Koran was compiled subsequent to his decease, from chapters -said to have been brought by the angel Gabriel from Heaven. It is -composed of sublime truths, incredible fables, and ludicrous events; -by artful interpolation he grafted on his theories such parts of the -Holy Scriptures as suited his purpose, and announced himself to be that -comforter which our Saviour had promised should come after him. - -Mahomet was a man of ready wit, and bore all the affronts of his -enemies with concealed resentment. Many artifices were had recourse -to, for the purpose of delusion; it is said a bull was taught to bring -him on its horns revelations, as if sent from God; and he bred up -pigeons to come to his ears, and feign thereby that the Holy Ghost -conversed with him. His ingenuity made him turn to his own advantage -circumstances otherwise against him. He was troubled with the falling -sickness, and he persuaded his followers that, during the moments of -suspended animation, he accompanied the Angel Gabriel, in various -journeys, borne by the celestial beast Alborak, and that ascending to -the highest heavens, he was permitted to converse familiarly with the -Almighty. - -His first interview with the angel took place at night, when in bed; -he heard a knocking at the door, and having opened it, he then saw the -Angel Gabriel, with seventy-nine pairs of wings, expanded from his -sides, whiter than snow, and clearer than crystal, and the celestial -beast beside him. This beast he described as being between an ass and -mule, as white as milk, and of extraordinary swiftness. Mahomet was -most kindly embraced by the angel, who told him that he was sent to -bring him unto God in heaven, where he should see strange mysteries, -which were not lawful to be seen by other men, and bid him get upon the -beast; but the beast having long lain idle, from the time of Christ -till Mahomet, was grown so restive and skittish, that he would not -stand still for Mahomet to get upon him, till at length he was forced -to bribe him to it, by promising him a place in Paradise. The beast -carried him to Jerusalem in the twinkling of an eye. The departed -saints saluted them, and they proceeded to the oratory in the Temple; -returning from the Temple they found a ladder of light ready fixed for -them, which they immediately ascended, leaving the Alborak there tied -to a rock till their return. - -Mahomet is said to have given a dying promise to return in a thousand -years, but that time being already past, his faithful followers say -the period he really mentioned was two thousand, though, owing to the -weakness of his voice, he could not be distinctly heard. - -A pilgrimage to Mecca is thought, by devout Mahometans, to be the most -efficacious means of procuring remission of sins and the enjoyments of -Paradise; and even the camels[3] which go on that journey are held so -sacred after their return, that many fanatical Turks, when they have -seen them, destroy their eyesight by looking closely on hot bricks, -desiring to see nothing profane after so sacred a spectacle. - -The early leaning of the Jews towards idolatry and superstition -has been recorded in terms that admit of no dispute, by their own -historians. The same leaning continued to be manifest in them for many -ages. Sandys, in his travels, heard of an ancient tradition current on -the borders of the Red Sea, that the day on which the Jews celebrate -the passover, loaves of bread, by time converted into stone, are seen -to arise from that sea;[4] and are supposed to be some of the bread the -Jews left in their passage. - -They were sold at Grand Cairo, handsomely made up in the manner and -shape of the bread, at _the time in which he wrote_; and this was of -itself sufficient to betray the imposture. - -The anxiously-expected appearance of their Messiah made the Jews very -easily imposed upon by those who for interested motives chose to assume -so sacred a title. Our Saviour predicted the coming of false Christs, -and many have since his day appeared, though perhaps no false prophet -in later days has excited a more general commotion in that nation than -Sabatai Sevi. - -According to the prediction of several Christian writers, who commented -on the Apocalypse, the year 1666 was to prove one of wonders, and -particularly of blessings to the Jews; and reports flew from place to -place, of the march of multitudes of people from unknown parts in the -remote deserts of Asia, supposed to be the ten tribes and a half lost -for so many ages, and also that a ship had arrived in the north of -Scotland, with sails and cordage of silk, navigated by mariners who -spoke nothing but Hebrew; with this motto on their flag, “The twelve -tribes of Israel.” These reports, agreeing thus near with former -predictions, led the credulous to expect that the year would produce -strange events with reference to the Jewish nation. - -Thus were millions of people possessed, when Sabatai Sevi appeared at -Smyrna, and proclaimed himself to the Jews as their Messiah; declaring -the greatness of his approaching kingdom, and the strong hand whereby -God was about to deliver them from bondage, and gather them together. - -“It was strange,” says Mr. Evelyn, “to see how this fancy took, and how -fast the report of Sabatai and his doctrine flew through those parts of -Turkey the Jews inhabited: they were so deeply possessed of their new -kingdom, and their promotion to honour, that none of them attended to -business of any kind, except to prepare for a journey to Jerusalem.” - -Sabatai was the son of Mordechai Sevi, an inhabitant of Smyrna, who -acted as a broker to English merchants. His son, studying metaphysics, -vented a new doctrine in the law; and, gaining some disciples, he -attracted sufficient notice to cause his banishment from the city. -During his exile he was twice married, but soon after each ceremony -he obtained a divorce. At Jerusalem he married a third time. He there -began to preach a reform in the law, and meeting with another Jew, -named Nathan, he communicated to him his intention of proclaiming -himself the Messiah, so long expected, and so much desired by the Jews. - -Nathan assisted in this deceit, and as, according to the ancient -prophecies, it was necessary Elias should precede the Messiah, Nathan -thought no one so proper as himself to personate that prophet. Nathan, -therefore, as the forerunner of the Messiah, announced to the Jews what -was about to take place, and that consequently nothing but joy and -triumph ought to dwell in their habitations. This delusion being once -begun, many Jews really believed what they so much desired; and Nathan -took courage to prophesy, that in one year from the 27th of Kislev -(June), the Messiah should appear, and take from the grand signior his -crown, and lead him in chains like a captive. - -Sabatai meanwhile preached at Gaza repentance to the Jews, and -obedience to himself and his doctrine. These novelties very much -affected the Jews; and they gave themselves up to prayers, alms, and -devotion. The rumour flying abroad, letters of congratulation came from -all parts to Jerusalem and Gaza: and thus encouraged, Sabatai resolved -to travel to Smyrna, and thence to Constantinople, the capital city, -where the principal work was to be performed. - -All was now expectation among the Jews; no trade was followed, and -every one imagined that daily provisions, riches, and honour, were -to descend upon him miraculously. Many fasted so long that they were -famished to death; others buried themselves in their gardens up to the -neck; but the most common mortification was to prick their backs and -sides with thorns, and then give themselves thirty-nine lashes. - -To avoid the necessity of business, which was even made a fineable -offence, the rich were taxed to support the poor; and, lest the Messiah -should accuse them of neglecting ancient precepts, particularly that to -increase and multiply, they married together children of ten years and -under. Without respect to riches or poverty, to the number of six or -seven hundred couples were indiscriminately joined: but on better and -cooler thoughts, after the deceit was discovered, or expectation grew -cold, these children were divorced or separated by mutual consent. - -At Smyrna, Sabatai was well received by the common Jews, but not so -by the chochams or doctors of the law, who gave no credence to his -pretensions. Yet Sabatai, bringing testimonials of his sanctity, holy -life, wisdom, and gift of prophecy, so deeply fixed himself in the -hearts of the generality, that he took courage to dispute with the -grand chocham. Arguments grew so strong, and language so hot, between -the disputants, that the Jews who espoused Sabatai’s doctrine appeared -in great numbers before the Cadi of Smyrna, in justification of him. -Sabatai thus gained ground, whilst the grand chocham in like proportion -lost it, as well as the affection and obedience of his people, and -ultimately he was displaced. - -No invitation was now ever made by the Jews, or marriage ceremony -solemnized, where Sabatai was not present, accompanied by a multitude -of followers; and the streets were covered with carpets or fine cloths -for him to tread upon, which the pretended humility of this Pharisee -stooped to turn aside. Many of his followers became prophetic; and -infants, who could scarcely stammer a syllable to their mothers, could -pronounce and repeat his name. There were still, however, numbers bold -enough to dispute his mission, and to proclaim him an impostor. - -Sabatai then proceeded with great presumption to an election of -princes, who were to govern the Israelites during their march to the -Holy Land. Miracles were thought necessary for the confirmation of the -Jews in their faith; and it was pretended that on one occasion a pillar -of fire was seen between Sabatai and the cadi: though but few were said -to have seen it, it speedily became the general belief, and Sabatai -returned triumphant to his house, fixed in the hearts of all his -people. He then prepared for his journey to Constantinople, where his -great work was to be accomplished: but, to avoid the confusion of his -numerous followers, he went by sea with a small party, and was detained -thirty-nine days by contrary winds. His followers, having arrived -overland before him, awaited his coming with great anxiety. Having -heard of the disorder and madness that had spread among the Jews, and -fearing the consequences, the vizir sent a boat to arrest Sabatai, and -he was brought ashore a prisoner, and committed to the darkest dungeon, -to await his sentence. - -Undiscouraged by this event, the Jews were rather confirmed in their -belief; and visited him with the same ceremony and respect, as if -exalted on the throne of Israel. Sabatai was kept a prisoner two -months, and then removed to the castle of Abydos, where he was so much -sought after by the Jews, that the Turks demanded five or ten dollars -for the admission of each proselyte. At his leisure in this castle, he -composed a new mode of worship. - -The Jews now only awaited the personal appearance of Elias, previous -to the glorious consummation. There is a superstition among them, that -Elias is invisibly present in their families, and they generally spread -a table for him, to which they invite poor people; leaving the chief -seat for the Lord Elias, who they believe partakes of the entertainment -with gratitude. On one occasion, at the ceremony of circumcision, -Sabatai took advantage of this credulity, for he exhorted the parents -to wait awhile, and, after an interval of half an hour, he ordered them -to proceed. The reason he gave for this delay was, that Elias had not -at first taken the seat prepared for him, and therefore he had waited -till he saw him sit down. - -Having had the history of the whole affair laid before him, the grand -signior sent for Sabatai to Adrianople. On receiving the summons, the -pseudo-Messiah appeared to be much dejected, and to have lost that -courage which he formerly showed in the synagogues. The grand signior -would not be satisfied without a miracle any more than the Jews; but he -wisely resolved that it should be one of his own choosing. He ordered -that Sabatai should be stripped naked, and set up as a mark for the -dexterous archers of the sultan to shoot at, and, if it was found that -his skin was arrow-proof, he would then believe him to be the Messiah. -Not having faith enough in himself to stand so sharp a trial, Sabatai -renounced all title to kingdoms and governments, alleging that he was -merely an ordinary chocham. Not satisfied with this, the grand signior -declared that the treason of the Jew was only to be expiated by a -conversion to Mahometanism, which if he refused, a stake was ready at -the gate of the seraglio, on which to impale him. Sabatai replied, with -much cheerfulness, that he was contented to turn Turk; and that not of -force, but choice, he having been a long time desirous of so glorious a -profession. - -When the Jews received intelligence of Sabatai’s apostacy, and found -that all their insane hopes were completely blighted, they were filled -with consternation and shame. The news quickly spread all over Turkey, -and they became so much the common derision of all the unbelievers, -that, for a long time, they were overcome with confusion and dejection -of spirit. - -Of subsequent pretenders to the sacred character of the Messiah, it -must suffice to mention two; the one of them a German, the other an -English subject. - -The German, whose name was Hans Rosenfeld, was a gamekeeper. The scene -of his impious or insane pretensions was Prussia and the neighbouring -states. He taught that Christianity was a deception, and that its -priests were impostors. Having thus summarily disposed of spiritual -matters, he proceeded to meddle with temporal in a manner which was -not a little dangerous under a despotic government. Frederick the -Great, who was then on the throne, he declared to be the devil; and, as -it was not fit that the devil should reign, Rosenfeld made known that -he intended to depose him. Having accomplished this difficult feat, he -was to rule the world, at the head of a council of twenty-four elders. -The seven seals were then to be opened. In his choice of the angels who -were to open the seals, he took care to have an eye to his own pleasure -and interest. He demanded from his followers seven beautiful girls, who -were to fill the important office; but that, in the mean while, the -office might not be a sinecure, they held the place of mistresses to -him, and maintained him by their labour. - -Rosenfeld was suffered to go on thus for twenty years, with -occasionally a short imprisonment, and he still continued to find -dupes. He might, perhaps, have gone to his grave without receiving any -serious check, had he not been overthrown, though unintentionally, -by one of his own partisans. This man, who had resigned three of -his daughters to the impostor, was tired of waiting so long for his -promised share of the good things which the pseudo-Messiah was to -dispense; it was not his faith, it was only his patience, that was -exhausted. To quicken the movements of Rosenfeld, he hit upon a rare -expedient. As, according to his creed, the king was the devil, he went -to him for the purpose of provoking the monarch to play the devil, -by acting in such a manner as should compel the impostor to exert -immediately his supernatural powers. On this provocation, Frederick -did act, and with effect. Rosenfeld was ordered to be tried; the trial -took place in 1782, and the tribunal sentenced him to be whipped, -and imprisoned for life at Spandau. Against this sentence he twice -appealed, but it was finally executed. - -The English claimant of divine honours was Richard Brothers. He was -born at Placentia, in Newfoundland, and had served in the navy, -but resigned his commission, because, to use his own words, he -“conceived the military life to be totally repugnant to the duties -of Christianity, and he could not conscientiously receive the wages -of plunder, bloodshed, and murder.” This step reduced him to great -poverty, and he appears to have suffered much in consequence. His mind -was already shaken, and his privations and solitary reflections seem -at length to have entirely overthrown it. The first instance of his -madness appears to have been his belief that he could restore sight -to the blind. He next began to see visions and to prophesy, and soon -became persuaded that he was commissioned by Heaven to lead back the -Jews to Palestine. It was in the latter part of 1794 that he announced, -through the medium of the press, his high destiny. His rhapsody bore -the title of “A revealed Knowledge of the Prophecies and Times. Book -the First. Wrote under the direction of the Lord God, and published by -his sacred command; it being the first sign of warning for the benefit -of all nations. Containing, with other great and remarkable things, not -revealed to any other person on earth, the restoration of the Hebrews -to Jerusalem, by the year of 1798: under their revealed prince and -prophet.” A second part speedily followed, which purported to relate -“particularly to the present time, the present war, and the prophecy -now fulfilling: containing, with other great and remarkable things, not -revealed to any other person on earth, the sudden and perpetual fall of -the Turkish, German, and Russian Empires.” Among many similar flights, -in this second part, was one which described visions revealing to him -the intended destruction of London, and claimed for the prophet the -merit of having saved the city, by his intercession with the Deity. - -Though every page of his writings betrayed the melancholy state of -the unfortunate man’s mind, such is the infatuation of human beings, -that he speedily gained a multitude of partisans, who placed implicit -faith in the divine nature of his mission. Nor were his followers found -only in the humble and unenlightened classes of society. Strange as it -may appear, he was firmly believed in by men of talent and education. -Among his most devoted disciples were Sharpe, the celebrated engraver, -whom we shall soon see clinging to Joanna Southcott; and Mr. Halhed, -a profound scholar, a man of great wit and acuteness, and a member of -the House of Commons. The latter gave to the world various pamphlets, -strongly asserting the prophetic mission of Brothers, and actually made -in the House a motion in favour of the prince of the Jews. Numerous -pamphlets were also published by members of the new sect. - -Brothers was now conveyed to a madhouse at Islington; but he continued -to see visions, and to pour forth his incoherencies in print. One of -his productions, while he was in this asylum, was a letter, of two -hundred pages, to “Miss Cott, the recorded daughter of King David, and -future Queen of the Hebrews. With an Address to the Members of his -Britannic Majesty’s Council.” The lady to whom his letter was addressed -had been an inmate of the same receptacle with himself, and he became -so enamoured, that he discovered her to be “the recorded daughter -of both David and Solomon,” and his spouse, “by divine ordinance.” -Brothers was subsequently removed to Bedlam, where he resided till his -decease, which did not take place for several years. - -Among the most mischievous of the pretenders to prophetical inspiration -may be reckoned Thomas Muncer, and his companions, Storck, Stubner, -Cellarius, Thomas, and several others, contemporaries of Luther, from -whom sprang the sect of the Anabaptists. Eighty-four of them assumed -the character of twelve apostles and seventy-two disciples. “They state -wonderful things respecting themselves,” says Melancthon, in a letter -to the Elector of Saxony; “namely, that they are sent to instruct -mankind by the clear voice of God; that they verily hold converse with -God, see future things, and, in short, are altogether prophetical and -apostolical men.” Muncer was, of them all, the one who possessed the -highest portion of talents and eloquence, and chiefly by his exertions -a spirit of insurrection was excited among the peasantry. Expelled from -Saxony, he found a retreat at Alstadt, in Thuringia, where the people -listened to his revelations, gave him the chief authority in the place, -and proceeded to establish that community of goods which was one of his -doctrines. The war of the peasants had by this time broken out, but -Muncer hesitated to place himself at their head. The exhortations of -Pfeifer, another impostor, of a more daring spirit, and who pretended -to have seen visions predictive of success, at length induced him -to take the field. His force was, however, speedily attacked, near -Frankhuysen, by the army of the allied princes, and, in spite of the -courage and eloquence which he displayed, it was utterly defeated. -Muncer escaped for the moment, but speedily fell into the hands of his -enemies, and, after having been twice tortured, was beheaded. The same -fate befell Pfeifer and some of his associates. Of the unfortunate -peasants, who had been driven to arms by oppression, still more than by -fanaticism, several thousands perished. - -Nine years afterwards, consequences equally disastrous were produced by -fanatical leaders of the same sect. In 1534, John Matthias of Haarlem, -and John Boccold, who, from his birthplace being Leyden, is generally -known as John of Leyden, at the head of their followers, among the -most conspicuous of whom were Knipperdolling, and Bernard Rothman, a -celebrated preacher, succeeded in making themselves masters of the city -of Munster. Though Matthias was originally a baker, and the latter a -journeyman tailor, they were unquestionably men of great courage and -ability. As soon as they were in possession of the place, the authority -was assumed by Matthias, and equality and a community of goods were -established, and the name of Munster was changed to that of Mount Sion. -The city was soon besieged by its bishop, Count Waldeck. Matthias, who -had hitherto displayed considerable skill in his military preparations, -now took a step which proved that his reason had wholly deserted him. -He determined, in imitation of Gideon, to go forth with only thirty -men, and overthrow the besieging host. Of course he and his associates -perished. - -John of Leyden now became the principal leader. To establish his -authority, he pretended to fall into a trance, and have visions. -Among the revelations made to him were, that he was to appoint twelve -elders of the people, similar to those of the twelve Hebrew tribes, -and that the laws of marriage were to be changed, each person being -henceforth at liberty to marry as many wives as he chose. Of the latter -permission he availed himself to the extent of three wives, one of -whom was the widow of Matthias. A new prophet now started up, who was -a watchmaker by trade. Charged, as he pretended, with a mission from -above, he gathered round him a multitude, and announced it to be the -will of Heaven, that John of Leyden should be crowned king of all the -earth, and should march at the head of an army to put down princes -and unbelievers. John was accordingly enthroned; and, decked in royal -ornaments, he held his court in an open part of the city. Among his -first acts of sovereignty appears to have been the despatching, in -pursuance of a celestial order, twenty-eight missionaries, to spread -the doctrines of his sect through the four quarters of the world. The -twenty-eight apostles were readily found, and they proceeded to execute -his orders. Of these unfortunate enthusiasts all but one endured -tortures and death. - -The bishop had by this time increased his force to an extent which -enabled him to hold the city completely blockaded. The citizens -suffered dreadfully from famine and disease; but John of Leyden lost -not one jot of his confidence. One of his wives, having incautiously -expressed her sympathy for the sufferers, was instantly punished by -being beheaded, and her death was celebrated by the multitude with -singing and dancing. - -During all this time, John of Leyden displayed a degree of firmness, -vigilance, and prudence in guarding against the enemy, which did credit -to his abilities. Till nearly the end of June 1535, he contrived to -hold the blockading army at bay. But the end of his reign was now -approaching. Two fugitives gave the bishop information of a vulnerable -point; and on the 24th of June a band of picked soldiers effected an -entrance into the city. A desperate struggle ensued, and the king and -his partisans fought with such desperate courage, that the assailants -were on the very verge of defeat, when they contrived to open a gate, -and admit the troops from without the walls. Resistance was speedily -subdued by overwhelming numbers. Rothman was fortunate enough to fall -by the sword; but John of Leyden, Knipperdolling, and another of the -leaders, were taken, and died in the most barbarous torments; their -flesh was torn from their bones by burning pincers, and their mangled -remains were hung up in iron cages. - -Passing to the commencement of the eighteenth century, we find a group -of pretended prophets, and miracle-workers, perhaps not less fanatical -than those which have just been described, but certainly less noxious. -They were Protestants, and were known by the appellation of the French -prophets. It was towards the latter end of 1706 that they came to -England, from the mountains of the Cevennes, where their countrymen -had for a considerable time maintained a contest with the troops of -the persecuting Louis XIV. As exiles for conscience sake, they were -treated with respect and kindness; but they soon forfeited all claim to -respect by the folly or knavery of their conduct. Of this group Elias -Marion was the prominent figure; the others acting only subordinate -parts. He loudly proclaimed that he was the messenger of Heaven, and -was authorized to denounce judgments, and to look into futurity. All -kinds of arts were employed by Marion and his associates to excite -public attention--sudden droppings down as though death-struck; -sighs and groans, and then shrieks and vociferations, on recovering; -broken sentences, uttered in unearthly tones; violent contortions; -and desperate strugglings with the Spirit, followed by submission and -repentance; were all brought into the play. The number of the believers -in their power soon became considerable. In proportion as they gained -partisans, they increased their vaunts of miraculous gifts; and at -length they boldly announced that they were invested with power to -raise the dead. They even went so far as to try the experiment; and, -notwithstanding repeated failures, their besotted followers continued -to adhere to them. In vain did the ministers and elders of the French -chapel, in the Savoy, declare their pretensions to be blasphemous and -dangerous. Far from being deterred by this censure, the prophets grew -more strenuous in their exertions to make proselytes, and more daring -in their invectives; prophesying daily in the streets to crowds, -launching invectives against the ministers of the established church, -and predicting heavy judgments on the British metropolis and nation. -It was at last thought necessary to put a stop to their career, and -they were consequently prosecuted as impostors. They were sentenced -to be exposed on a scaffold, at Charing Cross and the Royal Exchange, -with a paper declaring their offence; to pay each of them a fine of -twenty marks; and to find security for their good behaviour. After a -time the sect which they had formed died away, but its ruin was less -to be attributed to the punishment of the prophets, or the recovery of -reason by their votaries, than by a report which was spread that they -were nothing more than the instruments of designing men, who wished to -disseminate Socinianism, and destroy orthodoxy. - -About twenty years after the freaks of the French prophets had been put -down in England, scenes occurred in the French capital which degrade -human nature, and appear almost incredible. Those scenes arose out -of the contest between the Jansenists and their antagonists, and the -dispute respecting the celebrated Bull Unigenitus, which the Jansenists -held in abhorrence. One of the oppugners of the bull was the deacon -Paris, a pious and charitable man, whose scruples on the subject -prevented him from taking priest’s orders, and who relinquished his -patrimony to his younger brother, and lived by making stockings, the -gains arising from which humble occupation he shared with the poor. - -His benevolence, his piety, and his austere life, gained for him -admiration and affection; and when he died, in 1727, his grave in -the churchyard of St. Medard was visited by crowds, as that of a -saint. Some of his votaries, who were diseased or infirm, soon began -to imagine that a miracle was worked on them by the influence of the -blessed deceased. Blind eyes were said to be restored to their faculty -of seeing, and contracted limbs to be elongated. As faith increased, -cures increased, and so did the multitudes which thronged from all -parts, and consisted of the highest as well as the lowest ranks. The -votaries now began to exhibit the most violent convulsionary movements, -and to utter groans, shrieks, and cries. As such movements are readily -propagated by sympathy, the number of persons affected grew daily -greater. At length, the matter beginning to wear a serious aspect, the -government shut up the churchyard; a proceeding which gave birth to a -witty but somewhat profane distich, which was written upon the gate: - - “De par le Roi, defense à Dieu - De faire miracle en ce lieu.” - -But though the votaries were expelled from the churchyard, they did not -discontinue their practices. The scene of action was only removed to -private houses. Miracles, too, were still worked by means of earth from -the churchyard, and water from the well which had supplied the deacon’s -beverage. Pushing their frenzy to extremity, the convulsionaries, as -they were called, invented a system of self-torture, not exceeded by -that of the Hindoos. Their purpose was to obtain the miraculous aid of -the beatified deacon. To be beaten with sticks, to bend the body into -a semicircle, and suffer a stone of fifty pounds’ weight to be dropped -from the ceiling down on the abdomen, and to lie with a plank on the -same part, while several men stood upon it, were among the trials to -which even women submitted, apparently with delight. In some instances -their insanity prompted them to still more horrible displays; some -being tied on spits and exposed to the flames, and others nailed to a -cross by the hands and feet. - -In this case, as in many others, we are astonished to find that men -of learning and acute intellect are to be met with in the list of -believers. There were also many who, notwithstanding they shrank from -the irreverence of making the Deity a party to such deeds, believed -the miracles to be really performed, and were, of course, under the -necessity of giving the credit of them to the devil. It might naturally -be supposed so insane a sect as that of the convulsionaries would -speedily die away, but this did not happen; in spite of ridicule, and -punishment, it maintained its ground to a certain extent for a long -series of years, and there is some reason to doubt whether it is yet -wholly extinct. - -Two insane fanatics, of Brugglen, in the canton of Berne, did not -escape with so slight a penalty as those who have already been -recorded. They were brothers, named Rohler, and, in the year 1746, -they proclaimed themselves to be the two witnesses mentioned in the -eleventh chapter of the Revelations, and selected a girl of their -acquaintance to fill the part of the woman who was to be clothed with -the sun, and have the moon under her feet. The advent of Christ to -judge the world, they fixed for the year 1748, after which event the -kingdom of Heaven was to commence in their village. One of the brothers -gave a sufficient proof of his being mad, by declaring that he would -ascend in the flesh to heaven before the assembled multitude. He had, -however, cunning enough to attribute his failure to the circumstance -of numbers of his followers holding by his garments, that they might -take the journey with him. These lunatics were followed by crowds, -who abandoned all their usual occupations, thinking it useless to -work, when the final day was at hand; and many of the believers in -their mission indulged in licentious pleasures, perhaps under the idea -that, as little time was left, they ought to make the most of it. The -government of Berne at length began to apprehend danger from this -frenzy, and it averted the evil by dooming the brothers to death. - -While the Bernese peasants were thus blindly yielding to superstitious -delusions, a circumstance occurred which proved that the enlightened -citizens of the British capital were as liable as the Swiss boors to -the same species of folly. In 1750, on the 8th of February, and the 8th -of March, two rather severe shocks of earthquake were felt in London. -As exactly four weeks had elapsed between the two shocks, it was -sagaciously concluded that a third would occur at a similar period. The -fear which this idea excited was raised to the highest pitch by a mad -life-guardsman, who went about exhorting to repentance, and predicting -that, on the 5th of April, London and Westminster would be wholly -destroyed. His predictions had at least one beneficial effect, that -of filling the churches and emptying the gin-shops. When the supposed -fatal hour arrived, the roads were thronged with thousands, who were -flying into the country; so numerous were the fugitives that lodgings -could hardly be obtained at Windsor, and many were obliged to sit in -their coaches all night. Others, who had not the means of retiring to -a distance, or whose fears were less violent, lay in boats all night, -or waited in crowds in the open fields round the metropolis, till the -dreadful moment was passed by, till the broad daylight showed them at -once the city still uninjured, and the disgraceful absurdity of their -own conduct. - -Considering the period at which it took place, when the failure of -Brothers was yet recent, and the success which it nevertheless met -with, the imposture of Joanna Southcott may be deemed as remarkable -as any that has occurred. Though her claims to inspiration have been -trampled in the dust by death, there are still some who insanely look -forward to the completion of prophecies as ridiculous as they were -blasphemous. - -Notwithstanding thousands, from all parts of England, looked on -Joanna Southcott with reverence and gratitude, as the means through -which salvation would be effected, there does not appear any thing -remarkable in her character or her history, to give a colour to her -extraordinary pretensions. Joanna was born in April, 1750, the daughter -of a small farmer in Devonshire; for many years she lived as a servant -in Exeter, and her character was irreproachable; from her early years -she delighted in the study of the Scriptures, and was accustomed on all -interesting occasions to apply _directly_ to Heaven for advice; and -she affirmed that, sooner or later, an answer was always returned by -outward signs or inward feelings. During her probationary state, as it -may be called, she had many temptations, which she was strengthened to -resist and overcome. - -After she had drawn the attention of the world by her prophecies -and writings, great pains were taken to ascertain the truth of her -commission. “From the end of 1792,” says Mr. Sharpe, the most devout -of her believers, “to the end of 1794, her writings were sealed up -with great caution, and remained secure till they were conveyed by me -to High House, Paddington; and the box which contained them was opened -in the beginning of January, 1803. Her writings were examined during -seven days, and the result of this long scrutiny was, the unanimous -decision of twenty-three persons _appointed by divine command_, as -well as of thirty-five others that were present, _that her calling -was of God_.” They came to this conclusion from the fulfilment of the -prophecies contained in these writings, and to which she appealed with -confidence and triumph. It was a curious circumstance, however, that -her handwriting was illegible. Her remark on this occasion was, “This -must be, to fulfil the Bible. Every vision John saw in heaven must take -place on earth; and here is the sealed book, that no one can read!” - -A protection was provided for all those who subscribed their names as -volunteers, for the destruction of Satan’s kingdom. To every subscriber -a folded paper was delivered, endorsed with his name, and secured with -the impression of Joanna’s seal in red wax: this powerful talisman -consisted of a circle enclosing the two letters J. C., with a star -above and below, and the following words, “The sealed of the Lord, -the Elect, Precious, Man’s Redemption, to inherit the tree of life, -to be made heirs of God and joint-heirs of Jesus Christ.” The whole -was authenticated by the signature of the prophetess in her illegible -characters, and the person thus provided was said to be _sealed_. -Conformably, however, to the 7th chapter of the Revelations, the number -of those highly protected persons was not to exceed 144,000. - -The great object of her mission was to bring forth a son, the Shiloh, -promised to be born of a virgin: and this event had been looked -forward to by her followers with unbounded enthusiasm and credulity. -Disappointment, more than once, appeared inevitable; the period, -however, at last was said to draw nigh, she being _sixty-four_ years -of age. As she laboured under more than the usual indisposition -incidental to pregnancy, and it was deemed necessary to satisfy worldly -doubts, medical men were called in, to give a professional opinion, -as to the fact, from a consideration of all the symptoms, and without -reference to miraculous agency. Some asserted their belief that she was -pregnant; others disbelieved and ridiculed the idea. - -One of these gentlemen, Mr. Mathias, published his view of the case. -He was informed that Joanna was sixty-four years old, _a virgin_ and -pregnant with the expected son. Appearing incredulous, as he well -might, he was asked “If he would believe when he saw the infant at the -breast?” He protested against opinions so blasphemous, and cautioned -them to be wary how they proceeded, and to consider the consequences of -attempting a delusion so mischievous upon the ignorant and credulous. -His further attendance was declined, as she had been answered, “That he -had drawn a wrong judgment of her disorder.” In Mr. Mathias’s opinion, -notoriety, ease, and affluence, appeared to be the prevailing passions -of Joanna’s mind, and the means she adopted to fulfil her desires would -seem, and actually proved, well calculated to answer her end. She -passed much of her time in bed in downy indolence, she ate much and -often, and prayed never; when she would have it she was with child, -she, like other ladies in that situation, had longings; on one occasion -she longed for asparagus, when it was by no means a cheap article of -food; and so strong was her longing, that she is said to have eaten one -hundred and sixty heads before she allayed it. At this period, shoals -of enthusiasts, with more money than wit, poured into the metropolis, -to behold this chosen vessel. - -Mr. Richard Reece was now consulted by Joanna Southcott, on the subject -of her pregnancy. It does not appear that he was a proselyte to her -religious views, but he was probably deluded and deceived, by the -enumeration of physical symptoms. At all events, he was prevailed on -to avow his belief of her being pregnant, by some means or other; and -a numerous deputation of her followers, who appeared a motley group of -all persuasions, waited upon him to receive the happy intelligence from -his own lips. By this conduct he seems to have acquired great favour in -her sight, for he continued in attendance till her death. - -When her supposed time of deliverance from her precious burden -approached, Joanna felt alarmingly ill, and her fears, either -conquering her fanaticism or awakening her conscience, began to make -her suspect that her inspiration was deceptious. A few weeks before -her death, her misgivings gave rise to the following scene, which is -described by Mr. Reece, who was present. Five or six of her friends, -who were waiting in an adjoining room, being admitted into her -bed-chamber, “she desired them (says Mr. Reece) to be seated round her -bed; when, spending a few minutes in adjusting the bed-clothes with -seeming attention, and placing before her a white handkerchief, she -thus addressed them, as nearly as I can recollect, in the following -words: ‘My friends, some of you have known me nearly twenty-five -years, and all of you not less than twenty; when you have heard me -speak of my prophecies, you have sometimes heard me say that I doubted -my inspiration. But at the same time you would never let me despair. -When I have been alone, it has often appeared delusion; but when the -communication was made to me, I did not in the least doubt. Feeling, as -I now do feel, that my dissolution is drawing near, and that a day or -two may terminate my life, it all appears delusion.’ She was by this -exertion quite exhausted, and wept bitterly. On reviving in a little -time, she observed that it was very extraordinary, that after spending -all her life in investigating the Bible, it should please the Lord to -inflict that heavy burden on her. She concluded this discourse, by -requesting that every thing on this occasion might be conducted with -decency. She then wept; and all her followers present seemed deeply -affected, and some of them shed tears. ‘Mother,’ said one (I believe -Mr. Howe), ‘we will commit your instructions to paper, and rest assured -they shall be conscientiously followed.’ They were accordingly written -down with much solemnity, and signed by herself, with her hand placed -on the Bible in the bed. This being finished, Mr. Howe again observed -to her, ‘Mother, your feelings are _human_: we know that you are a -favourite woman of God, and that you will produce the promised child; -and whatever you may say to the contrary will not diminish our faith.’ -This assurance revived her, and the scene of crying was changed with -her to laughter.” - -Mr. Howe was not the only one of her disciples whose sturdy belief was -not to be shaken by the most discouraging symptoms. Colonel Harwood, -a zealous believer, intreated Mr. Reece not to retract his opinion as -to her pregnancy, though the latter now saw the folly and absurdity of -it; and when the colonel approached the bed on which she was about to -expire, and she said to him, “What does the Lord mean by this? I am -certainly dying;” he replied, smiling, “No, no, you will not die, or if -you should, you will return again.” - -Even when she was really dead, the same blind confidence remained. Mrs. -Townley, with whom she had lived, said cheerfully, “she would return -to life, for it had been foretold twenty years before.” Mr. Sharpe -also asserted that the soul of Joanna would return, it having gone to -heaven to legitimate the child which would be born. Though symptoms of -decomposition arose, Mr. Sharpe still persisted in keeping the body -hot, according to the directions which she had given on her deathbed, -in the hope of a revival. Mr. Reece having remarked that, if the -ceremony of her marriage continued two days longer, the tenement would -not be habitable on her return, “the greater will be the miracle,” -said Mr. Sharpe. Consent at last was given to inspect the body, and all -the disciples stood round smoking tobacco; their disappointment was -excessive at finding nothing to warrant the long-cherished opinion, but -their faith remained immovable. More than twenty years have elapsed -since her death, yet many persons are still infatuated enough to avow -themselves believers in her supernatural mission. - -The most recent thaumaturgist with whom we are acquainted bears no -less a title than that of prince, and worked his wonders within the -last thirteen years. The personage in question is Prince Alexander -Hohenlohe, whose miracles have made much noise in the world, and -given rise to no small portion of angry controversy. His highness, -who appears to have previously been practising with much success in -Germany, first became generally known in England by an extraordinary -cure which he was said to have performed on a nun, at the convent of -New Hall, near Chelmsford, in Essex. It must be premised, that it was -by no means necessary for him to see or be near his patient; prayers -being the sole means which he employed. Accordingly, he did not stir -from his residence at Bamberg. The nun at New Hall had for a year and -a half been afflicted with an enormous and painful swelling of the -right hand and arm, which resisted every medical application. In this -emergency, the superior of the convent applied for the aid of Prince -Hohenlohe. The answer which he returned seems to prove that he was a -pious though a mistaken man. It also affords some insight into the -cause of the effect which was undoubtedly sometimes produced. “At eight -o’clock on the third of May, I will, in compliance with your request, -offer up my prayers for your recovery. At the same hour, after having -confessed and taken the sacrament, join your prayers also, with that -evangelical fervour, and _that entire faith_, which we owe to our -Redeemer, Jesus Christ. Stir up from the very bottom of your heart the -divine virtues of true repentance, Christian charity, _a boundless -belief that your prayers will be granted_, and a steadfast resolution -to lead an exemplary life, to the end that you may continue in a state -of grace.” Whatever may be thought of his miraculous pretensions, -it is impossible to deny that his exhortation was praiseworthy. The -following account of the result is given by Dr. Badelly, the physician -to the convent:--“On the third of May (says he) she went through the -religious process prescribed by the prince. Mass being nearly ended, -Miss O’Connor not finding the immediate relief which she expected, -exclaimed, ‘Thy will be done, O Lord! thou hast not thought me worthy -of this cure.’ Almost immediately after, she felt an extraordinary -sensation through the whole arm, to the ends of her fingers. The pain -instantly left her, and the swelling gradually subsided; but it was -some weeks before the hand resumed its natural shape and size.” - -Other cures, still more marvellous, are said to have followed in -rapid succession. Requests for assistance now poured in so rapidly -from all quarters, that he was nearly overwhelmed. On an average he -received daily fifty letters. As it was physically impossible for him -to attend to every individual application, a vast majority of his -suitors must have gone without the benefit of his curative powers, had -he not fortunately hit upon a plan to accommodate all comers. His new -arrangement consisted in “adopting a system of offering his prayers for -the relief of particular districts, on particular days.” For instance, -seven o’clock in the morning, on the first of August, was appointed for -curing all the diseased in Ireland, and notice was given to all the -religious communities in that island, that it would be proper for each -of them, at the same hour, to perform a mass. This delusion flourished -for a considerable time; but it gradually died away, and, for some -years past, nothing more has been heard of Prince Alexander Hohenlohe’s -miracle-working intercession. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - - ROMAN CATHOLIC SUPERSTITIONS, ETC. - - Account of Pope Joan--Artifice of Pope Sextus V.--Some Christian - Ceremonies borrowed from the Jews and Pagans--Melting of the - Blood of St. Januarius--Addison’s opinion of it--Description of - the Performance of the Miracle--Miraculous Image of our Saviour - at Rome--Ludicrous Metamorphosis of a Statue--Relics--Head of - St. John the Baptist--Sword of Balaam--St. Ursula and the Eleven - Thousand Virgins--Self-Tormenting--Penances of St. Dominic the - Cuirassier--The Crusades--Their Cause and Progress, and the - immense numbers engaged in them. - - -There appears to have been, on the one hand, an extensive belief in -the existence of a female Pope Joan, while, on the other, many eminent -writers have been anxious to relieve the papal chair of such a scandal. - -By the believers in her existence, Joan is affirmed to have worn the -tiara between Leo IV. who died 855, and Benedict III. who died 858. -Anastatius the library keeper, in that age, does not appear to have -made mention of this she-pope; but Marianus Scotus observes, under the -year 855, that, Joan a woman, succeeded Leo IV. during two years five -months and four days. - -Joan, whose original name, we are told, was Gilberta, is said to have -been a native of Mentz, in Germany, and to have received an excellent -education. Falling in love with a young Englishman, a monk at Fulda, -she assumed male attire to obtain admittance into the monastery where -he resided. They subsequently eloped, and travelled through many -countries. - -Their time, however, was not wholly devoted to “love and love’s -disport;” for they are said to have omitted no opportunity of -acquiring knowledge, and, among other places, to have studied at -Athens. Her lover having died, she repaired to Rome, still disguised as -a man: she was extremely witty, and had a graceful way of arguing at -disputations and public lessons; so that many were equally surprised at -her learning, and delighted by her manner. She gained such friendship -and goodwill, that, after the death of Leo, she was chosen Pope, and -performed all the acts and ceremonies popes are wont to do. - -Whilst she was Pope, she became pregnant by one of her chaplains; and -as she was going in solemn procession to the Church of the Lateran, she -was delivered, in the midst of the city, in the great square, and in -the presence of all the people. She died on the spot, and was buried -without papal pomp, or any of the usual honours. Her sudden death was -said by some to be a judgment for her crime; and it was added, that, -by a divine notification sent down to her, she had the choice of -undergoing such a public exposure here, and obtaining pardon hereafter, -or passing through life tranquilly, and incurring a future dreadful -responsibility. - -It has been maintained by others that Pope John the Eighth manifesting -much imbecility and cowardice, the people thought he should rather be -called a woman than a man; thence arose the unfounded report, that a -woman was in reality elected pope. The general belief, however, is, -that the whole story is an utterly groundless fabrication. - -Pope Sixtus the Fifth, when he first came to Rome, was constrained -to beg alms, but, by his abilities, he at last raised himself to -the Popedom. When he first aspired to that dignity, while he was -yet a Cardinal, he counterfeited illness and old age for fifteen -years. During the conclave which was assembled to create a Pope, he -continually leaned on his crutch, and very frequently interrupted -the sage deliberations of the conclave by a hollow cough and violent -spitting. This scheme took so well that the Cardinals fell into the -trap; and every one thinking that, by electing Sixtus, he might himself -stand a chance of being in a short time elected, he was unanimously -chosen. As soon as the election was concluded, the new Pope performed -a miracle; his legs became vigorous, his body, that had been before -curved, became firm and erect, his cough was dissipated; and he showed, -in a short time, of what he was capable. - -It cannot be denied but that Christianity is adorned with the spoils -of Judaism and Paganism: our best authors are of that opinion; among -others Duchoul, at the end of his treatise concerning the religion of -the old Romans, ingenuously owns the conformity there is between the -ceremonies of the Christians and those of the Romans and Egyptians. -Such being the case, it will not be thought extraordinary that many -of the modern miracles, so famed in Italy, should be the identical -prodigies of former times; for, in order to accelerate the conversion -of the Gentiles, the first Popes found it necessary to dissemble, -and to wink at many things, so as to effect a compromise between the -original superstition and the modern creed. - -The melting of the blood of St. Januarius, at Naples, when with -great solemnity, it is applied to his head, on the day of his -festival--whilst at other times it continues dry in the glass--is one -of the standing and authentic miracles of Italy; yet Mr. Addison, who -twice saw it performed, says that, instead of appearing to be a real -miracle, he thought it one of the most bungling tricks he had ever -seen, and believed it to be copied from a similar heathen miracle, -the melting of the incense, without the help of fire, at Gnatia, as -described by Horace in his journey to Brundusium: - - Dum, flammâ sine, thura liquescere limine sacro - Persuadere cupit. - -Another eye-witness to the same miracle, Dr. Duan, says, “he -approached through the crowd till he got close to the bust of St. -Januarius. The archbishop had been attempting to perform the miracle, -and an old monk stood by, who was at the utmost pains to instruct him -how to handle, chafe, and rub the bottle which contained the blood. -He frequently, also, took it in his own hands, but his manœuvres -were as ineffectual as those of the archbishop, who was all over in -a profuse sweat with vexation and exertion, fearing lest the people -might interpret so unpropitious an omen against him. The old monk, -with a genuine expression of chagrin, exclaimed, ‘Cospetto di Bacco, e -dura come una pietra.’[5] An universal gloom overspread the multitude. -Some were in a rage at the saint’s obstinacy, and called his head an -ungrateful yellow-faced rascal. It was now almost dark, and, when least -expected, the signal was given that the miracle was performed. A Roman -Catholic, who remained close by the archbishop, assured me this miracle -failed altogether; the bottle was turned with a rapid motion before the -eyes of the spectators, who would not contradict that which they were -all expecting to see.” - -An image of our Saviour is shown at Rome, which, some time before -the sacking of that city, wept so heartily, that the good fathers of -the monastery were all employed in wiping its face with cotton; thus -following the example of the statue of Apollo, which, according to -Livy, wept for three days and nights successively. This phenomenon -resembles another, which is recorded respecting a statue of Orpheus, -in Libethra, which was made of cypress wood. When Alexander the Great -was on the point of setting out upon his expedition, various omens -occurred; among them, this statue was in a profuse sweat for several -days. Aristander, the soothsayer, gave a favourable interpretation to -this apparent indication of fear, by saying it was emblematic of the -labour the poets and historians would have to undergo, to celebrate -the actions of the Macedonian monarch. - -Mrs. Piozzi mentions a ludicrous metamorphosis of one statue at Rome. -“A beautiful statue of Diana,” says she, “with her trussed up robes, -the crescent alone wanting, stands on the high altar to receive homage -in the character of St. Agnes, in a pretty church dedicated to her, -(fuor della porte) where it is supposed she suffered martyrdom, and -why? for not venerating that very goddess Diana, and for refusing to -walk in her processions at the new moons. ‘Such contradictions put one -from oneself,’ as Shakspeare saith.” - -The incredible absurdities of some of the assertions made by the -possessors of sacred relics, ought to have been sufficient, in the -name of common sense, to convict them of imposture. What can be at -once more ridiculous and irreligious than the following? The monastery -of St. Benedict, in France, had for time immemorial been supposed to -possess that invaluable relic, the head of John the Baptist. Many years -since, however, the monastery of St. Francis overthrew their claim, -by declaring, that in their dormitory they had discovered the genuine -caput: and one of the friars testifying to its being the real head, -in the most solemn manner asserted that when, in a holy fervour, he -frequently kissed the lips, he found they still retained the flavour of -locusts and wild honey. So strong a proof there was no withstanding; -the claim of St. Francis was admitted, and established by the conclave. -The recital of one forgery only recalls another, and it would be easy -to recount well-authenticated tales, which would fill a volume. An -exhibiter of holy relics showed with much veneration the sword with -which Balaam smote the ass.[6] Being reminded that scripture only -recorded Balaam’s wish for such a weapon, he adroitly replied, “Ay, and -this is the sword he wished for.” - -Those who have through motives of curiosity visited many of the shrines -abroad may have remarked an incredulity often lurking about the -countenances of the holy men who exhibit them: the bolder, indeed, will -openly laugh, when questioned as to their own belief on these subjects. - -The vulgar, however, have generally too much credulity to be -sufficiently competent to judge of the truth or falsehood of what is -set before them, and too many evidences still exist of their folly with -regard to relics. - -Cologne, on account of its numerous religious houses, relics, &c., was -called the Holy City. The chapel of St. Ursula there became very famous -for being the depository of her bones and those of the eleven thousand -virgins, her companions, who came from England in a little boat to -convert the Huns, who had taken possession of Cologne in 640, and who, -unmoved by the sweet eloquence of so many virgins, quickly silenced -their arguments by putting them all to death. Some doubt arose many -years since, whether any country could have spared so many virgins: -and a surgeon, somewhat of a wag, upon examination of the consecrated -bones, declared that most of them were the bones of full-grown female -mastiffs--for which discovery he was expelled the city. - -The horrors of Hindoo penance may be thought equalled by the -voluntary sufferings of some of the earlier saints in the calendar, -when fanaticism and ignorant credulity went hand-in-hand. The most -remarkable of these early fanatics was, perhaps, St. Dominic the -Cuirassier, thus named from an iron cuirass which he wore next his -skin, and which was never taken off, till it was necessary to replace -it by a new one. Conceiving that he had incurred the guilt of simony, -he not only refrained from performing mass, but resolved to do -penance the rest of his life; the result of this determination is so -well described in the pages of a leading periodical,[7] that it is -transferred with slight condensation. - -The first step towards this perpetual penance was, to enter into the -congregation of Santa Croce Fonte Avellana, whose exercises were so -rigorous that one of their amusements was to flog each other after the -services. It was a general belief that the pains of purgatory might be -mitigated by certain acts of penance and an indulgence from the Pope. - -The monks of Santa Croce determined that thirty psalms, said or sung, -with an obligato accompaniment of one hundred stripes to each psalm, -making in all three thousand, would be received as a set off for one -year’s purgatory: the whole psalter, with fifteen thousand stripes, -would redeem five years from the vast crucible, and twenty psalters, -with three hundred thousand stripes fairly entered, would be equal to a -receipt in full for one hundred years. - -This Dominic the Cuirassier, being very ambitious, tasked himself -generally at ten psalters, and thirty thousand lashes a day, at which -rate he would have redeemed three thousand six hundred and fifty -years of purgatory per annum. In addition to this, however, he used -to petition for a supplementary task of a hundred years. Being, as -he hoped, already a creditor to a large amount in the angel’s books, -and as no good works can be lost, he recited and lashed away for the -benefit of the great sinking fund of the Catholic Church, with more -spirit than ever. During one Lent he entreated for, and obtained, the -imposition of a thousand years; and St. Pietro Damiano affirms that, in -these forty days, he actually recited the psalter two hundred times, -and inflicted sixty millions of stripes; working away with a scourge in -each hand. In an heroic mood he once determined to flog himself, in the -jockey phrase, against time, and at the end of twenty-four hours had -gone through the psalms twelve times, and begun them the thirteenth, -the quota of stripes being one hundred and eighty-three thousand, -reducing purgatory stock sixty-one years, twelve days, and thirty-three -minutes. It still remains to be proved, how he could recite verses -and count lashes at the same time, or consistently have continued to -wear his cuirass, which would have nullified the infliction of so many -stripes. - -There is no event in the history of the religious opinions of mankind -more singular than that of the Crusades; every circumstance that tends -to explain, or give any rational account of, this extraordinary frenzy -of delusion in the human mind is interesting. In the account which -follows, that which is given from the elegant pen of Dr. Robertson, in -his Life of the Emperor Charles V. has been taken advantage of. - -The Crusades, or expeditions to rescue the Holy Land out of the hands -of Infidels, seemed to be the first event that roused Europe from the -lethargy in which it had been long sunk, and that tended to introduce -any considerable change in government, or in manners. It is natural -to the human mind to view those places which have been distinguished -by being the residence of any illustrious personage, or the scene of -any great transaction, with some degree of delight and veneration. To -this principle must be ascribed the superstitious devotion with which -Christians, from the earliest ages of the church, were accustomed to -visit that country, which the Almighty had selected as the inheritance -of his favourite people, and in which the Son of God had accomplished -the redemption of mankind. - -As this distant pilgrimage could not be performed without considerable -expense, fatigue, and danger, it appeared the more meritorious, and -came to be considered as an expiation for almost every crime. An -opinion which spread with rapidity over Europe, about the close of the -tenth and beginning of the eleventh century, and which gained universal -credit, wonderfully augmented the number of credulous pilgrims, and -increased the ardour with which they undertook this useless voyage. - -The thousand years, mentioned by St. John in the twentieth chapter -of Revelations, were supposed to be accomplished, and the end of the -world to be at hand. A general consternation seized mankind: many -relinquished their possessions; and abandoning their friends and -families, hurried with precipitation to the Holy Land, where they -imagined that Christ would quickly appear to judge the world. - -This belief was so universal, and so strong, that it mingled itself -with civil transactions. Many charters, in the latter part of the tenth -century, began in this manner: “Appropinquante mundi termino,” &c.--“as -the end of the world is now at hand, and by various calamities and -judgments the signs of its approach are now manifest.” - -While Palestine continued subject to the caliphs, they had encouraged -the resort of pilgrims to Jerusalem; and considered this as a -beneficial species of commerce, which brought into their dominions gold -and silver, and carried nothing out of them but relics and consecrated -trinkets. But the Turks having conquered Syria, about the middle of the -eleventh century, pilgrims were exposed to outrages of every kind from -these fierce barbarians. - -This change, happening precisely at the juncture when the panic terror -above mentioned rendered pilgrimages most frequent, filled Europe with -alarm and indignation. Every person who returned from Palestine related -the dangers which he had encountered in visiting the holy city, and -described with exaggeration the cruelty and vexations of the Turks. - -When the minds of men were thus prepared, the zeal of a fanatical -monk, who conceived the idea of leading all the forces of Christendom -against the infidels, and of driving them out of the Holy Land by -violence, was sufficient to give a beginning to that wild enterprise. -Peter the Hermit, for that was the name of this martial apostle, ran -from province to province, with a crucifix in his hand, exciting -princes and people to this holy war, and wherever he came he kindled -the same enthusiastic ardour for it with which he himself was animated. -The council of Placentia, where upwards of thirty thousand persons -were assembled, pronounced the scheme to have been suggested by the -immediate inspiration of Heaven. In the council of Clermont, still more -numerous, as soon as the measure was proposed, all cried out with one -voice, “It is the will of God!” Persons of rank caught the contagion; -not only the gallant nobles of that age, with their martial followers, -whom we may suppose apt to be allured by the boldness of a romantic -enterprise, but men in more humble and pacific stations in life, -ecclesiastics of every order, and even women and children, engaged -with emulation in an undertaking which was deemed meritorious and even -sacred. - -If we may believe the concurring testimony of contemporary authors, -six millions of persons assumed the cross, which was the badge that -distinguished such as devoted themselves to this holy warfare. All -Europe, says the Princess Anna Comnena, torn up from the foundation, -seemed ready to precipitate itself in one united body upon Asia. Nor -did the fumes of this enthusiastic zeal evaporate at once: the frenzy -was as lasting as it was extravagant. During two centuries Europe seems -to have had no object but to recover, or keep possession, of the Holy -Land, and through that period vast armies continued to march thither. - -As Constantinople was the place of rendezvous for all the armies of the -crusaders, this brought together the people of the East and West as to -one great interview; and several authors, witnesses of this singular -congress of people, formerly strangers, describe with simplicity and -candour the impression which that new spectacle made upon their own -minds. - -The first efforts of valour, animated by enthusiasm, were irresistible; -part of the Lesser Asia, all Syria, and Palestine, were wrested from -the infidels; the banner of the cross was displayed on Mount Sion; -Constantinople, the capital of the Christian empire in the East, was -afterwards seized by a body of those adventurers who had taken arms -against the Mahometans; and an Earl of Flanders and his descendants -kept possession of the imperial throne during half a century. But, -though the first impression of the crusaders was so unexpected that -they made their conquests with comparative ease, they found infinite -difficulty in preserving them. Establishments so distant from Europe, -surrounded by warlike nations animated with fanatical zeal scarcely -inferior to that of the crusaders themselves, were perpetually in -danger of being overturned. Before the expiration of the thirteenth -century the Christians were driven out of all their Asiatic -possessions, in acquiring of which incredible numbers of men had -perished, and immense sums of money had been wasted. The only common -enterprise in which the European nations ever engaged, and which they -all undertook with equal ardour, remains a singular monument of human -folly. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - - ROYAL IMPOSTORS. - - Pretenders to Royalty numerous--Contest between the Houses of York - and Lancaster gives rise to various Pretenders--Insurrection - of Jack Cade--He is killed--Lambert Simnel is tutored to - personate the Earl of Warwick--He is crowned at Dublin--He - is taken Prisoner, pardoned, and made Scullion in the Royal - Kitchen--Perkin Warbeck pretends to be the murdered Duke - of York--He is countenanced by the King of France--He is - acknowledged by the Duchess of Burgundy--Perkin lands in - Scotland, and is aided by King James--He is married to - Lady Catherine Gordon--He invades England, but fails--His - Death--Pretenders in Portugal--Gabriel de Spinosa--He is - hanged--The Son of a Tiler pretends to be Sebastian--He is sent - to the Galleys--Gonçalo Alvarez succeeds him--He is executed--An - Individual of talents assumes the Character of Sebastian--His - extraordinary Behaviour in his Examinations--He is given up to - the Spaniards--His Sufferings and dignified Deportment--His Fate - not known--Pretenders in Russia--The first false Demetrius--He - obtains the Throne, but is driven from it by Insurrection, - and is slain--Other Impostors assume the same Name--Revolt of - Pugatscheff--Pretenders in France--Hervegault and Bruneau assume - the Character of the deceased Louis XVI. - - -The seductions presented by a throne, and some circumstances which -seemed to give a chance of success, have, in various ages and -countries, stimulated individuals to personate the descendants of -sovereigns, and, in some instances, deceased sovereigns themselves. -To mention all of them, even briefly, within the narrow limits of a -chapter, would be impossible; and, therefore, passing over the false -Smerdis, the Alexanders, and others of ancient times, we will select a -few specimens from modern history. - -During the reigns of Henry the Sixth and Seventh, infinite carnage -and misery were caused by the contest between the houses of York and -Lancaster. That contest also gave rise to several remarkable impostures -on the part of the Yorkists. The Duke of York, in the time of Henry -the Sixth, animated one Jack Cade, a native of Ireland, to personate -Mortimer, and, in consequence of this, a formidable insurrection -actually burst out in Kent during the Whitsuntide week. On the first -mention of the popular name of Mortimer, the common people of that -county, to the number of twenty thousand, flocked to Cade’s standard. -He marshalled the vast multitude that followed him, and marched to -Blackheath, and, shortly after, to London. Having served in the French -wars, he was enabled to encamp them with some military skill. He -presented two petitions to the king, in the name of the people; and his -demands, not in themselves unreasonable, were supported even by some of -the king’s friends. In spite of his attempts to maintain discipline, -some of his followers pillaged a few houses in London, and thus alarmed -the city, which at first had favoured him. The citizens consequently -rose against him, and a sharp conflict ensued, which terminated to his -disadvantage. A pardon being offered to his men, they accepted it, and -immediately dispersed. He himself took horse, and fled towards Lewes, -in Sussex; but he was overtaken, and discovered in a garden, by an -esquire, named Alexander Iden, who slew him after a desperate combat. - -The discontentment of the Yorkists against the House of Lancaster -showed itself more remarkably during the reign of Henry the Seventh, -whose increasing unpopularity, about the year 1486, induced the -opposite party to attempt some singular impostures, and set up -pretenders to the crown. - -The first fictitious prince was introduced to the world, by one Richard -Simon, a priest, possessed of subtlety and enterprise. The youth -was in reality one Lambert Simnel, the son of a baker; endowed with -understanding above his years, and address above his condition, he -seemed well fitted to personate a prince of royal extraction. - -A report had been spread, and received with great avidity, that -Richard, Duke of York, second son to Edward the Fourth, had secretly -escaped from confinement, saved himself from the cruelty of his uncle, -and lay concealed somewhere in England. Taking advantage of that -rumour, Simon had at first instructed his pupil to assume that name; -but hearing afterwards that Edward Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick, was -reported to have made his escape from the Tower, he changed the plan of -his imposture, that Simnel might personate that unfortunate prince. - -From his being better informed of circumstances relating to the royal -family, particularly of the Earl of Warwick’s adventures, than he -could be supposed to have learned from one of Simon’s condition, it -was conjectured that persons of higher rank, partisans of the House -of York, had laid the plan of the conspiracy, and had conveyed proper -instructions to the actors. - -The first scene opened in Ireland, a country zealously attached -to the House of York. No sooner did Simnel present himself to -Thomas Fitzgerald, Earl of Kildare, and claim his protection as the -unfortunate Warwick, than the credulous nobleman, not suspecting so -bold an imposture, paid him great attention, and consulted some persons -of rank on a matter so extraordinary. - -These parties were more sanguine in belief than even himself; and in -proportion to the circulation of the story, it became the object of -greater enthusiasm and credulity, till the people of Dublin with one -consent, tendered their allegiance to Simnel as the true Plantagenet. - -Simnel was lodged in the castle of Dublin, and was crowned with a -diadem taken from the statue of the Virgin, and publicly proclaimed -king by the appellation of Edward the Sixth. - -In order to prove the imposture of Simnel, Henry the Seventh ordered -that Warwick should be taken from the Tower, led in procession through -the streets of London, conducted to St. Paul’s, and exposed to the view -of the whole people. This expedient put a stop to the credulity of the -English; but in Ireland the people still persisted in their revolt, and -even retorted on the king the reproach of propagating an imposture, and -of having shown to the populace a counterfeit Warwick. - -Simnel landed in England, and opposed the king in battle; but his -faction having been routed, he was soon reduced to his original -insignificance. He was pardoned by the king, was made a scullion to the -royal kitchen, and was subsequently raised to the rank of a falconer. - -Notwithstanding the failure of Lambert Simnel, a second attempt was, -six years afterwards, made to disturb the government; it introduced one -of the most mysterious personages recorded in English history. - -The Duchess of Burgundy, it seems, full of resentment at Henry the -Seventh, propagated a report that her nephew, Richard Plantagenet, -Duke of York, had escaped from the Tower. To personate the duke, a -youth, named Perkin Warbeck, was discovered, fit for her purpose. He -is asserted to have been the son of one Osbeck or Warbeck, a renegado -Jew of Tournay. This Jew had been to London in the reign of Edward -the Fourth, and during his stay his wife brought him a son: being in -favour at court, he prevailed with the king to stand godfather to his -son, though it was hinted that there was, in reality, a much nearer -connexion between the king and the youth; and by this, people accounted -for the resemblance which was afterwards remarked between young Perkin -and that monarch. - -Having been well tutored by the Duchess of Burgundy, Perkin repaired to -Ireland, which was chosen as the proper place for his first appearance. -He landed at Cork, assuming the name of Richard, Duke of York, son of -Edward the Fourth, and drew around him many partisans from among that -credulous people. The news soon reached France; and Charles of France, -then on the point of war with Henry, sent Perkin an invitation to -repair to him, at Paris. On his arrival, he was received with all the -marks of regard due to the Duke of York, as the rightful heir to the -British throne. Perkin, both by his deportment and personal qualities, -supported the opinion which was spread abroad of his royal pedigree; -and the whole kingdom was full of the accomplishments, as well as the -singular adventures, of the young Plantagenet. - -Wonders of this nature are commonly augmented by distance. From France, -the admiration and credulity diffused themselves into England. Sir -George Neville, Sir George Taylor, and above one hundred gentlemen -more, went to Paris in order to offer their services to the supposed -Duke of York, and to share his fortunes. Alarmed by the pretender -having gained so powerful a friend, Henry the Seventh signed a treaty -of peace with Charles, who immediately ordered the adventurer to retire -from his dominions. Perkin now solicited the protection of the Dowager -Duchess of Burgundy. She gave him a warm reception, and bestowed on -him the appellation of the White Rose of England. This behaviour of -hers induced numbers to give credence to his story, as it was thought -impossible that the aunt could be mistaken as to the personal identity -of her nephew. - -In consequence of the great communication between the Low Countries and -England, the English were every day more prepossessed in favour of the -impostor. Disgusted with Henry’s government, men of the highest birth -and quality began to turn their eyes to the new claimant, and even -opened a correspondence with him. - -Sir Robert Clifford, with others, went over to Burgundy and tendered -to Perkin their services. Clifford even wrote back to say that he knew -perfectly the person of Richard, Duke of York, and that this young man -was undoubtedly that prince himself. The whole nation was in suspense, -and a regular conspiracy was formed against the king’s authority. - -Henry showed great ingenuity in detecting who this wonderful person -was that thus boldly advanced pretensions to his crown. His spies -insinuated themselves amongst the young man’s friends, and bribed his -retainers and domestic servants--nay, sometimes his confessor himself; -and, in the end, the whole conspiracy was laid before him, and many of -the chief conspirators were condemned and executed. - -Perkin, however, continued at large, and made a descent on Kent, where -he was repulsed. He then returned to Flanders, whence he sailed to -Cork, but the Irish were no longer disposed to espouse his cause. In -Scotland, however, to which he next proceeded, he was more fortunate. -James, the monarch of that country, recognised him as “the true -prince,” and not only gave to him in marriage a near relation, Lady -Catherine Gordon, but also took up arms in his behalf. But, failing -in two incursions in England, James grew tired of the contest, and -consented to treat with Henry. Either fearing that he might be given -up, or having received an intimation to withdraw, Perkin quitted -Scotland with four ships and eighty followers, made a vain attempt -at Cork to obtain aid from the Earl of Desmond, and finally landed -in Cornwall, the men of which county had recently been in rebellion. -Six thousand Cornishmen joined him, and at their head he assaulted -Exeter, but was defeated by the citizens. Finding that Henry, with -an overwhelming force, was now at hand, his courage failed him, and -he took refuge in the sanctuary of Beaulieu, in Hampshire. He gave -himself up on a promise of pardon, but was committed to the Tower. He -was subsequently executed, on a charge of having, while imprisoned in -the Tower, formed a treasonable plan with the Earl of Warwick to effect -their escape, and raise the standard of insurrection. - -Pretenders to royalty have not been of uncommon occurrence in other -countries. In Portugal, the doubts respecting Sebastian having been -really slain at the battle of Alcaçar, gave rise to several attempts -to personate that chivalrous but rash monarch. Five or six impostors -succeeded each other; of one claimant to the name and title of the -Portuguese sovereign, however, the pretensions were so plausibly or so -truly supported, that serious doubts have been entertained whether he -was not “the true prince,” and no “false thief.” - -Of the most conspicuous of these pretenders, the first is said to have -been a pastry-cook of Madrigal, Gabriel de Spinosa by name. He was -tutored to act his part by Father Michael de los Santos, an Augustin -friar, who had been chaplain to Don Sebastian. The friar had spoken so -freely in Portugal against the Spanish usurpation, that Philip of Spain -removed him out of the country, and made him confessor to a convent of -nuns, at Madrigal. Donna Anna of Austria, Philip’s niece, was one of -the inmates of this convent. To this princess the friar introduced the -pretended Sebastian, who played his assumed character so well that she -gave him some rich jewels to raise money. While he was endeavouring to -dispose of these valuables privately at Madrid, he was apprehended as -a thief. He declared his real profession, and that the jewels belonged -to Donna Anna, and he would perhaps have been released, had not his -plot been betrayed by the intercepting of a letter, in which he was -addressed with the title of majesty. The result was that he and the -friar were hanged, and the princess was removed to another convent and -rigorously confined for the rest of her life. - -The pertinacious belief of the Portuguese, that Sebastian would yet -return, and their hatred of the Spanish domination, soon encouraged -others to follow the example of Spinosa. The son of a tiler at -Alcobaça, who, after leading a loose life, had turned hermit, next -came forward to personate the much-desired monarch. He was accompanied -by two companions, one of whom assumed the name of Don Christopher de -Tavora, and the other took the title of the Bishop of Guarda. They -began to raise money, and to collect partisans round them. Their -career was, however, cut short by the archduke, who caused them to be -apprehended. The pseudo Sebastian was ignominiously paraded through -the streets of Lisbon, and then sent to the galleys for life; the -self-appointed bishop was sentenced to be hanged. - -Undeterred by this failure, no long time elapsed before another -pretender started up, to supply the place of the tiler’s son. This -was Gonçalo Alvarez, the son of a mason. His first act of royal power -was to give the title of Earl of Torres Novas to Pedro Alonso, a rich -yeoman, whose daughter he intended to marry. He succeeded in raising -a body of eight hundred men, and it was not until some blood had been -shed that he could be put down. He was hanged and quartered at Lisbon, -with his newly-created earl. - -In spite of these examples, several new Sebastians arose. Only one of -them, however, deserves mention; but this one, if an impostor, was -at least an extraordinary character. It was at Venice that he made -his first appearance, about twenty years after the battle of Alcaçar. -Of the manner in which he escaped from the slaughter, and of all his -subsequent wanderings, he gave a minute and seemingly well-connected -account. The Venetian senate, on complaint being made to it, ordered -him to depart. He sought a refuge at Padua, but, being expelled -from that city by the governor, he returned to Venice. The Spanish -ambassador now called loudly for the arrest of the supposed Sebastian. -He accused him not only of imposture, but also of many atrocious -crimes. The wanderer was in consequence seized, and thrown into prison. -The ordeal to which he was subjected was no slight one. He underwent -twenty-eight examinations before a committee of nobles; and he is said -to have fully cleared himself of all the crimes attributed to him, and -even to have given so accurate a statement of the former transactions -between himself and the republic as to excite the wonder of his -hearers. His apparent firmness, piety, and patience, also gained him -many friends. - -The senate refused to examine the charge of imposture, unless some -allied prince or state would request such an investigation. The request -was made, and a solemn inquiry was instituted. No decision, however, -followed; all that was done was to order the asserted Sebastian to quit -the Venetian territories in three days. He bent his course to Florence, -where he was arrested by order of the Grand Duke, who delivered him -up to the Count de Lemos, the viceroy of Naples. The count died some -time after; and his successor appears to have forgotten the claimant to -the Portuguese throne, who, for several years, suffered the severest -hardships, as a prisoner in the castle of del’ Ovo. It is probable that -attention was at length called to him by attempts to excite, at Lisbon, -an insurrection in his behalf. Be this as it may, he was brought out of -his dungeon, led disgracefully through the city, and proclaimed to be -an impostor. On this occasion, he did not belie his pretensions, nor -display any want of courage. Whenever the public officer exclaimed, -“this is the man who calls himself Sebastian,” he calmly said, “and -Sebastian I am.” When the same individual declared him to be a -Calabrian, he exclaimed, “it is false.” When the exposure of him was -over, he was shipped as a galley slave; he was next imprisoned at St. -Lucar; and was subsequently removed to a castle in Castile. From that -moment his fate is buried in oblivion. - -In Russia, the seductive hope of ascending a throne has tempted various -individuals to simulate deceased princes, and to stake life on “the -hazard of the die,” for the chance of obtaining their object. One -only, with more ability and better fortune than the rest, succeeded -in grasping for a short time the prize. On the death of Feodor, son -of Ivan the Terrible, the throne was occupied by Boris Godunoff, who -had contrived to procure the murder of Demitri, or Demetrius, the -younger brother of Feodor. For a while Boris governed wisely, and -acquired much popularity with the multitude; but it was not long before -the nobles began to plot against him; the affections of the populace -were alienated, and universal confusion ensued. This state of affairs -was favourable to imposture, and an individual soon appeared who had -talents to turn it to his advantage. There was a monk named Otrefief, -who bore an almost miraculous likeness to the murdered Demetrius. He -was also possessed of qualities well calculated to win the suffrage of -the crowd; for his figure was fine, his manners prepossessing, and his -eloquence forcible. - -Relying on his personal likeness to the deceased prince, the love which -the people cherished for the old royal stock, and the hatred to which -they had been roused against Boris, the hardy adventurer spread abroad -a report that he was Ivan, who had been saved from the assassins, by -the substitution of another youth in his place. Leaving this to work -in the minds of the Russians, he withdrew into Poland, where his arts, -his eloquence, and his promises, soon gained for him numerous allies. -Sendomir, a wealthy and powerful Boyard, promised him his daughter in -marriage whenever he should become czar; and, through the influence -of Sendomir, the support of the king of Poland was obtained. Boris -denounced him, in proclamations, as an impostor, and sent spies -to seize and put him to death; but both were unavailing. The false -Demetrius advanced into Russia, in 1604, at the head of a small army -of Cossacks and Poles. Boris despatched a much larger force to meet -him, and a desperate battle ensued. The spirit-stirring language of the -pretender to his troops, and his own signal intrepidity, turned the -scale of victory in his favour. Numbers immediately espoused his cause; -Boris every day found his subjects and his troops deserting him; and at -length he poisoned himself in despair. The victor entered Moscow, and -was crowned there. - -Demetrius began his reign in a manner which seemed to promise that -it would be lasting. He was prudent, just, amiable, and accessible -even to his poorest subjects. But the possession of power seems to -have exercised on him its usual intoxicating influence. His virtues -vanished, and he began to excite disgust. But the circumstances which -most contributed to alienate from him the Russians were his impolitic -lavishing of honours upon the Poles, and his equally impolitic contempt -of the national religion. These were two inexpiable offences in the -eyes of those whom he governed. A conspiracy was formed against him by -Prince Schnisky, the palace of the pseudo Demetrius was stormed, and he -perished by the weapons of the revolters. - -Several other Demetriuses subsequently started up. The first of these -was a Polish schoolmaster, who, with the help of the Poles, obtained -possession of Moscow; but he soon sunk into obscurity. The rest were -still less lucky; some of them perished on the gibbet. The last of the -species appeared in 1616, and pretended to be the son of Demetrius. -He was seized and strangled, and with him terminated all attempts to -personate a prince of the race of Ivan the Terrible. - -A century and a half elapsed before another adventurer of this kind -was seen in Russia. His name was Pugatscheff, and he was a coarse and -ferocious specimen of impostor princes. He was a Don Cossack, and had -served against the Prussians and Turks. A trifling circumstance was -the cause of his aspiring to a throne. He was sent with a despatch to -a general, whom he found surrounded by his staff officers. On seeing -Pugatscheff, all the officers at once expressed their surprise at the -striking likeness which he bore to the murdered Emperor Peter. - -This was sufficient to awaken ambition in his mind. He deserted, and -took refuge in Poland, where he spent some time in acquiring the -information which was requisite for carrying his plan into effect. He -then entered Russia, spread his forged tale among the Cossacks, and at -length collected sufficient followers to enable him to take the field. -He began his operations in 1773, by seizing some fortresses in the -government of Orenbourg, swelled his numbers exceedingly, baffled the -government forces, and, it is thought, might have made himself master -of Moscow had he pushed boldly forward. Count Panin having brought -together a considerable army, succeeded in driving him beyond the Ural -mountains; but, in spite of every effort that was made against him, he -contrived to keep up a harassing warfare for more than twelve months. -It is probable that he might have held out longer had he not disgusted -even his partisans by his acts of wanton and brutal cruelty. This, -and the temptation offered by a reward of a hundred thousand roubles, -induced some of his followers to betray him. He was carried to Moscow -in an iron cage, and was executed there in January, 1775. - -France, within the last fifty years, has had no less than three or -four false dauphins; one of whom, of very recent date, was a German -watchmaker. The most conspicuous of them were, however, Jean Marie -Hervegault, and Maturin Bruneau. The former of these was the son of -a tailor, at St. Lo. The strong resemblance of his features to those -of Louis XVI. was doubtless that which inspired him with the hope -of passing for the son of that monarch. He had a good address, much -art, and a large stock of impudence, and succeeded in making numerous -proselytes, even among people of education and fortune. He was several -times imprisoned, but his blind admirers still persisted in paying him -royal honours. He died in the Bicêtre in 1812. His successor, Maturin -Bruneau, had neither equal skill nor equal success with Hervegault, -yet he found a considerable number of credulous dupes. His career was -stopped in 1818, by a sentence of seven years’ imprisonment, two years -of which were imposed for his daring insolence to the court by which he -was tried. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - - DISGUISES ASSUMED BY, OR IN BEHALF OF, ROYALTY. - - Disguise of Achilles--Of Ulysses--Of Codrus--Fiction employed - by Numa Pompilius--King Alfred disguised in the Swineherd’s - Cottage--His Visit, as a Harper, to the Danish Camp--Richard - Cœur de Lion takes the Garb of a Pilgrim--He is discovered - and imprisoned--Disguises and Escape of Mary, Queen of - Scots--Escape of Charles the Second, after the Battle of - Worcester--Of Stanislaus from Dantzic--Of Prince Charles - Edward from Scotland--Peter the Great takes the Dress of a - Ship Carpenter--His Visit to England--Anecdote of his Conduct - to a Dutch Skipper--Stratagem of the Princess Ulrica of - Prussia--Pleasant Deception practised by Catherine the Second - of Russia--Joan of Arc--Her early Life--Discovers the King when - first introduced at Court--She compels the English to raise - the Siege of Orleans--Joan leads the King to be crowned at - Rheims--She is taken Prisoner--Base and barbarous Conduct of her - Enemies--She is burned at Rouen--The Devil of Woodstock--Annoying - Pranks played by it--Explanation of the Mystery--Fair Rosamond. - - -“Uneasy lies the head which wears a crown,” are the emphatic words of -Shakspeare; and that a penalty of no light sorrow is often attached to -the pomp and grandeur of royalty, is a fact which receives confirmation -from the earliest traditionary accounts we have of the histories of -kings and princes.[8] - -To avoid the dangers inseparable from war; or, during war, to overpower -an enemy by guile, as well as by force of arms; or, in political -troubles, to seek a temporary concealment; have been occasionally the -objects of men celebrated in after-times as heroes, and as examples -worthy and proper to be followed by such as aimed at future conquest or -greatness. - -Thetis, knowing that her son Achilles was doomed to perish, if he -went to the Trojan war, privately sent him, it is said, to the court -of Lycomedes, where he was disguised in a female dress; but, as Troy -could not be taken without him, Ulysses went to the same court in the -habit of a merchant, and exposed jewels and arms for sale. Achilles, -neglecting the jewels, generally more attractive to female eyes, and -displaying a certain skill in handling the weapons, inadvertently -discovered his sex, and, challenged by Ulysses, was obliged to go to -the war, in which he ultimately perished. The truth of this story -cannot perhaps be safely asserted, especially as the introduction of -the goddess Thetis is evidently poetical; but the tradition of it -and the two following are quoted, to show that such impostures and -concealments were not considered derogatory to the courage or good -conduct of the greatest heroes of antiquity; and it is also probable -that such facts, stripped of their poetical dress, did really take -place. - -Ulysses had pretended to be insane, that he might not be obliged to -leave his beloved Penelope; and had yoked a horse and bull together, -ploughing the sea-shore, where he sowed salt instead of corn. This -dissimulation was discovered by Palamedes, who placed Telemachus, the -infant son of Ulysses, before the plough, and thus convinced the world -that the father was not mad; as he turned the plough from the furrow, -to avoid injuring his son. - -Codrus, the last king of Athens, from a nobler motive concealed his -dignity, and saved his country, by sacrificing his own life; for, -when the Heraclidæ made war against Athens, the Delphian oracle -was consulted about the event: the Pythoness declared, that the -Peloponnesians would be victorious, provided they did not kill the -Athenian king. This response being promulgated, Codrus, in the heroic -spirit of the age, determined to sacrifice his own life for the benefit -of his country. Disguising himself, therefore, as a peasant, he went -to the outpost of the enemy, and, seeking an occasion to quarrel, he -was killed. When the real quality of the person slain became known, -the Heraclidæ, believing their fate sealed if they remained, quickly -retreated to their own country. - -Numa Pompilius, at the death of Romulus, was unanimously elected -king of Rome, and accepted the office after the repeated and earnest -solicitations of the senate and people. Not, like Romulus, fond of -war and military expeditions, he applied himself to tame the ferocity -of his subjects, by inculcating a reverence for the deity. He had the -discretion to see that, if he could bring them to the belief that -he was aided by higher powers, his own regulations would be better -attended to. He, therefore, encouraged the report which was spread, of -his paying regular visits to the goddess-nymph Egeria; and he made use -of her name to give sanction to the laws and institutions which he had -introduced, and he informed the Romans that the safety of the empire -depended upon the preservation of the sacred ancyle, or shield, which -it was generally believed had dropped from heaven. - -King Alfred, during the unsettled times of the Saxon heptarchy, is -an example of a reverse of fortune successfully overcome by temporary -disguise and concealment. Striving with the Danes for the possession -of his own country, he was worsted, and compelled to provide for his -safety by flying to a small island in Somersetshire, in the midst of -marshes. This little oasis in the desert afterwards obtained the name -of Ethelingey, or Prince’s Island. From a swineherd who resided there -the king received shelter, and under his roof he remained for months. -It happened one day that the swain’s wife placed some loaves on the -hearth to be baked. The king was at the moment sitting by the fire, -trimming his arrows. The woman, who was ignorant of his rank, said to -him, “Turn thou those loaves, that they burn not; for I know that thou -art a great eater.” Alfred, whose thoughts and time were otherwise -engaged, neglected this injunction, and the good woman, finding on her -return the cakes all burnt, rated the king very severely; upbraiding -him that, though he was so negligent in watching her warm cakes, he -always seemed very well pleased to eat them. Alfred, it is said, -subsequently munificently rewarded the peasant, whose name was Denulf, -recommended him to apply himself to letters, and afterwards made him -Bishop of Winchester. - -Some fugitives of Alfred’s party, at length, coming to the same -place, recognised him, and remained with him, forming the nucleus of -his future army. After six months passed in this retreat, he sought -to surprise the main army of the Northmen, which was still encamped -in Wiltshire. But, before striking any blow, he resolved to inspect -the camp of the enemy in person. His early predilection for Saxon -poetry and music qualified him to assume another disguise, that of a -harper, and in this character he went to the Danish camp. His harp and -singing excited notice; he was admitted to the king’s table, heard -his conversation with his generals, and contemplated their position -unsuspected. He then returned to his own troops in safety, and, taking -advantage of his knowledge of the place, conducted them to the most -unguarded quarter of the enemy’s camp, who were soon put to flight -with great slaughter. This success paved the way for his ultimately -regaining his crown and kingdom. Such is the story which has been -handed down to us by some writers; but it was unknown to Asser, the -biographer and contemporary of Alfred, and its truth is more than -doubtful. - -Richard Cœur de Lion, at the close of those chivalrous adventures which -made his name so renowned in the crusades, having left the Holy Land, -on his way home, sailed to Corfu. On his arrival at that island, he -hired three coasting vessels to carry him and his suite to Ragusa and -Zara. Aware of the danger to which he was exposed from the animosity -and machinations of his enemies, he concealed his dignity under the -name of Hugh the Merchant. The beards and hair of Richard and his -companions had grown long from neglect, and they wore the garments -of pilgrims. Driven by a storm on the Istrian coast, they landed -between Venice and Aquileia, and proceeded towards Goritz, where it -was necessary to solicit passports from the governor. He happened to -be Maynard, the nephew of that Conrad who was stabbed in the streets -of Tyre, and whose death was maliciously ascribed to Richard. Richard -had purchased three rubies from a merchant at Pisa, and one of them -was fixed in a gold ring. Consulting his native liberality, rather -than remembering his assumed character, Richard sent this ring as a -present to the governor, when he asked his protection. Startled at the -value of the gift, Maynard asked who were the persons that wished for -passports. He was answered that they were pilgrims from Jerusalem; but -the man who sent the ring was Hugh the Merchant. “This is not the gift -of a merchant, but of a prince,” said he, still contemplating the ring: -“this must be King Richard;” and he returned a courteous but evasive -answer. - -Richard felt that, in a country where he had so many bitter enemies, -suspicion was equivalent to discovery, and that, if he remained, his -safety was compromised. He quitted therefore his party, and by the -assistance of a German youth, as his guide, travelled three days and -nights without food. Pressed at last by hunger, he rested near Vienna, -where his enemy the Duke of Austria then was. A second incautious -liberality again excited suspicion; and he was obliged to remain in a -cottage whilst the youth procured necessaries for him. Richard supplied -his messenger with so much money, that the ostentatious display of it -in the market by the youth excited curiosity. On his next visit to the -market he was seized, and put to the torture, by which he was compelled -to reveal the name and asylum of the king. The Duke surrounded the -cottage with his soldiers, who called on Richard to surrender, but the -monarch refused to yield to any one but to the Duke himself. A cruel -imprisonment followed his arrest, but he was at last restored to his -kingdom. - -The romantic story of his favourite Blondel, seeking him throughout -Europe in the disguise of a minstrel, and discovering his prison, by -singing his favourite air under the walls of it, is believed to have no -other foundation than the lay of some sentimental troubadour. - -The beautiful and unfortunate Mary Queen of Scots excited a romantic -interest and affection in her immediate followers, which has scarcely -diminished at this distance of time; and in the attempt to escape -from her evil fortune, in which she was strenuously aided by those -followers, she was more than once obliged to assume a disguise to -impose on the ever-wakeful vigilance of her enemies. - -It is well-known that this celebrated beauty, through the political, -as well, as it is believed, the personal jealousy of Queen Elizabeth, -was imprisoned in Lochleven Castle, situated in the midst of a lake, -which being thus cut off from all communication with the surrounding -country, was thought sufficiently secure, for the purposes of safe -custody. But her beauty, and pitiable misfortunes, rendered her an -object of compassion to many about her, and several attempts were made -to rescue her from her rigorous confinement. - -Mary had one day nearly succeeded in making her escape from the castle, -disguised as a laundress. She had actually seated herself in the boat, -when she was betrayed by inadvertently raising to her cheek a hand -of snowy whiteness; her beauty in this instance, as in many others, -proving the greatest source of her misery. - -William Douglas, soon after, had the address to steal the keys of -the gates, from the hall in which Sir William Douglas his father, -and his mother, were sitting at supper. The queen, apprised of the -circumstance, once more descended to the edge of the lake, where a -boat was waiting, and having entered it, her maid assisted in rowing; -as they approached the shore, William Douglas flung the keys into the -lake. Having quitted the boat, the queen mounted a palfrey, and rode -to Middry, the residence of Lord Seaton, where she was surrounded by -her friends. She did not, however, long enjoy this respite from her -misfortunes, the defeat of her army, at the fatal battle of Langside, -in 1568, consigning her to a long and barbarous imprisonment, and, -ultimately, to the scaffold. - -History records few princes who have been compelled to assume such a -series of disguises, or met with such hair-breadth escapes, as fell -to the lot of Charles the Second, after his overthrow at Worcester, -which apparently crushed for ever the hopes of the royalist party. By -the victors no means were left untried to seize upon his person, and -had not the fidelity of his followers been even more than equal to the -animosity of his enemies, he must undoubtedly have fallen a victim. -A reward of a thousand pounds was offered for his apprehension, the -formidable terrors of a traitor’s death were fulminated against all who -should dare to shelter him, the country was scoured in all directions -by numerous parties, and the magistrates were enjoined to arrest -every unknown individual, and to keep a vigilant eye on the seaports. -All, however, was to no purpose; his flight remained untraceable, his -fate was involved in profound mystery, and it at length began to be -supposed that he had perished obscurely by the hands of the peasantry. -Forty-four days elapsed before the republicans received the unwelcome -news that he not only still lived, but that he had eluded their -pursuit, and gained a secure asylum in France. - -On the night which followed the decisive defeat at Worcester, the -Earl of Derby recommended Boscobel House to the prince, as a place -of refuge, and at an early hour in the morning Charles reached -Whiteladies, twenty-five miles off. There the prince retired to assume -his first disguise; his hair was closely cropped, his face and hands -were discoloured, his clothes changed for those of a labourer, and a -wood-bill was put into his hand, that he might personate a woodman. -Under the escort of two peasants named Pendrel, he reached Madely, -where he remained concealed till night, when he again sought his way to -Boscobel. Here he found Colonel Careless, who was acquainted with every -place of concealment in the country, and by his persuasions Charles -consented to pass the day with him, amid the branches of a lofty oak, -from which they occasionally saw the republican soldiers in search of -them. - -Night relieved them, and they returned to a concealment in the house. -From thence Charles got to Mosely the following day on horseback, -and there assumed the character of a servant; for the daughter of -Colonel Lane, of Bentley, had a pass, to visit her aunt near Bristol, -and Charles departed on horseback with his _mistress_ behind him. On -stopping for the night, he was indulged with a separate chamber under -the pretence of indisposition, but he was recognised on the following -morning by the butler, who, being honoured by the royal confidence, -endeavoured to repay it with his services. No ship being found at -Bristol, it was resolved that Charles should remove to Trent, near -Sherburn, and at Lyme a ship was hired to transport a nobleman and -his _servant_, Lord Wilmot and Charles, to the coast of France. But -again disappointment attended them. They then rode to Bridport, and in -the inn the ostler challenged Charles, as an old acquaintance whom he -had known at Mr. Potter’s of Exeter. The fact was, Charles had lodged -there during the civil war. He had sufficient presence of mind to avail -himself of this partial mistake, and said, “I once lived with Mr. -Potter, but, as I have no time now, we will renew our acquaintance on -my return to London, over a pot of beer.” - -A second ship was at length procured by Colonel Phillips at -Southampton, but of this resource Charles was deprived by its being -seized for the transport of troops to Jersey: a collier was, however, -soon after found at Shoreham, and Charles hastened to Brighton, where -he supped with the master of the vessel, who also recognised him, -having known him when, as Prince of Wales, he commanded the royal -fleet in 1648. The sailor, however, faithfully set him ashore, on the -following evening, at Fecamp, in Normandy, where all his perils ended. - -Equal dangers have been encountered by a few other princes, in flying -from their foes. The escape of King Stanislas Lecszinski, from Dantzic, -in 1734, was accomplished under circumstances of extraordinary -difficulty. The city was closely invested, all its immediate vicinity -was inundated by the Vistula, and the whole of the surrounding country -was in the hands of inveterate enemies, who were on the watch, and -eager to seize him. The night before the fortress capitulated, he -quitted it, disguised, in a boat, accompanied by some peasants, and one -of his generals. The night was spent in vain attempts to find the bed -of the river, and the dawn compelled him to seek a precarious shelter -in a hut within sight of the Russians. In the evening they departed, -and at midnight the general and two peasants proceeded to search for a -practicable route, leaving the king with only two peasants, of whose -fidelity he was doubtful. The general did not return. Again Stanislas -was obliged to take refuge in a hut, where he was every moment in dread -of being discovered by the Cossacks. The Cossacks did, in reality, -enter the house, but they left it without being aware that he was in -it. At night, with his guides, he made a painful march, for some miles, -through boggy ground, into which he often sank knee deep. On reaching -the Vistula, where he had expected to find a boat, it was gone, and he -had to make his way back through the marsh. At the house where he now -arrived, he was instantly recognised; but the owner was friendly, and -promised to provide him with a boat. While the king was waiting, he -was joined by one of the peasants who had accompanied the general, who -informed him that the Cossacks were searching for him in every part of -the neighbourhood. The boat was at length procured, and the king set -out to embark; but his guides were so much frightened by seeing the -fires of the enemy’s flying camps on all sides, that they refused to -proceed. It was only by a great exertion of firmness on his part that -they were prevailed on to move forward. At length they reached the -boat. The king wished to force on the finder of it a handful of gold, -but the noble-spirited peasant could hardly be prevailed on to accept -even a couple of ducats. Landing at a village to hire or purchase a -vehicle, Stanislas was in the utmost danger of being discovered, in -consequence of the drunkenness of his guides. He succeeded, however, in -reaching the Nogat, on the other side of which he would be in safety. -But here again his hopes were on the point of being wrecked by the -stupid obstinacy of his companions, who insisted on his going round by -Marienburgh, to cross the bridge there; a measure which would have been -fatal. Stanislas peremptorily refused to consent to this mad scheme; -and he was lucky enough to procure a boat, by means of which he was -conveyed to the Prussian territory, where he met with a hospitable -reception. - -More protracted sufferings were experienced by the Pretender, Prince -Charles Edward, after the battle of Culloden. Pursued by numerous foes, -some of whom were rendered inveterate by their political feelings, -while others were stimulated by the enormous reward of thirty thousand -pounds which was offered for his apprehension, he was, for six months, -in hourly expectation of falling into their hands. He was hunted by -land and water, from island to island, from cave to cave, and from -the abode of one partisan to that of another, with a perseverance -which nothing but his own presence of mind, and the fidelity of his -followers, could have rendered ineffectual. During the hot chase to -which he was exposed, he was subjected to privations of the severest -kind; hunger, thirst, exposure to the elements, and incessant fatigue. -Among his many disguises was the dress of a female. It seems that -he now and then forgot the demeanour which belonged to his garb. On -one occasion, in crossing a stream, he held up his petticoats so -indelicately high, that his conductor expressed fear that suspicion -would be excited; upon which the prince went to the opposite extreme, -and allowed his clothes to float on the water, till he was reminded -that this also might draw attention to him. The battle of Culloden was -fought on the 16th of April, and it was not till the 19th of September -that Charles Edward was at last rescued from the perils which environed -him, by the arrival of two French vessels, in one of which he embarked -for France. Even in the last scene of his adventures danger threatened -him; for the British fleet was then cruising off the French coast, and -he actually sailed through it in his way to Morlaix, but was hidden -from it by a thick fog. - -One of the most meritorious disguises ever put on by a monarch, as it -had its origin solely in good intentions and anxiety for the welfare of -his subjects, is described in the history of Peter the Great, czar of -Muscovy; who, though his education was defective, was endowed with a -strong mind, and felt how much was still to be acquired before he could -realize the vast projects which he was eager to execute. To counteract -the formidable power of the Strelitzes, who were far more inclined -to dispute than obey the commands of their superiors, he resolved to -introduce a new discipline, and to reorganize his army; and, in order -to set the example of subordination, he himself entered as a private in -one of his corps, which was disciplined in the German manner. In this -corps he gradually rose to command by his services, and by sharing the -toils and privations of the military life. - -In 1695, he laid siege to Azoff; but the enterprise failed from a -want of shipping to block the harbour: this circumstance, among -others, forced on his attention the necessity of improving his navy. -His fondness, however, for naval architecture is dated from 1691, -when accidentally taking notice of a decayed sloop near Moscow, and -being told that it was of foreign construction, and able to sail to -windward, he caused it to be repaired by a Dutch shipwright, and was -highly delighted to observe its manœuvres, which he afterwards learned -to regulate himself. Perhaps the most interesting and extraordinary -circumstance in the history of mankind, is, that the despotic monarch -of a mighty dominion should descend from his throne, and travel -as a private person, in the train of his own ambassador sent to -Holland. When Peter arrived there, he first took up his abode in the -Admiralty at Amsterdam, and afterwards enrolled himself among the -ship-carpenters, and went to the village of Sardam, where he wrought as -a common carpenter and blacksmith, with unusual assiduity, under the -name of Master Peter. He was clad and fed as his fellow-workmen, for he -would not allow of vain distinctions. - -The next year he passed over to England, where, in four months, he -completed his knowledge of ship building. After receiving every mark -of respect from William the Third, he left this country accompanied by -several English ship-builders and carpenters, whom he employed with -great liberality, in his naval dock-yards, and he is said to have -subsequently written several pieces on naval affairs. - -John Evelyn, the author of the Sylva, gives rather a curious account of -the emperor in his Diary: he writes “1698, January. The czar of Muscovy -being come to England, and having a mind to see the building of ships, -hired my house at Say’s Court, and made it his court and palace, new -furnished for him by the king.” - -Whilst the czar was in his house, Mr. Evelyn’s servant thus wrote to -him: “There is a house full of people, and right nasty. The czar lies -next your library, and dines in the parlour next your study. He dines -at ten o’clock and six at night, is very seldom at home a whole day, -very often in the king’s yard, or by water, dressed in several dresses. -The king is expected here this day; the best parlour is pretty clean -for him to be entertained in. The king pays for all he has.” - -Such a noble mind, employed in the acquisition of knowledge, for the -benefit of his country and his people, may well be pardoned for any -deficiencies in the accomplishments or embellishments of life. - -In Carr’s Tour round the Baltic is related an anecdote of the czar’s -partiality towards those connected with maritime affairs. A Dutch -skipper hearing that Petersburg was building, and that the emperor had -a great passion for ships and commerce, resolved to try his fortune -there, and accordingly arrived with the first merchant vessel that ever -sailed on the Neva, and was the bearer of a letter of introduction to -the captain of the port from a friend of his in Holland, requesting him -to use his interest to procure a freight for him. Peter the Great was -working like a common labourer in the Admiralty as the galliot passed, -and saluted with two or three small guns. The emperor was uncommonly -delighted, and having been informed of the Dutchman’s business, he -resolved to have some frolic with him, and accordingly commanded the -port-captain to see the skipper as soon as he landed, and direct him -to the emperor, as a merchant just settled there, which character he -intended to personate. Peter repaired to his original cottage on the -Neva, with his empress, who, to humour the plan, dressed herself in -a plain bourgeois habit, such as suited the wife of a merchant. The -Dutchman was introduced to the emperor, who received him with great -kindness, and they sat and ate bread and cheese, and smoked together -for some time, during which the Dutchman’s eye examined the room, -and began to think that one who lived in so mean a place could be of -no service to him: presently the empress entered, when the skipper -addressed her, by observing that he had brought her a cheese, a much -better one than she had ever tasted, for which, affecting an awkward -manner, she thanked him. Being much pleased with her appearance, he -took from his coat a piece of linen, and begged her acceptance of it -for shifts. “Oh,” exclaimed the emperor, taking the pipe from his -mouth, “Kate, you will now be as fine and proud as an empress.” This -was followed by the stranger begging to have a kiss, which she coyly -indulged him in. At this moment Prince Menzikof, the favourite and -minister of Peter the Great, covered with all his orders, stood before -the emperor uncovered. The skipper began to stare with amazement, -whilst Peter, making private signs, induced the prince to retire. The -astonished Dutchman said “Why, you appear to have great acquaintance -here.” “Yes,” replied Peter, “and so may you, if you stay here but ten -days; there are plenty of such needy noblemen as the one you saw; they -are always in debt and very glad to borrow money; but beware of these -fellows, and do not be dazzled by their stars and garters, and such -trumpery.” This advice put the Dutchman more at his ease, who smoked -and drank very cheerfully, and had made his bargain with the imperial -merchant for a cargo, when the officer of the guard entered to receive -orders, and stood with profound respect, addressing Peter by the title -of Imperial Majesty. The Dutchman sprang from his chair, and fell on -his knees, imploring forgiveness for the liberties he had been taking. -Peter, laughing heartily, raised him up and made him kiss the empress’s -hand, presented him with fifteen hundred rubles, gave him a freight, -and ordered that his vessel, as long as her timbers remained together, -should be permitted to enter all the Russian ports free of duty. This -privilege made the rapid fortune of the owner. - -The marriage of Ulrica, sister of Frederick the Great, with Adolphus -Frederick of Sweden, was the fruit of a stratagem, rather unfairly -played off on her sister. The court and senate of Sweden sent an -ambassador _incognito_ to Berlin, to watch and report upon the -characters and dispositions of Frederick’s two unmarried sisters, -Ulrica and Amelia; the former of whom had the reputation of being very -haughty, crafty, satirical, and capricious; and the Swedish court had -already nearly determined in favour of Amelia, who was remarkable for -the attraction of her person and sweetness of her mind. The mission -of the ambassador was soon buzzed abroad, and Amelia was overwhelmed -with misery, on account of her insuperable objection to renounce the -tenets of Calvin for those of Luther. In this state of wretchedness -she implored the assistance of her sister’s councils, to prevent an -union so repugnant to her happiness. The wary Ulrica advised her to -assume the most insolent and repulsive deportment to every one, in -the presence of the Swedish ambassador, which advice she followed, -whilst Ulrica put on all those amiable qualities which her sister -had provisionally laid aside: every one, ignorant of the cause, was -astonished at the change; and the ambassador informed his court that -fame had completely reversed their reciprocal good and bad qualities. -Ulrica was consequently preferred, and mounted the throne of Sweden. - -At the village of Zarsko-Zelo, at which is situated the most -magnificent of the imperial country palaces in Russia, there were no -inns, but the hospitality of Mr. Bush, the English gardener, prevented -that inconvenience from being felt by visiters properly introduced to -him. When Joseph II., Emperor of Germany, to whom every appearance of -show was disgusting, expressed his intention of visiting Catherine -II., she offered him apartments in her palace, which he declined. Her -Majesty, well knowing his dislike to parade, had Mr. Bush’s house -fitted up as an inn, with the sign of a Catherine wheel, below which -appeared in German characters “The Falkenstein Arms;” Falkenstein being -the name which the emperor assumed. His Majesty knew nothing of the -ingenious and attentive deception, till after he had quitted Russia. -When the emperor once went to Moscow, he is said to have preceded the -royal carriages as an avant-coureur, in order to avoid the obnoxious -pomp and ceremony which an acknowledgment of his rank would have -awakened. - -About the year 1428, there arose in France, in the person of Joan -of Arc, commonly called the Maid of Orleans, a heroine, who by -her enthusiasm stimulated the French to resist the domination of -the English. She appears to have been simple, chaste, modest, and -inoffensive. During her youth, she was frequently seen kneeling -devoutly in a corner of her village church: piety, indeed, seems to -have produced its elevating effects on her mind, and to it may be -ascribed the largest portion of her success. There was, in truth, -nothing about her brief but brilliant day of public action which -looked like wilful imposture in herself. We must therefore suppose -she was practised upon by others, or that her young and enthusiastic -imagination, by being continually worked upon, became afflicted with a -permanent, though partial, derangement; a species of madness which is -not uncommon. The latter supposition is supported by her own language; -she declared that, at the age of thirteen, she had been instructed, by -a voice from God, how to govern herself, and that she saw St. Michael -several times, who ordered her to be a good girl; and that God would -assist her, and that she must go to the succour of the king of France. - -Before she became a public character, she used to amuse herself with -her companions in running, and fighting with a kind of lance, and also -on horseback; which accounted for her subsequent excellent management -of weapons, and skill in riding. - -There was a popular tradition, that France was to be delivered by a -virgin from the borders of Lorraine. This might have suggested or -assisted her pretensions; and, having once fixed popular attention, and -excited popular interest, public feeling both supported and carried her -to the completion of her wishes. - -Joan, when first presented at court, is said to have known the -king, who was standing promiscuously among the nobles, and to have -revealed to him a secret unknown to any one else. It has been very -much canvassed what this secret could be; but, it seems the Chevalier -de Boissy, who was a favourite of Charles the Seventh during their -youth, and was at that time his bedfellow, was in possession of it. -Charles told him that he had one day prayed, without utterance, that -Heaven would defend his right; Joan reminded him of this prayer. Such -an incident leads to a suspicion that some persons near the king, and -acquainted with his private thoughts, were secretly instructing the -maid of Orleans, and practising, by these means, on the credulity of -the nation. But of still more consequence did her assumptions prove to -the English, who, under the administration of the Duke of Bedford, -were masters at that time of the capital and almost all the northern -provinces of France. During her interview with the French king, -Joan, in the name of the Supreme Being, offered to raise the siege -of Orleans, and to conduct him to Rheims, to be there crowned and -anointed; and she demanded, as the instrument of her future victories, -a particular sword, which was kept in the church of St. Catherine of -Fierbois, and which, though she had never seen it, she described by all -its marks, and by the place in which it had long lain neglected. - -An assembly of grave doctors and theologians cautiously examined -Joan’s mission, and pronounced it undoubtedly supernatural. She was -sent to the parliament and interrogated before that assembly; and the -presidents and counsellors, who had come persuaded of her imposture, -went away convinced of her inspiration. All the English affected to -speak with derision of the maid, and of her heavenly commission; and -said that the French king was now reduced to a sorry pass, when he had -recourse to such ridiculous expedients; but they felt their imagination -secretly struck with the vehement persuasion which prevailed in all -around them; and waited with anxious expectation for the issue of these -extraordinary preparations. - -The inhabitants of Orleans now believed themselves invincible under -her influence; and the Count of Dunois himself, perceiving such an -alteration both in friends and foes, consented that the next convoy, -which was to march in a few days, should enter by the side of Beausse, -where the English were most numerous. The convoy approached; no sign of -resistance appeared in the besiegers; it passed without interruption -between the redoubts of the English, and a dead silence and -astonishment reigned among those troops which were formerly so elated -with victory. The siege of Orleans was speedily raised, the English -army being unable to continue its operations. - -The raising of the siege was one part of the maid’s promise to -Charles; the crowning him at Rheims was the other; and she now -vehemently insisted that he should set out on that enterprise. Rheims -lay in a distant quarter of the kingdom, and was then in the hands of -a victorious enemy; the whole road which led to it was also occupied -by their garrisons; and no man could be so sanguine as to imagine that -such an attempt could so soon come within the bounds of possibility. -Charles, however, resolved to follow the exhortations of his warlike -prophetess, and to lead his army upon this promising adventure. He -set out for Rheims at the head of twelve thousand men. Troyes opened -its gates to him, Chalons imitated the example, Rheims sent him a -deputation with its keys, and he scarcely perceived, as he passed -along, that he was marching through an enemy’s country. The ceremony -was performed with the holy oil, which a pigeon had brought to King -Clovis from heaven on the first establishment of the French monarchy. -The maid of Orleans stood by his side, in complete armour, displaying -the sacred banner. The people shouted with the most unfeigned joy, on -viewing such a complication of wonders. The inclinations of men swaying -their belief, no one doubted of the inspirations and prophetic spirit -of the maid; the real and undoubted facts brought credit to every -exaggeration; for no fiction could be more wonderful than the events -which were known to be true. - -The maid was soon after taken prisoner by the Burgundians, while -she was heading a sally upon the quarters of John of Luxembourg. -The service of _Te Deum_ was publicly celebrated, on this fortunate -event, at Paris. The Duke of Bedford fancied that, by her captivity, -he should again recover his former ascendency over France; and, to -make the most of the present advantage, he purchased the captive from -John of Luxembourg, and instituted a prosecution against her. The -Bishop of Beauvais, a man wholly devoted to the English interests, -presented a petition against Joan, and desired to have her tried by -an ecclesiastical court, for sorcery, impiety, idolatry, and magic. -The university of Paris was so mean as to join in the same request. -In the issue, she was condemned for all the crimes of which she had -been accused, aggravated by heresy; her revelations were declared to -be inventions of the devil to delude the people; and she was sentenced -to be delivered over to the secular arm. Her spirit gave way to the -terrors of that punishment to which she was sentenced, and she publicly -declared herself ready to recant; she acknowledged the illusion of -those revelations which the church had rejected, and promised never -more to maintain them. Her sentence was then mitigated; she was -condemned to perpetual imprisonment, and to be fed during life on bread -and water. - -But the barbarous vengeance of Joan’s enemies was not satisfied -with this victory. Suspecting that the female dress which she now -consented to wear was disagreeable to her, they purposely placed in her -apartment a suit of men’s apparel, and watched for the effects of that -temptation upon her. On the sight of a dress in which she had acquired -so much renown, and which she once believed she wore by the particular -appointment of Heaven, all her former ideas and passions revived, and -she ventured in her solitude to clothe herself again in the forbidden -garments. Her insidious enemies caught her in that situation; her -fault was interpreted to be no less than a relapse into heresy. No -recantation would now suffice; no pardon could be granted her; she was -condemned to be burnt in the market-place of Rouen; and the infamous -sentence was accordingly executed. - -During the time of the commonwealth, commissioners, appointed by Oliver -Cromwell, were sent to Woodstock for the purpose of surveying the royal -demesne; but they speedily found themselves obliged to quit it, in -consequence of the great alarm occasioned them by circumstances which -could only happen, as they supposed through the agency of means which -were considered in those days to be quite supernatural; though the -knowledge of later times creates a surprise at the credulity of the -commissioners being so easily worked upon by tricks, which would now be -regarded as almost beneath the capacity of a schoolboy. The Woodstock -devil is the name by which the supposed spirit is known. - -The strange events which are the subject of this article, happened in -the months of October and November, 1649. The commissioners arrived -on October the 13th, taking up their residence in the king’s own -apartments, turning his dining-room into their wood-yard, and supplying -themselves with fuel from a famous oak, called the Royal Oak,[9] that -nothing might be left with the name of king about it. - -The first supernatural appearance that disturbed the equanimity of -these worthy commissioners was that of a large black dog, which, -entering one of the rooms, overturned two or three chairs, and then -disappeared under a bed. The next day noises were heard overhead, as -of persons walking, though they knew that all the doors were locked. -The wood of the king’s oak was brought by parcels from the dining-room, -and thrown with great violence into the presence-chamber. Giles Sharpe, -their secretary, was active in attempting to discover the causes of -these disturbances, but his inquiries were unsuccessful. On unlocking -the door of the room, in the presence of the commissioners, the wood -was found all thrown about in different directions. The chairs were -tossed about, the papers torn, and the ink spilt; which mischief, it -was argued, could only have been perpetrated by one who must have -entered through the key-hole. - -At night the beds of Giles Sharpe and two other servants were lifted -up, and let down violently, so as to throw them out; again, on the -nineteenth, when in bed, the candles were blown out, with a sulphureous -smell, and the trenchers of wood hurled about the room. - -On the twentieth the commissioners themselves, when in bed, were -attacked with cruel blows, and the curtains drawn to and fro with -great violence. This sort of attack upon the peace and safety of the -commissioners was repeated almost every night. They were also assaulted -from without, for a vast number of stones and horses’ bones were thrown -through the windows, to the great risk of those within. - -A servant, who was rash enough to draw his sword, perceived that -an invisible hand had hold of it too, which, pulling it from him, -struck him a violent blow on the head with the pommel of it. Dr. Plot -concludes his relation of this affair with observing, that “many of -the circumstances related are not reconcilable to juggling,” and he -adds, “all which being put together, perhaps may easily persuade some -man, otherwise inclined, to believe that immaterial beings might be -concerned in this business, provided the speculative theist be not -after all a practical atheist.” - -“The Secret History of the good Devil of Woodstock,” a pamphlet -published not long after these events, unravelled these mysteries. It -appears that one Joe Collins, commonly called “Funny Joe,” was that -very devil. He hired himself as a servant to the commissioners, under -the name of Giles Sharpe, and by the help of two friends, an unknown -trap-door in the ceiling of the bedchamber, and a pound of gunpowder, -played all these amazing tricks. - -The sudden extinguishing of the candles was contrived by inserting -gunpowder into the lower part of each candle, destined to explode at -a certain time. The great dog was no other than one that had whelped -in that room shortly before, and which made all that disturbance in -seeking her puppies, and which, when she had served his purpose, Giles -Sharpe let out, and then pretended to search for. - -The circumstance that had most effect in driving the commissioners -from Woodstock was this:--they had formed a reserve of a part of -the premises to themselves, and having entered into a private -agreement among themselves, they hid the writing in the earth, under -the roots of an orange-tree, which grew in a tub in the corner of -the room. In the midst of dinner one day this earth took fire, and -burned violently with a blue flame, filling the room with a strong -sulphureous stench; the explanation of which phenomenon may be found -in modern books of experimental chemistry, under the head of “receipt -to make an earthquake.” This last attack so completely terrified the -commissioners, that, fearing the very devils from hell were rising -against them, they speedily took to flight. - -So early as the reign of Henry the Second, Woodstock was famed for -being the residence of the beautiful Rosamond, and it is thus quaintly -described by Speed. “Henry the Second built an intricate labyrinth at -Woodstock, and therein he stowed this pearl of his esteem (Rosamond), -unto whose closet, for the inexplicate windings, none could approach -but the king, and those instructed by him. Notwithstanding, his jealous -queen, Eleanor, favoured by accident, thus discovered the privacy of -the favourite, for a clewe of silk having fallen from Rosamond’s lap, -as she sat to take the air, and was suddenly fleeing from the sight of -the searcher, the end of silk fastened to her foot; the clewe, still -unwinding, remained behind, which the queen followed up till she had -found what she sought, and upon Rosamond so bestowed her spleen, that -the gentle ladye lived not long after.” - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - - MILITARY STRATAGEMS. - - Characteristic Mark of a skilful General--Importance anciently - attached to military Stratagems--The Stratagem of Joshua at - Ai, the first which is recorded--Stratagem of Julius Cæsar - in Gaul--Favourable Omen derived from Sneezing--Artifice - of Bias at Priene--Telegraphic Communication--Mode adopted - by Hystiæus to convey Intelligence--Relief of Casilinum by - Gracchus--Stratagem of the Chevalier de Luxembourg to convey - Ammunition into Lisle--Importance of concealing the Death of a - General--The manner in which the Death of Sultan Solyman was kept - secret--Stratagem of John Visconti--Stratagem of Lord Norwich at - Angoulême--Capture of Amiens by the Spaniards--Manner in which - the Natives of Sonia threw off the Yoke. - - -The part of a skilful general does not only consist in the capability -of gaining a great battle, but also in knowing when to avoid the risk -of an engagement. So numerous, and so variable are the chances of war, -that a commander of even the best appointed army should be prepared to -meet all emergencies, in the event of its strength being destroyed, -or its numbers diminished, by famine, fatigue, or desertion; so that, -notwithstanding these adverse circumstances, he may still have a chance -of overcoming by policy those enemies whom he had hoped to subdue by -the sword. - -Discretion is always the better part of valour, and, in some cases, a -handful of men may decide the event of a campaign, in which, otherwise, -the blood of thousands might be spilt in vain. The old writers on -the art of war did not fail to attach great importance to those -_stratagems_, by which much was effected, or attempted, when one side -was reduced to the necessity of maintaining a defensive system of -warfare. - -The earliest account of recourse being had to military stratagem is -that recorded in the eighth chapter of Joshua, where that leader of -the Israelites, besieging the city of Ai, said, “Behold ye shall lie -in wait against the city, even behind the city: go not very far from -the city, but be ye all ready: and I, and all the people that are with -me, will approach unto the city: and it shall come to pass, when they -come out against us, as at the first, that we will flee before them. -For they will come out after us, till we have drawn them from the city; -then ye shall rise up from the ambush, and seize upon the city: for the -Lord your God will deliver it into your hand.” - -Thus fell the city of Ai into the hands of Joshua, and a similar kind -of stratagem has since frequently turned the day between contending -armies. Julius Cæsar did not consider it beneath a general or warrior -to have recourse to almost a similar stratagem, when part of the army -under Q. Cicero, in Gaul, was besieged. By the apparent flight of his -troops, Julius Cæsar drew the enemy into a convenient spot for an -engagement, and, turning, overcame them. - -A circumstance most trifling in itself, when it has been ushered in by -superstition, as a good omen, has often raised the spirits of an army. -Xenophon relates, in the Anabasis, that when the Greeks in some alarm -were consulting, previous to the celebrated retreat of the ten thousand -out of Asia, an accident, which in itself was even ridiculous, did -nevertheless, through the importance attributed to it by the Grecian -superstition, assist not a little to infuse encouragement. Xenophon was -speaking of that favour from the gods which a righteous cause entitled -them to hope for, against a perjured enemy, when somebody sneezed: -immediately, the general voice addressed ejaculations to protecting -Jupiter, whose omen it was supposed to be, a sacrifice to the god was -proposed, a universal shout declared approbation, and the whole army in -chorus sang the pæan. - -Bias, by the following artifice, induced Alyattes, King of Lydia, to -raise the siege of Priene, where he was born. That city was pressed -by famine, which circumstance being suspected by the besiegers, gave -them great hopes; Bias, however, caused two mules to be fattened, and -contrived a way to have them pass into the enemy’s camp. The good -condition they were in astonished the king, who thereupon sent deputies -into the city, under pretence of offering peace, but really to observe -the state of the town and people. Bias, guessing their errand, had -ordered the granaries to be filled with heaps of sand, and those heaps -to be covered with corn. When the deputies returned, and made their -report to the king, of the great plenty of provisions they had seen in -the city, he hesitated no longer, but concluded a treaty and raised the -siege. - -The invention of telegraphic communication has proved of the greatest -utility in modern warfare, both for despatch and security. In ancient -times, the bearer of messages had both an important and dangerous -duty to perform, and one which was very uncertain in its execution. -A singular and ingenious method of communication, is attributed to -Hystiæus, who, desiring to write to Aristagoras, shaved the head of -his trustiest servant, and wrote upon his scalp, in certain brief -characters, what he would impart to his friend, and keeping him in his -house till the hair was grown as thick as before, then sent him on his -errand.[10] - -By the policy of Gracchus, the Roman general, the Campanian city of -Casilinum was for a considerable time prevented from falling into the -hands of Annibal. Gracchus was encamped in the vicinity of the city, -but, though the garrison was reduced to the most dreadful extremity by -famine, many of the soldiers having been driven to commit suicide, he -did not dare to make a movement to relieve the besieged, the dictator -having imperatively enjoined him not to stir from his position. In this -emergency he had recourse to stratagem. - -The Vulturnus ran through the place, and Gracchus resolved to make it -the channel by which to convey succours. “He therefore,” says Livy, -“collected corn from all parts of the country round, and having filled -therewith a great number of casks, sent a messenger to Casilinum -to the magistrate, desiring that the people should catch the casks -which the river would bring down. The following night was passed in -attentively watching for the completion of the hopes raised by the -Roman messenger, when the casks, being sent along the middle of the -stream, floated down to the town. The same stratagem was practised -with success on the following night and on the third; but the river -being afterwards rendered more rapid by the continued rains, an eddy -drove them across to the side where the enemy’s guards were posted, and -they were discovered sticking among osiers which grew on the banks. -This being reported to Annibal, care was taken for the future to guard -the Vulturnus with greater vigilance, so that no supply sent down by -it to the city should pass without discovery. Notwithstanding which, -quantities of nuts being poured into the river at the Roman camp, -and floating down to Casilinum, were stopped there with hurdles. The -scarcity, however, at last became so excessive, that tearing off the -straps and leathern coverings of their shields, and softening them in -boiling water, they endeavoured to chew them; nor did they abstain from -mice or any other kind of animal. They even dug up every sort of herb -and root that grew at the foot of the ramparts of the town; and when -the enemy had ploughed up all the ground round the wall, that produced -any herbs, they sowed it with turnip seed, which made Annibal exclaim, -‘Am I to sit here before Casilinum until these grow?’ Although he had -hitherto refused to listen to any terms of capitulation, yet he now -allowed overtures to be made to him, respecting the redeeming of the -men of free condition. An agreement was made, that for each of these a -ransom should be paid of seven ounces of gold; and then the garrison -surrendered.” - -A still more daring, and almost equally successful stratagem was -employed, early in the eighteenth century, to protract the defence of -Lisle, which was then besieged by the Duke of Marlborough and Prince -Eugene. Ammunition beginning to be scarce in the city, the Chevalier -de Luxembourg formed a plan for introducing into the fortress a -supply, not only of powder, but also of men and arms. Having succeeded -in keeping his project a secret from the enemy, the Chevalier began -his march at the head of two thousand five hundred selected cavalry; -a part of whom were carbineers and dragoons. Each horseman carried -behind him a sack, containing sixty pounds of powder; and each dragoon -and carbineer had three muskets, and a large quantity of gun-flints. -Between nine and ten in the evening, the band reached the barrier of -the lines of circumvallation. In front of the detachment was an officer -who could speak Dutch well, and knew all the Dutch regiments which -were employed in patrolling. On being challenged by the guard, he -unhesitatingly replied, “Open the gate quickly; I am bringing powder -to the besiegers, and am pursued by a French detachment.” The barrier -was promptly opened. Nineteen hundred of the party had passed through, -when a French officer, seeing that his men were straggling, imprudently -exclaimed, in his native language, “Close up! close up!” This gave the -alarm to the allied officers, and a fire was opened upon the French. -The powder of some of the horsemen exploded, and sixty of them were -immediately blown to pieces. The rear of the party now took flight -towards Douay; but of those who had been fortunate enough to pass the -barrier, eighteen hundred reached Lisle, to which they brought a supply -of twelve hundred muskets and eighty thousand pounds of powder. - -The well-being of an army, and the spirits of the troops during an -engagement, depend so much on the safety of their favourite general, -that any sudden rumour of his being slain would in all probability -entirely change the fortune of the day. In the event of such a -catastrophe his death has been often studiously concealed from the main -body of the troops, till it was no longer necessary or possible to -withhold such intelligence. The following instance, related by Ward, in -his Art of War, is perhaps the most remarkable, if correctly given, for -the length of time this secret was preserved. - -Solyman, the Ottoman emperor, dying at the siege of Sigeth, in Hungary, -his death was cunningly concealed by Mahomet Bassa twenty days before -the Janizaries knew of it; and when any of them inquired for him, he -would show them the emperor sitting in his horse litter, as if troubled -with the gout; but the soldiers, suspecting something, began to be -mutinous, whereupon he promised that they should see the emperor the -next day, for which purpose he apparelled the corpse in the large royal -robes, and placed him in a chair at the end of a long gallery; a little -boy was placed behind, to move the emperor’s hand, and to stroke his -beard, as it seems his manner was. Which sign of life and strength -the soldiers perceiving were well contented, so that his death was -concealed for forty days more till the siege was ended. - -John Visconti, Archbishop, as well as Governor of Milan, in the -fourteenth century, was a very ambitious character, and excited the -jealousy of the pope by his show of temporal authority, and by his -aiming at becoming master of all Italy. The pope, who resided at -that time at Avignon, sent a nuncio to John Visconti, to demand the -city of Bologna, which he had purchased, and to choose whether he -would possess the spiritual or temporal power, for both could not be -united. The archbishop, after hearing the message with respect, said -he would answer it the following Sunday, at the cathedral. The day -came, and, after celebrating mass in his pontifical robes, he advanced -towards the legate, requiring him to repeat the orders of the pope, -on the choice of the spiritual or the temporal: then taking a cross -in one hand, and drawing forth a naked sword with the other, he said, -“Behold my spiritual and my temporal, and tell the holy father from -me, that with the one I will defend the other.” The pope, not content -with this answer, commenced a process, and summoned him to appear in -person, on pain of excommunication. The archbishop received the brief, -and promised to obey it; he sent immediately to Avignon one of his -secretaries, ordering him to retain for his use all the houses and -stables he could hire in Avignon, with provisions for the subsistence -of twelve thousand horse, and six thousand foot. The secretary executed -his commission so well that the strangers, who came on business, could -find no place to lodge in. The pope, being informed of this, asked -the secretary if the archbishop required so many houses. The latter -answered, that he feared those would not be sufficient, because his -master was coming with eighteen thousand troops, besides a great number -of the inhabitants of Milan, who would accompany him. Terrified at -this account, the pope paid immediately the expense the secretary had -been at, and dismissed him, with orders to tell the archbishop, that he -dispensed with his making a journey to Avignon. - -In the wars between Edward the Third and Philip of France, Angoulême -was besieged by the Duke of Normandy. After a brave and vigorous -defence, the governor, Lord Norwich, found himself reduced to such -extremities, as obliged him to employ a stratagem, in order to save his -garrison, and prevent his being reduced to surrender at discretion. He -appeared on the walls, and desired a parley with the Duke of Normandy. -The duke told Norwich that he supposed he intended to capitulate. “Not -at all,” replied he; “but as to-morrow is the feast of the Virgin, to -whom I know that you, sir, as well as myself, bear a great devotion, -I desire a cessation of arms for that day.” The proposal was agreed -to, and Norwich, having ordered his forces to prepare all their -baggage, marched out next day, and advanced towards the French camp. -The besiegers, imagining that they were to be attacked, ran to their -arms; but Norwich sent a messenger to the Duke, reminding him of his -engagement. The duke, who piqued himself on faithfully keeping his -word, exclaimed, “I see the governor has outwitted me, but let us be -content with gaining the place;” and the English were allowed to pass -through the besieging army unmolested. - -By the following stratagem on the part of the Spaniards, in 1597, -Amiens was taken. Soldiers, disguised like peasants, conducted a cart -loaded with nuts towards the gate of the town, and let them fall, as -if accidentally, just as the gate was opened; and while the guard was -busied in gathering them up, the Spaniards entering, secured the gate, -and thus gave their countrymen the opportunity to come up, and become -masters of the town. - -According to the testimony of the natives of Congo, says Mr. Maxwell, -the country of Sonia, amongst other tribes, at no great distance of -time, formed part of the kingdom of Congo, and the people of Sonia were -obliged to carry burdens of white sand, from the beach to Banza-Congo, -one hundred and fifty miles distant, to form pleasant walks to the -royal residence. This servitude greatly exasperated the men of Sonia, -whose warlike and independent spirit is now feared and respected by -all the neighbouring nations; and, having concealed their weapons in -the several burdens of sand, they were by this contrivance enabled to -avenge themselves of the indignity put upon them, and to plunder the -city, killing many of the queen’s people. Having thus shaken off their -yoke, Sonia has since been governed by native princes. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - MALINGERING, OR SIMULATION OF DISEASES. - - Former Prevalence of Malingering in the Army; and the Motives for - it--Decline of the Practice--Where most Prevalent--The means of - Simulation reduced to a System--Cases of simulated Ophthalmia - in the 50th Regiment--The Deception wonderfully kept up by many - Malingerers--Means of Detection--Simulated Paralysis--Impudent - Triumph manifested by Malingerers--Curious cases of - Hollidge--Gutta Serena, and Nyctalopia counterfeited--Blind - Soldiers employed in Egypt--Cure, by actual cautery, of a - Malingerer--Simulation of Consumption and other Diseases--Feigned - Deafness--Detection of a Man who simulated Deafness--Instances of - Self-mutilation committed by Soldiers--Simulation of Death. - - -A very serious evil has existed in the army, resulting from a very -general practice of idle and dissolute soldiers in barracks, and even -in more active service, feigning diseases and disabilities; for the -purpose of either escaping duty, or in the hopes of being altogether -discharged from the service, and procuring a pension. This imposture -has been termed Malingering, or the simulation of diseases, and -the unsuccessful or suspected impostors have been usually called -Malingerers. In vulgar English, the trick is called Shamming Abram. - -Remarkable ingenuity, and a very considerable knowledge of the -powers and effects of medicinal agents, have been shown by those -who, _à priori_, would not be suspected of such information: and the -pertinacity shown by the impostors, when the object was to procure -their discharge, has been often wonderful. - -The reasons which call for, or privilege a soldier to expect, his -discharge, are chronic and incurable rather than acute diseases. It is -natural, therefore, to find the malingerers most expert in simulating -the former, though, at the same time, the more acute diseases have not -been less faithfully represented, when the object in view was only a -temporary evasion of duty. - -This practice has prevailed to a greater or less extent at different -periods of our medical-military history; and it is gratifying to learn, -from authentic sources, that in the present period of highly improved -discipline in the British army, there are not probably two malingerers -for ten who were found in the military hospitals thirty or forty years -since. It also occurs more or less according to the manner of forming -a regiment. In some of the cavalry regiments, and some of the Highland -and other distinguished infantry battalions, in which, along with a -mild but exact discipline, there is a strong attachment to the service, -and remarkable _esprit du corps_, there is scarcely an instance of -any of those disgraceful attempts to deceive the surgeon; while in -regiments which have been hastily recruited, and under circumstances -unfavourable to progressive and complete discipline, the system of -imposition is perfectly understood. Among those who counterfeit -diseases, it has been observed that the Irish are the most numerous, -the Scotsmen less so, but malingering seems least of all the vice of -English soldiers. - -There appears to be a species of free-masonry among soldiers, and thus -these methods of imposture have been systematized, and handed down -for the common benefit. A case occurred of a man having a rupture, -which on inspection was found to be artificially formed from some -written directions, “How to make a rupture,” which were produced. The -man was discharged by his commanding officer, but the discharge not -being backed by the surgeon’s recommendatory certificate, he lost his -pension; the commanding officer after his return from Corunna met this -man perfectly well, following the laborious occupation of a porter. - -In the year 1804, the great increase of ophthalmia in the 50th -regiment, and the reported detection of frauds in other regiments, -led to a suspicion in the mind of the surgeon of that corps, and -a consequent investigation, by which a regular correspondence was -detected between the men under medical treatment and their parents -or friends. Those suffering from ophthalmia, within the walls of the -hospital, requested that those without would forward to them corrosive -sublimate, lime, and blue-stone; and by the application of these acrid -substances to their eyes, they hoped to get them into such a state -of disease, as would enable them to procure their discharge, with a -pension. And they mentioned the names of men who had been successful by -similar means. Proofs of guilt having been established, the delinquents -were tried by a court-martial, convicted, and punished. - -It is hardly possible to believe, that men would endure not only the -inconvenience of a severe ophthalmia, than which, perhaps, nothing is -more painful, but would even risk the total loss of sight, for the -uncertain prospect of a trifling pension, and with the conviction, -that even if they gained it, they reduced themselves to a helpless -dependence on others through life. But it is nevertheless certain, -that whole wards have been filled with soldiers labouring under this -artificially excited disease; this inflammation of the eye having been -produced, and maintained, by quicklime, strong infusions of tobacco, -Spanish flies, nitrate of silver, and other metallic salts. The -inflammation thus caused is most painful, yet it has been kept up under -every privation which can make life miserable. - -Wonderful indeed is the obstinacy some malingerers evince; night and -day, they will remain, with the endurance of a fakir, in positions most -irksome, for weeks and months; nay, many men for the same period have, -with surprising resolution and recollection, sat and walked with their -bodies bent double, without forgetting for one moment the character of -their assumed infirmity. - -These impostors are most easily discovered by a retaliating deception -on the part of the surgeon; he should conceal his suspicions, and -appear to give credit to all that is related to him of the history of -the disease, and propose some sort of treatment accordingly. - -The nervous disorders that are simulated are such as to require a -constant and unceasing watchfulness on the part of the impostor, lest -he should betray himself. - -Paralysis of one arm was feigned, with great perseverance and -consistency, for months; the soldier pretending that he had fallen -asleep in the open air, and awoke with his arm benumbed and powerless. -This farce he kept up with such boldness, that, being suspected, a -court-martial was held on him, and he was even tied up to the halberts -to be punished; but the commanding officer thought the evidence not -sufficiently convincing. Having, however, subsequently undergone very -severe treatment, and there being no prospect of a pension, he at last -gave in. - -The unprincipled obstinacy of some individuals even triumphs openly in -the success of their imposture. A trooper in the 12th pretended that -he had lost the use of his right arm; and, after resisting for a great -length of time severe hospital discipline, he procured his discharge. -When he was leaving the regiment, and fairly on the top of the coach, -at starting, he waved his paralytic arm in triumph, and cheered at the -success of his plan. Another soldier, who pretended that he had lost -the use of his lower extremities, was reported unfit for service, and -was discharged. When his discharge was obtained, he caused himself, on -a field day, to be taken in a cart to the Phœnix park, and in front of -the regiment, drawn up in a line, he had the cart driven under a tree; -he then leaped out of the cart, springing up three times, insulted the -regiment, and scampered off at full speed. - -A third soldier, of the name of Hollidge, pretending to be deaf and -dumb after an attack of fever, never for one moment forgot his assumed -character, till his purpose was attained. Being useful as a tailor, he -was kept for five or six years subsequent to this pretended calamity, -and carried on all communication by writing. On one occasion, whilst -practising firing with blank cartridge, an awkward recruit shot -Hollidge in the ear, who expressed pain and consternation by a variety -of contortions, but never spoke. Not having been heard to articulate -for five years, he was at last discharged; he then recovered the use of -speech, and a vacancy occurring shortly after, he offered himself to -fill the situation, namely, as master tailor to the regiment. - -That species of blindness, thus feelingly described by Milton, - - “So thick a _drop serene_ hath quenched these orbs,” - -and which is that in which no manifest alteration takes place in the -eye, has been produced by the application of belladonna. Nyctalopia, -or night blindness, was frequently feigned in Egypt, and nearly half -of a corps were, or pretended to be, afflicted with it: as the troops -were employed in digging and throwing up fortifications, this state of -vision was found of not so much consequence. In transporting the earth, -a blind man was joined to, and followed by, one who could see; and when -the sentries were doubled, a blind man and one that could see were put -together, and not perhaps without advantage, as, during the night, -hearing, upon an outpost, is often of more importance than sight. - -One unprincipled wretch, in an hospital, pretending to be afflicted -with a hopeless complaint, which was a subject of offence to the whole -ward, being detected, it was determined to apply the actual cautery. -On the first application of the red-hot spatula, this fellow, who for -eleven months had lost the use of his lower limbs, gave the man who -held his leg so violent a kick, that he threw him down, and instantly -exclaimed that he was shamming, and would do his duty if released; but -the surgeon declared that he would apply the iron to the other hip, on -which he roared out that he had been shamming to get his discharge. To -the amusement of all around, he walked to his bed; and when the burned -parts were healed, he returned to his duty. - -Spitting of blood and consumption are rather favourite diseases with -soldiers who seek their discharge from the service through imposture; -yet an acute physician may easily detect the imposition. Palpitation -and violent action of the heart the impostors know how to produce by -the juice of hellebore; vomiting by secret pressure on the stomach; -tympany, or distention of the body by air, is produced by swallowing, -on philosophical and chemical principles, chalk and vinegar. - -The acute diseases have many symptoms which are easily simulated, but -as easily detected. The appearance of the white tongue is created -by rubbing it with chalk, or whitening from the wall; but washing -the mouth with water at once proves the deceit. Dr. Hennen, in his -Military Surgery, says, “Profligates have, to my knowledge, boasted -that they have often received indulgences from the medical officers -in consequence of a supposed febrile attack, by presenting themselves -after a night’s debauch, which they had purposely protracted, to -aid the deception. Febrile symptoms are also produced by swallowing -tobacco-juice. One man, if unwilling to be cured secundum artem, was at -least anxious to enumerate his symptoms in an orthodox manner, for he -had purloined some pages from Zimmerman’s Treatise on Dysentery, (the -disease he had thought proper to simulate,) from one of the medical -officers; and from which he was daily in the habit of recounting a -change of symptoms. Stoical indifference to their frequently painful -imposture and hardihood in maintaining its character, are the necessary -qualifications of malingerers, who have frequently evinced a constancy -and fortitude under severe pain and privations worthy of a better -cause.” - -A patient permitted all the preparatory measures for amputation before -he thought proper to relax his knee-joint; and another suffered himself -to be almost drowned in a deep lake, into which he was plunged from a -boat, before he stretched out his arm to save himself by swimming, an -exercise in which he was known to excel. - -Those who affect deafness, are frequently caught in a snare by opening -the conversation with them in a very high tone of voice, but gradually -sinking it to its usual compass; when, thrown off his guard, the -impostor will reply to such questions as are put to him. A recruit, -unwilling to go to the East Indies, feigned deafness; he was admitted -into the hospital, and put on spoon-diet; for nine days no notice -was taken of him. On the tenth the physician, having made signs of -inquiry to him, asked the hospital sergeant what diet he was on? the -sergeant answered, “Spoon-diet.” The physician, affecting to be angry, -said, “Are you not ashamed of yourself, to have kept this man so -long on spoon-meat? the poor fellow is nearly starved; let him have -a beef-steak and a pint of porter.” Murphy could contain himself no -longer; he completely forgot his assumed defect, and, with a face full -of gratitude, cried, “God bless your honour! you are the best gentleman -I have seen for many a day.” - -During the insurrection in the Kandian country, in 1818, a private -belonging to the 19th regiment was sentry at a post, and was -occasionally fired at by the enemy from the neighbouring jungle. -Availing himself of what appeared a favourable opportunity for getting -invalided and sent home, he placed the muzzle of his musket close to -the inside of his left leg, and discharging the piece, he blew away -nearly the whole of his calf. He asserted, to those who came to his -assistance, that the wound had proceeded from a shot of the enemy’s -from the jungle; but the traces of gunpowder found in the leg, told a -different tale, as well as his musket, which was recently discharged. - -A sergeant in the 62d regiment purchased a pistol, and hired a person -to shoot him through the arm; hoping, by these means, to make it appear -that he had been fired at by one disaffected to the military, and that -he should be discharged with a large pension. In this, however, he was -disappointed. - -Even death itself has been simulated. When some officers, in India, -were breakfasting in the commander’s tent, the body of a native, said -to have been murdered by the sepoys, was brought in and laid down. The -crime could not be brought home to any one of them, yet there was the -body. A suspicion, however, crossed the adjutant’s mind, and, having -the kettle in his hand, a thought struck him that he would pour a -little boiling water on the body; he did so; upon which the murdered -remains started up, and scampered off. - - - - - CHAPTER IX. - - MISCELLANEOUS IMPOSTORS AND IMPOSTURES. - - Mary Tofts, the Rabbit Breeder, of Godalming--Progress and - Detection of her Impostures--Poisoning of St. Andre--The Bottle - Conjuror--Advertisements on this Occasion--Riot produced by - the Fraud--Squibs and Epigrams to which it gave rise--Case - of Elizabeth Canning--Violent Controversy which arose out of - it--She is found guilty of Perjury and transported--The Cock - Lane Ghost--Public Excitement occasioned by it--Detection - of the Fraud--Motive for the Imposture--The Stockwell - Ghost--The Sampford Ghost--Mystery in which the Affair was - involved--Astonishing Instance of Credulity in Perigo and his - Wife--Diabolical Conduct of Mary Bateman--She is hanged for - Murder--Metamorphosis of the Chevalier d’Eon--Multifarious - Disguises of Price, the Forger--Miss Robertson--The fortunate - Youth--The Princess Olive--Caraboo--Pretended Fasting--Margaret - Senfrit--Catherine Binder--The Girl of Unna--The Osnaburg - Girl--Anne Moore. - - -Towards the close of the year 1726, one of the most extraordinary -and impudent impostures on record was carried into execution by a -woman named Mary Tofts, the wife of a poor journeyman clothworker at -Godalming, in Surrey. She is described as having been of “a healthy -strong constitution, small size, fair complexion, a very stupid and -sullen temper, and unable to write or read.” Stupid as she was supposed -to be, she had, however, art enough to keep up for a considerable time -the credit of her fraud. She pretended to bring forth rabbits; and she -accounted for this monstrous deviation from the laws of nature, by -saying, that “as she was weeding in a field, she saw a rabbit spring up -near her, after which she ran, with another woman that was at work just -by her; this set her a longing for rabbits, being then, as she thought, -five weeks enceinte; the other woman perceiving she was uneasy, charged -her with longing for the rabbit they could not catch, but she denied -it. Soon after, another rabbit sprung up near the same place, which she -endeavoured likewise to catch. The same night she dreamt that she was -in a field with those two rabbits in her lap, and awaked with a sick -fit, which lasted till morning; from that time, for above three months, -she had a constant and strong desire to eat rabbits, but being very -poor and indigent could not procure any.” - -At first sight, it would seem that so gross an imposition, as that -which was attempted by Mary Tofts, must have been unanimously scouted. -But this was by no means the case. So well did she manage, and so ready -are some people to be deceived, that she actually deluded her medical -attendant, Mr. Howard, a man of probity, who had practised for thirty -years. There can be no doubt of his belief that, in the course of about -a month, he had aided her to bring forth nearly twenty rabbits. - -The news of these marvellous births spread far and wide, and soon found -numerous believers. It attracted the attention of even George the -First, who sent down to Godalming his house surgeon, Mr. Ahlers, to -inquire into the fact. Ahlers went back to London fully convinced that -he had obtained ocular and tangible proof of the truth of the story; -so much so, indeed, that he promised to procure for Mary a pension. -Mr. St. Andre, the king’s surgeon and anatomist, was despatched in the -course of a day or two, to make a further examination. He also returned -to the metropolis a firm believer. The rabbits, which he and Ahlers -carried with them, as testimonies, had the honour of being dissected -before his majesty. An elaborate report of all the circumstances -relative to their production and dissection, and to his visit to -Godalming, was published by St. Andre, and the public mind consequently -began to be agitated in an extraordinary manner. A furious controversy -arose between the credulous and the incredulous, in which Whiston is -said to have borne a part, by writing a pamphlet, to show that the -miracle was the exact completion of a prophecy in Esdras. On the other -hand, the caricaturists of the incredulous faction exerted themselves -to cast ridicule on their opponents. Among these was Hogarth, who -published an engraving called Cunicularii, or the Wise Men of Godliman. - -Though the report, by St. Andre, contained many circumstances which -were palpably calculated to excite a suspicion of fraud, the multitude -was as blind to them as he had been. The delusion continued to spread, -and even the king himself was enrolled among the believers. The rent -of rabbit warrens, it is affirmed, sunk to nothing, as no one would -presume to eat a rabbit. The trick was, however, on the point of being -found out. To Queen Caroline, then Princess of Wales, is ascribed the -merit of having been active in promoting measures to undeceive the -people. - -The miraculous Mary Tofts was now brought to town, where she could be -more closely watched than at Godalming, and prevented from obtaining -the means of carrying on her imposture. Among those who took a part -on this occasion, the most conspicuous was Sir Richard Manningham, an -eminent physician and Fellow of the Royal Society; and he had at length -the satisfaction of detecting her. She held out, however, till her -courage was shaken by a threat to perform a dangerous operation upon -her, which threat was backed by another from a magistrate, that she -should be sent to prison. She then confessed, that the fraud had been -suggested to her by a woman, who told her, that she could put her into -a way of getting a good livelihood, without being obliged to work for -it as formerly, and promised continually to supply her with rabbits, -for which she was to receive a part of the gain. The farce terminated -by the Godalming miracle-monger being committed to Tothill Fields’ -Bridewell. - -The reputation of St. Andre, who had previously been much in favour -at court, was greatly injured by his conduct in this affair. The -public attention had once before been directed to him by a mysterious -circumstance; and his enemies did not fail now to advert to that -circumstance, and to charge him with having himself played the part -of an impostor. It appears that in February, 1724, he was summoned to -visit a patient, whom he had never before seen. The messenger led him -in the dark, through numerous winding alleys and passages, to a house -in a court, where he found the woman for whom he was to prescribe. -The man, after having introduced him, went out, and soon returned -with three glasses of liquor on a plate, one of which St. Andre was -prevailed on to take; but, “finding the liquor strong and ill-tasted, -he drank very little of it.” Before he reached his home he began to be -ill, and soon manifested all the symptoms of having taken poison. The -government offered a reward of two hundred pounds for the detection -of the offender, but he was never discovered. It was now asserted, by -the enemies of St. Andre, that the story of having been poisoned was -a mere fabrication, for the purpose of bringing him into practice. -This, however, could not have been the case; for the report, signed by -six eminent physicians, who attended him, abundantly proves that he -was, for nearly a fortnight, in the utmost danger, and that, according -to all appearance, his sufferings were caused by poison. We may, -therefore, conclude that, though he was an egregious dupe, with respect -to Mary Tofts, he was not, in this instance, an impostor. - - “For when a man beats out his brains, - The devil’s in it if he feigns.” - -In 1749, three-and-twenty years after the exposure of Mary Tofts, there -appeared, about the middle of January, the ensuing advertisement, which -seems to have been intended to try how far the credulous folly of the -town might be worked upon. - -“At the new theatre in the Haymarket, on Monday next, the 16th instant, -is to be seen a person who performs the several most surprising things -following: viz. first, he takes a common walking-cane from any of the -spectators, and thereon plays the music of every instrument now in use, -and likewise sings to surprising perfection. Secondly, he presents you -with a common wine-bottle, which any one present may first examine; -this bottle is placed on a table, in the middle of the stage, and -he (without any equivocation) goes into it, in the sight of all the -spectators, and sings in it; during his stay in the bottle, any person -may handle it, and see plainly that it does not exceed a common tavern -bottle. Those on the stage or in the boxes may come in masked habits -(if agreeable to them), and the performer (if desired) will inform them -who they are.” The display of these wonders was to occupy two hours and -a half. The advertisement also promised that the conjuror, after the -performance, would show to any gentlemen or ladies, for, as Trapbois -phrases it, a proper “con-si-de-ra-tion,” the likeness of any deceased -friend or relative, with which they might also converse; would tell -their most secret thoughts; and would give them a full view of persons, -whether dead or alive, who had injured them. - -At the same time with the above advertisement, there came forth -another, which may have either been intended to put the public on -their guard by its out-heroding Herod, or to make their credulity, if -possible, still more glaring, in case they should accept the invitation -of the Bottle Conjuror. It purported to be issued by Signor Capitello -Jumpedo, lately arrived from Italy, “a surprising dwarf, no taller -than a tobacco-pipe,” who could perform many wonderful equilibres on -the tight and slack rope, transform his body into above ten thousand -different shapes and postures, and who, after having diverted the -spectators two hours and a half, would “open his mouth wide, and jump -down his own throat.” This most “wonderfullest wonder of all wonders -as ever the world wondered at,” expressed his willingness to join in -performance with the Bottle Conjuror Musician. - -Though one might suppose that nothing short of insanity or idiocy -could bring spectators on such an occasion, yet it is certain that -the theatre was thronged with people of all degrees, from the highest -ranks of the peerage down to such of the humblest class as could raise -two shillings for admission to the gallery. That nothing might be -wanting to try the patience of the spectators, not a single fiddle had -been provided to amuse them. At length, tired of waiting, they became -restive; cat-calls, vociferations, and beating of feet and sticks on -the floor, were heard in discordant chorus. At this moment a man came -from behind the scenes, bowed, and announced that, if the performer -did not appear, the money should be returned. This annunciation was -succeeded by another person starting up in the pit, and stating that, -if double prices were given, the conjuror would get into a pint bottle. -This seems to have brought the multitude to the use of the small -portion of sense which nature had bestowed on them. They discovered -that they had been cheated, and they prepared to take vengeance on the -cheater. The throwing of a lighted candle from one of the boxes into -the pit was the signal for riot. All who thought that, in such cases, -the better half of valour is discretion, now became anxious to secure -their retreat. A rush accordingly took place towards the doors, and -numerous were the wigs, hats, swords, canes, and shoes, that were lost -in consequence. As the more timid part of the crowd forced their way -out, the mob which surrounded the house forced their way in. Joined by -these allies, the party which had remained behind began, and speedily -completed the work of destruction. The benches were torn up, the boxes -pulled down; and the scenes broken to pieces; the fragments were -then taken into the street, a huge bonfire was made of them, and the -stage-curtain was hoisted on a pole, as a standard, above the fire. -The guards were at last sent for, but before their arrival the mob -had disappeared, leaving nothing but smoking embers and a dismantled -theatre. - -Foote and others were accused of having originated or shared in this -trick; but they disavowed any participation in it, and there seems -no reason to doubt their veracity. Some thick-skulled bigots gravely -asserted, that it was invented by a Jesuit, “to try how ripe the nation -was to swallow the absurdities of transubstantiation.” With more -likelihood, it was said that, in order to win a wager which he had -laid respecting the extreme gullibility of the public, the scheme was -contrived by a mischievous young nobleman. - -For some time after the event, the newspapers were filled with -squibs and epigrams. Among the advertisements in ridicule of the -bottle-conjuror’s, one of the best purported to be from “the -body-surgeon of the Emperor of Monœmungi.” He thus terminated the -description of his budget of wonders: “He opens the head of a justice -of peace, takes out his brains, and exchanges them for those of a calf; -the brains of a beau, for those of an ass; and the heart of a bully, -for that of a sheep; which operations render the persons more rational -and sociable creatures than ever they were in their lives.” - -In the next instance of imposture which occurred, those who were misled -could hardly be considered as blameworthy, the circumstances being -such as to account for their erroneous judgment. The case to which -allusion is here made, was that of Elizabeth Canning, in the year 1753. -This female, who was about eighteen years of age, after having been -absent twenty-eight days, returned home in a squalid and apparently -half-starved condition. The story which she told was that, as she was -proceeding at night from her uncle’s to the house of the person with -whom she lived as servant, she was attacked by two men, in Moorfields, -who first robbed her, gave her a blow on the temple, and then dragged -her along, she being part of the time in fits, till they reached a -house of ill-fame, kept by Susannah Wells, at Enfield Wash. - -On her arrival there, she was accosted by a gipsy, named Mary Squires, -who asked her if she would “go their way; for if she would, she should -have fine clothes.” Supposing that Squires alluded to prostitution, -Canning replied in the negative; Squires, upon this, ripped up the -lace of her stays with a knife, took away the stays, and thrust her -into a back room like a hayloft, the window of which was boarded -inside. In that room she was imprisoned for twenty-seven days; her -only subsistence being a scanty portion of bread, some water, and a -small mince-pie, which she chanced to have in her pocket. At last, she -bethought her of breaking down the board, after which she crept on a -penthouse, whence she dropped on the ground. She then made the best of -her way home. - -Universal pity was excited by the tale of her sufferings, and a -subscription was raised for her. The most violent public indignation -was expressed against the two criminals; and, while this ferment was -at its height, Wells and Squires were brought to trial. The evidence -of Elizabeth Canning was corroborated by that of Virtue Hall, and by -various circumstances, and the jury found both of the prisoners guilty. -Squires was condemned to death, and Wells was ordered to be branded, -and imprisoned for six months. - -Squires would certainly have suffered had not Sir Crisp Gascoyne, who -was then Lord Mayor, fortunately interposed in her favour. Squires -herself solemnly declared that she could bring many witnesses to -prove that she was in the west of England during the whole of the -time that was sworn to by Canning. There were besides some startling -discrepancies between Canning’s evidence and the real situation of -places and things; and, to render the matter still more doubtful, -Virtue Hall, the main prop of Canning’s story, retracted her evidence. -Sir Crisp Gascoyne succeeded in obtaining a respite for Squires, during -which time so much testimony was obtained in her behalf, that a free -pardon was granted to her. Such, however, was the general prejudice in -Canning’s favour, that the benevolent exertions of Sir Crisp rendered -him extremely unpopular. Floods of ink were expended in pamphlets by -her defenders, among whom was the highly gifted author of Tom Jones. -Her opponents were equally active. - -The mass of evidence against Canning at length became so enormous, that -it was resolved to put her upon her trial for perjury. The trial lasted -five days, and more than a hundred and twenty witnesses were examined. -Upwards of forty of them were brought forward to testify as to the -movements of Squires, and they traced her journeyings day by day, and -proved, by a chain of evidence of which not a single link was wanting, -that during the whole of the time charged against her by Canning she -was far distant in the west of England. The story told by Canning was -also shown to be in some parts contradictory, and in others at variance -with the facts. In conclusion, she was found guilty, and was sentenced -to seven years transportation. In August 1754, she was conveyed to New -England, where she is said to have married advantageously. Some time -before her departure, she published a declaration in which she repeated -her charge against Squires, in spite of the triumphant manner in which -that charge had been refuted; and, blindly faithful to her cause, many -of her partisans obstinately persevered in asserting her innocence. - -A few years subsequently to the affair of Elizabeth Canning, there -occurred an event, which amply proved that superstition and credulity -were as flourishing as ever. In January 1762 the whole town was thrown -into a state of excitement by the imposture which bears the name of -“the Cock-lane Ghost,” so called from the place where the mummery was -performed, and the supposed agent in the performance. The scene in -which the farce commenced was the house of one Parsons, the parish -clerk of St. Sepulchre’s. As a preliminary to the proceedings, it was -reported that, nearly two years before the affair gained notoriety, -alarming knockings and scratchings had been heard by the daughter of -Parsons, a girl about twelve years old, and that she and others had -seen, at her father’s house, the apparition of a woman, surrounded by a -blazing light. The girl, on being questioned as to whom the apparition -resembled, said it was like Mrs. Kent, who had formerly been a lodger -there, and had died of the smallpox since her removal. The next step -was to throw out mysterious hints that Mrs. Kent had been murdered. - -These rumours were soon spread abroad, and the credulous and the -curious rushed with headlong haste to witness the new marvels. The -knockings and scratchings had by this time become exceedingly violent. -It was now sagely resolved that several gentlemen, among whom a -clergyman acted a prominent part, should sit up by the bed-side of Miss -Parsons, to question the supposed ghost. As the ghost, it was imagined, -might be dumb, or have forgotten its native tongue, the clergyman -settled that it should reply by knocks; one knock being an affirmative -answer, and two knocks a negative. This arrangement having been made, -the ghost was interrogated, and it replied, that it was the spirit of a -woman named Kent, who had been poisoned. - -As some persons suspected imposture, the girl was removed from her -home, and was successively put to bed at several houses; the number -of watchers was increased to nearly twenty, several of whom were -clergymen and ladies. Still the knockings and scratchings were -continued, and the same answers as before were made to questions. At -length, on being pressed to give some proof of its veracity, the ghost -consented to attend one of the gentlemen into the vault where the body -was buried, and manifest its presence by a knock upon the coffin. - -When the appointed hour arrived, “the spirit was very seriously -advertised, that the person to whom the promise was made of striking -the coffin, was then about to visit the vault, and that the performance -of the promise was then claimed. The company, at one, went into the -church, and the gentleman to whom the promise was made, went, with one -more, into the vault. The spirit was solemnly required to perform its -promise, but nothing more than silence ensued. The person supposed to -be accused by the ghost then went down, with several others, but no -effect was perceived. Upon their return they examined the girl, but -could draw no confession from her. Between two and three she desired, -and was permitted, to go home with her father.” - -This want of punctuality in the ghost gave a fatal blow to its -reputation. Even the most besotted of the believers were staggered -by it. A flimsy attempt was therefore made to restore the ghost’s -credit, by asserting that the coffin and corpse had been removed, -which, of course, had prevented the spirit from giving the signal; -but on examination they were found to be safe in the vault. Stricter -precautions were now taken to guard against deception being practised -by the girl; her bed was slung like a hammock, in the middle of the -room, and she was closely watched. Driven to her last shifts, she -contrived to secrete, but not unseen, a bit of board previously to her -being put to bed, and having, as she thought, secured the necessary -materials for carrying on the trick, she ventured to declare that she -would bring the ghost at six the next morning. In the morning she -accordingly began to make the accustomed sounds, and, on being asked if -she had in the bed any wood to strike upon, she positively denied the -fact. The bed-clothes were then opened, the board was found, and this -simple process annihilated the Cock Lane Ghost. - -Mr. Kent, the accused person, had, in the mean while, proved his -innocence, by certificates from the physician and apothecary who -attended upon the deceased female. The base attack upon his character -appears to have been prompted by revenge. While lodging with Parsons -he had lent him some money, which, after much forbearance, he was -compelled to recover by a suit at law. The malignant offender, however, -did not escape punishment; he, with others who had lent themselves to -his imposture, being ultimately brought to trial, and found guilty of a -conspiracy. - -In 1778, the Stockwell ghost, as it was denominated, spread terror in -the village from whence it derived its name, and was for some time a -subject of general conversation and wonderment. Its pranks have been -described in Sir Walter Scott’s amusing “Letters on Demonology and -Witchcraft,” and consequently it is unnecessary to dwell upon them here. - -For a long period after this, it would seem that ghosts were either out -of fashion, or had become averse from exhibiting before multitudes, -and were determined to confine their efforts to the scaring of -country bumpkins. It was not till 1810 that a supernatural case of -any importance occurred. This case was, it must be owned, far more -interesting and startling than its predecessors; it having been managed -with such consummate skill as to baffle all attempts to penetrate the -mystery. The house of Mr. Chave at Sampford Peverell, in Devonshire, -was the scene on which the wonders were acted for several months. The -spiritual agent appears to have occasionally assumed the form of some -nondescript animal, which always eluded pursuit, and to have had an -extreme dislike of women, whom it always pummelled unmercifully. The -Rev. C. Colton, the author of Lacon, who endeavoured, but in vain, -to find out the cause of the disturbance, tells us that he examined -several females who had slept in the house, many of whom were on oath, -and they all, without exception, agreed in affirming that “their -night’s rest was invariably destroyed by violent blows from some -invisible hand, by an unaccountable and rapid drawing and withdrawing -of the curtains, by a suffocating and almost inexpressible weight, -and by a repetition of sounds, so loud as at times to shake the whole -room.” Numerous other respectable witnesses also testified, and offered -to do so on oath, to various astonishing circumstances. Suspicions -having been expressed that the whole was a juggle, carried on by Mr. -Chave and his servants, they made an affidavit denying, in the most -explicit terms, any knowledge whatever of the manner in which the -sights and sounds were produced. A reward of 250_l._ was at length -offered to any one who would throw light on this obscure subject. -Tempting as this bait was, no one came forward to seize it. After a -while the hubbub ceased; but, like Junius, the mischievous disturber of -Sampford Peverell remains to this day undiscovered. - -In another part of the country, a few years before the Sampford ghost -began his vagaries, a fatal example of excessive credulity was afforded -by a man and his wife, named Perigo. The wife being ill, Perigo applied -to one Mary Bateman to cure her. Bateman declined the task, but said -that she had a friend at Scarborough, a Miss Blyth, who could “read the -stars,” and remove all ailments whether of body or mind. To enable this -reader of the stars to gain a knowledge of the disease, it was said to -be necessary that the sick woman should send her a petticoat; it was -accordingly delivered to Bateman. There was, in truth, no such person -as Blyth; but a pretended answer from her was read to the credulous -Perigos, in which they were told that they must communicate with her -through the medium of Bateman. As a commencement, they were directed -to give Bateman five guinea notes, who would return an equal number in -a small bag; but they were informed that, if curiosity induced them to -look into the bag, the charm would be broken, and sudden death would -ensue. In this manner forty guineas were at various times obtained, all -of which, they were assured, would be found in the bag when the moment -came for its being opened. Demand followed demand without intermission, -and still the poor deluded beings continued to satisfy them. Clothing -of all kinds, bedding, a set of china, edible articles, and thirty -pounds more, were among the sacrifices which were made to the rapacious -impostor. On one occasion the fictitious Miss Blyth ordered Perigo to -buy her a live goose, for the purpose of being offered up as a burnt -offering to her familiar, for the purpose of destroying the works of -darkness. - -The work of darkness was, indeed, approaching to its consummation. -Beggared by the repeated calls on his purse, Perigo began to be anxious -to open the bags, and regain possession of the contents. Unable any -longer to put him off, the female fiend brought a packet, which she -said came from Scarborough, and contained a potent charm. The contents -were to be mixed in a pudding, prepared for the purpose, and of that -pudding no one was to eat but Perigo and his wife. They obeyed, and the -consequences were such as might be expected. The husband ate sparingly, -for he disliked the taste, and he escaped with only suffering severe -torture; the wife fell a victim. - -It will scarcely be believed that, so deeply rooted was her credulity, -the unfortunate woman, even when she was almost in her death agony, -extorted from her husband a promise to follow the directions of the -murderess. Two or three days after the wife had ceased to exist, a -letter came, pretending to be from Miss Blyth, which seemed more like -the composition of an incarnate demon than of a human being. Instead of -expressing the slightest sorrow, it attributed the death of the woman -to her having dared to touch the bags; and it added a threat which was -not unlikely to send a weak-minded man to join his murdered partner: -“Inasmuch as your wife,” said the writer, “has done this wicked thing, -she shall rise from the grave; stroke your face with the cold hand of -death; and you shall lose the use of one side.” - -Had his blood been any thing but snow-broth, so much injury and insult -must have roused him. But the wretched gull long persisted to yield -a blind obedience to his infamous deceiver, who fleeced him without -mercy. It was not till he was rendered desperate by the threats of his -creditors, that he ventured to open the bags. He, of course, found them -filled with trash. His neighbours, to whom he bewailed his hard fate, -were possessed of more courage and sense than he was, and they carried -Mary Bateman before a magistrate. She was committed for the murder of -the wife, was found guilty at York assizes, and suffered on the gallows -the penalty of her crime. - -The next character who claims our attention, though living for a great -part of his life under a disguise, must not be branded as an impostor. -The person alluded to is the celebrated Chevalier, generally known as -Madam, D’Eon. This remarkable individual, who was born at Tonnerre, in -France, in 1728, was of a good family. D’Eon was a man of brilliant -parts, a writer by no means contemptible on various subjects, an -accomplished diplomatist, and a brave officer. At one period he was -minister plenipotentiary to the British court. A bitter quarrel with -the Count de Guerchy, who succeeded him as ambassador, is assigned as -the reason for his not returning to France. It is probable, however, -that the real cause of his stay in this country was his acting as -private agent of Louis the Fifteenth, by whom he was allowed a pension. -D’Eon continued to reside in London for fourteen years, and was in -habits of friendship with the most distinguished persons. - -Now comes the mystery; which still remains, and perhaps must ever -remain, unsolved. Rumours, at first faint, but daily acquiring -strength, had long been floating about, that D’Eon was a woman. There -were certain feminine indications in his voice and person, and he was -known to be averse from all affairs of gallantry, and to manifest -extreme caution with respect to females. At length it began to be -generally believed, both in England and France, that he had no title -to wear the dress of a male. Wagers, to a large amount, were laid -upon this subject; and, in 1777, one of them produced an indecent -trial before Lord Mansfield. “The action was brought by Mr. Hayes, -surgeon, against Jacques, a broker and underwriter, for the recovery -of seven hundred pounds; Jacques having, about six years before, -received premiums of fifteen guineas per cent., for every one of which -he stood engaged to return a hundred guineas, whenever it should be -proved that the Chevalier D’Eon was actually a woman.” In this cause, -three seemingly unexceptionable witnesses, two of whom were of the -medical profession, positively swore that they had obtained such -proof as admitted of no contradiction that D’Eon was of the female -sex. A verdict was in consequence given for the plaintiff; but it was -afterwards set aside on a point of law. - -The humiliating manner in which, by this trial, he was brought before -the English public induced D’Eon to quit England. But it is a singular -circumstance that M. de Vergennes, one of the French ministers, in -a letter which he wrote to D’Eon, declared it to be the king’s will -that he “should resume the dress of his sex,”--meaning the dress of a -woman--and that this injunction was repeated on the Chevalier arriving -in France. It was obeyed, and, till the end of his long life, D’Eon -dressed, and was looked upon, as one of the softer sex. Early in the -French revolution, he returned to England, still as a female, and -remained here till his decease in 1810. Death proved the folly of -those who had forced him into petticoats; for his manhood was placed -beyond all doubt by an anatomical examination of the body. Why he was -metamorphosed, and why he continued to acquiesce in the change when -he might have safely asserted his sex, there appear to be no means of -discovering. - -A being of a far different stamp comes next before us; Charles Price, -nicknamed Patch, a man who applied talents of no common order to the -vilest purposes. He was possessed of courage, penetration, foresight, -and presence of mind, and he degraded all these qualities by rendering -them subservient to fraud. No man ever was so perfect a master of the -art of disguise. Price, who was the son of a clothesman in Monmouth -Street, was not out of his boyhood when he began to manifest his -skill in cheating. When he was an apprentice, he put on the garb of a -gentleman, assumed the name of Bolingbroke, and defrauded his master -of a large quantity of goods. So well did he act his part, that his -master did not know him, and, when Price returned home, he was ordered -to carry the goods to the pretended Mr. Bolingbroke. His dishonest -practices were at last detected, and he ran away. For this conduct his -father disinherited him. - -Price was afterwards a valet, and went the tour of Europe with Sir -Francis Blake Delaval. While he was at Copenhagen, he wrote a pamphlet -in vindication of the unfortunate Queen Matilda. He was subsequently -a brewer, a distiller, an inmate of the King’s Bench for having -defrauded the revenue, a lottery office keeper, and a gambler in the -Alley. His plausible manners gained for him a wife with a considerable -fortune, but he soon dissipated the money. About 1780, he began to -forge upon the Bank. To detect him was difficult, for he made his own -paper, with the proper water-marks, manufactured his own ink, engraved -his own plates, and, as far as possible, was his own negotiator. His -career, in spite of every effort to arrest it, was continued for six -years; in the course of which time he is said to have assumed no less -than forty-five disguises; he was by turns thin, corpulent, active, -decrepit, blooming with health, and sinking under disease. At last, in -1786, he was committed to Tothill Fields’ Bridewell, where, to escape -the shame of a public execution, he put a period to his existence. - -Numerous instances might be adduced of individuals, gifted with -abilities far inferior to those of Price, who have levied contributions -to an enormous amount upon the credulity of the public. It must suffice -to give a specimen of them:--one was Miss Robertson, of Blackheath, -who, by representing herself as having had a large estate bequeathed -to her, contrived to make a multitude of egregious dupes; another was -an adventurer known as “The Fortunate Youth,” who employed a similar -pretence, and was equally successful. A third, whose pretension took a -higher flight, must not be forgotten. The late Mrs. Serres, who assumed -the title of Princess Olive of Cumberland, and pretended also to be -descended from a line of Polish princes, has secured for herself a -conspicuous place in the annals of imposture. - -The most amusing, and perhaps the least noxious, of modern cheats, -was a female, who assumed the name of Caraboo. She pretended to be -a native of Javasu, in the Indian Ocean, and to have been carried -off by pirates, by whom she had been sold to the captain of a brig. -Her first appearance was in the spring of 1817, at Almondsbury, in -Gloucestershire. Having been ill used on board the ship, she had -jumped overboard, she said, swam on shore, and wandered about for six -weeks before she came to Almondsbury. The deception was tolerably well -sustained for two months; but at the end of that time, she disappeared, -probably being aware that she was on the point of being detected. It -was found that she was a native of Witheridge, in Devonshire, where -her father was a cobbler. Caraboo appears to have taken flight to -America.[11] How she fared in that quarter of the world is not known; -but, in 1824, she returned to England, and hired apartments in New Bond -Street, where she exhibited herself to the public. She seems to have -excited little attention, and was soon forgotten. - -A very frequent case of imposture has been that of women pretending to -have the power of going without food, and to have fasted for two, or -three, or more years. Irksome and distressing as such a deceit must be, -it has often been carried on, for a short time, so dexterously as to -lull the suspicions of those around, who, being thus thrown off their -guard, were satisfied that the abstinence, which perhaps was really -persevered in for a short time, could be prolonged to any indefinite -period. - -Margaret Senfrit, the girl of Spires, was believed to have fasted -three years. Catherine Binder, after continuing an alleged fast for -five years, was separated from her parents, and placed under the care -of four women, who affirmed that she had not eaten or drunk any thing -for fourteen days, but had washed her mouth with brandy and water, to -comfort her head and heart. - -A young girl of Unna, who was said to have remained without eating or -drinking for six months, was closely watched; the first night after her -removal she was caught drinking a large cup of ale. - -About 1800, the Osnaburg girl created great speculation. She had -fasted, by report, a long time. Doubts arising, she was watched, and -escaped the ordeal with her integrity unimpeached; but, a second -watching having been undertaken by two medical men, her tricks were -soon discovered. - -Between 1808 and 1813, considerable interest was excited by various -notices, in the newspapers and journals, respecting a woman of the -name of Moore, living at Tutbury, in Staffordshire, who, from long -illness, and other causes, was reported to have lost all desire for -food, and at length acquired the art of living without any nourishment -at all. No great alteration was visible in her appearance, her memory -was very strong, and her piety extremely edifying. Being backed by -medical testimony, the account was received as entitled to some credit; -but all doubts were removed by watching the patient for sixteen -days and nights, which took place in September 1808. From that time -she attracted crowds of visiters from all parts of the country, who -witnessed her condition with a sort of religious awe, and seldom -quitted her without exercising their generosity towards her. Dr. -Henderson visited her in 1812, in company with Mr. Lawrence. She was -in bed, with a large Bible before her; she asserted she had tasted -no solid food for upwards of five years, and no drink for four, and -had no desire for either; and that she had not slept or lain down -in bed for more than three. They left her, fully satisfied, from -certain circumstances, that the history of her long fasting was a mere -fabrication; and Dr. Henderson adduced many arguments to prove the -absurdity of the imposture. The greatest wonder in the history was the -blind infatuation of those who could for an instant entertain an idea -of its truth. - -Her dread of the repetition of the watching was a very suspicious -circumstance, and seemed to imply that she had narrowly escaped -detection; she said, that for nobody in the world would she undergo -a repetition; her attendant styled it “a trial for her life.” Yet -watching her for a fortnight, though sufficiently irksome, could have -had nothing alarming, unless it involved the risk of starvation, which, -it was afterwards proved, it did in reality. - -At the earnest solicitation of the Rev. Leigh Richmond, she, however, -consented to undergo another watching, assenting to its propriety as -necessary to the establishment of truth. In April 1813, the watch was -commenced by a committee of nineteen gentlemen, four remaining at one -time in the room. She caught a severe cold whilst removing her from her -bed, and at the end of a week she had a very severe attack of fever. -On the ninth day she thought herself dying, and was very anxious to -make an affidavit as to her innocence of all imposition. With great -solemnity, she said, “In the face of Almighty God, and on my dying -bed, I declare that I have used no deception, and that for six years -I have taken nothing but once, the inside of a few black currants; -for the last four years and a half, nothing at all.” In spite of this -protestation, strong suspicions of fraud were excited, and, finally, -evidence of guilt and falsehood were discovered. Concealment was now -useless, and at last she publicly expressed her contrition for her -long-continued imposture. - -At one time, two hundred pounds, from the contributions of a wondering -and credulous population, was placed for her in the hands of two -respectable persons in the town; but this sum was subsequently -withdrawn. The total amount of what she received was not known; but, as -her children and one or two attendants lived with her during the six -years of deception, it must have been pretty considerable. - - - - - CHAPTER X. - - LITERARY IMPOSTORS AND DISGUISES. - - Controversy respecting the Works of Homer; Arguments of - the Disputants--Controversy on the supposed Epistles of - Phalaris--Opinion of Sir William Temple on the Superiority - of the Ancients--Dissertation of Dr. Bentley on the Epistles - of Phalaris--He proves them to be a Forgery--Doubts as to - the Anabasis being the Work of Xenophon--Arguments of Mr. - Mitford in the Affirmative--Alcyonius accused of having - plagiarised from, and destroyed, Cicero’s Treatise “De - Gloria”--Curious Mistake as to Sir T. More’s Utopia--The Icon - Basilike--Disputes to which it gave rise--Arguments, pro and - con, as to the real Author of it--Lauder’s Attempt to prove - Milton a Plagiarist--Refutation of him by Dr. Douglas--His - interpolations--George Psalmanazar--His Account of Formosa--His - Repentance and Piety--Publication of Ossian’s Poems by Mr. - Macpherson--Their Authenticity is doubted--Report of the Highland - Society on the Subject--Pseudonymous and anonymous Works--Letters - of Junius--The Drapier’s Letters--Tale of a Tub--Gulliver’s - Travels--The Waverley Novels--Chatterton and the Rowley Poems--W. - H. Ireland and the Shakspearian Forgeries--Damberger’s pretended - Travels--Poems of Clotilda de Surville--Walladmor--Hunter, the - American--Donville’s Travels in Africa. - - -The history of literature, from the earliest times, has recorded -singular instances of imposture and unacknowledged plagiarism; in many -of which, the talent necessary to design, as well as the perseverance -to develope, the proposed fraud, were worthy of a better direction. - -In the opinion of the learned critic, Dr. Bentley, the practice of -writing spurious books is almost as old as letters themselves; but -that it chiefly prevailed when the kings of Pergamus and Alexandria, -rivalling one another in the magnificence and copiousness of their -libraries, gave great prices for treatises that had the names of -celebrated authors attached to them. - -Modern critics have, with much learned ingenuity, reasoned upon the -possibilities and probabilities of the celebrated poems of the Iliad -and Odyssey not being the performance of one man. Though, at this -distance of time, the question must be settled rather by individual -conviction, than received as a decided point in the history of -literature; yet still it may not be uninteresting to state the -arguments which have been brought forward against the authenticity of -Homer’s poems, or rather against the existence of Homer himself. - -Fabricius has collected a number of fragments and accounts of authors -who have been supposed more ancient than Homer; most of these, however, -have been regarded by the learned as forgeries, originating in the love -of gain, and encouraged by the credulity of the Greeks. - -It has been maintained that neither the Iliad nor the Odyssey is the -work of a single mind, but a collection of the songs of the wandering -rhapsodists, as they were called, and, for the first time, completely -arranged at Athens under the inspection of Pisistratus, or his son. -Pisistratus is mentioned by Ælian as the compiler of the Iliad and -the Odyssey. This theory reduces Homer to a name merely; or, at -best, as only one bard more celebrated than the rest, or, perhaps, -as nothing more than a successful reciter. This idea respecting the -authenticity of the above poems, was again started, about the close of -the seventeenth century, by Perrault and others, but was received with -derision by the learned world. - -More recently, it has been again advocated, with great learning, by -Heyne; and, with wonderful acuteness, by Professor Wolf, of Berlin. - -It appears from the best accounts, that these poems, said to be the -production of Homer, were first brought into Greece by Lycurgus; who -had heard them in the course of his travels among the Chians, by means -of the recitation of their rhapsodists; nor were they then in that -perfect form in which they were afterwards presented by Pisistratus, to -whom the credit of the arrangement appears to have been generally given -by Cicero and others. - -The arguments used by Wolf and Heyne are, firstly, the improbability -that in such a dark age as that in which Homer is reputed to have -lived, and of which so few traces are left, one man should have been -capable of composing works of such extent, consistency, and poetical -elevation, as the Iliad or Odyssey. - -Secondly, that poems of such a length should have been composed, and -preserved entire, without being committed to writing. Now there is not -the least trace, even in tradition, of any complete copy of Homer’s -works, till the existence of the Athenian edition, or at least of -that of Lycurgus. No notice is taken in the poems of any epistolary -correspondence, though in the Odyssey many opportunities occur where -such might have been introduced. - -Thirdly, the Greek alphabet was not received at Athens till the -ninety-fourth Olympiad, that is, about four hundred and three years -before Christ, whereas the works of Homer were dated from the nine -hundred and seventh year before Christ. The writing materials also -must have been scanty and inadequate to the preservation of a poem of -fifteen thousand lines; stone and metal being the only materials on -which, in early times, characters were imprinted. - -Fourthly, in these ancient poems, no reference is ever made to -written treaties; treaties being then only verbal, and ratified by -superstitious rites. - -Fifthly, the rhapsodists flourished in the earliest times, answering -to the Celtic bards in our history; and all who followed this -profession recited from memory; by the exercise of which faculty they -derived honour and emolument. Without the modern aids to composition, -how, it was asked, could any poet keep the plan, or previous part of -his design, in his recollection? or, if that were possible, could he -have ever expected to procure an audience, to whom such a work should -be submitted? - -It is more than probable, that the original poems, or series of -poetical sketches, were exposed to perpetual variation, from passing -through the heads of the rhapsodists; many of whom were, doubtless, -also poets, and who, in the warmth of recitation, would make changes -unconsciously, or, perhaps, purposely introduce them, to produce -greater effect on their hearers. From Ælian we learn that anciently the -books of the Iliad or Odyssey were never recited in the order in which -they now stand. - -The above form the chief grounds of argument used by those who are -anxious to disturb our natural belief, as it were, of the integrity -of Homer’s poems. On the contrary side, it is asserted, that other -untaught poets have arisen, who, without the aid of external culture, -have breathed the tenderest and most beautiful thoughts in poetry; and -it is also urged, that, granting the sublimity of Homer’s poems as they -stand, it is necessary, if we adopt the opponent system, to come to the -belief that, in a barbarous age, instead of _one_ being marvellously -gifted with poetical powers, there were _many_, a complete race of -bards, such as has never been since seen. - -The objection arising from the ignorance of letters, and want of -writing materials, has been considered more formidable; but so much -uncertainty attends the account of the introduction of letters into -Greece, that it must undoubtedly have been of high antiquity. - -That the memory of the reciter should be capable of retaining the whole -poem does not appear so incredible in those times, when the minds -of men were not distracted by the attempt to attain a variety of -knowledge; for it is well known, that the constant and sole exercise of -a single faculty gives it a great perfection. - -The great uniformity of style in these poems has been considered as -strong internal evidence that they were the production of an individual -genius; the same epithets and similes prevail throughout. Interpolation -may have occurred, but not sufficiently to affect the authority of the -whole. Pindar, and other early poets, speak of Homer as one man, as do -also the historians Herodotus and Thucydides. - -It has, indeed, been maintained by some, that the Odyssey is the work -of a different poet, because the images and descriptions evidently -belong to a later period than those of the Iliad; and from allusions -made to the arts, it appears that they must have made a greater -progress than could reasonably have taken place during the life of -one man, even granting the supposition that the Iliad was the work -of Homer’s youth, and the Odyssey that of his maturer years. This is -probably one of the most forcible objections which has been urged -against the belief that the Iliad and the Odyssey are the work of one -poet. As is often the case, however, in these doubtful questions, where -direct evidence cannot possibly be obtained, much may be said on both -sides; and the matter must probably ever remain a matter of curious -literary speculation. - - - THE EPISTLES OF PHALARIS. - -The following ancient literary fraud was investigated and exposed by -the extraordinary learning and diligence of Dr. Bentley, who, in the -year 1697, commenced the famous controversy about the Epistles of -Phalaris, and the Fables of Æsop. - -Sir William Temple, in comparing the intellectual pretensions of the -ancients and moderns, declared for the ancients, and fortified his -judgments by alleging, that the Epistles of Phalaris, and the Fables -of Æsop, were proofs that the older parts of literature were the -best; though, even at that time, these works had been challenged as -forgeries. The Honourable Charles Boyle at this period having resolved -to undertake an edition of the Epistles of Phalaris, as an academic -exercise, Wotton, who was preparing a second edition of his work on -“Ancient and Modern Learning,” requested Dr. Bentley to write a paper, -to expose the spurious pretensions of Phalaris and Æsop. This paper met -with violent opposition from Mr. Boyle, which determined Dr. Bentley to -set about the refutation in good earnest. It will be impossible, within -the narrow limits of this sketch, to follow the learned criticism, -discussion, and wordy war, between Mr. Boyle and Dr. Bentley, in proof -of, and against, the authenticity of the above epistles. It must be -sufficient to state, that Dr. Bentley’s arguments rest upon many -grammatical niceties and anachronisms, and on the use of certain Doric -and Attic dialects, which came into use later than the supposed period -of their composition. His arguments, all supported by innumerable -quotations, which form an immense mass of evidence, have not failed -to convince most persons of his profound erudition, as well as of the -justness of his opinion. - - - THE ANABASIS OF XENOPHON. - -It may be worth while, in this place, to mention a doubt, that has been -promulgated by some modern critics, whether the Anabasis, or retreat -of the ten thousand Greeks, is really the work of Xenophon, to whom it -has most generally been attributed; or, whether it is the composition -of one Themistogenes. In Xenophon’s Annals of Grecian History, instead -of giving any account of the expedition of Cyrus, and the return of -the army, he refers the reader to the account which he ascribes to -Themistogenes of Syracuse. Such an account might then possibly be -extant, though the mention by Xenophon is the sole evidence that it was -so; but it by no means follows that the Anabasis itself was written by -Themistogenes; and, from the age of Xenophon to that of Suidas, no -mention of such an author occurs in any remaining work, nor was any -doubt expressed as to Xenophon being the author of the Anabasis, till -Suidas thought proper to controvert the generally received opinion. - -The problem is well solved by Mr. Mitford. “Why then, it will of -course occur to ask,” says he, “did Xenophon, in his Grecian Annals, -refer to the work of Themistogenes? Plutarch, in his treatise on the -Glory of the Athenians, has accounted for it thus: ‘Xenophon,’ he -says, ‘was a subject of history for himself. But when he published his -narrative of his own achievements in military command, he ascribed it -to Themistogenes of Syracuse; giving away thus the literary reputation -to arise from the work, that he might the better establish the credit -of the facts related.’” - -“This explanation, though I give it credit as far as it goes, is, -however, not by itself completely satisfactory. Nevertheless, I think -every reader of the Anabasis, attending, at the same time, to the -general history of the age, may draw, from the two, what is wanting to -complete it. He cannot fail to observe, that it has been a principal -purpose of the author of the Anabasis to apologize for the conduct of -Xenophon. In the latter part of the work, the narrative is constantly -accompanied with a studied defence of his conduct; in which, both the -circumstances that produced his banishment from Athens, and whatever -might give umbrage or excite jealousy against him at Lacedæmon, -have been carefully considered. But there are passages in the work, -speeches of Xenophon himself on delicate occasions, particularly his -communication with Cleander, the Lacedæmonian general, related in the -sixth book, which could be known only from himself or from Cleander. -That these have not been forgeries of Themistogenes, is evident from -the testimony of Xenophon himself, who refers to the work, which he -ascribes to Themistogenes, with entire satisfaction. - -“One, then, of these three conclusions must follow: either, first, -the narrative of Themistogenes, if such ever existed, had not in it -that apology for Xenophon which we find interwoven in the Anabasis -transmitted to us as Xenophon’s, and consequently was a different work; -or, secondly, Themistogenes wrote under the direction of Xenophon; -or, thirdly, Xenophon wrote the extant Anabasis, and, for reasons -which those acquainted with the circumstances of his life, and the -history of the times, will have no difficulty to conceive may have -been powerful, chose that, on its first publication, it should pass -by another’s name. The latter has been the belief of all antiquity; -and indeed, if it had not been fully known that the ascription of -the Anabasis to Themistogenes was a fiction, the concurrence of all -antiquity, in stripping that author of his just fame, so completely -that, from Xenophon himself to Suidas, he is never once named as an -author of merit, in any work remaining to us, while, in so many, the -Anabasis is mentioned as the work of Xenophon, would be, if at all -credible, certainly the most extraordinary circumstance in the history -of letters.” - -A fraud, which perhaps occasioned the greatest regret that ever was -felt in the literary world, has been attributed to Peter Alcyonius, -one of the learned Italians who cultivated literature in the sixteenth -century. He had considerable knowledge of the Greek and Latin tongues, -and wrote rhetorical treatises. He was a long time corrector of -the press at Venice, in the house of Aldus Manutius, and ought to -participate in the praises given to that eminent printer and classical -scholar. He translated some treatises of Aristotle into Latin; but -the execution of them was so severely criticised by Sepulveda, that -Alcyonius, at a great expense, bought up the criticisms of his Spanish -enemy to burn them. Paul Jovius says of him, in his quaint language, -that he was a man of downright plebeian and sordid manners, and such -a slave to his appetite, that in one and the same day he would dine -three or four times, but always at the expense of another; nor was he -altogether so bad a physician in this beastly practice, since, before -he went to bed, he discharged the intemperate load from his stomach. - -Alcyonius published a treatise, “De Exilio,” containing many fine -passages; so elegant in fact was it, that he was accused of having -tacked several parts of Cicero “De Gloria” to his own composition, and -then to prevent being convicted of the theft, thrown the manuscript of -Cicero, which was the only one in the world, into the fire. Cicero, in -his twenty-seventh epistle, fifteenth book, writing to Atticus, says, -“I will speedily send you my book, ‘De Gloria.’” That the manuscript -was extant till nearly the period in question would seem to be -indubitable, as it was enumerated by Bernard Giustiniani, the learned -governor of Padua, among the works which he possessed. Along with the -rest of his library, it is said to have been bequeathed to a convent -of nuns, but from that time it could never be found. It was believed -by many, that Peter Alcyonius, who was physician to the monastery, -and to whom the nuns entrusted the management of the library, having -copied into his own treatise all that suited his purpose, from that -of Cicero, had secretly made away with it. This charge was first -brought against Alcyonius by Paul Manutius, and was repeated by Paul -Jovius, and subsequently by other writers; but Tiraboschi seems to have -demonstrated that it is a calumny. It is probable that it was provoked -by the excessive vanity and propensity to sarcasm and satire which -distinguished Alcyonius. - -When the Utopia of Sir Thomas More was first published, it occasioned -a pleasant mistake. This political romance represents a perfect but -visionary republic, in an island supposed to have been recently -discovered in America. “As this was the age of discovery (says -Granger), the learned Budæus, and others, took it for a genuine -history, and consider it highly expedient that missionaries should be -sent thither, in order to convert so wise a nation to Christianity.” - -No literary performance has ever been the occasion of more discussion -or dispute, as to its authenticity, than one which was published by -the royalist party to excite the public pity for Charles I. On the -day after that monarch’s execution appeared a volume called Icon -Basilike, or the Portraiture of his Sacred Majesty, in his Solitude and -Sufferings. It professed to be from the pen of Charles himself, and -a faithful exposition of his own thoughts on the principal events of -his reign, accompanied with such pious effusions as the recollection -suggested to his mind. - -It was calculated to create a strong sensation in favour of the royal -sufferer, and is said to have passed through fifty editions in the -course of the first year. - -During the Commonwealth, Milton made an attempt to disprove the king’s -claim to the composition of the book, but his arguments were by no -means conclusive, as the subsequent publications on the same subject -proved. After the restoration, Dr. Gauden, a clergyman of Bocking in -Essex, came forward, and declared himself the real author; but he -advanced his pretensions with secresy, and received as the price of -his silence, first, the bishopric of Exeter, and subsequently, when he -complained of the poverty of that see, the richer one of Worcester. - -After his death, these circumstances transpired, and became the subject -of an interesting controversy between his friends and the admirers of -Charles the First. The subsequent publication of the Clarendon papers, -has, in the opinion of Dr. Lingard, firmly established Gauden’s claim; -but Dr. Wordsworth, in the year 1824, adjudged it to the king, in his -work called “Who wrote Eikon Basilike?” In this, he learnedly combats -the opinions of all the late controversialists on that subject. This -drew forth replies from the Reverend Henry Todd, and “additional -reasons” from the Reverend Mr. Broughton, in favour of Gauden’s claim. - -Dr. Wordsworth, in a “postscript,” again answered his antagonists, and -summed up the evidence by saying, that not any convincing arguments -in favour of Gauden’s claim had been brought forward against his--Dr. -Wordsworth’s--but which, by negative evidence, rather strengthened his -side of the question. - -In a short abstract or analysis of so voluminous a subject it can -only be stated, that it seems hardly credible, that Gauden _could_ -have proposed to write, or could have completed, the Icon, labouring -under the disadvantages he did. He was not a royal chaplain, nor -appears to have been much connected with the court; nor ever to have -had intercourse with the king, but once, when he preached before him; -yet, in a sudden fit of zeal, he took upon himself the composition of -a series of reflections in the name of the king, on the events of the -last seven years of his reign; and that without even any communication -being made to the royal party; or any suggestion received from them -that it would be acceptable; whilst any discovery made by the opposite -party would be followed by his certain ruin. - -The evidence found in the book itself seems of a nature to disprove its -being composed on the spur of the moment, or during the last act of the -fatal drama, three-fourths of it being devoted to events having no near -connexion with the emergency of the time; in fact, only the last six -chapters treat of those subjects which were likely to have occupied the -public attention at that period. - -The tone of observation in general is such as, judging from his other -works, it does not appear probable Gauden would have ventured to -indulge in; habitual caution being visible in his other political -writings. His fraudulent claim for remuneration after royalty was -restored, being recompensed by a moderate promotion, does not, of -necessity, prove its justice; as many reasons concurred, why the -royal party should wish to hush up any reports that might tend to -reflect upon the late king’s memory; nor at that time could the fact be -susceptible of actual proof. - -These several circumstances, in Dr. Wordsworth’s opinion, make it more -than probable that Gauden’s claim was, in reality, what so many other -learned persons have concurred in supposing, a literary imposture, -which at the time met with undeserved success. - -Literary imposture, in our own times, appears to have flourished most -from the middle to the latter end of the eighteenth century; for, -within forty years of that period, various very remarkable frauds in -the commonwealth of letters were ushered into day, and the attention of -the public was solicited to them, with all the boldness that a perfect -conviction of their real worth and genuine authenticity, on the part of -those who promulgated them, could possibly have inspired. - -The first of these, in point of time, and intensity of malignant and -selfish audacity, was the unpardonable attack made, about the year -1750, by a Mr. Lauder, on the poetical character and moral candour of -Milton. - -The first regular notice the public received of his intention was from -the following circular, which developed his plan of attack: - -“I have ventured to publish the following observations on Milton’s -imitation of the moderns; having lately fallen on four or five modern -authors in Latin verse, which I have reason to believe Milton had -consulted in composing his Paradise Lost. The novelty of the subject -will entitle me to the favour of the reader, since I in no way intend -unjustly to derogate from the real merit of the writer. The first -author alluded to was Jacobus Masenius. He was a professor of rhetoric, -in the Jesuits’ College, at Cologne, about 1650, and he wrote Sarcotis, -in five books; which, said he, in the preface, is not so much a -complete model, as a rough draught of an epic poem. Milton follows -this author tolerably closely through the first two books. In it Adam -and Eve are described under the single name of Sarcothea, or human -nature, whose antagonist, the infernal serpent, is called Lucifer. The -infernal council, or Pandemonium, Lucifer’s habits, and the fight of -the angels, are too obvious not to have been noticed; Milton’s exordium -appears to have been almost directly taken from Masenius and Ramsay.” -Lauder goes on to state that the Paradise Lost was taken from a farce, -called Adamo Perso, and from an Italian tragedy, called Paradiso Perso; -and that even Milton’s poem itself was said to have been written for a -tragedy. - -“Having procured,” continues he, “the Adamus Exul of Grotius, I found, -or imagined myself to find the first draught, the _prima stamina_, -of this wonderful poem; and I was then induced to search for the -collateral relations it might be supposed to have contracted in its -progress to maturity.” The Adamus Exul of Grotius was never printed -with his other works, though it passed through four editions; and it -was by very great labour that Mr. Lauder was at last able to get a copy -from Gronovius, at Leyden. Milton is charged with having literally -translated, rather than barely alluded to, this work. - -The severe affliction which Milton endured, in the loss of sight, -obliged him to have recourse to filial aid, in consulting such authors -as he had occasion to refer to; and Lauder, wishing to prove that he -feared detection and exposure, asserted that he taught his daughters -only to _read_ the several languages, in which his authorities were -written, confining them to the knowledge of words and pronunciation, -but keeping the sense and meaning to himself. - -Apparently feeling a momentary shame at his conduct, Lauder, in -a kind of apology, added, “As I am sensible this will be deemed -most outrageous usage of the divine, immortal Milton, the prince -of English poets, and the incomparable author of Paradise Lost, I -take this opportunity to declare, that a _strict regard to truth -alone_,[12]--and to do justice to those authors from whom Milton has -so liberally gleaned, without acknowledgment,--have induced me to -make this attack upon the reputation and memory of a person hitherto -so universally applauded and admired for his incomparable poetical -abilities.” - -Dr. Douglas, to whom the world is indebted for investigating and -detecting Lauder’s baseness, vindicated Milton from the injustice of -the charge, in an answer full of diligent research of those authors who -were said to have furnished Milton with materials for his poem. - -Dr. Douglas commences by saying, “Our Zoilus charges Milton with having -borrowed both the plan of his poem, and also particular passages, from -other authors. Should these charges even prove true, will it follow -that his pretensions to genius are disproved? The same charge might be -brought against Virgil; as there is scarcely a passage in his Æneid but -is taken from the Iliad or Odyssey. There is no shadow of truth in the -assertion made by Lauder, that infinite tribute of veneration had been -paid to Milton, through men’s ignorance of his having been indebted -to the assistance of other authors, when, on the contrary, those very -persons who gave him the greatest praise were the principal discoverers -of many of his imitations. - -“It did not enter my head,” continues Dr. Douglas, “that our critic -should have the assurance to urge false quotations in support of his -charge; and therefore did I, and, as I imagine, did every other person, -believe, that the authors he quoted really contained those lines which -he attributed to them, and which bear so striking a resemblance to -passages in Paradise Lost, that the reader cannot avoid concluding, -with Lauder, that Milton had really seen and imitated them. Will it -not, therefore, be thought extraordinarily strange, and excite the -utmost indignation in every candid person’s breast, if the reverse of -all this shall appear to be the case; if it can be clearly proved that -our candid conscientious critic, whose notions of morality taught him -to accuse Milton of the want of common probity or honour for having -boasted that he sung things yet unattempted in prose or rhyme, has, -in order to make good his charge against Milton, had recourse to -forgeries, perhaps the grossest that ever were obtruded on the world?” - -It first occurred to Dr. Douglas to search for those authors, from -whom Lauder asserted that Milton had borrowed his ideas. Many were -scarce, and not to be found; but he succeeded in getting one, -Staphorstius, a Dutch poet and divine, who, says Lauder, “never dreamt -the prince of English poets would condescend to plume himself with -his--Staphorstius’--feathers;” and he quotes certain passages in proof -of this assertion,--an entire quotation of thirty-two lines, besides -shorter ones. “I was,” says Dr. Douglas, “at a loss where to turn -for lines; for it is remarkable, that through his whole work, Lauder -omits to tell his readers where the quotations are to be found: with -great labour, however, I found some allusion to the subject, and -also, with great surprise, discovered that eight lines quoted as from -Staphorstius have no existence in that author; and which eight lines -are in Lauder’s Essay printed in italics, as having the strongest -resemblance to those in Paradise Lost, and it will be impossible for -Lauder to clear himself from the charge of having corrupted the text of -Staphorstius, by interpolating the eight lines not to be found there. -A more curious circumstance still is, that this interpolated passage -is taken from a Latin translation of Paradise Lost itself, made by one -Hogæus, or Hog, printed in the year 1690, without the variation of a -single word: it must be thought therefore extremely hard that Milton -should be run down as a plagiarist for having stolen from himself, -yet this is strictly the case. Hog translated the Paradise Lost into -Latin: Lauder interpolates some of Hog’s lines in Staphorstius, and -then urges these very lines as a demonstration that Milton copied him. -There is equal testimony to prove that Lauder interpolated Phineas -Fletcher, and others, in the same way; but the most extraordinary part -of the forgery is yet to be mentioned: this interpolating critic has -even forged Milton himself, and interpolates the Paradise Lost, however -ridiculously improbable this may seem. In 1747, Lauder makes his first -appearance as the Zoilus of Milton, in the Gentleman’s Magazine, where, -to prove that Milton had copied from the Adamus Exul of Grotius, he -quotes, professedly from the Paradise Lost, one line and a half, -beginning - - ‘And lakes of living sulphur ever flow, - And ample spaces.’ - -“After the most careful search, I can safely pronounce that the above -line and a half have no existence in the Paradise Lost.” - -From the difficulty of rebutting Lauder’s evidence against Milton, -he had acquired some merit in the eyes of men of learning, which -procured him the countenance of the great, and encouraged him to open a -subscription for the publication of a new edition of those authors who, -according to him, had held the torch to Milton. - -Upon the publication of Dr. Douglas’s remarks on Lauder, the -booksellers who had undertaken his work, thought proper to prefix the -following notice to each copy of it:-- - -“After ten months’ insolent triumph, the Rev. Dr. Douglas has favoured -the world with a detection of this scene of villany, and has so -powerfully urged his proofs, that no hope was left of invalidating -them; an immediate application to Lauder was necessary, and a demand, -that the books from whence he had taken the principal controverted -passages, should be put into our hands. He then with great confidence -acknowledged the interpolation, and seemed to wonder at the folly of -the world, for making such an extraordinary rout about eighteen or -twenty lines. As this man has been guilty of such a wicked imposition -on us and the public, and is capable of so daring an avowal of it, we -declare that we will have no further intercourse with him, and we now -sell his book, only as a curiosity of fraud and interpolation, which -all the ages of literature cannot parallel. - - “JOHN PAYNE, - “JOSEPH BOUSUET.” - -In a letter addressed to the Archbishop of Canterbury, Lauder says, -“I own the charge of Dr. Douglas to be just, and I humbly profess my -sorrow, but I cannot forbear to take notice, that my interpolating -these authors proceeded rather from my being hurried away by violent -passions, and rash imprudence, without duly weighing the case, and -chiefly from a fatal anxiety not to fall short of my proof in that -arduous undertaking; excusing myself on the score, that Pope’s -criticisms had spoilt the sale of my edition of Dr. Anthony Johnston’s -elegant paraphrase of the Psalms in Latin verse: and I bethought me of -this only way left of enhancing his merit by lessening that of Milton, -even as Pope had endeavoured to raise Milton by lessening Johnston’s; -and I thought, if I could strip Milton of his chief merit, fertility -and sublimity of thought, I should at once retrieve Johnston’s honour, -and convict Pope of pronouncing so erroneous a judgment, in giving so -vast a preference to Milton above Johnston: a task in every way arduous -and unpopular, had not necessity in a manner compelled me, as the -author whom I highly value, and on whose reputation my subsistence in -life in a great measure depended, was lately discredited by Pope, both -in North and South Britain, in his Dunciad; and in consequence of those -remarks, the sale of my edition of Johnston fell considerably, and was -thought nothing of.” - -Lauder wrote also to Dr. Douglas in the following curious strain:--“I -resolved to attack Milton’s fame, and found some passages which gave -me hopes of stigmatizing him as a plagiarist; the further I carried -my researches, the more eager I grew for the discovery; the more my -hypothesis was opposed, the more was I heated with rage.”[13] - -Lauder had been sanguine in his hopes that the unreserved confession -would atone for his guilt, and that his subscription for a new -edition of “Sarcotis,” and “Adamus Exul,” would meet with the same -encouragement as at first; but the anxiety of the public to see them -was at an end, and the design of reprinting them met with little -or no success. Thus, grown desperate by disappointment, with equal -inconsistency and imprudence he renewed his attack upon the author of -Paradise Lost, and then gave the world, as a reason which excited him -to continue his forgeries, that Milton had attacked the character of -Charles the First; by saying, that that king had interpolated Pamela’s -prayer from the Arcadia, in the Icon Basilike. He also scrupled not to -abuse most unjustifiably Dr. Douglas, as the first exposer of his own -forgery. - -Lauder afterwards went to Barbadoes, and died there in great poverty in -the year 1770. - -Early in the eighteenth century (1704) there was published, in London, -a history of the island of Formosa, off the coast of China, accompanied -by an extraordinary narrative of the author, who went under the name of -George Psalmanazar, and who, from the idolatries of his own country, -represented himself to have become a convert to Christianity. - -The description of Formosa was given with such apparent fidelity, -the manners and customs were illustrated with so many engravings of -the houses, modes of travelling, and shipping, and specimens of the -language and written character so philologically explained, that, -though some few persons of superior penetration looked upon the work -as an imposture, the belief was almost general of the truth of the -history, which was considered the more interesting, as the country -described in the volume had hitherto been so imperfectly known. There -appeared subsequently, by the same author, “A Dialogue between a -Japanese and Formosan,” about some points of the religion of the times. - -Psalmanazar was much noticed, and his ingenuity had several ordeals -to undergo, from the severe examinations and investigations which the -curiosity of his supporters, and the suspicion of his adversaries, -prompted them to make. He had actually invented a Formosan language and -grammar, into which he translated several prayers and short sentences; -also a vocabulary for the benefit of those who should visit that -island. With this, _his native language_, he was naturally supposed -to be familiar, and he must have had an extraordinary and tenacious -memory, not to have laid himself open to more suspicion, in the -several repetitions of his examinations, which were taken down for the -satisfaction of others: he at last, however, confessed that the whole -was a forgery from beginning to end. - -He was a man of very great general knowledge, together with natural -talent, and appears by his will to have deeply regretted this -imposture. His will thus commences: “The last will and testament of me, -a poor simple and worthless creature, commonly known by the assumed -name of George Psalmanazar.” After a devout prayer to the Supreme Being -and directing that he may be buried in the humblest manner, he says, -“The principal manuscript that I felt myself bound to leave behind -was a faithful narrative of my education, and sallies of my wretched -youthful years, and the various ways by which I was, in some measure -unadvisedly, led into the base and shameful imposture of passing upon -the world for a native of Formosa, and a convert to Christianity, and -backing it with a fictitious account of that island, and of my own -travels, conversion, &c., all or most part of it hatched in my own -brain, without regard to truth or honesty. It is true I have long since -disclaimed even publicly all but the shame and guilt of that vile -imposition; yet as long as I knew there were still two editions of that -scandalous romance remaining in England, besides the several versions -it had abroad, I thought it incumbent upon me to undeceive the world, -by unravelling that whole mystery of iniquity in a posthumous work.” He -concludes by once more thus branding his work--“It was no other than a -mere forgery of my own devising, a scandalous imposition on the public, -and such as I think myself bound to beg God and the world pardon for -writing, and have been long since, as I am to this day, and shall be -as long as I live, heartily sorry for, and ashamed of.” This document -bears date in 1752, when he was in the 73d year of his age. - -In the posthumous memoirs above alluded to he studiously concealed who -he really was. It appears, however, that he was born about 1679, in -the south of France, either in Provence or Languedoc; and having been -guilty of some great excesses in the university where he was receiving -his education,--though he does not explain the nature of them,--he -found it necessary to take to flight, and wandered clandestinely -through a great part of Europe. Finding it both troublesome and -hazardous to preserve his incognito as an European, he determined on -the plan of imposture which ultimately led him to write his fictitious -history of the island of Formosa. The latter part of his life was spent -in the practice of the most unfeigned piety. He supported himself by -his literary labours, and was the author of a considerable portion of -the Ancient Universal History. His death took place in 1763. - -About the year 1760, much speculation was excited in the literary -world by the publication of a series of poems purporting to have -been translated by a Mr. Macpherson, from the original Gaelic of the -famous poet Ossian, whose compositions had been handed down from his -own times by oral tradition. The occasion of Mr. Macpherson’s giving -them to the world was as follows:--Mr. Home, author of “Douglas,” in -company with other gentlemen, being at Moffat in the summer of 1759, -met there Mr. Macpherson, then tutor to Mr. Graham; and from him they -heard some specimens of Gaelic poetry, which so much pleased them, -that they begged Mr. Macpherson to publish them in a small volume. He -complied; and this specimen having attracted a good deal of attention, -he proposed to make a tour, by subscription, through the Highlands, -for the purpose of collecting more complete specimens of the ancient -poetry. This journey he performed in 1760, and speedily published the -poems in a more complete form They were received, however, by many -with suspicion; it being thought, from the remoteness of the period -at which they were said to have been produced, that they could not be -genuine. - -In 1763; Dr. Hugh Blair wrote a dissertation on the poems of Ossian. -This he sent to his friend David Hume, and requested to have his -opinion as to the authenticity of the poems. In reply, Hume said that -he never heard the dissertation mentioned, where some one or other did -not express his doubt with regard to the antiquity of the poems which -were the subject of it; and that he often heard them totally rejected -with disdain and indignation, as a palpable and impudent forgery. - -The absurd pride and consequence of Macpherson, scorning, as he -pretended, to satisfy any body that doubted his veracity, tended much -to confirm the general scepticism: and, added Hume, “if the poems are -of genuine origin, they are in all respects the greatest curiosities -that were ever discovered in the history of literature.” - -The first regular attack on the authenticity of Ossian’s poems was made -in 1781, by Mr. Shaw, the author of a Gaelic Dictionary and Grammar; -and it was a vigorous one. He contended, from internal evidence, that -the poems were forgeries; he asserted that many of the Highland persons -who had vouched for their genuineness had never seen a line of the -supposed originals, and that Macpherson himself had constantly evaded -showing them to him; and he maintained, that both the fable and the -machinery of the principal poems were Irish; and that if, as a blind, -any manuscripts had ever been shown, they must have been in the Irish -language, the Earse dialect of the Gaelic never having been written or -printed till, in 1754, Mr. Macfarlane printed a translation of Baxter’s -“Call to the Unconverted.” An answer was attempted by Mr. Clarke, a -member of the Scottish Antiquarian Society; but, though he succeeded -in some points, he failed in his principal object. - -After a lapse of nearly twenty years, a more powerful antagonist of -Ossian took the field. This was Mr. Malcolm Laing, author of a History -of Scotland. To that history he added an elaborate dissertation, in -which he skilfully investigated the claim of the poems to antiquity. -The principal grounds on which he decided against it were, the many -false and inaccurate allusions to the history of Britain while the -country was under the dominion of the Romans; the flagrant difference -between Highland manners as described in the poems and by historians; -the many palpable imitations from the classics and the Scriptures; the -fact that all the Highland traditionary poems yet known referred to the -ninth and tenth centuries, and that there existed no Gaelic manuscript -older than the fifteenth century; the resemblance which the strains -of the pretended Ossian bore to The Highlander, one of Macpherson’s -acknowledged compositions; and, lastly, certain startling expressions -used in print by Macpherson, which seemed almost to render it certain -that he was not the translator, but the author, of the works which he -had given to the world under the name of Ossian. - -Anxious that the truth should be elicited on a subject so interesting -to them as their national poetry, the Highland Society had already, -as far back as 1797, appointed a committee to inquire into the nature -and authenticity of Ossian’s poems. Mr. Laing’s Dissertation, of which -a second edition was published in 1804, seems to have quickened the -movements of the committee. To assist in elucidating the subject, a -series of queries was circulated throughout the Highlands and the -Scottish Islands. The series consists of six articles, of which the -first is the most important. “Have you ever heard repeated or sung -any of the poems ascribed to Ossian, translated and published by -Mr. Macpherson? By whom have you heard them so repeated, and at what -time or times? Did you ever commit any of them to writing, or can -you remember them so well as to set them down?” The same answer was -requested as to any other ancient poems of the same kind; and the -committee likewise expressed a wish to obtain as much information -as possible “with regard to the traditionary belief of the country -concerning the history of Fingal, and his followers, and that of Ossian -and his poems.” - -It was not till 1810 that the society published the result of the -inquiry which it had set on foot. The answers to the queries were -certainly by no means satisfactory. The report, which was drawn up by -Henry Mackenzie, stated that the committee had directed its inquiry to -two points: firstly, what poetry, of what kind, and of what degree of -excellence, existed anciently in the Highlands of Scotland, which was -generally known by the denomination of Ossianic; and, secondly, how far -that collection of such poetry published by Mr. James Macpherson, is -genuine. On the first point the committee spoke decidedly. It declared -its firm conviction that such poetry did exist; that it was common, -general, and in great abundance; that it was of a most striking and -impressive sort, in a high degree eloquent, tender, and sublime. On the -second point, there was a woful falling off in confident assertion. -“The committee,” says the reporter, “is possessed of no documents to -show how much of his collection Mr. Macpherson obtained in the form -in which he has given it to the world. The poems, and fragments of -poems, which the committee has been able to procure, contain, as will -appear from the article in the Appendix, No. 15, often the substance, -and sometimes almost the literal expression (the _ipsissima verba_) -of passages given by Mr. Macpherson in the poems of which he has -published the translations. _But the committee has not been able to -obtain one poem the same in title and tenor with the poems published -by him. It is inclined to believe that he was in use to supply chasms, -and to give connexion, by inserting passages which he did not find and -to add what he conceived to be dignity and delicacy to the original -composition, by striking out passages, by softening incidents, by -refining the language; in short, by changing what he considered as too -simple or rude for a modern ear, and elevating what in his opinion -was below the standard of good poetry._ To what degree, however, he -exercised these liberties, it is impossible for the committee to -determine. The advantages he possessed, which the committee began its -inquiries too late to enjoy, of collecting from the oral recitation -of a number of persons, now no more, a very great number of the same -poems, on the same subjects, and then collating those different copies, -or editions, if they may be so called, rejecting what was spurious -or corrupted in one copy, and adopting, from another, something more -general and excellent in its place, afforded him an opportunity of -putting together what might fairly enough be called an original whole, -of much more beauty, and with much fewer blemishes, than the committee -believe it now possible for any one person or combination of persons to -obtain.” - -This report, published, as it was by persons who were anxious to -establish the authenticity of the poems, seems decisively to prove -that Macpherson was, in fact, the fabricator of the works attributed -to Ossian, or at the least, that he formed a cento from fragments -of ballads and tales, blended with interpolations of his own. The -controversy was, however, continued for some time longer, and much ink -was shed by the believers and infidels; the presumed Gaelic originals -were also at length published; but the believers, nevertheless, daily -lost ground, the public ceased to take an interest in the dispute, and -the question seems now to be finally set to rest. - -The Letters of Junius, though not so strictly to be considered as a -literary imposture, have yet excited so much attention and speculation, -both by their matter and the impenetrable mystery in which they have -hitherto been involved, that a brief notice of that which I consider to -be the most successful attempt to discover the real author may not here -be unacceptable. - -Mr. G. Chalmers wrote a dissertation, to prove that the author of the -Letters of Junius was a Mr. M’Aulay Boyd; and, certainly, as far as -circumstantial evidence goes, short of direct proof, there appears much -reason for supposing him not far from the truth in his conjectures. - -M’Aulay Boyd was born in April, 1746, at his father’s house, Ship -Street, Dublin, and in 1761 was received as a fellow-commoner in the -university of that city. He came to London in 1766, to study the law; -but his propensities carried him oftener to St. Stephen’s than to -Westminster Hall, and he exhibited a wonderful retention of memory, by -reciting perfectly the speeches of the night to his associates in his -club. He became intimate with Burke, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Garrick, and -many other members of the Literary Club. - -At the time of an election in Antrim, he addressed twelve letters to -the independent electors, under the appellation of “The Freeholder,” -to gain their votes for a constitutional candidate--Wilson; and these -letters are known to have contributed to the raising of that wild -clamour, which carried Wilson’s election by an enthusiastic blast of -momentary madness. The style of The Freeholder is strongly impregnated -with the essence of Junius. A great deal of evidence is adduced -in continuation by Chalmers, which seems to bear him out in his -conjectures; and it may be briefly recapitulated, that, firstly, the -letters of Junius appear to have been written by an Irishman; secondly, -that they are the work of an inexperienced or juvenile pen; and if Boyd -wrote them, it must have been when he was between his twenty-third and -twenty-fifth years; thirdly, they were published by one “who delighted -to fish in troubled waters,” a propensity which Boyd frequently -gratified; fourthly, the author was a constant attendant on both -houses of parliament; fifthly, compared with The Freeholder, Boyd’s -acknowledged work, there is a wonderful sameness in all the faults and -excellences of the two. - -Boyd took a particular interest in Junius, and talked as if he knew -the author, but that he never would be generally known: his wife often -suspected him to be the writer. He never disclaimed the imputation, or -claimed the honour. - -The public, says Mr. Chalmers, has an interest in exposing this -mystery; and the relatives of those respectable persons who were said -to be the writers have also an interest, if it is known where the -application could be made, in placing the seditious pen of Junius in -the proper hands. - -Almon, a bookseller, imagined that he had clearly detected Boyd as -the author. In 1769, at a meeting of the booksellers and printers, H. -S. Woodfall read a letter from Junius, because it contained a passage -relating to the business of the meeting. Almon saw the handwriting of -the manuscript, without disclosing his thoughts to the meeting; but the -next time he saw Boyd at his shop, in Piccadilly, Almon said, “I have -seen a part of one of Junius’s Letters in manuscript, which I believe -is your handwriting.” Boyd instantly changed colour, and, after a short -pause, replied, “The similitude of handwriting is not a conclusive -fact.” Now, Boyd was by nature confident, and by habit a man of the -world, a sort of character not apt to blush. From this time Almon used -to say that he suspected Junius was a broken-down gentleman without a -penny in his pocket. - -The anonymous publication of a series of letters was, before this -time, had recourse to for a political purpose. About the year 1722, -when Charles, Duke of Grafton, was Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, William -Wood, a hardwareman and bankrupt, alleging the great want of copper -money in that kingdom, procured a patent for coining one hundred and -eight thousand pounds, to pass there as current money. This measure -was thought by some persons to be a vile job from beginning to end, -and that the chief procurers of the patent were to be sharers in the -profits. Some anonymous letters were, therefore, written in 1724, under -the assumed name of the _Drapier_, or Draper, warning the people not to -receive the coin which was then sent over. - -The real author of these letters, as afterwards appeared, was the -celebrated Dr. Swift, Dean of St Patrick’s, who, indignant at the -scheme, boldly withstood the designs of the grasping projector. - -Wood’s project was, by virtue of a patent fraudulently obtained, to -coin halfpence for Ireland, at about eleven parts in twelve under their -real value; but which, even if ever so good, no man could have been -obliged to receive in any payment whatever. - -The first letter convinced all parties in Ireland that the admission -of Wood’s money would prove fatal to the nation; some passages in -the fourth, being thought to reflect upon the people in power, were -selected for prosecution, and three hundred pounds offered, as a reward -for the discovery of the author; but no clue was ever given by which -such discovery could be made. The copies were always sent to the press -by some obscure messenger, who never knew the person from whom he -received them. The amanuensis alone was trusted, to whom, two years -afterwards, the author gave an employment that brought him in forty -pounds a-year. - -The purpose of the letters was completely answered, Wood was compelled -to relinquish his patent, and his halfpence were totally suppressed. - -That the letters of “Junius,” “The _Drapier_,” and other _political_ -tracts, should have been published anonymously cannot be considered -a very extraordinary caution on the part of the authors; though the -public are always anxious to know the writers of such pamphlets as have -been cleverly executed. But many authors of works purely literary, and -which, after a perusal by the public, have been deservedly praised, -have for a time kept themselves studiously concealed, as if unwilling -to receive any public tribute of admiration; or, perhaps, amused by the -variety of speculations afloat concerning them. - -Dean Swift, at first, published his “Tale of a Tub,” anonymously; -it speedily excited very considerable attention, some applauding, -others reprobating its tendency and design. Fourteen years after this, -“Gulliver’s Travels” appeared, which acquired a still more extended -popularity. Even Swift’s most intimate friends were unacquainted with -its origin; though many suspected who the author was. Gay wrote to him, -saying, “About ten days ago, a book was published here of the travels -of one Gulliver, which has been the conversation of the whole town -ever since: the whole impression sold in a week, and nothing is more -diverting than to hear the different opinions people give of it; though -all agree in liking it extremely. It is usually said you are the -author; but, I am told, the bookseller declares he knows not from what -hand it came.” - -In the summer of 1814, there appeared, anonymously, a novel, bearing -the title of “Waverley.” It was written in a fascinating style, and -was read with avidity by every one. It was speedily followed by other -historical novels, as interesting, or more so, from the pen of “the -Author of Waverley.” They succeeded each other with such prolific and -astonishing rapidity, and were executed in such a masterly manner, -that, at last, the curiosity of the public became extreme, to discover -to whom they were indebted for them. Pamphlets on the subject, and -speculations in periodicals, were abundant. Various persons were -named; but the majority leaned to the opinion that Sir Walter Scott -was the writer. It was not, however, till many years afterwards, -that circumstances, arising out of the bankruptcy of his publishers, -compelled him to throw aside the veil, and to stand forth the avowed -author of productions which have spread his fame to the farthest limits -of civilized society, and which can never cease to retain a strong hold -upon the human mind. - -From this brief notice of one extraordinary genius, who lived long -to enjoy his fame, we must go back, nearly half a century, to make -mention of another, who perished, unpraised and unfriended, before -he reached the age of manhood. In the annals of literature there is -no example recorded of precocious talent which can vie with that of -Thomas Chatterton. He was born at Bristol, in St. Mary Redcliffe -parish, on the 20th of November, 1752, and was the posthumous son of -an individual who had been successively writing master to a classical -school, singing man in Bristol Cathedral, and master of the Pyle Street -Free-school. At the age of five years, he was apparently so stupid as -to be deemed incapable of learning his letters. It was not till his -latent powers were roused, by being shown the illuminated capitals of -an old French manuscript, that he became anxious to acquire learning. -Henceforth he needed no stimulant. Before he was eight years old, he -was admitted into Colson’s school, the Christ’s Hospital of Bristol, -where he read much in his intervals of leisure, and began to try his -poetical skill. When he was somewhat under fifteen, he was apprenticed -to Mr. Lambert, an attorney. It was while he was in this situation, and -early in October, 1768, when the new bridge at Bristol was completed, -that he gave to the world the first article of that series of literary -forgeries which has immortalized him. It was sent to Farley’s Bristol -Journal, and was called “a description of the Friars first passing over -the old bridge: taken from an ancient manuscript.” He subsequently, -from time to time, produced various poems of pre-eminent beauty, -clothed in antique language. The language, however, was not that of -any one period; nor was the style, nor in many instances the form -of composition, that of the fifteenth century, the age to which he -assigned them. He pretended that they were written by Thomas Rowley, a -priest, and Thomas Canynge, and that they were copied from parchments, -which his father had found in a large box, in a room over the chapel on -the north side of Redcliffe church. While he was engaged in composing -these poems, he was also a liberal contributor of prose and verse to -the Magazines. Having, in his moody moments, avowed an intention of -committing suicide, his master released him from his indentures, and -Chatterton repaired to London, where he resolved to depend upon his pen -for subsistence. At the outset, his hopes were raised to a high pitch; -but they were soon blighted. In spite of his wonderful fertility, and -his persevering exertions, he seems to have been unable to provide for -the day that was passing over him. Privations and wounded pride drove -him to despair, and, on the 25th of August, 1770, he put an end to his -existence by poison. Editions of the pretended poems of Rowley were -published by Mr. Tyrrwhit and Dean Milles; and a controversy was long -and vehemently maintained on the question of their antiquity. There -are now few persons who doubt that they are the work of Chatterton. -That he was capable of producing them is sufficiently proved by his -acknowledged poems. - -We come now to a much more daring forgery, perpetrated by an individual -whose talents were far inferior to those of Chatterton. Mr. Malone, in -the preface to his edition of Shakspeare, had shown that Shakspeare -died at the age of fifty-two in April 1616, leaving his daughter, and -her husband Dr. J. Hall, executors. The will demonstrates, that he -died possessed of “baubles, gewgaws, and toys to mock apes, &c.” Dr. -Hall died in 1635, leaving a will, and bequeathing his library and -manuscripts to J. Nash. “Here,” says Mr. Malone, “is a proof that the -executor of Shakspeare’s will left a library and manuscripts behind -him.” In a satisfactory manner did Mr. Malone trace down, from the -public records, the legal transmission of the personal property of -Shakspeare’s descendants to a recent period, from which he inferred, -that, amongst the present generation of them, fragments might be -found, if curiosity would prompt diligence to search the repositories -of concealment. The search proved successful, and from the appearance -of the manuscripts of Shakspeare in 1790, every moment was expectancy -of more arrivals; in fact discovery succeeded discovery so fast, that -Mr. Malone obtained documents enough to fill a folio. A painting of -Shakspeare was also found, the very painting that enabled Droeshout to -engrave the effigies of Shakspeare which was prefixed to the folio -edition of his dramas, and of which Ben Jonson affirmed that - - “The Graver had a strife - With nature, to outdo the life;” - -and every thing concurred to evince the genuineness of this ancient -painting. - -A new discovery of Shakspearian papers was announced for exhibition in -Norfolk Street, in 1794, and curiosity was again roused. - -Mr. Malone, from some private reasons, seemed indifferent about these -papers in Norfolk Street; and he was urged by his scepticism to -contradict that probability which he had taught the imaginative world -to entertain in favour of the discovery of Shakspearian fragments. Many -other learned persons being, however, convinced by examination of the -authenticity of these miscellaneous papers, the publication of them was -undertaken by subscription, and _four guineas_ a copy were freely paid -by the subscribers. - -When the book came out, and not till then, did Mr. Malone condescend to -look at it, and examine its pretensions; and he quickly decided it to -be a palpable and bold forgery. This he demonstrated by a learned and -critical examination of each particular paper; his inquiry was drawn up -in the form of a letter, and addressed to the Right Honourable James, -Earl of Charlemont, in the year 1796. - -The editor of them, Mr. Ireland, in his preface, had assured the -public, that all men of taste who had viewed them previous to -publication unanimously testified in favour of their authenticity, and -declared that there was on their side a mass of irrefragable evidence, -external and internal; that it was impossible, amid such various -sources of detection, for the art of imitation to have hazarded itself -without being betrayed; and, consequently, that these papers could be -no other than the production of Shakspeare himself. - -The editor, in continuation, said, that these papers came into his -hands from his son, Samuel William Henry Ireland, a young man nineteen -years of age, by whom the discovery was accidentally made, at the -house of a gentleman of considerable property, amongst a heterogeneous -collection of family papers. - -The legal contracts between Shakspeare and others were, it was -said, first found by the junior Ireland, and soon afterwards, the -deed of gift to William Henry Ireland, described as the friend of -Shakspeare, in consequence of his having saved the dramatist’s life. -In pursuing this research, he was so fortunate as to meet with some -deeds very material to the interests of the gentleman at whose house -he was staying; and such as established, beyond all doubt, his title -to considerable property, of which he was as ignorant as he was of -possessing these interesting manuscripts of Shakspeare. In return -for this service, the gentleman promised him every paper relative to -Shakspeare. - -Fully satisfied with the honour and liberality shown to him, the finder -of these treasures did not feel justified in importuning or requesting -a gentleman, to whom he was known by obligation alone, to subject -himself to the impertinence and licentiousness of literary curiosity -and cavil, unless he should voluntarily come forward. He had applied to -the original possessor of them for his permission to print them, and -only obtained it under the strongest injunctions of secrecy. - -“It is to be observed,” says Mr. Malone, “that we are not told where -the deed was first discovered; it is said in a mansion-house, but -where situated is not stated. Another very remarkable incident is -mentioned: the discoverer met the possessor, to whom he was unknown, at -a coffee-house, or some public place, and the conversation turning on -old autographs, of which the discoverer was a collector, the country -gentleman said to him, ‘If you are for autographs, I am your man; come -to my chambers, any morning, and rummage my old deeds, and you will -find enough of them.’ Accordingly the discoverer goes, and taking down -a parcel, in a few minutes lighted on the name of Shakspeare. The -discovery of the title to a considerable estate was so fortunate and -beneficial a circumstance to this unknown gentleman, that we cannot -wonder at his liberality in giving up all his right to these valuable -literary curiosities; but one naturally wishes to know in what county -this estate lies, or whether any suit has been instituted within the -last year or two, in consequence of such a discovery of title-deeds so -little dreamt of.” - -According to Mr. Malone, the great objections, critically speaking, to -be brought against the manuscripts are, firstly, the orthography; this -is not only not the orthography of Elizabeth or her time, but for the -most part of no one age whatever. The spelling of the copulative _and_, -and the preposition _for_, ande--forre, is unprecedented. “I have,” -says Mr. Malone, “perused some thousands of deeds and manuscripts, -and never once found such a spelling of them; the absurd way in which -almost every word is overladen with both vowels and consonants, will -strike every reader who has any knowledge on the subject.” - -Quotations from manuscripts are made by Mr. Malone, from Chaucer -downwards to the end of the sixteenth century, showing the progressive -changes in the mode of orthography; and they certainly appear to -prove, most satisfactorily, that the papers in which such laboured and -capricious deformity of spelling is introduced, are an entire forgery. -For example, the word _masterre_, at that period, was spelt maister. -There is not a single authority for Londonne. So early as the time of -Edward the First, Robert of Gloucester said, - - ‘And now me clepet it London, that is lighter in the mouth.’ - -Leycesterre for Leycester is as incorrect. - -Secondly, the phraseology is equally faulty, particularly in the -letter, supposed to be written and directed by Queen Elizabeth, to -William Shakspeare. This letter, in particular, it is very easy to -prove a forgery; as, by an anachronism, it is directed to William -Shakspeare, at the Globe by the Thames. Now the Globe was a theatre -which did not open till the year 1594; yet, in the same letter, mention -is made of the expected presence of Leicester, who died in September -1588, when this theatre did not exist. - -The deeds and miscellaneous papers were exhibited in Norfolk Street, -long before their publication, and they were submitted to the critical -examination of any one willing to question them; nor, from their -appearance of venerable antiquity, was a doubt of their genuine -authenticity allowed to be entertained. When the elder Mr. Ireland -afterwards published his “Vindication,” he showed how readily the most -discerning persons yielded their faith to this imposture. Mr. Boaden, -he says, thus wrote to G. Steevens after having seen the manuscripts. -“In some instances credulity is no disgrace, strong enthusiasm is -always eager to believe; I confess that, for some time after I had -seen them, I continued to think they might be genuine; they bore the -character of the poet’s writing, the paper appeared of sufficient age, -the water-marks were earnestly displayed, and the matter diligently -applauded; I remember that I beheld the papers with the tremor of -utmost delight, touched the invaluable relics with reverential -respect, and deemed even existence dearer as it gave me so refined a -satisfaction.” - -Similar and even stronger impressions were made on James Boswell, -one of those literary characters who, in company with Dr. Parr, -signed a certificate expressing their belief of the authenticity of -the papers. Previous to signing his name, Boswell fell on his knees, -and in a tone of enthusiasm and exultation, thanked God that he -had lived to witness their discovery, and that he could now die in -peace. In proportion to this strong belief, therefore, was the public -indignation excited against the inventors of that monstrous,--and -to the subscribers expensive--forgery, which the critical acumen of -Mr. Malone had so clearly exposed. The blame of the transaction was -imputed as much to Mr. Ireland, the father, as to William Henry, -the son, who was in reality sole contriver of this imposture. In an -exculpatory pamphlet, he says, “In justice to the memory of my father, -I think it necessary to give a true account of the publication of these -manuscripts. After dinner my father would read different accounts of -Shakspeare, and remark how wonderful it was that no vestige of his -signature remains, except that at Doctors’ Commons. Curiosity led me -to look at the signature, in Steevens’ edition of his plays, and it -occurred to me, that if some old writing could be produced, and passed -off for Shakspeare’s, it might occasion a little mirth, and show how -far credulity would go in search of antiquities. I first tried an -experiment by writing a letter, as from the author of an old book in my -possession, in dedication of it to Queen Elizabeth: I showed it to my -father, who thought it genuine. This encouraged me to proceed till the -whole work was completed, and published with the following title page: -“Miscellaneous papers and legal instruments under the hand and seal of -William Shakspeare, including the tragedy of King Lear, and a fragment -of Hamlet, folio, London, 1796.” And subsequently, “Free reflections -on the miscellaneous papers, etc., in the possession of S. Ireland, to -which are added extracts from the Virgin Queen, a play.” - -The story of the country gentleman was told to silence the numerous -inquiries as to where they came from. In conclusion, Mr. S. Ireland -says, “I most sincerely regret any offence I may have given the world, -or particular individuals, trusting at the same time, that they will -deem the whole the work of a boy, without any evil or bad intent, but -hurried on, thoughtless of any danger that awaited to ensnare him.” - -The drama of Vortigern, which formed one portion of the forgery, was -brought out at Drury Lane theatre, and was unanimously damned. - -The art of counterfeiting old deeds and manuscripts has often been had -recourse to for the purpose of fraud. Some curious evidence of such -practices was given in the case of “Mossam v. Dame Theodosia Joy,” -which may be found at large in the State Trials, vol. 7, p. 571. This -lady was proved to have forged the title deeds of an estate to which -she laid claim. Serjeant Stringer, in the course of the trial, inquired -of Mrs. Duffet, one of the witnesses, “Pray what did they do to the -deeds to make them look like ancient true deeds?” The witness replied, -“For the making of the outsides look old and dirty, they used to rub -them on the windows that were very dusty, and wear them in the pockets, -to crease them, for weeks together. According as they intended to make -use of them, when they had been rubbed and made to look dirty, and they -were to pass for deeds of many years’ standing, it was used to lay them -in a balcony, or any open place, for the rain to wet them, and the next -clear day they were exposed to the sun, or placed before the fire, to -dry them hastily, that they might be shrivelled.” - -The introduction of the Inquisition into Portugal, has been stated to -have resulted from the admirable skill in counterfeiting signatures, -which was possessed by a monk named Saavedra. About the year 1540, this -monk forged apostolic bulls, royal decrees, and bills of exchange, -with so much accuracy that they passed for genuine. He also succeeded -so well as to pass himself off for a knight, commander of the military -order of St. Jago, the income of which amounted to three hundred -ducats, which he received for a year and a half. In a short time he -acquired, by means of the royal deeds which he counterfeited, three -hundred and sixty thousand ducats. He might have remained undetected -through life, had not his successes tempted him to undertake a still -more hazardous fraud, which led to his detection; falling in with -a Jesuit travelling to Portugal, with an apostolical brief for the -foundation of a Jesuit’s College, he concerted a plan for introducing -the Inquisition. Saavedra forged letters from Charles V. to the King of -Portugal, and a papal bull for establishing the Inquisition there. This -bull appointed Saavedra legate. Following up his deception, he assumed -the character of a Roman cardinal, and made a visit to Portugal. The -king despatched a distinguished nobleman to receive him. Saavedra spent -three months at Lisbon, after which he travelled through the kingdom; -but he was at last detected by the Inquisitor-General of Spain, and was -sentenced to the galleys for ten years. - -The eighteenth century was closed with a literary fraud, concocted in -Germany, to which circumstances gave a temporary success. So little -is known of the interior of Africa, that any thing which seems likely -to add to our knowledge upon this subject can hardly fail to excite -attention. Public curiosity was, therefore raised to the highest pitch, -when a work was announced, with the captivating title of “Travels in -the Interior of Africa, from the Cape of Good Hope to Morocco, from the -years 1781 to 1797; by Christian Frederick Damberger.” Translations -of a work which promised to remove the veil, that had so long covered -central Africa, were immediately undertaken in England and in France; -and each translator laboured indefatigably, in the fear of the market -being forestalled by his rival. The delusion, however, was quickly -dispelled; the work being discovered to be the manufacture of a printer -of Wittemberg, by name Zachary Taurinius, who had before tried his -skill in forging a Voyage to the East Indies, Egypt, &c., and a Voyage -and Journey to Asia, Africa and America. - -A literary imposition similar to that which was practised in England -by Chatterton, was effected in France, in 1804. A small volume was -published, at Paris, edited by M. Vanderbourg, and professing to be -the “Poems of Margaret Eleanor Clotilda de Vallon-Chalys”, afterwards -Madame de Surville, a French poetess of the fifteenth century. They -were said to have been discovered, in 1782, among the dusty archives of -his family, by a M. de Surville, a descendant of the fair authoress, -who had a transcript of them made. The originals were unfortunately -destroyed by fire, and M. de Surville lost his life during the -French revolution, but the copy of the poems was saved, and, with -much difficulty, was procured by the editor. Madame de Surville is -represented as having displayed singularly precocious abilities; to -have been married in 1421; and to have lived at least to the age of -ninety, exercising her poetical talent to the last. Serious doubts -as to the truth of this story are entertained by the literary men of -France. But, though the authenticity of these compositions may be -disputed, there can be no dispute respecting their merit. There is a -grace, sweetness, and spirit, in them which are exceedingly delightful. -From the following translation of the supposed Madame de Surville’s -“Verses to My First Born,” which appeared in an early number of the New -Monthly Magazine, some idea may be formed of her poetical talents: - - My cherished infant! image of thy sire! - Sleep on the bosom which thy small lip presses! - Sleep little one, and close those eyes of fire, - Those eyelets which the weight of sleep oppresses. - - Sweet friend! dear little one! may slumbers lend thee - Delights which I must never more enjoy! - I watch o’er thee, to nourish and defend thee, - And count these vigils sweet, for thee, my boy. - - Sleep, infant, sleep! my solace and my treasure! - Sleep on my breast, the breast which gladly bore thee! - And though thy words can give this heart no pleasure, - It loves to see thy thousand smiles come o’er thee. - - Yes, thou wilt smile, young friend, when thou awakest, - Yes, thou wilt smile, to see my joyful guise; - Thy mother’s face thou never now mistakest, - And thou hast learned to look into her eyes. - - What! do thy little fingers leave the breast, - The fountain which thy small lip pressed at pleasure? - Could’st thou exhaust it, pledge of passion blest, - E’en then thou couldst not know my fond love’s measure. - - My gentle son! sweet friend, whom I adore! - My infant love! my comfort! my delight! - I gaze on thee, and gazing o’er and o’er, - I blame the quick return of every night. - - His little arms stretch forth--sleep o’er him steals-- - His eye is closed--he sleeps--how still his breath! - But for the tints his flowery cheek reveals, - He seems to slumber in the arms of death. - - Awake my child!--I tremble with affright!-- - Awaken!--Fatal thought, thou art no more!-- - My child!--one moment gaze upon the light, - And e’en with thy repose my life restore. - - Blest error! still he sleeps--I breathe again-- - May gentle dreams delight his calm repose! - But when will _he_, for whom I sigh--oh when - Will he, beside me watch thine eyes unclose? - - When shall I see _him_ who hath given thee life,-- - My youthful husband, noblest of his race? - Methinks I see, blest mother, and blest wife! - Thy little hands thy father’s neck embrace. - - How will he revel in thy first caress, - Disputing with thee for thy gentle kiss! - But think not to engross his tenderness, - Clotilda too shall have her share of bliss. - - How will he joy to see his image there; - The sweetness of his large cerulean eye! - His noble forehead, and his graceful air, - Which Love himself might view with jealousy. - - For me--I am not jealous of his love, - And gladly I divide it, sweet, with thee; - Thou shalt, like him, a faithful husband prove, - But not, like him, give this anxiety. - - I speak to thee--thou understand’st me not-- - Thou could’st not understand though sleep were fled-- - Poor little child! the tangles of his thought, - His infant thought, are not unravelled. - - We have been happy infants as _thou_ art; - Sad reason will destroy the dream too soon; - Sleep in the calm repose that lulls thy heart, - Ere long its very memory will be gone. - -In 1823, a visit to England was made by a singular individual, named -Hunter, a native of America, who, though it appears certain that he -professed to be what he was not, was undoubtedly a man of considerable -abilities. During his stay in this country, he published his own -adventures, under the title of “Memoirs of a Captivity among the -Indians of North America, from Childhood to the Age of Nineteen; with -Anecdotes descriptive of their Manners and Customs.” The work contains -a highly-interesting narrative of his alleged wanderings with various -tribes of the Red Men, and was at first much prized as a faithful -picture of Indian life. The society of Hunter was eagerly sought by -many eminent literary and philanthropic characters, who were eager -to assist him in that which he professed to be his grand object: -namely, to devote himself to the civilization of the red race, in -order to avert the destruction which seems to impend over it. After -his departure from England, however, strong evidence was brought -forward, to demonstrate that his story was, in great part, if not -wholly, a fabrication. That Hunter had had some intercourse with the -Indians, is not improbable; but the romantic tale which he tells of his -peregrinations must henceforth be classed among works of fiction. - -In the following year, 1824, the extraordinary popularity which Sir -Walter Scott’s novels had acquired in Germany, gave occasion to an -audacious fraud on the part of some German booksellers. A novel was -got up by them, with the title of Walladmor, and was ushered into the -world, at the Leipsic fair, as the translation of a new production by -Sir Walter. This spurious Simon Pure subsequently made its appearance -in an English dress. Though the author must undoubtedly be classed -among knaves, it must in justice be owned, that he was not a fool; -there being some parts of his work, which are by no means contemptible. - -The last instance of literary imposture dates no further back than the -year 1832. A. M. Douville was the perpetrator, and the title which he -gave to it was, “A Journey in Congo and the Interior of Equinoctial -Africa.” M. Douville had probably visited some of the Portuguese -settlements on the coast, but his astonishing discoveries in the -interior must, like the captivity of Hunter, be considered as deserving -of equal credence with the travels of Gulliver. - - - - - CHAPTER XI. - - IMPOSTURES IN ENGRAVING. - - Fashion of decrying modern Artists--M. Picart asserts the Merit of - modern Engravers--Means employed by him to prove the Truth of his - Assertions--“The innocent Impostors”--Goltzius imitates perfectly - the Engravings of Albert Durer--Marc Antonio Raimondi is equally - successful--Excellent Imitation of Rembrandt’s Portrait of - Burgomaster Six--Modern Tricks played with respect to Engraved - Portraits--Sir Joshua Reynolds metamorphosed into “The Monster.” - - -About a century since, it was the fashion, among the would-be -pretenders in matters of taste, to decry the works, and depreciate -the talents, of the engravers of that time, in comparison with the -earlier artists. This induced M. Picart, an ingenious engraver, to -undertake the task of exposing the fallacious reasoning of these -_cognoscenti_, who asserted that they could easily distinguish the -works of the earlier painters, which had been engraved by themselves; -and, secondly, that, as an engraver could never attain the picturesque -style, they could easily distinguish whether an engraving was the work -of a painter, or of merely an engraver; and, thirdly, that the modern -engravers could not copy the paintings of the older masters so well as -the contemporary engraver. - -In direct opposition to these frivolous conceits, M. Picart asserted -that the plates engraved by Signor Contarini, after Guido, were much -preferable to those incontestably engraved by Guido himself; and also, -that the works of Gerard Audran, an engraver by profession, were -touched with as much spirit as could possibly have been given by a -painter. - -To put it to the test of experiment, however, Picart chose some designs -of the earlier painters, which had not been engraved, worked at them in -secret, stamped some of them on old paper, and dispersed them quietly; -and no one ventured to doubt but that they had been both engraved and -printed in Italy. Having by this artifice sufficiently disproved the -validity of those assertions which tended to depreciate the modern -engravers, M. Picart collected in one volume all the plates he had -so circulated, and they were afterwards published under the name of -“Picart’s innocent Impostors.” - -Goltzius, a celebrated engraver of an earlier period, had recourse to -a somewhat similar artifice, to convince the world of the malevolent -detraction of certain rival artists, who, to humble Goltzius, were -accustomed to say that his works were not to be compared with those -of Albert Durer, or Lucas of Leyden. He, therefore, engraved the -Circumcision, after the manner of Albert Durer, stamped below with -his own name and mark; some impressions were taken off on old and -discoloured paper, and his name was burnt out, or otherwise effaced. -This plate went thus in masquerade to Rome, Venice, and Amsterdam, and -was received by all the amateurs and curious with astonishment and -pleasure, and was purchased at a very high price by those who esteemed -themselves too happy to have found an opportunity of possessing -themselves of an engraving by Albert Durer. Soon after, the same -plate appeared entire, and freshly stamped with the name and mark -of Goltzius; the connoisseurs were of course greatly confused and -extremely angry, and the malevolent jealousy of his rivals was exposed -to the world. - -Marc Antonio Raimondi raised himself into notice in the following -manner: many engravings by Albert Durer were brought to Venice for -sale, and Raimondi was so much struck by the style and execution, that -he purchased them, and set to work to copy them, counterfeiting Albert -Durer’s mark, A. D. These copies appeared so similar, that they were -believed to be the genuine works of Albert, and, as such, were exposed -to sale, and became speedily purchased. This made Albert so indignant, -that he quitted Flanders, and came to Venice, to make a complaint -against Raimondi to the government; and he was forbidden in future to -make use of Albert’s name or mark. - -The engraving of the Burgomaster Six, the patron of Rembrandt, was so -much valued, and so scarce, that Beringhen could not obtain it for any -money; and he, therefore, procured a copy of it to be made with a pen, -and afterwards washed with Indian ink, which was in the French king’s -cabinet at the time M. Gersaint wrote Rembrandt’s life, and was so -excellent an imitation, that it deceived several good judges. - -The tricks of transmutation which are often played with copper-plate -engravings are well known. At the time when the person so justly -execrated and branded with the name of “The Monster,” made such a -noise, the dealer in one of the catchpenny accounts of his life -and adventures was very desirous of giving to the public some -representation of him. Not being able suddenly to procure one, it was -necessary for him to find a substitute. An old plate, which had been -engraved for a magazine, and intended to pass for a likeness of Sir -Joshua Reynolds, was luckily obtained, and was made to answer the -purpose. As the print bore no resemblance whatever to Sir Joshua, -and had, indeed, a most unprepossessing appearance, the original -inscription was erased, “The Monster” substituted, and it did very -well. In the ephemeral publications which daily issue from the press -similar metamorphoses are by no means uncommon. - - - - - CHAPTER XII. - - FORGED INSCRIPTIONS AND SPURIOUS MEDALS. - - Ancient Memorials of Geographical Discoveries--Mistakes arising - from them--Frauds to which they gave occasion--Imposture - of Evemerus--Annius of Viterbo wrongfully charged with - forging Inscriptions--Spurious works given to the World by - him--Forged Inscriptions put on statues by ignorant modern - Sculptors--Spurious Medals--Instances of them in the Cabinet - of Dr. Hunter--Coins adulterated by Grecian Cities--Evelyn’s - Directions for ascertaining the Genuineness of Medals--Spurious - Gold Medals--Tricks of the Manufacturers of Pseudo-Antique - Medals--Collectors addicted to pilfering Rarities--Medals - swallowed by Vaillant--Mistakes arising from Ignorance of the - Chinese Characters. - - -It appears to have been the practice of the early Greek navigators to -leave memorials on shores discovered for the first time, and to take -possession of them by a dedication to one of their gods or heroes; as -modern navigators in their discoveries have usually named prominent -headlands, islands, or secure harbours, from some statesman or hero of -the day. - -These ancient inscriptions being found among barbarous nations by -succeeding navigators, when the original discoverers were forgotten, -it might be concluded that those heroes, to whom the shores had been -merely dedicated in the first instance, had _actually_ been there. - -The probability of such circumstances led the way in after times to a -species of fraud, for conferring a spurious antiquity on certain places -and things by persons, producing, as authentic and ancient, histories -and monuments of their own manufacture. - -Evemerus, a Messenian, or, according to some writers, a Sicilian, a -cotemporary of Cassander, king of Macedon, seems to have been the -first who attempted this kind of fraud; for he pretended to have found -on a golden column, in an ancient temple in the island of Panchæa, a -genealogical account of a family that had once reigned there, in which -were comprised the principal deities then worshipped by the Greeks. -Not only were their lives recorded, but also their deaths; and thus a -deadly blow was aimed at their divinity. This fable was translated into -Latin by Ennius. - -Annius of Viterbo, who was born at Viterbo, in 1432, and whose real -name was John Nanni, has been charged with framing inscriptions from -his own imagination, and burying them in certain places, that, when -they had acquired an appearance of antiquity, he might pretend to -find, and might vend them. He is also said to have manufactured medals -of an early date. Both these charges are, however, erroneous. It is -nevertheless certain that, accompanied by his own commentaries, he -presented to the world, as genuine, the pretended works of several -exceedingly ancient authors; for this he has incurred much odium, but -it is believed, by many learned men, that, instead of being a forger, -he was himself deceived by forged manuscripts. This fraud gave rise to -a violent controversy, in which many of the most eminent literary men -were engaged. - -The great uncertainty relative to the genuineness of inscriptions on -ancient statues originated in the ignorance or fraud of those who -restored them. Even Phædrus, in the application of a fable at the -beginning of his fifth book, alludes to this practice in his time by -mercenary artists. “The name of Apollodorus, on the plinth of the -Venus de Medicis,” says Mr. Dallaway, “has been detected as a modern -forgery. The statues which have been dug up in a mutilated state, and -placed in the hands of venal or ignorant artists, have always had the -name of some eminent character given to them. Doubts of genuineness are -at least allowable, and often justified, of those statues the hands of -which have been evidently engrafted.” - -The fabrication of spurious coins for the market was neither a modern -contrivance nor of unfrequent occurrence. The collection of medals -belonging to Dr. Hunter affords some examples. One of a leaden coin, -cased in silver, as remote as the time of Selcucus, king of Syria, may -be seen in that cabinet; and also a similar coin of the city of Naples. -In the Roman series, Neumann makes mention of a remarkable instance -from Schulzius, of a leaden coin of Nero, which had been anciently -circulated for brass, in which metal it was enclosed. In Dr. Hunter’s -cabinet are two examples of leaden coins covered with gold; one of the -Emperor Trajan, the other of his successor. - -Demosthenes relates, on the authority of Solon, that several cities -in Greece adulterated their coins; and Dion Cassius states, that the -Emperor Caracalla, instead of gold and silver, issued brass and leaden -coins, which were merely washed or cased with silver or gold, to -conceal the fraud. - -Evelyn, in his “Numismata,” exposes many of the tricks of those who, at -the period at which he wrote, supplied the market with spurious coins -and medals. “The most likely means,” says he, “for procuring genuine -coins or medals, are from country people, who plough and dig about -old walls, mounds, &c., where castrametations have formerly been. The -composition or grouping of the figures should also be well considered, -that it be with judgment; for the ancients seldom crowded many figures -together. A perfect medal has its profile and out-strokes sharp, and -by no means rugged; the figures clean and well polished, and an almost -inimitable spirit of antiquity and excellence, in the most ancient. -Yet after much research, travel and diligence, cost and caution, one -is perpetually in danger of being deceived, and imposed upon, by -cheaters and mercenary forgers; and even the country people, in Italy -and Holland, often deceive the less wary medalist. Where a series of -ancient medals is known to be imperfect, suspicion should always attach -to him who pretends to supply the chasm, and complete the series.[14] - -“All medals of gold, Greek or Roman, that are not of the best alloy, -are to be considered impostures. - -“The manufacturers of pseudo-antiques, will raise and carve the -effigies of one emperor out of another antique head of a less costly -and rare description; for instance, an Otho out of a Nero; and also -the reverses: nay, they have the address to slit and divide two -several medals, and, with a certain tenacious cement, join the reverse -of one to the head of the other, and so repair and trim the edges -that it is impossible to discover the ingenious fraud. A partial -deceit is often practised on the unwary, by taking off a part of a -relievo, and applying it to another medal; by the same artifice and -dexterity, the title of a genuine medal may be entirely altered, where -there are but few letters, by pinching up a letter in one part, or -removing superfluous matter in another, so that in process of time the -metamorphosis is complete.” - -Mr. Obadiah Walker accuses the Jews of being most industrious in -putting off spurious medals. Some persons purposely bury medals -near the remains of some Roman works, and then pretend to have -found them by chance; as is also reported of a certain statuary, who -carved the pseudo Hercules, and sold it at a great price, before the -justly-admired original statue was discovered. - -Rival collectors have been known to prey on each other’s rarities, by -clandestinely swallowing the most precious gem in a collection; at -least an anecdote to this effect is related on the continent, of Baron -Storch, a celebrated gem collector. - -The Abbé Barthelemi, taught by experience, was very careful how he -exposed to visiters the rarities in the French cabinet of medals, of -which he was the keeper; for in his account of the duties of his office -he says, “Such a depository as this cabinet of medals cannot safely -be made public; several persons might put their hands on them at one -time, and it would be easy to carry them off, or substitute such as are -spurious or common. I had no other resource, after I had got rid of the -groups, but to examine the shelves at which they had been looking.” - -Vaillant, the celebrated numismatist, when pursued at sea by Algerine -pirates, is said to have swallowed a whole series of Syrian kings. When -he landed at Marseilles, he hastened to his friend, physician, and -brother antiquary, Dufour, groaning horribly, with the treasures in his -belly. Dufour was only anxious to know, whether the medals were of the -higher empire; Vaillant showed him two or three, of which nature had -relieved him: a bargain was immediately struck, and the coins recovered. - -The almost universal ignorance in Europe of the Chinese alphabet, and -written character, has been the cause of some curious mistakes in -deciding on the merits of certain coins. So little was a _professor_ of -Chinese, at Rome, versed in the language he professed to know, that he -is said, by Mr. Pauw, to have mistaken some characters found on a bust -of Isis for Chinese; which bust and characters were afterwards proved -to be the work of a modern artist of Turin, made after his own fancy. - -In Great Britain, we have, till recently, known still less of the -Chinese language and literature than on the Continent. “It is not many -years since,” says Mr. Barrow, “that one of the small copper coins of -China, stamped in the reign and with the name of the late Tchien-lung, -was picked up in a bog in Ireland, and, being considered as a great -curiosity, was carried to an indefatigable antiquary, whose researches -have been of considerable use in investigating the ancient history and -language of that island. Not knowing the Chinese character, nor their -coin, it was natural enough for him to compare them with some language -with which he was acquainted; and the conclusion he drew was, that the -four characters on the face were ancient Syriac, and that the reverse -appeared to be astronomical or talismanic characters, of which he -could give no explanation. The Mantchoo Tartar characters of another -coin he supposed to signify _p_, _u_, _r_, which he construed into -sors, or lot; and it was concluded, that these coins must either have -been imported into Ireland by the Phœnicians, or manufactured in the -country; in which case the Irish must have had an oriental alphabet. In -either case, these medals,” it was sagely observed, “contribute more to -authenticate the ancient history of Ireland than all the volumes that -have been written on the subject.” - - - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - ATTEMPT TO STEAL THE REGALIA FROM THE TOWER. - - First Opening of the Regalia to public Inspection--Edwards - appointed Keeper--Plan formed by Blood to steal the Regalia--He - visits the Tower with his pretended Wife--Means by which he - contrived to become intimate with Edwards--His Arrangements for - carrying his Scheme into Execution--He knocks down Edwards, and - obtains Possession of the Jewels--Fortunate Chance by which his - Scheme was frustrated--He is taken--Charles II. is present at his - Examination--Blood contrives to obtain a Pardon, and the Gift of - an Estate from the King. - - -Bayley, in his History of the Tower of London, has very -circumstantially related the attempt made by a desperado, named Blood, -to steal the regalia from thence; though it failed in the execution, -this scheme was most ingeniously planned. The subsequent ingenuity of -the culprit, on his examination before the king, also saved him from a -just punishment, and not only procured him pardon for his offence, but -even a handsome reward in the form of an annuity. - -Soon after the appointment of Sir Giles Talbot to the office of Master -of the Jewel-House in the Tower, the regalia first became the object -of public inspection. The privilege of showing them was granted by -Charles II. to the keeper, in consequence of certain reductions in the -emoluments of the office. The person appointed to take charge of them -was a confidential servant, named Talbot Edwards; and soon after, in -1673, the attempt of the notorious Blood was made. - -Three weeks before the execution of his plan, Blood went to the -Tower, in the canonical habit of a clergyman, accompanied by a woman -whom he called his wife. They desired to see the regalia, and just -as their wishes had been gratified, the lady feigned indisposition: -this circumstance called forth the kind offices of Mrs. Edwards, who -courteously invited her into the dwelling-house. The lady, however, -soon recovered, and, on departing, professed great gratitude. - -A few days after this, Blood came again, bringing Mrs. Edwards four -pair of white gloves, as a present from his pretended wife. This -civility opened a way to a more intimate acquaintance, and, at length, -Blood offered a proposal of marriage between his nephew, (whom he -represented as possessing two hundred pounds per annum in land,) and -Miss Edwards, if agreeable to all parties, on a longer acquaintance. A -treaty was entered into, and the young gentleman was to come in a day -or two to be presented. - -At the time appointed, Blood went with three others to the Jewel-House, -armed with rapier-blades in their canes, and every one had a dagger, -and a brace of pistols. Two of the friends, to fill up the time whilst -the daughter was adorning herself, expressed a wish to view the regalia -before dinner, and it was arranged, that, together with Blood, they -should accompany old Mr. Edwards for that purpose, whilst the anxious -lover should wait below for the coming of his mistress, but in reality -to watch lest interruption should take place. When the three had -entered with Edwards into the room, a cloak was thrown over him, a gag -was placed in his mouth, and he was threatened with death if he made -the least noise; but, as he was not intimidated, and made attempts -to sound an alarm, he was silenced by some blows on the head with a -mallet, and a stab in the belly, when he lay as if dead. - -They then proceeded to secrete the booty about their persons. One of -them, named Parrot, put the orb into his pocket, Blood held the crown -under his cloak, and the third was about to file the sceptre into two -pieces, to place it in a bag, when fortunately the son of Mr. Edwards -visited his father, and, regardless of the opposition made by the -watchful pretended lover, persisted to force his way in. The scuffle -below was heard, and this unexpected incident spreading confusion among -them, they instantly decamped, leaving the sceptre undivided. The aged -keeper, recovering, forced the gag from his mouth, and cried “Treason!” -The alarm was given, and parties were sent to the several gates to stop -them. They escaped, however, out at St. Catherine’s gate, where horses -were waiting for them, but were speedily overtaken. Under Blood’s cloak -was found the crown, and, even when a prisoner, he had the impudence -to struggle for his prize, and said it was a gallant attempt, however -unsuccessful, as it was for a crown. - -In the struggle the great pearl, and a large diamond, with a few -smaller jewels, were lost from the crown, but fortunately they were -afterwards found and restored. - -Blood being carried before Sir Gilbert Talbot, the king went to hear -his examination and confession. This was a fortunate circumstance -for the culprit, who artfully worked at once on the vanity and the -apprehensions of the monarch. He told him that he had formerly been -engaged with others to kill his majesty, while he was bathing at -Battersea, and had concealed himself in the reeds to effect his -purpose; but that when he had taken aim, the awe inspired by the royal -presence unnerved his hand, and he desisted from his sanguinary -design. He added, that he was but one of three hundred, who were -sworn to revenge each other’s fall; that the king might do with him -as he pleased, but that, by dooming him to suffer, he would endanger -his own life, and the lives of his advisers; while, on the contrary, -by displaying clemency, he would win the gratitude and the services -of a band of fearless and faithful followers. Either won over by the -boldness and candour of the ruffian, or alarmed by his threats, Charles -not only pardoned Blood, but likewise gave him an estate in Ireland, -worth 500_l._ a year. Poor Edwards (who suffered severely from his -injuries), was less fortunate; he had only a grant of two hundred -pounds, and his son one hundred, and even of these trifling sums the -payment was so long deferred, that they were obliged to sell the orders -at half price for ready money. - - - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - VAMPYRISM. - - Horrible nature of the Superstition of Vampyrism--Persons attacked - by Vampyres become Vampyres themselves--Signs by which a Vampyre - was known--Origin of one of the signs--Effect attributed to - Excommunication in the Greek church--Story of an excommunicated - Greek--Calmet’s theory of the origin of the Superstition - respecting Vampyres--St. Stanislas--Philinnium--The Strygis - supposed to have given the idea of the Vampyre--Capitulary of - Charlemagne--Remedy against attacks from the Demon--Anecdote of - an impudent Vampyre--Story of a Vampyre at Mycone--Prevalence of - Vampyrism in the north of Europe--Walachian mode of detecting - Vampyres. - - -Among the many superstitions which have terrified and degraded mankind, -that which has received the name of Vampyrism is, perhaps, the most -horrible and loathsome. The Vampyre, or Blood-sucker, has been -forcibly described as “a corporeal creature of blood and unquenchable -blood-thirst,--a ravenous corpse, who rises in body and soul from his -grave, for the sole purpose of glutting his sanguinary appetite with -the life-blood of those whose blood stagnates in his own veins. He is -endowed with an incorruptible frame to prey on the lives of his kindred -and his friends--he re-appears among them from the world of the tomb, -not to tell its secrets of joy or of woe, not to invite or to warn by -the testimony of his experience, but to appal and assassinate those -who were dearest to him on earth--and this, not for the gratification -of revenge or any _human_ feeling, which, however depraved, might -find something in common with human nature; but to banquet a monstrous -thirst, acquired in the tomb, and which, though he walks in human form -and human lineaments, has swallowed up every human motive in its brutal -ferocity.” - -It is manifest that a being of this kind must be infinitely more -terrible than the common race of ghosts, spectres, and fiendish -visitants. But there was another circumstance which inexpressibly -heightened the horror excited by the dread of being attacked. Wasting -illness, closed by death, was not all that the victim had to endure. He -who was sucked by a Vampyre was doomed to become in his turn a member -of the hideous community, and to inflict on others, even on those who -were nearest and dearest to him, the same evils by which he had himself -suffered and perished. - -When a grave was opened in order to search for one of these pests, to -put a stop to his career, the sanguinary offender was recognised by the -corpse being fresh and well preserved, the eyes open or half closed, -the face of a vermilion hue, the limbs flexible, the hair and nails -long, and the pulse beating. - -The idea of this unchanged state of the corpse seems to have -originated from a superstition of the Greek church. It was believed -that excommunication, inflicted by the Greek priests, had the power -of preventing the lifeless remains of the excommunicated person from -sinking into decay. An instance of this effect being produced is -mentioned by Ricaut, in his History of the Greek Church. A young man, -of Milos, who had been put under the ecclesiastical ban, was buried -in a remote and unconsecrated ground. He became a Vampyre, or, as -the modern Greeks term it, a Vroucolaca. The corpse was disinterred, -and displayed all the signs of Vampyrism. The priests were about to -treat it as was usual in such cases; but the friends of the deceased -solicited and obtained a cessation of hostilities, till a messenger -could be sent to Constantinople, to pray for absolution from the -Patriarch. The corpse, meanwhile, was placed in the church, and masses -were daily and nightly said. One day, while the priest was reading the -service, a crash was heard from the coffin; the lid was opened, and the -body was found as entirely decayed as though it had been buried for -seven years. When the messenger arrived with the absolution, it was -ascertained that the Patriarch had affixed his signature to it at the -exact moment when the crash was heard in the coffin! - -The superstition relative to Vampyres is supposed by Calmet to be -derived from ancient legends. The first of these legends is the story -of St. Stanislas raising a man, who had been dead three years, and -whom he called to life that he might give evidence, in the saint’s -behalf, in a court of justice. After having given his testimony, the -resuscitated man returned quietly to his grave. A second is to be found -in Phlegon de Mirabilibus, who relates that a girl of the name of -Philinnium, a native of Tralles, in Asia Minor, not only visited, ate, -and drank, with her lover, after her death, but even cohabited with -him. But in neither of these cases do we find a trace of the diabolical -malignity which characterizes the Vampyre. A more congenial origin may -perhaps be found in the Strygis, of which Ovid makes mention; and this -origin appears the more probable when we consider that, in the middle -ages, the Strygis had an established place among the demon tribe; -and, in the shape of suspected males and females, was often burnt, -among other sorcerers and magicians, by the Lombards and Germans. -There is extant a capitulary of Charlemagne, which shows how prevalent -the belief was in the existence of the Strygis, and how strong a -resemblance the fiend bore to the Vampyre of modern times. It enacts -that “if any person, deceived by the devil, shall believe, after the -manner of the Pagans, that any man or woman was a Strygis, or Stryx, -and was given to eat men, and for this cause should burn such person, -or should give such person’s flesh to be eaten, or should eat such -flesh, such man or woman should be capitally punished.” - -From the capitulary it is clear, that eating the flesh of the -delinquent Stryx was supposed to be a remedy for the evils which the -demon inflicted. There is a somewhat similar circumstance connected -with the Vampyre, which strengthens the idea that it is a legitimate -descendant of the Stryx. In a French work, published nearly a century -and a half ago, is an account of the Upiers or Vampyres, which infested -Poland and Russia. “They appear,” says the author, “from midday to -midnight, and suck the blood of men and beasts in such abundance, that -it often issues again out of their mouth, nose and ears; and the corpse -sometimes is found swimming in the blood with which its cere-cloth is -filled. This Redivive, or Upier (or some demon in his form) rises from -the tombs, goes by night to hug and squeeze violently his relations -or friends, and sucks their blood, so as to weaken and exhaust them, -and at length occasion their death. This persecution is not confined -to a single person, but extends throughout the family, unless it is -arrested by cutting off the head, or opening the heart, of the Upier, -which they find in its cere-cloth, soft, flexible, tumid, and ruddy, -although long ago dead. A large quantity of blood commonly flows from -the body, _which some mix up with flour and make bread of it; and this -bread, when eaten, is found to preserve them from the vexation of the -spectre_.” It is singular, however, that though the Vampyre himself -might thus be rendered edible, he was imagined to communicate an -infectious quality to whatever he fed on; so that, if any one were -unlucky enough to eat the flesh of cattle which had been sucked, he -would, after death, be sure of becoming a member of the blood-sucking -fraternity. - -In one part of his statement this author is incorrect. Vampyres were -not to be so easily got rid of as he imagined. Nothing short of burning -would, at least in a majority of cases, put an end to their diabolical -visitations. Some of them had the audacity to make a jest of driving -a stake through them. Of this class was a peasant, of the village of -Blow, in Bohemia, who had long been most mischievously active. “At last -they dug him up, and drove a stake through him, during which he had the -impudence to laugh and jeer at his executioners, and thank them for -giving him a stick to defend himself against the dogs. This procedure -did not answer at all. He became still more troublesome than ever. Then -they delivered him over to the hangman, who placed him in a cart, to -carry him out of the village and burn him. But in this new situation -he kicked and struggled like a man in a frenzy, and, when they again -drove stakes into him, uttered loud shrieks, and gave a large quantity -of fine healthy blood. At last they burnt him: and the village at the -moment ceased to be infested as before.” - -The belief in Vampyrism prevailed in Greece, where, as we have already -stated, the demon was known by the name of Vroucolaca, or Broucocolas. -Tournefort relates an amusing story of one that wofully annoyed the -inhabitants of Mycone. Prayers, processions, stabbing with swords, -sprinklings of holy water, and even pouring it in large doses down -the throat of the refractory Vroucolaca, were all tried in vain. -An Albanian, who chanced to be at Mycone, objected to two of these -remedies. It was no wonder that the devil continued in, he said, -for how could he possibly come through the holy water! and as to the -swords, they were equally effectual in preventing his exit; for, -their handles being crosses, he was so much terrified that he dared -not pass them. To obviate the latter objection, he recommended that -Turkish scimetars should be used. The scimetars were accordingly put -in requisition, but the pertinacious devil still retained his hold -of the corpse, and played his pranks with as much vigour as ever. At -length, when all the respectable inhabitants were packing up, to take -flight to Syra or Tinos, an effectual mode of ousting the Vroucolaca -was fortunately suggested. The body was committed to the flames, on the -first of January, 1701, and the spirit, being thus forcibly ejected -from his abode, was rendered incapable of doing farther mischief. He, -however, left behind him a legacy of vexation to the Myconians; for, -as a punishment for having had doings with the evil one, a fine was -imposed upon them by the Turks, when they next visited the island to -receive the capitation tax. - -But though Vampyrism was known in Greece, it was far more prevalent -in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Poland, Hungary, and Walachia. In those -countries it raged particularly from 1725 to 1735. There was scarcely -a village that was not said to be haunted by one of the blood-sucking -demons; and the greatest part of the population was a prey to terror. -The belief was not confined to the vulgar; all classes participated -in it; military and ecclesiastical commissions were appointed to -investigate the facts; and the press teemed with dissertations and -narratives from the pens of erudite individuals, whose learning was at -least equalled by their inveterate credulity. - -In the mode which was employed by the Walachians for the detection of -Vampyres, there is a touch of the romantic. On a jet-black horse, -which had never approached the female, they mounted a young boy, and -made them pass up and down in the churchyard by all the graves; and -wherever the animal refused to proceed, they concluded that particular -grave to be inhabited by a Vampyre. “They then open it,” says the -narrator, “and find within it a corpse equally fat and fair as a man -who is quietly sleeping.” By cutting off the head, and filling up the -trench, all danger was removed, and those who had been attacked were -gradually restored to their strength and faculties. - - - - - CHAPTER XV. - - JUGGLING. - - Feats of Jugglers formerly attributed to witchcraft--Anglo-Saxon - Gleemen--Norman Jugglers or Tregatours--Chaucer’s Description - of the Wonders performed by them--Means probably employed by - them--Recipe for making the Appearance of a Flood--Jugglers - fashionable in the Reign of Charles II.--Evelyn’s Account of a - Fire-eater--Katterfelto--Superiority of Asiatic and Eygptian - pretenders to magical Skill--Mandeville’s Account of Juggling - at the Court of the Great Khan--Extraordinary Feats witnessed - by the Emperor Jehanguire--Ibn Batuta’s Account of Hindustanee - Jugglers--Account of a Bramin who sat upon the Air--Egyptian - Jugglers--Mr. Lane’s Account of the Performance of one of - them--Another fails in satisfying Captain Scott. - - -The mountebanks who now exhibit on the travelling stage or cart, and -whose buffoonery pleases only the clown, were formerly thought to -practise witchcraft, or deal with some unlawful powers. - -The joculators, jugglours, or tregatours, of the Normans, were men of -much higher pretensions than the gleemen. Some of the delusions which -they practised could not have been performed without considerable -scientific knowledge. We have the authority of Chaucer for the fact, -that they “cheated the eyes with blear illusion,” in a manner which -may excuse ignorant spectators for having attributed the effect to -supernatural means. “In a large hall they will,” says he, “produce -water with boats rowed up and down upon it. Sometimes they will -bring in the similitude of a grim lion, or make flowers spring up in -a meadow; sometimes they cause a vine to flourish, bearing white and -red grapes; or show a castle built with stone, and when they please -they cause the whole to disappear.” He tells us, too, of a “learned -clerk, who showed to a friend forests filled with wild deer, where he -saw an hundred of them slain, some with hounds and some with arrows; -the hunting being finished, a company of falconers appeared upon the -banks of a fair river, where the birds pursued the herons and slew -them. He then saw knights jousting upon a plain,” and, which was a more -attractive sight, “the resemblance of his beloved lady dancing, which -occasioned him to dance also.” But when “the maister that this magike -wrought thought fit, he clapped his hands together, and all was gone -in an instante.” Another feat, which he describes as having himself -witnessed, is still more striking: - - “There saw I Coll Tregetour, - Upon a table of sycamour, - Play an uncouth thing to tell; - I saw him cary a wynde mell - Under a walnote shale.” - -It is probable that the deceptive effect was produced by the magic -lantern, and the concave mirror. With respect to the method “to make -the appearance of a flode of water to come into a house,” the following -recipe has been gravely handed down to us from our ancestors:--steep a -thread in the liquor produced from snake’s eggs bruised, and hang it up -over a basin of water in the place where the trick is to be performed. -Recipes of this kind were perhaps meant to mislead those who wished to -penetrate the mystery. - -In the reign of Charles the Second, jugglers appear to have been in -much repute with the great. In the “Diary” of Evelyn, under the date -of October 8th, 1672, we find the following notice: “I tooke my leave -of my Lady Sunderland; she made me stay dinner at Leicester House, -and afterwards sent for Richardson, the famous fire-eater. He melted -a beer-glass, and eat it quite up; then, taking a live coal on his -tongue, he put on it a raw oyster; the coal was blown on with bellows, -till it flamed and sparkled in his mouth, and so remained, till the -oyster gasped and was quite boiled; then he melted pitch and wax with -sulphur, which he drank down as it flamed; I saw it flaming in his -mouth a good while. He also took up a thick piece of iron, like an -ironing heater, and, when fiery-hot, held it between his teeth, then -in his hand, and threw it about like a stone; but this, I believe, -he cared not to hold very long.” Lady Sunderland seemed fond of such -exhibitions, as Mr. Evelyn recounts on another occasion, that “dining -with Lady Sunderland, I saw a fellow swallow a knife, and divers great -pebble stones, which could make a plain rattling one against another; -the knife was in sheath of horn.” - -Katterfelto, described by Cowper, as - - “With his hair on end, at his own wonders - Wondering for his bread,” - -was a compound of conjuror and quack-doctor, and seems at one time to -have enjoyed a great repute in his way. He practised on the people -of London, during the influenza of the year 1782, and added to his -nostrums the fascination of hocus-pocus. Among other philosophical -apparatus, he employed the services of some extraordinary black cats, -with which he astonished the ignorant, and confounded the vulgar. He -was not so successful out of London; as he was committed, by the Mayor -of Shrewsbury, to the common house of correction, as a vagrant and -impostor. - -But, though European jugglers have manifested great skill in the -various branches of their art, they appear to be far exceeded by -those of other parts of the world. Clavigero describes many of the -performances of Mexican professors; and adds that “the first Spaniards -who were witnesses of these and other exhibitions of the Mexicans -were so much astonished at their agility, that they suspected some -supernatural power assisted them.” - -It is, however, in the Asiatic and African quarters of the globe that -the art of deluding the eye by false presentments is to be found in -its perfection. Sir John Mandeville gives an account of an exhibition, -which took place before the Great Khan; “And be it done by craft, or -by nicromancy,” says he, “I wot not.” That, in an unenlightened age, -he should doubt whether “nicromancy” had not something to do with such -wonders is not astonishing. “They make,” he tells us, “the appearance -of the sun and the moon in the air; and then they make the night so -dark, that nothing can be seen; and again they restore the daylight, -and the sun shining brightly. Then they bring in dances of the fairest -damsels of the world, and the richest arrayed. Afterwards they make -other damsels to come in, bringing cups of gold, full of the milk of -divers animals, and give drink to the lords and ladies; and then they -make knights joust in arms full lustily, who run together, and in the -encounter break their spears so rudely, that the splinters fly all -about the hall. They also bring in a hunting of the hart and of the -boar, with hounds running at them open-mouthed; and many other things -they do by the craft of their enchantments, that are marvellous to see.” - -Mandeville has the reputation, not justly in every instance, of -being such “a measureless liar,” that his evidence in this case may, -perhaps, excite incredulity; but we must hesitate to disbelieve the -old traveller, when we find that similar, or even greater wonders -are attested by an unexceptionable witness, no less a personage than -Jehanguire, the Emperor of Hindustan. In his Autobiography, that -monarch enumerates no less than twenty-eight tricks, which were -played by Bengalee jugglers before him and his court, and at which he -expresses, as well he might, the utmost astonishment. One of them, -that of cutting a man in pieces, and then producing him alive and -perfect, resembles a trick which Ibn Batuta saw long before in China. -Another was the putting of seeds of curious trees into the earth, which -speedily grew to the height of two or three feet, and bore fruit. This -was repeated at Madras, not many years ago, on the lawn before the -Government-house. A mango stone was put into the ground, which, to all -appearance, rapidly sprung up into a fruit-bearing tree. Another of -the tricks exhibited before the emperor is equally marvellous: “They -produced a chain fifty cubits in length, and in my presence threw -one end of it towards the sky, where it remained, as if fastened to -something in the air. A dog was then brought forward, and, being placed -at the lower end of the chain, immediately ran up, and, reaching the -other end, immediately disappeared in the air. In the same manner, -a hog, a panther, a lion, and a tiger, were alternately sent up the -chain, and all equally disappeared at the upper end of the chain. At -last, they took down the chain and put it into a bag, no one ever -discerning in what way the different animals were made to vanish into -the air, in the mysterious manner above described. This, I may venture -to affirm, was beyond measure strange and surprising.” - -Ibn Batuta (the celebrated traveller, who has been called the Mahometan -Marco Polo of the fourteenth century), to whom a reference has already -been made, narrates delusions of the same kind, of which he was an -eye-witness. He informs us that, when he was once in the presence of -the Emperor of Hindustan, two Yogees came in, whom the monarch desired -to show him what he had never yet seen. They said, “‘We will.’ One of -them then assumed the form of a cube, and arose from the earth, and, -in this cubic shape, he occupied a place in the air over our heads. I -was so much astonished and terrified at this, that I fainted and fell -to the earth. The emperor then ordered me some medicine which he had -with him, and, upon taking this, I recovered and sat up; this cubic -figure still remaining in the air just as it had been. His companion -then took a sandal, belonging to one of those who had come out with -him, and struck it upon the ground as if he had been angry. The sandal -then ascended until it became opposite in situation with the cube. It -then struck it upon the neck, and the cube gradually descended to the -earth, and at last rested in the place it had left. The emperor then -told me that the man who took the form of a cube was a disciple to the -owner of the sandal. ‘And,’ continued he, ‘had I not entertained fears -for the safety of thy intellect, I should have ordered him to show thee -greater things than these.’ From this, however, I took a palpitation of -the heart, until the emperor ordered me a medicine, which restored me.” - -It is not more than seven years since a Bramin died at Madras, who was -accustomed to perform apparently the difficult feat of sitting on the -air. He did not exhibit for money, but merely as an act of courtesy. -Forty minutes is said to have been the longest time that he ever -remained in this extraordinary situation; the usual time seems to have -been about twelve minutes. An eye-witness thus describes the act and -the preparation for it: “The only apparatus seen is a piece of plank, -which, with four pegs, he forms into a kind of long stool; upon this, -in a little brass saucer or socket, he places, in a perpendicular -position, a hollow bamboo, over which he puts a kind of crutch, like -that of a walking-crutch, covering that with a piece of common hide; -these materials he carries with him in a little bag, which is shown to -those who come to see him exhibit. The servants of the house hold a -blanket before him, and, when it is withdrawn, he is discovered poised -in the air, about four feet from the ground, in a sitting attitude, the -outer edge of one hand merely touching the crutch; the fingers of that -hand deliberately counting beads; the other hand and arm held up in an -erect posture. The blanket was then held up before him, and they heard -a gurgling noise, like that occasioned by wind escaping from a bladder -or tube, and, when the screen was withdrawn, he was again standing on -_terra firma_. The same man has the power of staying under water for -several hours. He declines to explain how he does it, merely saying he -has been long accustomed to do so.” - -The Bramin died without communicating his secret, and though attempts -were made to explain it, none of them were satisfactory. It was -asserted by a native that it is treated of in the Shasters, and depends -upon the art of fully suppressing the breath, and of cleansing the -tubular organs of the body, joined to a peculiar mode of drawing, -retaining, and ejecting the breath--an explanation which leaves the -mystery as dark as ever. - -Egypt, which, more than thirty centuries ago, produced men so confident -of their magical skill as to venture to emulate the miracles of Moses, -still has pretenders to preternatural powers. The modern magicians -seem by no means to be a degenerate race. One of their modes of -delusion is “the magic mirror of ink,” and the address with which -they manage the trick is really wonderful, and, indeed, inexplicable. -It is performed by pouring ink into the hand of a boy not arrived at -puberty, an unmarried woman, or a woman who is “as ladies wish to be -who love their lords.” The boy is told to look into the ink, and to -say what he sees. Mr. Lane, in his recent valuable work on Egypt, -has described the operation, and he declares his utter inability to -account for the result. “After some preliminary ceremonies had been -gone through, the magician,” says he, “addressed himself to me, and -asked me if I wished the boy to see any person who was absent or dead. -I named Lord Nelson, of whom the boy had evidently never heard; for -it was with much difficulty he pronounced the name, after several -trials. The magician desired the boy to say to the Sooltan, ‘My master -salutes thee, and desires thee to bring Lord Nelson: bring him before -my eyes, that I may see him, speedily.’ The boy then said so; and -almost immediately added, ‘A messenger is gone, and has returned, and -has brought a man, dressed in a black[15] suit of European clothes; -the man has lost his left arm.’ He then paused for a moment or two, -and, looking more intently and more closely into the ink, he said, ‘No, -he has not lost his left arm, but it is placed to his breast.’ This -correction made his description more striking than it had been without -it; since Lord Nelson generally had his empty sleeve attached to his -coat: but it was the _right_ arm that he had lost. Without saying that -I suspected the boy had made a mistake, I asked the magician whether -the objects appeared in the ink as if actually before the eyes, or as -if in a glass, which makes the right appear left. He answered, that -they appeared as in a mirror. This rendered the boy’s description -faultless.” Mr. Lane adds, “A short time since, after performing in -the usual manner, by means of a boy, he prepared the magic mirror -in the hand of a young English lady, who, on looking into it for a -little while, said that she saw a broom sweeping the ground without -any body holding it, and was so much frightened that she would look -no longer.” To make this appearance understood, it must be mentioned, -that the first thing seen in the mirror is the sweeping of the ground -by a broom. In the case of Lord Nelson, however, the broom was in the -hands of a man. The boy is said not to have been a confederate of the -magician. - -The same experiment was tried, at another time, in the presence of -Captain Scott; but, in this instance, the conjuror seems to have been -less a proficient in his trade than the one who was employed by Mr. -Lane, and the result was unsatisfactory to the captain. - - - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - PRODIGIES. - - Hold taken on the public Mind by Prodigies--Dutch Boy with Hebrew - Words on the Iris of each Eye--Boy with the word Napoleon - in the Eye--Child with a Golden Tooth--Speculations on the - Subject--Superstition respecting changeling Children in the - Isle of Man--Waldron’s Description of a Changeling--Cases of - extraordinary Sleepers--The Seven Sleepers of Ephesus--Men - supposed, in the northern Regions, to be frozen during the - Winter, and afterwards thawed into Life again--Dr. Oliver’s - Case of a Sleeper near Bath--Dr. Cheyne’s Account of Colonel - Townshend’s power of voluntarily suspending Animation--Man buried - alive for a Month at Jaisulmer--The Manner of his Burial, and his - Preparation for it. - - -Prodigies of every kind, moral or physical, have ever taken hold of -the imagination of the public, nor has the better education of some -prevented them from lending a greedy ear to accounts of such phenomena, -and the belief of the vulgar has thus been sanctioned and strengthened. -Many, from interested speculation, have pretended to undergo most -extraordinary privations, or to be independent of the established laws -of nature; such impostures met with a very flattering reception in the -earlier part of the eighteenth century. - -Mr. Evelyn mentions a Dutch boy, eight or nine years old, who was -carried about by his parents as a show. He had about the iris of one -eye the words Deus meus, and about the other Eloihim, in the Hebrew -characters. How this was done by artifice none could imagine, and -his parents affirmed he was born so. Three years before this period, -in 1699, Mr. C. Ellis wrote to Dr. Edw. Tyson, that he had seen the -Friesland boy, “round the pupils of whose eyes, they pretend, are -naturally engraved the above words. This is looked upon as a prodigious -miracle, in these parts, but, upon more nicely surveying it, I could -perceive it was only the iris not circularly joined, but lashed into -fimbriæ, which might be thought to form imaginary letters; there is -something like D. J. and V., but not a footstep for the strongest fancy -to work out any more. But it was like to have been of danger to me to -have discovered this trick; for acquainting a gentleman in English of -this cheat, one of the mob happened to understand it, and I was forced -to make the best of my way.” It is hardly three years since a lad was -exhibited in London, who is said to have had “Napoleon,” in distinct -letters, written in his eye. There is little doubt, if this was really -the case, but it was the result of artificial rather than natural, -causes. - -The eyes are not the only part of the head in which miraculous -appearances have been supposed to be manifested. In 1593, it was -reported that a child of seven years old, in Silesia, having shed -its teeth, a double tooth had been replaced by one of gold. This -phenomenon soon brought a number of learned men into the field, to -dissertate upon the wonder. Horst, more generally known under his -Latinized name of Horstius, who was a professor of medicine, and really -a man of abilities, wrote in raptures upon the subject. According -to his idea, the production of the tooth was partly a natural and -partly a miraculous event, and was intended by Heaven to console the -Christians for the perils to which they were exposed from the Turks. -How consolation was to be derived from such a source, it would not -be easy to discover. Horst was followed by Martin Ruland, another -physician, who published a treatise called “Nova et omni Memoriâ -omnino inaudita Hist. de Aureo Dente,” &c. Two years after Ruland had -given his tract to the world, the opinions which it broached were -controverted by Ingesteterus; and were immediately defended, in another -dissertation, by Ruland. Lastly, the pen was taken up by Libavius, an -eminent chemist and physician, the first proposer of the transfusion -of blood. Unhappily, all this labour and erudition were thrown away. -Some one had, at last, the good sense to institute an inquiry as to the -reality of the miracle; and, to the great discomfort of the literary -and non-literary believers, it was discovered that the tooth was gilt. - -Waldron, in his Description of the Isle of Man, says, “The old story -of infants being changed in their cradles is here in such credit, -that mothers are in continual terror at the thoughts of it. I was -prevailed on,” says he, “to go and see a child, who, as they told -me, was one of these changelings, and indeed I must own I was not a -little surprised and shocked at the sight. Nothing under heaven could -have a more beautiful face; though between five and six years old, -and seemingly healthy, he was so far from being able to walk, that -he could not so much as move a joint; his limbs were vastly long for -his age, but smaller than an infant’s of six months; his complexion -perfectly delicate, and he had the finest hair in the world. He never -spoke or cried, ate scarce any thing, and was very seldom seen to -smile; but if any one called him fairy elf he would frown, and fix his -eyes so earnestly on those who had said it, as if he would look them -through. His mother, or supposed mother, being poor, frequently went -out a-charing and left home a whole day together; the neighbours, out -of curiosity, have often looked in at the window to see how he behaved -alone, which whenever they did, they were sure to find him laughing and -in the utmost delight. This made them judge that he was not without -company, more pleasing to him than any mortal; and what made this seem -more reasonable was, that if he was left ever so dirty, the woman, at -her return, saw him with a clean face, and hair combed with the utmost -exactness.” - -Instances have been often recorded of extraordinary sleepers, which, -supposing them to have been true, have puzzled physiologists to account -for. So many eccentricities in the animal economy have been proved by -a careful investigation to be impostures, that it is but natural to -suppose them all to have been feigned, to accomplish some particular -purpose. - -The popular tale of the Seven Sleepers has had a most extended -circulation, and, as a divine revelation, was extensively believed -among the Mahometans. When the emperor Decius persecuted the -Christians, seven noble youths of Ephesus concealed themselves in a -spacious cavern, the entrance to which the tyrant ordered should be -firmly secured with a pile of stones. They immediately fell into a deep -slumber, which was miraculously prolonged, without injuring the powers -of life, during a period of one hundred and eighty-seven years. After -this slumber, as they thought, of a few hours, they were pressed by -the calls of hunger, and it was resolved that Jamblichus, one of them, -should secretly return to the city for bread. The _youth_ could hardly -recognise his native city, and, to his surprise, a large cross was -triumphantly erected over the principal gate of Ephesus. His singular -dress and obsolete language confounded the baker, to whom he offered an -ancient medal of Decius, as the current coin of the empire. Taken up -on suspicion, he found that two centuries had nearly elapsed since his -escape from the tyrant. The bishop of Ephesus, the clergy, and others, -hastened to visit the cave of the Seven Sleepers, who bestowed their -benediction, and peaceably expired. - -Arguing from analogy, it was supposed that the inhabitants of the -colder regions hibernated, as certain smaller animals are known to do. -Baron Herberstein, in his Commentaries on Russian History, asserts, -that there are in the northern parts of Muscovy, near the river Oby, -on the borders of Tartary, a people he calls Leucomori, who sleep -from the 27th day of November till the 23d of April, like tortoises, -under ground, and then come to life again, though quite frozen all -the winter. This gentleman was a creditable sort of person, and twice -ambassador in Russia, from Ferdinand the emperor. It is most likely, -however, that in points of this nature he was contented to rely on the -reports of others. - -Dr. Oliver has given to the world “a relation of an extraordinary -sleeping person, at Finsbury, near Bath;” the truth of which he seemed -not to doubt. Samuel Chilton, in May, 1694, fell into a profound -sleep, out of which no art could rouse him, till after a month’s time: -during this time, food and drink were put before him, which always -disappeared, though no one ever saw him eat or drink. - -Two years afterwards, he slept seventeen weeks, and in the following -year for five months, with only one intermission for a few minutes. It -does not appear, from the relation, that there was reason to suspect -any imposture; yet it was rather remarkable that the stimulus of hunger -should have induced him, though asleep, to eat and drink whatever was -put before him, and yet the most powerful stimuli applied in other -forms should have made no impression upon him. - -This protracted sleep, strange as it is, does not, however, appear -so wonderful as the power of voluntarily suspending animation, and -returning to life, after a considerable time has elapsed. A remarkable -case of this kind is recorded by the celebrated Doctor Cheyne, in his -“English Malady.” The patient was a Colonel Townshend, “a man of great -honour and integrity,” who had long been suffering under an acute -nephritic disorder, attended with constant vomitings, which made life -a burden to him. Early one morning, he sent for his two physicians, -Dr. Cheyne and Dr. Baynard; they went, accompanied by Mr. Skrine, -his apothecary, and found his senses clear, and his mind perfectly -collected. He had, he said, sent for them that they might give him -“some account of an odd sensation which he had for some time observed -and felt in himself, which was, that composing himself, he could die -or expire when he pleased, and yet, by an effort, or somehow, he could -come to life again, which (says Cheyne) it seems he had sometimes tried -before he had sent for us.” - -The physicians were naturally surprised at this communication, and -reluctant to believe a fact which was seemingly so improbable. Yet they -hesitated to allow of his making the experiment before them, lest, -in his debilitated state, he might carry it too far. He, however, -insisted so strongly on their seeing the trial made, that they at last -consented. “We all three,” says Cheyne, “felt his pulse first; it -was distinct, though small and thready; and his heart had its usual -beating. He composed himself on his back, and lay in a still position -some time; while I held his right hand, Dr. Baynard laid his hand on -his heart, and Mr. Skrine held a clean looking-glass to his mouth. I -found his pulse sink gradually, till at last I could not feel any by -the most exact and nice touch. Dr. Baynard could not find the least -motion in his heart, nor Mr. Skrine the least soil of breath on the -bright mirror which he held to his mouth; then each of us by turns -examined his arm, heart, and breath, but could not, by the nicest -scrutiny, discover the least symptom of life in him. We reasoned a -long time about this odd appearance as well as we could, and all of -us judging it inexplicable and unaccountable, we began to conclude -that he had indeed carried the experiment too far, and at last were -satisfied he was actually dead, and were just ready to leave him. -This continued about half an hour, by nine o’clock in the morning, in -autumn. As we were going away we observed some motion about the body, -and, upon examination, found his pulse and the motion of his heart -gradually returning: he began to breathe gently, and speak softly; -we were all astonished to the last degree of astonishment at this -unexpected change, and after some farther conversation with him, and -among ourselves, went away fully satisfied as to all the particulars -of this fact, but confounded and puzzled, and not able to form any -rational scheme that might account for it. He afterwards called for -his attorney, added a codicil to his will, settled legacies on his -servants, received the sacrament, and calmly and composedly expired -about six o’clock that evening.” - -A case of voluntary death and resuscitation, still more remarkable, -because the individual by whom the act was performed was buried alive, -and remained for a month in his tomb, has recently occurred in India. -The fact appears to be authenticated by unexceptionable evidence. The -account is given in a letter, by Lieutenant A. H. Boileau, an officer -of engineers, who is employed on the extensive trigonometrical survey -of India. “I have (says he) just witnessed a singular circumstance, -of which I had heard during our stay at this place, but said nothing -about it before, the time for its accomplishment not being completed. -This morning, however, the full month was over, and a man who had been -buried all that time, on the bank of a tank near our camp, was dug -out alive, in the presence of Esur-Lal, one of the ministers of the -Muhar-wull of Jaisulmer, on whose account this singular individual was -voluntarily interred a month ago. - -“The man is said, by long practice, to have acquired the art of holding -his breath by shutting the mouth, and stopping the interior opening of -the nostrils with his tongue; he also abstains from solid food for some -days previous to his interment, so that he may not be inconvenienced -by the contents of his stomach, while put up in his narrow grave; and, -moreover, he is sown up in a bag of cloth, and the cell is lined with -masonry and floored with cloth, that the white ants and other insects -may not easily be able to molest him. The place in which he was buried -at Jaisulmer is a small building about twelve feet by eight, built of -stone; and in the floor was a hole about three feet long, two and a -half feet wide, and the same depth, or perhaps a yard deep, in which he -was placed in a sitting posture, sewed up in his shroud, with his feet -turned inwards towards the stomach, and his hands also pointed inwards -towards the chest. Two heavy slabs of stone, five or six feet long, -several inches thick, and broad enough to cover the mouth of the grave, -so that he could not escape, were then placed over him, and I believe a -little earth was plastered over the whole, so as to make the surface of -the grave smooth and compact. The door of the house was also built up, -and people placed outside, that no tricks might be played nor deception -practised. At the expiration of a full month, that is to say, this -morning, the walling of the door was broken, and the buried man dug out -of the grave; Trevelyan’s moonshee only running there in time to see -the ripping open of the bag in which the man had been enclosed. He was -taken out in a perfectly senseless state, his eyes closed, his hands -cramped and powerless, his stomach shrunk very much, and his teeth -jammed so fast together, that they were forced to open his mouth with -an iron instrument to pour a little water down his throat. He gradually -recovered his senses and the use of his limbs; and when we went to see -him was sitting up, supported by two men, and conversed with us in a -low, gentle tone of voice, saying that ‘we might bury him again for a -twelvemonth, if we pleased.’” - -That his powers of abstinence are great, there can be no doubt; as -Cornet Macnaghten once suspended him for thirteen days, shut up in a -wooden box. During the time that he is buried, his hair ceases to grow. -Previously to his being buried he lives entirely upon milk, regulating -the quantity in such a manner as to be just sufficient for sustaining -life. After his release, and on his first taking food, he is said to -feel some anxiety, till he has ascertained that the faculties of his -stomach and bowels are not injured. - - - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - THE DELUSIONS OF ALCHEMY. - - Origin of Alchemy--Argument for Transmutation--Golden - Age of Alchemy--Alchemists in the 13th century--Medals - metaphorically described--Jargon of Dr. Dee--The Green - Lion--Roger Bacon--Invention of Gunpowder--Imprisonment - of Alchemists--Edict of Henry VI.--Pope John XXII.--Pope - Sixtus V.--Alchemy applied to Medicine--Paracelsus--Evelyn’s - hesitation about Alchemy--Narrative of Helvetius--Philadept - on Alchemy--Rosicrucians--A Vision--Hayden’s description of - Rosicrucians--Dr. Price--Mr. Woulfe--Mr. Kellerman. - - -The subject of Alchemy occupies so large a space in the humiliating -history of the misapplication of talent, as to justify a particular -inquiry into the causes of its origin, the grounds of its success, and -the reason of its gradual decline. So much mysticism and fondness for -ambiguity exist in the writings of the hermetic philosophers, as they -were called, that it will not be surprising to find accounts of the -origin of the science wrapped in equally extraordinary language. - -To begin with Adam: he is said to have foreseen the deluge, and, for -the purpose of providing against that catastrophe, to have erected -two tables of stone, which contained the foundation of this wisdom. -One of them, after the flood, was found on Mount Ararat. Alchemy has -as frequently been called the hermetic art, as it is more generally -supposed to have been invented by Hermes, King of Egypt, and master -of this science, when Egypt was the garden of God. According to -chronologers, his era was before that of Moses. This was the true -philosopher’s stone, which so enriched that kingdom, and by means of -which all the arts flourished; but in quest of which so many persons -of all nations and ages have since fruitlessly consumed both their -fortunes and lives. Unlike their baffled successors, the Egyptians -increased their wealth to that immense degree, that they studied means -how to expend their exuberant stores in the erection of pyramids, -obelisks, colossuses, monuments, pensile gardens, cities, and the -labyrinth, and in forming the immense lake Mœris, and the like -stupendous works, which cost so many millions of talents. “All these -(say the believers in the science) are sufficient arguments of their -skill in alchemy, whence they received so vast a supply of riches; -for, since no authors mention any gold mines in the time of Osiris, or -Hermes, whence could they have acquired such exceeding great wealth, -but from the chemical art of transmuting metals?” - -The Egyptian priests, under a promise of secrecy, communicated the -knowledge they possessed to the Alexandrian Greeks. The actual -possession of much lucrative knowledge, and the reputation of still -more valuable secrets, would attract the notice of the credulous -and ignorant. With many the extent of the science was confined to -the refining of metals, and preparations of chemical compounds; but -the theoretical alchemist having in view a certain mysterious and -unattainable object, despised the occupation of the mere chemist, and -from policy, or want of clear ideas on the subject, the language of his -art became more and more obscure. Knaves and impostors crept in, and, -by impositions on the unwary and credulous, indemnified themselves for -the ill success of their experiments. - -Those chemists who assumed the pompous title of alchemists, were -persuaded that all metals were no other than nature’s rude unfinished -essays towards the making of gold; which, by means of due coction in -the bowels of the earth, advanced gradually towards maturity, till at -last they were perfected into that beautiful metal. Their endeavours, -therefore, were to finish what nature had begun, by procuring for -the imperfect metals this much-desired coction; and upon this grand -principle all their processes were dependent. - -The golden age of alchemy commenced, properly speaking, with the -conquests of Arabian fanaticism in Asia and Africa, about the time -of the destruction of the Alexandrian Library, and the subjection -of Europe to the basest superstition. The Saracens, lively, subtle, -and credulous, intimate with the fables of talismans and celestial -influences, admitted, with eager faith, the wonders of alchemy. The -rage of making gold spread through the whole Mahometan world; and in -the splendid courts of Almansor and Haroun Al Raschid, the professors -of the hermetic art found patronage, disciples, and emolument. - -About the thirteenth century, Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, and Raymond -Lully, appeared as the revivers of this science, which had been nearly -lost in the interval from the tenth century; their writings again -raised alchemy to a very high degree of credit, and their adventures -as well as those of their disciples partake more of the character -of oriental romance than the results of philosophic study. The most -celebrated of the alchemic philosophers were not only the companions of -princes, but many of them were even kings themselves, who chose this -royal road to wealth and magnificence. - -No delusion in the world ever excited so extensive and long-continued -an interest, or rather it might be called madness; though it now seems -wonderful how the fallacy of it should have escaped detection during -a period of seven or eight hundred years, when so many causes for -suspicion and disappointment must have occurred amongst its professors; -but the fond idea seems to have been strengthened by this want of -success, which was attributed to any cause rather than the proper one. - -An alchemist, in his writings, complains of the difficulties attending -the search after the Immortal Dissolvent, as the grand agent in the -operations was sometimes called; and very feelingly asserts, that the -principal one is the want of subsistence or money, as without a supply -of the latter to buy glasses, build furnaces, etc., the operations -cannot go on. - -The several metals were described metaphorically, as plants, animals, -&c., and mystical allusions were made to the sacred Scriptures, -in confirmation of the truth of the science, by the most forced -interpretations of certain passages: as for instance--“He struck the -stone and water poured out, and he poured oil out of the flinty rock;” -and the whole composition of the philosopher’s stone was thought to -be contained in the four verses, beginning, “He stretched forth the -heavens as a curtain, the waters stood above the mountains.” - -The descriptions of the several necessary processes partook of such -figurative language, as none but the adepts could possibly understand. -Dr. Dee, in the fulness of his wisdom, thus instructs his disciples: -“The contemplative order of the Rosie-cross have presented to the world -angels, spirits, plants, and metals, with the times in astromancy -and geomancy to prepare and unite them telesmatically. This is the -substance which at present in our study is the child of the sun and -moon, placed between two fires, and in the darkest night receives a -light from the stars and retains it. The angels and intelligences are -attracted by a horrible emptiness, and attend the astrolasms for ever. -He hath in him a thick fire, by which he captivates the thin genii. -That you may know the Rosicrusian philosophy, endeavour to know God -himself, the worker of all things; now I will demonstrate in what -thing, of what thing, and by what thing, is the medicine or multiplier -of metals to be made It is even in the nature, of the nature, and by -the nature, of metals; for it is a principle of all philosophy that -Nature cannot be bettered but in her own nature. Common gold and silver -are dead, and except they be renewed by art, that is, except their -seeds, which are naturally included in them, be projected into their -natural earth, by which means they are mortified and revived, like as -the grain of wheat that is dead.” This is somewhat worse than what Mr. -Burke denominated a gipsy jargon. - -The powder of transmutation, the grand means of projection, was to be -got at by the following process, in which it was typified as the Green -Lion: “In the Green Lion’s bed the sun and moon are born, they are -married, and beget a king; the king feeds on the lion’s blood, which is -the king’s father and mother, who are, at the same time, his brother -and sister. I fear I betray the secret, which I promised my master to -conceal in dark speech from every one who does not know how to rule -the philosopher’s fire.” One would imagine, in the present day, that -there was very little fear of being accused of too rashly divulging the -important secret by such explanations. Our ancestors must have had a -much greater talent than we have for finding out enigmas, if they were -able to elicit a meaning from these mystical, or rather nonsensical, -sentences. - -Roger Bacon was the first English alchemist. He was born in 1214. -Popular belief attributed to him the contrivance of a machine to rise -in the air, and convey a chariot more speedily than by horses; and also -the art of putting statues in motion, and drawing articulate sounds -from brazen heads. From this it appears that he had made considerable -progress in the formation of automata. There can be no doubt that he -discovered the mode of making gunpowder; in his works the secret may be -found, veiled under an anagram. The discovery has, however, on doubtful -authority, been ascribed to Berthold Schwartz, a German Benedictine -friar, who lived about the middle of the fourteenth century. In an -old print, the _merit_ of the invention is ascribed to the devil, who -is represented as prompting the friar’s operations, and enjoying their -success. - -Can we be surprised, that in an age of ignorance, the wonderful doings -of Bacon obtained for him the name of a magician, and the friars of -his own order refused to admit his works into their library, as though -he was a man who ought to be proscribed by society? His persecution -increased till 1278, when he was imprisoned, and obliged to own that he -repented of the pains he had taken in the arts and sciences; and he was -at last constrained to abandon the house of his order. - -The credulity and avarice of princes often caused them to arrest -alchemists, and, by means of the torture, endeavour to force them to -multiply gold, or furnish the powder of projection, that it might -be ready for use at any time; but it was generally found that, like -poetical composition, perfect freedom of thought and action were -necessary to so desirable an end. - -There is an edict of Henry VI. king of England, in letters patent to -lords, nobles, doctors, professors, and priests, to engage them in the -pursuit of the philosopher’s stone, especially the priests, who having -power (says the pious king) to convert bread and wine into the body and -blood of Christ, may well convert an impure into a perfect metal. - -Even Pope John XXII., the father of the church, was weak enough to -become an adept; he worked at the practice of hermetic philosophy in -Avignon, and at his death were found eighteen millions of florins in -gold, and seven millions in jewels and sacred vases. Notwithstanding -his writing a treatise on alchemy, and making transmutations, yet such -was the mischief arising in his times from the knavery of pretended -alchemists, that he issued a bull, condemning all traders in this -science as impostors. - -Pope Sixtus V. had a true idea of the real value of this science; for, -when one presented to him a book on alchemy, his holiness gave the -author an empty purse, emblematic of the vanity of the study. - -In the fifteenth century this science was applied to medical uses, -and the preparations of mercury, antimony, and other metals, were -used with the happiest success. The unexpected success which attended -the first exhibition of chemical preparations awakened a new hope in -the minds of the alchemists, which was no less than the discovery of -a universal medicine, an elixir vitæ, for conferring immortality and -perpetual youth and health. Paracelsus and Van Helmont entertained -these visionary speculations; and the hopes of possessing a universal -solvent long haunted the imaginations of writers on chemistry. - -Paracelsus was born in 1494; he practised physic in Basle, and the -following circumstance induced him to leave it. A canon was in extreme -sickness, and the physicians forsook him, as incurable: Paracelsus -saw him, and promised to restore him to health. The canon expressed -himself gratefully, as one who would feel the obligation, and make -him a suitable recompense. Two pills performed the cure; which was no -sooner effected, than the canon undervalued it, and contended against -the claim of the doctor: he had been _cured too soon_. The magistrates -were applied to, and they awarded Paracelsus a very moderate fee, -proportioned to his short attendance; so, in disgust, he quitted -the city, and declared that he would leave the inhabitants of Basle -to the eternal destruction which they deserved. He then retired to -Strasburg, and thence into Hungary, where he took to drinking; he died -in great poverty, at Saltzburg, in 1541. Oporinus, who served him as -his pupil, said he often saw him in great want, borrowing money of -carmen and porters, and the next day he would repay them double from a -fund that could not be discovered. His proper name was Philip Aureolus -Theophrastus Paracelsus Bombastus, of Hohenheim; and his disciples -add, “Prince of Physicians, Philosopher of Fire, the Trismegistus of -Switzerland, Reformer of Alchemistical Philosophy, Nature’s faithful -Secretary, Master of the Elixir of Life, and Philosopher’s Stone, Great -Monarch of Chemical Secrets.” - -The ingenious Mr. Evelyn, both a sensible and learned man, seems -to have been unwilling to deny the truth of what had so often been -asserted to him; in his entertaining “Diary,” he says, “June 4th, 1705, -the season very dry and hot; I went to see Dr. Dickenson, the famous -chymist; we had a long conversation about the philosopher’s elixir, -which he believed attainable, and himself had seen it performed, by -one who went under the name of Mundanus, who sometimes came among the -adepts, but was unknown as to his country or abode. The doctor has -written a treatise in Latin, full of astonishing relations; he is a -very learned man, formerly of St John’s, Oxford, where he practised -physic.” - -Being in Paris, Mr. Evelyn visited Marc Antonio, an ingenious -enameller, who told him two or three stories of men who had the great -arcanum, and who had successfully made projection before him several -times. “This,” says Evelyn, who obviously hesitated between doubt and -belief, “Antonio asserted with great obtestation; nor know I what to -think of it, there are so many impostors, and people who love to tell -strange stories, as this artist did; who had been a great rover, and -spake ten different languages.” - -The most celebrated history of transmutation is that given by -Helvetius, in his “Brief of the Golden Calf.” It is thus given by -Mr. Brande. “The 27th day of December, 1666, came a stranger to my -house at the Hague, in a plebeick habit, of honest gravity and serious -authority, of a mean stature, and a little long face, black hair not -at all curled, a beardless chin, and about forty-four years of age, -and born in North Holland. After salutation, he beseeched me, with -great reverence, to pardon his rude access, for he was a lover of the -pyrotechnian art, and having read my treatise against the sympathetic -powder of Sir Kenelm Digby, and observed my doubt about the philosophic -mystery, induced him to ask me if I really was a disbeliever as to the -existence of an universal medicine, which would cure all diseases, -unless the principal parts were perished, or the predestinated time -of death come. I replied, I never met with an adept, or saw such a -medicine, though I had fervently prayed for it. Then I said, ‘Surely, -you are a learned physician.’ ‘No,’ said he, ‘I am a brass-founder, -and a lover of chemistry.’ He then took from his bosom-pouch a neat -ivory box, and out of it three ponderous lumps of stone, each about -the bigness of a walnut. I greedily saw and handled this most noble -substance, the value of which might be somewhere about twenty tons -of gold; and having drawn from the owner many rare secrets of its -admirable effects, I returned him this treasure of treasures with a -most sorrowful mind, humbly beseeching him to bestow a fragment of it -upon me, in perpetual memory of him, though but the size of a coriander -seed. ‘No, no,’ said he, ‘that is not lawful, though thou wouldest give -me as many golden ducats as would fill this room; for it would have -particular consequences, and if fire could be burned of fire, I would -at this instant rather cast it into the fiercest flames.’ He then asked -if I had a private chamber, whose prospect was from the public street; -so I presently conducted him to my best furnished room backwards, -which he entered, (said Helvetius, in the true spirit of Dutch -cleanliness,) without wiping his shoes, which were full of snow and -dirt. I now expected he would bestow some great secret upon me, but in -vain. He asked for a piece of gold, and opening his doublet, showed me -five pieces of that precious metal, which he wore upon a green riband, -and which very much excelled mine in flexibility and colour, each being -the size of a small trencher. I now earnestly again craved a crumb of -the stone, and at last, out of his philosophical commiseration, he gave -me a morsel as large as a rape-seed, but I said, ‘This scanty portion -will scarcely transmute four grains of lead.’ ‘Then,’ said he, ‘deliver -it me back;’ which I did, in hopes of a greater parcel; but he, cutting -off half with his nail, said, ‘Even this is sufficient for thee.’ -‘Sir,’ said I, with a dejected countenance, ‘what means this?’ And he -said, ‘Even that will transmute half an ounce of lead.’ So I gave him -great thanks, and said, ‘I would try it, and reveal it to no one.’ He -then took his leave, and said he would call again next morning at nine. -I then confessed, that while the mass of his medicine was in my hand -the day before, I had secretly scraped off a bit with my nail, which -I projected in lead, but it caused no transmutation, for the whole -flew away in fumes. ‘Friend,’ said he, ‘thou art more dexterous in -committing theft, than in applying medicine. Hadst thou wrapped up thy -stolen prey in yellow wax, it would have penetrated, and transmuted the -lead into gold.’ I then asked, if the philosophic work cost much, or -required long time, for philosophers say, that nine or ten months are -required for it. He answered, ‘Their writings are only to be understood -by the adepts, without whom no student can prepare this magistery. -Fling not away, therefore, thy money and goods in hunting out this art, -for thou shalt never find it.’ To which I replied, ‘As thy master -showed it thee, so mayest thou, perchance, discover something thereof -to me, who know the rudiments, and therefore it may be easier to add -to a foundation than begin anew.’ ‘In this art,’ said he, ‘it is quite -otherwise; for, unless thou knowest the thing from head to heel, thou -canst not break open the glassy seal of Hermes. But enough: to-morrow, -at the ninth hour, I will show thee the manner of projection.’ But -Elias never came again; so my wife, who was curious in the art whereof -the worthy man had discovered, teased me to make the experiment with -the little spark of bounty the artist had left. So I melted half -an ounce of lead, upon which, my wife put in the said medicine; it -hissed and bubbled, and in a quarter of an hour the mass of lead was -transmuted into fine gold, at which we were exceedingly amazed. I -took it to the goldsmith, who judged it most excellent, and willingly -offered fifty florins for each ounce.” - -The accumulated disappointments of several centuries, in the -prosecution of this science or discovery, did not eradicate the belief -in its practicability; and, so late as the year 1698, one, humbly -styling himself Philadept, wrote a book concerning adepts, not proving -that they did exist, but leaving the _onus probandi_ to those who were -sceptical on the subject. Indeed, it was a generally received opinion, -in the seventeenth century, that the philosopher’s stone did really -exist; and the gravity and sincerity of the authors who discoursed of -it, prove this. Philadept says, “It is evidently unreasonable to assert -or deny any thing without reason; no man can give any good reason, -importing that there is no such thing as the philosopher’s stone. On -the contrary, there are many reasons to believe there is such a thing. -There is a tradition of it in the world: there are many books on that -subject, written by men that show an extraordinary gravity, sincerity, -and fear of God, and who solemnly and sacredly protest they have -wrought it with their own hands; and, besides, they have, at several -times, shown the effects of it before divers witnesses, whereof there -are too many instances to reject this proof. Then, they lay down -principles which appear rational to any one that considers them. There -have been, also, too many great cures performed by philosophers, to be -reasonably questioned by them who _are_ acquainted with those matters. -Those that _are not_, ought not, in reason, to determine against -it. My intention is not to dispute about the principles of hermetic -philosophy, they have been established by many authors beyond dispute, -but most clearly and invincibly by the learned Gasto Claveus of any I -know.” - -Passages in Scripture, as has been stated above, were often brought -forward in corroboration of the theory of alchemy, and it resulted, -in the course of time, that a religious sect arose, who blended the -mysteries of the Christian religion with the several processes of -alchemy towards the grand regeneration of metals; a species of allegory -understood and to be interpreted only by the disciples of that order, -known by the name of Rosie Cross; its symbol being four red roses -arranged in a crucial form. - -In later times there have been a few believers in transmutation. In -the year 1782, Dr. Price, of Guildford, by means of a white and red -powder, professed to convert mercury into silver and gold; and he is -said to have convinced many disbelievers of the possibility of such -a change. His experiments were repeated seven times before learned -and intelligent persons, who themselves furnished all the materials -except the powders, which were to operate the transmutation. These -powders were in very small quantity. By whatever means it may have been -accomplished, it is certain that gold and silver were produced. But, -admitting that, with respect to its production, Price was an impostor, -it is indubitable that he must have been in possession of one valuable -secret, that of fixing mercury, so as not to evaporate in a red heat. -Price published an account of these experiments, but stated that he had -expended the whole of his powder, and that he could not obtain more, -except by a tedious process, which had already injured his health, and -which, therefore, he would not repeat. He died in the following year, -and his death was attributed to his having swallowed laurel-water, in -order to evade further scrutiny and the detection of his imposture. The -fact of his having poisoned himself is at least doubtful. - -Another true believer in the mysteries of this art, says Mr. Brande, -was Peter Woulfe. He occupied chambers in Barnard’s Inn, when he -resided in London. His rooms, which were extensive, were so filled with -furnaces and apparatus, that it was difficult to reach his fireside. A -gentleman once put down his hat, and never could find it again, such -was the confusion of boxes, packages, and parcels, that lay about the -chamber. Woulfe had long vainly searched for the elixir, and attributed -his repeated failures to the want of due preparation by pious and -charitable acts. Some of his apparatus is said to have been extant -since his death, upon which are supplications for success, and for the -welfare of the adepts. He had an heroic remedy for illness: when he -felt himself seriously indisposed, he took a place in the Edinburgh -mail, and, having reached that city, immediately came back in the -returning coach to London. He died in 1805. - -The last of the English alchemists seems to have been a gentleman of -the name of Kellerman, who, as lately as 1828, was living at Lilley, -a village between Luton and Hitchin. He was a singular character, -who shunned all society, carried six loaded pistols in his pockets, -barricaded his house, and filled his ground with spring-guns. The -interior of his dilapidated mansion was a complete chaos. He pretended -to have discovered the universal solvent, the art of fixing mercury, -and the powder of projection. With the last of these he had, he said, -made gold, and could make as much as he pleased. He kept eight men -for the purpose of superintending his crucibles, two at a time being -employed, who were relieved every six hours. He had one characteristic -of a disturbed intellect, that of believing that all the world was in a -confederacy against him, and that there was a conspiracy to assassinate -him. - - - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - ASTROLOGY. - - Supposed Origin of Astrology--Butler on the Transmission - of Astrological Knowledge--Remarks on Astrology by - Hervey--Petrarch’s Opinion of Astrology--Catherine of - Medicis--Casting of Nativities in England--Moore’s - Almanack--Writers for and against Astrology--Horoscope of Prince - Frederick of Denmark--Astrologers contributed sometimes to - realize their own Predictions--Caracalla. - - -Astrology has been divided into natural and judiciary, or judicial; -but it is only the latter division which will come under present -consideration, and its definition has been said to be the art of -foretelling future events, from the aspects, positions, and influences -of the heavenly bodies. - -The idea that they should have any influence, direct or indirect, -on our actions in this nether world, or that they obliged us to the -performance of any act, however extraordinary, may have been originally -supposed, by those who were familiar with the figurative language of -the Prophets, to receive confirmation from the facts, and the style -of the predictions, recorded in sacred history. They would find, for -instance, that the Star in the East was foretold, which at its coming -was to announce peace and goodwill towards men; and the later and more -solemn revelations, concerning the final consummation of all things, -typified that awful event by signal appearances in the heavens. - -Traditionary knowledge of these events and predictions, coupled with -ignorance of the causes of meteorological phenomena, now better -understood, might easily lead the timid and superstitious to forebode -evil, from the disastrous twilight of the eclipse, or to impute a -favouring influence to the rising of certain stars at particular -seasons. The universal custom of traversing the deserts, or navigating -ships across the pathless ocean, by the observation of the stars, -previously to the discovery of the compass, led the imaginative to -conceive, that the moral path of life was equally to be regulated by -astral indications. It must be owned, too, that it was not unnatural -for simple unreasoning minds thus to connect the glorious sun, the -moon, when walking in brightness, queen of heaven, and the host of -stars, with the destinies of man. - -Fear, it is said, first deified the ancient heroes. It was a storm and -an eclipse that first consecrated Romulus; nor had Jupiter himself -been master of heaven, or worshipped on earth, if the terrors of his -thunders had not advanced the conceit of his divinity. It is quite -certain that, by degrees, a system was formed, which took hold of -the imaginations of all classes of persons; and the truth of such a -doctrine, and its decisions, it was heretical to doubt. J. Butler, one -of the devout believers in astrology, far from thinking it a remnant -of Pagan superstition, calls it a divine science. He pretended, with -many others, “that Adam, after his fall, communicated it out of his -memories of the state of innocency, to Seth. He in his turn made -impressions of the same in certain permanent pillars, able to withstand -fire and water, by which means the science passed to Enoch and Noah. -Shem was instructed by his father, and communicated his knowledge to -Abraham, who carried it into Chaldea and Egypt. Moses, ‘skilled in all -the learning of the Egyptians,’ was also thought to have been an able -astrologer.” - -Thus was the vanity of the more modern professors of the art -encouraged, and they maintained that the heavens were one great volume, -wherein God had written the history; and, of course, it was to be -understood, that the astrologers were the high-priests, who alone could -expound its mysterious pages. - -The author of the “Contemplations on the Starry Heavens” has, with -great propriety, made the following remarks on this science:--“The -pretenders to judicial astrology talk of I know not what mysterious -efficacy, in the different aspects of the stars, or the various -conjunction and opposition of the planets. Let those who are -unacquainted with the sure word of revelation give ear to these sons -of delusion and dealers in deceit. For my own part, it is a question -of indifference to me, whether the constellations shone with smiles, -or lowered in frowns, on the hour of my nativity. Can these bodies -advertise me of future events, which are unconscious of their own -existence?” - -In the time of Petrarch, though astrologers had great credit, that -learned man only laughed at their pretensions. Of one of them, in -particular, he says, “The astrologer was older and wiser than I was; I -loved him, and should have been still more attached to him if he had -not been an astrologer. I sometimes joked, and sometimes reproached -him, about his profession. One day, when I had been sharper than usual -with him, he replied, with a sigh, ‘Friend, you are in the right; I -think as you do, but I have a wife and children.’ This answer touched -me so much, that I never spoke to him again on that subject.” - -Queen Catherine of Medicis, though a woman of strong mind, was deluded -with the more ignorant, by the vanity of astrological judgments; the -professors of the science were so much consulted in her court, that the -most inconsiderable act was not to be done without an appeal to the -stars. - -In England, William Lilly, John Gadbury, and others, set up for -prophets; and nativities were cast for all who could afford to pay for -the privilege of searching into futurity. It was but natural that the -inquirers should have to reward such intelligence in proportion to the -distance it was brought, or its flattering nature; events, however, -soon proved it to be far-fetched and nothing worth. - -The volumes of tiresome absurdity, written on this subject, about the -beginning and middle of the seventeenth century, would exceed present -belief; and nothing but a thorough though unaccountable conviction, in -their readers, that they spoke the language of truth, could have ever -made the perusal of them tolerable. - -Moore’s “Prophetic Almanack,” with its astrological predictions and -“hieroglyphic for the year,” is the only legacy left to us of this -species of composition and imposition. It would be beneath the dignity -of such a philosopher to be guilty of a pun; though the more irreverent -of his readers might naturally have suspected him of such an intention, -when, a few years since, he prophesied that, “Towards the close of the -year _Turkey_ will be much embroiled.” - -Some writers, in the more fortunate era of astrology, ventured to -impugn the truth of the doctrine, and to ridicule its professors, -particularly in the persons of Lilly and Gadbury, who retorted with -acrimonious and arrogant vulgarity. Further curiosity on this subject -may be gratified, by turning to such works as “Supernatural Sights and -Apparitions, seen in London by William Lilly;” or the reply to it, -“Black Monday turned White, or a Whip at Star-gazers.” - -One of the opposers of this science argued, naturally enough, that God -had assigned the stars their site and course, which no power of man or -angel was able to alter; but man’s fancy had built us imaginary houses -in the heavens, to which were attached such qualifications, affections, -&c., as the framers pleased. - -These houses were twelve in number; in one or other of which, according -to the hour and season of the person’s birth, did he take his position, -as pointed out in the horoscope. An outline of a general horoscope is -annexed, and, in explanation of it, Mr. William Lilly is pleased to -say, “When I speak of the tenth house, I intend somewhat of kings or -persons represented by that house, which is also called _medium cœli_, -the mid-heaven; when mention is made of the first house, ascendant or -horoscope, I intend the commonalty in general. Dic et eris mihi magnus -Apollo.” - -[Illustration: PLAN OF A HOROSCOPE. - - THE SIGNIFICATION OF - THE TWELVE HOUSES OF - HEAVEN, IN AN ANNUAL - REVOLUTION, BY WHICH - EVERY ONE IS DIRECTED - TO THE KEY OF THE - BOOK. - - 1 Ascendant. - Commonalty. - Vulgar Life of - every Man. - - 2 Wealth. - Riches. Estate. - Moveable - Goods. - - 3 Kindred. - Neighbours. - Small Journeys. - - 4 Fathers. Towns. - Castles. - King’s Wives. - - 5 Children. - Ambassadors. - Commissioners. - - 6 Servants. - Small Cattle. - Sickness. - - 7 Women. - Wars. - Lawsuits. - Suitors. - - 8 Death. - Inheritance. - - 9 Clergymen - Long Journeys. - Religion. - - 10 Kings. - Emperors. - Princes. Generals. - Commanders of Armies. - - 11 Friends in general. - Servants in particular; - their aid or - service. - - 12 Whispering. - Great Cattle. - Envy. - Sorcery. -] - -Mr. Gadbury, also, in the nativity cast for the illustrious Prince -Frederick of Denmark, informs us, that “It is an aphorism nearly -as old as astrology itself, that if the lord of the ascendant of a -revolution be essentially well placed, it declares the _native_ to be -pleasant, healthful, and of a sound constitution of body, and rich in -quiet of mind all that year; and that he shall be free from cares, -perturbations, and troubles. The nativity of Frederick Prince of -Denmark, astrologically performed by John Gadbury, 1660.” - -It often happened, with regard to the responses given by the oracles, -that they in some measure corresponded with the subsequent events; -in like manner did the astrological casters of nativities seem to -have their presumptuous pretensions verified by after circumstances. -Caracalla lost his life by seeking to preserve it from supposed -treachery; for, while in Mesopotamia, being jealous of a plot against -him, he sent to the Roman astrologers for the particulars of it. They -accused Macrinus, his faithful prefect, of a conspiracy, which nothing -but his death could frustrate. This answer coming while the emperor was -intent on some sport, he gave it to Macrinus to read; who, finding his -innocent life in danger by this trick of the astrologers, secured it by -the murder of Caracalla, of which, even in thought, he had before been -innocent; though the result proved the apparent truth of the prediction -of the astrologers. - - - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - MEDICAL DELUSIONS AND FRAUDS. - - State of Medicine in remote Ages--Animals Teachers - of Medicine--Gymnastic Medicine--Cato’s Cure for a - Fracture--Dearness of ancient Medicines and Medical - Books--Absurdity of the ancient Materia Medica: Gold, - Bezoar, Mummy--Prescription for a Quartan--Amulets--Virtues - of Gems--Corals--Charms--Charm for sore Eyes--Medicine - connected with Astrology--Cure by Sympathy--Sir Kenelm - Digby--The real Cause of the Cure--The Vulnerary - Powder, &c.--The Royal Touch--Evelyn’s Description of - the Ceremony--Valentine Greatrakes--Morley’s Cure for - Scrofula--Inoculation--Vaccination--Dr. Jenner--Animal - Magnetism--M. Loewe’s Account of it--Mesmer, and his - Feats--Manner of Magnetizing--Report of a Commission on the - Subject--Metallic Tractors--Baron Silfverkielm and the Souls in - White Robes--Mr. Loutherbourg--Empirics--Uroscopy--Mayersbach--Le - Febre--Remedies for the Stone--The Anodyne Necklace--The - Universal Medicine--Conclusion. - - -The history of the art of medicine begins with fable and conjecture, -and rests on dubious tradition. Fifty years prior to the Trojan war, -Esculapius is said to have been deified, on account of his medical -skill; and Machaon and Podalirius, his sons, formed the medical staff -of the Grecian army before Troy. In the temples of the gods diseases -and cures were registered, and engraved on marble tables and hung up, -for the benefit of others. The priests, at that time, prepared the -medicines, and made it a lucrative trade; and fables were invented to -increase the renown of the oracle, for difficult cases were stated to -be caused by the immediate wrath of Heaven, in which the only remedies -were prayer and sacrifices, fear urging the trembling patients to -follow whatever course was prescribed. - -From the sacred writings little medical information is derived: Moses -gave precautionary directions for the prevention or cure of leprosy, -consisting chiefly of cleanliness; and religion was called in to -enforce the medicinal ordinances. In Babylon, we are told by Herodotus, -that the sick were carried out to the public roads, that travellers -might converse with them, and acquaint them with any remedies they had -seen used in such complaints with success. In Egypt, each physician -applied himself to one disease; and Prosper Alpinus, in his History of -Egyptian Medicine, reports that they took the hints of curing divers -diseases from brute beasts: thus phlebotomy was taken from a practice -noticed in the hippopotamus, or river-horse, which bleeds itself when -plethoric, by pressing its thigh on a sharp-pointed reed. Dogs and cats -are known, when sick, to vomit themselves by eating grass; swine, when -ill, refuse meat, and so recover by abstinence. In like manner from -numerous bodies, as flies, locusts, &c., being enclosed in amber, it is -thought the art of embalming was first suggested. - -Gymnastic medicine was founded by Herodicus; games and sports had -been early instituted in the Grecian states, and were divided into -religious, military, athletic, and lastly medical gymnastics, -particularly adapted for the prevention or cure of diseases. Herodicus, -from his own observations on its advantages, commenced practising as a -physician, and it was his only panacea. After him came Hippocrates, who -made the first successful attempt to separate the medical profession -from rash empiricism, and the frivolous dreams of philosophers. He -compared the body to a circle, in which an universal sympathy of parts -existed; his great repute arose from his skill in predicting crises, -which he was enabled to do with perfect precision. - -Pliny says Rome was inhabited six hundred years before any physicians -established themselves there; and for some time the medicine of the -Romans consisted of charms, fascinations, incantations, and amulets. -The book of Cato de Re Rustica, is a proof of the gross superstition -and ignorance of those times. He proposed in a case of fracture to have -it bound up, and the following words sung every day--“Huat, Hanat, ista -pista, fista, dominabo, damnastra et luxata.” - -When the religious frenzy of the Mahometans was abated, and they became -enriched by commerce, arts and literature, after ages of barbarism, -were again cultivated with great industry, and the medical profession, -in particular, was rewarded and encouraged with rank and bountiful -endowments. Ætius complained in his time of the general use of quack -medicines, nostrums, &c., and of the immense price demanded for those -which were fortunate enough to rise into general repute. Danaus, he -tells us, sold his collyrium, at Constantinople, at the astonishing -price of one hundred and twenty pieces of gold to each patient, and -sometimes could scarcely be persuaded upon to sell it at any price. -Nicostratus demanded no less than two talents for his celebrated -isotheosis, or antidote against the colic. - -The works of the Grecian and Arabian physicians, when they came to be -more generally known in the fifteenth century, were most highly prized. -In the year 1471, Louis XI. borrowed the works of Rhazes from the Paris -faculty, but was obliged, previously, to deposit a quantity of plate, -and find a nobleman to join with him, as an additional security for -the care and safe return of the book. Jew physicians were at that time -employed by the Pope, and most of the crowned heads in Europe. John of -Gaddesden was the first Englishman appointed Court Physician in London. -His idea of the treatment of diseases was rather different from the -theories of the present day; for when attending the king’s son for -smallpox, he directed the room to be hung with scarlet cloth, and the -patient to be rolled up in similar stuff. - -The _rationale_ of the Materia Medica one hundred and fifty or two -hundred years since was very extraordinary, as well with respect to -the nature of the substances proposed as remedies, as to the number of -ingredients, sometimes thirty or forty, which were congregated together -in each composition, upon the principle that if one did not reach the -disorder another might. - -The nature of the substances used was, often, even more extraordinary -and disgusting than their variety; many of them were thought to act by -a charm, or by the strong sensation of disgust which their exhibition -excited, rather than by any more direct appeal to the disordered part. -The more precious also the article, the more certain was thought the -cure. - -The _aurum potabile_, and other preparations of gold, were conceived to -have many virtues. Gold, by the chemical writers, was styled the sun -and king of metals. Kings and princes were thus amused and defrauded, -and their lives made shorter than those of their subjects who were -beneath the use of gold. The chickens they ate were fed with gold, -that they might extract the sulphur, and prepare the metal by their -circulation; the physicians were contented to collect all the gold, -which passed unaltered and undiminished through the poultry, into their -pockets. - -Bezoar denotes an antidote, from a Persian word, and is generally -applied to medicinal stones, generated in the stomach and other viscera -of animals. Bezoars usually attain the size of acorns or pigeons’ -eggs, the larger the more valuable. A stone of one ounce was sold in -India for one hundred livres, and one of four ounces and a quarter for -two thousand; they were very scarce, and few of the genuine ever came -into the European market, the greater number that were sold being -artificial compounds. The hog bezoar, or Pedra del Porco, was first -brought into Europe by the Portuguese; it is found in the gall-bladder -of a boar in the East Indies; the Indians attribute infinite virtues -to it, as a preservative against poison, cholera, &c. The porcupine -and monkey bezoars were held in such esteem by the natives of Malacca, -that they never parted with them unless as presents to ambassadors -and princes; single stones have been sold for sixty or eighty pounds -sterling. In 1715, bezoar was thought equal in value to gold. Dr. -Patin says of it, the most visible operation it hath is when the bill -is paid; and he calls it the scandalous stone of offence, and lasting -monument of perseverance in imposture. - -The most loathsome preparations were recommended, and eagerly used by -the sick. Mummy had the honour to be worn in the bosom, next the heart, -by kings and princes, and all those who could bear the price. It was -pretended, that it was able to preserve the wearer from the most deadly -infections, and that the heart was secured by it from the invasion -of all malignity. A dram of a preparation called treacle of mummy, -taken in the morning, prevented the danger of poison for all that day. -Thus decayed spices and gums, with the dead body of an Egyptian, were -thought to give long life. - -To cure a quartan, or the gout, “take the hair and nails, cut them -small, mix them with wax, and stick them to a live crab, casting it -into the river again.” The moss from a dead man’s skull was held to be -of sovereign virtue in some cases. - -Amulets were much used formerly, not only to cure but to prevent -disease, and also were thought to have a wonderful power over the moral -qualities and affections. The onyx, worn as an amulet, strengthened -the heart, and refreshed phantasms. The ruby resisted poisons, and -preserved from the plague. If a man was in danger it changed colour, -and became dim, but recovered its brightness when the danger was -past. Hence, perhaps, was the original motive for carrying jewels and -precious stones, set in rings or in seals. - -Corals, says Paracelsus, “are of two sorts: one, a clear bright shining -red; the other, a purple dark red. The bright is good to quicken -phansie, and is against phantasies, or nocturnal spirits, which fly -from these bright corals, as a dog from a staff, but they gather where -the dark coral is. A spectre or ghost is the starry body of a dead -man: now these ethereal or starry bodies cannot endure to be where the -bright corals are, but the dark coloured allures them; the operation -therefore, is natural, not magical, or superstitious, as some may -think. Bright coral restrains tempests of thunder and lightning, and -defends us from the cruelty of savage monsters, that are bred by the -heavens contrary to the course of nature; for sometimes the stars pour -out a seed, of which a monster is begotten; now these monsters cannot -be where corals are.” - -The use of charms in medicine was a very ancient practice, and, when -once commenced, each succeeding charm became more ridiculous. Pierius -mentions an antidote against the sting of a scorpion; the patient -was to sit on an ass, with his face to the tail, for by this means -the poison was transmitted from the man to the beast. Sammonicus, a -poetical physician, recommended the fourth book of Homer’s Iliad to be -laid under the patient’s head to cure a quartan ague. The efficacy of -scriptural sentences was deduced from the custom of the Jews wearing -phylacteries. - -An approved spell for sore eyes was worn as a jewel about many necks: -it was written on paper, and enclosed in silk, “never failing to do -sovereign good when all other helps were helpless. No sight might dare -to read it, but at length a curious mind, while the patient slept, by -stealth ripped open the mystical cover, and found in Latin, Diabolus -effodiat tibi oculos, impleat foramina stercoribus.” - -When astrology was in repute, physic was generally practised with some -reference to the stars, and the astrological judgments became a very -common object of inquiry amongst physicians. A Dr. Saunders, who wrote -very fully on this branch of the science, thus commences:-- - - “From hence - Withdraw all carping critics that deny - The great art of sublime astrology, - Which, unto such as have attained the key, - Shows the true cause of a disease, and may - Direct the doctor, expeditiously, - The nearest way to cure the malady.” - -But, says he, “the firm and steadfast confidence in the Almighty is -quite essential to the happy conclusion of all expectionates; for, if -thou presumest otherwise, no doubt but that will be verified on thee -which the prophet sayeth to the Chaldeans, ‘Sapientia et scientia te -decepiet,’ for either, by thy own ignorance and mistaking, thou wilt be -seduced, or else Heaven itself shall yield unto thee so ambiguous an -answer, that thou shalt not be able to conclude any certainty. - -“The Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Arabians, do observe many curious -observations in this art, as translation of light, prohibition, -contraradiation, restitution, frustration, obsession, cursuvacation, -cursutardation, ferality, augedescention, meridiodescentia, -luminiminution, numeriminution, via combusta, &c., which, although I -wish not to deny to have some small effect, yet I have often proved, -that overmuch curiosity doth rather deviate a man from concluding any -thing certainly. - -“If thou findest the cusp of the ascendant to fall in the very latter -end of a sign, then, doubtless, the querent comes but to tempt thee; -or if the question be not radical, if the lord of the ascendant or the -hour be not of one triplicity, it signifies the carelessness of the -querent, and that he cares not whether you hit or miss.” - -Among the more remarkable of subsequent medical delusions were, the -cure by sympathy, royal touch, and animal magnetism. Sounder views of -medical practice were entertained by degrees; but enough of the old -leaven of folly and superstition has, at different times, shown itself, -to prove that human nature will never be free from the imputation of -lending itself, either from vanity, indolence, or ignorance, to forward -the views of ridiculous or unprincipled empiricism; the disciples -of which would, nevertheless, be the first to disbelieve or dispute -similar assertions or arguments, when applied to the exercise of other -professions or trades. - -The first medical delusion which claims our notice is the cure by -sympathy. What is now the common method of healing wounds, appeared -most unnatural to the surgeons at the end of the seventeenth century; -and their legitimate and only cure proved such torture to the -unhappy patients, that, in those days, nothing was to be heard in -the hospitals, at the time of dressing, but howling and cries. A man -proposing the romantic doctrine of adhesion of wounds by union of their -edges, would have been despised; but, if he were bold and cunning -enough to give an air of incantation to his cures, or declare that -they were performed by a secret philosophical sympathy, he was sure -of success. No surgeon in Europe ventured to unite wounds directly, -without pretending to have learnt, from some Eastern sage, or to -have discovered, by abstruse studies in philosophy and alchemy, a -sympathetic or philosophical mode of cure. - -The first inventor of the sympathetic powder was the celebrated -Paracelsus, and the Paracelsian doctors flourished in England when -Dr. Charleton wrote his ternary of paradoxes, chiefly on the magnetic -or attractive power of wounds. This fanaticism lasted no short time, -and was hardly to be paralleled, except by the study of the perpetual -elixir, and the universal solvent. - -Sir Kenelm Digby, secretary to Charles I., was driven into exile during -the civil wars. In a discourse upon the cure by sympathy, pronounced at -Montpelier before an assembly of nobles and learned men, he gave the -curious case of Mr. Howell, who, whilst endeavouring to part two of his -friends who were fighting, had his hand cut to the bone. Sir Kenelm was -applied to for assistance. “I told him,” says he, “I would willingly -serve him; but if, haply, he knew the manner how I would cure him, -without touching or seeing him, it may be he would not expose himself -to my manner of curing, because he would think it, peradventure, either -ineffectual or superstitious.” He replied, “The wonderful things which -many have related unto me of your way of medicinement makes me nothing -doubt at all of its efficacy; and all that I have to say unto you -is comprehended in the Spanish proverb--Hagase el milagro y hagalo -Mahoma--Let the miracle be done, though Mahomet do it.” - -“I asked him then for any thing that had the blood upon it; so he -presently sent for his garter, wherewith his hand was first bound, -and dissolving some vitriol in a basin of water, I put in the garter, -observing in the interim what Mr. Howell did. He suddenly started, -as if he had found some strange alteration in himself. I asked him -what he ailed? ‘I know not what ails me, but I find that I feel no -more pain; methinks that a pleasing kind of freshness, as it were a -wet cold napkin, did spread over my hand, which hath taken away the -inflammation that tormented me before.’ I replied, ‘Since then that -you feel already so good effect of my medicament, I advise you to cast -away all your plaisters, only _keep the wound clean_, and in a moderate -temper betwixt heat and cold.’ To be brief; there was no sense of pain -afterward; but within five or six days the wounds were cicatrized and -entirely healed.” - -The king obtained from Sir Kenelm the discovery of his secret, which he -pretended had been taught him by a Carmelite friar, who had learned it -in Armenia or Persia. - -The fact was, the sympathetical physician understood the cure of wounds -by adhesion more perfectly than others; but it was necessary to cheat -the world into this safe method of cure, and they declined the use of -it altogether, where they foresaw, from the nature of the wound, it -could not succeed. The public opinion would have been so strong against -any open innovation, that the sympathetic doctors got credit for -something like witchcraft, and condescended to dress axes and swords, -that the wounds might have leave to lie at rest till they healed. All -cures by adhesion were mysteriously performed, and one in particular, -called the secret dressing, in which great pains were taken, before -laying the lips of the wound together, to suck out all the blood. This -was chiefly used by drummers in regiments, to conceal the quarrels of -the soldiers. - -The trick of this way of cure consisted in making grimaces and -contortions, signing their patients with the cross, and muttering -between their teeth some unintelligible jargon. Their care was to keep -the profession among themselves, and it was from the profanation of -the sign of the cross that there arose a hot war between the priests -and the suckers; the former refusing confession, extreme unction, or -any sacrament to those who had undergone the magical or diabolical -ceremonies of the suckers, who, on the other hand, refused to suck -those connected in any way with the priests, being anxious to preserve -their trade, which was not without its emoluments; for Verduc observes -that they were still more skilful in sucking gold than blood. - -The “Vulnerary Powder, and Tincture of the Sulphur of Venus,” performed -wonders, one of which Dr. Colebatch relates of a Mr. Pool, who was -run through the body with a sword, and lost four quarts of blood. The -medicines being applied, the bleeding stopped; on the following day he -“was gnawing tough ill-boiled mutton,” and drank a quart of ale; and in -the course of five days he returned to duty in the camp. “A Mr. Cherry -also, sergeant of grenadiers at the attack of the castle of Namur, was -wounded in twenty-six places, twenty-three with bullets, and three -large cuts on the head with a sword. He lay forty-eight hours stripped -naked upon the breach, without a bit of bread or drop of drink, or -any thing done to his wounds; yet this man was cured by the vulnerary -powder and tincture alone, and never had any fever.”[16] - -The materials of the sympathetic powder were more heterogeneous and -horrid than those which the witches used to drop into the caldron; -human fat, human blood, mummy, the moss that grows in dead men’s -skulls, or hogs’ brains; and the chief schism among the great masters -of the sympathetic school arose from the question, whether it was -necessary that the moss should grow absolutely in the skull of the -thief who had hung on the gallows, and whether the medicine, while -compounding, was to be stirred with a murderer’s knife? - -Some, anxious to avoid the damnable charges which were urged against -this practice, defended it on philosophical principles, and from the -analogy of other natural operations. Any lute, said they, being tuned -in unison with another, is affected when the other is struck, the -magnet turns by sympathy to the pole, amber attracts light bodies, -loadstones hung to the breast make us cheerful and merry, and the -wearing of jewels secures chastity. - -All acknowledged sympathetic cures were successful, and the established -surgeons of that day refused to practise the treatment, only because it -was impious and unlawful; for, said they, how can we contradict matters -of fact? - -We come now to the second of the great medical delusions, that which -attributed to the royal touch a sanative power in scrofulous cases. -This is supposed to have been a monkish invention, to increase the -reverence for kings, and was practised in England and France. - -Becket, a writer in the time of Charles II., fully describes the -royal gift of touching for the evil, which gift had been confirmed -and continued for six hundred and forty years. It is proved out of -Corinthians I. chap. xii. ver. 9. “To another the gift of healing by -the same spirit,” and they must needs be allowed no good subjects who -dare deny this sanative faculty, when so many thousands had received -benefit! - -Clovis I., the fifth king of France, who reigned about five hundred -years after the birth of Christ, is reputed to have been the first who -had the gift of curing this disease. William of Malmesbury states, -that Edward the Confessor was the first in England who healed strumous -patients by the touch. Dr. Plott describes a piece of gold of this -monarch, found in St. Giles’s Fields, near Oxford, having E. C. over -the head, as well as two small holes through it by which it was hung -on a riband, and used at the ceremony of touching for the evil. Some -have considered this gift as the most efficacious part of the cure; -some imagined that the success was principally owing to the sign of the -cross made on the swellings. - -The power of healing by the royal touch does not seem to have been very -frequently practised till the time of Charles I. and II., after which -it almost ceased. - -Mr. Evelyn gives a full description of the ceremony. “His majesty,” -says he, “began to touch for the evil according to custom, thus:--His -Majesty, sitting under his state in the Banqueting House, the -chirurgeons cause the sick to be brought or led up to the throne, -where, they kneeling, the king strokes their faces or cheeks with both -his hands at once, at which instant a chaplain, in his formalities, -says, ‘He put his hands upon them and he healed them;’ this is said to -every one in particular. When they have all been touched they come up -again in the same order, and the other chaplain kneeling, and having -angels of gold strung on white ribands on his arm, delivers them one -by one to his majesty, who puts them about the necks of the touched as -they pass, whilst the first chaplain repeats, ‘That is the true light -who came into the world.’ Then follows an Epistle, with the Liturgy, -and prayers for the sick, with some alteration; lastly the blessing. -Then the lord chamberlain and comptroller of the household bring a -basin, ewer, and towel, for his majesty to wash. John Bird says, the -king expresses his belief in the cure being effected through the grace -of God, saying, at the time of the ceremony, ‘I touch, God heals.’” - -One of the historians of the royal touch gives a numerical table of -the number of persons touched by Charles II., from May 1660 to 1680, -distinguishing the exact number of each year; the grand total amounts -to the incredible number of ninety-two thousand one hundred and seven, -at the average of twelve every day! - -Others, besides those of royal extraction, set up pretensions of curing -certain diseases by touch. The seventh sons of seventh sons had a more -than usual virtue inherent in them. But the one who attracted public -attention most was Mr. Valentine Greatrakes, called, _par excellence_, -“The Stroker.” He was an Irish gentleman, and came to England, invited -by the Earl of Orrery, to cure the Viscountess Conway of an inveterate -headache; and though he failed in that attempt, he is said to have -wrought many surprising cures, not unlike miracles. He was born in -1628, seemed very religious, his looks grave but simple. He had felt -a strange persuasion, or impulse, that he had the gift of curing the -evil, which suggestion becoming very strong, he stroked several persons -and cured them. During an epidemical fever, he cured all who came to -him, his power of curing extending over divers maladies. He performed -such extraordinary cures that he was cited into the Bishop’s Court, at -Lismore, for not having a license to practise. He arrived in England -in 1666; and, as he proceeded through the country, magistrates of the -cities and towns through which he passed begged him to come and cure -their sick. Having arrived in London, he every day went to a particular -part, where a prodigious number of sick of all ranks and both sexes -assembled. His fame did not last, however. He returned to Ireland in -1667, and lived many years, but no longer kept up the reputation of -performing strange cures. On the strictest inquiry, no sort of blemish -was ever thrown on his character. - -A Mr. Morley wrote on the virtues of the vervain root, as an effectual -cure for scrofula. “I recommend,” says he, “a piece of the root of -common purple vervain, fresh, about three or four inches long, all the -fibres to be cut off, and it is to be always worn at the pit of the -stomach, tied with one yard of white satin riband half-inch wide; no -other colour is proper, because the dye may be prejudicial.” - -It is the fate of all useful discoveries or improvements to meet with -bigoted or interested opposition from those who would willingly remain -in the beaten path of habit, rather than acknowledge any change to be -profitable. - -That most important discovery of the circulation of the blood by Harvey -was at first furiously opposed, and was _proved_, according to the laws -of hydraulics, to be both impossible and absurd; yet, when it was in -vain to dispute the fact, it was undervalued, as one _almost_ known -long before! - -Inoculation, it is well known, as a means of rendering small-pox less -severe, was introduced into England by Lady Mary Wortley Montague, who -had frequent opportunities of seeing the operation performed, when -residing at Constantinople with her husband, the English ambassador -there. She was so thoroughly convinced of the safety of this practice, -that she was resolved to submit her only son to it; a boy about six -years of age. The operation succeeded perfectly; this happened in 1717. -After her return to England, she set the first and great example, by -having her little girl, then five years old, also inoculated. - -Mr. C. Maitland, who had accompanied the family of Mr. Wortley, and -had inoculated the son and daughter of that gentleman, performed the -operation, by royal command, on six condemned criminals at Newgate, in -the presence of several eminent physicians and surgeons, and they all -did well. Mr. Maitland, however, was not prepared to find this species -infectious, and was much surprised to find that the disorder was caught -by six servants, who were wont to hug and caress a little child, sick -of the inoculated disease. - -So great a novelty, as the inoculation of a disease, produced much -astonishment and dread, and it was opposed professionally and -theologically. Mr. Edmund Massey preached a sermon, at St. Andrew’s, -Holborn, July 8, 1722, against the dangerous and sinful practice of -inoculation. His text was Job, chap. ii. v. 7, “So went Satan forth -from the presence of the Lord, and smote Job with sore boils, from the -sole of his foot unto his crown.” From this text he argued that the -disease with which Job was smitten was neither more nor less than the -confluent small-pox. “With this view, I shall not,” said he, “scruple -to call it a _diabolical_ operation, usurping an authority founded -neither in nature nor religion. This practice also tends to promote -vice and immorality, inasmuch as it diminishes the salutary terror -which prevails respecting the uncertain approach of the disease.” - -Inoculation has doubtless been of infinite benefit to society, but -it is now superseded by a much greater improvement, namely, that of -vaccination. This is, beyond all comparison, the most valuable and the -most important discovery ever made; it strikes out one of the worst in -the catalogue of human evils; it annihilates a disease which has ever -been considered as the most dreadful scourge of mankind. - -Dr. Edward Jenner, the inventor of vaccination, was born in -Gloucestershire, in 1749, and, being educated for the medical -profession, was placed under the immediate tuition of Mr. John Hunter, -with whom he lived two years, as a house pupil. After finishing his -studies in London, he settled at Berkeley. His inquiry into the nature -of cow-pox commenced about the year 1776. His attention to this -singular disease was first excited by observing, that among those -whom he inoculated for the small-pox many were insusceptible of that -disorder. These persons, he was informed, had undergone the casual -cow-pox, which had been known in the dairies from time immemorial, and -a vague opinion prevailed that it was a preventive of the small-pox. -He instituted a series of experiments, and several persons were -successively inoculated from each other with vaccine matter, and then -exposed to the infection of small-pox, which they all resisted. When -these facts were communicated to the world envy assailed his fame, his -discovery was depreciated, then denied. Truth, however, ultimately -prevailed, vaccination obtained a complete triumph, and the foes of -Jenner and humanity were covered with confusion. Dr. Mosely, one of his -opponents, asks if any person can say, “What may be the consequences of -introducing a _bestial humour_ into the human frame, after a long lapse -of years?” He was asked, in return, “What may be the consequences, -after a long lapse of years, of introducing into the human frame cow’s -milk, beefsteaks, or a mutton-chop?” Dr. Jenner had numerous presents -of plate, &c., honours were conferred on him by different societies; -and a grant of ten thousand pounds was voted to him by Parliament. - -The phenomena of Animal Magnetism, when announced to the world, excited -the greatest sensation on the Continent, particularly in France; for -some years the subject filled their “Journals” and “Mercuries,” and -employed some of their best pens and brightest wits. - -M. Mesmer, the inventor, was a native of Switzerland, of great talents, -but enthusiastic fancy. He undertook to defend the old doctrine of -the influence of the planets on the human frame, and he searched for -some means of communication between them. Electricity did not answer -his expectations, and he turned his attention to magnetism. Iron -becomes magnetic after being rubbed with a magnet; he therefore rubbed -the human body with the loadstone. The phenomena which resulted he -attributed, at first, to the magnetic influence; but experience proved -to him that the application of the bare hand produced the same effect, -yet he called this animal magnetism. - -M. Loewe, a supporter, says, “On a certain application of the palm of -the hand and tips of the fingers, made by the magnetiser, without, -however, touching the person, or even at the distance of two or three -inches, the magnetised individual feels an increase of warmth, at -times a chilliness or uneasiness within him, particularly near the -pit of the stomach. After repeated applications, the eyelids become -heavy, and the patient falls into a sleep, from which he cannot be -aroused by sense of hearing, or by any other of the external organs -of sense. There was one instance of a magnetised person, who had only -occasion to enter the house of the magnetiser, in order to fall into -a profound and magnetical sleep. A very rare result of this state is -that of clairvoyance, when it has been observed, that the internal -sense seems to present itself wholly unconfined, and all nature appears -to be disclosed to it; the body being, as it were, completely numbed, -eyelids open, pulse soft and hardly perceptible, the countenance is -transformed, and exhibits the picture of innocence. They are in fervent -prayer to the Creator, or perhaps they describe scenes and pastimes -at the antipodes. A female, who had never been in America, and had -never read geographical descriptions, described that continent, its -inhabitants, &c., very accurately.” - -Meeting with but little encouragement in Germany, Mesmer went to -France, where he was exceedingly successful. His cures were numerous, -and of the most astonishing nature. He was obliged to form a number of -pupils, under his inspection, to administer his process. His house, at -Creteil, was crowded with patients, and a numerous company was daily -assembled at his house at Paris, where the operation was publicly -performed. - -One evening, M. Mesmer walked with six persons in the gardens of the -Prince de Soubise. He performed a magnetical operation upon a tree, -and, a little after, three ladies of the company fainted away. The -duchess, the only remaining lady, supported herself upon the tree, -without being able to quit it. The Count of ----, unable to stand, -was obliged to throw himself upon a bench. The effects upon M. A----, -a gentleman of muscular frame, were more terrible; and M. Mesmer’s -servant, who was summoned to remove the bodies, and who was inured to -these scenes, found himself unable to move. The whole company were -obliged to remain in this situation for a considerable time. - -The public method of magnetising was performed in a large room, in the -centre of which stood a circular box, large enough to admit of fifty -persons standing round it. Out of the lid came numerous branches of -iron, one to each patient. The patients applied this branch to the -part affected, and a cord, passed round their bodies, connected one -with the other, and each patient pinched the thumb of his neighbour. -A piano-forte played different airs, with various rapidity, the sound -of which was also a conductor of magnetism. The bucket in the centre -was the grand reservoir, from which the fluid was diffused through the -branches of iron inserted in the lid. All this was purely imaginary, -for, on being tested with an electrometer and needle of iron, it -was evident the bucket contained no substance either electric or -magnetical. By degrees, however, the several ranks of patients round -the bucket became affected with drowsiness, convulsions, or hysterics, -and nothing was more astonishing than the combination of effects at one -view. The patients appeared entirely under the government of the person -who distributed the magnetic virtue. - -This system at length was thought to deserve the attention of -government, and a committee, partly physicians and partly members of -the Royal Academy of Sciences, with Dr. Benjamin Franklin at their -head, were appointed to examine it. M. Mesmer refused communication -with them, but M. Deslon, the most considerable of his pupils, -consented to disclose to them his principles. The result of the -investigation was made known by a report from the commissioners. They -decided that, instead of being a novelty, Mesmer’s was merely an -ancient and worthless system, which had long been abandoned by the -learned. - -The commissioners afterwards made experiments on single subjects, -and upon themselves. After repeated experiments, not one of the -commissioners felt any sensation that could be ascribed to the action -of magnetism. Of fourteen sick persons, operated upon in private, five -only appeared to feel any effect from the operation. In fact, magnetism -did not appear to them to have any existence for those subjects who -submitted to it with any degree of incredulity. - -M. Sigault, by _pretending_ to possess the magnetising power, had -all the success of Mesmer himself. He detailed, in a letter to the -commissioners, the results, as follows:--“The magisterial tone and -serious air I affected, together with certain gestures, made a very -great impression on the woman of the house, which she was desirous to -conceal, but, having guided my hand upon the region of the heart, I -felt it palpitate. Her face became convulsed, her eyes wandered; she at -length fell into a swoon, and was reduced to a state of weakness and -sinking perfectly incredible. I repeated the same trick upon others, -and succeeded more or less, according to their different degrees -of sensibility and credulity. A celebrated artist complained for -several days of an extreme headache, and acquainted me with it on the -Pont-Royal. Having persuaded him that I was initiated in the mysteries -of Mesmerism, I expelled his headache, almost instantaneously, by means -of a few gestures, to his great astonishment.” - -From numerous experiments made by the commissioners, it was quite clear -that those who were most susceptible of the magnetic influence, if -magnetised _unknown to themselves_, were not in the least affected; -whereas, when they _suspected_ the operation was performing, they -exhibited all the usual phenomena attributed to that power, though in -reality nothing was done. - -Metallic tractors, as the agents of animal magnetism, under the -superintendence of Dr. Perkins, for a time produced a sensation equally -extraordinary in England; but it was satisfactorily proved that the -imagination of the patient alone gave virtue to the tractors. Dr. -Thornton found a wooden skewer had all the power of the tractors in -removing pain when clandestinely used instead of them. - -The Baron Silfverkielm, of Uleáteog, in Finland, was a great proficient -in Mesmerism. He imagined the souls of those magnetically asleep were -translated to the regions above, where the souls of the departed were -all dressed in white robes, and enjoyed constant scenes of delight. He -would interrogate the sleepers, concerning the white robes, Paradise, -and the Elysian Fields. He was also desirous to receive intelligence -from his ancestors, and, in general, they very kindly sent him their -compliments by the mouths of the couriers in white jackets. - -By directly attacking the imagination did Mr. Loutherbourg cure -vast numbers of patients. He became impressed with the idea that he -had a commission from above to cure diseases, and his door was soon -crowded with patients all day. Amongst others, a respectable man, -from the country, had been afflicted with great pains and swellings, -particularly about the loins, so that he could not walk across the -room. On entering, Mr. Loutherbourg looked steadfastly at him, and -said, “I know your complaint, sir, look at me.” They continued looking -at each other some minutes; then Mr. L. asked, if he did not feel -some warmth at his loins. The man replied that he did. “Then you will -feel in a few minutes much greater warmth.” After a short pause, the -man said, “I feel as if a person was pouring boiling water upon me.” -Still looking him in the face, Mr. L. said, “How did you come here, -sir?” “In a coach.” “Then go and discharge your coach, and walk back to -town” (from Hammersmith Terrace, where Mr. L. resided). The coach was -discharged, and the patient walked to town, and next day he walked five -hours about town without fatigue. He offered ten pounds; but Mr. L. -would not take a farthing. - -The easy manner in which people have become a prey to illiterate and -dangerous pretenders, in the medical art, has been long known. Many -thousand volumes would attest the truth of this observation, which has -been often repeated. Cotta, in 1612, says, “There is no place or person -ignorant how all sorts of vile people and unskilful persons, without -restraint, make gainful traffic by botching in physic; and hereby -numbers of unwotting innocents daily enthrall and betray themselves to -sustain the riot of their enemies and common _homicides_.” The late Dr. -Buchan exclaimed, “As matters stand at present it is easier to cheat a -man out of his life than a shilling, and almost impossible to detect or -punish the offender.” The case is still the same. - -Uroscopy, or water-casting, was once very much practised, and those -who professed to cure diseases by such inspection, simply, were -consulted by all classes of persons. The absurdity of these pretensions -was forcibly exposed by Dr. Radcliffe, on the following occasion. A -shoemaker’s wife applied to him to relieve her husband, who was very -ill, presenting him with a phial of his water for inspection. The -doctor exchanged the contents, and bade her take that back, and tell -her husband to make a pair of shoes, by the same instructions. - -A Dr. Meyersbach started, about 1770, as a water doctor; he had -arrived from Germany in a starving state, and was first an ostler at a -riding-school. Not making money fast enough, he set up as a doctor, and -was consulted by all classes. Dr. Lettsom took great pains to expose -the ignorance and knavery of Meyersbach, whose violent medicines, if -they sometimes cured, more often aggravated, his patients’ sufferings. -It is believed that he acquired a good fortune, with which he retired -to his native country. - -Le Fevre, another German, a broken wine-merchant, set up for a gout -doctor, and was much noticed by the nobility. Under pretence of going -to Germany for more of his powders, he quitted this country, and had -the prudence never to return. He carried over above ten thousand -guineas, obtained by subscription and otherwise. Living in the style -of a prince, he drank daily, as his first toast, “To the credulous and -stupid nobility, gentry, and opulent merchants, of Great Britain.” - -Calculous disorders are so painful in general, that people suffering -from such causes eagerly fly to what promises relief. Many specifics -for this disease, lithontriptics as they were called, had their day. In -1771, a Dr. Chittick advertised such a remedy, and made use of a very -unusual expedient to keep it secret. He would not intrust it to any one -unmixed. The vehicle in which it was to be taken was weak veal broth, -which was sent him from day to day. Each of his patients sent him three -pints of broth in a tin bottle, padlocked, to prevent curious persons -from prying, the doctor and patient each having a key. His terms -were two guineas a week, regularly paid, besides which he expected a -considerable premium for his pains. Mr. Blackrie, who exposed this -species of fraud, detected by analysis a solution of alkaline salts and -quicklime; yet the doctor greatly exclaimed against the use of those -salts, as highly mischievous. - -A Mrs. Joanna Stephens was the proprietor of a lithontriptic, which -for a long time had a great repute, and was even thought worthy the -attention of parliament, who voted her five thousand pounds for making -known the composition of it, a favourable report of its efficacy having -been given by the gentlemen who were appointed trustees to examine into -its pretensions. Subsequent experience has shown that it is not so well -adapted to the ends proposed, being a medley of soap and ill-prepared -alkaline substances, very nauseous and oppressive to the stomach. - -The recent and valuable discovery of lithotrity, now practised by -Baron Heurteloup and others, namely, the application of mechanical -power for the destruction of the stone, without the use of the knife, -is likely to be of more signal advantage than internal remedies, and, -though it is candidly stated by its supporters not to be applicable in -every case, yet it may frequently be performed without either pain or -inconvenience. - -The anodyne necklace, which was the result of some ridiculous -superstition respecting the efficacy of Sir Hugh’s bones, is still -gravely offered for sale, to facilitate the cutting of the teeth. In -1717, a “philosophical treatise” was published, wherin it says, “The -effluvia and atoms, driven off by the heat of the body, bear such -a tendency to the ailing part, as the loadstone does to iron, and -that they will never leave off acting till they have given ease, and -consequently it is a thing most capable of curing sympathetically the -diseases of a human body, of any thing in the whole world. Since this -famed necklace has been published, the bills of mortality have so -decreased, as to be less than ever they have been known to be.” - -But the _summum bonum_, with which this series of medical deceptions -may appropriately be closed, was the “universal medicine, or virtues of -the magnetical antimonial cup, addressed to the houses of parliament -by John Evans, minister and preacher of God’s word. It is warranted to -be alone the phœnix and miracle of all physical miracles: the elixir -of life, balsam of nature. It containeth mystically and essentially -the quintessence of all minerals and vegetables, and magnetically -sympathiseth with all animals.” - -In spite, however, of such admirable _never-failing_ specifics, -which, it would seem, ought to have exterminated every malady from -the face of the earth, diseases, hydra-headed, still baffle their -assailants, and return to the charge with renewed force and provoking -obstinacy. But the matter is too serious for the subject of a joke. If -even practitioners who have conscientiously studied their profession -are unavoidably in some degree open to the old charge of “pouring -medicines, of which they know little, into a body of which they know -less,” what must be said, or what ought to be the punishment, of -such villanous pretenders as those who have been described in this -chapter,--men without talent or education, and who seem to think that, -like charity, impudence covers a multitude of sins! - - - - - CONCLUDING CHAPTER. - - MISCELLANEOUS. - - Superstition of the Hindoos--The Malays--Asiatic superstitions--The - Chinese--Miracle of the Blessed Virgin--Stratagem of an - architect--Michael Angelo’s Cupid--Statue of Charles - I.--Ever-burning sepulchral lamps--Lamp in the tomb of - Pallas--The art of mimicry--Superiority of the ancients--Fable - of Proteus--Personation of the insane Ajax--Archimimes at - funerals--Demetrius the cynic converted--Acting portraits - and historical pictures--War dances of the American - Indians--The South Sea Bubble--Gay the poet--Law’s Mississippi - scheme--Numerous bubbles--Speculations in 1825. - - -Such has been the extent of the credulity of the human mind, that it -would require many volumes to enumerate the whole of its singular -vagaries. Our object in compiling such a work cannot be accomplished -without greatly condensing those accounts which historians and -travellers have communicated; we therefore devote the concluding -chapter to summary notices of several matters, that to enlarge upon -would defeat the intent of this publication. - -The religion of India is based upon the grossest superstition; divided -into castes, the persons of the Brahmins are sacred; the food of the -Hindoos is entirely of vegetables, as it was in the time of Alexander; -widows were burned alive to insure their eternal happiness; one hundred -and fifty thousand persons assemble yearly at the temple of Juggernaut -in honour of a blind deity, precipitating themselves voluntarily before -its wheels, where they are crushed to death, thus instantly as they -believe, entering a blessed immortality. - -More individual cases of absurd and disgusting fanaticism occur in -the Hindoo religion than, probably, in all the other religions in the -world. The excruciating penances these Indian devotees voluntarily -undergo, their number and extent, have struck all travellers. In making -a pilgrimage to Hurdwar, one zealous devotee performed a journey of -some hundred miles, prostrating himself and measuring every inch of the -way with his body as he advanced; some swing themselves on a rope by -means of a hook passed through the muscles of the back; some over fires -with their heads towards the flame; every variety of personal torture -is endured from a mistaken principle of religion conjoined with pride -of caste; some have literally burned themselves alive; mutilation to -propitiate some goddess is no uncommon occurrence; some years since a -Hindoo actually cut out his tongue to propitiate the amiable goddess -Kali-Ghat. - -The Malays have equally absurd superstitions, and charms are bought -at extravagant prices. A volume would alone be required to cite the -superstitions of Asia, where the human mind remains to this day in a -childlike state. The peculiar tenets of the Chinese have been ably set -forth by many writers, and by none more successfully than by Davis, in -his history of this curious nation. Their priests are taken from the -lowest orders, and a Chinaman depends upon their prayers. - -But we need not visit China to be convinced of the natural tendency of -man to superstition; a story is current of a picture of the immaculate -conception, which was in the late college of Jesuits in Valencia, that -may challenge competition for absurdity. This picture is the object -of general veneration, and by the devout is considered almost equal -to the Virgin herself; for tradition reports, that it was painted of -Father Alberto, to whom the Blessed Virgin condescended to appear on -the eve of the assumption, ordering her portrait in the dress she -then wore; he employed Juanes, who, after many trials succeeding, -the work was sanctified, and the pencil, like a sword, was blessed -and made invincible by the Pope, so that it never missed its stroke. -One day Juanes seated on a scaffold at work on the upper part of the -picture, the painter being in the act of falling, the holy personage, -whose portrait he had finished, stepped suddenly from the canvass, and -seizing his hand, preserved him from the fall, when the gracious lady -returned to her post! - -A very ancient fraud connected with architecture is mentioned by -Sandys, in his curious and rare book on the East. One of the Ptolemies -caused a tower to be built of a wonderful height, having many lanterns -for the use of ships at sea during the night. It was reputed the -seventh wonder of the world. Sostratus, of Cnidos, the ambitious -architect, was refused by the king the satisfaction of setting his -name to the work. This, however, the artist effected by cutting an -inscription on a block of marble, which he encrusted over with a -fictitious stone, on which was engraved a pompous inscription in honour -of the king; when it decayed his own name appeared as the builder. - -Michael Angelo, to try how far he could impose upon the curious in -sculpture, carved a statue of Cupid. Having broken off the arm, he -buried the rest of the figure under a certain ruin, where they were -wont to dig in search of marbles. It was soon after discovered, and -passed among the learned antiquaries for an invaluable and undoubted -piece of ancient sculpture, till Angelo produced the arm previously -broken off, which fitted so exactly as to convince them of their too -easy credulity, and the vanity of their speculations. - -In the year 1678, was erected the animated statue of Charles I., at -Charing Cross. The parliament, in Cromwell’s time ordered it to be -sold, and broken to pieces; but the brazier who purchased it dug a hole -in his garden, and buried it unmutilated, producing to his masters -several pieces of brass which he told them were parts of the statue; -and in the true spirit of trade, he cast a number of handles of knives -and forks, offering them for sale as composed of the brass of the -statue; they were eagerly sought for, and purchased by the loyalists, -from affection for their murdered monarch. When the second Charles was -restored, the statue was brought forth from its place of concealment, -and eagerly purchased at a great profit to the brazier. - -A superstition now forgotten, was long credited, that sepulchral -lamps have burned for several hundred years, and that they would have -continued burning, perhaps for ever, had they not been broken by the -accidental digging into the tombs by husbandmen and others; few have -declared themselves to have been _eye-witnesses_ of the fact, but -many learned and ingenious authors give abundance of instances on -the report of others. The origin of these lamps seems to have been -with the Egyptians, who, through a firm belief of the metempsychosis, -endeavoured to procure a perpetuity to the body itself, by balsams or -embalming, and security to it afterwards, by lodging it in pyramids or -catacombs: so also they endeavoured to animate the defunct by perpetual -fire, the essence of which answered to the nature of the soul in -their opinion: for with them fire was the symbol of an incorruptible, -immortal, and divine nature. The soul was to be lighted by its lamp -when it wandered according to its option, and thus safely return to its -old quarters. - -One of the most remarkable of the sepulchral lamps has thus been -described as found in the tomb of Pallas. In the year 1501, a -countryman, digging deep into the earth, near Rome, discovered a tomb -of stone, wherein lay a body, so tall, that being raised erect, it -overtopped the walls of the city, and was as entire as if newly buried, -having a very large wound on the breast, and a lamp burning at the -head, which could neither be extinguished by wind nor water; so that -they were obliged to perforate the bottom of the lamp, and by that -means put out the flame. This was said to be the body of Pallas, slain -by Turnus; the lamp is said to have burned two thousand five hundred -and eleven years; and perhaps would have continued to burn to the end -of the world, had it not been broken, and the liquid spilt! - -At the present day of intellectual advancement, this story of the size -of Pallas, and of the lamp whose contumacious flame, well befitting -such a giant, exceeds all belief, however gravely stated; yet the time -was, when, instead of exciting contemptuous laughter, it was implicitly -credited. The lamp in the temple of Jupiter Ammon was reported by -the priests to have burned continually, yet it consumed less oil -each succeeding year; though burning in the open air, neither wind -nor water could extinguish it. A similar lamp also burned in honour -of Venus. Trithemius obliges his readers with two long receipts for -the artificial manufacture of these lamps, yet seems to doubt their -efficacy. - -The _possibility_ of such eternal lamps being made in Egypt has been -attributed to the existence of the bituminous wells or fountains, from -which the learned in those days laid secret canals or pipes to the -subterranean caves, where, in a convenient place, they set up a lamp -with a wick of asbestos. It seems, indeed, to have been thought a great -desideratum in the arts to invent a perpetual lamp for the companion of -the dead as a complimentary illumination to the manes of the departed, -or from some foolish desire to strike wonder, in after times, in some -carnal beholder, unwittingly violating the tomb; the accounts of such -appear to have been generally believed authentic up to the end of the -seventeenth century; the utilitarian age we live in is content to -possess a perpetual locomotive fire for those above ground. - -The art of mimicry, in its modern sense though confined to a mere -imitation of manners, in former times, by the excellence of its action, -imposed on the imaginations of the spectators, and persuaded them -into a belief of the reality of what was represented, even as it were -against conviction. - -The endeavour of one or more individuals to express or relate any -story by mere action, was carried to much greater perfection among the -ancients than now appears to be possible. According to Lucian, a single -dancer or mime was able to express all the incidents and sentiments of -a whole tragedy or epic poem by action, accompanied by music, and the -fable of Proteus he seemed to think meant no more than that he was an -accomplished pantomime. The education of a mime required, he says, his -whole life to make himself master of his profession; he must know the -past, the present, and what is to come; in short, the spectator must -_understand_ the dancer though dumb, and _hear_ him though silent. - -Lucian mentions a famous mime, who played Ajax the madman so well, and -raged in such a way that one would have said he did not counterfeit, -but was mad in reality. Timocrates, a tutor in philosophy, and who from -conscientious motives had declined being present at such plays, by -accident seeing a pantomime, cried out, “What admirable sights have I -lost by a philosophical modesty!” and ever afterwards attended them. - -This kind of scenic representation was given at funerals, and the -actors were called archimimes; they went before the coffin, and -imitated the gestures and actions of the deceased; his virtues and -vices were depicted. Demetrius the cynic, disdained and railed at the -art of the mime, declaring all the success was derived from the music; -but a famous mime in Nero’s time, invited him to see him dance, and, -having witnessed his performance, then to find fault with him. Having -imposed silence on the music, he danced the story of the amours of Mars -and Venus, the discovery of them by the sun; in short so well was it -done, that Demetrius, transported, cried out aloud, “I hear, my friend, -what you act; I not only see the persons you represent, but methinks -you speak with your hands.” - -There is less to be said of this art in its present state, though -pantomime, considered distinct from harlequinade, now receives great -attention in Italy. The acting of portraits and historical pictures, -exhibited with the greatest fidelity of costume and attitude in -Florence, and which amusement is now common in well-bred circles at -home, is another species of ingenious deception, which is almost -perfect. The war-dance among the American Indians is most striking, -representing a campaign. The departure of the warriors from their -village, their march into the enemy’s country, the caution with which -they encamp, the address with which they station some of their -company in ambuscade, the manner of surprising their enemy, the noise -and ferocity of the combat, the scalping of those who are slain, the -seizing of the prisoners, the triumphant return of the conquerors, and -the torture of the victims, are successively and ably exhibited with -the tact of actors. The performers enter with such enthusiastic ardour -into their several parts; their gestures, their countenance, their -voice, are so wild, and so well adapted to their various situations, -that Europeans can hardly believe it to be a mimic scene, or view it -without emotions of horror. - -Public credulity, founded on the inordinate desire of gain, was perhaps -never exhibited in a stronger point of view than by the fatal belief -in the South Sea scheme, which to the credulous believer, like that of -Law’s Mississippi bubble, was made to appear a royal road to El Dorado. -It was patronised by persons of both sexes in the highest ranks of -society, and even by royalty itself and men of letters; Gay, the poet, -had a present of some of the stock, and at one time believed himself -worth twenty thousand pounds, but like others lost all; Chandler, the -learned non-conformist divine, lost his whole fortune, and turned -bookseller for subsistence. - -The scheme originated in the reign of Queen Anne, in the year 1711, a -fund being formed on the chimerical notion that the English would be -allowed to trade to the coast of Peru. Sir John Blunt, who was bred -a scriviner, devised the scheme, and communicated it to Aislabie, -the chancellor of the exchequer. The pretence of this scheme was to -discharge the national debt by reducing all the funds into one stock. -The Bank of England and the South Sea Company vied with each other, -and the latter ultimately offered such high terms that the proposal -of the Bank was rejected, and the Company’s stock rose considerably. -It produced a kind of national delirium. Sir John Blunt took this -hint from Law’s scheme, which was that a royal bank be erected by -subscription, and, having a fund in hand to answer bills on demand, -the scheme began to take, and established its credit by its punctual -discharge, till it increased to such extraordinary magnitude as to pay -bills for one million and a quarter sterling a day. - -In this project of Law, however, there was something substantial; an -exclusive trade to Louisiana promised advantage, though the design was -defeated by the frantic eagerness of the people. Law himself had become -the dupe of the regent, who transferred the burden of fifteen hundred -million of francs of the king’s debt to the shoulders of the people, -while the projector was sacrificed as the scape-goat of political -iniquity. - -The South Sea scheme promised no commercial advantage of any -consequence; it was buoyed by nothing but the folly and rapacity of -individuals, who became so blinded with the prospect of gain as to -become easy dupes. - -When the projector found that the South Sea stock did not rise to his -expectation, he circulated reports that Gibraltar and Port Mahon would -be exchanged for some places in Peru, by which the South Sea trade -would be protected and enlarged. This report acted like a contagion; -persons of all ranks crowded to subscribe; the Exchange Alley was -filled with a strange concourse of statesmen, clergymen, dissenters, -whigs, tories, physicians, lawyers, &c. &c., and even females. All -other professions and employments were neglected. Other companies -without foundation were got up to deceive, and all found favour with -the mad public. There were actually some shares of a fictitious -company, called Globe Permits, each of which came at last to be -currently sold for sixty guineas and upwards, and yet were only square -bits of card, on which were the impression of a seal in wax, having the -sign of the Globe tavern. A burlesque upon this reigning folly appeared -in an advertisement for a company with a capital of two millions for -melting down sawdust and chips, and casting them into clean deal -boards without knots. - -The public infatuation lasted till the 8th of September, when the stock -began to fall and soon reached the point of being worthless. Public -credit received a severe shock; the cunning ones devised a scheme for -relief from the Bank of England, and sold out for what they could -realize; some of the ministry were implicated. Knight, the Treasurer, -fled the kingdom; the Committee of the House of Commons to investigate -discovered a train of the deepest villany; the directors were seized, -and it appeared that large sums had been given to persons in the -administration and House of Commons for promoting the passing of the -act, and a fictitious stock of five hundred and seventy-four thousand -pounds had been disposed of by the directors to facilitate the passing -of the bill. The Chancellor of the Exchequer was committed to the Tower -and convicted of peculation; the estates of the most guilty directors -were confiscated for the benefit of the sufferers. - -In 1825 the general feeling for bubbles was again led captive by the -unreasonable hopes of speculation. In January of that year there -existed in London no less than one hundred and twenty speculating -schemes, carried on by companies, often consisting of only the -projector and his clerk, causing great misery and frequent ruin. - - - THE END. - - - FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Second Part of King Henry IV. - - [2] There recently arrived in London a specimen of this - species of manufacture; it is a singular relic, consisting of - a very elaborate carving in wood of the Crucifixion, and is a - ludicrous evidence of monkish trickery. A hole is perforated - from behind, through which, by the application of a sponge - dipped in blood, a stream was made to travel to the front, - where it was seen to discharge itself from a crevice in the - Saviour’s side, which stands for the spear-wound, so that the - figure had the appearance of shedding real blood, and the drops - so discharged were sold to the devotees at an enormous price. - - [3] “The camels which have had the honour to bear presents to - Mecca or Medina, are not to be treated afterwards as common - animals. They are considered consecrated to Mahomet, which - exempts them from all labour and service; they have cottages - built for their abodes, where they live at ease and receive - plenty of food, and the most careful attention.”--_Travels of - Father Strope._ - - [4] “The rising of dead men’s bones every year in Egypt is a - thing superstitiously believed by the Christian worshippers, - and by the priests out of ignorance, or policy. Metrophanes, - patriarch of Alexandria, thought the possibility of such an - occurrence might be proved out of Isaiah, c. lxvi., v. 24, ‘and - they shall go forth, and look upon the carcasses of the men - that have transgressed against me.’ A Frenchman at Cairo, who - had been present at the resurrection of these bones, showed me - an arm from thence; the flesh was shrivelled and dried like the - mummies. He observed the miracle to have been always performed - _behind him_, and once casually looking back, he discovered - some bones carried privately by an Egyptian, under his vest, - whence he understood the mystery.”--_Sandys’s Travels._ - - [5] “It is as hard as a stone.” - - [6] Balaam’s ass may remind the reader of the “Feast of the - Ass.” In several churches in France they used to celebrate a - festival, in commemoration of the Virgin Mary’s flight into - Egypt. It was called the Feast of the Ass. A young girl richly - dressed, with a child in her arms, was set upon an ass superbly - caparisoned. The ass was led to the altar in solemn procession, - high mass was said with great pomp, the ass was taught to - kneel at proper places, a hymn, no less childish than impious, - was sung in its praise, and when the ceremony was ended, the - priest, instead of the usual words with which he dismissed the - people, brayed three times like an ass; and the people, instead - of the usual response, “We bless the Lord,” brayed three times - in the same manner. Vide Du Cange, voc. Festum, vol. iii. p. - 424. - - [7] Quarterly Review, July, 1819; art. “British Monachism, by - D. Fosbrooke.” - - [8] In Candide, or the Optimist, there is an admirable stroke - of Voltaire’s; eight travellers meet in an obscure inn, and - some of them with not sufficient money to pay for a scurvy - dinner. In the course of conversation they are discovered to - be _eight monarchs_ in Europe, who had been deprived of their - crowns. What gave point to this satire was, that these eight - monarchs were not the fictitious majesties of the poetic brain; - imperial shadows, like those that appeared to Macbeth; but - living monarchs, who were wandering at that moment about the - world. - - [9] This was not the tree which gave the name to “Royal Oak - Day.” - - [10] The hair has often been found very useful as a means of - concealment for other purposes. The Indian lavadores, whilst - washing the sand, for the grains of gold, were observed by the - overseers to be continually scratching their heads, or passing - their fingers through their thick woolly hair. A suspicion - arising, the hair was combed, and was found full of the gold - grains. On keeping their hair quite short it was discovered - that the necessity for such frequent application to the head - had ceased. - - [11] The editor saw her at Philadelphia, where she exhibited - _once_ to a small audience, and then disappeared. - - [12] This lover of truth, at the commencement of his pamphlet, - with consummate assurance thus proposes himself as a private - tutor: “Gentlemen who are desirous _to secure_ their children - from ill example, by a domestic education, or are themselves - inclined to gain or retrieve the knowledge of the Latin - tongue, may be waited on at their houses, by the author of the - following essay, upon the receipt of a letter directed to the - publisher or author.--N.B. Mr. Lauder’s abilities, and industry - in his profession, can be well attested by persons of the first - rank in literature in this metropolis.” - - [13] “Dr. Johnson, who had been so far imposed upon by - Lauder, as to furnish a preface and postscript to his work, - now dictated a letter for him, addressed to Dr. Douglas, - acknowledging his fraud in terms of suitable contrition. This - extraordinary attempt of Lauder’s was no sudden effort; he - had brooded over it for years, and it is uncertain what his - principal motive was.”--_Boswell’s Life of Johnson._ - - [14] The modern mode of copying coins enables any one with - industry to possess a large cabinet. - - [15] Dark blue is called, by the modern Egyptians, _eswed_, - which properly signifies _black_, and is therefore so - translated here. - - [16] Mr. Matthews, the comedian, in his “Humours of a Country - Fair,” has hardly exaggerated, in describing a quack thus - reading acknowledgments from those cured by his specific. - ‘Sir,--I was cut in two in a saw-pit, and cured by one bottle.’ - ‘Sir,--By the bursting of a powder-mill, I was blown into ten - thousand _anatomies_. The first bottle of your incomparable - collected all the parts together; the second restored life and - animation--before the third was finished, I was in my usual - state of health.’ This hardly exceeds a reasonable satire on - the presumptuous promises that _still_ frequently accompany - each bottle or box licensed from _the Stamp Office_! - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - A few obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. - - Otherwise spelling and hyphenation variations remain unchanged. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sketches of Imposture, Deception, and -Credulity, by R. A. 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