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(George Henry) Bianchi - -Release Date: April 23, 2020 [eBook #61901] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MYTHOLOGY OF GREECE AND ROME*** - - -E-text prepared by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading -Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by -Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 61901-h.htm or 61901-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/61901/61901-h/61901-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/61901/61901-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/TheMythologyOfGreeceAndRome - - -Transcriber’s note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). - - - - - -Greek and Roman Mythology - - -[Illustration: Fig. 53.—Head of Niobe. Florence.] - - -THE MYTHOLOGY OF GREECE AND ROME - -With Special Reference to Its Use in Art - -Edited by - -G. H. BIANCHI, M.A. - -Late Scholar of St. Peter’S College, Cambridge Brotherton Sanskrit -Prizeman, 1875 - -With Sixty-four Illustrations - -New and Revised Edition - - - - - - -London: Chapman and Hall, Ld. - -Made and Printed in Great Britain. -Richard Clay & Sons, Limited. -Printers, Bungay, Suffolk. - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - PREFACE. - - -No apology can be needed for introducing to the public a work like the -present. There has long been a want of a book which should, in a -moderate compass, give a clear and readable account of these legends; -for Dictionaries of Mythology do not give a view of the subject as a -whole; and the price of most other works on the Greek and Roman myths -would prevent their being used as class-books. These considerations have -led the publishers to bring out this book in an English dress. - -If any should be inclined to ask what Mythology has to do with men of -the present day, the reply is plain. The works of art in our galleries -and museums require a certain amount of knowledge of the mythology of -the Greeks and Romans for the full appreciation of their subjects. There -is hardly any literature in Europe which has not been more or less -coloured by these legends; and in our own day their power to inspire the -poet has by no means ceased. Nay, they have incorporated themselves into -our very language: “Herculean strength” is almost as common an -expression now as it was two thousand years ago; and we still talk of -“chimerical” expectations, describe a man as “tantalised,” and use the -Sphinx as the symbol of the mysterious. - -The present work, translated from the German of O. Seemann, seems well -adapted to convey a knowledge of these myths. It is illustrated with -cuts after some of the masterpieces of ancient and modern art. -Particular attention has been paid to this branch of the subject, and -the principal works of art in each case are mentioned. - -The distinction between Greek and Roman deities and heroes has been -preserved, but the conventional spelling has been retained. A full index -is appended, in which the quantities of the vowels are carefully marked. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION. - I. SUBJECTS OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY 11 - II. POPULAR IDEAS CONCERNING THE GODS 13 - - PART I.—COSMOGONY AND THEOGONY 17 - - PART II.—THE GODS. - - THE GODS OF OLYMPUS. - - A.—SUPERIOR DEITIES. - Zeus (Jupiter) 22 - Hera (Juno) 31 - Pallas Athene (Minerva) 34 - Apollo 40 - Artemis (Diana) 48 - Ares (Mars) 51 - Aphrodite (Venus) 56 - Hermes (Mercurius) 62 - Hephæstus (Vulcanus) 68 - Hestia (Vesta) 71 - Janus 74 - Quirinus 77 - - B.—SECONDARY DEITIES. - 1. Attendant and Ministering Deities— - Eros (Amor) 78 - The Muses 80 - The Charites (Gratiæ) 83 - Themis and the Horæ (Seasons) 84 - Nice (Victoria) 85 - Iris 86 - Hebe (Juventas) 87 - Ganymedes 88 - 2. The Phenomena of the Heavens— - Helios (Sol) 89 - Selene (Luna) 91 - Eos (Aurora) 92 - The Stars 93 - The Winds 93 - 3. Gods of Birth and Healing— - Asclepius (Æsculapius) 94 - Inferior Deities of Birth and Healing 96 - 4. Deities of Fate— - The Mœræ (Parcæ) 98 - Nemesis, Tyche (Fortuna), and Agathodæmon (Bonus Eventus) 98 - - THE GODS OF THE SEA AND WATERS. - Poseidon (Neptunus) 100 - Amphitrite 104 - Triton and the Tritons 105 - Pontus and his Descendants— - _Nereus and his Daughters_ 105 - _Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto_ 106 - Proteus 107 - Glaucus 107 - Ino Leucothea, and Melicertes 108 - The Sirens 109 - The Race of Oceanus 109 - - THE GODS OF THE EARTH AND LOWER WORLD. - Gæa (Tellus) 112 - Rhea Cybele (Magna Mater Idæa) 113 - Dionysus, or Bacchus (Liber) 114 - The Nymphs 123 - The Satyrs 125 - Silenus 126 - Greek and Roman Wood-Spirits— - _Pan_ 128 - _Silvanus_ 131 - _Faunus and Fauna_ 131 - Priapus 133 - Saturnus and Ops 133 - Vertumnus and Pomona 135 - Flora 136 - Pales 136 - Terminus 137 - Demeter (Ceres) 137 - Persephone (Proserpina) 143 - Hades (Pluto) 146 - The Lower World 147 - The Erinyes (Furiæ) 150 - Hecate 153 - Sleep and Death 154 - - ROMAN DEITIES OF THE HOUSE AND FAMILY. - The Penates 156 - The Lares 157 - The Larvæ, Lemures, and Manes 158 - - - PART III.—THE HEROES. - - INTRODUCTORY 159 - - THE CREATION AND PRIMITIVE CONDITION OF MANKIND 162 - - PROVINCIAL HEROIC LEGENDS— - The Lapithæ and the Centaurs 165 - Theban Legend— - _Cadmus_ 170 - _Actæon_ 171 - _Amphion and Zethus_ 172 - Corinthian Legend— - _Sisyphus_ 179 - _Glaucus_ 180 - _Bellerophon and the Legend of the Amazons_ 180 - Argive Legend— - _Io_ 185 - _Danaüs and the Danaïds_ 186 - _Prœtus and his Daughters_ 187 - _Perseus_ 188 - The Dioscuri 194 - Heracles (Hercules) 197 - _The Birth and Youth of Heracles_ 198 - _Heracles in the Service of Eurystheus_ 199 - _Deeds of Heracles after his Service_ 206 - _Death and Apotheosis_ 211 - _Heracles as God_ 212 - Attic Legend— - _Cecrops_ 217 - _Erechtheus, or Erichthonius_ 218 - _Theseus_ 219 - Cretan Legend— - _Minos and the Minotaur_ 227 - _Talos_ 229 - - COMBINED UNDERTAKINGS OF THE LATER HEROIC AGE— - The Calydonian Hunt 230 - The Argonauts 232 - The Theban Cycle 237 - The Trojan Cycle 241 - The Heroic Races of the Trojan War— - _The Dardanidæ, or Race of Dardanus_ 241 - _The Pelopidæ, or Race of Pelops_ 242 - _The Æacidæ, or Race of Æacus_ 245 - _Nestor, the Locrian Ajax, Diomedes, and Odysseus_ 247 - The War 249 - The Return 257 - - MYTHIC SEERS AND BARDS 262 - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - FIG. PAGE - 1. Bust of Cronus. Vatican Museum, 20 - 2. Cameo of Athenion 21 - 3. Zeus of Otricoli. Vatican Museum, 27 - 4. Jupiter Verospi. Vatican Museum, 29 - 5. Coins of Elis with Phidias’ Zeus. (After - Overbeck.) 30 - 6. Barberini Juno. Vatican Museum, 32 - 7. Head of Hera, perhaps after Polycletus. Naples, 33 - 8. Pallas Giustiniani. Vatican, 38 - 9. Athene Polias. Villa Albani, 39 - 10. Pallas Athene. Naples, 40 - 11. Apollo Belvedere. Vatican, 44 - 12. Head of Apollo Belvedere, 45 - 13. Apollo Citharœdus. Munich, 47 - 14. Diana of Versailles, 50 - 15. Mars Ludovisi, 55 - 16. Bust of Ares. Sculpture Gallery at Munich, 56 - 17. Venus of Milo. Louvre, 60 - 18. Venus Genetrix. Villa Borghese, 61 - 19. Resting Hermes. Bronze Statue at Naples, 66 - 20. Statue of Hermes. Capitoline Collection, 67 - 21. Hephæstus. Bronze Figure in the British Museum, 70 - 22. Vesta Giustiniani. Torlonia Collection, 74 - 23. Head of Eros. Vatican, 78 - 24. Eros trying his Bow. Capitoline Museum, 79 - 25. Polyhymnia. Berlin Museum, 80 - 26. Melpomene. Vatican, 81 - 27. Euterpe. Vatican, 82 - 28. The Horæ. Relief from the Villa Albani, 85 - 29. Victoria. United Collections in Munich, 86 - 30. Hebe. From Antonio Canova, 88 - 31. Ganymedes and the Eagle. From Thorwaldsen, 89 - 32. Asclepius. Berlin, 95 - 33. Head of Asclepius. British Museum, 96 - 34. Night and the Fates. From Carstens, 97 - 35. Poseidon. Dolce Gem, 103 - 36. Dionysus and Lion. From the Monument of - Lysicrates, 116 - 37. The so-called Sardanapalus in the Vatican, 119 - 38. Youthful Dionysus. From the Chateau Richelieu, now - in the Louvre, 120 - 39. Marble Head of Youthful Dionysus at Leyden, 121 - 40. Sleeping Ariadne. Vatican, 122 - 41. Dannecker’s Ariadne. Frankfort-on-the-Main, 123 - 42. Head of Satyr. Munich Sculpture Gallery, 126 - 43. Pan. From a Mural Painting at Herculaneum, 130 - 44. Demeter Enthroned. Painting from Pompeii. Naples, 142 - 45. Persephone Enthroned. Painting from Pompeii. - Naples, 145 - 46. Head of Hades. Palazzo Chigi. Rome, 147 - 47. Three-formed Hecate. Capitoline Museum, 154 - 48. Metope of the Parthenon, 166 - 49. From the Frieze of the Temple at Bassæ 167 - 50. Centaur teaching a boy to play upon the Pipe. - Relief by Kundmann, 169 - 51. Actæon. Group. British Museum, 172 - 52. Farnese Bull. Naples, 174 - 53. Head of Niobe. Florence, _Frontispiece_. - 54. Niobe. Florence, 178 - 55. Amazon. Berlin, 183 - 56. Perseus and Andromeda. Marble Relief in the Museum - at Naples, 192 - 57. Rondanini Medusa. Munich, 193 - 58. Farnese Hercules, 215 - 59. Elgin Theseus. British Museum, 225 - 60. Theseus Lifting the Rock. Relief in the Villa - Albani, 226 - 61. Laocoön. Group, 255 - 62. Priam before Achilles. Relief by Thorwaldsen, 260 - 63. Rape of Helen. Campana Collection. Paris, 261 - 64. Orpheus and Eurydice. Marble Relief in the Villa - Albani, 263 - -[Illustration] - - - - - GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. - - - - - INTRODUCTION. - - - I.—SUBJECTS OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. - -Myths may be described as poetic narratives of the birth, life, and -actions of the old heathen gods and heroes or demigods. Both myth and -legend[1] are distinguished from the “Mährchen,” or popular tale, by not -being, like the latter, a mere product of the imagination, but always -being founded on some preceding reality, whether that be an -oft-recurring phase of nature, or a distinct and real occurrence. It is -often most difficult to recognise with any precision the true germ of a -myth, on account of the numerous additions and alterations made by the -poets. And therefore the question, whether a particular tradition be a -myth or not, is very hard to answer: on one side we are tempted to view, -in the god or demigod, the hero of a tribe magnified to superhuman -proportions by the admiration of posterity; and, on the other side, -comparison of the legends of different families of nations points us to -the operations of nature, not only in the demigod or the hero, but in -the animals of fable and the traditions of the nursery. - -Footnote 1: - - The German word “sage” (legend) is really only a translation of the - Greek word “mythos,” and is often used in that sense. But lately the - custom has tacitly sprung up of employing the term “mythos” when - speaking of the life or actions of the gods, and “sage” when speaking - of those of heroes. - -A large proportion of these myths are due to men’s observations of -Nature, and her various active and creative forces, which appeared to -their lively Southern fancy as manifestations of single supernatural -beings. These were regarded, now as friendly, now as hostile, to man; -and men therefore strove as eagerly to gain their favour as to appease -their wrath. Of the appearance of the deities who thus manifested -themselves in the workings of nature, men necessarily formed at first -very crude and fantastic ideas. But later, when men emerged from the -simple conditions of the early patriarchal epoch, and began to dwell in -regular political communities, they gradually ceased to regard the gods -as mere personifications of natural forces. They began to regard them as -beings acting in accordance with unchangeable moral laws, and endowed -with forms similar to those of men (Anthropomorphism). They brought the -gods into connection with each other by means of genealogies in a great -measure artificial, and built up a vast political system, which has its -centre in Zeus, the “father of gods and men.” - -Strange to say, however, it was only among the Greeks that this system -of development prevailed. The nations of Italy still continued to regard -their gods as mere natural forces—that looked down on them in a cold, -strange fashion—of whose form and mode of life they had no clear idea. -It was only later, when the Romans came into intellectual contact with -their Greek neighbours, and began to study their language and -literature, that they adopted the popular Greek conceptions concerning -the gods. They now transferred existing myths, and fathered them on -those of their own gods and goddesses who bore the closest resemblance -to the Greek divinities, and harmonised best with their natural -interpretation. Thus it was that the Roman Jupiter was identified with -the Greek Zeus, Juno with Hera, Minerva with Athene; though for peculiar -deities, such as Janus, they could find no Greek prototype. - - - II.—POPULAR IDEAS CONCERNING THE GODS. - -We learn most concerning the conceptions the ancients formed of their -gods from the numerous Greek and Roman poets whose works have come down -to us, and who contributed so largely to the construction of the myths. -First, both in antiquity and importance, are the poems attributed to -Homer, in which we find the whole political system of Olympus, with Zeus -at its head, already constructed. - -Henceforth the gods, in outward appearance at least, are endowed with -forms entirely human; more grand and beautiful and majestic, but still -not verging on the monstrous or fantastic. - -Not only in beauty and grandeur, but also in strength and vigour, do the -gods surpass men. Let but Zeus shake his ambrosial locks, and the whole -of Olympus trembles. The other deities are also endowed in proportion -with great strength. As corporeal, indeed, they are limited in regard to -space, and cannot therefore be omnipresent; but this restriction affects -them far less than mortals, for they can compass the greatest distances -at lightning speed. In a moment Athene drops from the heights of Olympus -down to Ithaca; and Poseidon, the ocean-god, passes in three or four -steps from Samothrace to Ægæ in Eubœa. Moreover, the gods can see and -hear at a much greater distance than men. In regard to hearing, indeed, -they seem to have unlimited powers. Prayers ascend to them from every -place, irrespective of their personal presence. In the same manner Zeus, -from his high throne in Olympus, sees all that passes among men, and, -sitting on the highest summit of Mount Ida, he can follow all the events -of the battle that rages before Troy. - -On the other hand, the gods are subject to the same bodily wants as men. -They refresh themselves in the same way with sleep, and have to support -themselves with food and drink. Here again, however, they are far less -fettered than mortals, for they can hold out much longer without -satisfying these wants. Nor is their food so coarse as that of men; they -live on ambrosia and nectar. Another natural necessity is clothing, on -the tasteful ordering of which the goddesses even bestow extraordinary -care, and in this, as in many other respects, greatly resemble the -daughters of Eve. Although later art delights in representing some of -the deities either slightly clothed or quite naked, yet we cannot justly -conclude from this that the popular belief of the ancients conceived -thus of those gods. - -Gods endowed with frames like those of mortals must necessarily be born -in the same way, and develope gradually both in mind and body. But here, -again, everything proceeds with the utmost rapidity. For instance, the -new-born Hermes rises from his cradle to steal the cattle of Apollo, -and, coming into the world in the morning, he is found in the afternoon -playing on the lyre, which he has himself invented. The most important -point, however, in which they surpass mortals is that, when once in full -possession of bodily and intellectual powers, they never grow old, but -remain ever young and beautiful, ever free from disease and death. -Compared with the race of men, who are subject to need and pain, they -are the “happy,” “blessed” gods, the gods “who live at ease,” who can -readily gratify every desire. But this does not by any means prevent -their suffering occasionally from the pangs of sorrow and grief; they -are vulnerable alike in body and soul, and exposed to every kind of -painful sensation. So completely did the Greeks subject their gods to -human passions. - -As regards mental qualifications they are naturally far superior to men. -In the first place, they stand higher morally; they shun all that is -evil, impure, and unjust, and visit with punishment the impiety and -injustice of man. This, again, does not prevent their giving way to -every description of vice and folly, such as deceit, lying, hatred, -cruelty, jealousy, &c. They are far from holy, therefore, in the sense -in which we speak of the Supreme Being. Still less are they conceived as -omniscient or omnipotent. Their powers indeed are great, and so is their -knowledge. They are able to interrupt the course of nature—to send -sudden storms, pestilences, and other evils—to endow themselves or -others with any forms they like, and to do many other things, of which -we read in fairy tales. But even Zeus, to whom a far greater measure of -power is accorded than to other gods, and on whose will the government -of the universe depends, is himself subjected to the immutable decrees -of fate; whilst the possibility of deceiving and duping him is by no -means excluded. - -Where then are we to seek for the explanation of these apparent -inconsistencies? We have already said that the active and creative -forces of Nature were personified by the imagination of men. Let us take -one of the first conceptions likely to spring up—that of the love of the -heaven for the earth, from which all nature is born. Different names -will be used in different localities; men will at last forget that they -all once meant the same, and out of the simple personification will -spring a series of divine marriages; or if one be recognised by the -whole nation as the wife, the other brides will sink into mistresses. - -So with the everlasting war of the sun with the clouds; we shall not -only find several gods of the light in Greece, but almost every tribe -had a particular hero, whose great deeds we shall generally find to be -those of the sun. Yet in the midst of all this confusion, men had a -feeling that there was something above them better and holier than they, -to which that which is good and holy alone was pleasing. This idea was -more and more attached to Zeus himself, as the notion grew that Zeus was -the supreme god, the king of heaven. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - - PART I.—COSMOGONY AND THEOGONY. - - -By Cosmogony, we understand the legends relating to the creation of the -world; by Theogony, those relating to the origin of the gods. On both -points we have to deal with the Greeks alone, since the Romans never -indulged in any researches of this kind. All that their poets have to -say on the subject is, without exception, borrowed from the Greeks. - -According to the common account the world was formed out of Chaos. By -this, however, we must not understand a huge and shapeless mass, but -merely dark, unbounded space. The accounts of the poets vary very -materially as to how the world proceeded from Chaos. The most popular -view is that according to which Gæa or Ge (the earth) first issued from -Chaos; whereupon Tartarus (the abyss beneath the earth) immediately -severed itself, and Eros (the love that forms and binds all things) -sprang into existence. Gæa then begot of herself Uranus (heaven), the -mountains, and Pontus (the sea). - -The first gods who peopled this new world were begotten of the earth -partly by Uranus and partly by Pontus. From her union with Uranus sprang -the Titans, the Cyclopes, and the Centimanes; from her union with Pontus -various sea-deities. - -1. The race of Uranus. According to Hesiod there were twelve Titans: six -males—Oceanus, Cœus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Cronus; and six -females—Thia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phœbe, and Tethys. The -interpretation of these divinities is somewhat difficult, but they -doubtless represented the elementary forces of nature. The Cyclopes were -three in number—Brontes (thunder), Steropes (lightning), and Arges -(sheet-lightning): these, we can clearly see, refer to the phenomena of -the storm. The Centimanes (hundred-handed), again, are three in -number—Cottus, Briareus, and Gyes. These, too, represent destructive -forces of nature—perhaps the earthquake, the tempestuous sea, and the -storm-wind. - -2. The race of Pontus. By Pontus Gæa became the mother of the fabulous -sea-deities—Nereus, Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto, and Eurybia. These, again, -had numerous descendants. Nereus represents the sea in its quiet state: -we shall have to speak of him and his daughters later on. Thaumas -represents to us the majesty of the sea. He is the father of Iris (the -rainbow), and of the Harpies (storm-winds). Lastly, Phorcys and Ceto, -from whose union the frightful Gorgons and Grææ proceeded, typify all -the dangers and terrors of the sea. - -Many marriages also took place among the Titans themselves. The numerous -sea-nymphs are descended from Oceanus and Tethys; from Hyperion and Thia -come the deities of the light—Helios (sun), Selene (moon), and Eos -(dawn); from Cœus and Phœbe the deities of the night—Leto (dark night) -and Asteria (starry night). - -The most important of all the Titans, however, are Cronus and Rhea, who -pave the way for the universal dominion of their son Zeus. - -Uranus, fearing lest his last-born sons, the powerful Cyclopes and -Centimanes, might one day seize his power, buried them directly after -birth in the deep abyss beneath the earth. This displeased Gæa, their -mother, who thereupon prompted the Titans to conspire against their -father, and induced Cronus, the youngest and bravest of them, to lay -violent hands on Uranus. Uranus was mutilated, cast into chains, and -compelled by his sons to abdicate his sovereignty, which now passed to -Cronus. But Cronus was not long destined to enjoy the fruits of his -crime. The curse of Uranus, who prophesied that he would suffer a like -fate at the hands of his own son, was fulfilled. So anxious was he to -avert such a catastrophe, that he swallowed his children immediately -after their birth. Five had already suffered this fate—Hestia, Demeter, -Hera, Hades, and Poseidon. But their mother Rhea, grieved at their lot, -determined to rescue her next son, Zeus, by a stratagem. In the place of -her child, she gave to her suspicious and cruel husband a stone wrapped -in swaddling clothes, which he swallowed without further examination. -Zeus, who was thus rescued, was reared by the nymphs in a grotto on -Mount Dicte, in Crete. The she-goat Amalthea served as his nurse, whilst -the bees brought him honey to eat. In order that the cries of the child -might not betray his presence to his suspicious father, the Curetes, or -attendant priests of Rhea, drowned his voice in the clashing of their -weapons. Zeus remained thus hidden until he had become a mighty though -youthful god. He then attacked and overthrew his father Cronus, whom he -also compelled, by means of a device of Gæa, to bring forth the children -that he had devoured. One part of the Titans—Oceanus, Themis, Mnemosyne, -and Hyperion—submitted without hesitation to the dominion of the new -ruler of the world. The others, however, refused allegiance; but Zeus, -after a contest of ten years, overthrew them, with the help of the -Cyclopes and Centimanes. As a punishment, they were cast into Tartarus, -which was then closed by Poseidon with brazen gates. Thessaly, the land -which bears the clearest traces of natural convulsions, was supposed to -have been the scene of this mighty war. Zeus and his adherents fought -from Olympus; the Titans from the opposite mountain of Othrys. - -Comparison of the legends of other nations does not show us any such -elaborate genealogy. Zeus has his counterparts almost everywhere, and -Uranus himself appears in India; but Cronus, in the sense of the father -of Zeus, is probably traceable to the common epithet of Zeus, Cronion, -which was assumed in later times to be a patronymic. It was natural to -deduce from the idea that one power of nature sprang from another, the -expression that the god of the first power was the child of the god of -the second; it would perhaps be more correct to say that it was the same -thing to the early races of men. As to the wars, which were so great a -stumbling-block to the Greek philosophers, we may notice that the -supreme god must, of course, have been the son of a supreme god; and -yet, if his predecessor were supreme, must have dispossessed him. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.—Bust of Cronus. Vatican Museum.] - - The Titans, not being actually objects of worship, were not - frequently represented in ancient art. Cronus is the only exception, - which may be explained by the fact that the Romans identified him - with their own Saturn, or harvest-god. He is generally depicted with - a severe and gloomy expression of countenance, the back of his head - being veiled, as a symbol of his reserved character. In the Vatican - Museum at Rome there is a bust of this kind in good preservation, an - engraving of which we give (Fig. 1). - -After his victory over the Titans, Zeus shared the empire of the world -with his two brothers, Poseidon and Hades. The former he made ruler of -the ocean and waters; the latter he set over the infernal regions; -everything else he retained for himself. This new order of things, -however, was by no means securely established. The resentment of Gæa led -her to produce with Tartarus, her youngest and most powerful son, the -giant Typhoeus, a monster with a hundred fire-breathing dragons’ heads, -whom she sent to overthrow the dominion of Zeus. A great battle took -place, which shook heaven and earth. Zeus, by means of his never-ceasing -thunderbolts, at length overcame Typhoeus, and cast him into Tartarus, -or, according to later writers (Pindar and Virgil), buried him beneath -Mount Ætna in Sicily, whence at times he still breathes out fire and -flames toward heaven. - -Some poets tell of another rebellion, that of the Giants, against the -dominion of Zeus. These are said to have sprung from the drops of blood -which fell on the earth from the mutilated body of Uranus. From the -plains of Phlegra, in Thessaly, they sought to storm Olympus by piling -Pelion on Ossa. But after a bloody battle, in which all the gods took -part, the two were conquered, and sent to share the fate of the -vanquished Titans. The dominion of Zeus was now securely established, -and no hostile attack ever after disturbed the peaceful ease of the -inhabitants of Olympus. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.—Cameo of Athenion.] - - The early history of Zeus, as well as his contests for the empire of - the universe, commonly called the Giganto-machia, was a favourite - subject with Greek art. In the more ancient of these works the - Giants do not differ, either in form or appearance, from the Gods - and Heroes. In later works they are represented with the bodies of - dragons, only the upper portion of the body being human. They appear - thus on the celebrated cameo of the Naples Museum, where Zeus, in - his chariot drawn by four fiery horses, is in the act of charging - them (Fig. 2). - -[Illustration] - - - - - PART II.—THE GODS. - - - I.—THE GODS OF OLYMPUS. - - - A.—SUPERIOR DEITIES. - - -=1. Zeus (Jupiter).=—Chief of the celestial deities is Zeus, called by -the Romans Jupiter, the controller and ruler of the universe. As being -the god of heaven _par excellence_, the “Skyfather,” he is to both -nations the source of all life in nature, and from his gracious hand are -shed blessing and abundance. All the phenomena of the air were supposed -to proceed from him. He gathers and disperses the clouds, casts forth -his lightning, stirs up his thunder, sends down rain, hail, snow, and -fertilising dew on the earth. With his ægis—an impenetrable shield hung -with a hundred golden tassels, in the midst of which the fearful head of -the Gorgon is fastened—he produces storm and tempest. The ægis, though -often meaning shield, is properly a goat-skin fastened to and supporting -the true shield; later it appears as a short cloak, and even as a -breastplate, covered with scales, and fringed with serpents. It is not -often found in representations of Zeus; though a statue of him at Leyden -shows it, and in a cameo he is seen with it wrapped around his left arm: -similarly it was common to wrap the chlamys or scarf round the left arm, -for purposes of defence. The ægis usually belongs to Athene, who borrows -it from her father in the _Iliad_. She is seen wearing it in Fig. 9. In -this word we probably see a confusion of two ideas, different, though of -similar origin; from the same root that gives us the “springing” goat we -have the storm-cloud “tossed” over the sky. - -The ancients, however, were not content to regard Zeus merely as a -personification of Nature; they regarded him also from an ethical -standpoint, from which side he appears far more important and awful. -They saw in him a personification, so to speak, of that principle of -undeviating order and harmony which pervades both the physical and moral -world. The strict unalterable laws by which he rules the community of -the gods form a strong contrast to the capricious commands of his father -Cronus. Hence Zeus is regarded as the protector and defender of all -political order. From him the kings of the earth receive their -sovereignty and rights; to him they are responsible for a conscientious -fulfilment of their duties. Those among them who unjustly exceed their -powers and pervert justice he never fails to punish. Zeus, moreover, -also presides over councils and assemblies, keeps watch over their -orderly course, and suggests to them wise counsels. One of the most -important props of political society is the oath; and accordingly, as -Zeus Horkios (ὅρκιος, _deus fidius_ of the Romans), he watches over -oaths, and punishes perjury. He also watches over boundaries, and -accompanies the youths of the land as they march to the defence of their -country’s borders, giving them the victory over the invaders. All civil -and political communities enjoy his protection; but he particularly -watches over that association which is the basis of the political -fabric—the family. The head of every household was therefore, in a -certain sense, the priest of Zeus. It was he who presented the offerings -to the god in the name of the family. At his altar, which generally -stood in the middle of the court (in small households this was -represented by the hearth), all strangers, fugitives, and suppliants -found shelter. As Zeus Xenius (_hospitalis_) he protects the wanderer, -and punishes those who violate the ancient laws of hospitality by -mercilessly turning the helpless stranger from their door. - -The superstition of early times saw in all the phenomena of the heavens -manifestations of the divine will. Thus the chief deity of heaven was -naturally regarded as the highest source of inspiration, and was -believed to reveal his will to men in the thunder, the lightning, the -flight of birds, or dreams. As the supreme oracular deity, Zeus not only -had an oracle of his own at Dodona in Epirus, which was the most ancient -in Greece, but also revealed the future by the mouth of his favourite -son Apollo. Though he possessed no proper oracle among the Romans, yet -the latter looked with all the more care and anxiety on the phenomena of -the air and sky, the right interpretation of which formed a special and -difficult branch of knowledge. - -Zeus was the earliest national god of the Greeks. His worship extended -throughout the whole of Greece, though some of his shrines had a special -importance. The most ancient of them was that at Dodona, where the -Pelasgian Zeus was worshipped at a time prior to the existence of any -temples in Greece. He was here represented in the celebrated form of the -sacred oak, in the rustling of whose branches the deity revealed himself -to the faithful. He was also worshipped on the summit of Mount Tomarus, -at the foot of which lay Dodona—mountain-tops being naturally the -earliest seats of his worship. But all the earlier shrines were -overshadowed by the great national seat of the worship of Hellenic Zeus -at Olympia, on the northern banks of the river Alpheus, in Elis, where -the renowned Olympian games were celebrated. The magnificent statue of -Zeus, by Phidias, was an additional inducement to devotees, who flocked -thither from every quarter. - -Neither was the worship of Jupiter any less extensive in Italy. The most -renowned of all his shrines was undoubtedly the temple erected by -Tarquin on the Capitol at Rome. This, after being nearly destroyed by -fire in the time of Sulla, was restored to more than its pristine -splendour. The original earthen image was replaced by a statue of gold -and ivory, the work of the Greek artist Apollonius, after the model of -the Olympian Zeus. - -Before proceeding to discuss the god as he appears in art, we must take -a glance at his numerous family. The mythology of the Greeks stands in -notorious contrast to that of the Romans, in attributing to Zeus a great -number of mortal as well as immortal spouses, and an unusually numerous -posterity. Here we must remark that, in spite of the occasional jokes of -the comic poets on the numerous amours of the god, and the consequent -jealousy of Hera, there was nothing farther from the intention of the -Greeks than to represent the supreme deity of heaven as a sensual and -lascivious being. The explanation lies partly in the great number of -contemporaneous local forms of worship that existed independently of -each other, and partly in the fact that the lively fancy of the Greek -pictured every new production under the guise of procreation. In that -part of mythology which teaches the genealogy of the gods, the earliest -wife of Zeus was Metis (prudence), the daughter of Oceanus. Zeus -devoured her, fearing lest she should bear a son, who would deprive him -of the empire it had cost him so much to attain. It was soon after this -that he produced Pallas Athene from his own head. His second -goddess-wife was Themis, one of the Titans, by whom he became the father -of the Horæ and the Mœræ (Fates). Dione appears as the wife of Zeus of -Dodona, and the mother of Aphrodite; whilst Arcadian Zeus was wedded to -Maia, by whom he had Hermes. By Demeter (Ceres) he became the father of -Persephone (Proserpine, goddess of vegetation); by Eurynome, a daughter -of Oceanus, of the Charites (Graces); by Mnemosyne, of the Muses; by -Leto (Latona), of Apollo and Artemis. The youngest of all his divine -wives, who was recognised by later mythology as his only legitimate -queen, was his sister Hera. By her he became the father of Ares (Mars), -Hephæstus (Vulcan), and Hebe. - -Among his mortal mistresses the most celebrated is Semele, the daughter -of Cadmus, king of Thebes, and mother of Dionysus. The others—Leda, -Danaë, Alcmene, Europa, and Io—will be mentioned hereafter. - -The mythology of the Romans, as we have already remarked, first depicted -Jupiter as devoid of all family ties. It was only after their religion -had been Hellenised that men termed him the son of Saturn and Ops, made -Juno his wife and Minerva his daughter. - - Statues of Zeus were necessarily very numerous, both from the great - extent of his worship and the great number of his temples that - existed in Greece. Of all these the most renowned was the - magnificent statue of Zeus at Olympia, the work of the Athenian - sculptor Phidias (500–432 B.C.). The figure was seated on a lofty - throne, and was more than 40 feet high. It was made of gold and - ivory, or more probably a statue of wood was overlaid with plates of - ivory and gold. The uncovered parts—the face, throat, breast, and - hands—were of ivory. In his right hand was a figure of Victory, also - of gold and ivory; in his left was a royal sceptre, on the top of - which perched an eagle. The numerous lengthy descriptions that exist - can give us but a faint idea of the lofty majesty that the sculptor - diffused over the countenance of the god. The object of Phidias was - to represent him to mankind, not only as the omnipotent ruler of - Olympus, far superior to all gods and men, both in power and wisdom; - but also as the gracious father of all, and the kindly dispenser of - all good gifts. The hair, which rose straight from the brow, and - then fell in equal divisions on either side, imparted to the face a - lion-like expression of conscious power. This was rendered still - more effective by the high forehead and strongly-formed nose. At the - same time, the expression of the slightly-opened lips lent an idea - of kindly benevolence. The story goes that Phidias, after completing - the statue, prayed of the god a sign that he was well pleased with - his work. Zeus thereupon caused a flash of lightning to descend - through the open roof of the temple, and thus acknowledged his own - image. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.—Zeus of Otricoli. Vatican Museum.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.—Jupiter Verospi. Vatican Museum.] - - This sublime masterpiece of Phidias, which was reckoned among the - seven wonders of the world, continued in existence, though not - without injury, for upwards of 800 years. It appears to have been - destroyed by fire in the time of Theodosius III. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.—Coins of Elis with Phidias’ Zeus. (After -Overbeck.)] - - The following are the most important of the existing statues of Zeus - by Greek and Roman sculptors. The first in point of artistic worth - is a bust of Zeus, in Carrara marble—now in the Vatican Museum at - Rome—which was discovered in the last century at Otricoli (Fig. 3). - The union of serene majesty and benevolence is the chief feature in - the sublime countenance. Next comes a colossal statue in marble, - known as the Jupiter of Verospi, also in the Vatican Museum (Fig. - 4). Lastly, there is a bust of Zeus, discovered at Pompeii, and now - in the Museum at Naples, besides an equally beautiful bronze statue - in the British Museum, found at Paramythia in Epirus. On comparing - all the extant art monuments of Zeus, we may gather that the object - of ancient art was to present him especially as the benign ruler of - the universe, sitting enthroned in conscious majesty and blissful - ease on the heights of Olympus. His characteristic features are the - clustering hair, falling like a mane on either side of his fine - arched brow, and the rich wavy beard. His attributes consist of the - sceptre, as a symbol of his sovereignty; the thunderbolt; the eagle; - the votive bowl, as a symbol of his worship; the ball beneath or - near his seat, as a symbol of the universe he rules; and, lastly, a - figure of Victory. His head is sometimes adorned with a garland of - oak-leaves, the oak being sacred to him; and sometimes with an - olive-branch or plain band, the latter being a mark of sovereignty. - In Fig. 5 we give an engraving of two coins of Elis, one of which is - in the Florentine and the other in the Paris Museum. - - -=2. Hera (Juno).=—Hera, according to Homer, was the eldest of the -daughters of Cronus and Rhea. She is the feminine counterpart of Zeus, -her brother and husband. She represents the air or atmosphere; for which -reason she, like Zeus, was supposed to control the phenomena of the air -and sky, and, as queen of heaven, shared with him all the honours of his -position. Her conjugal relations to Zeus, which form the substance of -all the myths that refer to her, afforded the poets a rich and -productive material for serious and sportive poetry. They sang of the -solemn marriage of Zeus and Hera, the remembrance of which was -celebrated at springtide with festive offerings and marriage rites -before the shrine of the goddess. Neither did they fail to tell of the -conjugal strife of the royal pair, and of the cruel fate which overtook -the mortal women who enjoyed the favours of Zeus. It was thus that -jealousy and contention became the leading features in the character of -the goddess; whereas, both in her worship and in the representations of -artists, she appears as a gracious and kindly deity, the especial -protectress of her own sex. - -The natural signification of Hera appears to have quickly disappeared -among the Greeks, and she seems to have been chiefly honoured as the -guardian of the marriage tie. The nobleness of the woman who preserves -inviolate the sanctity of this bond finds in her its most sublime -expression. As the special patroness of marriage, she was supposed to -watch over its sanctity, to vouchsafe the blessing of children, and to -protect women in childbirth. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.—Barberini Juno. Vatican Museum.] - -The worship of Hera was originally not very extensive. The cradle of her -worship was Argos, on which account she is often termed Argive. Argos, -Mycenæ, and Sparta are pointed out in the time of Homer as her favourite -towns. Her worship naturally extended as her new character of goddess of -marriage became more prominent. In Bœotia and Eubœa her worship was very -ancient, but her chief shrine was the Heræum, between Argos and Mycenæ. -Here was a most magnificent statue of the goddess, made of ivory and -gold, the work of the Sicyonian artist, Polycletus.[2] - -Footnote 2: - - Polycletus, a native of Sicyon, was a sculptor, architect, and caster - in bronze. He was a contemporary of Phidias, and, next to him, the - most celebrated artist of antiquity. - -Juno (properly Jovino) takes the same place as goddess of childbirth and -patroness of marriage among the Romans as Hera did among the Greeks. In -addition to this she was venerated, under the name of Juno Regina, as -the tutelary deity of the city and empire of Rome. Her chief shrine was -on the Capitol, where she had a separate chapel in the temple of -Jupiter. The Matronalia, the chief festival of the goddess, was -celebrated on the first day of March, when all the matrons of the city -marched in procession to her temple on the Esquiline, and there offered -her flowers and libations. The victims usually sacrificed to Juno were -young heifers: her sacred birds were the goose and the crow, to which -the peacock of the Greek Hera was afterwards added. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.—Head of Hera, perhaps after Polycletus. Naples.] - - The most celebrated of the art monuments that relate to Juno is the - Juno Ludovisi, a colossal marble bust of remarkable beauty, which, - thanks to casts and photographs, is tolerably well known. Her lofty - and commanding countenance is the ideal of perfect womanly beauty, - combining in a rare degree woman’s chief ornaments—dignity and - grace. - - After this comes the Juno Barberini of the Vatican Museum, an entire - and upright figure of great size (Fig. 6), distinguished by the - admirable draping of the garments. The Farnese Juno, now in the - Naples Museum, also deserves mention. In the same museum there is a - singularly beautiful head of Hera (Fig. 7), which perhaps lays claim - to reflect the conception of Polycletus. - - The characteristic features of Juno are a somewhat prominent chin, - expressing unbending determination of will; somewhat curling lips, - well-defined nostrils, large full eyes, and a high and noble - forehead. The attributes of the goddess consist of the sceptre and - diadem, significant of her power; the veil (often omitted in the - statues of later artists), as a symbol of the married woman; the - votive bowl in the hand, the pomegranate as a symbol of love, and - the peacock or goose at her feet, also at times the cuckoo, as - herald of spring. - - -=3. Pallas Athene (Minerva).=—The accounts which the Greeks gave of the -birth of Pallas vary considerably. The most common is that which has -been already mentioned. According to this, Zeus produced her from his -head, which he had ordered Hephæstus to cleave open. The great goddess -of war, in full armour, with poised spear, then sprang forth from her -father’s head, chanting a war-song, whilst a mighty commotion both on -sea and land announced the great event to the world. In her physical -character Pallas appears as the goddess of the dawn. The birth of the -dawn from the forehead of the sky is not only a natural idea, but one -which can be traced in the legends of other nations. Several of the -other stories of her birth are connected with the name Tritogenia, the -daughter of Tritos, a god, whose name, though not actually found in -Greek mythology, may be traced in Amphitrite, Triton, and the Lake -Tritonis. This name, which originally expressed the birth of the dawn -from the water, was afterwards explained in various ways, and the first -part was even derived from a provincial Greek word meaning head. Looked -at from her ethical side, she appears as the goddess of wisdom, a -reflection and personification of that profound wisdom and sagacity with -which Father Zeus controls the destinies of the world. Hence we may -easily gather the other features of her character. She is, in the first -place, the protectress of states; and all that their welfare requires in -peace or war proceeds from her. Thus she appears as goddess of peace as -well as war. In the latter capacity she accompanies the army on its -march, inspires the soldiers with ardour for the fray, and rewards them -with victory and rich spoils; she also affords her mighty protection to -towns and cities at home. In Homer she figures, besides, as the kindly -guide and protectress of individual heroes, such as Odysseus, Achilles, -Diomedes. It was she who first taught mankind to manage the horse, and -to build ships and chariots; she also invented the war-trumpet and -flute. As goddess of war she usually wears, besides helmet, shield, and -spear, the dreadful ægis. The latter, in art monuments, is represented -as a breastplate covered with dragon’s scales, and surrounded with -serpents, in the midst of which is the dreadful head of Medusa, which -has the effect of turning every one that looks on it into stone. - -As goddess of peace, Athene is equally lavish in blessing. Everything -necessary either to the physical or intellectual welfare of mankind was -believed to proceed from her, and to be subject to her influence. -Accordingly, useful inventions of all kinds are ascribed to her. It was -she who first gave men the rake and the plough; it was she who invented -the distaff and loom, as well as the art of dyeing woven stuffs, and -many other feminine accomplishments. - -By later writers this skill in art is extended to other things, and she -is represented as the patroness of every branch of science, art, and -manufacture. - -She is also called Athene Hygiea, because she was believed to send pure -atmosphere, to ward off pestilence, and to promote the growth and health -of the youth of the land. - -We cannot wonder, therefore, that the worship of a goddess so -benevolent, and exercising such an important influence on human life, -was very extensive in Greece. Nowhere did she receive a higher degree of -veneration than at Athens, of which city she was really the tutelary -deity. Her most important shrine was the Parthenon (temple of the virgin -goddess), which was erected by Pericles on the Acropolis, and the -remains of which, even in the present day, excite the wonder and -admiration of the world. The whole land of Attica was, indeed, in a -certain measure, the peculiar property of the goddess, which she won -after her well-known contest with Poseidon. Zeus had decreed the -sovereignty over Attica to that deity who should bestow on the land the -most useful present. Poseidon thereupon created the horse; but Athene -caused the olive-tree to grow, and was thus held to have won the -victory. The sacred olive-tree, which was thus called into existence, -was shown in the Temple of Erechtheus on the Acropolis, and possessed -such a wonderful vitality that, when the Persians burnt it after -capturing the town, it immediately put forth a fresh shoot. Argos and -Corinth were also renowned seats of the worship of Pallas Athene; and -she also enjoyed the highest veneration in Sparta, Bœotia, Thessaly, -Arcadia, and Rhodes. - -The Roman Minerva, whose name was derived from a root meaning “to -think,” was Hellenised at a very early period, and identified with the -Greek Pallas. In Rome, however, the warlike character of the goddess was -completely merged in that of the peaceful inventress and patroness of -the art and sciences, and of all handiwork of women. She was here -worshipped, in company with Jupiter and Juno, as the tutelary deity of -the city and empire, and had, in consequence, her own shrine in the -temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. She also had temples on the Aventine and -Cœlian hills, to which a third was added by Pompey, in 61 B.C., in the -Campus Martius. - -_Festivals of the goddess._—The Panathenæa, the chief festival of the -Greek Pallas, were celebrated with great pomp every four years. A solemn -procession passed through the streets of Athens up to the Acropolis; and -an offering was made to the goddess in the shape of a costly garment -(peplus), artistically embroidered by the Athenian maidens. Horse races, -athletic and musical contests, took place at the same time. Another -festival of less importance, called the Lesser Panathenæa, was -celebrated every year at Athens in honour of the goddess. - -At Rome the chief festival of Minerva, the Quinquatrus Majores, was held -on the 19th of March, and was, in later times, extended to five days. It -was especially observed by all engaged in intellectual pursuits, and by -artists and artisans. As Minerva was also patroness of schools, the -schoolboys also took part in the celebration, and enjoyed a welcome -holiday. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.—Pallas Giustiniani. Vatican.] - - The virgin goddess was at all times a favourite subject with ancient - art. Even in the earliest times, before casting in bronze or marble - sculpture was known, while the images of the gods were as yet rudely - carved in wood, Pallas was a frequent subject of delineation. These - wooden images usually represented the goddess as standing upright - with poised spear in front of the battle, and were then called - Palladia. Men delighted to believe them to have fallen from heaven, - and to be a sure means of protection against hostile attack. When - Greek art was in its prime, the first masters vied with each other - in the representation of the goddess. Phidias outdid them all in his - renowned statue of Athene Parthenos, which stood in the temple on - the Acropolis. The figure was 39 feet high, and was constructed of - ivory and gold. Its majestic beauty naturally formed one of the - chief attractions of the magnificent temple. It disappeared, without - leaving any clue behind it, during the stormy period of the invasion - of the nomadic tribes. In proceeding to give an account of the most - important existing statues of the goddess, we must first mention a - magnificent marble bust which King Ludwig I. of Bavaria procured for - the Munich collection, and which was formerly in the Villa Albani, - at Rome. The goddess here wears a tight-fitting helmet, the top of - which is decorated with a serpent, the emblem of wisdom. Her - breastplate, which is bordered with serpents, falls like a cape over - her shoulders, and is fastened in the middle by the Gorgon’s head, a - terrible but striking contrast to the pure and noble countenance of - the goddess. A fine bust, with a delicate and youthful expression of - countenance, is preserved in the Vatican Museum at Rome. - - Another, not less beautiful, but with grave and almost masculine - features, was discovered in the excavations of Pompeii, and is now - in the Naples Museum. - - Among existing (full-length) statues, the Pallas Giustiniani, of the - Vatican Museum at Rome, is held to be the finest (Fig. 8). This - probably once stood in a Roman temple, having been found in a place - where there was formerly a temple of Minerva. This statue, in - accordance with the Roman conception, bears a more peaceable - character, although neither the spear nor helmet are wanting. Next - come two statues found near Velletri, one of which is in the - Capitoline Museum at Rome, whilst the other forms a chief ornament - of the Louvre collection in Paris. Both represent the goddess in the - character of a benign deity fostering all peaceful works, with a - gentle but earnest expression of countenance. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.—Athene Polias. Villa Albani.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.—Pallas Athene. Naples.] - - The Farnese Minerva of the Naples Museum and the “Hope” copy in - London betray similar characteristics. On the other hand, in a - statue discovered at Herculaneum (now at Naples), Minerva appears as - a warlike goddess, in an evidently hostile attitude (Fig. 10). This - is also the case with the celebrated statue at the Louvre, which, on - account of the necklace worn by the goddess, is generally called - _Minerve au Collier_; and again in a statue of the Villa Albani, in - which a lion’s skin thrown over the head takes the place of the - helmet (Fig. 9). - - On combining the characteristic features of Minerva, we may gather - that her most prominent trait is a lofty seriousness, well befitting - the chaste, grave character of the virgin goddess. The closed lips - and the prominent chin betray a determined and resolute disposition, - whilst her mien and bearing give token of strength and dignity. - - Among the favourite animals of Minerva we may mention the serpent, - the owl, and the cock. The first is a symbol of wisdom, the second - of profound meditation, and the last of eager desire for the fray. - The attributes of Minerva consist of the ægis, which serves as a - shield, the spear, and the helmet. The helmet is sometimes adorned - with the figures of griffins, significant of the overpowering might - of the wearer. The statues are all fully clothed, in accordance with - the chaste character of the goddess. - - -=4. Apollo.=—As Athene is the favourite daughter of Zeus, so Apollo -ranks as the most glorious and beautiful of his sons. Like other sons of -Zeus, he is a god of light, and, indeed, the purest and highest -representative of this mighty power in nature. His mother, Leto -(Latona), is a representative of the darkness of the night. According to -the sacred legend, she was compelled when pregnant to wander about, -because mankind, dreading the appearance of the mighty god, refused to -receive her. This myth was afterwards altered by later writers, who -assign the jealousy of Hera as the cause of her wanderings. Leto at -length found a refuge on Delos, which was once a floating island, and -had to be fastened to the bottom of the sea by means of lofty columns. -As the bright god of heaven, to whom everything impure and unholy is -hateful, we find Apollo, soon after his birth, preparing to do battle -with the evil powers of darkness. With his arrows he slew both the giant -Tityus and the serpent Python, the latter a monster that inhabited the -valley of the Plistus, near Delphi, and destroyed both men and cattle. -These and similar myths are merely a panegyric on the conquering power -exercised by the genial warmth of Spring over the dark gloom of Winter. - -But though Apollo thus appears as the foe of all that is evil and -impure, ancient myths, nevertheless, represent him also as a terrible -god of death, sending virulent pestilences and dealing out destruction -to men and animals by means of his unerring arrows. This may be easily -explained, however, by glancing at the natural signification of the god. -The rays of the sun do indeed put to flight the cold of winter, but as -their heat increases they themselves ultimately become the cause of -disease and death. This is beautifully portrayed in the fable of the -death of Hyacinthus. - -To proceed further in the analysis of his character as god of light, -Apollo next appears as the protector of streets and houses. A conical -pillar was usually erected at the side of the doors of houses as a -symbol of him, and a defence against all sorceries. Connected with this -is his repute as a god of health; one who is indeed able to send disease -and death, but who, on the other hand, is all-powerful to protect -against physical maladies. This feature in his character, however, is -more extensively developed in the person of his son, Asclepius -(Æsculapius). But it is not only outward ills that this wonder-working -deity can cure: as the true redeemer from sin and crime, he alone can -afford consolation to guilty souls. Even those pursued by the Furies he -sometimes receives in tenderness and pity, a fine instance of which is -found in the story of Orestes. It is here that we must seek the -explanation of his character as god of music; in the fact that it -exercises so soothing and tranquillising an influence on the soul of -man. His favourite instrument was the lyre, which he was wont to play -with masterly skill at the banquets of the gods, whilst the Muses -accompanied him with their wondrous strains. Apollo was therefore -regarded as the leader of the Muses (Musagetes); and all the great -singers of antiquity, such as Orpheus and Linus, are mythically -represented as his sons. - -But Apollo attained his greatest importance among the Greeks as god of -prophecy. His oracles continued to exercise an important influence on -social and political life, even down to the latest times. The -inspiration of Apollo was distinguished by the fact that the god -revealed the future less by means of outward signs than by inducing an -ecstatic condition of mind bordering on madness in those persons through -whom he wished to proclaim his oracles. These were generally women and -maidens, who, either at oracular shrines proper, or dwelling alone as -Sibyls, gave forth the responses of the god. In early times they were -somewhat numerous. There was an oracle at Clarus, near Colophon; an -oracle at Didyma, near Miletus; and an oracle on the Ismenus, near -Thebes. These were eventually all thrown into the shade by that of -Delphi. The responses of this oracle exercised, during a long period of -Grecian history, an all-powerful influence, especially on the Dorian -tribes. The convulsions of the Pythia, or priestess of Apollo, were -brought about partly by the chewing of laurel leaves, and partly by the -gaseous vapours that issued from a cleft in the earth beneath the sacred -tripod. The ecstatic condition in which she gave the responses, which -were comprehensible only to the initiated priests, manifested itself in -a foaming at the mouth and in convulsions of the body. - -Delphi naturally became the chief seat of the worship of Apollo. The -gorgeous temple was rebuilt in the time of the Pisistratidæ, after the -destruction of the old one by fire. Its wealth from offerings became so -great that their value was computed at 10,000 talents (more than -£2,000,000). In the neighbourhood of Delphi the Pythian games were -celebrated in the third year of every Olympiad. - -The shrine of the god at Delos, his birthplace, was little less -renowned. The sanctuary itself was situated at the foot of Mount -Cynthus; but the whole island was sacred to the god, for which reason no -one was buried there. Here, too, games, said to have been instituted by -Theseus, were celebrated every four years in honour of the god. Apollo -had, besides, a great number of less celebrated shrines and temples, not -only in Greece, but also in Asia Minor, and wherever the Greek colonies -extended. - -The Apollo of the Romans, as his name indicates, was transferred to Rome -from Greece. At a comparatively early period men began to feel the want -of a prophetic deity, as the Roman gods, although they vouchsafed hints -as to the future, confined their responses to a mere Yea or Nay. -Moreover, in the character of god of healing, he was early admitted into -the Roman system, as we gather from the fact that the first temple -really dedicated to Apollo was erected in 429 B.C., under the pressure -of a grievous pestilence. The worship of Apollo was especially exalted -by the Emperor Augustus, who ascribed his victory at Actium chiefly to -the assistance of the god. He accordingly erected a magnificent temple -to Apollo on the Palatine, which was embellished with the celebrated -statue of Apollo Citharœdus, by Scopas. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.—Apollo Belvedere. Vatican.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.—Head of Apollo Belvedere.] - - This remark leads us to contemplate the different statues of the - god. Apollo constantly bears a very youthful appearance, and is - always beardless. His figure is strong and handsome, his head - covered with fair clustering locks, and his face expressive of - majesty, but marked withal by a cheerful serenity. Such is the - original and fundamental type, which was usually followed in the - representation of the god. It was principally developed by Scopas - and Praxiteles, who belonged to the later Attic school, which - flourished from the end of the Peloponnesian war to the reign of - Alexander the Great. The principal creation of Scopas was a marble - statue, representing the god as a Pythian Citharœdus with the lyre - in his hand, clothed in a long robe reaching to the feet. - - This invaluable work was procured by Augustus for the temple he - erected to Apollo on the Palatine. Praxiteles, a younger - contemporary of Scopas, acquired considerable renown by his bronze - figure of a youthful Apollo pursuing a lizard (Apollo Sauroctonus). - - In existing art monuments sometimes the conception of a warlike, - vengeful deity obtains, in which case the god is represented as - nude, or nearly so, and armed with quiver and bow. At other times - he wears a mild and benevolent aspect; he is then distinguished by - his lute, and completely enveloped in a chlamys. Of the former - kind is the most beautiful and celebrated of all his existing - statues, the Apollo Belvedere, which was discovered in 1503, near - Nettuno, the ancient Antium, and is now in the Vatican. The proud - self-consciousness of a conquering deity is inimitably expressed - in his whole attitude. He stands with his right hand and leg - against the trunk of a tree, his left arm outstretched, with the - ægis, probably as a symbol of fear and terror, in his hand. The - serpent creeping up the tree is a symbol of the powers of darkness - vanquished by the god (Fig. 11). It may also be taken as the - symbol of life and healing, like the serpent of Asclepius (see p. - 96). We have also given a larger engraving of the head of the - Belvedere Apollo, in order to afford a clearer idea of its - wondrous beauty (Fig. 12). - - The so-called Apollino, of the Florence gallery, a youthful figure - resting after battle, is a work of scarcely less beauty. The shape - of the body, which is entirely nude, is wonderfully soft and - delicate. With his left arm the god leans upon a tree; in his left - hand he negligently holds the bow, whilst his right hand is raised - to his head in a meditative fashion. The Farnese Apollo of the - Naples Museum possesses an equally graceful form. The god is here - represented as a musician; in his left hand he holds the lyre, - whilst his right glides over the strings. The animated expression of - his face, indicating his entire devotion to his art, is exquisitely - beautiful. The goose at his feet, which was regarded even by the - ancients as a music-loving bird, appears to drink in with rapture - the heavenly tones. - - In those works which represent the god as a Pythian lute-player in a - long Ionian garment, we perceive an almost feminine figure and a - visionary expression of face. The most important works of this kind - are the Apollo Citharœdus of the Munich collection (Fig. 13), - formerly called the Muse of Barberini, which is marked by a somewhat - quieter attitude; and the so-called Apollo Musagetes of the Vatican - collection, which is characterised by a lively dancing movement of - the figure, and is generally regarded as an imitation of the - masterpiece of Scopas already mentioned. A pure and heavenly - inspiration seems to pervade the features of the laurel-crowned god; - his mighty lyre, to the tones of which he appears to be singing, is - suspended from a band across the chest, and is aptly adorned with - the portrait of Marsyas, his vanquished rival. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.—Apollo Citharœdus. Munich.] - - Lastly, the graceful statue of Apollo Sauroctonus (Lizard-slayer) - deserves mention. Many copies of it still exist, the chief of which - is a marble statue in the Vatican collection. The delicate figure of - the god, midway between youth and boyhood, leans carelessly against - the trunk of a tree, up which a lizard is creeping. The god is - eagerly watching its movements, in order to seize a favourable - moment to nail it to the tree with his arrow. - - The principle attributes of Apollo are the bow, arrows, quiver, - laurel crown, and lyre. To these may be added, as symbols of his - prophetic power, the tripod and the omphalos (navel), the latter - being a representation of the earth’s centre in the temple at - Delphi, on which he is often depicted as sitting. The god also - appears standing on the omphalos; as in the case of a marble statue - lately found in the theatre of Dionysus. His sacred animals were the - wolf, the hind, the bat, the swan, the goose, and the dolphin; the - three last being music-loving creatures. - - -=5. Artemis (Diana).=—Artemis is the feminine counterpart of her twin -brother Apollo, with whom she entirely harmonises when regarded from her -physical aspect. Like him, she is a beautiful and propitious deity; but -like him, too, she can deal out, at times, death and destruction among -mankind. Like Apollo, she promotes the growth of the young plant, and is -equally the foe of all that is evil and impure. Like him, she is skilled -in the use of the bow, of which she avails herself, however, not only -for the destruction of monsters, but also at times to chastise the -insolence of man—witness the death of the children of Niobe. Her -favourite amusement is the chase; armed with quiver and bow she ranges -mountain and valley, accompanied by a band of nymphs. The chase ended, -she delights to bathe in some fresh spring, or to lead off some -favourite dance on the flowery meadows, surrounded by her nymphs, all of -whom she overtops by a head. Then the heart of her mother, Leto, -rejoices as she gazes on the innocent sports of her lovely daughter. - -As a virgin goddess she was especially venerated by young maidens, whose -patroness she remained till their marriage, and to whom she afforded an -example of chastity. The story of Actæon, who was changed into a stag -and then torn to pieces by his own dogs, shows that she did not suffer -any injury to her virgin modesty to go unpunished. (For this story see -the Theban legends.) - -Originally, Artemis appears to have been the goddess of the moon, just -as her brother Apollo is unmistakably identical with the sun. This -conception, however, continued to grow fainter and fainter, until, in -the later days of confusion of religions, it was again revived. Artemis -was frequently confounded with Selene or Phœbe (Luna). - -The national Artemis of the Greeks was originally quite distinct from -the Artemis Orthia, a dark and cruel deity, to whom human sacrifices -were offered in Laconia. Lycurgus abolished this barbarous custom, but -caused instead a number of boys to be cruelly whipped before the image -of the goddess on the occasion of her annual festival. This is the same -Artemis to whom Agamemnon was about to offer, in Aulis, his daughter -Iphigenia, previous to the departure of the Greeks for Troy. The -Scythians in Tauris likewise had a goddess whom they propitiated with -human sacrifices. This caused her to be confounded with Artemis Orthia, -and the story arose that Iphigenia was conveyed by the goddess to -Tauris, from which place she subsequently, assisted by her brother -Orestes, brought the image of the goddess to Greece. - -The Ephesian Artemis, known to us as “Diana of the Ephesians,” was -distinct from all that have been mentioned. She was, in fact, an -Asiatic, not a Hellenic deity. - -The Roman Diana, who was early identified with the Greek Artemis, was -likewise originally a goddess of the moon. As such, she possessed a very -ancient shrine on Mount Algidus, near Tusculum. Like the Greek Artemis, -she was also regarded as the tutelary goddess of women, and was invoked -by women in childbirth. This was also the case with Artemis, although -the matrons of Greece looked for more protection in this respect at the -hands of Hera. She gained, however, a certain political importance in -Rome after having been made by Servius Tullius the tutelary deity of the -Latin League. As such, she possessed a sacred grove and temple on the -Aventine. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.—Diana of Versailles.] - - Artemis is a favourite subject with the masters of the later Attic - school. She is always represented as youthful, slender and light of - foot, and without womanly fulness. Her devotion to the chase is - clearly betokened by the quiver and bow which she generally bears, - and by the high girt robe and Cretan shoes, which allow her to pass - unencumbered through the thickets of the forest. - - Among existing statues, the most celebrated is the so-called Diana - of Versailles, which came from the Villa of Hadrian, at Tibur (Fig. - 14). It is now a chief ornament of the Louvre collection, and is a - worthy companion to the Belvedere Apollo, although it does not quite - equal this in beauty. In this statue the goddess does not appear as - a huntress, but rather as the protectress of wild animals. She is - conceived as having just come to the rescue of a hunted deer, and is - in the act of turning with angry mien on the pursuers. With her - right hand she grasps an arrow from the quiver that hangs at her - back, and in her left she holds the bow. - - A really beautiful statue of the Vatican collection depicts the - goddess in a most striking attitude. She has just sent forth her - deadly arrow, and is eagerly watching its effect. The hound at her - side is just about to start in eager pursuit of the mark, which was - evidently therefore a wild animal. In her left hand is the bow, - still strung, from which her right hand has just directed the arrow. - Her foot is likewise upraised in triumph, and her whole deportment - expresses the proud joy of victory. The chief attributes of Diana - are bow, quiver, and spear, and also a torch, as an emblem of her - power to dispense light and life. The hind, the dog, the bear, and - the wild boar were esteemed sacred to her. - - -=6. Ares (Mars).=—Ares, the son of Zeus and Hera, represents war from -its fatal and destructive side, by which he is clearly distinguished -from Athene, the wise disposer of battles. He was, it is probable, -originally a personification of the angry clouded sky. His home, -according to Homer, was in Thrace, the land of boisterous, wintry -storms, among whose warlike inhabitants he was held in high esteem, -although his worship was not so extensive in Greece. Homer, in the -_Iliad_, paints in particularly lively colours the picture of the rude -“manslaying” god of war. He here appears as a deity who delights only in -the wild din of battle, and is never weary of strife and slaughter. Clad -in brazen armour from head to foot, with waving plume, helmet, and -high-poised spear, his bull’s hide shield on his left arm, he ranges the -battlefield, casting down all before him in his impetuous fury. With -strength he combines great agility, and is, according to Homer, the -fleetest of the gods. Strong though he be, however, he is overmatched in -battle by Athene; a palpable indication that prudent courage often -accomplishes more than impetuous violence. - -The usual attendants and servants of Ares are Fear and Terror. By some -writers they are described as his sons, yet in Homer they fight against -him. There is little to be said of the principal seats of his worship in -Greece. In Thebes he was regarded as the god of pestilence; and -Aphrodite, who elsewhere appears as the wife of Hephæstus, was given him -to wife. By her he became the father of Harmonia, who married Cadmus, -and thus became the ancestress of the Cadmean race in Thebes. According -to an Athenian local legend, his having slain a son of Poseidon gave -rise to the institution of the Areopagus. He was here regarded as the -god of vengeance. A celebrated statue by Alcamenes adorned his temple at -Athens. Among the warlike people of Sparta the worship of Ares was also -extensive. - -This deity was regarded with a far greater degree of veneration in Rome, -under the appellation of Mars, or Mavors. He seems to have occupied an -important position even among the earliest Italian tribes. It was not as -god of war, however—for which, amid the peaceful pursuits of -cattle-rearing and husbandry, they cared little—but as the god of the -spring triumphing over the powers of winter that he was worshipped. It -was from his bounty that the primitive people looked for the prosperous -growth of their flocks and the fruits of their fields; it was Mars on -whom they called for protection against bad weather and destructive -pestilence. - -In warlike Rome, however, this deity soon laid aside his peaceful -character, and donned the bright armour of the god of war. He was even -regarded as being, after Jupiter, the most important god of the state -and people of Rome. Numa himself gave him a flamen of his own, and -created or restored in his honour the priesthood of the Salii. The -occasion, according to the sacred legend, was on this wise. As King Numa -one morning, from the ancient palace at the foot of the Palatine, raised -his hands in prayer to Jove, beseeching his protection and favour for -the infant state of Rome, the god let fall from heaven, as a mark of his -favour, an oblong brazen shield (ancile). At the same time a voice was -heard declaring that Rome should endure as long as this shield was -preserved. Numa then caused the sacred shield, which was recognised as -that of Mars, to be carefully preserved. The better to prevent its -abstraction, he ordered an artist to make eleven others exactly similar, -and instituted for their protection the college of the Salii, twelve in -number, like the shields, who were selected from the noblest families in -Rome. Every year in the month of March, which was sacred to Mars, they -bore the sacred shields in solemn procession through the streets of -Rome, executing warlike dances and chanting ancient war-songs. From the -days of Numa the worship of “Father Mars” continued to acquire an -ever-increasing popularity. Before the departure of a Roman army on any -expedition, the imperator retired to the sanctuary of the god in the old -palace, and there touched the sacred shields and the spear of the statue -of Mars, crying aloud at the same time, “Mars, watch over us!” According -to popular belief, the god himself went unseen before the host as it -marched to battle, whence he was called “Gradivus.” In the war with the -Lucanians and Bruttians (282 B.C.), when the consuls were hesitating -whether to begin the attack, an unknown youth of extraordinary stature -and beauty encouraged the troops to begin the assault on the enemy’s -camp, and was himself the first to scale the wall. When he was -afterwards sought for, in order that he might receive his richly merited -reward, he had disappeared, leaving no trace behind him. As it could -have been none other than Father Mars, the consul, Fabricius, decreed -him a thanksgiving of three days’ duration. - -Mars naturally received a due share of all booty taken in war. Defeat -was ascribed to his wrath, which men strove to avert by extraordinary -sin-offerings. - -Popular belief made Mars the father, by a vestal virgin, of Romulus and -Remus, the legendary founders of the city. His wife appears to have been -Nerio; but she enjoyed no honours at Rome. - -In attendance on Mars we find Metus and Pallor, who answer to the Greek -deities already mentioned; and also his sister Bellona, corresponding to -the Enyo, who was worshipped in Pontus and Cappadocia, though not in -Greece proper. Bellona had a temple in the Campus Martius. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15—Mars Ludovisi.] - -The Campus Martius (Field of Mars), the celebrated place of exercise of -the Roman youth, stretched from the Quirinal westwards to the Tiber, and -was dedicated to the god of war. Augustus, after the overthrow of the -murderers of Cæsar, his adoptive father, erected a temple to Mars, which -was built in Greek style, and far surpassed in grandeur and splendour -all the other temples of the god. Three columns of it are still -standing, mute witnesses of vanished splendour. A large number of -religious festivities were celebrated in the month of March in honour of -Mars. The procession of the Salii formed the chief feature of the -festival; but there were also races and games. On the Ides of October -also a chariot race took place in honour of Mars, at which the singular -custom prevailed of offering the near horse of the victorious team to -the god. The inhabitants of the two oldest quarters of the city -contended for the head of the slaughtered animal, and whoever got it was -supposed to reap great blessings from its possession. - - Ancient artists represented Mars as a tall and powerful young man, - whose activity, however, is as apparent as his strength. His - characteristic features are short curly hair, small eyes, and broad - nostrils, significant of the violence and passionateness of his - nature. The most celebrated of existing statues is the Mars Ludovisi - of the Villa Ludovisi, at Rome. It has often been conjectured that - this is an imitation of the renowned work of Scopas. The deity is - depicted as resting after battle; and, in spite of the usual - turbulence of his disposition, he here appears to have surrendered - himself to a more gentle frame of mind. The little god of love - crouching at his feet gazes into his face with a roguish, triumphant - smile, as though rejoiced to see that even the wildest and most - untameable must submit to his sway, and thus shows us what has - called forth this gentle mood. (Fig. 15.) The Mars Ludovisi is an - original work, Greek in its origin, though belonging to a somewhat - late period. The Borghese Mars of the Louvre, on the other hand, is - undoubtedly of Roman origin. It is supposed to represent Ares bound - by the craft of Hephæstus. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 16.—Bust of Ares. Sculpture Gallery at Munich.] - - Besides these two principal statues, the bust of Mars of the Munich - collection deserves mention. It is distinguished by a peculiarly - expressive head, of which we give an engraving (Fig. 16). - - The attributes of Mars are the helmet (decorated with the figures of - wolf-hounds and griffins), shield, and spear. The animals sacred to - him were the wolf, the horse, and the woodpecker. - - -=7. Aphrodite (Venus).=—In the _Iliad_, Aphrodite is represented as the -daughter of Zeus and Dione, the goddess of moisture, who, as the wife of -the god of heaven, was held in high esteem among the old Pelasgians. The -same notion of the goddess being produced from moisture is seen in the -legend, which relates that Aphrodite was born of the foam of the sea, -and first touched land on the island of Cyprus, which was henceforth -held sacred to her. She was probably a personification of the creative -and generative forces of nature, and figured among the Greeks as goddess -of beauty and sexual love. We must not forget that this conception does -not cover the whole character of the goddess. She not only appears as -Aphrodite Pandemus (the earthly Aphrodite), a goddess of the spring, by -whose wondrous power all germs in the natural and vegetable world are -quickened, but we also hear of Aphrodite Urania, a celestial deity, who -was venerated as the dispenser of prosperity and fertility; and also an -Aphrodite Pontia (of the sea), the tutelary deity of ships and mariners, -who controlled the winds and the waves, and granted to ships a fair and -prosperous passage. As the worship of Aphrodite was extremely popular -among the numerous islands and ports of the Grecian seas, we can well -imagine that it was in this latter character that she received her -greatest share of honour. - -The poets paint Aphrodite as the most beautiful of all the goddesses, -whose magic power not even the wisest could withstand. Even wild animals -were conscious of her influence, and pressed round her like lambs. She -was endowed with the celebrated love-begetting magic girdle, which she -could lay aside at will and lend to others. And as she thus gave rise to -passion in others, she herself was not free from its influence. This is -evidenced by the numerous stories of her amours with the gods or -favoured mortals, which it is so difficult to bring into harmony with -each other. Sometimes Ares, sometimes Hephæstus, is said to be her -husband. The latter account, which originated in Lemnos, was the more -popular; doubtless because its very strangeness in mating the sweetest -and most lovely of the goddesses with the lame and ugly god of fire had -a certain charm. No children are mentioned as springing from the union -of Aphrodite with Hephæstus; but Eros and Anteros, as well as Demus and -Phobus, are said to be her children by Ares. Other legends, generally of -a local character, unite her to Dionysus, or to Hermes. - -The story of her love for the beautiful Adonis clearly represents the -decay of nature in autumn, and its resuscitation in spring. Adonis, whom -Aphrodite tenderly loved, was killed, when hunting, by a wild boar. -Inconsolable at her loss, Aphrodite piteously entreated Father Zeus to -restore his life. Zeus at length consented that Adonis should spend one -part of the year in the world of shadows, and the other in the upper -world. Clearly the monster that deprived Adonis of life is only a symbol -of the frosty winter, before whose freezing blast all life in nature -decays. - -In the story of Troy, Aphrodite plays an important part. She was the -original cause of the war, having assisted Paris in his elopement with -Helen. This was his reward for his celebrated judgment, in which he -awarded the prize of beauty to Aphrodite in preference to Hera or -Athene. Besides the Trojan prince Anchises enjoyed her favours, and she -became by him the mother of the pious hero Æneas. - -The goddess appears ever ready to assist unfortunate lovers; thus she -aided the hero Peleus to obtain the beautiful sea-nymph Thetis. On the -other hand, she punishes with the utmost severity those who from pride -or disdain resist her power. This appears in the legend of Hippolytus, -son of Theseus, King of Athens, whom she ruined through the love of his -step-mother Phædra; also in the story of the beautiful youth Narcissus, -whom she punished by an ungratified self-love, because he had despised -the love of the nymph Echo. - -The Seasons and the Graces appear in attendance on Aphrodite. Their -office is to dress and adorn her. She is also accompanied by Eros, -Pothus, and Himerus (Love, Longing, and Desire), besides Hymen, or -Hymenæus, the god of marriage. - -The Roman Venus (the Lovely One) was regarded by the earlier Italian -tribes as the goddess of spring, for which reason April, the month of -buds, was held sacred to her. She early acquired a certain social -importance, by having ascribed to her a beneficent influence in -promoting civil harmony and sociability among men. - -After her identification with the Aphrodite of the Greeks, she became -more and more a goddess merely of sensual love and desire. She had three -principal shrines—those of Venus Murcia, Venus Cloacina, and Libitina. -The first of these surnames points to Venus as the myrtle goddess (the -myrtle being an emblem of chaste love); her temple was situated on the -brow of the Aventine, and was supposed to have been erected by the -Latins, who were planted there by Ancus Marcius. - -The temple of Venus Cloacina (the Purifier) was said to have been -erected in memory of the reconciliation of the Romans and Sabines, after -the rape of the Sabine women. The surname of Libitina points to her as -goddess of corpses. All the apparatus of funerals were kept in this -temple, and her attendants were at the same time the public undertakers -of the city. - -To these ancient shrines was added another in the time of Julius Cæsar, -who erected a temple to Venus Genetrix, the goddess of wedlock, in -fulfilment of a vow made at the battle of Pharsalus. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.—Venus of Milo. Louvre.] - - Aphrodite, or Venus, is notoriously an especially common subject of - representation among the artists of antiquity. The task of giving - expression to the most perfect female beauty, arrayed in all the - charms of love, by means of chisel or brush, continually spurs the - artist to fresh endeavours. It was especially among the masters of - the later Attic school, who devoted themselves to the representation - of the youthful and beautiful among the gods in whom the nude - appeared least offensive, that statues of Venus were attempted. The - Venus of Cnidus, by Praxiteles, was the most important work of that - master; and the people of Cnidus were so proud of it that they - engraved her image on their coins. The fact that they ventured to - portray the goddess as entirely nude may be regarded as a sign both - of the falling away of the popular faith and of the decay of art. - Henceforth, except in the case of statues for the temples, it became - an established custom to represent Venus and other kindred deities - as nude. Venus is further distinguished by a fulness of form, which - is, nevertheless, combined with slenderness and grace. The - countenance is oval; the eyes are not large, and have a languishing - expression; the mouth is small, and the cheeks and chin full and - round. - - Of the numerous existing statues we can here mention only the most - important. First among them in artistic worth is a marble statue - larger than life, which was found in 1820 on the island of Melos - (Milo), and is now in the Louvre at Paris (Fig. 17). In this - statue only the upper part of the body is nude, the lower - portions, from the hips downward, being covered with a light - garment. One scarcely knows which to admire most in this splendid - statue—the singularly dignified expression of the head, or the - charming fulness and magnificent proportions of the limbs. The - arms are quite broken off, so that we cannot determine the - conception of the artist with any certainty. It is supposed that - the goddess held in her hand either an apple, which was a symbol - of the Isle of Melos, or the bronze shield of Ares. Her looks - express proud and joyous self-consciousness. - - In the Venus of Capua (so called because found among the ruins of - the Amphitheatre) she again appears as a victorious goddess (Venus - Victrix). This statue is now in the Museum at Naples. The shape of - the nude body is not so vigorous or fresh as that of the Venus of - Milo, but somewhat soft and ill-defined. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.—Venus Genetrix. Villa Borghese.] - - The Medicean Venus, formerly in the Villa Medici at Rome, is better - known. It is a work of the later Attic school, in which, at the end - of the second century B.C., Greek art once more blooms for a while. - It is the work of the Athenian artist Cleomenes, though probably - chiselled in Rome. As Venus Anadyomene (rising from the sea) the - goddess appears entirely nude. This is the most youthful in - appearance of all her statues, and is distinguished by the perfect - regularity and beauty of its form, though there is no trace of the - lofty dignity of the goddess. “What a descent,” says Kraus in his - _Christian Art_, “is there from the Venus of Milo to this coquette, - whose apparently bashful posture is only meant to challenge the - notice of the beholder.” - - The “Venus crouching in the bath” of the Vatican collection, and the - “Venus loosing her sandal” of the Munich Gallery, are creations - similar in style. In some imitations of the Cnidian Venus, the most - important of which are in Rome and Munich, the goddess wears a more - dignified demeanour; and also in the wonderfully graceful Venus - Genetrix of the Villa Borghese, at Rome (Fig. 18). - - The attributes of Venus vary much according to the prevailing - conception of the goddess. The dove, the sparrow, and the dolphin, - and among plants the myrtle, the rose, the apple, the poppy, and the - lime-tree, were sacred to her. - - -=8. Hermes (Mercurius).=—Hermes was the son of Zeus and Maia, a daughter -of Atlas. He was born in a grotto of Mount Cyllene in Arcadia, whence he -is called Cyllenius. We know the stories of his youth chiefly from the -so-called Homeric Hymn. - -From this we learn how Hermes, soon after his birth, sprang from his -mother’s lap to seek the oxen of Apollo. Finding outside the cave a -tortoise, he stretched strings across its shell, and thus made a lyre, -to which he sung the loves of Zeus and Maia. Then hiding the lyre in his -cradle, he went out to seek for food. Coming to Pieria in the evening, -he stole thence fifty cows from the herds of Apollo, and drove them to -the river Alpheüs. Here he slew two of them, and roasted the flesh, but -could not swallow it. Then returning home in the early morning, he -passed through the key-hole like the morning breeze, and lay down in his -cradle. Apollo, however, soon remarked the theft, and hurried after the -impudent robber. Hermes now played the innocent, and obstinately denied -the charge; but Apollo was not to be deceived, and forced the young -thief to accompany him to the throne of Zeus to have their quarrel -decided. Zeus ordered Hermes to restore the cattle, but Apollo gladly -made them over to Hermes on receiving the newly-invented lyre. Thus -Hermes became the god of shepherds and pastures, whilst Apollo -henceforth zealously devoted himself to the art of music. - -As a token of their thorough reconciliation, Apollo gave his brother god -the golden Caduceus, or magic wand, by means of which he could bestow -happiness on whomsoever he would; and henceforth both dwelt together in -the utmost harmony and love, the favourite sons of their father Zeus. - -Various interpretations have been given of the nature of Hermes. Some -have seen in him the thunderstorm, some the dawn, and some the morning -breeze. The name Hermes, compared with the corresponding Indian words, -seems to make his connection with the morning certain. Several points in -the legend just related guide us to the breeze rather than the dawn; the -invention of music, the kine carried off—which, nevertheless, he cannot -eat (the wind cannot consume as fire does what it breaks down and -carries off)—and the passing through the key-hole “like the morning -breeze.” So also his function of guide and conductor of the soul, which -we shall speak of presently. - -The following are the most important features in the character of -Hermes:—Not only does he promote the fruitfulness of flocks and herds, -but he also bestows prosperity and success on all undertakings, -especially those of trade and commerce. As the guardian of the streets -and roads, and the friendly guide of those travelling on business, -Hermes must have appeared especially worthy of honour among the Greeks, -who were at all times sharp and greedy men of business. Accordingly, men -erected in his honour, on the roads, what were called Hermæ—mere blocks -of stone, or posts, with one or more heads: these latter were at -cross-roads, and also served as finger-posts. Hermæ[3] were also often -to be seen in the streets of towns and in public squares. Not only did -Hermes protect and guide merchants whilst travelling, but he also -endowed them with shrewdness and cunning to outwit others. And as a god -who had himself commenced his career by a dexterous theft, he was fain -to allow thieves and rogues to invoke his protection before entering on -their operations; just as in the present day robbers and bandits in -Italy or Greece see nothing strange in asking their patron saint to -bestow on them a rich prey. Every chance gain—in gambling, for -instance—and every fortunate discovery were attributed to Hermes. - -Footnote 3: - - In this meaning, however, some have derived the word from a different - root, and supposed it to mean originally only “pillars.” - -Though playing such an important part in human life, Hermes also appears -as the fleet messenger and dexterous agent of Zeus. It is in this guise -that the epic poets love to depict him. With his golden-winged shoes he -passes more swiftly than the wind over land and sea, executing the -commissions of his father Zeus or the other inhabitants of Olympus. Thus -he is sent by Zeus to command the nymph Calypso to release Odysseus, and -to warn Ægisthus against the murder of Agamemnon. At times, difficult -tasks are allotted to him; for instance, the destruction of the -hundred-eyed guardian of Io, on which account Homer calls him the -Argus-slayer. Doubtless in this myth the hundred-eyed Argus represents -the starry heavens; Argus is slain by Hermes, that is, in the morning -the stars cease to be visible. As messenger and herald of the gods, he -is a model for all earthly heralds, who, in ancient times, were the -indispensable agents of kings in every difficult business. Hence he -bears the herald’s staff, or _caduceus_. This is the same wand once -given him by Apollo, consisting of three branches, one of which forms -the handle, whilst the other two branch off like a fork, and are joined -in a knot. The origin of this herald’s staff appears to have been the -olive branch wreathed with fillets of wool. It was only at a later -period that the two last were converted into serpents. By means of this -wand Hermes can either induce deep sleep or rouse a slumberer, but he -uses it chiefly in guiding souls to the infernal regions. This leads us -to speak of the important office of Hermes as Psychopompus, or conductor -of the soul. Every soul, after death, commenced its journey to the -region of shadows under the guidance of the god. On extraordinary -occasions, where, for instance, the spirits were summoned in the oracles -of the dead, Hermes had to reconduct the souls of the departed to the -upper world, thus becoming a mediator between these two regions, in -other respects so far divided. - -As dreams come from the lower world, Hermes was naturally regarded as -the deity from whom they proceeded; on which account people were wont to -ask him for good dreams before going to sleep. - -The highest conception of Hermes, however, is that of the god who -presides over the bringing up of children; and, indeed, what god was -more fitted to be presented as an example to Grecian youth than the -messenger of the gods, equally dexterous in mind and body? He is the -fleetest of runners and the most skilful of disc-throwers and boxers; -and though he does not, like Apollo, represent any of the higher forms -of intellectual life, still he possesses in the highest degree that -practical common sense which was so greatly valued among the Greeks. The -wrestling school and the gymnasium were consequently regarded as his -institutions, and adorned with his statues. In further development of -his relation to the education of the young, later poets even made him -the inventor of speech, of the alphabet, and of the art of interpreting -languages. The custom which prevailed among the Greeks of offering him -the tongues of the slaughtered animals, shows clearly that they also -considered him as the patron of eloquence. - -There is little to be said of the Roman Mercury. As his name (from -_mercari_, to trade) signifies, he was considered by the Romans solely -as god of trade. His worship was introduced at the same time as that of -Ceres—some years after the expulsion of the Tarquins, at a season of -great scarcity—but appears to have become confined to the plebeians. The -guild of merchants regarded him as their tutelary deity, and offered -sacrifices to him and his mother Maia on the Ides of May. - - The plastic representation of Hermes made equal progress with his - ideal development. The first statues of the god, founded on the - ancient Hermæ already mentioned, represented him as a shepherd, - sometimes as the herald and messenger of the gods, always as a - powerful, bearded man. Later, he assumed a more youthful appearance, - and was represented as a beardless youth in the very prime of - strength, with broad chest, lithe but powerful limbs, curly hair, - and small ears, mouth, and eyes; altogether a wonderful combination - of grace and vigour. If we add to this the expression of kindly - benevolence which plays around his finely-cut lips, and the - inquiring look of his face as he bends forward thoughtfully, we have - the principal characteristic features of the god. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.—Resting Hermes. Bronze Statue at Naples.] - - Among existing statues, a full-sized “Hermes at rest,” in bronze, - which was found at Herculaneum, and is now in the Naples Museum, is - perhaps most worthy of mention. He here appears as the messenger of - the gods, and has just sat down on a rock to rest. The winged - sandals form his only clothing, and these are, strictly speaking, - not really sandals, but simply straps covering the foot, to which - wings are fastened close to the ankles (Fig. 19). - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.—Statue of Hermes. Capitoline Collection.] - - A splendid marble statue of the Vatican collection, which, was once - taken for Antinous, portrays the god as the patron of wrestling; the - Caduceus which he holds in his left hand is, however, a modern - addition. In the Hermes Ludovisi of Rome we have a graceful - representation of Hermes Logius, the patron of the art of rhetoric. - The wings are here not placed on the feet, or even directly on the - head, as is often the case, but are fastened to a low round - travelling-hat. - - A pretty bronze statuette in the British Museum depicts Hermes as - the god of trade and commerce, with a well-filled purse in his hand. - Such is also the conception of a fine statue of the Capitoline - collection at Rome (Fig. 20). The principal attributes of the god - have already been incidentally mentioned: they are wings on the - feet, head, or cap; the herald’s staff, the votive bowl, and the - purse. - - -=9. Hephæstus (Vulcan).=—Hephæstus, the god of fire and the forge, was -commonly regarded as a son of Zeus and Hera. He was so lame and ugly -that his mother in shame cast him from heaven into the sea. But Eurynome -and Thetis, the Oceanids, took pity on him, and tended him for nine -years in a deep grotto of the sea, in return for which he made them many -ornaments. After being reconciled to his mother, he returned to Olympus -under the guidance of Dionysus. According to another not less popular -account, it was not his mother who treated him so cruelly, but Zeus. -Hephæstus, on the occasion of a quarrel between Zeus and Hera, came to -the help of his mother, whereupon the angry god of heaven seized him by -the foot and hurled him from Olympus. The unfortunate Hephæstus fell for -a whole day, but alighted at sundown on the isle of Lemnos with but -little breath in his body. Here the Sintians, who inhabited the island, -tended him till his recovery. Later writers say that it was from this -fall that he became lame. The same fundamental idea lies at the root of -these various legends, viz., that fire first came down from heaven in -the form of lightning. Hephæstus originally represented the element of -fire, and all the effects of fire are accordingly referred to him. The -fires of the earth break forth from the open craters of volcanoes; it -must therefore be Hephæstus who is working in the midst of the fiery -mountain, where he has his forges and his smithies. So says the legend -of Mount Mosychlus, in Lemnos, the chief seat of his worship. Scarcely -less celebrated, from its connection with him, was Mount Ætna, in -Sicily. After it was observed that the wine was particularly good in the -neighbourhood of volcanic mountains, the story of the intimate -friendship between Hephæstus and Dionysus was concocted. - -The most beneficial action of fire is manifested in its power to melt -metals and render them useful to man in the shape of implements and -tools of all kinds. Hence the conception of the character of Hephæstus -tended ever more and more to represent him as the master of all -ingenious working in metals, and as the patron of artificers and -craftsmen using fire. In this character he was brought into close -connection with the art-loving goddess Athene, and hence we see why both -these divinities enjoyed so many kindred honours and had so many -festivals in common at Athens, the chief seat of Greek science and art. -It was also chiefly in the character of artificer that Hephæstus was -treated of by the poets, who delight to describe the gorgeous brazen -palace which he built himself on Olympus, in which was a huge workshop -with twenty cunningly-devised pairs of bellows. He also constructed -there the imperishable dwellings of the gods. Many also were the -ingenious implements which he constructed, such as the walking tables, -or tripods, which moved of their own accord into the banqueting-chamber -of the gods, and then returned to their places after the meal was over. -He also made himself two golden statues of maidens, to assist him in -walking, and bestowed on them speech and motion. Among the other works -of his mentioned by the poets are the ægis and sceptre of Zeus, the -trident of Poseidon, the shield of Heracles, and the armour of Achilles, -among which, also, was a shield of extraordinary beauty. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 21.—Hephæstus. Bronze Figure in the British Museum.] - -The worship of Hephæstus was not very extensive in Greece. The most -important seat of his worship was the isle of Lemnos, where he was -supposed to dwell on Mount Mosychlus with his workmen, the Cabiri, who -answer to the Cyclopes of Ætna. He was held in great esteem at Athens, -where, at different festivals, torch races were held in his honour. -Young men ran with burning torches, and whoever first reached the goal -with his torch alight received the prize. He was, moreover, highly -venerated by the Greeks in Campania and Sicily, a fact which may be -easily explained by the fiery mountains of these places. - -The Romans called this god Vulcanus, or, according to its more ancient -spelling, Volcanus. They honoured in him the blessings and beneficial -action of fire. They also sought his protection against conflagrations. -Under the influence of the Greek writers, the original and more common -conception of the god gave place to the popular image of the smith-god, -or Mulciber, who had his forges in Ætna, or on the Lipari Isles, and who -vied with his comrades in wielding the hammer. In correspondence with -the Greek myths, Venus was given him to wife; by this men doubtless -sought to convey the idea that truly artistic works can only be created -in harmony with beauty. - -The chief shrine of the god in Rome was the Volcanal, in the Comitium, -which was not really a temple, but merely a covered fire-place. In the -Campus Martius, however, was a real temple close to the Flaminian -Circus, where the festival of the Volcanalia was celebrated with every -kind of game on the 23rd day of August. - - Greek and Roman artists generally represented this god as a - powerful, bearded man of full age. He is distinguished by the - shortness of his left leg, by the sharp, shrewd glance of his - cunning eye, and his firm mouth. His attributes are the smith’s - tools, the pointed oval workman’s cap, and the short upper garment - of the craftsman or humble citizen. - - With the exception of some small bronzes in London and Berlin, and a - newly discovered marble bust of the Vatican collection, we possess - no antique statues of the god worth mentioning. The engraving (Fig. - 21) is from a bronze in the British Museum. - - -=10. Hestia (Vesta).=—It must have been at a comparatively late period -that Hestia, the daughter of Cronus and Rhea, attained a general -veneration, as her name is not mentioned either in the _Iliad_ or -_Odyssey_. Hestia is the guardian angel of mankind, who guards the -security of the dwelling, and is, in consequence, regarded as the -goddess of the family hearth, the centre of domestic life. The hearth -possessed among the ancients a far higher significance than it does in -modern life. It not only served for the preparation of meals, but was -also esteemed the sacred altar of the house; there the images of the -household gods were placed, and thither, after the old patriarchal -fashion, the father and priest of the family offered sacrifice on all -the important occasions of domestic life. No offering was made in which -Hestia, the very centre of all domestic life, had not her share. - -And as the state is composed of families, the goddess of the domestic -circle naturally becomes the protectress of every political community. -On this account, in Greek states the Prytaneum, or seat of the governing -body, was dedicated to Hestia; there she had an altar, on which a fire -was ever kept burning. From this altar colonists, who were about to -leave their native land in search of new homes, always took some fire—a -pleasing figurative indication of the moral ties between the colony and -the mother country. - -As the hearth-fire of the Prytaneum was an outward and visible sign to -the members of a state that they were one great family, so the Hestia of -the temple at Delphi signified to the Greeks their national connection -and the unity of their worship. Her altar in this temple was placed in -the hall before the cave of the oracle; on it was placed the celebrated -omphalus (navel of the earth, likewise an emblem of the goddess), Delphi -being regarded by the Greeks as the centre of the whole earth. Here, -too, a fire was kept ever burning in honour of Hestia. The character of -the goddess was as pure and untarnished as flame itself. Not only did -she herself remain a virgin, though wooed by both Poseidon and Apollo, -but her service could be performed only by chaste virgins. She does not -appear to have had a separate temple of her own in Greece, since she had -a place in every temple. - -The service of Vesta occupied a far more important place in the public -life of the Romans. Her most ancient temple, which was supposed to have -been built by Numa Pompilius, was situated on the slope of the Palatine -opposite the Forum. It was built in a circle, and was of moderate -dimensions, being, indeed, little more than a covered fire-place. In it -the eternal fire, a symbol of the life of the state, was kept burning. -Here, too, the service was performed by virgins, whose number was at -first four, but was afterwards increased to six. Their chief occupation -was to maintain the sacred fire, and to offer up daily prayers at the -altar of the goddess for the welfare of the Roman people. The extinction -of the sacred flame was esteemed an omen of coming misfortune, and -brought severe punishment on the negligent priestess. The choice of -vestals lay with the Pontifex Maximus. They were chosen between the ages -of six and ten years, always out of the best Roman families. For thirty -years they remained bound to their sacred office, during which time they -had to preserve the strictest chastity. After the lapse of thirty years -they returned to civil life, and were permitted to marry if they liked. - -Another sanctuary of Vesta existed in Lavinium, the metropolis of the -Latins, where the Roman consuls, after entering on their office, had to -perform a solemn sacrifice. The festival of Vesta was celebrated on the -9th of June, on which occasion the Roman women were wont to make a -pilgrimage barefooted to the temple of the goddess, and place before her -offerings of food. - -In the domestic life of the Romans the hearth and the hearth-goddess -Vesta occupied as important a position as among the Greeks. The worship -of Vesta is closely connected with that of the Penates, the kindly, -protecting, household gods, who provided for the daily wants of life, -and about whom we shall have more to say before concluding the subject -of the gods. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 22.—Vesta Giustiniani. Torlonia Collection.] - - Agreeably to the chaste, pure character of the goddess, she could - only be represented in art with an expression of the strictest moral - purity; she generally appears either sitting or standing, her - countenance characterised by a thoughtful gravity of expression. Her - principal attributes consist of the votive bowl, the torch, the - simpulum, or small cup, which was used in making libations, and the - sceptre. In consequence of the dignity and sanctity of her - character, she was always represented as fully clothed, which may - account for the fact that the ancients had so few statues of the - goddess. We may, therefore, consider it fortunate that such a - splendid example as the Vesta Giustiniani, which belongs to the - private collection of Prince Torlonia, at Rome, has come down to us. - It is supposed to be an original work of the best period of Greek - art. The goddess is represented as standing in a calm posture, her - right hand pressed against her side, whilst with the left she points - significantly towards heaven, as though wishing to impress on - mankind where to direct their prayers and thoughts (Fig. 22). - - -=11. Janus.=—Among the most important gods of the Romans was the -celebrated Janus, a deity quite unknown to the Greeks. In his original -character he was probably a god of the light and sun—the male -counterpart, in fact, of Jana, or Diana, and thus very similar to the -Greek Apollo. As long as he maintained this original character, derived -from nature, he was regarded as the god of all germs and first -beginnings, and possessed, in consequence, an important influence both -on the public and private life of the Romans. We must confine ourselves -to mentioning some of the most important traits resulting from this view -of his character. First, Janus is the god of all beginnings of time. He -begins the new year, whose first month was called January after him, and -was dedicated to him. Thus, New Year’s Day (_Kalendæ Januariæ_) was the -most important festival of the god; on this occasion the houses and -doors were adorned with garlands and laurel boughs, the laurel being -supposed to exercise a potent influence against all magic and diseases. -Relatives and friends exchanged small presents (principally sweets; for -example, dates and figs wrapped in laurel leaves) and good wishes for -the coming year. The god himself received offerings of cake, wine, and -incense, and his statue was adorned with fresh laurel boughs. This -offering was repeated on the first day of every month, for Janus opened -up every month; and as the Kalends were sacred to Juno, he was therefore -called Junonius. In the same way Janus was supposed to begin every new -day, and called _Matutinus Pater_. He also appears as the doorkeeper of -heaven, whose gates he opened in the morning and closed in the evening. - -From being the god of all temporal beginnings, he soon became the patron -and protector of all the beginnings of human activity. The Romans had a -most superstitious belief in the importance of a good commencement for -everything, concluding that this had a magical influence on the good or -evil result of every undertaking. Thus, neither in public nor private -life did they ever undertake anything of importance without first -confiding the beginning to the protection of Janus. Among the most -important events of political life was the departure of the youth of the -country to war. An offering was therefore made to the god by the -departing general, and the temple, or covered passage sacred to the god, -was left open during the continuance of the war, as a sign that the god -had departed with the troops and had them under his protection. The -consul never neglected, when he entered on his office, to ask the -blessing of Janus, and the assemblies never began their consultations -without invoking Janus. In the same way the private citizen, in all -important occurrences and undertakings, sought by prayers and vows to -acquire the favour of Janus. The husbandman, before he commenced either -to sow or to reap, brought to Janus Consivius an offering of cake and -wine. The merchant, when he entered on a journey of business, and the -sailor, when he weighed anchor and started on a long and dangerous -voyage, never omitted to invoke the blessing of the god. This view of -the god also explains the custom of calling on Janus first in every -prayer and at every sacrifice, since, as keeper of the gates of heaven, -he also appeared to give admittance to the prayers of men. - -As the god of all first beginnings, Janus is also the source of all -springs, rivers, and streams of the earth. On this account the fountain -nymphs were generally looked on as his wives, and Fontus and Tiberinus -as his sons. - -The power of Janus in causing springs to rise suddenly from the earth -was experienced, to their cost, by the Sabines. The latter, in -consequence of the rape of their women, had overrun the infant state of -Rome, and were about to introduce themselves into the town on the -Palatine through an open gate, when they suddenly found themselves -drenched by a hot sulphur spring that gushed violently from the earth, -and were obliged to retire. - -In the legend alluded to, Janus appears as the protector of the gates of -the city. As the god who presided over the fortunate entrance to and -exit from all houses, streets, and towns, Janus was held in high honour -among the people. His character as guardian of gates and doors brought -him into close connection with the Penates and other household gods; -hence the custom of erecting over the doors an image of the deity with -the well-known two faces, one of which looked out and the other in. - -Janus had no temple, in the proper sense of the word, at Rome. His -shrines consisted of gateways in common places of resort and at -cross-roads, or of arched passages, in which the image of the god was -erected. The Temple of Janus in the Forum at Rome, which has been -already alluded to, was a sanctuary of this kind closed with doors, and -was probably the most ancient in the city. Its doors stood open only in -time of war. - - Roman art never succeeded in executing a plastic representation - peculiar to Janus, the double head being only an imitation of the - Greek double Hermæ. In course of time entire figures of Janus - appeared, but these always had a double face. They were generally - bearded, but in later times one face was bearded, the other - youthful. Not one specimen of these works of art has been preserved, - so that we only know these forms from coins. The usual attributes of - Janus were keys and staff. - - -=12. Quirinus.=—Quirinus was also a purely Roman divinity, but having -been reckoned among the great deities of heaven, he must therefore be -mentioned here. In his symbolic meaning he bore a great resemblance to -Mars; and as Mars was the national god of the Latin population of Rome, -so Quirinus was the national god of the Sabines who came to Rome with -Titus Tatius. Together with Jupiter and Mars, he formed the tutelary -Trinity of the Roman empire. His shrine was on the Quirinal, which was -originally inhabited by the Sabines, and which was named after him. Numa -gave Quirinus a priest of his own. He had a special feast on the 17th of -February, but his worship appears to have assimilated itself more and -more to that of Mars. He was subsequently identified with Romulus. - - - B.—SECONDARY DEITIES. - - - _1. Attendant and Ministering Deities._ - - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.—Head of Eros. Vatican.] - -=1. Eros (Amor).=—Of the deities who appear in the train of Aphrodite, -Eros alone seems to have enjoyed divine honours; Longing and Desire -being no more than allegorical figures typifying some of the influences -that emanate from the goddess of love. Eros was commonly reputed the son -of Aphrodite and Ares, and was generally depicted as a boy of wondrous -beauty, on the verge of youth. His characteristic weapon is a golden -bow, with which he shoots forth his arrows from secret lurking-places, -with an unfailing effect that represents the sweet but consuming pangs -of love. Zeus himself is represented as unable to withstand his -influence—an intimation that love is one of the most terrible and mighty -forces of nature. - -As unrequited love is aimless, Anteros was conceived by the imagination -of the poets as the brother and companion of Eros, and consequently a -son of Aphrodite. As the little Eros, says the myth, would neither grow -nor thrive, his mother, by the advice of Themis, gave him this brother -as a playfellow; after which the boy was glad so long as his brother was -with him, but sad in his absence. - -Eros was not only venerated as the god who kindles love between the -sexes, but was also regarded as the author of love and friendship -between youths and men. On this account his statue was generally placed -in the gymnasia between those of Hermes and Heracles; and the Spartans -sacrificed to him before battle, binding themselves to hold together -faithfully in battle, and to stand by one another in the hour of need. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 24.—Eros trying his Bow. Capitoline Museum.] - -This deity was termed by the Romans Amor, or Cupido, but this was solely -in imitation of the Greek Eros, since he never enjoyed among them any -public veneration. - -The significant fable of the love of Cupid for Psyche, a personification -of the human soul, is of comparatively late origin, though it was a very -favourite subject in art. - - Artists followed the poets in the delineation of Eros, in so far as - they generally depicted him as a boy on the confines of youth. An - Eros by the renowned artist Praxiteles was esteemed one of the best - works of antiquity. It was brought to Rome by Nero, but was - destroyed by fire in the reign of Titus. In later times the god of - love was represented as much younger, because the mischievous pranks - attributed to him by the poets were more adapted to the age of - childhood. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.—Polyhymnia. Berlin Museum.] - - A considerable number of statues or statuettes of Eros have come - down to us from antiquity. Among the most celebrated is the Torso - (mutilated statue) of the Vatican, of the glorious head of which we - give an engraving (Fig. 23). There is also an “Eros trying his bow” - (Fig. 24) in the Capitoline Museum at Rome, and an “Eros playing - with dice” in the Berlin Museum. Lastly, there is the celebrated - group of the Capitoline Museum, which represents the embraces of - Cupid and Psyche. - - Eros generally appears with wings in the art monuments of antiquity. - His insignia are bow and arrows, in addition to a burning torch. The - rose was held especially sacred to him, for which reason he often - appears crowned with roses. - - In connection with Venus and in company with Amor we find Hymenæus, - a personification of the joys of marriage, who was, however, only - recognised by later writers and by later art. He is portrayed as a - beautiful youth, winged like Eros, but taller, and of a more serious - aspect. His indispensable attribute is the marriage torch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26—Melpomene. Vatican.] - - -=2. The Muses.=—Pindar gives the following account of the origin of the -Muses. After the defeat of the Titans, the celestials besought Zeus to -create some beings who might perpetuate in song the mighty deeds of the -gods. In answer to this prayer, Zeus begot with Mnemosyne (Memory) the -nine Muses. They sing of the present, the past, and the future, while -Apollo’s lute accompanies their sweet strains, which gladden the hearts -of the gods as they sit assembled in the lofty palace of Father Zeus, in -Olympus. Looked at in connection with nature, there is little doubt but -that the Muses were originally nymphs of the fountains. The veneration -of the Muses first arose in Pieria, a district on the eastern declivity -of Mount Olympus in Thessaly, from whose steep and rocky heights a -number of sweet rippling brooks descend to the plains. The perception of -this natural music led at once to a belief in the existence of such -song-loving goddesses. Their seat was subsequently transferred from the -declivities of Olympus to Mount Helicon in Bœotia, or to Mount -Parnassus, at the foot of which the Castalian fountain, which was sacred -to them, had its source. Originally the Muses were only goddesses of -song, though they are sometimes represented with instruments on vases. -In early times, too, they only appear as a chorus or company, but at a -later period separate functions were assigned to each, as presiding over -this or that branch of art. Their names were Clio, Melpomene, -Terpsichore, Polyhymnia, Thalia, Urania, Euterpe, Erato, and Calliope. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.—Euterpe. Vatican.] - - According to the art-distribution made, probably, at the time of the - Alexandrine school, Calliope represents epic poetry and science - generally, her attributes being a roll of parchment and a pen. Clio - is the muse of history, and is likewise characterised by a roll and - pen, so that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish her from - Calliope. Euterpe represents lyric poetry, and is distinguished by - her double flute. Melpomene, the muse of tragedy, generally appears - with a tragic mask, a club or sword, and a garland of vine leaves. - Terpsichore is the muse of dancing, and has a lyre and plectrum. To - Erato is assigned erotic poetry, together with geometry and the - mimic art; she generally bears a large stringed instrument. Thalia, - the muse of comedy, is distinguished by a comic mask, an ivy - garland, and a crook. Polyhymnia presides over the graver chant of - religious service; she may be recognised by her dress, wrapped - closely round her, and her grave, thoughtful countenance, but is - without attribute of any kind. Lastly, Urania, the muse of - astronomy, holds in one hand a celestial globe, and in the other a - small wand. - - Several European museums possess ancient groups of the Muses, among - which, perhaps, the finest is that preserved in the Vatican. From - this group are copied our engravings of Melpomene and Euterpe (Figs. - 26 and 27). The original of Polyhymnia (Fig. 25) is in the Berlin - Museum. - -The Romans venerated a number of fountain-nymphs of song and prophecy -under the name of Camenæ, among whom the Egeria of the history of Numa -is well known. The Roman writers seem to have identified these goddesses -with the Muses at pleasure. - - -=3. The Charites (Gratiæ).=—The Charites generally appear in the train -of the goddess of love, whom it was their duty to clothe and adorn. They -are often found, however, in attendance on other gods, since all that is -charming and graceful, either to the senses or the intellect, was -supposed to proceed from them. - -Their names are Aglaïa, Euphrosyne, and Thalia. They were commonly -represented as the daughters of Zeus and Eurynome, the Oceanid. Later -writers, however, make them the daughters of Dionysus and Aphrodite. -They were venerated as the source of all that makes human life more -beautiful and pleasant, without whom there could be no real enjoyment of -life. Thus, even the gods would not sit down to banquets without the -Charites; and whenever men came together to feast, they first called on -them and offered them the first bowl. Music, eloquence, art, and poetry -received the higher consecration only at their hands; whence Pindar -terms his songs a gift from them. Wisdom, bravery, kindly benevolence, -and gratitude—in fine, all those qualities which become men most, and -make them agreeable in the eyes of their fellow-men, were supposed to -proceed from the Charites. - -The Graces of the Romans were simply transferred from the mythology of -the Greeks, and have, therefore, the same meaning as the Charites. - - Art represented the Charites or Graces as blooming maidens, of - slender, comely form, characterised by an expression of joyous - innocence. In their hands they often hold flowers, either roses or - myrtles. They are less often distinguished by definite attributes - than by a mutual intertwining of arms. In earlier Greek art they - always appear fully clothed; but gradually their clothing became - less and less, until at length, in the age of Scopas and Praxiteles, - when nude figures had become common, it entirely disappeared. There - are, however, few ancient statues of the Charites in existence. - - -=4. Themis and the Horæ (Seasons).=—In intimate connection with the -Charites we find the Horæ, the daughters of Zeus and Themis. They were -generally represented as three in number—Eunomia, Dice, and Irene. They -represent the regular march of nature in the changes of the seasons, and -Themis, who personifies the eternal laws of nature, and as the daughter -of Uranus and Gæa ranks among the most ancient deities, is consequently -their mother. Themis is the representative of the reign of law among -gods and men; at Zeus’ command she calls together the assemblies of the -gods. She also occupies a similar position on earth, as presiding over -national assemblies and the laws of hospitality. Her daughters, the -Horæ, appear in a similar though in a subordinate and attendant -character. In Homer they figure as the servants of Zeus, who watch the -gates of heaven, now closing them with thick clouds, now clearing the -clouds away. They also appear as the servants and attendants of other -divinities, such as Hera, Aphrodite, Apollo, and the Muses. Like their -mother, they preside over all law and order in human affairs; and under -their protection thrives all that is noble and beautiful and good. - -We know but little concerning the worship of the Horæ among the Greeks. -The Athenians celebrated a special festival in their honour, but they -recognised only two—Thallo, the season of blossom, and Carpo, the season -of the ripened fruit. The adoption of four Horæ, corresponding to the -four seasons of the year, appears to have arisen at a later period. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.—The Horæ. Relief from the Villa Albani.] - - In plastic art Themis is generally represented with a balance in one - hand and a palm branch in the other. The Horæ generally appear as - lovely girls dancing with their garments tucked up, and adorned with - flowers, fruit, and garlands. Subsequently they were distinguished - by various attributes, typical of the different seasons. Such is the - case in the engraving (Fig. 28), after a relief in the Villa Albani. - - -=5. Nice (Victoria).=—Nice is nothing but a personification of the -irresistible and invincible power exercised by the god of heaven by -means of his lightning. She also appears in the company of Pallas -Athene, who was herself honoured by the Athenians as the goddess of -victory. Victory does not seem to have had many separate temples or -festivals, since she generally appears only in attendance on her -superior deities. - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.—Victoria. United Collections in Munich.] - -Far more extensive was the veneration of Victoria at Rome, a fact for -which the warlike character of the people easily accounts. Her chief -shrine was on the Capitol, where successful generals were wont to erect -statues of the goddess in remembrance of their exploits. The most -magnificent statue of this kind was one erected by Augustus in -fulfilment of a vow after his victory at Actium. The proper festival of -the goddess took place on the 12th of April. - - In both Greek and Roman art Victory was represented as a winged - goddess. She is distinguished by a palm branch and laurel garland, - which were the customary rewards of bravery among the ancients. - Large statues of the goddess are seldom met with, though she is - often depicted on vases, coins, and small bronzes. The museum of - Cassel has a small bronze statue of the goddess, whilst a fine - _alto-relievo_ in terra-cotta exists in the Royal Collection at - Munich (Fig. 29). - - -=6. Iris.=—Iris was originally a personification of the rainbow, but she -was afterwards converted into the swift messenger of the gods, the -rainbow being, as it were, a bridge between earth and heaven. In this -character she makes her appearance in Homer, but, later still, she was -again transformed into a special attendant of Hera. Her swiftness was -astounding; “Like hail or snow,” says Homer, “that falls from the -clouds,” she darts from one end of the world to the other—nay, dives to -the hidden depths of the ocean and into the recesses of the lower world, -executing the commands of the gods. - - In art Iris was represented with wings, like Nice, to whom she, in - many respects, bears a strong resemblance. She may be distinguished - from the latter, however, by her herald’s staff (Caduceus). A very - much injured specimen, from the east pediment of the Parthenon at - Athens, is now preserved in the British Museum. - - -=7. Hebe (Juventas).=—Hebe was the daughter of Zeus and Hera, and, -according to her natural interpretation, represented the youthful bloom -of Nature. In the fully developed mythology of the Greeks she appears as -the cupbearer of the gods, to whom, at meals, she presents the sweet -nectar. It may at first seem strange that the daughter of the greatest -of the divinities of Greece should be relegated to so inferior a -position. This, however, is easily explained by the old patriarchal -custom of the Greeks, by which the young unmarried daughters, even in -royal palaces, waited at table on the men of the family and the guests. - -In post-Homeric poetry and legend Hebe no longer appears as cupbearer of -the gods, the office having been assigned to Ganymedes. This was either -in consequence of the promotion of the son of the King of Troy, or on -account of Hebe’s marriage with the deified Heracles. - -Hebe occupies no important place in the religious system of the Greeks; -she seems to have been chiefly honoured in connection with her mother -Hera, or now and then with Heracles. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.—Hebe. From Antonio Canova.] - -Juventas, or Juventus, is the corresponding deity of the Romans; but, as -was the case with so many others, they contrived to bring her into a -more intimate connection with their political life by honouring in her -the undying and unfading vigour of the state. She had a separate chapel -in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. - - With regard to the artistic representation of Hebe, statues of this - goddess appear to have been very rare in ancient times; at least, - among all the numerous statues that have been discovered, none can - be safely identified with Hebe. She is the more often met with on - ornamental vases and reliefs, on which the marriage of Heracles and - Hebe is a favourite subject. She is usually depicted as a - highly-graceful, modest maiden, pouring out nectar from an upraised - vessel. She appears thus in the world-renowned masterpiece of the - Italian sculptor Canova, so well known from casts. In default of an - ancient statue, we give an engraving of this work (Fig. 30). - - -=8. Ganymedes.=—A similar office in Olympus was filled by the son of -Tros, the King of Troy, Ganymedes, who was made immortal by Zeus, and -installed as cupbearer of the gods. Neither Homer nor Pindar, however, -relate the episode of Zeus sending his eagle to carry off Ganymedes. -This feature of the story, which is a favourite subject of artistic -representation, is first found in Apollodorus. The Roman poet, Ovid, -then went a step farther, and made the ruler of Olympus transform -himself into an eagle, in order to carry off his favourite. - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.—Ganymedes and the Eagle. From Thorwaldsen.] - - The rape of the beautiful boy is often portrayed in ancient art. The - most famous monument is a bronze group of Leochares, an artist who - flourished in the fourth century B.C. A copy of it still exists in - the celebrated statue of Ganymedes in the Vatican collection. In - modern art the story has been treated with still greater frequency. - There is an extremely beautiful group of this kind by Thorwaldsen, - in which Ganymedes is represented as giving the eagle drink out of a - bowl (Fig. 31). - - - _2. The Phenomena of the Heavens._ - - -=1. Helios (Sol).=—Helios (Latin _Sol_), the sun-god, belongs to that -small class of deities who have preserved their physical meaning intact. -His worship was confined to a few places, the most important of which -was the island of Rhodes. An annual festival, attended with musical and -athletic contests, was here celebrated with great pomp in honour of the -sun-god. He is portrayed by the poets as a handsome youth with flashing -eyes and shining hair covered with a golden helmet. His daily office was -to bring the light of day to gods and men, which he performed by rising -from Oceanus in the east, where the Ethiopians live, and completing his -course along the firmament. For this purpose the post-Homeric poets -endow him with a sun-chariot drawn by four fiery horses; and though -Homer and Hesiod do not attempt to explain how he passed from the west -where he sets, to the east where he rises, later poets obviate the -difficulty by making him sail round half the world in a golden boat -(according to others a golden bed); and thus he was supposed again to -arrive at the east. In the far west Helios had a splendid palace, and -also a celebrated garden, which was under the charge of the Hesperides. -He is described as the son of the Titans Hyperion and Thea, whence he -himself is called a Titan. By his wife Perse, a daughter of Oceanus, he -became the father of Æëtes, King of Colchis, celebrated in the legend of -the Argonauts, and of the still more celebrated sorceress Circe. Another -son of Helios was Phaëthon, who, in attempting to drive his father’s -horses, came to an untimely end. - -Helios sees and hears every thing; whence he was believed to bring -hidden crimes to light, and was invoked as a witness at all solemn -declarations and oaths. - -All the stories relating to Helios were gradually transferred to the -Roman Sol, who was originally a Sabine deity, chiefly by means of the -Metamorphoses of Ovid. The untiring charioteer of the heavens was also -honoured as the patron of the race-course; but he never attained a -prominent position in religious worship. - - Helios, or Sol, is depicted as a handsome youth, his head encircled - by a crown, which gives forth twelve bright rays corresponding to - the number of the months, his mantle flying about his shoulders as - he stands in his chariot. It was chiefly in Rhodes, however, that - Helios was made the subject of the sculptor’s art. Here, in 280 - B.C., was erected in his honour the celebrated colossal statue which - has acquired a world-wide celebrity under the name of the Colossus - of Rhodes, and which was reckoned as one of the seven “wonders of - the world.” It was the work of Chares of Lindus, and was 105 feet in - height. - - -=2. Selene (Luna).=—As Artemis is the twin sister of Apollo, so is -Selene the twin sister of Helios; he representing the sun, she the moon. -Selene, however, never really enjoyed divine honours in Greece. The -poets depict her as a white-armed goddess, whose beautiful tresses are -crowned with a brilliant diadem. In the evening she rises from the -sacred river of Oceanus, and pursues her course along the firmament of -heaven in her chariot drawn by two white horses. She is gentle and -timid, and it is only in secret that she loves beautiful youths and -kisses them in sleep. Poets delight to sing of the secret love she -cherished for the beautiful Endymion, the son of the King of Elis. She -caused him to fall into an eternal sleep, and he now reposes in a rocky -grotto on Mount Latmus, where Selene nightly visits him, and gazes with -rapture on his countenance. - -In later times she was often confounded with Artemis, Hecate, and -Persephone. The same remarks apply to the Roman Luna. The latter, -however, had a temple of her own on the Aventine, which was supposed to -have been dedicated to her by Servius Tullius. Like her brother Sol, she -was honoured in Rome in connection with the circus, and was held to -preside over the public games. - - In sculpture, Selene, or Luna, may be recognised by the half moon on - her forehead, and by the veil over the back of her head; she also - bears in her hand a torch. The sleeping Endymion was a frequent - subject of representation on sarcophagi and monuments. - - -=3. Eos (Aurora).=—Eos, the goddess of the dawn, was also a daughter of -Hyperion and Thea, and a sister of Selene and Helios. She was first -married to the Titan Astræus, by whom she became the mother of the -winds—Boreas, Zephyrus, Eurus, and Notus (north, west, east, and south -winds). This is a mythological mode of intimating the fact that the wind -generally rises at dawn. After Astræus, who, like most of the Titans, -had rebelled against the sovereignty of Zeus, and had been cast into -Tartarus, Eos chose the handsome hunter Orion for her husband. The gods, -however, would not consent to their union, and Orion was slain by the -arrows of Artemis, after which Eos married Tithonus, the son of the King -of Troy. She begged Zeus to bestow on him immortality, but, having -forgotten to ask for eternal youth, the gift was of doubtful value, -since Tithonus at last became a shrivelled-up, decrepid old man, in whom -the goddess took no pleasure. - -Memnon, King of Æthiopia, celebrated in the story of the Trojan war, was -a son of Eos and Tithonus. He came to the assistance of Troy, and was -slain by Achilles. Since then, Eos has wept without ceasing for her -darling son, and her tears fall to the earth in the shape of dew. - -Eos is represented by the poets as a glorious goddess, with beautiful -hair, rosy arms and fingers—a true picture of the invigorating freshness -of the early morning. Cheerful and active, she rises early from her -couch, and, enveloped in a saffron-coloured mantle, she harnesses her -horses Lampus and Phaëthon (Brightness and Lustre), in order that she -may hasten on in front of the sun-god and announce the day. - -The views and fables connected with Eos were transferred by the Roman -writers to the person of their goddess Aurora[4] without undergoing any -alteration. - -Footnote 4: - - The Mater Matuta of the Romans was a deity very similar to the Eos of - the Greeks. She was the goddess of the early dawn, and was held in - high estimation among the Roman women as a deity who assisted them in - childbirth. Like the Greek Leucothea, she was also regarded as a - goddess of the sea and harbours, who assisted those in peril. - - Representations of this goddess are found now and then on vases and - gems. She either appears driving a chariot and four horses, as - harnessing the steeds of Helios, or as gliding through the air on - wings and sprinkling the earth with her dew. - - -=4. The Stars.=—Only a few of the stars are of any importance in -mythology. Phosphorus and Hesperus, the morning star and the evening -star, which were formerly regarded as two distinct beings, were -represented in art in the guise of beautiful boys with torches in their -hands. There were also several legends relating to Orion, whom we have -already alluded to as the husband of Eos. He himself was made a -constellation after having been slain by the arrows of Artemis, while -his dog was Sirius, whose rising announces the hottest season of the -year. All kinds of myths were invented about other constellations; among -others, the Hyades, whose rising betokened the advent of the stormy, -rainy season, during which the sailor avoids going to sea. The story -went that they were placed among the constellations by the gods out of -pity, because they were inconsolable at the death of their brother Hyas, -who was killed by a lion whilst hunting. Connected with them are the -Pleiades, _i.e._, the stars of mariners, so called because on their -rising in May the favourable season for voyages begins. They were seven -in number, and were likewise set in the heavens by the gods. Finally, we -must not forget to mention Arctus, the Bear. Tradition asserted that -this was none other than the Arcadian nymph Callisto, who had been -placed among the constellations by Zeus when slain in the form of a -she-bear by Artemis. She had broken her vows of chastity, and borne a -son, Arcas, to Zeus. - - -=5. The Winds.=—The four chief winds have been already alluded to as the -sons of Eos. They were especially venerated by those about to make -voyages, who then solicited their favour with prayers and offerings. -Otherwise, they maintained their character of pure natural forces, and -were, consequently, of little importance in mythology. The rude north -wind, Boreas, or Aquilo, was especially dreaded on account of his stormy -violence, and was hence regarded as a bold ravisher of maidens. Thus an -Attic legend asserts that he carried off Orithyia, the daughter of -Erechtheus, as she was playing on the banks of the Ilissus. She bore him -Calaïs and Zetes, well known in the story of the Argonauts. Boreas, -however, stood in high favour among the Athenians, who erected an altar -and chapel to him, because, during the Persian war, he had partially -destroyed the fleet of Xerxes off Cape Sepias. - -As Boreas is the god of the winter storm, so Zephyrus appears as the -welcome messenger of Spring; on which account one of the Horæ was given -him to wife. Zephyrus was called Favonius by the Romans, to intimate the -favourable influence he exercised on the prosperous growth of the -vegetable world. - -These, together with the other chief winds, Notus (south wind) and Eurus -(east wind) were sometimes said to reside in separate places; at other -times they were said to dwell together in the Wind-mountain, on the -fabulous island of Æolia, where they were ruled over by King Æolus. - - - _3. Gods of Birth and Healing._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.—Asclepius. Berlin.] - - -=1. Asclepius (Æsculapius).=—It was only in later times that the -necessity of having special gods of birth and healing made itself felt; -at all events, Asclepius, or Æsculapius, as he is called by the Romans, -does not appear as a god in Homer. The worship of this deity, who was -said to be the son of Apollo, appears to have originated in Epidaurus, -the seat of his principal shrine, and thence to have become generally -diffused. In Epidaurus his priests erected a large hospital, which -enjoyed a great reputation. The common method of cure consisted in -allowing those who were sick to sleep in the temple, on which occasion, -if they had been zealous in their prayers and offerings, the god -appeared to them in a dream and discovered the necessary remedy. - -The worship of this deity was introduced into Rome in the year 291 B.C., -in consequence of a severe pestilence which for years had depopulated -town and country. The Sibylline books were consulted, and they -recommended that Asclepius of Epidaurus should be brought to Rome. The -story goes that the sacred serpent of the god followed the Roman -ambassadors of its own accord, and chose for its abode the Insula -Tiberina at Rome, where a temple was at once erected to Æsculapius. A -gilded statue was added to the temple in the year 13 B.C. The method -already mentioned of sleeping in the temple was also adopted here. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 33.—Head of Asclepius. British Museum.] - - In art, Asclepius is represented as a bearded man of ripe years, - with singularly noble features, from which the kindly benevolence of - a benefactor of mankind looks forth. He is generally accompanied by - a serpent, as a symbol of self-renovating vital power, which he is - feeding and caressing, or which is more commonly represented as - creeping up his staff. Such is the conception in the engraving (Fig. - 32), which is after a statue preserved at Berlin. As the god of - healing, he has also other attributes—a bowl containing the healing - draught, a bunch of herbs, a pine-apple, or a dog; the latter being - a symbol of the vigilance with which the physician watches disease. - - There are numerous extant statues of the god, although the great - statue in gold and ivory of the temple at Epidaurus has been - entirely lost. A fine head of colossal proportions was discovered on - the Isle of Melos, and is now an ornament of the British Museum - (Fig. 33). There is, on the other hand, a very fine statue without a - head in existence at Athens, near the temple of Zeus. There are, - moreover, celebrated statues in Florence, Paris, and Rome (Vatican); - in the last case, of a beardless Æsculapius. - - -=2. Inferior Deities of Birth and Healing.=—The Greeks also honoured -Ilithyia as a goddess of birth. This appears to have been originally a -surname of Hera, as a deity who succoured women in childbirth. Hygiea -was looked on as a goddess of health, and was described as a daughter of -Asclepius. - -The Romans had no need of a special goddess presiding over birth, -although they honoured a deity often identified with Hygiea, whom they -called Strenia, or Salus. As guardian of the chamber of birth, they -honoured Carna, or Cardea, who was supposed to drive away the evil -Striges (screech owls) that came at night to suck the blood of the -new-born child. Carna was further regarded as the protectress of -physical health. Another of these inferior deities, of whom men sought -long life and continued health, bore the name of Anna Perenna (the -circling year). - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.—Night and the Fates. From Carstens.] - - - _4. Deities of Fate._ - - -=1. Mœræ (Parcæ).=—The Mœræ, better known by the Latin name of Parcæ, -really denote that portion of a man’s life and fortune which is -determined from his birth; so that, in this sense, there are as many -Mœræ as individuals. The Greeks, however, who were wont to revere all -such indefinite numbers under the sacred number three, generally -recognised three. These they regarded as the dark and inexplicable -powers of fate, daughters of the night. Their names were Clotho -(spinner), Lachesis (allotter), and Atropos (inevitable). - -Only two Parcæ were originally known to the Romans, but a third was -afterwards added to make their own mythology harmonise with that of the -Greeks. - - The popular conception of the Parcæ as grave hoary women was not - followed in art, where they always appear as young. In the first - instance, their attributes were all alike, separate functions not - yet having been allotted to them. But at a subsequent period it was - Clotho who spun, Lachesis who held, and Atropos who cut the thread - of life. This arrangement was first adopted by later artists, who - generally give Clotho a spindle, Lachesis a roll of parchment, and - Atropos a balance, or let the last point to the hour of death on a - dial. Such is the case in a talented creation of Carstens, in which - the conception of modern times is brought into harmony with the - ideal of antiquity (Fig. 34). - - -=2. Nemesis, Tyche (Fortuna), and Agathodæmon (Bonus Eventus).=—Nemesis -really denotes the apportionment of that fate which is justly deserved, -and a consequent repugnance to that which is not. Homer does not -acknowledge Nemesis as a goddess, and so it is probable that her claim -to public veneration dates from a later period. She was regarded as a -goddess of equality, who watches over the equilibrium of the moral -universe, and sees that happiness and misfortune are allotted to man -according to merit. Hence arose, subsequently, the idea of an avenging -deity, who visits with condign punishment the crimes and wickedness of -mankind. In this character she resembles the Furies. The Romans likewise -introduced Nemesis into their system; at least her statue stood on the -Capitol, though popular superstition never regarded her with a friendly -eye. - - The various conceptions of Nemesis are again displayed in works of - art. The kindly, gentle goddess, who dispenses what is just, is - depicted as a young woman of grave and thoughtful aspect, holding in - her hand the instruments of measurement and control (cubit, bridle, - and rudder). As the stern avenger of human crimes, she appears with - wings in a chariot drawn by griffins, with a sword or whip in her - hand. - -Tyche, the goddess of good fortune, was, according to common accounts, -the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys. She was usually honoured as the -tutelary deity of towns, and as such had temples and statues in many -populous cities of Greece and Asia. In course of time, however, the idea -gained ground that Tyche was the author of evil as well as of good -fortune. She resembled, in this respect, the Fortuna of the Romans, who -was regarded as the source of all that is unexpected in human life. -Servius Tullius was said to have introduced into Rome the worship of -Fortuna, whose favourite he had certainly every reason to regard -himself. He erected a temple to her under the name of Fors Fortuna, and -made the 24th of June the common festival of the goddess. Later, her -worship became still more extensive. Under the most different surnames, -some of which referred to the state (_Fortuna populi Romani_), and -others to every description of private affairs, she had a great number -of temples and chapels erected in her honour. She had also celebrated -temples in Antium and Præneste. - - Ancient artists endowed this goddess with various attributes, the - most important of which was the rudder, which she held in her hand - in token of her power to control the fortunes of mankind. She is - also endowed with a sceptre for the same purpose, and with a horn of - plenty as the giver of good fortune; sometimes she is also - represented with the youthful Plutus in her arms. The later - conception of an impartial goddess of fate is apparent in those - art-monuments which depict her standing on a ball or wheel. Among - the larger existing works, we may mention a copy preserved in the - Vatican of a Tyche by Eutychides of Sicyon, which was formerly - exhibited in Antioch. The goddess here wears a mural crown on her - head as the tutelary deity of towns, and has a sheaf of corn in her - right hand. - -Besides Fortuna, the Romans honoured a deity called Felicitas as the -goddess of positive good fortune. Lucullus is said to have erected a -temple to her in Rome, which was adorned with the works of art brought -by Mummius from the spoils of Corinth. Even this did not suffice for the -religious needs of the people, and we find that the belief in personal -protecting deities grew rapidly among both Greeks and Romans. These -deities were termed by the Greeks “dæmones,” and by the Romans “genii.” -They were believed to be the invisible counsellors of every individual, -accompanying him from birth to death, through all the stages of life, -with advice and comfort. Offerings of wine, cake, incense, and garlands -were made to them, particularly on birthdays. - - - II.—THE GODS OF THE SEA AND WATERS. - - -=1. Poseidon (Neptunus).=—Poseidon, or Neptunus, as he was called by the -Romans, was the son of Cronus and Rhea. Homer calls him the younger -brother of Zeus, in which case his subjection to the latter is only -natural. According to the common account, however, Zeus was the youngest -of the sons of Cronus, but acquired the sovereignty over his brothers by -having overthrown their cruel father. Poseidon was accordingly indebted -to his brother for his dominion over the sea and its deities, and was -therefore subject to him. He usually dwelt, not in Olympus, but at the -bottom of the sea. Here he was supposed to inhabit, with Amphitrite his -wife, a magnificent golden palace in the neighbourhood of Ægæ. -Originally, like Oceanus and Pontus, he was a mere symbol of the watery -element, but he afterwards attained an entirely independent personality. -Even in Homer he no longer appears as the sea itself, but as its mighty -ruler, who with his powerful arms upholds and circumscribes the earth. -He is violent and impetuous, like the element he represents. When he -strikes the sea with his trident, the symbol of his sovereignty, the -waves rise with violence, dash in pieces the ships, and inundate the -land far and wide. Poseidon likewise possesses the power of producing -earthquakes, cleaving rocks, and raising islands in the midst of the -sea. On the other hand, a word or look from him suffices to allay the -wildest tempest. Virgil, in the first book of the _Æneid_, has given a -beautiful description of the taming of the fierce elements by the god. - -Poseidon was naturally regarded as the chief god of all the seafaring -classes, such as fishermen, boatmen, and sailors, who esteemed him as -their patron and tutelary deity. To him they addressed their prayers -before entering on a voyage, to him they brought their offerings in -gratitude for their safe return from the perils of the deep. - -Poseidon, therefore, enjoyed the highest reputation among the seafaring -Ionians. His temples, altars, and statues were most numerous in the -harbours and seaport towns, and on islands and promontories. Among the -numerous shrines of this deity we may mention that of Corinth, in the -neighbourhood of which were celebrated in his honour the Isthmian games, -which subsequently became a national festival in Greece, Pylus, Athens, -and the islands of Rhodes, Cos, and Tenos. - -It was only natural that many legends, local and provincial, should -exist about a god who played such an important part in the lives of -seafaring folk. In the Trojan epos he figures as a violent enemy of -Troy, his indignation having been provoked by the injustice of the -Trojan king, Laomedon. Poseidon had built the walls of Troy at the -king’s request with the aid of Apollo, but Laomedon having cheated him -in the matter of the stipulated reward, Poseidon thereupon sent a -terrible sea-monster, which laid waste the crops and slew the -inhabitants. They had recourse to the oracle, which counselled the -sacrifice of the king’s daughter Hesione. The unhappy maiden was exposed -to the monster, but was rescued by Heracles. The fable of this monster, -which is manifestly a symbol of the inundation of the sea, is repeated -in many succeeding stories (_e.g._, in the story of Perseus, who rescued -in a similar way Andromeda, the daughter of the king of Æthiopia). There -are numberless stories, in which Poseidon appears as the father of the -different national heroes. The most important is, perhaps, the legend of -Theseus, of which we shall speak later on. There was scarcely a Grecian -town or district which did not lay claim to divine origin for the person -of its founder or ancestral hero. Again, the conception of the wild -stormy nature of the sea caused Poseidon to be represented as the father -of various giants and monsters. By the nymph Thoösa he became the father -of the savage Polyphemus, slain by Odysseus, who thus provoked the -implacable enmity of Poseidon. The giant Antæus, who fought with -Heracles, was also said to be a son of Poseidon; besides many other -monsters, such as Procrustes, Cercyon, and the Aloïdæ. - -The favourite animal of Poseidon was the horse, which he was supposed to -have created. This may, perhaps, be due to the fact that the imagination -of the Greeks pictured to itself the horses of Poseidon in the rolling -and bounding waves. In Athens the origin of the horse was referred to -the contest between Athene and Poseidon, as to who should make the land -the most useful present. In Corinthian legend Poseidon appears as the -father of the winged horse Pegasus by Medusa. This story is connected -with the taming of the horse, which was ascribed to Poseidon. On account -of his intimate connection with the horse, Poseidon was especially -regarded as the patron of the games, and had, in consequence, an altar -of his own on all race-courses. The competitors, before the races, -solicited his favour with prayers and sacrifices. - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.—Poseidon. Dolce Gem.] - -The dolphin and the pine-tree were held sacred to Poseidon, the latter -probably because it was so extensively used in shipbuilding. Black -steers, horses, rams, and wild boars were sacrificed to him. - -The Romans not being a seafaring people, Neptune never stood in such -high estimation among them as among the Greeks. In Rome his prominent -characteristic was his connection with the horse and the race-course. -These were placed under his special protection, for which reason the -only temple he had in Rome stood in the Circus Flaminius. - - The representation of Poseidon, or Neptune, in art harmonises - tolerably well with the descriptions of the poets. He is accordingly - represented as similar to his brother Zeus in size and figure, with - broad deep chest, dark wavy hair, and piercing eyes. - - Artists intimated the greater violence of his nature by giving him - more angularity of face, and a more bristling and disordered head of - hair than Zeus. The expression of his countenance is more grave and - severe, and the kindly smile that plays around the mouth of Zeus is - altogether wanting. - - Ancient statues of Poseidon are comparatively rare. The Vatican - Museum possesses a fine bust, and also a marble statue of the god. - He is generally distinguished by the trident in his right hand; - sometimes in its place we find a tiller. A band similar to a diadem - denotes his dominion over the sea. Our engraving of the god is after - a beautiful gem of the Dolce collection (Fig. 35). - - -=2. Amphitrite.=—After Poseidon had attained an almost exclusive -veneration as god of the sea, Amphitrite, one of the Nereids, was given -him to wife. According to the usual account, he carried her away from -Naxos. Others say that she fled to Atlas to avoid the rude wooing of the -god, but Poseidon’s dolphin found her and fetched her back. She had -three children by Poseidon—Triton, Rhode, and Benthesicyme. - - In plastic art, Amphitrite is generally depicted as a slim and - beautiful young woman, either nude or half clothed, riding in the - chariot of Poseidon at his side, or by herself. On gems she also - appears enthroned on the back of a mighty Triton, or riding a - seahorse or dolphin. Her hair generally falls loosely about her - shoulders. She is distinguished by the royal insignia of the diadem - and sceptre, at times she also wields the trident of her husband. - -The worship of Amphitrite was entirely unknown to the Romans, who -recognised the sea-goddess Salacia as the wife of Neptune. - - -=3. Triton and the Tritons.=—Triton was the only son of Poseidon and -Amphitrite; he never appears, however, to have enjoyed divine honours. -This perhaps explains how it came to pass that he was subsequently -degraded to the level of a fabulous sea-monster. The poet Apollonius -Rhodius describes him as having a body, the upper parts of which were -those of a man, while the lower parts were those of a dolphin. Such too -is his appearance in works of art. Poets and artists soon revelled in -the conception of a whole race of similar Tritons, who were regarded as -a wanton, mischievous tribe, like the Satyrs on land. - - The Tritons, as sea-deities of fantastic form, are of little - importance in higher art, though they were all the more frequently - employed in fountains and water-works. The fore-legs of a horse were - sometimes added to the human body and dolphin’s tail, thus giving - rise to the figure termed the Ichthyocentaur. - - -=4. Pontus and his Descendants.=—We have already spoken of Pontus and -his race in our account of the Theogony. Here we can only mention those -of his children who either enjoyed divine honours, or are of importance -in art. The eldest among them was Nereus. - -_1. Nereus and his Daughters._—Nereus presents to us the calm and -pleasant side of the sea. He appears as a kindly, benevolent old man, -the good spirit of the Ægean sea, where he dwells with his fifty lovely -daughters, the Nereids, ever ready to assist the storm-beaten sailor in -the hour of need. Like all water-spirits, Nereus possessed the gift of -prophecy, though he did not always choose to make use of it. Heracles -sought him on his way to the garden of the Hesperides, in order to learn -how he might get possession of the golden apples. In spite of his urgent -entreaties, Nereus endeavoured to elude him by assuming every kind of -shape, though he was at length vanquished by the persistence of the -hero, who would not let him go until he had obtained the necessary -information. - -By his wife Doris, the daughter of Oceanus, he became the father of -fifty, or, according to some, of a hundred daughters, who were all -venerated as kindly, beneficent sea-nymphs. They are a charming, lovely -tribe, who win the hearts of the sailors—now by their merry sports and -dances, now by their timely assistance in the hour of danger. This -joyous band generally forms the train of Poseidon and Amphitrite. -Besides Amphitrite, the chosen bride of Poseidon, we find among them -Thetis, the beautiful mother of Achilles, so celebrated in ancient -poetry, who usually figures as their leader. Her beauty and grace were -so great that Zeus himself became her lover. He surrendered her, -however, to Peleus, son of Æacus, because an oracle had declared that -the son of Thetis should become greater than his father. - - In art Nereus generally appears as an old man with thin grey locks. - He is commonly distinguished by a sceptre, or even a trident. The - Nereids were depicted as graceful maidens, in earlier times slightly - clothed, but later entirely nude, riding on dolphins, Tritons, or - other fabulous monsters of the deep. - -_2. Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto._—Whilst Nereus and his daughters represent -the sea in its peaceful aspect, Thaumas, the second son of Pontus, -represents it as the world of wonders. By Electra, a daughter of -Oceanus, he became the father of Iris, the messenger of the gods, and -also of the Harpies. The latter personify the storm-winds. Originally -fair maidens, they were afterwards represented as winged creatures, half -man and half bird; they had the faces of maidens, but their bodies were -covered with vultures’ feathers; they were pale and emaciated in -appearance, and were continually tormented with an insatiable hunger. -They are best known from the story of the Argonauts, where they appear -as the tormentor of the blind king Phineus, whose table they continually -robbed of its viands, which they either devoured or spoiled. They were -regarded by the ancients as the ministers of sudden death, and were said -to be either two or three in number. Phorcys and Ceto, the brother and -sister of Thaumas, present to us the sea under its terrible aspect. This -pair, from whose union sprang the Gorgons, the Grææ, and the dragon of -the Hesperides, typify all the terrors and dangers of the deep. We shall -have more to say concerning the Gorgons and Grææ in the story of -Perseus. - - -=5. Proteus.=—Proteus is a deity of inferior rank. He is represented as -an old man (the servant of Poseidon) endowed with the gift of prophecy. -He plays the same part in the story of Troy as Nereus does in that of -Heracles. His usual abode was the island of Pharos. It was thither that -Menelaus turned after he had been driven to the coast of Egypt, on his -return from Troy, to seek the advice of the “unerring old man of the -sea.” But Proteus, being in no amiable mood, sought to elude the -importunity of the hero by converting himself into a lion, a dragon, a -panther, a wild boar, and many other forms. At length, however, he was -vanquished by the persistence of Menelaus, and vouchsafed an answer. He -was supposed to be the keeper of the fish who inhabit the depths of the -sea, and of the other marine animals. - - In works of art he generally appears like a Triton, i.e., with body - ending in a fish’s tail. He is usually distinguished by a crook. - - -=6. Glaucus.=—Among the inferior sea-deities, Glaucus deserves mention -as playing a part in the story of the Argonauts. He was really only a -local god of the Anthedonians in Bœotia, and his worship was not -extended to other places in Greece. But though he had no splendid -temples, he stood in very high estimation among the lower classes of -sailors and fishermen; indeed we find universally that the common -people, in all their cares, turned rather to the inferior deities, whom -they supposed to stand closer to them, than to the higher and more -important gods. According to the story, Glaucus was originally a -fisherman of Anthedon, who attained in a wonderful manner the rank of a -god. One day, after having caught some fish, he laid them half dead on -the turf close by. He was astonished to see, however, that on coming in -contact with a certain herb, which was unknown to him, they were -restored to life and sprang back into the sea. He himself now ate of -this wonderful herb, and immediately felt himself penetrated by so -wondrous a sensation of bliss and animation that, in his excitement, he -too sprang into the sea. Oceanus and Thetis hereupon cleansed him from -all his human impurities, and gave him a place among the sea-gods. He -was venerated on many of the islands and coasts of Greece as a friendly -deity, ever ready to assist the shipwrecked sailor or the castaway. - - In art he is represented as a Triton, rough and shaggy in - appearance, his body covered with mussels or sea-weed. His hair and - beard show that luxuriance which characterises sea-gods. - - -=7. Ino Leucothea, and Melicertes.=—Like Glaucus, Ino, the daughter of -Cadmus, attained at once immortality and divine rank by a leap into the -sea. She was a sister of Semele, the mother of Dionysus, and the wife of -Athamas, king of Orchomenus. It was she who, after the unhappy death of -Semele, took charge of the infant Dionysus. Hera, however, avenged -herself by driving Athamas mad, whereupon he dashed Learchus, his eldest -son by Ino, against a rock. He was about to inflict the same fate on -Melicertes, his second son, when in frantic haste the unhappy mother -sought to save her child by flight. Athamas, however, pursued her as far -as the Isthmus, when Ino, seeing no hope of escape, cast herself from -the rock Moluris into the sea. Here she was kindly received by the -Nereids, who converted both her and her son into sea-deities. She -henceforth bore the name of Leucothea, and her son that of Palæmon. They -were both regarded as benevolent deities of the stormy sea, who came to -the assistance of those who were shipwrecked or in other peril. They -appear in this guise in the _Odyssey_, where Odysseus, who saw only -certain death before him, is represented as having been saved by a scarf -thrown to him by Leucothea. - - -=8. The Sirens.=—The Sirens must also be reckoned among the sea-deities. -They are best known from the story how Odysseus succeeded in passing -them with his companions without being seduced by their song. He had the -prudence to stop the ears of his companions with wax, and to have -himself bound to the mast. The Sirens were regarded as the daughters -either of the river-god Achelous by one of the nymphs, or of Phorcys and -Ceto. Only two Sirens are mentioned in Homer, but three or four were -recognised in later times and introduced into various legends, such as -that of the Argonauts, or the Sicilian story of the rape of Persephone. -Demeter is said to have changed their bodies into those of birds, -because they refused to go to the help of their companion, Persephone, -when she was carried off by the god of the lower world. - - In art they are represented, like the Harpies, as young women with - the wings and feet of birds. Sometimes they appear altogether like - birds, only with human faces; at other times with the arms and - bodies of women, in which case they generally hold instruments of - music in their hands. As their songs were death to those who were - seduced by them, they are often depicted on tombs as spirits of - death. - - -=9. The Race of Oceanus.=—Lastly, we must enumerate among the -water-deities the numerous descendants of Oceanus, viz., the Oceanids, -and also the rivers that are spread over the earth. The latter were -believed to have their common source in the ocean encircling the earth, -and thence to flow beneath the ground until they reached the surface in -springs. - -Oceanus himself appears in the myths which treat of the genealogy of the -gods as the eldest son of Uranus and Gæa, and therefore, like his wife -Tethys, a Titan. As he did not take part in the rebellion of the other -Titans against the dominion of Zeus, he did not share their dreadful -fate, but was allowed to remain in undisturbed enjoyment of his ancient -domain. He was supposed to dwell on the most western shores of the -earth, which he never left even to attend the assemblies of the gods. - -On account of their great importance to the fertility of the soil, the -river-gods enjoyed a great reputation among the Greeks, although their -worship was entirely of a local nature. Only Achelous, the greatest of -all the Greek rivers, appears to have enjoyed general veneration. The -river-gods were believed to dwell either in the depths of the rivers -themselves, or in rocky grottoes near their sources. They were depicted -either as delicate youths, or as men in their prime, or as old men, -according to the magnitude of the river. They all possess a conformity -with the nature of their element, viz., that power of transformation -which we discover in the other sea-deities. They also appear, like other -water-spirits, to possess the gift of prophecy. - -Among the Romans all flowing waters were held sacred. Fontus, the son of -Janus, was especially esteemed as the god of springs and fountains in -general; but, as among the Greeks, each river had its special deity. The -most important of these was Tiberinus. The springs were popularly -supposed to be inhabited by nymphs gifted with the powers of prophecy -and magic, who sometimes honoured mortals with their favours, as Egeria -did King Numa. - - In art the river-gods were commonly represented in the guise of - those animals whose forms they were most in the habit of assuming. - They thus appear as serpents, bulls, or even as men with bulls’ - heads. They were also portrayed, however, in purely human guise, - with the exception of having small horns on either side of the head. - Their attributes consist of urns and horns of plenty, symbols of the - blessings that proceed from them. - - - III.—THE GODS OF THE EARTH AND LOWER WORLD. - -We now come to a class of deities who stand in the most decided contrast -to the gods of the heaven and the sea, whom we have previously -described. It consists of those deities whose power is incessantly -exerted either on the surface or in the depths of the earth, and who are -accordingly brought into the closest connection with the life of man. -The worship of these deities assumed among the Greeks a passionate and -excited character, at first entirely strange to the Romans, though it -gradually crept in here also. - -Though the ancients saw in the earth, on the one hand, the fruitful -source of all life in nature, they did not seek to disguise the fact -that it is, on the other hand, also the open sepulchre into which all -earthly existence sinks when its time is over. The worship of these -deities was therefore celebrated with festivals of joy and mirth at the -season of the revival of nature, and with mournful solemnities at the -season of its decay. The devotees manifested both their mirth and -mourning in a loud, noisy, passionate manner, usually designated -orgiastic. An element of mystery never failed to introduce itself into -the worship of these deities, who, in virtue of their dwellings, were -able to inspire a greater feeling of awe than the bright forms of the -gods of heaven. Their wrath also, which manifested itself in the -sterility of the soil, was the subject of especial fear. Mysteries -proper, or secret rites, existed only among the Greeks, but never found -their way into the religious systems of Italy. We shall enumerate first -the deities of the upper world, who preside over the growth of flocks -and the fruits of the earth, and then those who inhabit the lower world. - - -=1. Gæa (Tellus).=—First among them is Gæa, or Mother Earth herself. -This deity appears in the Cosmogony (or myths relating to the formation -of the universe) as one of the primeval creative forces, having herself -proceeded immediately from Chaos. In later times she acquired a more -personal and plastic character, although she never attained any real -importance in the religious system of the Greeks, owing to the existence -of more definite and substantial deities, such as Rhea, Hestia, Demeter, -and Themis. The worship of Tellus in Rome was more important, although -here, too, it was somewhat thrown into the shade by the worship of Ceres -and kindred deities. - -The chief significance of Gæa lies in the fact that she is the source of -all life and increase in nature. She is hence regarded as a mother who -tends with loving care all her children. Under this aspect her praises -are sung by Hesiod, and also in an ancient Dodonaic hymn. Like Demeter -and other deities who dispense prosperity and abundance, she appears as -tending and nourishing the young, and is often represented thus on -ancient monuments. - -At the same time Gæa is the common grave of mankind, and draws all -things, with inexorable severity, down into her dark womb. She thus -becomes a goddess of death and the lower world, and was on this account -invoked, together with the Manes, as a witness of all solemn compacts -and oaths. - -A very ancient shrine of this goddess existed at Delphi, and the oracle -there had once, said the Delphians, belonged to her. - -In Rome, where she was also venerated as a goddess of marriage, her -temple stood on the site of the house of Spurius Cassius. Festive -offerings were made to her before and after seed-time. On the occasion -of the Paganalia, she and Ceres were propitiated by the sacrifice of a -pregnant sow, which was supposed to promote the prosperity of the coming -year. - - -=2. Rhea Cybele (Magna Mater Idæa).=—Rhea is well known as the daughter -of Uranus and Gæa, and the wife of Cronus, by whom she became the mother -of Zeus and the other Cronidæ. She seems to have enjoyed only a limited -measure of divine honours, until she was identified with the Phrygian -goddess Cybele, who, like the Egyptian Isis, was an Asiatic symbol of -fertility. She was worshipped throughout Lydia and Phrygia under the -appellation of the “Mighty Mother.” Thence her worship, which was of a -peculiarly noisy character, made its way through the Greek colonies into -Greece itself, and towards the end of the second Punic war was, at the -instance of the Sibylline books, introduced into Rome. Attalus, king of -Pergamus, was on this occasion good enough to present the Romans with a -sacred stone, which was regarded by the inhabitants of Pessinus as the -great mother herself. After its arrival at Ostia, this stone was carried -to Rome amid a solemn procession of Roman matrons. The day of its -arrival (10th April) was ever afterwards kept as a festival, at which -games were celebrated under the superintendence of the prætor. The -worship of Cybele, however, never seems to have become naturalised in -Rome, perhaps because Romans were not allowed to officiate as her -priests. - -The true home of the worship of Cybele was the district of Pessinus, a -rough and rocky mountain land. It was here that she made her noisy -processions, seated in a chariot drawn by lions or panthers, amid the -boisterous music of her weird attendants, the Corybantes and Curetes. -The myths that relate to the goddess bear a wild, fantastic character, -similar to that of her rites. The best known among them is the story of -her favourite, Attis, or Atys. He was a Phrygian youth of a beauty so -exceptional that the great mother of the gods chose him for her husband. -At first he returned her affection, but afterwards he proved faithless, -and was about to marry a daughter of the king of Pessinus. But the -vengeance of the angry goddess overtook him, for when the wedding guests -were assembled at the festive banquet the goddess appeared in their -midst, and filled those present with panic fear, and troubled their -minds. Atys fled to the mountains, where he slew himself in a fit of -frenzy. Afterwards, the goddess instituted a great mourning in memory of -him, which took place about the time of the vernal equinox. The priests -of the goddess marched, amid the loud noise of kettle-drums and fifes, -to the mountains, in order to search for the lost youth; and when at -length he, or an image representing him, was found, the priests, in an -ecstasy of joy, danced about in wild excitement, gashing themselves with -knives. - - Representations of Rhea Cybele are rare. A statue representing her - seated on a throne is shown in the Vatican. Her usual attribute is a - kettle-drum. - - -=3. Dionysus, or Bacchus (Liber).=—Dionysus, or Bacchus, was regarded by -Greeks and Romans alike as the god of wine and vineyards. In his more -extended meaning he represents the blessings of the autumn. It is he who -causes the fruits to ripen for the use of man; it is likewise he who -dispenses to mankind all the advantages of civilisation and refinement, -and of well-ordered political affairs. - -Thebes was described as the birthplace of the god. His mother was -Semele, the daughter of Cadmus, whom Zeus, the great god of heaven, -honoured with his love. This very love, however, proved fatal to Semele, -for the ever-jealous Hera came to her in the guise of her nurse, Beroë, -and succeeded in exciting her suspicions as to the truth of her lover’s -divinity. She insidiously persuaded Semele to make her lover swear to do -what she desired, and then to put him to the test. Semele did so, and -then besought Zeus to appear to her in the full majesty of his divine -form. In vain did Zeus adjure her to take back her foolish request; she -insisted on its fulfilment, and perished miserably, being burnt to ashes -by the flame of Zeus, who approached her in a flash of lightning. Her -unborn child was preserved by Zeus, who ordered Hermes to carry it to -the nymphs of Nysa to be brought up. A later legend makes Ino, the -sister of Semele, the foster-mother of Dionysus. The locality of this -Nysa is somewhat uncertain, but it is generally supposed to be a -district of Mount Pangæus in Thrace. - -Dionysus, after growing up amid the solitude of the forest and -strengthening himself by his contests with its wild beasts, at length -planted the vine. Both the god and his attendants soon became -intoxicated with its juice; after which, crowned with wreaths of laurel -and ivy, and accompanied by a crowd of nymphs, satyrs, and fauns, he -ranged the woods, which resounded with the loud and joyful cries of his -inspired worshippers. The legend says that his education was then -completed by Silenus, the son of Pan. In company with his preceptor and -the rest of his train, he then set forth to spread his worship and the -cultivation of the vine among the nations of the earth. He did not -confine himself to mere vine-planting, however, but proved a real -benefactor of mankind by founding cities, and by introducing more -civilised manners and a more pleasant and sociable mode of life among -men. On such as refused his favours his wrath fell with dreadful effect. -Agave, the mother of the Theban king Pentheus, who had refused to -receive him, and the rest of the Theban women, were driven mad by him; -and in their frenzy they mistook the king for a wild boar and tore him -to pieces. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36.—Dionysus and Lion. From the Monument of -Lysicrates.] - -The most celebrated among the myths which testify to the wondrous power -of Dionysus is the story of the punishment of the Tyrrhenian pirates. On -the occasion of his passage from Icaria to Naxos, these pirates put -Dionysus in chains, purposing to take him to Italy, and there sell him -as a slave. At a nod from the youthful god the chains fell from his -limbs; he appeared as a lion, while a bear was seen at the other end of -the ship. Vines and ivy tendrils wound themselves round the mast and -sails of the ship, which stood still, whilst the strains of the nymphs -burst forth. The sailors, terrified by the transformation of the god, -leaped overboard, and were changed into dolphins. A fine representation, -in relief, of this scene still exists on the monument of Lysicrates, at -Athens. The most beautiful feature in it is the figure of the god -playing with his lion in the most joyous unconsciousness (Fig. 36). With -the name of Naxos, which was a chief seat of his worship, is connected -the celebrated story of his marriage with Ariadne, the daughter of -Minos, king of Crete. The Attic hero, Theseus, after escaping the -dangers of the Labyrinth by her means, had taken her away with him from -Crete in order to marry her. He deserted her, however, whilst asleep on -the island of Naxos, either of his own accord or because warned of the -god in a dream. The indescribable anguish and consternation of Ariadne, -on awaking to find herself alone and deserted on a foreign strand, was -only equalled by her joyous surprise when Bacchus, returning from his -travels in India, found her and made her his bride. The poets, indeed, -do not relate that Zeus then bestowed on her that immortality which he -had already given his son on account of his glorious achievements and -extraordinary merit toward mankind; but such appears to have been the -popular tradition. At Athens a sort of harvest thanksgiving was -celebrated in honour of both Dionysus and his bride, at which vines with -the grapes on them were borne in solemn procession through the streets -of the city. - -The worship of Dionysus extended not only over the whole of Greece, but -also to Italy, Asia Minor, Thrace, and Macedonia, and to every place -where the vine was cultivated by the Greeks. The god was extolled as -Lyæus, the deliverer from care, and great festivals were instituted in -his honour, which were of a disorderly character, but very popular among -the common people. At the time of the winter solstice there was -mourning, because at this season the vine seemed to die away, and the -god was believed to be suffering persecution at the hands of the evil -spirits of winter, and obliged to flee in consequence to the sea or -lower world. It was, therefore, thought right to suffer with him, and -people manifested their grief at his disappearance by every kind of wild -gesture. At the winter festivals of Dionysus, which were celebrated -every other year, only women and girls took part. The festivals of the -god at the beginning of spring, when the new wine was tasted for the -first time, were purely festivals of gladness, like the greater Dionysia -at Athens. On these occasions the reawakening of nature was celebrated -with boundless joy and boisterous mirth. All kinds of jokes and -mischievous pranks were indulged in, and festive processions and -theatrical performances followed each other in quick succession. - -The following festivals were celebrated at Athens in honour of -Dionysus:— - -1. The _Lesser_ or _Rural Dionysia_. This was the vintage festival -proper, which did not take place in Attica till the end of November or -beginning of December, because they liked to let the grapes hang as long -as possible. A he-goat was first solemnly sacrificed to the god; this -was followed by a festive procession bearing the sacred things, and the -festival concluded with all kinds of country amusements, dancing, -masquerading, and revelling. The chief amusement of the young men was -dancing on the leather bag. Out of the skin of the slaughtered goat was -made a leather bag, which was inflated and smeared with oil: the young -men then attempted to dance on it. - -2. The _Lenæa_, or feast of the wine-press, was celebrated in the month -of January at Athens, in the place where, according to an old tradition, -the first wine-press had stood. Here stood the Lenæon, one of the two -chief temples of the god. The chief feature of the festival was a -magnificent procession with the sacred symbols of the god. This was -followed by a great banquet, the viands for which were furnished by the -city of Athens. The new wine which was drunk on these occasions did not -tend to diminish the hilarity of the worshippers, so that all kinds of -mischievous jokes were perpetrated. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 37.—The so-called Sardanapalus in the Vatican.] - -3. The _Anthesteria_ were celebrated in February, on the 11th, 12th, and -13th days of the month Anthesterion. They were supposed to commemorate -the return of Dionysus from the lower world, or, in other words, the -reawakening of nature from the sleep of winter. The first day was called -πιθοιγία (cask-opening), because on this day the new wine was first -broached. The second and chief day of the festival was called χόες -(cups). A procession and a great banquet took place, at which the guests -were crowned with flowers. Many liberties were permitted to the slaves -on this occasion, as at the Roman Saturnalia. The third day was called -χύτροι (pots), because vessels were displayed filled with all kinds of -boiled vegetables. These were regarded in the light of offerings for the -souls of the dead, who were popularly supposed to revisit the upper -world on this occasion. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 38.—Youthful Dionysus. From the Chateau Richelieu, now in the - Louvre.] - -4. The _Greater_ or _City Dionysia_ formed the chief festival of the -god, and the proper spring-feast of the Athenians. It was celebrated -with extraordinary splendour in the month of March, and lasted several -days, bringing together a vast concourse of strangers from all parts. -The city, renowned alike for the refined artistic taste and the keen wit -of its inhabitants, then donned its holiday garb, and innumerable merry -antics were played by the crowds assembled in the streets and squares. -The chief feature of the festival was a solemn procession, in which an -old wooden statue of the god was borne through the streets. There were -likewise banquets and comic processions in masks, and grand -representations of new comedies and tragedies. The proceedings concluded -with the presentation of prizes to the successful competitors. - -The Italian nationalities likewise celebrated a festival on the 17th of -March, called the Liberalia, in honour of Liber, or Liber Pater, the -Italian god of the vine. It was distinguished throughout by the simple -countrified character of the proceedings, and resembled the Lesser -Dionysia of the inhabitants of Attica. People amused themselves with all -kinds of jokes and antics, and with masquerades, the masks for which -were cut from the bark of trees. The chief object of the festival was to -pray for the fertility of the vines. These innocent festivals had -nothing to do with the voluptuous Bacchanalia which were afterwards -introduced into Rome in imitation of the Greek mysteries, and which the -most rigorous interference of the authorities was unable to suppress. - -If we try to conceive briefly the significance of the worship of -Dionysus in the religion of the ancients, we shall find that in his -primitive character the god was a personification of the active, -productive power of nature. As Demeter was supposed to give corn and the -other fruits of the field, so Dionysus was supposed to give the fruits -of trees, and especially of the vine. He was likewise regarded as the -author of the blessings of civilisation, so that, on this point, he -supplements the idea of the great culture-goddess Demeter, with whom, -both among the Greeks and Romans, he had many temples and festivals in -common. Looking at his character from another side, we find him coming -into contact with Apollo, since he was supposed not only to endow men -with a kindly, cheerful disposition, but also to inspire them with a -love of music, on which account he was honoured with Apollo as the -friend and leader of the Muses. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 39.—Marble Head of Youthful Dionysus at Leyden.] - - Artistic representations of Dionysus have come down to us on - numerous monuments. In earlier art he was generally depicted as - majestic and grave, and on that account represented with a beard. We - have given an instance of this earlier conception in the so-called - Sardanapalus of the Vatican (Fig. 37). In later art he became more - youthful, and was characterised by a delicate roundness of form. The - statues of this period are distinguished by the almost feminine - expression of face with which they endow the god, as well as by the - rounded limbs and the graceful ease of every attitude. The statue of - a youthful Dionysus in the Louvre at Paris is an instance of this - later mode of conception (Fig. 38). So likewise is the head of - Dionysus at Leyden, which is distinguished by a sweet expression of - reverie. His soft hair, which falls about his shoulders in delicate - ringlets, is generally intertwined with a garland of vine leaves or - ivy (Fig. 39). The other attributes of the god are the thyrsus, or - Bacchic wand, the diadem, the skin of a wild beast falling across - his chest, which often forms his sole clothing, and the drinking-cup - in his hand. He is generally accompanied by lions, tigers, or - panthers; and the bull and ram, as the symbols of fertility, were - held sacred to him, while the latter was also his usual sacrifice. - Among plants, besides the vine and the ivy, the laurel was held - sacred to him on account of its powers of inspiration. - -[Illustration: Fig. 40.—Sleeping Ariadne. Vatican.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 41.—Dannecker’s Ariadne. Frankfort-on-the-Main.] - - Of all the prominent personages in the stories of Dionysus, Ariadne - has received most attention at the hands of the sculptor. The most - celebrated of such ancient monuments is a marble figure of great - beauty, larger than life, representing the sleeping Ariadne. It is - now preserved in the Vatican Museum at Rome (Fig. 40). Among the - productions of modern sculptors, the Ariadne of Dannecker, at - Frankfort-on-the-Main, which represents her as the bride of Theseus, - riding on a panther, justly enjoys a very high reputation (Fig. 41). - - -=4. The Nymphs.=—We now come to a class of inferior terrestrial -divinities who are often found in the train of Bacchus. The most -numerous and important of these are the Nymphs. They personify the -restless activity and energy of nature, over the whole of which their -power extends. They manifest their presence in the murmuring, rippling -streams and brooks, as well as in the sprouting vegetation of wood and -meadow. They are tender, graceful maidens, who, though kindly disposed -towards men, yet avoid human habitations, and prefer the peaceful -solitude of the woods and mountains, where they lead a merry, joyous -life among the clefts and grottoes. - -Sometimes they devote themselves to useful pursuits, and spin and weave; -sometimes they engage in graceful dances, and sing merry songs, or bathe -their delicate limbs in the white spray of lonely brooks. They gladly -join the train of those superior deities supposed to preside in the -realms of nature. Thus we see them joining in the Bacchic revelry with -Dionysus, or figuring in the train of Aphrodite, or ranging field and -wood as they hunt in the company of Artemis. - -According to the divisions of nature, over which the Nymphs were -supposed to preside, we may distinguish the following classes:— - -1. The _Water-Nymphs_, to whom, in their wider signification, the -Oceanids and Nereids also belong. Here, however, we have only to deal -with the water-nymphs of the brooks and fountains of the land, who are -distinguished by the name of _Naiads_. As the kindly nourishers of -plants, and as thereby ministering indirectly to the sustenance of both -man and beast, they enjoyed a large measure of veneration among the -ancients, although, being inferior deities, they could claim no temples -of their own. Like the sea-nymphs, they possessed the gift of prophecy, -and appear as the patrons of poetry and song. - -_2. Nymphs of the Mountains_, or _Oreads_, to whom belong the nymphs of -the valleys and glens (Napææ). These were very numerous, and received -special names from the particular mountains or districts they inhabited. -The most celebrated among them was the Bœotian nymph Echo. She was -consumed by love for the beautiful youth Narcissus, a son of the -river-god Cephisus, and finding that he did not reciprocate her -affection, she pined away in ever-increasing grief, until at length her -emaciated frame was changed into rock, and nothing but her voice -remained. But Aphrodite avenged this injury to her sex on Narcissus, who -had in his vain self-love thus contemned the beautiful nymph. As he was -hunting one day on Mount Helicon, he bent down to quench his thirst from -a spring clear as crystal, and the goddess caused him to fall in love -with his own shadow, which was reflected in the water. The object of his -desires being unattainable, he too pined away from grief, and the flower -named after him has ever since continued an emblem of heartless beauty. - -3. The _Dryads_, or _Hamadryads_ (wood-nymphs). These appear to have -been a conception of later times. It was supposed that their existence -depended on that of the trees they inhabited, so that when the latter -were destroyed the nymphs also perished. Not sharing immortality, -therefore, they cannot properly be reckoned among the gods. - -The veneration of nymphs was very ancient in Greece, and was thence -transferred to Rome. Goats, lambs, milk, and oil were offered to them. - - In art they are depicted as lovely maidens, generally only slightly - clad, and adorned with flowers and garlands. The Naiads are also - represented as drawing water, or with attributes relating to their - element. - - -=5. The Satyrs.=—In contrast to the Nymphs, or female personifications -of the life of Nature, we find a number of inferior wood and -water-deities of the male sex, called Satyrs, Sileni, and Panes, between -whom it is difficult to distinguish clearly. Generally by Satyrs (Fauni) -we understand the wood and mountain-spirits proper, who are inseparably -connected with Dionysus, whose attendant train they form. Coarse -sensuality and a wanton spirit of mischief are the leading features of -their character. On account of their animal propensities they were -fabled to be only half human in appearance, with blunt noses and -otherwise ignoble features, bristling hair, goat-like ears, and a goat’s -tail. Like the Muses, they love music and dancing, their instruments -being the Syrinx and the flute, together with cymbals and castanets. -Like their master, they were passionately addicted to excessive -indulgence in wine; but whereas in the former this produced only a -rapturous enthusiasm and an exalted frame of mind, with them its effects -were purely sensual, and excited them to insane and unseemly pranks of -all kinds. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 42.—Head of Satyr. Munich Sculpture Gallery.] - - The Satyrs were not an uncommon subject of representation among - ancient artists. The conception was based on the original hideous - half-man, half-animal type; and in art, as well as in poetry, the - blunt nose, the pointed ears, and the goat’s tail form their - characteristic features. The Bacchic insignia of a band round the - brow and an ivy garland also belong to them. There are some - particularly fine antique statues of satyrs in the art-collections - of Munich and Rome. - - The engraving (Fig. 42) shows the highly-expressive face of a satyr - in the Munich collection. - - -=6. Silenus.=—Silenus, according to the common tradition, was an old -satyr who tended and brought up Dionysus, and afterwards became the -faithful companion of his wanderings. He is depicted by the poets as a -somewhat elderly man, with blunt nose and bald head, hairy chest and -thighs, and a stomach so large that he can scarcely walk. He generally -appears riding on an ass in front of the Bacchic company, with a satyr -on either side supporting his half-drunken form. - - The artists of antiquity seem to have devoted themselves frequently - to the subject of Silenus. They either represented him as the nurse - and preceptor of the youthful Bacchus, holding the child in his arms - and regarding him with a look of affection, in which the comic - element is entirely lacking, or they present him to us as the - insatiable but good-natured wine-bibber. His standing attribute is - the wine-skin, besides which, like other members of the Bacchic - train, he bears a thyrsus and ivy garland. - -Besides Silenus, who was celebrated as the preceptor of Dionysus, there -was a whole tribe of Sileni. Whether this is due to the fact that the -older satyrs were called Sileni, or whether they form a special class of -deities presiding over the flowing, gushing water, cannot be determined -with any certainty. - -Among the Sileni were two personages who play a part in the story of -Dionysus. These were Marsyas and Midas. The former, like all satyrs, was -an accomplished master of the flute, and challenged Apollo to a trial of -skill which proved fatal to him. The conditions of the contest were that -he who was vanquished should put himself entirely in the power of his -adversary. Apollo won, and made a cruel use of his victory by hanging -Marsyas on a pine tree and flaying him alive. - -Midas was the mythic founder of the kingdom of Phrygia, in Asia Minor, -whither he had emigrated from Macedonia. Tradition makes him a son of -Cybele, and, as her favourite, endowed with fabulous wealth. But, like -many of the sons of men in the present day, the richer he grew the -greater was his thirst for gold, until it betrayed him at length into an -act of great folly. One day, the drunken Silenus strayed from the -company of Bacchus into the garden of Midas. The latter received him -with great hospitality, and after entertaining him sumptuously for ten -days brought him to Bacchus. Pleased with his kindness, the god rewarded -him with the gratification of any wish he might make. Midas now wished -that everything he touched might turn to gold. Naturally the -gratification of this wish well-nigh proved his ruin; and he only -escaped by washing, at the command of the god, in the river Pactolus, -which has ever since washed down gold in its sands. A later fable makes -Midas the judge in the rivalry of Apollo and Pan, on which occasion he -decided in favour of the latter, for which the god changed his ears into -those of an ass. Modern criticism has seen in the rich Midas one of the -many personifications of the sun, who, as he rises over the earth, turns -all things to gold. - - -=7. Greek and Roman Wood-Spirits.=—_1. Pan._—Pan was a very ancient god -of the woods and meadows. He was at first honoured only by the -inhabitants of the mountain-land of Arcadia and by other pastoral -tribes. Subsequently his divinity was more generally acknowledged and -more highly esteemed. Common accounts make him the son of Hermes by the -nymph Penelope, a daughter of Dryops. His mother was not a little -terrified at his birth, since he was hairy all over, and had horns and -goat’s feet. His father wrapped him in a hare-skin, and bore him to -Olympus, where the assembled gods showed no small pleasure at the sight -of the strange little wood-demon. From time immemorial Pan was regarded -by the shepherds of Greece as their most doughty protector; for which -reason the mountain caves in which they gathered their herds together at -night, or in threatening weather, were held sacred to him. There were -many such caves of Pan in the mountains of Arcadia, and also one at the -foot of the Acropolis at Athens, besides others on Mount Parnassus in -Bœotia, and elsewhere. Pan was esteemed a god of great cheerfulness and -activity of character, who loved to range the woods as a huntsman, and -was on this account regarded with little less veneration by huntsmen -than by shepherds. He was also looked on as the patron of fishing and -bee-keeping. - -As the god of shepherds, Pan was also a lover of music, and on returning -in the evening from the chase, says the Homeric story, he was wont to -play sweet tunes on his pan-pipe (Syrinx), whilst the Oreads, or -mountain-nymphs, sang the praises of the gods and led off their spirited -dances. The poets have founded a story on his discovery of the Syrinx. -They invented a fabulous nymph called Syrinx, with whom Pan was supposed -to have fallen violently in love. The nymph, however, did not return his -affection, and fled from his embraces. Pan pursued her, and in her -extremity she sought the aid of Gæa, who transformed her into a reed. -Out of this reed Pan, by joining seven pieces together, made an -instrument which he called the Syrinx, after the nymph. - -Pan was as passionately fond of dancing as of music. According to -Pindar, he was the most accomplished dancer among the gods. His -favourite amusement was to dance in company with the mountain-nymphs, on -which occasions he regaled them with every kind of droll leap, in the -performance of which his goat’s feet stood him in good stead. - -As a wood-deity, Pan also possessed the gift of prophecy; indeed, -according to some, it was he who first imparted this gift to Apollo. He -certainly had a very ancient oracle at Acacesium in Arcadia. - -Wild mountainous country and the thick untrodden forest are both alike -apt to impress the lonely traveller with feelings of awe. All such -sensations of sudden and unaccountable fear were ascribed to Pan -(Panic). He was also said to delight in terrifying travellers with all -kinds of strange noises. Hence, at a later period, arose the story that -in the contest with the Titans he rendered good service to Zeus by -blowing on a shell trumpet which he had invented, whereupon the Titans -were seized with a sudden terror. This, however, is only another version -of Triton’s services at the battle with the giants. It is well known -that the Athenians introduced the worship of Pan, to which they had been -hitherto strangers, into their city after the battle of Marathon, in -consequence of the assistance which they believed they had received from -the god. - -Such are the more ancient and simple features of the character of Pan. -He assumed a higher significance when men began to regard him as the -companion of the “Mighty Mother,” and assigned him a place in the -Bacchic circle. Men now saw in him a productive force of nature like the -Phrygian Attis; indeed, in consequence of a misinterpretation of his -name, he was made the creator and god of the universe. He seems to have -originally signified the “purifying” breeze, which at one time whistled -through the reeds, or at another moaned dismally in the forest, -frightening the belated traveller. - -After he had once been introduced into the company of Dionysus, poets -and artists alike set themselves to work to invent a number of Panes and -little Pans (Panisci), who were easily confounded with the Satyrs and -Sileni. - -The chief shrine of Pan was at Acacesium in Arcadia. Cows, goats, and -sheep were sacrificed to him, besides offerings of milk, honey, and new -wine. - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.—Pan. From a Mural Painting at Herculaneum.] - - In art we must distinguish the earlier and later types of the god. - In the former, which dates from the best days of Greek art, he is - conceived as entirely human in appearance, with the exception of two - sprouting horns on either side of the forehead. Later, he was - depicted with larger horns, a long goat’s beard, and goat’s feet. We - give an engraving of this later conception (Fig. 43), which is taken - from a mural painting at Naples. The usual attributes of Pan are a - Syrinx and shepherd’s crook, sometimes also a pine garland. - -_2. Silvanus._—Among the Roman wood-deities, Silvanus occupies a -position most akin to that of Pan, although they are not exactly -identical. His name, derived from _silva_ (wood), points him out as the -god of the forest, where he was supposed to dwell, a deity kindly -disposed towards mankind, and propitious to the welfare of trees, -plants, and cattle. At times, however, he appears, like Pan, as a -mischievous sprite, who delights to trick and terrify the lonely -traveller. His sphere of activity was not confined to the woods, since -he was also regarded as the author of fruitfulness in gardens and -orchards. In this character Silvanus bears a close resemblance to -Terminus, the god of boundaries and landed property, inasmuch as he -preserves fields, gardens, and houses from harm. The first of the fruits -of the field were offered to him. He had two shrines in Rome, one on the -Viminal and another on the Aventine. - - Artists and poets agree in representing Silvanus as an old man with - a rustic head-gear, scattering blooming lilies and other flowers. He - is usually distinguished by a pruning-knife. - -_3. Faunus and Fauna._—Closely resembling Silvanus is another deity -called Faunus, one of the most ancient national gods of Italy. He -appears as the good spirit of the mountains, pastures, and plains. He -was regarded by the shepherds as their best protector, since he made -their cattle fruitful and drove off noxious beasts of prey. In the -former character he was also called Inuus (the fertiliser); in the -latter Lupercus (the warder-off of wolves). - -Like Pan, he appears to have his seat in the woods, whence he sometimes -terrifies and annoys travellers. At night, too, he creeps into men’s -houses, and torments them with evil dreams and horrible apparitions -(Incubus). - -Like Pan, too, Faunus possessed the gift of prophecy, and answered both -by direct revelations and by dreams. In this character he was called -Fatuus, and had a celebrated oracle in the grove at Tibur, on the spring -Albunea. - -Having once invented a number of Fauns, the poets soon began to identify -them with the Satyrs of the Greeks. - -In honour of this decidedly national deity, different festivals were -celebrated, at which rams were sacrificed and libations of wine and milk -made. The Faunalia were celebrated on the Nones of December, on which -occasion the guests at the festive board surrendered themselves to the -most unrestrained mirth, and granted many liberties also to their -slaves. The Lupercalia, however, formed the proper expiatory festival of -Faunus. This festival was celebrated on the 15th of February, and was -remarkable for the number of ancient customs which were observed. The -chief of these was the course of the Luperci, or priests of Faunus, who, -after making their offering, ran from the shrine of the god (Lupercal), -on the Palatine, through the streets of Rome, their only clothing being -an apron cut from the skin of the slaughtered animal. They struck all -whom they met with thongs, also cut from the same blood-stained skin. -Barren women placed themselves in the way of the Luperci, believing that -by means of the strokes the reproach of barrenness would be taken away -from them. As a day of atonement, this day was termed _dies februatus_ -(from _februare_, to purify), whence the name of the month. - -The feminine counterpart of Faunus, though not his wife, was Fauna, a -propitious, kindly goddess of the plains. She is also called Maia, or -Bona Dea. The women made an offering to her every year at night, on -which occasion males were strictly excluded. - - In art Faunus bears exactly the same appearance as Pan, with whom, - indeed, he was often identified. - - -=8. Priapus.=—The worship of Priapus, the god of fields and gardens, -appears to have been long of a purely local character, confined -principally to the districts on the Hellespont, since he is not even -mentioned by earlier writers. He was the son of Dionysus and Aphrodite, -and presided over the exuberant fertility of nature. He was supposed to -exercise influence over the fruitfulness of flocks and herds, whilst -fishing and the rearing of bees were also placed under his protection. -His special sphere, however, was the protection of gardens and -vineyards. Asses were sacrificed to him, a fact which gave rise to all -sorts of comical stories relating to the hostility of Priapus to this -animal. Besides this, he received the first fruits of the garden and -field and drink-offerings of milk and honey. The worship of Priapus was -introduced into Italy at the same time as that of Aphrodite, and he was -identified with the native Mutunus. - - This deity was scarcely noticed in higher art. In the gardens of - Italy, however, rough-hewn pillars of wood, similar to those of - Hermes, were erected in his honour. He is usually distinguished by a - pruning-knife and club. - - -=9. Saturnus and Ops.=—Before passing to Demeter, or Ceres, the great -goddess of civilisation, to whom by Greeks and Romans alike the -blessings of the harvest were ascribed, and who forms the best link -between the gods of the upper and lower worlds, we must pause to -consider some gods of agriculture and cattle-rearing peculiar to the -Romans. Among them are Saturn and Ops, who belong to the most ancient -national deities of Italy. To Saturn was ascribed the introduction of -agriculture, together with the cultivation of the vine and other fruits. -He was, therefore, venerated as the great benefactor of mankind, who not -only promoted the physical welfare of men, but who also introduced a -higher standard of civilisation. After the Romans had become acquainted -with the mythology of the Greeks, they identified him with Cronus. In -consequence of this, the story arose that, after his dethronement by -Jupiter, Saturn fled to Italy, where he was hospitably received by -Janus. There he is said to have brought together the inhabitants, who -had hitherto wandered about without any fixed homes, and to have united -them in regular political communities, over which he himself ruled. This -was the golden age. In remembrance of the happy age when men were not -yet troubled by sorrow or need, the Saturnalia were celebrated during -three days, beginning from the 17th of December. This festival, which -with changed meaning still continues in the Carnival of the present day, -was celebrated in Rome with particularly great splendour. Unbounded -festivity reigned throughout the whole town, and vented itself in every -description of joke and prank. The distinctions of class were suspended, -the courts and schools kept holiday, and the shops were closed. The -chief day was the 19th of December, which was especially a festive day -for the slaves, for on this day there were practically no slaves in -Rome. No services were required of them, and they were allowed to don -the clothes of their masters and to eat and drink as much as they liked, -whilst their masters waited on them at table. And this custom allowed a -class, otherwise subject to so many afflictions, to forget their sorrows -for at least one day in a year. Wealthy Romans generally kept open house -on this day, and vied with each other in the splendour of their -hospitalities; and of course a solemn sacrifice was made to Saturn. The -woollen bandages which, during the greater part of the year, enveloped -the feet of his statue in order that he might not depart without -vouchsafing a blessing, were on this day unloosed, and throughout the -night the temple was illuminated with wax tapers. This festival, which -was extremely popular among the Romans, was also celebrated with games -in the circus. - -The chief temple of Saturn, which was begun by Tarquinius Superbus and -finished in the first years of the Republic, was situated on the ascent -to the Capitol from the Forum. Beneath it was a vault containing the -state treasury, or _ærarium_, the guardianship of the state treasures -being committed to this god as the dispenser of every blessing. - -Regarded as the wife of Saturn, and therefore identified with Rhea, Ops -was the goddess of the seed-time and harvest. On this account her -worship was closely connected with that of Saturn, and she had a place -in his temple on the Capitoline. A festival was celebrated in honour of -her on the 25th of August, when the newly-gathered corn was threshed. - -When taken together, Saturn and Ops were regarded as deities who -presided over marriage and the education of children, it being an easy -step from the deity of the sprouting, ripening seed, to that of the -budding, thriving season of human life. - - Saturn is always represented as an old man, and is generally - distinguished by a pruning-knife or sickle. - - -=10. Vertumnus and Pomona.=—Vertumnus and Pomona much resemble Saturn -and Ops, the only difference being that the former exert their influence -solely on the growth and welfare of the fruits of the garden and -orchard. Vertumnus properly signifies the self-changing one; referring, -probably, to the manifold changes which the fruit undergoes from the -time of its first appearance in blossom to that of its maturity. For the -same reason the god was said to possess the faculty of assuming any -shape he liked. The first of the flowers and fruits were offered to him. -Pomona, as her name signifies, was the goddess of the fruit harvest, and -called by the poets the wife of Vertumnus. Each deity had a special -priest (flamen), though the latter naturally held only an inferior -position. - - In art Vertumnus generally appears as a beautiful youth, his head - crowned with a garland of ears of corn or laurel, with a horn of - plenty, as a symbol of the blessings he bestows, in his right hand. - He is sometimes distinguished by a dish filled with fruit, or a - pruning-knife. Pomona is generally represented as the season of - Autumn, a beautiful maiden with boughs of fruit-trees in her hand. - - -=11. Flora.=—Among the inferior deities of the plain was Flora, the -goddess of blossoms and flowers, who was held in great honour by the -Sabines, and everywhere in the interior of Italy. Her worship is said to -have been introduced into Rome by Numa, who assigned the goddess a -priest of her own. She attained a higher significance by becoming a -goddess of maternity, whom women invoked before their confinement. Her -festival was celebrated with great rejoicings from the 28th of April to -the 1st of May (Floralia). The doors of the houses were adorned with -flowers, and wreaths were worn in the hair. After the first Punic war, -the festival, which was remarkable throughout for its merry and -tumultuous character, was also celebrated with games, hares and deer -being hunted in the circus. - - Artists appear to have represented Flora as the season of Spring, in - the guise of a beautiful girl crowned with flowers. There is a fine - marble statue of this kind, larger than life, in the museum at - Naples, called the Farnese Flora. - - -=12. Pales.=—Pales was the ancient pastoral goddess of the Italian -tribes, from whom the name Palatine, which originally meant nothing but -a pastoral colony, was derived. She was especially venerated by the -shepherds, who besought her to send fruitfulness and health to their -flocks. A festival in her honour was celebrated on the 21st of April, -the anniversary of the foundation of the city (Palilia), at which very -ancient rustic customs were observed. The most remarkable of these was -the kindling of a large straw fire, through which the shepherds rushed -with their flocks, thinking thus to purify themselves from their sins. -Milk and baked millet-cakes were offered to the goddess. There is no -statue of her now in existence. - - -=13. Terminus.=—Terminus, although he had nothing to do either with the -welfare of the crops or the fruitfulness of the flocks, may yet be -reckoned among the field deities, as the god who specially presided over -boundaries. All landmarks were held sacred to him, and their erection -was attended with religious ceremonies. In order that his people might -fully appreciate the sanctity of boundaries, King Numa instituted a -special festival in honour of the god, called the Terminalia, and -annually celebrated on the 23rd of February. The proprietors of lands -bordering on each other were wont on this occasion to crown the boundary -stone with garlands, and to make an offering of a flat cake to the god. - -In his wider signification Terminus was regarded as the god under whose -protection the boundaries of the state reposed, and in this character he -had a chapel in the temple of Minerva on the Capitol. A statue of the -god also stood in the midst of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, which -is explained by the following story:—After Tarquinius had conceived the -plan of building the great temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, the limited -space necessitated the removal of several existing shrines, which could -only occur with the consent of the deities themselves. They all -expressed by means of auguries their readiness to make way for the -highest god of heaven, except Terminus, who refused, and whose shrine -had therefore to be included in the temple of Jupiter. - - Statues of Terminus are exactly like the Hermæ of the Greeks, and - have no importance in art. - - -=14. Demeter (Ceres).=—Demeter was a daughter of Cronus and Rhea. Her -name signifies Mother Earth, and she is, therefore, an expression of the -ancient conception of the earth-goddess, with a special reference to -nature and human civilisation. She was also named Deo, and by comparison -of these two words, her name has been interpreted as Dawn-Mother, from -the same root as Zeus, the sky. The thriving of the crops was ascribed -to her influence; she was further regarded as the patroness of all those -arts which are more or less intimately connected with agriculture, and -which men first learned from her. Demeter thus rises to the rank of a -goddess of civilisation. She rescued men by means of agriculture from -the lower grades of hunters and shepherds, and brought their former rude -and barbarous manners into subjection to law and morality. She thus -becomes that “bountiful daughter of Heaven,” who, as Schiller sings in -his _Lay of the Bell_, - - “of old - Called the wild man from waste and wold, - And, in his hut thy presence stealing, - Roused each familiar household feeling; - And, best of all the happy ties, - The centre of the social band,— - The instinct of the Fatherland.” - -Regarded in this light, she comes into contact with Dionysus, whose -beneficial influence on human civilisation and manners we have already -described. This accounts for the intimate connection of these two -deities in the Eleusinian mysteries, where Dionysus-Iacchus even appears -as the son of Demeter and the husband of Cora-Persephone. Owing to the -important part she played in the institution of law and order among -mankind, she was venerated as the goddess of marriage, marriage being -the necessary foundation of civil society. She was also regarded as the -tutelary goddess of national assemblies. - -Of the numerous legends which are linked with the name of this goddess, -none perhaps is more celebrated, or more pregnant with meaning in regard -to her worship, than the rape of her daughter Persephone, or Cora. The -latter was once playing with the daughters of Oceanus in a flowery -meadow, where they were picking flowers and making garlands. Persephone -happened to quit her companions for a moment to pluck a narcissus she -had perceived, when suddenly the ground opened at her feet, and Pluto, -or Hades, the god of the infernal regions, appeared in a chariot drawn -by snorting horses. Swift as the wind he seized and carried off the -terrified maiden in spite of her struggles, and vanished again into the -regions of darkness before her companions were aware of the catastrophe. -All this occurred, however, with the knowledge of Zeus, who had, unknown -to Demeter, promised her daughter to Pluto. When Demeter missed her -darling child, and none could tell her where she had gone, she kindled -torches, and during many days and nights wandered in anxiety through all -the countries of the earth, not even resting for food or sleep. At -length Helios, who sees and hears everything, told Demeter what had -happened, not disguising, however, that it had occurred with the consent -of Zeus. Full of wrath and grief, the goddess now withdrew from the -society of the other gods into the deepest solitude. Meanwhile all the -fruits of the earth ceased, and a general famine threatened to -extinguish the human race. In vain Zeus sent one messenger after -another, beseeching the angry goddess to return to Olympus. Demeter -swore that she would neither return nor allow the fruits of the earth to -grow until her daughter was restored to her. At length Zeus was fain to -consent, and despatched Hermes to the lower world to bring Persephone -back. Persephone joyfully prepared to obey this command, but as she was -about to depart Hades gave her a pomegranate-seed to eat, whereupon she -found herself bound to him and unable to return. By means of Zeus, -however, a compact was made by which Persephone was to spend two-thirds -of the year in the upper world with her mother, and the remaining -portion with her husband. And thus every year at springtide she ascends -from her subterraneous kingdom to enjoy herself in her mother’s company, -but returns again late in autumn to the regions of darkness and death. - -It is not difficult to discover the meaning of this myth. It is simply -an allegorical representation of the spectacle that is annually renewed -before our eyes—the dying away and coming to life again of the vegetable -world. Whilst Cora is dwelling during the winter months in the realms of -Hades, Nature appears to wear a garb of mourning for her lost daughter. -In the Eleusinian mysteries this inevitable decease and resurrection of -the vegetable world was conceived as a symbol of higher meaning, setting -forth the immortality of the soul. Every living being shares the fate of -Cora; every life becomes the prey of cold, inexorable death, only to -arise from the darkness of the grave more beautiful and glorious than -before. - -Closely connected with this beautiful and expressive myth is another -which refers to the institution of the Eleusinian mysteries. When -Demeter, after the loss of her daughter, was wandering over the earth in -the guise of a poor old woman, she came to Eleusis. The daughters of -Celeüs, the king of the city, found her sitting on a stone by the -Maidens’ Well as they came thither to draw water, and offered the old -woman service in their father’s house as nurse to their youngest brother -Demophon. The goddess consented, and was kindly received in the house of -Celeüs, where she was at once installed as nurse to the young prince. -She became so fond of the child that she resolved to make him immortal -by anointing him with ambrosia, and then laying him at night in the glow -of the fire. She was discovered at her work, however, by the mother of -the child, whose cries disturbed her, and thus prevented her from -fulfilling her benevolent intention. She now revealed herself to Celeüs, -and commanded him to build her a temple in Eleusis. When it had been -hastily completed, with the help of the goddess, she initiated Celeüs -and some other princes of Eleusis—Triptolemus, Eumolpus, and Diocles—in -the solemn rites of her service. On Triptolemus, who is called the son -of Celeüs, she imposed the task of disseminating a knowledge of -agriculture and of her own worship throughout the earth, and for this -purpose lent him her own chariot and dragons. On this he travelled -through the countries of the earth, making known everywhere the -blessings of agriculture, and uniting men in regular political -communities. He was not well received in all places, and the goddess had -sometimes to step in and punish those who contemned her benefits. Such -was the case with the Scythian king Lynceus and the Thessalian prince -Erysichthon; but at length her cause triumphed, and the worship of the -bountiful goddess spread itself over the whole world. - -The chief seat of her worship was the city of Eleusis, which was -beautifully situated on the bay of Salamis. It retained this honour even -after it had lost its independence and come into the possession of the -Athenians. The Eleusinian mysteries were celebrated both here and at -Athens, in honour of Demeter and the deities associated with her. They -probably contained a symbolical history of Cora. - -There was a distinction between the greater and lesser mysteries. The -latter were celebrated at Athens in the month of Anthesterion -(February), and were a kind of preparation for the greater mysteries, -which took place in September, and were celebrated during nine days, -partly at Athens and partly at Eleusis. In these secret rites only those -could take part who had been initiated. The chief feature of the -festival was a great and solemn procession on the sixth day from Athens -to Eleusis, a distance of about twelve miles. All those who took part in -it—often as many as 30,000—were crowned with myrtle, and bore torches in -their hands, as the procession started from Athens at the earliest dawn. - -The festival of the Thesmophoria, which was celebrated at the beginning -of November, in honour of Demeter in her character of lawgiver and -goddess of marriage, was less important than the Eleusinia. It lasted -for five days, and only married women were allowed to take part in it. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44.—Demeter Enthroned. Painting from Pompeii. -Naples.] - -The Ceres of the Romans, though undoubtedly an ancient Italian goddess, -was the very counterpart of the Greek Demeter, with whom, after the -successful introduction of her worship during the first years of the -Republic, she was entirely identified. - -The chief festival of Ceres and her associate deities, Liber and Libera, -fell on the 19th of April, which, as the proper spring month, was -especially dedicated by the inhabitants of Italy to deities presiding -over agriculture. The Cerealia were opened by a grand procession, in -which every one was clothed in white. It was further celebrated with -solemn sacrifices and games in the circus, the management of which lay -with the plebeian ædiles. - -The usual sacrifice, both among Greeks and Romans, was the sow (the -symbol of fruitfulness), but, besides this, cows and the first fruits of -the trees and hives were offered to her. - - In the representations of the goddess an expression of lofty dignity - is blended with condescending benevolence and gentleness. Her - principal attributes are a torch, a sheaf of corn, a garland of ears - of corn interwoven in her hair, and a basket filled with flowers at - her side. Among the few antique statues, a large marble figure in - the Capitoline Museum at Rome deserves especial mention. The - engraving (Fig. 44), which is after a Pompeian painting, depicts - Demeter as the bountiful goddess of agriculture. She is seated on a - throne, and holds a torch consisting of two calices in her right - hand, and a bunch of corn in her left. - - -=15. Persephone (Proserpina).=—In Persephone, the goddess of the lower -world, whom the Athenians preferred to call by her mystic name of Cora, -two distinct conceptions are embodied. On the one hand she appears as -the wife of the dark god of the lower world—like him, a gloomy, -awe-inspiring deity, who pitilessly drags down all that lives into the -hidden depths of the earth; whence the grave is called the chamber of -Persephone. Such is the view of her taken by Homer and later epic poets. -These represent her as sitting enthroned at the side of her grim lord, -the joyless queen of the infernal regions, to dwell in which were worse -than to be a slave on earth. On the other hand she appears as Cora, the -lovely daughter of the all-bountiful Mother Earth; a personification, in -fact, of that never-dying force of nature which, year by year, causes -the most luxuriant vegetation to spring up before our eyes, only, -however, to die away again in the autumn. In a somewhat narrower sense -Persephone may be regarded as a type of the grain, which long remains in -the ground where it has been sown as though dead, but afterwards breaks -forth into new life. It was only natural to associate with this last -conception ideas of the immortality of the soul, of which, in the secret -doctrines of the mysteries, Persephone was a symbol. Though we know but -little concerning the details of the mysteries, we are yet aware that -their chief object was to disseminate better and purer ideas of a future -life than the popular faith of the Greeks afforded. It was commonly -believed that the souls of men after death led a dull, miserable -existence in the world of shadows. Those initiated in the mysteries, -however, were taught that death was only a resurrection of the soul to a -brighter and better life, on the condition, of course, that a man had -fully pleased the gods and rendered himself worthy of such a happy lot. - -Persephone, or Proserpina, as she is called in Latin, was a deity -originally entirely strange to the Romans, who borrowed all their ideas -of the lower world from the Greeks. Nevertheless, they identified her -with Libera, an ancient rustic goddess of fertility, the feminine -counterpart of Liber, under which name she signifies the same as the -Greek Cora. Black, barren cows were sacrificed to Persephone as an -infernal goddess, but she does not appear to have had any temples of her -own. - -[Illustration: Fig. 45.—Persephone Enthroned. Painting from Pompeii. -Naples.] - - Persephone is of no great importance in art, and statues of her are - rare. She is represented either as the fair daughter of Demeter, or - as the grave, severe queen of the world of shadows. In the latter - character she may generally be recognised by her sceptre and diadem. - Her other attributes are ears of corn, a poppy, and a torch, as a - symbol of her connection with the Eleusinian mysteries, besides the - pomegranate and narcissus. The engraving (Fig. 45), after a painting - in the Naples Museum, represents her as the Stygian queen. - - -=16. Hades (Pluto).=—The same twofold nature which we meet with in -Persephone may be observed also in her husband, Hades, or Aïdoneus (the -invisible), as he is called by the epic poets, on account of the -mysterious gloom in which his kingdom as well as his person was -enveloped. He first appears as the unrelenting, inexorable foe of human -life, on whom one cannot even think without fear and trembling. For this -reason, says Homer, “he is of all the gods the most detested among -mortals.” This conception, however, was subsequently supplanted by one -of a less dismal nature, in which the other side of his character is -brought into prominence. From this point of view he is represented not -only as sending nourishment to plants from the deep bosom of the earth, -but also as offering unbounded riches to mankind in the shape of the -precious metals which lie in his subterraneous passages and chambers. In -this sense he was also called Pluto, or Pluteus—that is, the god of -riches. - -Hades belonged to the earliest deities of Greece, being, like Poseidon, -a brother of Zeus. When the three brothers partitioned the universe -among themselves, Hades received the dark regions of the earth as his -exclusive kingdom, the portals of which he was said to keep closed, in -order that no soul might return to the upper world without his consent. -He was also termed Polydectes (the receiver of many), from the fact of -his seizing on all men, without distinction, at their appointed time, -and conveying them to his dismal realms. The ideas which men first -entertained, as to the mode in which Hades exercised his power over -mortals, exactly corresponded with their grim conception of the god. He -was looked on as a powerful and dreaded robber, who, as in the case of -Persephone, seizes on his prey and carries it off with his swift horses. -Later, a milder conception of the god was introduced. The task of -carrying the souls of the dead to the lower world was delegated to -Hermes, who thus became a servant of Pluto, the Zeus of the infernal -regions, just as he was otherwise a servant of the Zeus of heaven. But -though the original dismal conception of this deity as the inexorable -god of death was much diminished in course of time, yet Hades, -nevertheless, always conveyed an idea of something grim and mysterious -to the Greek mind; which is perhaps the reason why so few myths, beyond -that of the rape of Proserpina, were circulated concerning him. He can, -in fact, scarcely be said to have had a place in the public worship of -the Greeks. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 46.—Head of Hades. Palazzo Chigi. Rome.] - -The Roman conception of this deity differed little from that of the -Greeks, having been, in fact, borrowed entirely from a Greek source. By -them he was called Pluto, or Pater Dis. He had no temple in Rome, but -had, in common with Proserpina, a subterranean altar in the Campus -Martius, which was uncovered and used once a-year. Only black animals -were sacrificed to him. - - Artists naturally hesitated to portray a being whose very name they - feared to pronounce, and consequently antique statues of Hades are - very rare. His characteristic features—a grim expression of - countenance, tightly-closed lips, and long tangled hair—are embodied - in a marble head, in the possession of Prince Chigi at Rome, of - which we give an engraving (Fig. 46). His principal attributes are a - sceptre, a votive bowl, and sometimes a two-pronged fork, or a key. - - -=17. The Lower World.=—To our consideration of Hades we must add some -remarks on the ideas which the ancient Greeks and Romans had of the -other life and of the abodes of the dead. It may be well to remark, at -the outset, that the Romans do not originally appear to have believed in -a kingdom of the dead in the interior of the earth, and that all their -ideas on this subject were borrowed from the writings of the Greeks. -Neither do their ideas on this subject, nor even those of the Greeks, -appear to have been invariably the same at all times. Even in the poetry -of Homer we come across two very different views as to the situation of -the realms of the dead. According to that which we find in the _Iliad_, -it was situated beneath the disc-shaped earth, only a thin layer -separating it from the upper world. This is made evident on the occasion -of the great battle of the gods in the 20th book, where we read— - - “Pluto, the infernal monarch, heard alarmed, - And, springing from his throne, cried out in fear, - Lest Neptune, breaking through the solid earth, - To mortals and immortals should lay bare - His dark and drear abode of gods abhorred.” - -According to another view which prevails in the _Odyssey_, the world of -shadows was not situated beneath the earth, but lay far to the westward, -on the other side of Oceanus, or on an island in the same; so indefinite -and vague were men’s ideas as to the locality of the kingdom of death in -the time of Homer, and so undeveloped were their conceptions as to the -lives of departed souls. The lower world appears as a desolate, dismal -region, where departed spirits lead a shadowy, dreamy existence, to -reach which is no happiness. There is no difference in their lots; for -we as yet hear nothing of the judgment of the dead. The Elysian fields, -to which the special favourites of the gods were transferred, form no -part of the lower world in Homer, but were supposed to lie in an -entirely distinct region in the far West (the isles of the blest). Later -on, the outlines of the lower world become more clearly defined. It was -now supposed to be a region in the centre of the earth, with several -passages to and from the upper world. Through it flowed several -rivers—Cocytus, Pyriphlegethon, Acheron, and Styx. The last of these -encompassed the lower world several times, and could only be crossed by -the aid of Charon, the ferryman, who was depicted as a sullen old man -with a bristling beard. The Greeks therefore used to place an obolus -(small copper coin) in the mouths of their dead, in order that the soul -might not be turned back by Charon for lack of money. On the farther -side of the river the portals were watched by the dreadful hell-hound -Cerberus, a three-headed monster, who refused no one entrance, but -allowed none to leave the house of Pluto. All souls, on reaching the -lower world, had to appear before the tribunal of Minos, Rhadamanthus, -and Æacus. Those whose lives had been upright were then permitted to -enter Elysium, where they led a life of uninterrupted bliss; whilst -those who on earth had been criminal and wicked were consigned to -Tartarus, where they were tormented by the Furies and other evil -spirits. Those whose lives had not been distinctly good or bad remained -in the asphodel meadow, where as dim shadows they passed a dull, joyless -existence. - -The punishments of great criminals in the infernal regions were a -fruitful theme for the imagination of the poets. The most celebrated -criminals were Tityus, Tantalus, Sisyphus, Ixion, and the Danaids. We -have said that the idea of the judgment of the dead is not found in the -earliest legends. Hence we must expect to find, in some cases, that the -crimes supposed to have drawn down the wrath of the gods were either -later inventions, or had very little connection with the punishment -inflicted. Thus to take the case of Tantalus, the original idea appears -to have been the burning sun looking upon sweet fruits and streams of -water, and drying them up instead of being able to enjoy them. It is -possible that another part of the legend, the offering of his children -for the gods of heaven to eat, may have a similar origin. So the story -of Sisyphus seems to point to the sun daily toiling up the steep hill of -heaven, yet ever obliged to recommence his weary task. So the name Ixion -seems to be derived from a word meaning wheel, and to be yet another -allusion to the orb of day. As men began to forget the reality -underlying these words, and to think that some real person suffered -these woes, it was only natural that they should try to find a reason. -Generally, perhaps always, some point in the story could be twisted into -a crime deserving of punishment (compare the legend of Œdipus). The -punishment of Tityus, who had offered violence to Leto, consisted in -being chained to the earth, whilst two vultures continually gnawed at -his ever-growing liver. Tantalus, the ancestor of the Atridæ, Agamemnon -and Menelaus, had been deemed worthy to hold intercourse with the gods, -until he thought fit to put their omniscience to the test by setting -before them the flesh of his son Pelops. This crime he was condemned to -expiate by the torments of continual hunger and thirst. Above his head -were suspended the most beautiful fruits; but when he attempted to -snatch them, a gust of wind blew them beyond his reach. At his feet -flowed a stream of the purest water; but when he tried to quench his -thirst, it suddenly vanished into the ground. Sisyphus, formerly king of -Corinth, had provoked the wrath of the gods by his numerous crimes, and -was condemned, in consequence, to roll a block of stone up a high -mountain, which, on reaching the top, always rolled down again to the -plain. Ixion, a not less insolent offender, was bound hand and foot to -an ever-revolving wheel. Lastly, the Danaids, or daughters of Danaus, -who, at their father’s command, had slain their husbands on the wedding -night, were condemned to pour water continually into a cask full of -holes, which could never be filled. - - -=18. The Erinyes (Furiæ).=—The Erinyes, or Furies, were denizens of the -lower world, who executed the commands of Hades and Persephone. They -were ultimately three in number, and their names were Tisiphone, Alecto, -and Megæra; and this number, like that of the Graces, the Fates, and -others, is due to the fact that the Greeks expressed any undefined -number by the sacred numeral three. In their original signification they -appear as the avengers of every violation, either on the part of gods or -men, of the moral laws of the universe. When, at a later period, the -idea of an avenging Nemesis had become more and more developed, the -significance of the Erinyes diminished, and their avenging duties were -confined to the family. - -As the inexorable pursuers of every injury done to the sacred ties of -blood—especially the murder of kindred—they received a much greater -degree of attention at the hands of the Greek tragic poets, by whom they -were frequently brought on the stage. The pictures thus drawn of the -relentless activity of the Erinyes are both powerful and striking. -Nothing can equal the keen scent with which they trace the crime, or the -untiring speed with which they pursue the criminal. As a symbol of this -latter quality, the poets have endowed them with brazen feet. Their -appearance is wan and Gorgon-like; wild lust for blood is written in -their features, and the serpents which twine round their heads in the -place of hair deal out destruction and death on their unhappy victims. -Flight avails them nought, for there is no region whither the avenging -Furies cannot follow, no distance that they cannot compass. With torch -swung on high they dog the steps of the unhappy wretch, like swift -huntresses following in the track of their hard-pressed game, and never -rest until they have driven him to madness and death. - -What, then, was the origin of the belief in these dreadful beings? Two -explanations have been given, and in each case we shall see in them the -powers of nature. Whether we are to look upon them as the storm-clouds -darting lightnings upon the criminal, or as the bright dawn rising over -the earth and pointing out his hiding-place, we must recognise the idea -of the punishment of sin, inflicted by the powers of heaven. If, as -seems most probable (_cf._ the genealogy given them by Æschylus and -Sophocles), we are to take the latter explanation, we shall have some -reason for the names of “kindly” and “venerable,” applied to them by the -Greeks, partly, no doubt, owing to the ancient custom of avoiding words -of ill-omen. Yet poetical mythology treated this as a transformation of -their nature, and associated it with a special event, namely, the -institution of the Areopagus at Athens, and the purification of the -matricide Orestes effected by this venerable court. The story relates -that Orestes, after having slain his mother Clytæmnestra and her -infamous paramour Ægisthus, in revenge for the murder of his father -Agamemnon, wandered for a long time about the earth in a state bordering -on madness, owing to the persecution of the Erinyes. At length, however, -he was befriended by Apollo and Athene, the kindly deities of the -luminous Æther. Apollo first purified him before his own altar at -Delphi, and then defended him before the court of the Areopagus, which -had been founded by Athene. Orestes was here acquitted, for Athene, when -the votes for and against him were equal, declared that then and in all -future time the criminal should have the benefit of the doubt. The -Furies, indeed, were at first very wroth, and threatened the land with -barrenness both of women and soil; but Athene succeeded in pacifying -them, by promising that a shrine should be erected to them on the hill -of the Areopagus. After they had taken possession of this sanctuary, -they were thenceforth venerated by the Athenians, under the names of -Semnæ (venerable), or Eumenides (benevolent), as propitious deities who, -though they still continued to punish crimes, were ever ready to grant -mercy to the repentant sinner, and to give succour to all good men. - -There were different traditions concerning the origin of the Erinyes. -According to Hesiod, they owed their existence to the first execrable -crime committed since the beginning of the world, for they were the -daughters of Earth, and sprang from the drops of blood that fell from -the mangled body of Uranus. They here appear, therefore, as an -embodiment of the curses which the angry father invoked on the head of -his unnatural son. Sophocles, on the other hand, calls them the -daughters of Gæa and Scotos (darkness of night). Æschylus simply terms -them the daughters of the Night. Besides the shrine in Athens already -mentioned, they had another near the city, a sacred grove in Colonus, -which was celebrated as the last refuge of the unfortunate Œdipus. In -Athens they had an annual festival, at which libations of milk and honey -were made to them. - - In art the Erinyes are represented as swift huntresses, armed with - spear, bow, and quiver. Torches, scourges, or snakes were also put - in their hands. They were, moreover, provided with wings on their - shoulders or head as a token of their swiftness. - - -=19. Hecate.=—Among the mystic deities of the lower world we must not -omit to mention Hecate. By the Romans, indeed, she was never publicly -venerated, though she was not exactly unknown to them. Common tradition -made her a daughter of the Titan Perseus and Asteria. She ruled -principally over the secret forces of Nature, which perhaps explains the -spectral and awe-inspiring form which this goddess assumed. She was -supposed to preside over all nocturnal horrors, and not only to haunt -the tombs and cross-roads herself in company with the spirits of the -dead, but also to send nightly phantoms from the lower world, such as -the man-eating spectre Empusa, and other fabulous goblins. - -As her name seems to signify, Hecate (far-striking) was originally a -moon-goddess, not like either Artemis or Selene, but representing the -new moon in its invisible phase. The ancients not being able to account -for the different phases of the moon, naturally came to the conclusion -that, when invisible, it was tarrying in the lower world. The public -worship of the goddess was not very extensive, but her importance in -connection with the mysteries was all the greater. Men were wont to -affix small pictures of her to houses and city gates, which were -supposed to prevent any bad spells from affecting the town or house. On -the last day of every month her image on the house doors was crowned -with garlands, and viands were set before it in her honour, which were -afterwards eaten by the poor, and termed the meals of Hecate. Wooden -images of the goddess with three faces were generally set up where three -roads met, and here dogs were sacrificed to her as sin-offerings for the -dead. This usually took place on the thirtieth day after death. As in -the case of other infernal deities, black lambs were sacrificed to her, -besides libations of milk and honey. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 47.—Three-formed Hecate. Capitoline Museum.] - - Hecate was generally represented as three-formed (_triformis_), - which probably has some connection with the appearance of the full, - half, and new moon. In order to explain more clearly the nature of - such a representation, we give an engraving (Fig. 47) after a bronze - statuette in the Capitoline Museum at Rome. The figure facing us - holds in her hands a key and a rope, which point her out as the - portress of the lower world; over her brow is a disc, representing, - probably, the dark surface of the new moon. The figure on the right - holds in either hand a torch, in virtue of her character as a mystic - goddess, whilst on her brow is a half-moon and a lotus-flower. - Lastly, the third figure bears, as a symbol of the full moon, a - Phrygian cap with a radiant diadem fastened on it, which gives forth - seven rays; in her right hand is a knife, in her left the tail of a - serpent, of which no satisfactory interpretation has hitherto been - discovered. - - -=20. Sleep and Death.=—Sleep and Death were conceived by the ancients as -twin brothers. According to Hesiod, they were children of Night alone. -They dwelt in the lower world, whence they visited the earth to steal -over mortals; the former a kindly benevolent spirit, the latter grim and -cruel. Apart from this conception, which was especially developed by -later poets and artists, Death was sometimes depicted as quite distinct -from Sleep, and in a still less amiable guise. The different forms of -violent death were personified as female deities of formidable aspect, -called the Ceres; or Apollo and Artemis among the inhabitants of heaven, -and Pluto and Persephone among those of the lower world, were -represented, as the deities of death. The Romans had a personal god of -death, whom they called Orcus; he was represented as an armed warrior -dealing out mortal wounds among mankind. But none of these special gods -of death had any great importance, either in religion or art. Artists, -indeed, laboured sedulously to diminish the dreadful appearance of -Thanatus (death), and to render him more and more like his brother -Hypnus (sleep). - - Thanatus and Hypnus often appear in company, either sleeping or - standing; the former usually bears a reversed torch, the latter a - poppy-stalk or a horn, out of which he is pouring some liquid. They - are both generally represented in the bloom of youth. In Fig. 34, - which is after a drawing of Asmus Carstens, they appear as the - children of Night, and are here brought into immediate connection - with the other powers, Nemesis and the Parcæ, who control the - destinies of man. - -Besides Sleep and Death, Hesiod also mentions Dreams as the children of -Night. Other writers, however, call them the sons of Sleep, who dwell in -the far West, close to the realms of Hades. This house of dreams has, in -Homer’s well-known description, two gates—one of ivory, through which -pass flattering, deceptive dreams, and one of horn, whence the true -dreams proceed. Morpheus was made the special god of dreams by the -poets, and termed the son of Hypnus. - - - IV.—ROMAN DEITIES OF THE HOUSE AND FAMILY. - -Before passing to the heroic legends, some remarks are necessary -concerning the inferior deities, who played such an important part in -the domestic worship of the Romans. We have already incidentally -remarked that the people of Italy generally passed by the greater gods -of the heaven and earth in anxious awe. Their invocation and adoration -was left to public worship, whilst, in their less important domestic -concerns, men had recourse to certain inferior deities, whom they -thought nearer to them; just as in the present day, in Italy, the common -people prefer to communicate their prayers and wishes to their patron -saints rather than to the Almighty himself. - - -=1. The Penates.=—The Penates were the kindly domestic deities of the -Romans—the guardians of the household, who especially provided for its -daily wants. Of their name, number, and sex nothing is known—not because -the facts have been lost to us, but because the Romans themselves were -content with this indefinite conception. Similar good spirits, exerting -an active influence in the household, were recognised by popular German -superstition, without experiencing any necessity of having distinct -names for them. The shrine of the Penates consisted of the hearth, the -central point of the house, which not only served for the preparation of -meals, but was also especially dedicated to religious purposes. It stood -in the “atrium,” the only large room in the Roman house, where the -family met for meals and received visitors. On the hearth, a fire was -continually kept burning in honour of Vesta and the Penates. Around it, -after the introduction of images of the gods, were placed the statues of -the Penates. These were generally small and puppet-like, and, among the -poorer classes, were only roughly cut out of wood. There was no domestic -occurrence, either of joy or mourning, in which the Penates did not take -part. Like the Lares, of whom we shall speak presently, they -participated in the daily meal, portions being set on certain plates for -that purpose before the images. There were also State Penates, the -ancients regarding the state as nothing but an extended family. The -temple of Vesta was to the state what the hearth was to the household. -Here was the seat of their worship, and here it was that the Roman -Pontifex Maximus brought those offerings which, in private households, -were the part of the head of the family. In the innermost sanctuary of -the temple of Vesta there were statues of these Penates, of great -sanctity, since Æneas was reported to have brought them with him from -Troy. We have no trustworthy information as to their number or -appearance, for, with the exception of the Pontifex and the Vestal -Virgins, none ever entered the holy place. It is scarcely necessary to -add that they were believed to exercise an especial influence on the -welfare and prosperity of the state and people of Rome. - - -=2. The Lares.=—The Lares, like the Penates, were the tutelary deities -of the house and family, and on that account often confounded with them. -They were commonly supposed to be the glorified spirits of ancestors, -who, as guardian deities, strove to promote the welfare of the family. -The seat of their worship was also the family hearth in the atrium, -where their images of wood or wax were generally preserved in a separate -shrine of their own (Lararium). The Lares received an especial degree of -veneration on the first day of every month; but, like the Penates, they -took part in all the domestic occurrences, whether of joy or sorrow. -Like the Penates, they also received their share at every meal on -particular dishes, and were crowned with garlands on the occasion of -every family rejoicing. When a son assumed the _toga virilis_ (came of -age), he dedicated his _bulla_[5] to the Lares, amid prayers and -libations and burning of incense. When the father of the house started -on a journey or returned in safety, the Lares were again addressed, and -their statues crowned with wreaths, flowers and garlands being their -favourite offerings. - -Footnote 5: - - A gold or silver ornament, like a medal, which was worn round the neck - during childhood. - -The same conception which pervades the domestic Lares may be perceived -in a more extensive form in the Lares of the Gens, the city, and the -state itself. The Lares do not appear, in fact, to have differed in many -respects from the heroes worshipped by the Greeks. At all events, -Romulus and Remus, the mythical founders of the city, were regarded as -its Lares, and, in the time of Augustus, the genius of the emperor was -associated with them. - - -=3. Larvæ, Lemures, and Manes.=—Just as the Lares were regarded as the -good and happy spirits of ancestors, the souls of others were supposed -to wander about in the guise of evil demons and spectres, giving rise to -weird terrors, and casting bad spells on the senses of those whom they -met. Such was especially believed to be the fate of those who had not -received burial, or in whose case the prescribed ceremonies had been -neglected, and who being, in consequence, unable to find rest, were -doomed to flit about the earth. Such spirits were called Larvæ, or -Lemures. The propitiatory festival of the Lemuria, or Lemuralia, which -was said to have been instituted in memory of the murdered Remus, was -celebrated annually in their honour on the 9th, 11th, and 13th of May. -Every paterfamilias was supposed during these days to perform certain -midnight ceremonies, and to repeat certain forms, which had the effect -of banishing any evil spirits. - -In contrast to the Lares and Larvæ, the souls of the dead were also -commonly venerated as Manes, or good spirits. These were believed after -burial to have been converted into beings of a higher order, who dwelt, -indeed, in the interior of the earth, but exercised, notwithstanding, a -considerable influence on the affairs of the upper world. It was -possible to summon them from the lower world by means of sacrifices. A -general festival of the dead took place in February, when the Manes were -propitiated with offerings and libations. These offerings were placed on -the tombs of the deceased, and, of course, varied extremely, according -to the means of the donors. - -[Illustration] - - - - - PART III.—THE HEROES. - - - I.—INTRODUCTORY. - -On passing to heroic mythology, a world still more rich in marvels than -that with which we have already become acquainted presents itself to our -view. The greater extent of this department of mythic lore is easily -comprehensible, if we take into consideration the multitude of separate -existences into which Greek life was split up, even from the earliest -times. Each of the numberless countries, islands, cities, and towns -endeavoured to trace back its peculiar institutions to mythical founders -and ancestors; and as these were always described either as the sons or -as the favourites of the gods, there accordingly sprang up, in course of -time, a vast number of local heroic legends. These fabulous founders of -states, however, were not the only heroes of Greek mythology. The -attempt to pierce the clouds of obscurity which enveloped the early -history of mankind, and the desire of a more enlightened age to bridge -over the intervening gulf, and fill it with beings who should form a -connecting link between the sublime forms of the great inhabitants of -Olympus and the puny race of mortals, naturally gave rise to a whole -series of heroic legends. These were partly the property of entire -nationalities, or even of the whole Hellenic race, and partly of a local -or provincial character. Moreover, as the gods collectively were divided -into gods proper and dæmones—that is to say, spirits resembling the -gods, but inferior to them in wisdom and power, whose workings men saw -in air and earth and sea—even so the race of mortals was divided into -heroes and men, between whom a similar difference subsisted. The latter -are, in their nature, not different from the former—both are alike -mortal, and must at length fall a prey to inexorable death. But the -heroes are endowed with a degree of physical strength and dexterity, -courage and endurance under difficulties, such as never fall to the lot -of ordinary men. It was not, however, by any means all who lived in this -early mythical period who were accounted heroes; but, just as in Genesis -vi. 2 a distinction is made between the “sons of God” and the “daughters -of men,” so in the present instance the heroes were the mighty ones—the -ruling spirits of the age—those whose marvellous exploits contributed to -remove the obstacles to civilisation and culture, who delivered -countries from cruel robbers and savage beasts, who drained marshes, -made roads through untrodden forests, and regulated the course of -rivers. By their actions they proved themselves men of no ordinary -powers, endowed with divine strength, and, therefore, apparently of -divine origin. It appeared, at least, that such beings must have had an -origin different from that of ordinary men, who were made out of clay, -or sprang from trees or stones. Some of these heroes may perhaps have -had a real existence, having probably been the ancestors of the later -dominant races, to whom a dim tradition reached. Others were undoubtedly -a product of the imagination. To these may be added a third class, and -this is by far the most numerous, including those who were originally -personifications of various natural phenomena, and, as such, deified and -venerated in local forms of worship, but who were later, in consequence -of the birth of new political communities, expelled from their place in -public worship, and only continued to exist in the popular faith in the -inferior character of heroes. Many such heroes were afterwards again -promoted to the rank of gods, though with an altered meaning (_e.g._, -Heracles). - -Any real veneration of heroes by prayers and sacrifices can scarcely be -said to have existed before the migration of the Heraclidæ—at least -there is no mention of it in Homer. Even later, except in the case of -those heroes who were raised to the rank of gods for their great deeds, -and who were, therefore, worshipped in temples of their own, the worship -of heroes is scarcely to be distinguished from that of the dead. Homer -makes no distinction between the fate of heroes after death and that of -ordinary mortals, all being doomed alike to the gloomy realms of Hades. -As we have already observed, it was only certain special favourites, or -sons of Zeus, who were excepted from this gloomy lot, and were -transported in their bodily shape to the Isles of the Blest. Hesiod, on -the other hand, says that all heroes—whom he, in the first instance, -terms demigods—were transported to the Isles of the Blest, where Cronus -ruled over them. Here, for the first time, the idea of a just -retribution in the other world takes a definite shape; for Hesiod -obviously conceives a residence in Elysium to be the reward of -meritorious actions performed in the upper world. This idea was -subsequently more fully developed, especially in the mysteries, and men -were gradually elevated to a belief in the immortality of the soul. The -spirits of the dead were believed, even after they were in their graves, -to exert continually a mysterious influence; on which account men strove -to gain their favour by means of offerings, thereby removing every real -distinction between the worship of heroes and that of the dead. - -Amid the multitude of legends of this kind, we shall only dwell upon -those which occupy a prominent position either in poetry or in art. We -shall begin with those which relate to the creation and early -civilisation of mankind, after which we shall pass to the most -celebrated provincial legends, and conclude with those that refer to the -more important of the common undertakings of the later heroic age. - - - II.—THE CREATION AND PRIMITIVE CONDITION OF MANKIND. - -The legends concerning the origin of the human race differ very widely. -The most ancient are undoubtedly those which describe men as springing -from the trees or rocks. Another tradition asserts that the human race -was of later growth, having been first called into existence by Zeus and -the gods of Olympus. A third account makes the Titan Prometheus, the son -of Iapetus, the creator of mankind, but leaves it uncertain whether this -took place before or after the flood of Deucalion. Prometheus, according -to this account, made men of clay and water, after which Athene breathed -a soul into them. There were likewise various accounts concerning the -primeval condition of mankind. According to one, the human race raised -itself, with the assistance of the gods, from a state of helpless -barbarism: this progress was the subject of numerous legends. Another -account represents men as living originally in a holy and happy -communion with the gods (the golden age), and asserts that they first -became savage after having lost this good fortune by their presumption. - -Of the myths that relate to the introduction of the first elements of -civilisation among mankind by divine aid, there is none, except those -already mentioned concerning Dionysus and Demeter, more celebrated than -the story of Prometheus. The Titan Iapetus had, by Clymene, the daughter -of Oceanus, four sons—the stout-hearted Atlas, the presumptuous -Menœtius, the crafty Prometheus, and the foolish Epimetheus. With the -name of Prometheus is linked the idea of the first commencement of -civilisation among mankind by the introduction of fire. Prometheus is -said to have stolen fire from heaven, and to have taught its use to man. -By being employed for all the common purposes of daily life, however, -this pure celestial element became polluted; whereupon Zeus visited the -author of this sacrilege with a fearful punishment. He ordered -Prometheus to be chained to a rock, where, during the day-time, an eagle -devoured his liver (the seat of all evil desires), which always grew -again during the night. - -It is very difficult to see the origin of this series of legends, but -the foundation seems to be the discovery of fire by man. At any rate, -one word, closely resembling the name Prometheus, appears in India as -the name of the stick used to produce fire by friction. If this be the -case, we shall see in parts of the Greek legend instances of the -ever-recurring principle, that when the real derivation of a word is -lost, men try to give it an explanation by attaching it to the nearest -word in the existing language (_cf._ the derivation of Pan mentioned p. -130). When the notion of “forethought” had once been attached to his -name, it would be natural to invent a complementary legend about his -brother Epimetheus (afterthought). - -The legend of Prometheus appears in its grandest form in Æschylus’ play, -“Prometheus Bound.” - -The idea that, together with the introduction of civilisation, many -evils which were before unknown to man came into existence, is expressed -in the myth of Pandora. Zeus determined to leave mankind in possession -of Prometheus’ gift; but he ordered Hephæstus to make an image of a -beautiful woman, which the gods then endowed with life and adorned with -all kinds of gifts, whence she was called Pandora. Aphrodite bestowed on -her the seductive charms that kindle love, Athene instructed her in -every art, Hermes endued her with a smooth tongue and a crafty -disposition, whilst the Seasons and Graces adorned her with flowers and -fine dresses. Zeus then sent her, under the guidance of Hermes, to the -foolish Epimetheus, who, in spite of the warning of his brother not to -accept any present from Zeus, received Pandora and made her his wife. -There was in the house of Epimetheus a closed jar, which he had been -forbidden to open, and which contained all kinds of diseases and ills. -Pandora removed the cover and these escaped, and men who had before been -free from disease and care have ever since been tormented. Pandora -closed the jar in time to keep in Hope. Thus both Greek legend and -Biblical tradition alike represent woman as the first cause of evil and -death. - -The legend of the five ages of mankind transports us to quite another -region of tradition. According to this, the gods first created a golden -race of men, who lived free from care and sorrow, while the earth, of -its own accord, furnished them with all that was necessary to support -life. Subject neither to the infirmities of age nor to the pangs of -sickness and disease, men at last sank peacefully, as into a sweet -sleep, to death. In what manner the golden age disappeared is not -related; we are only told that this race, notwithstanding its -disappearance, still continues to exist in the upper world, in the shape -of good spirits, who guard and protect mortals. After this, the gods -created a second (silver) race of men, who were, however, far inferior -to their predecessors, both in mind and body. They passed their time in -idle and effeminate pursuits, and refused to pay the gods due honours. -Zeus, in his wrath, thereupon blotted them out from the face of the -earth, and created the third (brazen) race of mankind out of ash wood. -This race proved headstrong and violent. They were of giant stature and -great strength, and took pleasure in nothing but battle and strife. -Their weapons, houses, and utensils were of bronze, iron not yet being -known. Zeus was not compelled to destroy this evil race, since they -destroyed themselves in their bloodthirsty strife. According to another -account, they were destroyed by the flood of Deucalion. - -Deucalion appears to have been a son of Prometheus, while his wife -Pyrrha was the daughter of Epimetheus and Pandora. Zeus having -determined to destroy the corrupt race of the third or bronze age by a -flood, Prometheus warned his son, who built himself an ark, into which -he retired with his wife when the waters began to rise. Nine days and -nights he was tossed on the waters; at length his vessel rested on Mount -Parnassus in Bœotia. He disembarked, and immediately offered a sacrifice -of thanksgiving to Zeus the preserver. Pleased at his gratitude, Zeus -granted his prayer for the restoration of the human race; and Deucalion -and Pyrrha were commanded by Hermes to cast stones behind them, from -which sprang a new race of men. Such is the legend in its most ancient -form; later writers engrafted on it still farther incidents of Biblical -tradition, until at last the Greek Noah was represented as having taken -living animals with him into the ark, and as having let loose a dove -after his landing on Parnassus. - - - III.—PROVINCIAL HEROIC LEGENDS. - - -=1. The Lapithæ and the Centaurs.=—We shall commence with the Thessalian -legend of the Lapithæ and Centaurs, on account of its great antiquity -and its importance in sculpture. We read in the Homeric poems how the -hoary Nestor on one occasion boasts of having, in his younger days, -taken part with his friends Pirithoüs and Cæneus, and the other princes -of the Lapithæ, in their contest with the savage Centaurs. In Homer’s -account the Centaurs are merely depicted as an old Thessalian mountain -tribe of giant strength and savage ferocity, utterly unable to control -their rude, sensual nature. Nor do we find here any mention of their -being half horses and half men; they are merely said to have inhabited -the mountain districts of Œta and Pelion, in Thessaly, and to have been -driven thence by the Lapithæ into the higher mountain-lands of Pindus. - -Their contest with the Lapithæ is sometimes conceived as a symbol of the -struggle of Greek civilisation with the still existing barbarism of the -early Pelasgian period. This may be the reason why Greek art, when in -its bloom, devoted itself so especially to this subject. The origin of -this contest is referred to the marriage feast of Pirithoüs and -Hippodamia, to which the principal Centaurs had been invited. On this -occasion the Centaur Eurytion, heated with wine, attempted to carry off -the bride; this gave rise to a contest which, after dreadful losses on -both sides, ended in the complete defeat of the Centaurs. The Centaurs, -however, since they were thus able to sit with the Lapithæ at meat, must -have been endowed with purely human forms. - -Theseus and Nestor, the friends of Pirithoüs, both took part in the -battle. Another prominent warrior was the gigantic Cæneus (Slayer), who -had been rendered invulnerable by Poseidon, but whom the Centaurs slew -on this occasion by burying him beneath a mass of trees and rocks. - -There is, however, also a natural explanation of the tales of these -strange beings. The father of the Centaurs is Ixion, who, as we have -already seen, may be interpreted to be the sun. The crime said to have -been the cause of his punishment was his love for Hera (the goddess of -the atmosphere). If we take these points, together with the legend that -Ixion begat the Centaurs of Nephele, the cloud, we may be prepared to -see in the horse-formed Centaurs a parallel to the cows of the sun, the -bright clouds which pass over the sky. There is the more ground for -this, as similar beings appear in Indian mythology, and their name has, -with much probability, been identified with that of the Centaurs. - -[Illustration: Fig. 48.—Metope of the Parthenon.] - - As we have already mentioned, the Centaurs play an important part in - art. The custom of depicting them half horse and half man came into - vogue after the time of Pindar, and was quickly adopted in - sculpture. In the representations of earlier art the face of a man - is joined to the body and hind legs of a horse. But in its higher - stage of development, after the time of Phidias, this was replaced - by a more elegant conception, and the body of a man from the navel - upwards was joined to the complete body of a horse, so that the - Centaurs of this period have the four feet of a horse and the hands - and arms of a man. Such is their appearance on numerous extant art - monuments, of which we shall mention the most important. - - In the first place, there are the reliefs from the frieze of the - Theseum at Athens. This temple, which is still in a good state of - preservation, was converted during the middle ages into a chapel of - St. George. It is supposed to have been built at the instance of - Cimon, after he had brought back the bones of the Attic hero from - Scyros. Besides other important pieces, which we shall mention - hereafter, the temple has, on its western or hinder frieze, a - representation of the contests of the Centaurs and Lapithæ at the - wedding of Pirithoüs, done in Parian marble. It is executed in such - a manner that it is impossible to discover which party will get the - upper hand; and this has enabled the artist, whose name has not come - down to us, to introduce a lively variety into the different scenes - of the combat. - -[Illustration: Fig. 49.—From the Frieze of the Temple at Bassæ.] - - We have another series of most splendid representations from the - battle of the Centaurs, full of life and spirit, on some dilapidated - metopes[6] of the Parthenon at Athens. This splendid specimen of - Doric architecture is 227 feet in length and 101 feet in breadth. It - was ruined in 1687, during the war between the Venetians and Turks, - by a shell which broke through the midst of the marble roof. A large - part of the ninety-two metopes of the outer frieze contain a number - of the most beautiful and life-like scenes from the battle of the - Giants and that of the Centaurs. Of these metopes, thirty-nine still - remain on the temple, though they are all in a terribly mutilated - condition; seventeen are in the British Museum, and one in the - Louvre at Paris. Those from the south side are comparatively in the - best state of preservation; these are seventeen in number, the whole - number on the south side having been thirty-two. They represent, - exclusively, scenes from the battle of the Centaurs. Here a bearded - Centaur is carrying off a woman, whom he holds in his powerful - grasp; there, another is galloping away over the body of his fallen - enemy; another is engaged in a fierce contest with a human foe; - whilst a fourth lies slain on the field. The engraving we append may - give a faint idea of the beauty and bold design of this splendid - creation (Fig. 48). To these grand monuments of Greek art we must - add the frieze of the temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassæ, near - Phigalia in Arcadia, which was discovered in 1812, and is now in the - British Museum. It represents, likewise, a series of the most vivid - scenes from the battle of the Lapithæ and Centaurs. In the - individual groups and scenes of the battle, which is here completed - before our eyes, there is the same variety and animation, so that we - must ascribe it to some great artist (Fig. 49). - -Footnote 6: - - The squares between the triglyphs of the frieze which are intended - to support the gable, every one of which is generally adorned with - a separate sculpture in relief. - - Besides these sculptures in relief, some splendid single statues of - Centaurs have come down to us from antiquity. Among these, the first - place must be assigned to the two Centaurs in the Capitoline Museum. - They are executed in black marble, and were found in the villa of - Hadrian at Tivoli, where so many ancient art treasures have been - brought to light. - -Among the Centaurs, Chiron, who was famous alike for his wisdom and his -knowledge of medicine, deserves mention as the preceptor of many of the -heroes of antiquity. So far superior was he to his savage kindred, both -in education and manners, that he was commonly reported to have had a -different origin, and was therefore described as a son of Cronus and -Philyra, or Phyllira, one of the Oceanids. Homer, who knew nothing of -the equine shape of the Centaurs, represents him as the most upright of -the Centaurs, and makes him the friend of Peleus and the preceptor of -the youthful Achilles, whom he instructed in the art of healing and -gymnastic exercises. He was, moreover, related to both these heroes, his -daughter Endeïs having been the mother of Peleus. Subsequently, other -mythical heroes were added to the number of his pupils, such as Castor -and Polydeuces, Theseus, Nestor, Meleager, and Diomedes. Music, too, was -now represented as a subject of his instruction, though this is perhaps -due to a misinterpretation of the name of his mother. He inhabited a -cave on Mount Pelion; later mythology, however, transferred his -residence, after the Centaurs had been driven from Pelion by the -Lapithæ, to the promontory of Malea. Here, by an unlucky accident, he -was wounded with a poisoned arrow by his friend Heracles, and, the wound -being incurable, he voluntarily chose to die in the place of Prometheus. - -[Illustration: Fig. 50.—Centaur teaching a Boy to play upon the Pipe. -Relief by Kundmann.] - - The idea of the connection of the Centaurs with the arts and - sciences originated in the story of Chiron and Achilles, and has - since furnished modern art with the subjects for some of its most - valuable works. Fig. 50 represents a Centaur teaching a boy to play - on the flute, and is after an _alto-relievo_ of the Viennese - sculptor Kundmann. - - -=2. Theban Legend.=—_1. Cadmus._—Among Theban legends, none is more -celebrated than the founding of Thebes by Cadmus. Cadmus was a son of -the Phœnician king Agenor. After Zeus carried off his sister Europa to -Crete (_vide_ the _Cretan Legends_), he was despatched by his father in -search of her. Accompanied by his mother Telephassa, he came to Thrace -and thence to Delphi, where he was commanded by the oracle to relinquish -his quest. It further ordered him to follow a young heifer with the mark -of a crescent on either side, and to build a town on the place where the -heifer should lie down. Cadmus obeyed, and, finding the heifer in -Phocis, he followed her. She led him into Bœotia, and at length lay down -on a rising ground. On this spot Cadmus founded a town, which he called -Cadmea, after himself, though he had first to experience a perilous -adventure. Before sacrificing the heifer, he sent some of his companions -to fetch water from a neighbouring spring, where they were slain by a -dragon belonging to Ares which guarded the spring. Cadmus then went -himself, and slew the dragon, the teeth of which he sowed in the ground -by the advice of Pallas. Hereupon armed men sprang from the ground; they -immediately turned their arms against each other, and were all slain -except five. Cadmus built his new town with the assistance of these men, -who thus became the ancestors of the noble families of Thebes. In -expiation of the dragon’s death, Cadmus was obliged to do service to -Ares for eight years. At the end of this period Ares pardoned Cadmus and -gave him Harmonia—his daughter by Aphrodite—to wife. Harmonia became the -mother of four daughters—Autonoë, Ino, Semele, and Agave. After reigning -for a long time at Thebes, Cadmus was compelled in his old age to retire -to the Enchelians in Illyria; but whether he was driven out by Amphion -and Zethus (who appear in Homer as the founders of Thebes) or withdrew -from some other cause is not manifest. He and his wife were afterwards -changed into serpents, and transferred, by the command of Zeus, to the -Elysian fields. - -In this story we see another form of the combat of the hero with the -monster, and can probably give it the same explanation. The dragon -guards the waters, and the hero, by killing it, frees them. Do we not -see in this the combat of the sun with the cloud; and in the armed men -who turn their weapons against one another, the clouds that seem to -fight with one another in the thunderstorm? Yet even admitting this -interpretation, it may be that we have in the name of Cadmus an allusion -to the civilisation and the arts received by the Greeks from the East. -So, too, with the alphabet, the invention of which Hellenic tradition -ascribed to him. - -[Illustration: Fig. 51.—Actæon Group. British Museum.] - -_2. Actæon._—We have already incidentally mentioned the fortunes of -three of the daughters of Cadmus—Ino, Semele, and Agave. The eldest, -Autonoë, married Aristæus, the son of Apollo, and became by him the -mother of Actæon. Actæon was handed over to Chiron to be reared as a -stout hunter and warrior; but he had scarcely reached the prime of youth -when he was overtaken by a lamentable fate. Whilst hunting one day on -Mount Cithæron, he was changed by Artemis into a stag, and was torn in -pieces by his own dogs. The cause of her anger was either that Actæon -had boasted that he was a more skilful hunter than Artemis, or that he -had surprised the virgin goddess bathing. The latter tradition -ultimately prevailed, and, in later times, even the rock whence he -beheld Artemis was pointed out on the road between Megara and Platæa. He -received heroic honours in Bœotia, and his protection was invoked -against the deadly power of the sun in the dog-days. The story of Actæon -is probably nothing but a representation of the decay of verdant nature -beneath an oppressive summer heat. - - The story of Actæon’s transformation and death was a favourite - subject for sculpture. A small marble group, representing Actæon - beating off two dogs which are attacking him, was found in 1774, and - is now preserved in the British Museum (Fig. 51). - -_3. Amphion and Zethus._—Besides the royal family of Cadmus, which was -continued in Thebes after his departure by his son Polydorus, we come -across the scions of another ruling family of Thebes which came from -Hyria, or Hysia, in Bœotia, in the persons of Amphion and Zethus. -Nycteus, king of Thebes, had a wonderfully beautiful daughter called -Antiope, whose favours Zeus enjoyed on approaching her in the form of a -Satyr. On becoming pregnant, she fled from the resentment of her father -to Sicyon, where the king, Epopeus, received her and made her his wife. -This enraged Nycteus, who made war on Epopeus in order to compel him to -deliver up his daughter Antiope. He was obliged to retire without -accomplishing his purpose, but, on his death, he entrusted the execution -of his vengeance to his brother Lycus, who succeeded him. Lycus defeated -and slew Epopeus, destroyed Sicyon, and took Antiope back with him as -prisoner. On the way, at Eleutheræ on Cithæron, she gave birth to the -twins Amphion and Zethus. These were immediately exposed, but were -subsequently discovered and brought up by a compassionate shepherd. -Antiope was not only kept prisoner in the house of Lycus, but had also -to submit to the most harsh and humiliating treatment at the hands of -his wife Dirce. At length she managed to escape, and by a wonderful -chance discovered her two sons, who had grown, on lonely Cithæron, into -sturdy youths. The story of her wrongs so enraged them that they -resolved to wreak a cruel vengeance on Dirce. After having taken Thebes -and slain Lycus, they bound Dirce to the horns of a wild bull, which -dragged her about till she perished. According to another story, Dirce -came to Cithæron to celebrate the festival of Bacchus. Here she found -her runaway slave, whom she was about to punish by having her bound to -the horns of a bull. Happily, however, Amphion and Zethus recognised -their mother, and inflicted on the cruel Dirce the punishment she had -destined for another. Her mangled remains they cast into the spring near -Thebes which bears her name. - -[Illustration: Fig. 52.—Farnese Bull. Naples.] - - The punishment of Dirce forms the subject of numerous pieces of - sculpture. The most important among them is the Farnese Bull (_Toro - Farnese_) in the museum at Naples (Fig. 52). This world-renowned - marble group is supposed, with the exception of certain parts which - have been restored in modern times, to have been the work of the - brothers Apollonius and Tauriscus, of Tralles in Caria, Apollonius - and Tauriscus belonged to the Rhodian school, which flourished in - the third century B.C. This colossal group—undoubtedly the largest - which has descended to us from antiquity—was first erected in - Rhodes, but came, during the reign of Augustus, into the possession - of Asinius Pollio, the great art-patron. It was discovered in 1547 - in the Thermæ of Caracalla at Rome, and was set up in the Palazzo - Farnese. It was thence transferred to Naples in 1786, as a portion - of the Farnese inheritance. The following is a brief explanation of - the group, though, of course, the most complete account could give - but an imperfect idea of its beauty. The scene is laid on the rocky - heights of Cithæron. The position of the handsome youths on a rocky - crag is as picturesque as it is dangerous, and serves not only to - lend the group a pyramidal aspect pleasing to the eye, but also to - set before us their marvellous strength. There are several tokens - that the occurrence took place during a Bacchic festival: the wicker - _cista mystica_ in use at the festivals of Dionysus—the fawn skin - which Dirce wears—the ivy garland that has fallen at her feet—the - broken thyrsus, and, lastly, the Bacchic insignia which distinguish - the shepherd boy, who is sitting on the right watching the - proceedings with painful interest—all point to this fact. The lyre - which rests against the tree behind Amphion is a token of his - well-known love of music. The female figure in the background is - Antiope. - -The story goes on to relate that the two brothers, after the expulsion -and death of Lyons, acquired the sovereignty of Thebes, though Amphion -always figures as the real king. The two brothers were widely different -in disposition and character. Zethus appears to have been rude and -harsh, and passionately fond of the chase. Amphion, on the other hand, -is represented as a friend of the Muses, and devoted to music and -poetry. He soon had an opportunity of proving his wondrous skill when -they began to enclose Thebes, which had been before unprotected, with -walls and towers; for whilst Zethus removed great blocks and piled them -one on another by means of his vast strength, Amphion had but to touch -the strings of his lyre and break forth into some sweet melody, and the -mighty stones moved of their own accord and obediently fitted themselves -together. This is why Amphion is always represented in sculpture with a -lyre and Zethus with a club. We can scarcely doubt that these Theban -Dioscuri, like the Castor and Polydeuces of Sparta, who are well known -to be only symbols of the morning and evening star, were originally -personifications of some natural phenomenon; though we are no longer in -a position to say what it was. - -Amphion is further celebrated on account of the melancholy fate of his -sons and daughters. He married Niobe, the daughter of the Phrygian king -Tantalus, and sister of Pelops. Great was the happiness of this -marriage; the gods seemed to shower down their blessings on the royal -pair. Many blooming and lovely children grew up in their palace, the -pride and delight of their happy parents. From this paradise of purest -joy and happiness they were soon to pass into a night of the deepest -mourning and most cruel affliction through the presumption of Niobe—the -same presumption which had led her father Tantalus to trifle with the -gods and consummate his own ruin. The heart of Niobe was lifted up with -pride at the number of her children,[7] and she ventured to prefer -herself to Latona, who had only two; nay, she even went so far as to -forbid the Thebans to offer sacrifice to Latona and her children, and to -claim these honours herself. The vengeance of the offended deities, -however, now overtook her, and all her children were laid low in one day -before the unerring arrows of Apollo and his sister. The parents did not -survive this deep affliction. Amphion slew himself, and Niobe, already -paralysed with grief, was turned into stone by the pity of the gods, and -transferred to her old Phrygian home on Mount Sipylus, though even the -stone has not ceased to weep. - -Footnote 7: - - The number of Niobe’s children varies materially. Homer (_Il._ xxiv., - 602) gives her six sons and as many daughters. According to Hesiod and - Pindar, she had ten sons and ten daughters; but the most common - account, and that followed by the tragic poets, allows her fourteen - children. Everywhere the number of sons and daughters appears to be - equal. The story of Niobe was frequently treated of by the tragic - poets, both Æschylus and Sophocles having written tragedies bearing - her name. - -Such is the substance of this beautiful legend, though its details vary -considerably in the accounts of the poets and mythologists. The most -circumstantial and richly-coloured account of it is contained in the -_Metamorphoses_ of Ovid. The poets have continually striven to impose a -purely ethical interpretation on the story, by representing the -destruction of the children of Niobe as the consequence of the great sin -of their mother; but it is more probably a physical meaning which lies -at the root of the legend. It is, in fact, a picture of the melting of -the snow before the hot scorching rays of the sun. This incident the -fertile imagination of the Greeks portrayed in the most beautiful -metaphors. But just as a subject so purely tragic as the history of -Niobe found its first true development in tragic poetry, so likewise it -only attained its proper place in sculpture after art had laid aside its -earlier and more simple epic character, and set itself to depict, in -their full force, the inward passions of the soul. This tendency towards -pathos and effect is characteristic of the age of Praxiteles and Scopas, -and the later Attic school. - - To this age (4th century B.C.) belonged the group of Niobe, which - was so highly celebrated even among the ancients, and which was seen - by Pliny in the temple of Apollo Sosianus at Rome, although people - even then hesitated whether to ascribe it to Praxiteles or Scopas. - None but one of these great masters could have been the author of - this tragedy hewn in stone. Although the original figures of this - magnificent group have disappeared, yet copies of most of them are - still in existence. With regard to the celebrated Florentine Niobe - group, the dissimilarity of its treatment and the various kinds of - marble employed serve to show that it is not a Greek original, but a - Roman imitation. It was found at Rome in 1583, near the Lateran - Church, and was purchased by Cardinal Medici to adorn his villa on - the Monte Pincio. In 1775 it was brought to Florence, where it has - remained since 1794 in the gallery of the Uffizi. - - There has never been but one opinion as to the beauty of this group. - First among the figures—not only in size, but also in artistic - perfection—is that of Niobe herself. The unhappy queen displays in - her whole hearing so majestic and noble a demeanour, that, even if - none of the other splendid results of Greek sculpture had come down - to us, this alone would bear ample testimony to the high perfection - and creative power of Greek art. The following description of the - arrangement of the group is taken from Lübke’s _History of Plastic - Art_:— - -[Illustration: Fig. 54.—Niobe. Florence.] - - “Apollo and Artemis are to be supposed outside the group; they have - accomplished their work of vengeance and destruction from an - invisible position in the heavens. This is denoted by each movement - of the flying figures, who either gaze upwards in affright towards - the heavens, or seek to cover themselves with their garments. One of - the sons is already stretched dead on the earth; another leans in - mortal agony against a rock, fixing his eyes, already glazed in - death, on the spot whence destruction has overtaken him. A third - brother is striving in vain to protect with his robe his sister, who - has fallen wounded at his feet, and to catch her in his arms; - another has sunk on his knees, and clutches in agony at the wound in - his back; whilst his preceptor is endeavouring to shield the - youngest boy. All the others are fleeing instinctively to their - mother, thinking, doubtless, that she who had so often afforded - protection could save them also from the avenging arrows of the - gods. Thus from either side the waves of this dreadful flight rush - towards the centre, to break on the sublime figure of Niobe as upon - a rock. She alone stands unshaken in all her sorrow, mother and - queen to the last. Clasping her youngest daughter, whose tender - years have not preserved her, in her arms, and bending over as - though to shield the child, she turns her own proud head upwards, - and, before her left hand can cover her sorrow-stricken face with - her robe, she casts towards the avenging goddess a look in which - bitter grief is blended with sublime dignity of soul (Fig. 54). In - this look there is neither defiance nor prayer for mercy, but a - sorrowful and yet withal lofty expression of heroic resignation to - inexorable fate that is worthy of a Niobe. This admirable figure, - then, is pre-eminently the central point of the composition, since - it expresses an atonement which, in a scene of horror and - annihilation, stirs the heart to the deepest sympathy.” - -Zethus was not more fortunate than Amphion in his domestic affairs. He -married Aëdon (nightingale), the daughter of Pandareos. Pandareos was -the friend and companion of Tantalus, for whom he stole a living dog -made of brass from the temple of Zeus in Crete, and was on that account -turned into stone. - -Aëdon was jealous of the good-fortune of Niobe in having so many -beautiful children; she herself having only one son, Itylus. She -resolved, one night, to slay the eldest son of Niobe, but she killed, in -mistake, her own child instead. Zeus took compassion on her, and changed -her into a nightingale. In this guise she still continues to bewail her -loss in long-drawn mournful notes. Tradition says nothing as to the -death of Zethus, although the common grave of the Theban Dioscuri was -pointed out in Thebes. After his death, Laius, the son of Labdacus and -grandson of Polydorus, restored in his person the race of Cadmus to the -throne of Thebes. (See the legend of the Labdacidæ later on.) - - -=3. Corinthian Legend.=—_1. Sisyphus._—Corinth, or Ephyra, as it was -formerly called, was said to have been founded by Sisyphus, the son of -Æolus. Its inhabitants, on account of the position of their city between -two seas, were naturally inclined to deify that element, and it is not -improbable that Sisyphus was merely an ancient symbol of the restless, -ever-rolling waves of the sea. This interpretation, however, is by no -means certain; and the idea of Sisyphus in the lower world ever rolling -a huge stone to the top of a mountain might equally well refer to the -sun, which, after attaining its highest point in the heavens at the time -of the summer solstice, glides back again, only to begin its career anew -on the shortest day. In any case, the rolling of the stone does not -appear to have been originally a punishment. It was only later—after -people had become familiar with the idea of retribution in the lower -world—that it assumed this character. In order to account for it, a -special crime had to be found for Sisyphus. According to some, he was -punished at the instance of Zeus, because he had revealed to the -river-god Asopus the hiding-place of his daughter Ægina, whom Zeus had -secretly carried off from Phlius. According to another tradition, he -used to attack travellers, and put them to death by crushing them with -great stones. The Corinthians being crafty men of business, it was -natural that they should accredit their mythical founder with a refined -cunning. Of the numerous legends which existed concerning him, none was -more celebrated than that of the cunning mode in which he succeeded in -binding Death, whom Ares had to be despatched to release. - -_2. Glaucus._—Tradition describes Glaucus as a son of Sisyphus by -Merope. He also appears to have had a symbolic meaning, and was once -identical with Poseidon, though he was afterwards degraded from the rank -of a god to that of a hero. He is remarkable for his unfortunate end. On -the occasion of some funeral games, celebrated in Iolcus in honour of -Pelias, he took part in the chariot race, and was torn in pieces by his -own horses, which had taken fright. - -_3. Bellerophon and the Legend of the Amazons._—The third national hero -of Corinth was Bellerophon, or Bellerophontes. Here the reference to the -sun is so obvious, that the signification of the myth is unmistakeable. -He was termed the son of Poseidon or Glaucus, and none could appreciate -this genealogy better than the Corinthians, who daily saw the sun rise -from the sea. We must first, however, narrate the substance of the -story. Bellerophon was born and brought up at Corinth, but was obliged -from some cause or other to leave his country. That he killed Bellerus, -a noble of Corinth, is nothing but a fable arising from an unfortunate -misinterpretation of his name. He was hospitably received by Prœtus, -king of Tiryns, whose wife at once fell in love with the handsome, -stately youth. Finding, however, that Bellerophon slighted her passion, -she slandered him to her husband, and Prœtus forthwith sent him to his -father-in-law, Iobates, king of Lycia, with a tablet, mysterious signs -on which bade Iobates put the bearer to death. At this juncture the -heroic career of Bellerophon begins. Iobates sought to fulfil the -command of Prœtus by involving his guest in all kinds of desperate -adventures. He first sent him to destroy the Chimæra, a dangerous -monster that devastated the land. The fore part of its body was that of -a lion, the centre that of a goat, and the hinder part that of a dragon. -According to Hesiod, it had three heads—that of a lion, a goat, and a -dragon. According to the same poet, the Chimæra was a fire-breathing -monster of great swiftness and strength, the daughter of Typhon and -Echidna. Bellerophon destroyed the monster by raising himself in the air -on his winged horse Pegasus, and shooting it with his arrows. Pegasus -was the offspring of Poseidon and Medusa, from whose trunk it sprung -after Perseus had struck off her head. Bellerophon captured this -wonderful animal as it descended at the Acro-Corinthus to drink of the -spring of Pirene. In this he was assisted by the goddess Athene, who -also taught him how to tame and use it. Here, then, he appears to have -already possessed the horse at Corinth; though another tradition relates -that Pegasus was first sent to him when he set out to conquer the -Chimæra. The origin of the story is ascribed to a fiery mountain in -Lycia; but, as all dragons and suchlike monsters of antiquity are -represented as breathing forth fire and flames, we are perhaps scarcely -justified in having recourse to a volcano. This characteristic is, in -fact, merely a common symbol of the furious and dangerous character of -these monsters. The contest of Bellerophon is far more likely to be a -picture of the drying up, by means of the sun’s rays, of the furious -mountain torrents which flood the corn-fields. Others, again, have -thought that the Chimæra represents the storms of winter conquered by -the sun. - -The next adventure in which Iobates engaged Bellerophon was an -expedition against the Solymi, a neighbouring but hostile mountain -tribe. After he had been successful in subduing them, Iobates sent him -against the warlike Amazons, hoping that among them he would be certain -to meet his death. We here, for the first time, come across this -remarkable nation of women, with whom other Greek heroes, such as -Heracles and Theseus, are said to have fought; and it will not, -therefore, be foreign to our object to dwell here on their most -important features. - -[Illustration: Fig. 55—Amazon. Berlin.] - -The Amazons appear in legend as early as Homer, though he only mentions -them incidentally. They were said to be a nation of women, who suffered -no men among them, except so far as it was necessary to keep up the -race. The women, on the other hand, were trained from their earliest -years in all warlike exercises; so that they were not only sufficiently -powerful to defend their own land against foreign invaders, but also to -make plundering incursions into other countries. Their dominions, the -situation of which was at first indefinitely described as in the far -north or far west, were afterwards reduced to more distinct limits, and -placed in Cappadocia, on the river Thermodon, their capital being -Themiscyra in Scythia, on the borders of Lake Mæotis, where their -intercourse with the Scythians is said to have given rise to the -Sarmatian tribes. Later writers also speak of the Amazons in Western -Libya. Of the numerous stories rife concerning them, none is more -tasteless than that of their cutting off or burning out the right -breast, in order not to incommode themselves in the use of the bow. From -the Thermodon they are said to have made great expeditions as far as the -Ægean sea; they are even reported to have invaded Attica, and made war -on Theseus. They also play a prominent part in the story of Heracles, by -whom they were defeated; and in the Trojan war, when, under their queen -Penthesilea, they came to the assistance of Priam against the Greeks. - - The Amazons were frequently represented in Greek art. They are here - depicted as fine, powerful women, resembling Artemis and her nymphs, - though with stouter legs and arms. They generally appear armed, - their weapons being a long double-edged battle-axe (_bipennis_) and - a semicircular shield. An anecdote related by Pliny proves what a - favourite subject the Amazons were with Greek artists. He says that - the celebrated sculptors, Phidias, Polycletus, Phradmon, and - Cresilas, made a wager as to who should create the most beautiful - Amazon. Polycletus received the prize, so that we may conclude that - he brought this statue—the ideal Amazon of the Greeks—to its highest - perfection. Unfortunately, we know nothing of it, except that it was - of bronze, and stood with the statues of the other artists in the - temple of the Ephesian Artemis. The Amazon of Phidias, we are told, - was represented as leaning on a spear; Cresilas, on the other hand, - endeavoured to portray a wounded Amazon. Besides these statues, we - hear a great deal of the Amazon of Strongylion, celebrated for the - beauty of her legs, which was in the possession of Nero. - - We still possess a considerable number of Amazon statues, some of - which are supposed to be imitations in marble of the renowned statue - at Ephesus. There are, moreover, several statues of wounded Amazons, - some of which are believed to be copies of the work of Cresilas. - There is also another marble statue, considerably larger than life, - which takes a still higher rank. It was originally set up in the - Villa Mattei, but since the time of Clement XIV. it has been in the - Vatican collection. It is apparently a representation of an Amazon - resting after battle; she is in the act of laying aside her bow, as - she has already done her shield, battle-axe, and helmet. In doing so - she raises herself slightly on her left foot, an attitude which is - as charming as it is natural. - - Lastly, we must not omit to mention a statue that has newly come - into the possession of the Berlin Museum, which is supposed to be - after a work of Polycletus (Fig. 55). - -We must now return to the history of Bellerophon. After returning in -triumph from his expedition against the Amazons, the life of the young -hero was once more attempted by Iobates, who caused him to be surprised -by an ambuscade. Bellerophon, however, again escaped, slaying all his -assailants. Iobates now ceased from further persecution, and gave him -his daughter in marriage, and a share in the kingdom of Lycia. -Bellerophon, in full possession of power and riches, and surrounded by -blooming children, seemed to have reached the summit of earthly -prosperity, when he was overtaken by a grievous change of fortune. He -was seized with madness, and wandered about alone, fleeing the society -of men, until he at length perished miserably. Pindar says that he -incurred the enmity of the gods by attempting to fly to heaven on his -winged horse Pegasus; whereupon Zeus sent a gadfly to sting the horse. -Pegasus cast off Bellerophon, and flew of his own accord to the stables -of Zeus, whose thunder-chariot he has ever since drawn. The sad fate of -Bellerophon was the subject of a touching tragedy of Euripides, some -parts of which are still in existence. Heroic honours were paid to -Bellerophon in Corinth, and he also had a shrine in the celebrated -cypress-grove of Poseidon. - - -=4. Argive Legend.=—_1. Io._—The first personage who meets us on the -very threshold of the mythic age of Argos is Inachus, the god of the -Argive river of that name. Inachus was venerated by the inhabitants as -the first founder of Argive civilisation after the flood of Deucalion. -By his union with Melia, the daughter of Oceanus, he became the father -of Io, famed for her beauty, whose history, which is of great antiquity, -has been so greatly embellished by the poets and legendary writers. The -following is the substance of the story:— - -Io was the priestess of Hera. Her great beauty attracted the notice of -Zeus. On remarking this, Hera, in her jealousy, changed Io into a white -heifer, and set the hundred-eyed Argus Panoptes (the all-seeing) to -watch her. Zeus, however, sent Hermes to take away the heifer. Hermes -first lulled the guardian to sleep with his wand and then slew him, -whence he is called Argiphontes (slayer of Argus). Hera avenged herself -by sending a gadfly to torment Io, who, in her madness, wandered through -Europe and Asia, until she at length found rest in Egypt, where, touched -by the hand of Zeus, she recovered her original form, and gave birth to -a son. This son, who was called Epaphus, afterwards became king of -Egypt, and built Memphis. The myth, as we have already remarked, has -received many embellishments, for the wanderings of Io grew more and -more extensive with the growth of geographical knowledge. The true -interpretation of the myth is due to F. W. Welcker, whose meritorious -researches in Greek mythology have proved of such great value. Io (the -wanderer) is the moon, whose apparently irregular course and temporary -disappearance was considered a most curious phenomenon by the ancients. -The moon-goddess of antiquity was very frequently represented under the -figure of a heifer; and Isis herself, the Egyptian goddess of the moon, -was always depicted with horns. The guardian of the heifer, the -hundred-eyed Argus, is a symbol of the starry heaven. Whether we see in -Hermes the dawn or the morning breeze, in either case the slaying of -Argus will simply mean that the stars become invisible at sunrise. There -is nothing extraordinary in representing the apparent irregularity of -the moon’s course, inexplicable as it was to the ancients, under the -guise of mental disorder. Similar representations occur in the stories -of the solar heroes, Bellerophon and Heracles. In the south-east—the -direction in which Egypt lay from Greece—Io again appears as full moon, -in her original shape. - -_2. Danaüs and the Danaïds._—According to the legend, Danaüs was a -descendant of Io. Epaphus, the son of Io, had a daughter Libya, who bore -to Poseidon two sons, Agenor and Belus. The former reigned over -Phœnicia, the latter over Egypt. Belus, by his union with Anchinoë, or -Achiroë, the daughter of the Nile, became the father of Ægyptus and -Danaüs. Between these two brothers—the former of whom had fifty sons and -the latter fifty daughters—a deadly enmity arose; this induced Danaüs to -migrate from Egypt and seek the old home of his ancestress Io. He -embarked with his fifty daughters in a ship—the first that was ever -built—and thus came to Argos, where Gelanor, the reigning descendant of -Inachus, resigned the crown in his favour. As king of Argos, Danaüs is -said to have brought the land, which suffered from want of water, to a -higher state of cultivation by watering it with wells and canals. He is -also said to have introduced the worship of Apollo and Demeter. The -story proceeds to relate that the fifty sons of Ægyptus followed their -uncle to Argos, and compelled him to give them his fifty daughters in -marriage. Danaüs, in revenge, gave each of his daughters on the wedding -day a dagger, and commanded them to slay their husbands in the night. -All obeyed his command except Hypermnestra, who spared her husband -Lynceus, and afterwards even succeeded, with the assistance of -Aphrodite, in effecting his reconciliation with her father. Lynceus -succeeded Danaüs in the kingdom, and became, by his son Abas, the -ancestor of both the great Argive heroes, Perseus and Heracles. At a -later period, the fable sprang up that the Danaïds were punished for -their crimes in the lower world by having continually to pour water into -a cask full of holes. It has been frequently remarked that this -punishment has no conceivable connection with the crime. Neither must we -forget that the idea of retribution in the lower world was of a -comparatively late date. Originally, too, the idea prevailed that the -pursuits of the upper world were continued after death in the realms of -Hades. And herein lies the key to the interpretation of the myth, which -is evidently connected with the irrigation of Argos ascribed to Danaüs. - -_3. Prœtus and his Daughters._—Acrisius and Prœtus were twin sons of -Abas, the son of Lynceus and Hypermnestra. Between these two brothers an -implacable hostility existed, which was said by the poets to have -commenced even in their mother’s womb. Prœtus received, as his share of -the patrimony, the kingdom of Tiryns; but he was subsequently expelled -by his brother, and took refuge at the court of Iobates, king of Lycia. -Iobates gave him his daughter Antea, or Sthenebœa, in marriage, and -afterwards restored him to his kingdom of Tiryns. Prœtus, with the aid -of the Lycian workmen whom he had brought with him (Cyclopes), built a -strong fortress, which enabled him not only to maintain peaceable -possession of Tiryns, but also to extend his dominion as far as Corinth. -The legend then passes to the history of his three daughters, the -Prœtides, whose pride was so excited by their father’s greatness and -their own beauty that they began to think themselves superior to the -gods. Their arrogance, however, was soon punished, for they were visited -with a foul disease and driven mad. They now fled the society of -mankind, and wandered about among the mountains and woods of Argos and -Arcadia. At length Prœtus succeeded in procuring the services of the -celebrated soothsayer and purifier Melampus, who undertook the -purification and cure of his daughters. It was reported of Melampus that -serpents had licked his ears whilst asleep, and that he acquired, in -consequence, a knowledge of the language of birds. He successfully -accomplished the cure of the Prœtides, and received, as a reward, the -hand of the princess Iphianassa, in addition to which both he and his -brother Bias received a share in the sovereignty of Tiryns. Thus it was -that the race of the Amythaonidæ, who all inherited the gift of seeing -into futurity, and from whom the celebrated soothsayer Amphiaraüs -himself was descended, came to Argos. - -_4. Perseus._—Acrisius, the brother of Prœtus, had a daughter called -Danaë, whose fortune it was to gain the love of the great ruler of -Olympus. Her father, Acrisius, was induced by an oracle, which foretold -that he should be killed by his own grandson, to immure Danaë in a -subterraneous chamber. Zeus, however, in his love for her, changed -himself into a shower of golden rain, and thus introduced himself -through the roof of her prison. Thus was the god-like hero Perseus born. -There can be no doubt that this myth, too, is founded on the idea of the -bridal union of heaven and earth; this is one of the pictures of nature -which the mind most readily forms. Danaë represents the country of -Argos; her prison is the heaven, enveloped, during the gloomy months of -winter, with thick clouds. Her offspring by Zeus represents the light of -the sun, which returns in the spring-time and begins, like a veritable -hero, its contest with the powers of death and darkness. The Gorgon -Medusa has the same significance in the history of Perseus that the -hideous Python has in that of Apollo. - -The legend then proceeds to relate that Acrisius, having heard of the -birth of his grandson, to avert the fate threatened by the oracle, -ordered mother and child to be confined in a chest and cast into the -sea. But human wisdom avails nought against the inevitable decrees of -heaven. The chest was cast by the waves on the rocky island of Seriphus, -where it was found by the fisherman Dictys; and Danaë and her child were -hospitably received and cared for by Dictys and his brother Polydectes, -the ruler of the island. The latter, however, subsequently wished to -marry Danaë, and on her rejecting his advances made her a slave. Fearing -the vengeance of Perseus, he despatched him, as soon as he was grown up, -on a most perilous adventure. This was no other than to bring him the -head of the Gorgon Medusa—a terrible winged woman, who dwelt with her -two sisters, the daughters of Phorcys and Ceto, on the farthest western -shore of the earth, on the border of Oceanus. Perseus set out, though he -was in the greatest perplexity how to accomplish so perilous a task. -Hermes, however, at this juncture came to his aid; and Athene, the -special patroness of heroes, inspired him with courage. These deities -first showed him how to procure the necessary means for accomplishing -his undertaking, which consisted of an invisible helmet, a magic wallet, -and a pair of winged sandals. All these were in the hands of the Nymphs, -by whom probably the water-nymphs are meant. The way to their abode he -could only learn from the Grææ. These creatures, who were likewise the -daughters of Phorcys and Ceto, were reported to have come into the world -as old women; their very appearance was appalling, and they had but one -eye and one tooth between them, of which they made use in turn. They, -too, dwelt on the outskirts of the gloomy region inhabited by the -Gorgons, whence they are called by Æschylus their sentinels. Under the -guidance of Apollo and Athene, Perseus came to the Grææ. He then robbed -them of their one eye and one tooth, and thus forced them to tell him -the way to the habitations of the Nymphs. From the latter he at once -obtained the objects he sought; and having donned his winged sandals, he -hastened to the abode of the Gorgons, whom he fortunately discovered -asleep. Athene then pointed out to him Medusa—the other two sisters, -Stheno and Euryale, being immortal—and enjoined him to approach them -carefully backwards, as the sight of their faces would infallibly turn -any mortal into stone. With the help of her mirror-like shield and the -sickle of Hermes, Perseus succeeded in cutting off the head of Medusa -without looking round; and having placed the head in his wallet, he -hastened away. His helmet, which rendered him invisible, enabled him to -escape the pursuit of the other Gorgons, who had meanwhile awaked. From -the trunk of Medusa sprang the winged horse Pegasus, and Chrysaor, the -father of Geryones. On his return to Seriphus, Perseus turned the -unrighteous Polydectes into stone by means of the Gorgon’s head, which -he then presented to Athene; and after making his benefactor, Dictys, -king of the island, he turned his steps towards his native place, Argos. -Such are the essential features of the myth—concerning which, in spite -of its antiquity, we have no earlier sources of information—such is the -original framework on which was afterwards built up the history of the -further adventures of the hero. The most celebrated of these was the -rescue of Andromeda, which formed the subject of a drama of Euripides, -and was also highly popular among artists and poets. The following is a -brief account of this exploit:—Cassiopea, the wife of Cepheus, king of -Æthiopia, ventured to extol her own beauty above that of the Nereids, -who thereupon besought Poseidon to avenge them. He granted their -request, and not only overwhelmed the land with disastrous floods, but -sent also a terrible sea-monster, which devoured both man and beast. The -oracle of Ammon declared that the land could only be saved by the -sacrifice of the king’s daughter, Andromeda, to the monster. Cepheus, -after some time, yielded to the entreaties of his people, and Andromeda -was chained to a rock close to the sea. In this situation she was found -by Perseus, on his return from his adventure with the Gorgons. He -forthwith attacked and slew the sea-monster, and released the trembling -maiden, who soon after married her preserver. Later writers, not -satisfied with this adventure, added that Perseus was also obliged to -vanquish a rival in Phineus, the king’s brother, to whom Andromeda had -been already promised. Phineus, together with his warriors, was changed -into stone by means of the Gorgon’s head. - -The legend concludes with the return of the hero to Argos, where he was -reconciled to his grandfather Acrisius, who had at first fled in terror -to Larissa. On the occasion, however, of some games which the people of -Larissa had instituted in his honour, Perseus was unfortunate enough to -kill Acrisius with his discus, thus involuntarily fulfilling the -prophecy of the oracle. In this feature of the story we recognise an -unmistakeable reference to the symbolic meaning of Perseus; for the -discus here represents, as in the story of the death of Hyacinthus, the -face of the sun. Perseus, unwilling to enter on the inheritance of the -grandfather he had slain, exchanged the kingdom of Argos for that of -Tiryns, which was handed over to him by its king, Megapenthes, the son -of Prœtus. He here founded the cities of Midea and Mycenæ, and became, -through his children by Andromeda, the ancestor of many heroes, and, -among others, of Heracles. His son Electryon became the father of -Alcmene, whilst Amphitryon was descended from another of his sons. -According to Pausanias, heroic honours were paid to Perseus, not only -throughout Argos, but also in Athens and the island of Seriphus. - - Perseus occupies a prominent position in Greek art. His common - attributes are the winged sandals, the sickle which he made use of - to slay Medusa, and the helmet of Hades. In bodily form, as well as - in costume, he appears very like Hermes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 56.—Perseus and Andromeda. Marble Relief in the -Museum at Naples.] - - Among the art monuments which relate to his adventures is a marble - relief from the Villa Pamfili, now in the Capitoline Museum at Rome, - depicting the rescue of Andromeda. The sea-monster lies dead at the - feet of Perseus, who is assisting the joyful Andromeda to descend - from the rock. The attitude and expression of both figures are very - striking: on the one side, maidenly modesty; on the other, proud - self-reliance. It is worth remarking that Perseus, in addition to - his winged shoes, has also wings on his head. The same conception is - perceptible, with a few minor points of difference, in several - Pompeian paintings, and on a marble relief of the Naples Museum - (Fig. 56). Representations of Medusa are mostly confined to masks, - which are often found on coats of mail, shields, leaves of folding - doors, and instruments of all kinds. There are two types, - representing an earlier and a later conception of Medusa. Earlier - art set itself to depict the horrible only in the head of Medusa; - and artists, therefore, strove to impart to the face as strong an - expression of rage and ferocity as was possible, representing her - with tongue lolling forth, and boar-like tusks. It is worthy of - remark that, in the earlier examples of these masks—which are - frequently met with on coins, gems, and pottery—the hair generally - falls stiff and straight over the forehead, serving to render the - horrible breadth of the face still more striking, while the snakes - appear to be fastened round the neck like a necklace. Very different - is the conception adopted by the later and more sensuous school. - This laboured principally to give expression to the gradual ebbing - away of life in the countenance of the dying Gorgon, an effect which - was rendered still more striking by transforming the hideous Gorgon - face of earlier times into an ideal of the most perfect beauty. The - most splendid example of this later conception, which had been - creeping in since the age of Praxiteles, is to be found in the - Medusa Rondanini of the Munich collection—a marble mask of most - beautiful workmanship, which was brought from the Rondanini Palace - at Rome (Fig. 57). This Medusa, like many others of the later type, - has wings on the head. - -[Illustration: Fig. 57.—Rondanini Medusa. Munich.] - - -=5. The Dioscuri.=—On passing to Laconia and Messenia, the southern -districts of the Peloponnesus, we come in contact with the legend of the -Dioscuri. Tyndareüs and his brother Icarius were said to have founded -the most ancient sovereignty in Lacedæmon. They were driven thence, -however, by their half-brother Hippocoön, and were kindly received by -Thestius, the ruler of the ancient city of Pleuron in Ætolia, who gave -Tyndareüs his daughter Leda in marriage. Icarius received the hand of -Polycaste, who bore him Penelope—afterwards the wife of Odysseus; while -Leda was the mother of the Dioscuri, Castor and Polydeuces (Pollux). -Tyndareüs was afterwards reinstated in his Lacedæmonian kingdom at -Amyclæ by Heracles. Besides these two sons, Leda had also two daughters, -Clytæmnestra and Helene (Helen), who are celebrated in connection with -the Trojan war. An ancient legend also existed to the effect that Leda -had been beloved by Zeus, who had approached her under the guise of a -swan. The greatest incongruity prevails as to which of the children -could claim a divine origin. In Homer, Helen alone is represented as the -daughter of Zeus; while Clytæmnestra, together with Castor and -Polydeuces, appear as the children of Tyndareüs. At a subsequent period, -the name of “Dioscuri” (sons of Zeus) and a belief in their divine -origin arose simultaneously. Later still, Castor was represented as a -mortal, and the son of Tyndareüs; and Polydeuces as immortal, and the -son of Zeus. After Castor, however, had fallen in the contest with the -sons of Aphareus, his brother Polydeuces, unwilling to part from him, -prevailed on Zeus to allow them to remain together, on condition of -their spending one day in Olympus and the next in Hades. They thus led a -life divided between mortality and immortality. The following is an -account of their heroic deeds:—On attaining manhood, Castor -distinguished himself by his skill in the management of horses; whilst -Polydeuces became renowned as a skilful boxer, though he too had skill -in riding. They first made war on Theseus, who had carried off their -sister Helen, then ten years old, and set her free by the conquest of -Aphidnæ. They next took part in the expedition of the Argonauts, in -which Polydeuces gained still further renown by his victory with the -cestus over the celebrated boxer Amycus. They were also present at the -Calydonian boar hunt. Their last undertaking was the rape of the -daughters of Leucippus, king of Messenia. This was the cause of their -combat with their cousins Idas and Lynceus, the sons of Aphareus, to -whom the damsels had been betrothed. According to others, however, it -sprang from a quarrel as to the division of some booty that they had -carried off together. Castor was slain by Idas, whereupon Polydeuces in -his wrath slew Lynceus, while Idas himself was overwhelmed by a -thunderbolt from Zeus. - -The interpretation of this myth is by no means void of difficulty. It is -commonly supposed that they were ancient Peloponnesian divinities of -light, who, after the Dorian invasion, were degraded to the rank of -heroes. They are often interpreted as personifications of the morning -and evening star, or of the twilight (dawn and dusk). This view died out -after the second deification that they underwent. They were venerated, -not only in their native Sparta, but throughout the whole of Greece, as -kindly, beneficent deities, whose aid might be invoked either in battle -or in the dangers of shipwreck. In this latter character they are lauded -by an Homeric hymn, in which they are represented as darting through the -air on their golden wings, in order to calm the storm at the prayer of -the terror-stricken mariner. It has often been remarked, and with a -great appearance of truth, that these Dioscuri flitting about on their -golden wings are probably nothing more than what is commonly called St. -Elmo’s fire—an electric flame which, is often seen playing round the -tops of the masts during a storm, and which is regarded by the sailors -as a sign of its speedy abatement; indeed the name Elmo has been -supposed a corruption of Helene. In Sparta, the Dioscuri were regarded -as the tutelary deities of the state, as well as an example of warlike -valour for the youth of the country. Their shrines here were very -numerous. Their ancient symbol, which the Spartans always took with them -on a campaign, consisted of two parallel beams joined by cross-bars. -They had other festivals and temples besides those of Sparta; in -Mantinea, for instance, where an eternal fire was kept burning in their -honour; also in Athens, where they were venerated under the appellation -of Anaces. Their festival was here celebrated with horse-racing. The -Olympic games also stood under their special protection, and their -images were set up in all the palæstra. They were, in fact, everywhere -regarded as extremely benevolent and sociable deities, who foster all -that is noble and beautiful among men. - -The Dioscuri were believed to have assisted the Romans against the -Latins at the Lake Regillus; and the dictator, A. Postumius, vowed a -temple to them, which was erected in the Forum, opposite the temple of -Vesta. In commemoration of this aid, the Equites made a solemn -procession from the temple of Honos, past the temple of the Dioscuri, to -the Capitol every year on the Ides of July. - - In art the Dioscuri are represented as heroic youths of noble mien - and slim but powerful forms. Their characteristic marks are conical - caps, the points of which are adorned with a star. They generally - appear nude, or clothed only with a light chlamys, and nearly always - in connection with their horses, either riding, standing by and - holding them, or leading them by the bridle. The most celebrated - representation of the Dioscuri that has come down to us from - antiquity consists of the marble statues called the Colossi of Monte - Cavallo, in Rome. These are eighteen feet in height, and the - proportions of the figures, together with those of the horses, are - exquisite. They are set up on the Quirinal, which has received from - them the name of Monte Cavallo. They are not, indeed, original - works, but are probably imitations of bronzes of the most - flourishing period of Greek art, executed in the time of Augustus. - - -=6. Heracles (Hercules).=—Of all the myths of the countries originally -inhabited by the Æolians the myth of Heracles is the most glorious. This -hero, though his fame was chiefly disseminated by means of the Dorians, -was yet by birth the common property of the Æolian race—their national -hero, in fact, just as he afterwards became the national hero of the -whole of Greece. No other Greek myth has received so many subsequent -additions—not only from native, but also from foreign sources—as this; -which is, in consequence, the most extensive and complicated of all -Greek myths. We shall, therefore, have to confine ourselves to the -consideration of its most characteristic features, and those which are -the most important in the history of art. - -In Homer, who is here again our most ancient authority, the leading -features of the myth are traced—the enmity of Hera towards the hero; his -period of subjection to Eurystheus, and the labours by which he -emancipated himself (though special mention is made only of his seizure -of Cerberus); his expeditions against Pylus, Ephyra, Œchalia, and Troy. -The verses in the _Odyssey_ (xi. 602–4), which refer to his deification -and subsequent marriage with Hebe, are probably a later insertion. In -the _Iliad_, Heracles is spoken of as a great hero of olden time, “whom -the Fates and the grievous wrath of Hera subdued.” In Homer, too, he -appears as a purely Grecian hero, his warlike undertakings having never -yet led him beyond Troy, and his armour differing in no respect from -that of other heroes. The description of him in Hesiod’s _Theogony_ and -in the _Shield of Heracles_ is somewhat more minute, but is otherwise -essentially the same. From what source the deification of Heracles -sprang—whether it was due to Phœnician influences or not—has hitherto -remained an undetermined question; we only know that it appears as an -accomplished fact about 700 B.C. - -I. THE BIRTH AND YOUTH OF HERACLES.—This portion of the legend found its -chief development in Bœotia. Amphitryon, a son of Alcæus and grandson of -Perseus, was compelled to flee from Tiryns with his betrothed -Alcmene—likewise a descendant of Perseus by her father Electryon—on -account of a murder, and found an asylum at the court of Creon, king of -Thebes. From this place he undertook an expedition against the robber -tribes of the Teleboæ (Taphians), in consequence of a promise made to -Alcmene, whose brother they had slain. After the successful termination -of this expedition, the marriage was to have been celebrated at Thebes. -But, in the meanwhile, the great ruler of Olympus himself had been -smitten with the charms of Alcmene, and, taking the form of the absent -Amphitryon, had left her pregnant with Heracles, to whom she afterwards -gave birth at the same time with Iphicles, the son of Amphitryon. The -sovereignty over all the descendants of Perseus, which Zeus had destined -for Heracles, was snatched from him by the crafty jealousy of Hera, who -prolonged the pains of Alcmene and hastened the delivery of the wife of -Sthenelus, the uncle of Amphitryon, by two months. Not content with -having subjected the hero to the will of the weak and cowardly -Eurystheus, Hera, according to a subsequent account of the poets, sent -two serpents to kill the child when he was about eight months old. -Heracles, however, gave the first proof of his divine origin by -strangling the serpents with his hands. An account of this scene has -descended to us in a beautiful poem of Pindar. In Thebes, the boy grew -up and was put under the care of the best preceptors. But, though he -excelled in every feat of strength and valour, he made no progress in -musical arts, and even slew his master Linus on account of a somewhat -harsh reproof which his inaptitude entailed on him. As a punishment, -Amphitryon sent him to Mount Cithæron to mind the flocks, a mode of life -which Heracles continued until he had completed his eighteenth year. It -was to this period that the sophist Prodicus, a contemporary of -Socrates, referred his beautiful allegory of the _Choice of Heracles_. -After attaining his full growth (according to Apollodorus he was four -cubits in height) and strength, the young hero performed his first great -feat by killing the lion of Cithæron. Whether it was this skin or that -of the Nemean lion which he afterwards used as a garment is not certain. -His next act was to free the Thebans from the ignominious tribute which -they were compelled to pay to Erginus, king of Orchomenus, by a -successful expedition, in which Amphitryon, however, lost his life. -Creon, the king of Thebes, in gratitude gave the hero his daughter -Megara in marriage, while Iphicles married her sister. - -II. HERACLES IN THE SERVICE OF EURYSTHEUS—THE TWELVE LABOURS.—We now -come to the second epoch in the life of the hero, in which he performed -various labours at the bidding of Eurystheus, king of Mycenæ or Tiryns. -The number of these was first fixed at twelve in the Alexandrian age, -when Heracles was identified with the Phœnician sun-god, Baal; probably -from the analogy afforded in the course of the sun through the twelve -signs of the Zodiac. The subjection of Heracles to his unmanly cousin -Eurystheus is generally represented as a consequence of the stratagem by -which Hera obtained for the latter the sovereignty over all the -descendants of Perseus. At a later period Heracles was said to have -become insane, in consequence of the summons of Eurystheus to do his -bidding. The following is an account of the labours of Heracles:— - -_1. The Fight with the Nemean Lion._—The district of Nemea and Cleonæ -was inhabited by a monstrous lion, the offspring of Typhon and Echidna, -whose skin bade defiance to every weapon. Heracles, after using his -arrows and club against the animal in vain, at last drove it into a -cave, and there strangled it with his hands. He afterwards used the head -of the lion as a helmet, and the impenetrable skin as a defence. - -_2. The Lernæan Hydra._—This was a great water-serpent, likewise the -offspring of Typhon and Echidna. The number of its heads varies in the -accounts of poets, though ancient gems usually represent it with seven. -It ravaged the country of Lerna in Argolis, destroying both men and -beasts. In this adventure Heracles was accompanied by Iolaüs, the son of -his brother Iphicles, who, on this as on other occasions, appears as his -faithful companion. After driving the monster from its lair by means of -his arrows, he advanced fearlessly, and, seizing it in his hands, began -to strike off its heads with his sword. To his amazement, in the place -of each head he struck off two sprang up. He then ordered Iolaüs to set -on fire a neighbouring wood, and with the firebrands seared the throats -of the serpent, until he at length succeeded in slaying it. He then -dipped his arrows in its gall, thus rendering the wounds inflicted by -them incurable. - -_3. The Erymanthian Boar._—This animal inhabited the mountain district -of Erymanthus in Arcadia, from which place it wasted the corn-fields of -Psophis. Heracles drove the boar up to the snow-covered summit of the -mountain, and then caught it alive, as Eurystheus had commanded him. -When he arrived at Mycenæ with the terrible beast on his back, -Eurystheus was so terrified that he hid himself in a vessel. This comic -scene is frequently depicted on vases. It was on this occasion that -Heracles destroyed the Centaurs. On the road the hero, hungry and -thirsty, was hospitably received by the friendly Centaur Pholus, who -holds the same place among the Arcadian Centaurs as Chiron does among -those of Thessaly. Pholus broached, in honour of his guest, a cask of -wine lying in his cave, which was the common property of all the -Centaurs. The fragrance of the wine attracted the other Centaurs living -on Mount Pholoë, and they immediately attacked the tippling hero with -pieces of rock and trunks of trees. Heracles, however, drove them back -with arrows and firebrands, and completely vanquished them after a -terrible fight. On returning to the cave of Pholus, he found his friend -dead. He had drawn an arrow out of a dead body to examine it, but -accidentally let it fall on his foot, from the wound of which he died. - -_4. The Hind of Cerynea._—This animal, which was sacred to the Arcadian -Artemis, had golden horns and brazen hoofs, the latter being a symbol of -its untiring fleetness. Heracles was commanded to bring it alive to -Mycenæ, and for a whole year he continued to pursue it over hill and -dale with untiring energy. At length it returned to Arcadia, where he -succeeded in capturing it on the banks of the Ladon, and bore it in -triumph to Mycenæ. - -_5. The Stymphalian Birds._—These voracious birds, which fed on human -flesh, had brazen claws, wings, and beaks, and were able to shoot out -their feathers like arrows. They inhabited the district round Lake -Stymphalis in Arcadia. Heracles slew some, and so terrified the rest by -means of his brazen rattle that they never returned. This latter -circumstance is apparently an addition of later times, to explain their -reappearance in the history of the Argonauts. - -_6. Cleansing of the Stables of Augeas._—The sixth task of Heracles was -to cleanse in one day the stables of Augeas, king of Elis, whose wealth -in cattle had become proverbial. Heracles repaired to Elis, where he -offered to cleanse the stables, in which were three thousand oxen, if -the king would consent to give him a tenth part of the cattle. Augeas -agreed to do so; Heracles then turned the course of the Peneus or the -Alpheus, or, according to some, of both rivers, through the stalls, and -thus carried off the filth. Augeas, however, on learning that Heracles -had undertaken the labour at the command of Eurystheus, refused to give -him the stipulated reward, a breach of faith for which Heracles, later, -took terrible vengeance on the king. - -_7. The Cretan Bull._—In the history of Minos, king of Crete, we find -that Poseidon once sent up a bull out of the sea for Minos to sacrifice, -but that Minos was induced by the beauty of the animal to place it among -his own herds, and sacrificed another in its stead; whereupon Poseidon -drove the bull mad. The seventh labour of Heracles consisted in -capturing this bull and bringing it to Mycenæ. It was afterwards set -free by Eurystheus, and appears later, in the story of Theseus, as the -bull of Marathon. - -_8. The Mares of Diomedes._—Diomedes was king of the Bistones, a warlike -tribe of Thrace. He inhumanly caused all strangers cast upon his coasts -to be given to his wild mares, who fed on human flesh. To bind these -horses and bring them alive to Mycenæ was the next task of Heracles. -This, too, he successfully accomplished, after inflicting on Diomedes -the same fate to which he had condemned so many others. - -_9. The Girdle of Hippolyte._—Admete, the daughter of Eurystheus, was -anxious to obtain the girdle which the queen of the Amazons had received -from Ares; and Heracles was accordingly despatched to fetch it. After -various adventures he landed in Themiscyra, and was at first kindly -received by Hippolyte, who was willing to give him the girdle. But Hera, -in the guise of an Amazon, spread a report that Heracles was about to -carry off the queen, upon which the Amazons attacked Heracles and his -followers. In the battle which ensued Hippolyte was killed, and the -hero, after securing the girdle, departed. On his journey homewards -occurred his celebrated adventure with Hesione, the daughter of -Laomedon, king of Troy. This king had refused Poseidon and Apollo the -rewards he had promised them for their assistance in building the walls -of Troy. In consequence of his perfidy, Apollo visited the country with -a pestilence, and Poseidon sent a sea-monster, which devastated the land -far and wide. By the advice of the oracle, Hesione, the king’s daughter, -was exposed to be devoured by the animal. Heracles offered to destroy -the monster, if Laomedon would give him the horses which his father Tros -had received as a compensation for the loss of Ganymedes. Laomedon -agreed, and Heracles then slew the monster. Laomedon, however, again -proved false to his word, and Heracles, with a threat of future -vengeance, departed. - -_10. The Oxen of Geryones._—The next task of Heracles was to fetch the -cattle of the three-headed winged giant Geryones, or Geryoneus (Geryon). -This monster was the offspring of Chrysaor (red slayer) and Callirrhoë -(fair-flowing), an Oceanid, and inhabited the island of Erythia, in the -far West, in the region of the setting sun, where he had a herd of the -finest and fattest cattle. It was only natural that Heracles, in the -course of his long journey to Erythia and back, should meet with -numerous adventures; and this expedition has, accordingly, been more -richly embellished than any other by the imagination of the poets. He is -generally supposed to have passed through Libya, and to have sailed -thence to Erythia in a golden boat, which he forced Helios (the sun) to -lend him by shooting at him with his arrows. Having arrived in Erythia, -he first slew the herdsman who was minding the oxen, together with his -dog. He was then proceeding to drive off the cattle, when he was -overtaken by Geryon. A violent contest ensued, in which the three-headed -monster was at length vanquished by the arrows of the mighty hero. -Heracles is then supposed to have recrossed the ocean in the boat of the -sun, and, starting from Tartessus, to have journeyed on foot through -Iberia, Gaul, and Italy. We pass over his contests with the Celts and -Ligurians, and only notice briefly his victory over the giant Cacus, -mentioned by Livy, which took place in the district where Rome was -afterwards built, because Roman legend connected with this the -introduction of the worship of Hercules into Italy. At length, after -many adventures, he arrived at Mycenæ, where Eurystheus sacrificed the -oxen to the Argive goddess Hera. - -Heracles has now completed ten of his labours, but Eurystheus, as -Apollodorus relates, refused to admit the destruction of the Lernæan -Hydra, because on that occasion Heracles had availed himself of the help -of Iolaüs, or the cleansing of the stables of Augeas, because of the -reward for which he had stipulated; so that the hero was compelled to -undertake two more. This account does not, however, harmonise with the -tradition of the response of the oracle, in deference to which Heracles -surrendered himself to servitude, and which offered the prospect of -twelve labours from the first. - -_11. The Apples of the Hesperides._—This adventure has been even more -embellished with later and foreign additions than the last. The golden -apples, which were under the guardianship of the Hesperides, or nymphs -of the west, constituted the marriage present which Hera had received -from Gæa on the occasion of her marriage with Zeus. They were closely -guarded by the terrible dragon Ladon, who, like all monsters, was the -offspring of Typhon and Echidna. This, however, was far less -embarrassing to the hero than his total ignorance of the site of the -garden of the Hesperides, which led him to make several fruitless -efforts before he succeeded in reaching the desired spot. - -His first object was to gain information as to the situation of the -garden, and for this purpose he journeyed through Illyria to the -Eridanus (Po), in order to inquire the way of the nymphs who dwelt on -this river. By them he was referred to the treacherous sage Nereus, whom -he managed to seize whilst asleep, and refused to release until he had -obtained the desired information. Heracles then proceeded by way of -Tartessus to Libya, where he was challenged to a wrestling match by the -giant Antæus, a powerful son of Earth, who was, according to Libyan -tradition, of a monstrous height (some say sixty cubits). He was -attacked by Heracles, but, as he received new strength from his mother -Earth as often as he touched the ground, the hero lifted him up in the -air and squeezed him to death in his arms. - -From Libya Heracles passed into Egypt, where the cruel king Busiris was -in the habit of seizing all strangers who entered the country and -sacrificing them to Zeus. Heracles would have suffered a similar fate, -had he not broken the chains laid upon him, and slain the king and his -son. His indulgence at the richly-furnished table of the king was a -feature in the story which afforded no small amusement to the comic -writers, who were especially fond of jesting on the subject of the -healthy and heroic appetite of Heracles. From Egypt the hero made his -way into Æthiopia, where he slew Emathion, the son of Tithonus and Eos, -for his cruelty to strangers. He next crossed the sea to India, and -thence came to the Caucasus, where he set Prometheus free and destroyed -the vulture that preyed on his liver. After Prometheus had described to -him the long road to the Hesperides, he passed through Scythia, and came -at length to the land of the Hyperboreans, where Atlas bore the pillars -of heaven on his shoulders. This was the end of his journey, for Atlas, -at his request, fetched the apples, whilst Heracles supported the -heavens. Here again the comic poets introduced an amusing scene. Atlas, -having once tasted the delights of freedom, betrayed no anxiety to -relieve his substitute, but offered, instead, to bear the apples himself -to Eurystheus. Heracles, however, proved even more cunning than he, for, -apparently agreeing to the proposition, he asked Atlas just to relieve -him until he had arranged more comfortably a cushion for his back. When -Atlas good-humouredly consented, Heracles of course left him in his -former position, and made off with the apples. Another account states -that he descended himself into the garden and slew the hundred-headed -dragon who kept guard over the trees. - -_12. Cerberus._—The most daring of all the feats of Heracles, and that -which bears the palm from all the others, and is in consequence, always -put at the end of his labours, was the bringing of Cerberus from the -lower world. In this undertaking, which is mentioned even by Homer, he -was accompanied by Hermes and Athene, though he had hitherto been able -to dispense with divine aid. He is commonly reported to have made his -descent into the lower world at Cape Tænarum in Laconia. Close to the -gates of Hades he found the adventurous heroes Theseus and Pirithoüs, -who had gone down to carry off Persephone, fastened to a rock. He -succeeded in setting Theseus free, but Pirithoüs he was obliged to leave -behind him, because of the violent earthquake which occurred when he -attempted to touch him. After several further adventures, he entered the -presence of the lord of the lower world. Hades consented to his taking -Cerberus, on condition that he should master him without using any -weapons. Heracles seized the furious beast, and, having chained him, he -brought him to Eurystheus, and afterwards carried him back to his place -in the lower world. The completion of this task released Heracles from -his servitude to Eurystheus. - -III. DEEDS OF HERACLES AFTER HIS SERVICE.—_1. The Murder of Iphitus and -Contest with Apollo._—The hero, after his release from servitude, -returned to Thebes, where he gave his wife Megara in marriage to Iolaüs. -He then proceeded to the court of Eurytus, king of Œchalia, who had -promised his beautiful daughter Iole in marriage to the man who should -vanquish himself and his sons in shooting with the bow. The situation of -Œchalia is variously given; sometimes it is placed in Thessaly, -sometimes in the Peloponnesus, on the borders of Arcadia and Messenia, -and sometimes in the island of Eubœa, close to Eretria. Heracles gained -a most complete victory; but Eurytus, nevertheless, refused to give him -his daughter, reproaching him with the murder of his children by Megara, -and with his ignominious bondage to Eurystheus. Heracles, with many -threats of future vengeance, withdrew, and when, not long afterwards, -Iphitus, the son of Eurytus, fell into his hands, he cast him from the -highest tower of his citadel in Tiryns. This somewhat treacherous action -being at variance with the general character of the hero, the story -subsequently arose that Iphitus was a friend of Heracles, and had -advocated his cause with Eurytus, and that Heracles only treated him -thus in a fit of insanity. The bloody deed was fraught with the gravest -consequences. After seeking purification and absolution in vain among -men, Heracles came to Delphi, in order to seek the aid and consolation -of the oracle. But Apollo, with whom the royal family of Œchalia stood -in high favour, rejected him; whereupon Heracles forced his way into the -temple, and was already in the act of bearing away the holy tripod, in -order to erect an oracle of his own, when he was confronted by the angry -deity. A fearful combat would doubtless have ensued, if the father of -gods and men himself had not interfered to prevent this unnatural strife -between his favourite sons by separating the combatants with his -lightning. Heracles was now commanded by the Pythian priestess to allow -himself to be sold by Hermes into slavery for three years, to expiate -the murder of Iphitus. - -_2. Heracles in the Service of Omphale._—This portion of the story is of -Lydian origin, but was cleverly interwoven with the Greek legend. The -Lydians, in fact, honoured a sun-hero called Sandon, who resembled -Heracles in many respects, as the ancestor of their kings. The oriental -character of the Lydian Heracles at once manifests itself in the fact -that he here appears as entirely devoted to sensual pleasures, becoming -effeminate in the society of women, and allowing himself to be clothed -in female attire, whilst his mistress Omphale donned his lion-skin and -club, and flaunted up and down before him. He did not always linger in -such inactivity, however; sometimes the old desire for action urged him -forth to gallant deeds. Thus he vanquished and chastised the Cercopes, a -race of goblins who used to trick and waylay travellers. He also slew -Syleus, who compelled all passing travellers to dig in his vineyard; -which formed the subject of a satyric drama of Euripides. - -_3. His Expedition against Troy._—After performing several other feats -in the service of Omphale, Heracles again became free. He now appears to -have undertaken an expedition against the faithless Laomedon, king of -Troy, in company with other Greek heroes, such as Peleus, Telamon, and -Oïcles, whose number increased as time went on. The city was taken by -storm: Oïcles, indeed, was slain, but, on the other hand, Laomedon and -all his sons except Podarces fell before the arrows of Heracles. -Hesione, the daughter of the king, was given by Heracles to his friend -Telamon, and became by him the mother of Teucer. She received permission -from Heracles to release one of the prisoners, and chose her brother -Podarces, who afterwards bore the name of Priamus (the redeemed), and -continued the race of Dardanus in Ilium. - -_4. The Peloponnesian Expeditions of Heracles._—The legend relates that -the hero now undertook his long-deferred expedition against Augeas, -which was the means of kindling a Messenian and Lacedæmonian war. After -assembling an army in Arcadia, which was joined by many gallant Greek -heroes, he advanced against Elis. Heracles, however, fell sick; and in -his absence his army was attacked and driven back with great loss by the -brave Actoridæ or Molionidæ, the nephews of Augeas. It was only after -Heracles had slain these heroes in an ambuscade at Cleonæ, as they were -on their way to the Isthmian games, that he succeeded in penetrating -into Elis. He then slew Augeas, and gave the kingdom to his son Phyleus, -with whom he was on friendly terms. It was on this occasion that he -instituted the Olympic games. He then marched against Pylus, either -because its king, Neleus, had given assistance to the Molionidæ, or else -because Neleus had refused to purify him from the murder of Iphitus. -This expedition against Pylus was subsequently greatly embellished by -the poets, who made it into a great battle of the gods, one part of whom -fought for Neleus, and the other part for Heracles. The chief feature -was the combat between Heracles and Periclymenus, the bravest of the -sons of Neleus, who had received from Poseidon, the tutelary deity of -the Pylians, the power of transforming himself into any kind of animal. -The result of the combat was of course a complete victory for Heracles. -Neleus, with his eleven gallant sons, was slain, and only the youngest, -Nestor, remained to perpetuate the celebrated race. The Lacedæmonian -expedition of Heracles, which follows close on that against Pylus, was -undertaken against Hippocoön, the half-brother of Tyndareüs, whom he had -expelled. Hippocoön was defeated and slain by Heracles, who gave his -kingdom to Tyndareüs. On this occasion Heracles was assisted by Cepheus, -king of Tegea, with his twenty sons, a circumstance which is only -mentioned on account of a remarkable legend connected with his stay in -Tegea. Heracles is here said to have left Auge, the beautiful sister of -Cepheus, and priestess of Athene, pregnant with Telephus, whose wondrous -adventures have occupied artists and poets alike. Auge concealed her -child in the grove of Athene, whereupon the angry goddess visited the -land with a famine. Aleüs, the father of Auge, on discovering the fact, -caused the child to be exposed, and sold the mother beyond the sea. Auge -thus came into Mysia, where the king Teuthras made her his wife. -Telephus was suckled by a hind. He grew up, and ultimately, after some -wonderful adventures, succeeded in finding his mother. He succeeded -Teuthras, and, later, became embroiled with the Greeks when they landed -on their expedition against Troy, on which occasion he was wounded by -Achilles. Telephus, among all the sons of Heracles, is said to have -borne the greatest resemblance to his father. - -_5. Acheloüs, Nessus, Cycnus._—The next episode in the history of the -hero is his wooing of Deïanira, the daughter of Œneus, king of Ætolia. -Œneus is celebrated as the first cultivator of the vine in that country, -and as the father of the Ætolian heroes, Meleager and Tydeus. The -river-god Acheloüs was also a suitor for the hand of Deïanira, and as -neither he nor Heracles would relinquish their claim, it was decided by -the combat between the rivals[8] so often described by the poets. The -power of assuming various forms was of little use to Acheloüs, for, -having finally transformed himself into a bull, he was deprived of a -horn by Heracles, and compelled to declare himself vanquished. Heracles -restored him his horn, and received in exchange that of the goat -Amalthea. After his marriage with Deïanira, Heracles lived for some time -happily at the court of his father-in-law, where his son Hyllus was -born. In consequence of an accidental murder, he was obliged to leave -Ætolia and retire to the court of his friend Ceÿx, king of Trachis, at -the foot of Mount Œta. On the road occurred his celebrated adventure -with the Centaur Nessus. On coming to the river Evenus, Heracles -entrusted Deïanira to Nessus to carry across, whilst he himself waded -through the swollen stream. The Centaur, induced by the beauty of his -burden, attempted to carry off Deïanira, but was pierced by an arrow of -Heracles, and expiated his attempt with his life. He avenged himself by -giving Deïanira some of his blood to make a magic salve, with which he -assured her she could always secure the love of her husband. - -Footnote 8: - - The most beautiful description exists in a chorus in the _Trachiniæ_ - of Sophocles, and in Ovid’s _Metamorphoses_. - -On reaching Trachis they were hospitably received by Ceÿx. Heracles -first defeated the Dryopes, and assisted the Dorian king Ægimius in his -contest with the Lapithæ. He next engaged in his celebrated combat with -Cycnus, the son of Ares, which took place at Iton, in the neighbourhood -of the Gulf of Pagasæ. Heracles not only slew his opponent, but even -wounded the god of war himself, who had come to the assistance of his -son. This contest is the subject of the celebrated poem called the -_Shield of Hercules_, which goes under the name of Hesiod. - -IV. DEATH AND APOTHEOSIS.—The death of Heracles, of which we learn most -from the masterly description of Sophocles in the _Trachiniæ_, is -generally supposed to have been connected with his expedition against -Eurytus. The hero, who could not forget the ignominious treatment he had -received at the hands of Eurytus, now marched with an army from Trachis -against Œchalia. The town and citadel were taken by storm, and Eurytus -and his sons slain; whilst the beautiful Iole, who was still unmarried, -fell into the hands of the conqueror. Heracles now withdrew with great -booty, but halted on the promontory of Cenæum, opposite the Locrian -coast, to raise an altar and offer a solemn sacrifice of thanksgiving to -his father Zeus. Deïanira, who was tormented with jealous misgivings -concerning Iole, thought it was now high time to make use of the charm -of Nessus. She accordingly sent her husband a white sacrificial garment, -which she anointed with the ointment prepared from the blood of the -Centaur. Heracles donned the garment without suspicion, but scarcely had -the flames from the altar heated the poison than it penetrated the body -of the unhappy hero. In the most fearful agony he strove to tear off the -garment, but in vain, for it stuck like a plaster to his skin; and where -he succeeded in rending it away by force, it tore out great pieces of -his flesh at the same time. In his frenzy he seized the herald Lichas, -the bearer of the unfortunate present, and violently dashed him in -pieces against a rock of the sea. In this state Heracles was brought to -Trachis, where he found that Deïanira, full of sorrow and despair on -learning the consequences of her act, had put an end to her own life. -Convinced that cure was hopeless, the dying hero proceeded from Trachis -to Œta, and there erected a funeral pile on which to end his torments. -None of those around him, however, would consent to set the pile on -fire, until Pœas, the father of Philoctetes, happened to pass by, and -rendered him the service, in return for which Heracles presented him -with his bow and arrows. As the flames rose high, a cloud descended from -heaven, and, amid furious peals of thunder, a chariot with four horses, -driven by Athene, appeared and bore the illustrious hero to Olympus, -where he was joyfully received by the gods. He here became reconciled to -Hera, who gave him the hand of her beauteous daughter Hebe in marriage. - -V. HERACLES AS GOD.—We have already laid before our readers the most -characteristic features of the myth. To interpret it and trace it back -in all its details to the original sources would be, amid the mass of -provincial and foreign legends with which it is amalgamated, almost -impossible. Thus much is certain, however, that, apart from the -conceptions which were engrafted on the story from Tyrian and Egyptian -sources, even in the case of the Greek Heracles, myths based on natural -phenomena are mixed up with historical and allegorical myths. The -historic element, for instance, is apparent in the wars of Heracles -against the Dryopes—against Augeas, Neleus, and Hippocoön. Here the -exploits of the whole Dorian race are personified in the actions of the -hero. On the other hand, in most of his single combats a symbolic -meaning, derived from natural phenomena, is unmistakeable. Heracles, in -fact, appears to have been, originally, a symbol of the power of the sun -triumphing over the dark powers in nature. Driven from Argos by the -worship of the Argive Hera, he first sank to the level of a hero, but -was, subsequently, again raised to the dignity of a god. This occurred -at a time when the gods of Greece had altogether cast aside their -physical meaning; so that he was now regarded principally from an -ethical point of view. He appears as a symbol of that lofty force of -character which triumphs over all difficulties and obstacles. Poets and -philosophers alike vied with each other in presenting him to the youth -of their country in this character, pointing to his career as a -brilliant example of what a man might accomplish, in spite of a thousand -obstacles, by mere determination and force of will. The well-known -allegory of the sophist Prodicus,[9] called “The Choice of Hercules,” is -an instance of the mode in which the history of the hero was used to -inculcate moral precepts. - -Footnote 9: - - Prodicus, a native of the island of Ceos, was an elder contemporary of - Socrates. Like the latter, he taught in Athens, and met with a similar - fate, having been condemned to death as an enemy of the popular - religion and a corruptor of the Athenian youth. - -In the religious system of the Greeks, Heracles was specially honoured -as the patron of the gymnasia; the gymnasium of Cynosarges in Athens -being solely dedicated to him. After his deification, Heracles was also -regarded in the character of a saviour and benefactor of his nation; as -one who had not only merited the lasting gratitude of mankind by his -deeds throughout an active and laborious life—in having rid the world of -giants and noxious beasts, in having extinguished destructive forces of -nature, and abolished human sacrifices and other barbarous institutions -of antiquity—but also as a kindly and beneficent deity, ever ready to -afford help and protection to mankind in the hour of need. In this -character he was known by the names of Soter (Saviour) and Alexicacus -(averter of evil). He had temples and festivals in various parts of -Greece. In Marathon, which boasted of being the first seat of his -worship, games were celebrated in his honour every four years, at which -silver cups were given as prizes. The fourth day of every month was held -sacred to him, this day being regarded as his birthday. - -We have already mentioned the legendary introduction of his worship into -Rome.[10] Hercules, as he was called in Italy, was identified with the -Italian hero Recaranus. He had an altar in the _Forum Boarium_, -established, according to tradition, by Evander. The Roman poets, of -course, devoted especial attention to the stories of his journey through -Italy, and his fight with Cacus. - -Footnote 10: - - There seems ground for thinking that the Italian Hercules was properly - a rural deity confounded with Heracles on account of the similarity of - their names; while Recaranus properly corresponded with the great - Heracles in meaning. - - In Heracles ancient art sought to portray the conception of gigantic - bodily strength. He is, therefore, generally represented as a - full-grown man—rarely as a child or youth. We may observe the manner - in which the prominent idea of physical force is expressed by - regarding the formation of the neck and throat in the statue of - Heracles. Nothing can express better a bull-like strength than the - short neck and the prominent muscles, especially if associated with - a broad, deep chest. We shall be able to appreciate this distinctive - character still more clearly if we compare the form of Heracles with - that of the ideal god Apollo, whose neck is especially long and - slender. The figure of Heracles is, moreover, characterised by a - head small in comparison with the giant body; by curly hair, bushy - eyebrows, and muscular arms and legs. This conception was - principally developed by Myron and Lysippus. A statue of Heracles by - the former artist played a part in connection with the art robberies - of Verres in Sicily. Lysippus erected several celebrated statues of - Heracles, the most remarkable of which was the bronze colossus in - Tarentum, which the Romans, after the capture of that town, - transferred to the Capitol. Thence it was brought, by order of - Constantine, to his new capital of Constantinople, where it remained - until the Latin crusade of 1202, when it was melted down. Lysippus - portrayed in this statue a mourning Heracles, which no one had ever - attempted before him. The hero appeared in a sitting posture, - without his weapons, his left elbow resting on his left leg, while - his head, full of thought and sorrow, rests on the open hand. The - same artist, in a still greater work, depicted the twelve labours of - Heracles. These formed a group which was originally executed for - Alyzia, a seaport town of Acarnania, but which was, subsequently, - likewise transferred to Rome. - -[Illustration: Fig. 58.—Farnese Hercules.] - - First among existing statues is the Farnese Hercules (Fig. 58). This - celebrated colossal statue, now in the Naples Museum, was discovered - in 1540, on the site of the Thermæ of Caracalla. The hero is - standing upright, resting his left shoulder on his club, from which - hangs his lion’s skin. This attitude, as well as the head drooping - towards the breast, and the gloomy gravity of his countenance, - clearly show that the hero feels bowed down by the burden of his - laborious life. Even the thought that he is soon to be released from - his ignominious servitude (he holds behind him, in his right hand, - the three apples of the Hesperides, the fruit of his last labour) is - unable to cheer him, and his thoughts seem to revert only to the - past. On account of the conception of the piece, and the existence - of another copy bearing the name of Lysippus, the Farnese Hercules - is supposed to be a copy of a work of Lysippus, of which nothing - further is known. - - Still more important as a work of art, though it has reached us in a - terribly mutilated condition—minus head, arms, and legs—is the - celebrated Torso of Hercules, in the Vatican. This was found in Rome - during the reign of Pope Julius II., on a spot where the theatre of - Pompey, of which it was probably an ornament, once stood. - - _Groups._—Heracles in action was a still more favourite subject with - artists, who delighted to portray the different scenes of his - versatile life. Numberless representations of such scenes occur, not - only in the form of statues and works in relief, but more especially - on ancient vases. We mention here, in the chronological order of the - events, some of the most important. - - _1. Heracles and the Serpents._—This scene was early depicted by the - celebrated painter Zeuxis, who represented Heracles as strangling - the serpents, whilst Alcmene and Amphitryon stood by in amazement. - There are also several statues representing this feat, among which - that at Florence takes the first rank. There is also a painting from - Herculaneum in the Naples Museum. - - _2. The Twelve Labours._—These have naturally been treated of times - out of number. We have already mentioned the groups of Lysippus, - which he executed for the town of Alyzia. A still existing bronze - statue in the Capitoline Museum, representing Heracles battling with - the Hydra, appears to belong to this series. Among interesting - remains are the metope reliefs on the Theseum at Athens. Ten on the - east side of the temple represent scenes from the life of Heracles. - Nine of them belong to the twelve labours, viz., the Nemean lion, - the Hydra, the Arcadian hind, the Erymanthian boar, the horses of - Diomedes, Cerberus, the girdle of Hippolyte, Geryon, and the - Hesperides; whilst the tenth tablet represents his contest with - Cycnus. The remains of the splendid temple of Zeus at Olympia, which - was completed about 435 B.C., are less important. The metopes of the - front and back of the temple contained six of the labours of - Heracles. Those representing the contest with the Cretan bull, the - dying lion, a portion from the fight with Geryon, and some other - fragments, were found in 1829, and conveyed to the museum of the - Louvre at Paris. The only one which is perfect, however, is the - spirited and life-like representation of the struggle with the - Cretan bull. - - _3. Parerga_ (_Subordinate Deeds_).—First among these come the - scenes from his contest with the Centaurs, which were frequently - treated of in art. Groups of these exist in the museum at Florence; - there are also various representations to be found on vases. His - adventure with Nessus is represented separately on a Pompeian - painting in the Naples Museum; Nessus crouches in a humble posture - before Heracles, who has the little Hyllus in his arms, and he - appears to be asking permission to carry Deïanira across the stream. - There is also an interesting representation of the release of - Prometheus on the Sarcophagus of the Capitol, from the Villa - Pamfili, which is, in other respects, also worthy of mention. The - seizure of the tripod at Delphi is also frequently portrayed in art. - - _4. Heracles and Omphale._—Of the monuments referring to Heracles’ - connection with Omphale, the most important is the beautiful Farnese - group in marble in the Naples Museum. Omphale has thrown the lion’s - skin round her beautiful limbs, and holds in her right hand the - hero’s club. Thus equipped, she smiles triumphantly at Heracles, who - is clothed in female attire, with a distaff in his hand. - - _5. Heracles and Telephus._—The romantic history of Telephus was - also frequently treated of in art. The Naples Museum possesses a - fine painting, representing the discovery of the child after it has - been suckled by the hind, on which occasion, strange to say, - Heracles himself is present. In the Vatican Museum there is a fine - marble group, representing Heracles with the child Telephus in his - arms. - - -=7. Attic Legend.=—_1. Cecrops._—Cecrops, the first founder of -civilisation in Attica, plays a similar part here to that which Cadmus -does in Thebes. Like Cadmus, he was afterwards called an immigrant; -indeed he was said to have come from Sais in Lower Egypt. In his case, -however, we are able to trace the rise of the erroneous tradition with -far greater distinctness. Pure Attic tradition recognises him only as an -autochthon—that is, an original inhabitant born of the earth; and -further adds, that, like the giants, he was half man and half serpent. -As the mythical founder of the state, he was also regarded as the -builder of the citadel (Cecropia); and marriage, as well as other -political and social institutions, were ascribed to him. Perhaps he is -only a local personification of Hermes. The probability of this view is -greatly enhanced by the fact that his three daughters, Herse, Aglaurus, -and Pandrosus, received divine honours. It was under Cecrops that the -celebrated contest occurred between Poseidon and Athene for the -possession of Attica, and was by his means decided in favour of the -goddess. We have already given an account of it, and need only here -remark that the story is purely the result of the observation of natural -phenomena. In Attica, in fact, there are only two seasons—a cold, wet, -and rainy winter (Poseidon), and a warm, dry, genial summer (Pallas). -These seem to be continually striving for the supremacy of the land. -Cecrops was succeeded in the government by Cranaüs, who is represented -by some as his son. The common mythological account places the flood of -Deucalion in his reign. After the expulsion of Cranaüs, Amphictyon, one -of the sons of Deucalion, succeeded to the sovereignty of Attica, of -whom nothing more is known than that he was deprived of the government -by Erechtheus. - -_2. Erechtheus, or Erichthonius._—Erechtheus, or Erichthonius, is really -only a second Cecrops—the mythical founder of the state after the flood, -as Cecrops was before it. Being also earthborn, he is, like Cecrops, -endowed with a serpent’s form. There was another very sacred legend -concerning him, which stated that Gæa (Ge), immediately after his birth, -gave him to the goddess Pallas to nurse. The latter first entrusted him -to the daughters of Cecrops, her attendants and priestesses, enclosed in -a chest. The latter, however, prompted by curiosity, opened the chest, -contrary to the commands of the goddess, and were punished in -consequence with madness. Erichthonius was now reared by the goddess -herself in her sanctuary on the citadel, and was subsequently made king -of Athens. The same stories are then related of him as of Cecrops—that -he regulated the state, introduced the worship of the gods, and settled -the dispute between Poseidon and Athene. - -The tomb of Erechtheus was shown in the Erechtheum, the ancient temple -dedicated to Athene Polias, where the never-dying olive tree created by -the goddess was also preserved. - -Two among the daughters of Erechtheus are celebrated in legend. The -first is Orithyia, who was carried off by Boreas, and became the mother -of Calaïs and Zetes, whom we come across again in the story of the -Argonauts; the other is Procris, the wife of the handsome hunter -Cephalus, who was said to be a son of Hermes by Herse, the daughter of -Cecrops. Cephalus was carried off by Eos, who was unable to shake his -fidelity to his wife. It served, however, to excite the jealousy of the -latter, which ultimately proved fatal to her. Procris had hidden herself -among the bushes, in order to watch her husband, when Cephalus, taking -her for a wild animal, unwittingly killed her. After the death of -Erechtheus, the tragic poets relate that Ion, the mythical ancestor of -the Ionians, ruled in Athens. This means nothing more than that the -primitive Pelasgian age in Attica had now come to an end, and the -dominion of the Ionians commenced. - -_3. Theseus._—Theseus is the national hero of the Ionians, just as -Heracles is of the Æolians. He has not unjustly been called the second -Heracles; and he has, indeed, many features in common with the Æolian -hero, since the national jealousy of the Ionians led them to adopt every -possible means of making their own hero rival that of their neighbours. -They therefore strove to represent him, likewise, as a hero tried in -numberless contests—generous, unselfish, and devoted to the interests of -mankind—and of course ascribed to him a multitude of adventurous -exploits. There is no great undertaking of antiquity in which Theseus is -not supposed to have taken part, and he was even sent on an expedition -to hell, in imitation of Heracles. - -He was the son of the Athenian king Ægeus, whom mythological tradition -made a great-grandson of Erechtheus. After his father Pandion had been -driven out by his relations, the sons of Metion, Ægeus betook himself to -Megara, where he was hospitably received by the ruler, Pylas. From -Megara, Ægeus, Pallas, Nisus, and Lycus, the sons of Pandion, undertook -an expedition against Athens, which ended in the expulsion of the -Metionidæ, and the restoration of the former royal family in the person -of Ægeus. Such, at least, is the tradition; although it is more probable -that Athens never had a king of this name, and that Ægeus (wave-man) is -only a surname of Poseidon, the chief deity of the seafaring Ionians. -Ægeus, though twice married, had no heir, and now undertook a journey to -Delphi to seek the advice of the oracle. On his way back he stopped at -the court of Pittheus, king of Trœzen, and became, by his daughter -Æthra, the father of Theseus. Before his departure, he placed his sword -and sandals beneath a heavy stone, and commanded Æthra to send his son -to Athens as soon as he was able to move the stone and take his father’s -sword. Theseus was carefully trained in music and gymnastics by the -sagacious Pittheus, and soon developed into a stately youth. He is also -supposed to have been educated by the Centaur Chiron, whose instruction -had now become a necessary item in the education of a real hero. - -When Theseus was sixteen, his mother took him to the stone beneath which -lay his father’s sword and sandals. With a slight effort he raised the -stone, and thus entered on his heroic career. His earlier adventures -consisted in overcoming a series of obstacles that beset him in his -journey from Trœzen to Athens. They are generally supposed to have been -six in number. - -1. Between Trœzen and Epidaurus he slew Periphetes, the son of -Hephæstus—who was lame, like his father—because he was in the habit of -murdering travellers with his iron club; whence he is called Corynetes, -or club-bearer. - -2. He next delivered the Isthmus from another powerful robber called -Sinis. He used to fasten travellers who fell into his hands to the top -of a pine tree, which he bent to the earth, and then allowed to recoil; -after which, on their reaching the ground, he would kill them outright; -whence he is called Pityocamptes, or pine-bender. Theseus inflicted the -same fate on him. - -3. In the woody district of Crommyon he destroyed a dangerous wild sow -that laid waste the country. - -4. Not far from this, on the rock of Sciron, on the borders of Megara, -dwelt another monster, called Sciron, who compelled travellers to wash -his feet, and then kicked them into the sea. Theseus served him in a -similar fashion. - -5. In the neighbourhood of Eleusis he vanquished the giant Cercyon, who -compelled all who fell into his hands to wrestle with him. - -6. His last combat awaited him on the confines of Eleusis, where dwelt -the inhuman Damastes. This monster used to lay his victims in a bed: if -this was too short, he would hack off their projecting limbs; if too -long, he would beat out and pull asunder their limbs, whence he is -called Procrustes. He was also slain by Theseus. - -On reaching Athens, he found his father Ægeus in the toils of the -dangerous sorceress Medea, who had fled from Corinth to Athens. She was -on the point of making away with the newcomer by poison, when Ægeus, -fortunately, recognised him by the sword he bore, and preserved him from -his impending fate. - -Medea was compelled to flee; but a new danger awaited the hero from the -fifty sons of Pallas, who had reckoned on succeeding their childless -uncle Ægeus. Theseus, however, slew some in battle and expelled the -rest. - -He now undertook his greatest and most adventurous feat, in order to -free his country from its shameful tribute to Minos, king of Crete, -whose son, the youthful hero Androgeos, had been treacherously murdered -by the Athenians and Megareans. Another account says that he was sent by -Ægeus against the bull of Marathon, and thus slain. At any rate, Minos -undertook a war of revenge. He first marched against Megara, of which -Nisus, the brother of Ægeus, was king. Minos conquered him by means of -his own daughter Scylla, who became enamoured of Minos, and cut off from -her father’s head the purple lock on which his life depended. After -having taken Megara and slain Nisus, Minos marched against Athens. Here -he was equally successful, and compelled the vanquished Athenians to -expiate the blood of his son by sending, every eight or (according to -the Greek method of reckoning) every nine years, seven youths and seven -maidens to be devoured by the Minotaur. This was a monster, half man and -half bull. Twice already had the bloody tribute been sent, and the third -fell just after Theseus’ arrival in Athens; he at once bravely offered -to go among the allotted victims. He was resolved to do battle with the -Minotaur, and to stake his life on the liberation of his country from -the shameful tribute. Under the guidance of Aphrodite he passed over to -Crete, and soon discovered the efficacy of her protection. The goddess -kindled a passionate love for the hero in the breast of Ariadne, the -daughter of Minos. Ariadne rendered him every possible assistance in his -undertaking, and especially presented him with a clew of thread, by -means of which Theseus, after having slain the Minotaur, was enabled to -find his way out of the Labyrinth. We have already narrated how Ariadne -was deserted by Theseus on the isle of Naxos, only to become the bride -of Dionysus, the divine son of Semele. Theseus also landed at Delos, -where he instituted the festival of the Delia in honour of the divine -children of Leto. On reaching Athens, he showed his gratitude to his -divine protectress by the institution of the worship of Aphrodite -Pandemus. In honour of Dionysus and Ariadne, he instituted the -Oschophoria, in which festival Athene also had a share. Lastly, in -honour of Apollo, he instituted the Pyanepsia, a festival which was -celebrated on the seventh day of the month Pyanepsion (end of October). - -The happy return of Theseus from his Cretan expedition, however, proved -the death of his aged father. Ægeus, as he stood on the coast looking -for his son’s return, perceived that the ships had black sails instead -of white, which were to have been hoisted in the event of his son’s -success; and believing that all was lost, he cast himself headlong into -the sea. This story was perhaps only invented to account for the name of -the Ægean Sea. - -With regard to the other exploits of Theseus, there exists the greatest -variety of accounts as to the order in which they took place. As king, -he is said to have been the first to unite the separate districts of -Attica into one political community, with one state Prytaneum, and to -have instituted the festival of the Panathenæa in commemoration of this -event. The following, among his later exploits, are worthy of mention:— - -1. He captured the bull of Marathon (said to have been the same which -Heracles brought alive from Crete), and sacrificed it in Athens to -Apollo Delphinius. - -2. He assisted his friend Pirithoüs, the prince of the Lapithæ, in his -contest with the Centaurs. - -3. He undertook with Pirithoüs an expedition to Lacedæmon, in which they -carried off Helen, the sister of the Dioscuri. - -4. At the request of Pirithoüs, he accompanied him to the lower world to -carry off Persephone; but Hades, enraged at their audacity, caused them -both to be bound in chains and fastened to a rock. Theseus was rescued -from this plight by Heracles, but during his absence the Dioscuri had -released their sister from Aphidnæ, where she was confined. - -5. He next joined Heracles in his expedition against the Amazons, and -received, as the reward of victory, their queen Antiope, or Hippolyte. -Another tradition asserts that Antiope followed him of her own free will -to Athens, where she was married to him, and became the mother of -Hippolytus, famed for his unhappy fate. His great beauty caused his -step-mother Phædra, a later wife of Theseus, and a sister of Ariadne, to -fall in love with him. As he withdrew himself from her dishonourable -proposals by flight, she accused him to his father of attempts on her -virtue. Theseus, in his wrath, besought Poseidon to punish his faithless -son; and the god, who had sworn to grant any request of Theseus, sent a -wild bull (_i.e._, a breaker) out of the sea as Hippolytus was driving -in his chariot along the sea-shore. This so terrified his horses that -Hippolytus was thrown from his chariot, and dragged along the ground -till he was dead. This story—the scene of which was afterwards -transferred to Trœzen, whither Theseus was supposed to have fled on -account of a murder—was dealt with in a touching manner by the tragic -poets. The _Hippolytus_ of Euripides is still extant. - -6. As a result of the carrying off of Antiope, a second contest with the -Amazons was subsequently invented, in which Theseus was engaged alone, -and which took place in the immediate neighbourhood of Athens. The -Amazons are supposed to have invaded Attica, in order to release their -queen. Antiope, however, was so enamoured of Theseus that she refused to -return, and fought at her husband’s side, against her kindred, until she -was slain. - -Lastly, Theseus is said to have taken part in the Calydonian boar hunt, -and also in the expedition of the Argonauts, of which we shall have more -to say hereafter. - -[Illustration: Fig. 59.—Elgin Theseus. British Museum.] - -The death of Theseus is commonly agreed to have taken place in the -following manner:—He had been deprived of the sovereignty of Athens by -Menestheus, who was aided by the Dioscuri; and then withdrew to the -island of Scyros. Here he was at first hospitably received, but -subsequently murdered in a treacherous manner by Lycomedes, the ruler of -the island. Demophoön, the son of Theseus, is said to have afterwards -recovered his father’s kingdom. At a still later period the bones of the -hero were brought to Athens by Cimon, at the command of the Delphic -oracle. Cimon is also supposed to have caused the erection of the temple -of Theseus, which still exists in Athens, and serves as an art museum. -The eighth day of every month was held sacred to Theseus, besides which -he had a special festival, called the Thesea, on the eighth of -Pyanepsion. - -[Illustration: Fig. 60.—Theseus Lifting the Rock. Relief in the Villa -Albani.] - - Art has followed the example of the poets and mythologists in - depicting Theseus as a second Heracles. Here, however, the - characteristic differences that existed between the Doric and Ionic - races become apparent. Just as the latter race surpassed the former - in elasticity, both of mind and body, so their national hero gives - token not only of a higher intellectual being, but also of a body - more lithe, and capable of greater swiftness and dexterity, than - that of the Doric hero. The slighter and more elegant form of - Theseus lacks, perhaps, the sheer brute strength of Heracles, but is - compensated by the possession of a far greater degree of activity - and adroitness. The expression of face is more amiable and the hair - less bristling than that of Heracles, while there is generally no - beard. Such is Theseus as depicted by Greek art at the epoch of its - full development; later art strove to render the form of the body - still more lithe and graceful. The costume of Theseus consists, like - that of his prototype Heracles, of a lion’s skin and club; sometimes - also of the chlamys and petasus of the Attic youth. Existing art - monuments are far less numerous in his case than in that of - Heracles. If the explanation is correct, the British Museum - possesses a Theseus of priceless value. Among the statues of the - Parthenon which have been preserved, there is one of a figure - negligently reclining on a lion’s skin, which, with the exception of - the nose, hands, and feet, is in a tolerably good state of - preservation (Fig. 59). It belonged to the great group of the east - gable, which represented the first appearance of the new-born Athene - to the astonished gods. It is the figure of a youth in his prime, - somewhat larger than life, and altogether a perfect ideal of manly - beauty. - - A representation of the conflict of Theseus with the invading army - of the Amazons still exists on a large piece of frieze-work, which, - together with the representations of the battle of the Lapithæ and - Centaurs (which have been already mentioned), formerly decorated the - walls of the shrine of Apollo’s temple in Phigalia, and is now the - property of the British Museum. Among the Greek warriors Theseus may - be easily recognised by his lion’s skin and the club, which he is in - the act of swinging against a mounted Amazon, probably the leader of - the hostile army. We give an engraving of the scene where Theseus - obtained the sword and sandals of his father from beneath the rock, - after a relief in the Villa Albani (Fig. 60). - - -=8. Cretan Legend.=—_1. Minos and the Minotaur._—Cretan myths are both -obscure and difficult of interpretation, because Phœnician and Phrygian -influences made themselves felt at a very early period, and native -sources fail us. Minos is commonly supposed to have been the first king -of the country. He was the son of Zeus and Europa, who is called in -Homer a daughter of Phœnix. This Phœnix was subsequently made into -Agenor, a Phœnician, king of Sidon; and the story then arose that Zeus, -in the form of a white bull, had carried off Europa, and arrived with -his lovely prey in Crete. Europa is there said to have given birth to -Minos, Rhadamanthys (Rhadamanthus), and some say Sarpedon. She -afterwards married Asterion, who brought up the sons of Zeus as his own -children, and, at his death, left the kingdom to Minos. He, after -expelling his brothers Sarpedon and Rhadamanthus, became sole king of -Crete. Of his brothers, Sarpedon went to Lycia, whilst the pious -Rhadamanthus found a refuge in Bœotia. Minos next married Pasiphaë, a -daughter of Helios and Perseïs, by whom he became the father of Catreus, -who succeeded him, Deucalion, Glaucus, and Androgeos, besides several -daughters, of whom the most celebrated are Ariadne and Phædra. Minos -gave wise laws to his people, and became supreme at sea among the isles -of the Ægean Sea, and even as far as Attica. In his name we find the -same root (meaning “to think”) which we have seen in Minerva, and which -appears in the name of the Indian lawgiver Manu. - -In order to vindicate his right to the crown, Minos besought Poseidon to -send him a bull out of the sea, which he was then to sacrifice to the -god. Poseidon granted his prayer, but Minos was induced by the beauty of -the animal to place it among his own herds. As a punishment of his -perfidy, Poseidon kindled in the breast of Pasiphaë an unnatural love -for the bull, and the fruit of their connection was the Minotaur. This -was a monster, half man and half bull, which Minos shut up in the -labyrinth that had been made by the skill of Dædalus. The food of the -monster consisted of human beings, who were partly criminals and partly -youths and maidens, sent as tribute from the subjugated countries. This -lasted until Theseus came to Crete, and, with the aid of Ariadne and -Dædalus, destroyed the Minotaur. Such is the substance of this -perplexing mythical tradition, of which the simplest interpretation is -that the Minotaur was originally an ancient idol of the Phœnician -sun-god Baal, which had the form of a bull, and to which human -sacrifices were offered. The destruction of the Minotaur by Theseus is a -symbol of the triumph of the higher Greek civilisation over Phœnician -barbarism, and the consequent abolition of human sacrifices. - -Closely connected with the royal family of Crete we find Dædalus, the -most celebrated artist of the legendary period. He is said to have been -a son of Metion, and a descendant of Erechtheus, and to have fled from -Athens to Crete after murdering his nephew Talus in a fit of -professional jealousy. During his residence in Crete he constructed the -Labyrinth, an underground building with an endless maze of passages, as -a dwelling-place for the Minotaur; besides many other wonderful works of -art. For having aided Theseus in his combat with the Minotaur, Dædalus -and his son Icarus were both imprisoned in the Labyrinth of Minos. The -story of his flight, which he accomplished by means of the artificial -wings that he made for himself and his son, is well known from the -_Metamorphoses_ of Ovid. Icarus fell into the sea that is named after -him, and was drowned, but Dædalus reached Cumæ in safety. From this -place he passed over to Sicily, where he was hospitably received by -Cocalus. When Minos, however, pursued the fugitive and demanded his -surrender, not only was his request refused, but he was even put to -death by the contrivance of the king’s daughters. - -Of the other sons of Minos, Deucalion is celebrated as having taken part -in the Calydonian boar hunt, and also as the father of the hero -Idomeneus, who fought against Troy. Glaucus was killed, while yet a boy, -by falling into a cask of honey as he was pursuing a mouse. He is -reported, however, to have been restored to life by the Corinthian augur -Polyidus, or, according to others, by Asclepius himself. - -_2. Talos._—The legend of Talos, the brazen man, betrays likewise a -Phœnician origin, and refers to the cruel practice of offering human -sacrifices. This Talos was made of brass, and was invulnerable. -Hephæstus, or, as others say, Zeus gave him to Minos as guardian of the -island of Crete, round which he travelled thrice a-day. If he perceived -any strangers approach he would spring into the fire, and, after -becoming red-hot, he would clasp them to his breast, until they expired -beneath the sardonic chuckle of the demon. He attempted to drive off the -Argonauts with stones, but was destroyed by the skill of Medea. Talos -had a single vein, which ran from his head to his feet, and was closed -at the top with a nail. This nail Medea cleverly succeeded in -extracting, in consequence of which Talos bled to death. - - - IV.—COMBINED UNDERTAKINGS OF THE LATER HEROIC AGE. - - -=1. The Calydonian Hunt.=—The story of Meleager and the Calydonian boar -hunt was undoubtedly, in its origin, nothing more than a provincial myth -based on natural phenomena, like other myths that we have already -explained. In this case the physical significance involved in the myth -soon disappeared, owing to the treatment it received at the hands of the -epic and dramatic poets. The poets, in fact, succeeded in introducing -some striking ethical conceptions, which absorbed all higher interest. - -Œneus, king of Calydon in Ætolia, on the occasion of a great festival -which was celebrated after a successful vintage, had accidentally or -purposely omitted to sacrifice to Artemis. To punish this neglect she -sent a huge wild boar, which devastated the fields of Calydon, and -seemed invincible by any ordinary means on account of its vast size. -Meleager, the brave and heroic son of Œneus, therefore assembled men and -hounds in great number to slay it. The boar was slain; but Artemis -stirred up strife over the head and hide between the Ætolians and the -Curetes of Pleuron. At first the former were victorious; but when -Meleager withdrew in wrath from the battle because his mother had cursed -him for the death of her brother, they were no longer able to keep the -field, and soon saw their city closely invested by their enemies. In -vain did the elders and priests of Calydon beseech Meleager; in vain did -his father, sisters, and even mother beseech him to aid his hard-pressed -countrymen. Like Achilles in the Trojan war, when he was wroth with -Agamemnon on account of the loss of Briseis, Meleager long refused to -stir. At last his wife—the beautiful Cleopatra—succeeded in moving him. -He donned his armour, and put himself at the head of his countrymen for -a sally against the besiegers. Brilliant, indeed, was the victory of the -men of Calydon; but the hero Meleager did not return from the battle, -for the cruel Erinyes, who had heard his mother’s curse, destroyed him -with the arrows of Apollo. - -Such is the earliest form of the legend, as it exists in the _Iliad_. In -time, however, Meleager was said to have called together against the -boar all the renowned heroes of Greece. Among others there came the -Dioscuri, Castor and Pollux; Theseus and his friend Pirithoüs; Idas and -Lynceus, the sons of Aphareus; Admetus of Pheræ; Jason, from Iolcus; -Iphicles and Iolaüs, from Thebes; Peleus, the father of Achilles; -Telamon, from Salamis; Ancæus and the beautiful huntress Atalante -(Atalanta), from Arcadia; besides the soothsayer Amphiaraüs, from Argos. -After Œneus had entertained his guests royally for nine days, the hunt -began, and the huge beast, which was as large as an ox, was surrounded -and driven from its lair. Atalante, the swift huntress, was the first to -inflict a wound. Ancæus then advanced with his battle-axe, but the -enraged beast, with one stroke of his dreadful tusks, tore open his body -and killed him on the spot. At length the monster received a mortal -wound from a spear hurled by the powerful arm of Meleager, and was soon -despatched by the rest. Meleager received as his due the head and hide -of the slaughtered animal, but resigned the prize to Atalante, of whom -he was enamoured, on the ground that she was the first to wound the -boar. This act excited the bitter jealousy of Plexippus and Toxeus, the -sons of Thestius, king of Pleuron, and brothers of Althæa, the mother of -Meleager. They accordingly lay in wait for Atalante, and robbed her of -the present. Enraged at this, Meleager slew them both. But Meleager’s -death, though caused by the wrath of his mother, was worked out -differently in the time of the tragic poets. The Fates had appeared to -Althæa, soon after the birth of Meleager, and informed her that her son -would only live until a certain brand, which was then burning on the -fire, was consumed. Althæa immediately snatched the brand from the -flames and carefully treasured it up. After Meleager had slain her -brothers, in the first outburst of grief and indignation against her -son, she placed the brand again in the fire, and thus cut off the noble -hero in the prime of his youth and beauty. Althæa, on learning the -unhappy fate of her son, full of sorrow for her hasty deed, put an end -to her own life. - - -=2. The Argonauts.=—The story of the Argonauts experienced a similar -fate to that of the Calydonian hunt. It was originally nothing but a -myth based on natural phenomena; but in the hands of the poets it -swelled to a mass of legends common to all the tribes of Greece, the -nucleus of which was the history of the golden fleece. Athamas, the son -of Æolus, was king of the Minyæ. He put away his first wife, Nephele -(cloud), in order to marry Ino, the daughter of Cadmus; though he still -kept Phrixus (rain-shower) and Helle (ray of light), his children by -Nephele, with him. By Ino he had two other children, Learchus and -Melicertes, whom their mother naturally preferred to her stepchildren, -and for whose sake she endeavoured to drive the latter from their -father’s house. Soon afterwards, either at the command of Nephele, whom -some represent as a goddess, or in consequence of her prayers for the -punishment of Athamas, the land was visited with a long drought, and Ino -persuaded her husband to sacrifice Phrixus as a sin-offering to Zeus, in -order to put an end to the calamity. Whether Helle was to have shared -her brother’s fate we cannot tell, for, before Ino could accomplish her -purpose, Nephele came to the assistance of her children, and gave them a -winged ram with a golden fleece, which Hermes had presented to her for -that purpose. Seated on this ram they fled over the sea to Colchis. On -the way Helle fell into that part of the sea which bears her name, and -was drowned, but Phrixus arrived safely in Colchis (Æa), where he -sacrificed the ram to Zeus, who had preserved him in his flight. The -fleece he hung up in the grove of Ares as a sacred treasure, setting -over it a terrible, ever-watchful dragon as its guardian. To fetch this -treasure from a foreign land, and thereby to release the country and -people of the Minyæ from the calamity with which they were oppressed, -was the task of the heroes of the race of Æolus. Athamas was so grieved -at the evil he had brought on his country that he became insane, and -sought to slay Ino and her children. He did, indeed, kill Learchus by -dashing him against a rock, but Ino succeeded in saving herself and her -younger child Melicertes by leaping into the sea (_cf._ Ino Leucothea). -Athamas then fled to Epirus, and the kingdom devolved on his brother -Cretheus. Cretheus married Tyro, the daughter of his younger brother -Salmoneus, king of Elis. Tyro bore him three sons, the eldest of whom, -Æson, succeeded his father in the kingdom, but was soon after expelled -by his step-brother Pelias, who is described as a son of Tyro and -Poseidon. Æson with difficulty managed to rescue his little son Jason -from the hands of Pelias, and brought him to the Centaur Chiron to be -educated. In Chiron’s cave the young hero grew up, a favourite with gods -and men. After completing his twentieth year, he betook himself to -Iolcus to demand of his uncle his rightful inheritance. Pelias, not -daring to use violence to the sturdy youth, endeavoured to get rid of -his unwelcome guest by involving him in a most dangerous adventure. He -declared that he would gladly resign the crown if Jason would recover -the golden fleece from Colchis. Jason, like a true hero, at once -accepted the perilous adventure. In the harbour of Iolcus he caused a -large ship with fifty oars to be constructed, which he called the -“Argo,” after its builder, Argus. He then called together the heroes, -who had consented at his invitation to take part in the expedition. In -the original version of the story, the expedition was stated to have -been undertaken only by the heroes of the race of the Minyæ—such as -Acastus, Admetus, and Periclymenus. At a later period, however—when the -date of the expedition had been fixed at one generation before the -Trojan war—no hero of any note was allowed to be absent from the -undertaking. In this manner were added the Dioscuri, the sons of Boreas, -Calaïs and Zetes, Telamon, Peleus, Meleager, Tydeus, Iphitus, Theseus, -Orpheus, Amphiaraüs, and even Heracles. In the last case, the -incongruity of allowing the hero to play only a subordinate part was -soon felt, and his name was withdrawn. He was said to have been left -behind in Mysia, where he had landed in order to search for his -favourite Hylas, who had been carried off by the Naiads. The number of -the Argonauts was finally computed at fifty, tallying with the number of -oars. - -The expedition proceeded from Iolcus to Lemnos, and thence through the -Hellespont to Cyzicus, where they were kindly received by the Doliones. -From Cyzicus they proceeded to Bithynia, where they were opposed by the -Bebryces, whose king, Amycus, was slain by Pollux in a boxing match. -Their greatest difficulty lay in the passage of the Bosporus, there -being at the entrance of the Pontus (Black Sea) two terrible rocks, -which were in constant motion—now retreating to the shore on either -side, now hastily dashing together again; whence they were called the -Symplegades. This occurred so rapidly that even the swiftest vessel had -not time enough to get through. The Argonauts were in great perplexity. -At length the blind seer Phineus, who dwelt in Thracian Salmydessus, and -whose gratitude they won by delivering him from the Harpies who had -tormented him, assisted them with his advice. By means of a stratagem he -recommended they were enabled to bring the Argo through without any -considerable damage, after which the Symplegades remained stationary. -After this they stood along the south coast towards their destination, -which, in the original legend, appears to have been the utterly fabulous -Æa, subsequently converted into Colchis. This was the residence of the -mighty king Æetes, a son of the sun-god. To rob him, either by craft or -by violence, of the golden fleece was the task of Jason, the leader of -the Argonauts. - -The second prominent character in the story, Medea, the daughter of -Æetes, now makes her appearance. It was, in fact, only through her love -that Jason was enabled to surmount the vast obstacles which stood -between him and the possession of the golden fleece. When the hero -demanded the fleece of Æetes, the latter declared that he would deliver -it up to him after he had accomplished two tasks. The first was to -harness two brazen-footed, fire-breathing bulls, which Æetes had -received from Hephæstus, to a plough, and with them to till an -uncultivated field. The second was to sow in the furrows the dragon’s -teeth that Æetes would give him, and to destroy the armed men which -would then spring up. Jason’s heart failed him on hearing these -conditions, but Medea, who was an enchantress and priestess of Hecate, -was equal to the occasion. She gave the hero a magic salve to protect -him against the fiery breath of the bulls and to endow him with -invincible strength, which enabled him to accomplish his first task -successfully. In the case of the armed men who sprang from the dragon’s -teeth, by the advice of Medea he followed the example of Cadmus, and -cast among them a heavy stone, whereupon in blind fury they turned their -arms against each other, and were all destroyed. - -The conditions imposed upon him by Æetes were thus accomplished; but the -king, who perceived that Jason had only succeeded through the aid of his -daughter, made this a pretext for refusing to surrender the fleece. -Jason then removed it by night from the grove of Ares, after Medea had, -by means of her enchantments, lulled the watchful dragon to sleep. That -same night the Argonauts embarked on board their ship and put to sea, -Medea accompanying them as the future wife of Jason. The wrathful Æetes -attempted to overtake the fugitives, but Medea succeeded in staying the -pursuit by slaying her younger brother Apsyrtus, whom she had brought -with her, and scattering his limbs in the sea. - -The most diverse accounts exist as to the road taken by the Argonauts on -their homeward journey. Some say that they sailed up the Phasis to the -Eastern Sea, and then, passing through the Red Sea and Libyan desert, -over which they had to carry the Argo twelve days’ journey, came to Lake -Tritonis, and thence to the Mediterranean. According to another account, -they sought to pass through the Ister (Danube) and Eridanus (Po) to the -Western Ocean; but the object of this account was manifestly to subject -them to the same vicissitudes and adventures as Odysseus and his -companions. - -At length Jason landed happily in Iolcus, and delivered the golden -fleece into the hands of his uncle. Pelias, however, still refused to -surrender the kingdom to Jason, and Medea therefore determined to make -away with him by craft. Having persuaded the daughters of Pelias that -she possessed a means of making the old man young again, she directed -them to slay their father, cut him in pieces, and boil the limbs in a -cauldron filled with all manner of herbs; this they did in the vain -expectation of seeing him restored to youth. Jason now took possession -of his father’s kingdom, but was soon afterwards expelled by Acastus, -the son of Pelias, and took refuge in Corinth. His subsequent -misfortunes are well known. Thinking to better his condition, he was -about to marry Creüsa, the daughter of the king of Corinth, when he was -arrested by the fearful vengeance of his first wife. Medea sent the -bride a poisoned garment, which caused her to die an agonising death, -and then slew her own children by Jason; after which she fled in her -chariot drawn by winged dragons to Athens, where she long found -protection at the court of Ægeus. Jason either put an end to his own -life, or was killed by the fall of a rotten beam of the Argo. - -In the history of the golden fleece we have one of the most widely -spread myths of all, namely, that of the loss and recovery of a -treasure. In Teutonic tradition we have the treasure of the Nibelungs, -in which the very name is almost identical; and if we include the -stories of women carried off and rescued, the list becomes endless. And -the treasure of all those stories has been interpreted to be the golden -clouds. The Dragon which guards the treasure again appears in the story -of the apples of the Hesperides, and is closely allied to the Sphinx. - - -=3. The Theban Cycle.=—The highly tragic history of the Theban house of -the Labdacidæ, teeming as it does with important characters and events, -has at all times furnished subjects for Greek art and poetry, and has -given birth to a whole series of epic and dramatic works. The former, -which would have conduced far more to an exact acquaintance with the -legend, have, unfortunately, perished, with the exception of a few -unimportant fragments; although many important works of the great tragic -poets, Æschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, relating to the subject, -still remain. The common account runs thus:—Laius, a great-grandson of -Cadmus, was warned by the oracle to beget no children, as he was doomed -to perish by the hands of his son, who would then marry his mother. When -his wife Iocaste gave birth to a son, Laius accordingly exposed the -child, with its feet pierced, on Mount Cithæron. The child, called -Œdipus from the swelling of its feet, did not die, but was found by some -Corinthian shepherds, who brought it to Polybus, king of Corinth. -Polybus, having no children of his own, adopted Œdipus, who grew up in -the belief that Polybus and Merope were his real parents, until one day -a taunt of his companions as to his mysterious origin raised doubts in -his mind. In order to solve his misgivings, he went to consult the -oracle of Delphi, but he here received only the obscure direction not to -return to his country, since, if he did, he would kill his father and -marry his mother. Fearing on this account to return to Corinth, he took -the road to Thebes, and thus, by his presumptuous prudence, brought -about the very consequences he was so anxious to avoid. On the road he -was met by Laius, who was on his way to the oracle to ask its advice -concerning the Sphinx. A quarrel arose, in a narrow defile, between -Laius and Œdipus; and Œdipus slew his father without knowing who he was. -On arriving at Thebes he succeeded in delivering the country from the -Sphinx. This monster, which had the combined form of a woman and a lion, -had been sent by Hera, whom Laius had in some way offended, from -Ethiopia to devastate the land of Thebes. Seated on a rock close to the -town, she put to every one that passed by a riddle, and whoever was -unable to solve it, she cast from the rock into a deep abyss. This -calamity induced Creon, on the death of his brother-in-law Laius, to -proclaim that whoever solved the riddle should obtain the crown and the -hand of Iocaste. Œdipus succeeded in solving it, and thus delivered the -country from the monster, who cast herself into the abyss. - -The Sphinx belongs to the same family as many of the monsters we have -spoken of already; she is called by Hesiod the child of Orthros and -Chimæra, whom we have seen to be the daughter of Typhon and Echidna. It -would seem, therefore, probable that the contest between her and her -opponent may be interpreted in the same way as that of Bellerophon and -the Chimæra, or of Zeus and Typhon. In support of this, the following -considerations may be adduced. Since we know that thunder was supposed -to be a warning or encouragement to men, it is easy to see in it the -mysterious voice of the cloud, only intelligible to the wisest of men. -Hence the conqueror of the cloud was called the man who understood her -language. (It would not a little help this idea, that Œdipus might seem -derived from a word meaning “to know.”) Then the death of the Sphinx -will be the cloud falling upon the earth in the shape of rain. Œdipus, -on the other hand, will be the same antagonist as we have before seen -victorious over the cloud dragons; the sun, born helpless, rising to -take the kingdom after the slaughter of his enemies, yet at last sinking -blinded into an unknown grave. This, however, does not cover the crimes -laid to his charge. But they have been explained in this way: that when -people lost consciousness of the real meaning of the misfortunes of -Œdipus, they cast about for some adequate cause, and found one in the -two great crimes of incest and parricide. We have seen something similar -to this in the case of Ixion. Further, the names of the wives assigned -by various writers to Œdipus are connected with the light, and the name -Laius has been interpreted as “enemy” of the light. Sphinx itself -signifies “throttler.” - - In art, the Sphinx had the form of a lion, generally in a recumbent - position, with the breast and upper part of a beautiful woman. When - the Greeks saw similar figures in Egypt, they naturally gave them - the name of Sphinx. But name, family, and meaning of the Sphinx are - alike Greek, although the Egyptian statues have taken too firm - possession of the name ever to lose it. Ancient Egyptian art - revelled in the creation of colossal Sphinxes, which were carved out - of granite. A notable example of this kind exists in the giant - Sphinx near the Pyramids of Gizeh, which is eighty-nine feet long. - From such monstrous figures as these, Greek art held aloof. - -Œdipus was rewarded with the sovereignty of Thebes and the hand of -Iocaste; and for several years he enjoyed uninterrupted happiness, -surrounded by four blooming children, the fruit of his incestuous -marriage. By the secret agency of the goddess, the dreadful truth was at -length discovered. Iocaste hanged herself, and Œdipus, in despair, put -out his own eyes. Not content with this voluntary penance, the -hard-hearted Thebans compelled him besides to leave their city and -country, while his sons Eteocles and Polynices, who were now grown up, -refused to stir a foot in their father’s behalf. Œdipus, after invoking -bitter curses on their heads, withdrew, and, guided by his faithful -daughter Antigone, at last found an asylum in the grove of the Eumenides -at Colonus, near Athens. His grave there was regarded, in consequence of -an ancient response of the oracle, as a national treasure. - -The curse of their father took effect on his unnatural sons. The elder, -Eteocles, drove out his brother Polynices, who then sought the -assistance of Adrastus, king of Argos. Adrastus was a grandson of Bias, -of the race of the Amythaonidæ, and by his marriage with the daughter of -the wealthy Polybus acquired the sovereignty of Sicyon. He not only -hospitably received the fugitive Polynices, but gave him his daughter in -marriage, and promised to assist him in recovering the crown of Thebes. -In this expedition Adrastus sought to gain the aid of the other Argive -heroes. They all declared their readiness to accompany him, with the -exception of Amphiaraüs, his brother-in-law, who was equally renowned -for his wisdom and courage. Amphiaraüs was a great-grandson of the -celebrated seer Melampus, and inherited from him the gift of prophecy. -He was thus enabled to perceive the disastrous termination of the war, -and strove to hinder it. But Polynices and the fiery Tydeus—likewise a -son-in-law of Adrastus—were so unceasing in their entreaties, that he at -length sought to escape their importunity by flight. Polynices, however, -bribed his wife Eriphyle, by the present of a magnificent necklace, -which had formerly been given to Harmonia on the occasion of her -marriage with Cadmus, to betray his place of concealment. Hereupon -Amphiaraüs was obliged unwillingly to join the expedition, which ended -as he had prophesied. The attack on Thebes was not only repulsed, but -all the Argive leaders, with the exception of Adrastus, who was saved by -the fleetness of his horse, were slain. Polynices and Eteocles fell in -single combat with each other. The flight of Adrastus to Attica, where -he procured the assistance of Theseus in compelling the Thebans to grant -the fallen heroes a solemn burial, is a feature unknown to the original -legend, and may be ascribed to the patriotic impulses of the Athenian -dramatists. The celebrated tragedy of Sophocles, called _Antigone_, is -based on the assumption that Creon, the new king of Thebes, allowed the -burial of the other heroes, but left Polynices to lie unburied on the -field like a dog, and condemned Antigone to death because she ventured -to bury her brother in despite of his command. Creon was destined to -meet with a dreadful retribution, for his own son, who was betrothed to -Antigone, killed himself in grief at her fate. - -Ten years later, the sons of the fallen heroes are said to have combined -with Ægialeus, the son of Adrastus, to avenge their fathers’ defeat. -This expedition has therefore been called the war of the Epigoni -(descendants), and not being undertaken, like that of their fathers, in -manifest opposition to the will of the gods, proved successful. -Laodamas, the savage son of Eteocles, who was now king of Thebes, was -defeated in a decisive battle near Thebes, and, after Ægialeus had -fallen by his hands, was himself slain by Alcmæon, the son of -Amphiaraüs. The Thebans were unable any longer to hold their city, and, -following the advice of the blind seer Tiresias, they withdrew under the -cover of darkness and mist. The aged Tiresias expired on the road, at -the fountain of Tilphusa; of the rest, some took refuge in Thessalia, -and some sought other lands. The victorious Argives, after plundering -and partly destroying the city, dedicated a great portion of the -booty—among which was Manto, the daughter of Tiresias—to the oracle of -Delphi. They then made Thersander, the son of Polynices, king of Thebes; -upon which many of the fugitive inhabitants returned. Thersander -subsequently took part in the Trojan war, and there perished. - - -=4. The Trojan Cycle.=—We now come to the Trojan war, the fourth and -most celebrated of the common undertakings of the later heroic age. Here -the sources of our information are far more plentiful than in any former -period of mythic history, because both the grand national epics, the -_Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_, which are commonly ascribed to Homer, relate -to the Trojan war. As the contents of these immortal poems are probably -well known to our readers, we shall only dwell on the most essential -features of the story. - -I. THE HEROIC RACES OF THE TROJAN WAR.—_1. The Dardanidæ, or race of -Dardanus._—The royal family of Troy were descended from Dardanus, a son -of Zeus by Electra, a daughter of Atlas. Dardanus is said to have -emigrated from Samothrace, or, according to others, from Italy to -Arcadia, to the north-west portion of Asia Minor, between the range of -Ida and the Hellespont, where he received from king Teucer some land to -form a settlement. By a daughter of the river-god Simoïs, or, as others -say, of Scamander, Dardanus had a son called Tros, from whom the Trojans -derived their name. Tros had three sons—Assaracus, Ilus, and Ganymedes. -The last, who, like all the scions of the race of Dardanus, was -possessed of wonderful beauty, was raised by Zeus to the dignity of -cupbearer to the gods, and thus became immortal. Ilus and Assaracus -became the founders of two different branches of the Dardanian race. The -latter remained in his native settlement of Dardania, where he became -the father of Capys and the grandfather of Anchises, the father of -Æneas. Ilus, on the other hand, emigrated to the plains of the -Scamander, where he founded the city of Ilium, or Troy. After completing -the town, he begged Zeus to bestow on him a sign of his favour. The next -morning he found in front of his tent the celebrated Palladium—an image -of Pallas Athene, carved in wood. On the possession of this depended the -fortune and welfare of the city. After the death of Ilus, his son -Laomedon became king of Troy. At his request, Poseidon and Apollo built -the citadel of Pergamum. We have already related how this king, by his -faithless conduct provoked the wrath of Heracles, and the first capture -of the city. Of his sons only Priam remained; in him the race of -Dardanus flourished afresh, for by his wife Hecuba and by his concubines -he had a great number of sons and daughters. - -_2. The Pelopidæ, or race of Pelops._—The Pelopidæ, who were chiefly -instrumental in the destruction of Troy, were descended from the -Phrygian king Tantalus, who was renowned alike for his unexampled good -fortune and his subsequent unhappy fate. He was the son of Zeus and -Pluto (rich plenty), and inhabited a citadel on Mount Sipylus, whence -his rich pasture-lands and fruitful corn-fields extended twelve days’ -journey, as far as Ida and the Propontis. The very gods honoured him -with their friendship, and lived on such intimate terms that they -invited him to eat at their table. This unheard-of good fortune, -however, begot in the puny mortal such presumption, that he began to -indulge in the grossest outrages on gods and men. At length he went so -far as to cut his son Pelops in pieces to boil them, and set them before -the gods in order to test their omniscience. The cup of his iniquity now -seemed full, and the gods brought down a heavy retribution on the head -of the criminal by his well-known punishment in the lower world, where, -though surrounded by the most delicious fruits, and standing up to his -neck in water, he was nevertheless condemned to suffer the pangs of -continual hunger and thirst. Another tradition relates that he was kept -in constant anxiety by a huge rock which was suspended over his head. -(See pp. 149, 150.) - -The children of Tantalus were Pelops and Niobe. The unhappy fate of the -latter has already been described in the mythic history of Thebes. -Pelops was restored to life by the art of Hermes; and a portion of his -shoulder, which had been consumed by Demeter, was replaced by the gods -with a piece of ivory. Pelops is said to have grown up in Olympus, -amongst the blessed gods. On being restored to earth, he proceeded to -Elis, where he became a suitor for the hand of Hippodamia, the beautiful -daughter of the king Œnomaüs. The latter had promised his daughter to -the man who should vanquish him in a chariot race: whoever failed was -obliged to expiate his temerity with his life, as Œnomaüs transfixed him -with his unerring lance as he passed. Thirteen noble youths had already -suffered this fate, when Pelops appeared to undergo the dangerous -ordeal. By means of the untiring winged horses which had been given him -by Poseidon, and also by bribing Myrtilus, the King’s charioteer—who, -before starting, withdrew the linch-pins from his master’s chariot or -replaced them with wax—he came off victorious. Œnomaüs either was killed -by the breaking down of his chariot, or put an end to his own life on -seeing himself vanquished. Pelops now obtained both Hippodamia and the -kingdom of Elis; but he ill rewarded Myrtilus, who had rendered him such -valuable service, by casting him into the sea, in order to release -himself from his obligations. Hermes, whose son he is reputed to have -been, set him amongst the stars as charioteer. - -The sons of Pelops by Hippodamia were Atreus and Thyestes, whose -history, which is full of the most revolting crimes, formed a favourite -subject with the tragic poets. First, Atreus and Thyestes murdered their -step-brother Chrysippus, and were compelled to leave their country in -company with their mother. They were hospitably received at Mycenæ by -their brother-in-law Sthenelus, the son of Perseus, or by his son -Eurystheus. On Eurystheus’ death, they inherited the sovereignty of the -Persidæ in Argos, and Atreus now took up his residence in the proud -capital of Mycenæ, whence, strange to say, the most ancient specimen of -Greek sculpture has come down to us in the so-called Gate of Lions. Soon -an implacable enmity arose between the two brothers, and Thyestes, in -consequence, was banished from Argos. He took with him, in revenge, -Pleisthenes, the young son of Atreus, brought him up as his own son, and -despatched him, later, to Mycenæ to kill Atreus. His design was -discovered, and he expiated his intended crime with his life. When -Atreus learned that it was his own son whom he had condemned to death, -he determined on a dreadful revenge. Pretending to be reconciled, he -recalled Thyestes and his children to Mycenæ; and Thyestes, trusting to -his brother’s word, returned. Atreus then privately seized the two young -sons of Thyestes, slew them, and set this horrible food before their -father. Horror-struck at this inhuman cruelty, the sun turned his -chariot and went back in his course. Thyestes, uttering fearful curses -against his brother and the whole race of the Pelopidæ, again escaped, -and took refuge with Thesprotus, king of Epirus. Later, he succeeded, -with the help of his only remaining son Ægisthus, in avenging himself on -his brother. Atreus was slain by Ægisthus whilst offering up a sacrifice -on the sea-shore, and Thyestes now acquired the sovereignty of Mycenæ. -The sons of Atreus, Agamemnon and Menelaüs, fled from their barbarous -uncle to Sparta, where Tyndareüs, the king, received them kindly, and -gave them his daughters, Clytæmnestra and Helen, in marriage. With his -aid Agamemnon recovered his father’s kingdom, slew Thyestes, and drove -out Ægisthus. Menelaüs remained in Sparta—where he succeeded -Tyndareüs—until the carrying off of his wife Helen by Paris gave rise to -the Trojan war. - -_3. The Æacidæ, or race of Æacus._—After the sons of Atreus, the Æacidæ -play the most important part in the Trojan war; in fact, we are almost -justified in saying that the war was an exploit of these two races of -heroes and their peoples, the Achæans of Argos and the Hellenes of -Phthia. The ancestor of the Æacidæ was Æacus, who was renowned alike for -his wisdom and justice, and on this account subsequently made a judge in -the lower world. Æacus was a son of Zeus by Ægina, a daughter of the -river-god Asopus. He ruled over the island of Ægina, and married Endeïs, -the daughter of the wise Centaur Chiron. She bore him two sons, Peleus -and Telamon. On reaching manhood they were compelled to leave their -country, because, like the sons of Pelops, they had murdered, in a fit -of jealousy, a step-brother who was a favourite with their father. -Peleus betook himself to Phthia, where he was kindly received by -Eurytion, who bestowed on him the hand of his daughter and a third part -of his kingdom. Peleus afterwards took part in the boar hunt of Calydon, -on which occasion he had the misfortune to kill his father-in-law. In -consequence of this, he left Phthia and proceeded to Iolcus, where he -took part in the funeral games which Acastus was celebrating in honour -of his father Pelias, who had perished by the treachery of Medea. Here -he experienced a similar fate to that of Bellerophon at the court of -Prœtus. Astydameia, the wife of Acastus, finding herself unable to -seduce him, slandered him to her husband, who thereupon sought to take -his life. After hunting on Pelion one day, Peleus fell asleep, and was -left thus unprotected by Acastus, who hoped by this means to get rid of -him. He would, indeed, have been murdered by the Centaurs, if the gods -had not taken pity on him, and sent him by Hermes a sword of wonderful -power, with which he was enabled to repel the assaults of the wild -inhabitants of the forest. Peleus, with the help of the Dioscuri, -subsequently took Iolcus, and put the treacherous Acastus and his wife -to death. As a reward for his chastity, the gods gave him the goddess -Thetis—a beautiful daughter of Nereus—to wife. She bore him one son, -Achilleus (Achilles), the greatest and bravest hero of the Trojan war. A -later tradition asserts that Thetis left her husband soon after the -birth of Achilles, because he had disturbed her when she was about to -render her child immortal in the fire, just as Demeter intended to do to -the child of Celeüs; but this story is unknown to Homer. According to a -still later legend, she plunged her son into the Styx, and thereby -rendered him invulnerable in every part except the heel by which she -held him. Like all noble heroes, Achilles was instructed by Chiron, -under whom he acquired such wonderful skill in all feats of strength and -agility that he soon surpassed all his contemporaries. In addition to -Chiron, Homer names Phœnix, the son of Amyntor, as the instructor of the -youthful hero. Achilles proceeded to the Trojan war with cheerful -determination, although he knew beforehand that he was not fated to -return alive. The story that his mother Thetis, in order to avert his -fate, sent him, disguised in women’s clothes, to the court of Lycomedes, -king of Scyros, where he was discovered by the craft of Odysseus, is a -post-Homeric invention. - -From Telamon, the second son of Æacus, was descended Aias or Ajax, a -hero of but little less importance. Telamon, after his flight from -Ægina, found a new home in Salamis, where he married the daughter of the -king Cychreus. On the decease of Cychreus, he succeeded to the crown. -After the death of his first wife, he married Peribœa, a daughter of -Alcathoüs, king of Megara, who bore him Ajax. Tradition tells us much of -the intimate friendship of Heracles and Telamon, who took part in the -Trojan expedition of his mighty friend. Heracles, in return, gave him -Hesione, the daughter of Laomedon, by whom he became the father of a -second son, Teucer. Like every celebrated hero of antiquity, he is said -to have taken part in the Calydonian hunt and the expedition of the -Argonauts. Nothing inferior to this brave and doughty father was his son -Ajax, on whom the mighty hero Heracles had invoked the blessing of his -father Zeus, when as a child he held him in his arms. He was of greater -size and strength than any of the other heroes; though he appears -somewhat uncouth and clumsy when contrasted with the swift and agile -form of Achilles. His mighty shield was as characteristic of him as the -ponderous deadly spear was of Achilles. Beside him, his brother Teucer -ranks as the best archer among the Greeks. - -_4. Nestor, the Locrian Ajax, Diomedes, and Odysseus._—Associated with -the heroes of the race of Pelops and Æacus were some other renowned -chieftains. First among them was the aged Nestor, of Pylus, whose wise -counsels were as indispensable to the Greeks before Troy as the -dauntless courage of an Achilles or an Ajax. Nestor was the youngest of -the twelve sons of Neleus, who was himself a son of Poseidon and Tyro, -and twin-brother of Pelias. Neleus, having been driven out by Pelias, -took refuge in Messenia, where he became the founder of a new kingdom. -Later, however, both his sovereignty and the glory of his house were -well-nigh extinguished by the hostility of Heracles, who slew all the -sons of Neleus except Nestor. When quite young, Nestor defeated the -neighbouring tribes of the Epei and Arcadians, and restored the -dominions of his father to their former extent. He likewise took part in -the contest between the Lapithæ and the Centaurs, in the Calydonian boar -hunt, and in the expedition of the Argonauts. Though so far advanced in -years—having ruled over three generations of men—he could not withstand -the desire to take part in the Trojan war. - -The Locrian Ajax—also called the Lesser Ajax, to distinguish him from -his mighty namesake—was a son of the Locrian king Oïleus, of whom -nothing more is known than that he took part in the expedition of the -Argonauts. Ajax was renowned among the Greeks for his skill in hurling -the spear and for his great fleetness, in which he was surpassed only by -Achilles. He always appears in a linen corslet, and his followers, the -Opuntian Locrians, are also light-armed troops. - -Diomedes was a member of the oft-mentioned race of the Æolian -Amythaonidæ. His father was the hot-headed Tydeus, who was killed in the -war of the Seven against Thebes. Diomedes, who inherited no small -portion of his father’s wild, untameable disposition, of course took -part in the war of the Epigoni, and subsequently succeeded his -grandfather Adrastus in his Argive sovereignty at Sicyon. He also -restored his paternal grandfather, the aged Ætolian king Œneus, who had -been dethroned by the sons of his brother Agrius, to his kingdom. In the -_Iliad_ he appears as a special favourite of Pallas Athene, and Homer -makes him play an important part in the contests of the Greeks before -the walls of Troy. In post-Homeric story he is represented as having -carried off the Trojan Palladium. - -Finally, Odysseus (Ulysses), the most popular of the Greek heroes of the -Trojan war, was a son of Laërtes, king of Ithaca, by Anticlea, the -daughter of Autolycus. Autolycus inhabited a district on Mount -Parnassus, and was renowned for his cunning. His grandson seems to have -inherited no small part of his grandfather’s disposition. Through his -noble and virtuous wife Penelope, Odysseus was closely related to the -Atridæ; Penelope being the daughter of Icarius, who was a brother of the -Spartan king Tyndareüs. He was therefore obliged—though much against his -will—to comply with the request of Menelaüs, and join the expedition -against Troy. On account of his wisdom and eloquence, his dexterity in -all feats of strength, and his dauntless valour in the midst of danger, -he also was a special favourite of Pallas. - -II. THE WAR.—The _Iliad_ of Homer, the most important source of our -information with regard to the Trojan war, does not deal with the events -of the first nine years; and of those of the tenth and last year it only -gives such episodes as relate to the quarrel of Achilles and Agamemnon. -Of the origin of the war, and the events of the first nine years, it -speaks only incidentally, for the sake of explanation. The gap has to be -filled up from the works of those writers who had access to other epic -poems of the Trojan cycle, which are now no longer extant. - -Eris, the goddess of discord, not having been invited to the marriage -festivities of Peleus and Thetis, avenged herself by casting into the -assembly a golden apple, with the inscription—“To the fairest.” The -three rival goddesses—Hera, Athene, and Aphrodite—each claimed the apple -for herself, but were referred by Zeus to the decision of Paris. Paris -was a son of Priam, the Trojan king. Immediately after birth, he was -exposed on Mount Ida, in consequence of an ill-omened dream which his -mother Hecuba had during her pregnancy. He was found, however, and -brought up by some shepherds. He decided in favour of Aphrodite, who had -promised him the most beautiful woman on earth as his wife. Soon -afterwards, at some games given by the king, the youth, who was equally -distinguished for his handsome person and his bodily dexterity, after -having wrested the prize from all his brethren, was recognised by the -prophetess Cassandra, and received into his father’s favour. He next -undertook a journey across the sea to Greece, and, among other places, -visited the court of Menelaüs, king of Sparta, by whom he was hospitably -received and entertained. Aphrodite kindled in the breast of the young -wife of Menelaüs a fatal love for their handsome guest, who dazzled her -as much by the beauty of his person as by the oriental splendour of his -appearance. While Menelaüs was absent in Crete, and her brothers, the -Dioscuri, were engaged in their strife with the sons of Aphareus, Helen -fled with her seducer to Troy. On the refusal of the king of Troy to -surrender Helen, Menelaüs succeeded in rousing the whole of Greece to a -war of revenge. This task was the more easy, as most of the Grecian -chieftains had been suitors of Helen, and had bound themselves by an -oath to Tyndareüs to unite in support of the husband whom Helen should -choose, in the event of his ever being injured or attacked. The -well-manned ships of the Greeks assembled in the Bœotian port of Aulis. -Their number amounted to eleven hundred and eighty-six, according to -Homer; of which Agamemnon, who had been chosen leader of the expedition, -alone furnished over one hundred. Agamemnon, however, having offended -Artemis by killing a hind sacred to the goddess, the departure of the -expedition was delayed by continuous calms, until at length, at the -command of the priest Calchas, Agamemnon determined to appease the wrath -of the goddess by sacrificing his daughter Iphigenia on her altar. At -the fatal moment Artemis rescued the victim, and, after substituting a -hind in her stead, conveyed Iphigenia to Tauris, where she became a -priestess in the temple of the goddess. The fleet now sailed with a fair -wind. The expedition first stopped at Tenedos, opposite the coast of -Troy. Here, on the occasion of a banquet, Philoctetes, who possessed the -bow and arrows of Heracles on which the conquest of Troy depended, was -bitten in the foot by a serpent, and on account of his cries and the -offensive smell of the wound was carried to Lemnos, and there left to -his fate. The Greeks next effected a landing on the coast of Troy, in -spite of the opposition of Hector and Æneas; for Protesilaüs devoted -himself to death for the Greeks, and sprang first on the Trojan shore. -Even Cycnus, the mighty son of Poseidon, who was king of Colonæ in -Troas, and came to the assistance of the Trojans, was unable to stem the -advance of the Greeks; and his body being invulnerable, he was strangled -by Achilles by means of a thong twisted round his neck. - -After the Greeks had made a station for their ships, the war began in -earnest. Several of their attacks on the town having been successfully -repelled by the Trojans, the Greeks now confined themselves to making -inroads and plundering excursions into the surrounding country, in which -Achilles was always the most prominent actor. The first nine years of -the war were by no means fruitful in important events, and the wearisome -monotony of the siege was broken only by the single combat between -Achilles and Troïlus, the youngest son of Priam, in which Troïlus was -slain, and by the fall of Palamedes of Eubœa, the head of the Greek -peace-party, which was brought about by the treachery of Odysseus. At -length, in the tenth year of the war, a quarrel broke out between -Achilles and Agamemnon respecting a female slave who had been taken -captive, and gave for the time quite another aspect to affairs. It is at -this point that the _Iliad_ commences. Achilles, in his wrath, retired -to his tent, and refused to take any further part in the war; whilst the -Trojans, who feared him more than all the other Greeks, became bolder, -and no longer kept to the protection of their walls. Zeus, at the -request of Thetis, gave them the victory in their first engagement with -the Greeks. Hector drove the latter back to their ships, and was already -about to set them on fire, when Achilles consented to allow his friend -Patroclus to don his armour and lead his Myrmidons to the assistance of -the Greeks. The Trojans were now driven back, but Patroclus, in the -ardour of pursuit, was slain by Hector, and deprived of his armour, and -Menelaüs, with the help of the greater Ajax and other heroes, only -succeeded in rescuing his corpse after a bloody and obstinate struggle. -The wrath of Achilles was now entirely diverted by the desire of -avenging on Hector the death of his much-loved friend Patroclus. He was -scarcely willing even to wait for the new armour which his -goddess-mother procured him from the workshop of Hephæstus. No sooner -was he in possession of it than he again appeared on the field, and -Hector—the bulwark of Troy—soon succumbed to his furious onslaught. -Achilles, however, was generous enough to surrender his corpse to the -entreaties of Priam. The _Iliad_ concludes with the solemn funeral of -Hector. - -The succeeding events, up to the death of Achilles and the contest for -his arms, were narrated in the _Æthiopis_ of Arctinus of Miletus, with -the contents of which we have some slight acquaintance, although the -work itself is lost. All kinds of brilliant exploits are reported to -have been performed by Achilles before the walls of Troy, which were -manifestly unknown to the earlier story. In the first place, immediately -after Hector’s death, Penthesilea, the queen of the Amazons, came to the -assistance of the Trojans, and fought so bravely at the head of her army -that the Greeks were hard pressed. Achilles at length overcame the -heroic daughter of Ares. After her fall, a new ally of the Trojans -appeared in Memnon, king of Æthiopia, who is called a son of Eos, -because the Æthiopians were supposed to dwell in the far East. Among -those who fell by the hand of this handsome and courageous hero was -Antilochus, the valiant son of Nestor. When Memnon, however, ventured to -meet the invincible Achilles, he also was vanquished, after a brave -struggle. The fresh morning dew, which springs from the tears of Eos, -proves that she has never ceased to lament her heroic son. But death was -soon to overtake him before whom so many heroes had bitten the dust. In -an assault on the Scæan gate, Achilles was killed, at the head of his -Myrmidons, by an arrow of Paris, which was directed by Apollo. According -to later writers, whose accounts were followed by the tragic poets, he -was treacherously murdered here on the occasion of his betrothal to -Polyxena, the beautiful daughter of Priam. A furious contest, lasting -the whole day, took place for the possession of his corpse and armour: -at length Odysseus and Ajax succeeded in conveying it to a place of -safety. Mourning and confusion reigned among the Greeks at his death. -During seventeen days and nights Thetis, with the whole band of Nereids, -bewailed his untimely fate in mourning melodies, so sad and touching -that neither gods nor men could refrain from tears. - - “See, tears are shed by every god and goddess, to survey - How soon the Beautiful is past, the Perfect dies away!” - -The death of the bravest of the Greeks was followed by an unhappy -quarrel between Ajax and Odysseus respecting his arms. Ajax, on account -of his near relationship to the deceased hero, and the great services he -had rendered to the cause of the Greeks, seemed to have the best claim; -but Agamemnon, by the advice of Athene, adjudged them to Odysseus. Ajax -was so mortified at this decision that he became insane, and put an end -to his own life. An entire tragedy of Sophocles, treating of the -mournful fate of the son of Telamon, has come down to us. - -After Ajax had quitted the scene, Odysseus became decidedly the chief -personage among the Greeks. It was he who captured the Trojan seer -Helenus, and extorted from him the secret that Ilium could not be taken -without the arrows of Heracles. Hereupon Philoctetes, who was still -lying sick at Lemnos, was fetched, and his wound healed by Machaon. -Paris soon afterwards fell by his hand. It was Odysseus, moreover, who, -in company with Diomedes, undertook the perilous task of entering Troy -in disguise and stealing the Palladium, on which the safety of the city -depended. It was he who fetched Neoptolemus, the young son of Achilles, -from Scyros to the Trojan camp, it having been decreed that his presence -was necessary to the success of the Greeks. Lastly—and this was his -greatest service—it was Odysseus who devised the celebrated wooden -horse, and the stratagem which led to the final capture of the city. In -the belly of the horse, which was built by Epeüs, one hundred chosen -warriors of the Greeks concealed themselves. The rest of the Greeks set -fire to their camp, and sailed away to Tenedos; whereupon the Trojans, -deceived by the assurances of Sinon, dragged the fatal horse, amid cries -of joy, into the city. In vain did the Trojan priest of Apollo, Laocoön, -seek to divert them from their folly. None would give heed to his -warnings; and when, soon afterwards, both he and his sons, whilst -sacrificing to Poseidon on the sea-shore, were strangled by two serpents -that came up out of the sea, the Trojans regarded this as a punishment -sent by the gods for his evil counsel, and were the more confirmed in -their purpose. - - The death of Laocoön and his sons forms the subject of one of the - most splendid of the creations of Greek art that have come down to - us from antiquity. The group was found, in the year 1506, by a Roman - citizen in his vineyard, close to the former Thermæ of Titus, and - was made over by him, for a considerable annuity, to Pope Julius - II., who then placed it in the Vatican collection. The right arm of - Laocoön, which was wanting, has, unfortunately, been incorrectly - restored. This is attested by a copy of the group which was - subsequently discovered in Naples. We give an engraving of the group - in its original form (Fig. 61). - -[Illustration: Fig. 61.—Laocoön. Group.] - - It treats really of three distinct incidents, which have been - skilfully incorporated, by the artists to whom we owe the work (the - Rhodians Agesander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus), into one harmonious - group. The eldest son is as yet unhurt, and appears to be so loosely - held by the coils of the serpent that he might easily escape his - impending fate, if he were not more effectually restrained by his - loving sympathy with his noble father, on whom he gazes with piteous - looks. Laocoön himself, who naturally forms the centre of the group, - is depicted at the moment in which, mortally wounded by the serpent, - he sinks on the altar, to rise from which he vainly exerts his last - remaining strength. With his left arm he still mechanically seeks to - repel the serpents. His hitherto energetic resistance has begun to - fail, and his noble head is raised in mournful resignation to - heaven, as though to ask the gods why they had condemned him to so - terrible a fate. The dignified and resolute aspect of his - countenance forms a beautiful contrast to that of his body, which is - manifestly quivering in the keenest agony. The younger son on his - right is already in the last agonies of death, and though his left - hand grasps instinctively the head of the snake, he is evidently - incapable of further resistance. He is drooping like a plucked - flower, and in one more moment will have breathed his last. - -On the night succeeding Laocoön’s horrible end, and the rejoicings of -the Trojans at the apparent departure of the Greeks, the Greek fleet -returned in silence at a signal given by Sinon. The heroes who were -hidden in the wooden horse then descended and opened the gates to the -Greek host, who rushed into the doomed city. A terrible scene of plunder -and carnage ensued, the Trojans, in their dismay and confusion, offering -no resistance. The fate of the sacred city was fulfilled; Priam perished -before the altar of Zeus by the hand of Neoptolemus, and with him the -glory of Troy was laid in the dust. The men were put to death, the women -and children, together with the rich booty, were carried off, the former -being destined to the hard lot of slavery. Among them was the aged queen -Hecuba, with all her daughters and daughters-in-law. Helen—the cause of -all this misfortune—was found in the house of Deïphobus, whom she had -married after the death of his brother Paris. - -The city was burnt to the ground, and, long after, other cities rose on -its site. Still the tradition of the siege remained among the -inhabitants, though, even in Roman times, learned men had begun to -declare that Old Troy must have had another site. And now when the last -Ilium had been no more for many centuries, and the very existence of -Homer’s Troy had been declared a fable, the palace and the traces of the -conflagration have been found. Dr. Schliemann has excavated the -legendary site, and we know now that Athene was worshipped in the city, -and that it perished by fire. We can hardly tell at present the full -importance of these discoveries, nor of those at Mycenæ, where the -traditional tombs of the Grecian leaders have been examined, and their -long-buried wealth brought to light. - -Yet this, too, the greatest of all the Grecian legend series, dissolves -into the phenomena of nature. That there was a Trojan war, and that we -have some historical facts about it, we can hardly doubt; but so many -myths have crystallised round it, that to us it must be merely legend. -The very names of Achilles, and Paris, and Helen, upon whom the whole -story turns, have been recognised in Indian legend. Point after point in -their history is found in the legend history of every nation of the -Aryan family. The only conclusion that we can draw is, that such stories -must have come into being before the separation of the Aryan family, and -cannot therefore contain the later history of any one branch. - -III. THE RETURN.—The Greeks, after sacrificing Polyxena on the grave of -Achilles at Sigeum, prepared to return to their country. Few, however, -were destined to reach their homes without some misfortune, or, even -when arrived there, to experience a kindly welcome. Of the two sons of -Atreus, Agamemnon, after escaping a storm on the coast of Eubœa, landed -safely on his native shores, but was soon after murdered by his wife and -Ægisthus, who had, during his absence, returned to Argos and married -Clytæmnestra. Cassandra, the Trojan prophetess, who, in the division of -the spoils, had fallen to Agamemnon, shared his fate. She had -continually predicted the unfortunate end of the war and the ultimate -fate of the city, but had always been laughed to scorn by her -incredulous countrymen. The fate of the commander of the Greeks, with -its eventful consequences, was a favourite subject with the tragic -poets. His murder did not go unavenged. Orestes, the only son of -Agamemnon and Clytæmnestra, had been hastily removed from the scene by -his sister Electra, and sent to his uncle, Strophius, king of Phocis. -Strophius had him carefully educated with his own son Pylades, who was -about the same age. A most intimate friendship soon sprang up between -the two youths, which, from its faithfulness and constancy, has become -proverbial. On reaching manhood, the sole thought of Orestes was to -avenge his noble father’s treacherous death at the hands of the crafty -Ægisthus and his mother Clytæmnestra. Accompanied by his friend Pylades, -he returned, in the eighth year of his exile, to Mycenæ, and there slew -both Ægisthus and Clytæmnestra. Although in so doing he had only -fulfilled a duty, he yet incurred the deepest guilt by the murder of her -who gave him birth, and at once found himself pursued by the avenging -Furies. They dogged his steps, and ceased not to pursue him through all -the countries of the earth, until he was at length directed by the -oracle at Delphi to convey the statue of Artemis from Tauris to Attica. -After he had, with the help of his newly-found sister, successfully -achieved this task, he was purified by Apollo (see page 152). Of the -numerous dramas that were written on the subject of the fortunes of the -Pelopidæ, which we have here briefly touched on, the _Agamemnon_, -_Choëphoræ_, and _Eumenides_ of Æschylus, the _Electra_ of Sophocles, -and the _Electra_ and _Iphigenia in Tauris_ of Euripides, are still -extant. - -We must now turn to the fortunes of the other Greek leaders. Agamemnon’s -brother Menelaus was overtaken, off Cape Malea, by a fearful storm, -which carried him to Crete and Egypt, whence, after seven years of -wandering, he returned to Sparta with Helen and his share of the spoils -of Troy. - -The Locrian Ajax experienced a still more unhappy fate. On the night of -the destruction of Troy he had penetrated into the temple of Pallas, and -had not only torn away the priestess Cassandra, who was clinging for -safety to the altar and statue of the goddess, but had also overturned -the statue of Pallas herself. As a punishment for this offence, his ship -was wrecked on Cape Caphareus, He would still have been able to escape -with his life—having succeeded in getting hold of a rock—if he had not -given such offence to Poseidon by his impious boast that he needed not -the help of the gods, that the god split the rock with his trident, -whereupon Ajax fell into the sea and was drowned. - -Diomedes, Philoctetes, and Idomeneus reached their homes in safety, but -were all soon afterwards driven out, after which they all three -emigrated to Italy. Here Diomedes founded many towns, and was long -worshipped with heroic honours. - -Teucer also succeeded in reaching Salamis in safety, but his father -Telamon was so wroth because he had not better protected his brother -Ajax, or at least avenged his death, that he refused to receive him. He -was, therefore, likewise obliged to leave his country, and subsequently -settled on the island of Cyprus. - -But of all the Greek heroes Odysseus experienced the most reverses, -while at home his faithful wife Penelope and his son Telemachus were -hard pressed by the suitors. It was only in the tenth year after the -fall of Troy, and after numerous wanderings and vicissitudes, that he -was permitted to return to his native Ithaca and punish the shameless -suitors who had wasted his substance and goods. The story of his -adventures is so well known that we need not dwell on it here, further -than to mention that, according to post-Homeric accounts, Odysseus was -killed by the hand of Telegonus, his own son by Circe. - - The events of the Trojan cycle have supplied not only the poet, but - also the artist and the sculptor, with a large number of their most - acceptable subjects. Single scenes, such as the judgment of Paris, - have been continually selected, ever since the time of Raphael, as - favourite subjects of representation. Of modern masters, Carstens, - Thorwaldsen the great Danish sculptor, Cornelius, Genelli, and - Preller (Landscapes of the _Odyssey_) have illustrated the story of - Troy in a series of splendid compositions. We give an engraving of a - relief by Thorwaldsen, representing Priam before Achilles (Fig. 62). - -[Illustration: Fig. 62.—Priam before Achilles. Relief by Thorwaldsen.] - - Of the more important extant works of antiquity, we may mention the - wedding of Peleus and Thetis, depicted on the Français vase in the - Naples Museum; the abduction of Helen, depicted on a marble relief - in the former Campana collection, now in the Louvre (Fig. 63); the - marble group in Rome, known by the name of “Pasquino,” which - represents Menelaüs raising the corpse of Patroclus; and, lastly, - the celebrated Ægina marbles in Munich. These last are the remains - of a marble group from the gable of a temple of Pallas at Ægina, - representing a battle between the Greeks and Trojans. They were - discovered at Ægina in the year 1811; King Ludwig I. of Bavaria, who - was a great patron of art, bought the Ægina marbles, and, after - having them restored by Thorwaldsen, placed them in the Munich - collection. The Laocoön, the most important of all the works - relating to the Trojan cycle, has already been discussed. - -[Illustration: Fig. 63.—Rape of Helen. Campana Collection. Paris.] - - - V.—MYTHIC SEERS AND BARDS. - -We have already incidentally mentioned most of the seers of -antiquity—Melampus, the son of Amythaon, who figures in Argive legend; -likewise Amphiaraüs, Tiresias, and Calchas. Concerning Tiresias, we may -remark that the ancients ascribed to him a fabulous age, extending over -seven or even nine generations; so that he was thus a witness of all -that happened to Thebes, from the foundation of the city to its -destruction by the Epigoni. Like all celebrated soothsayers, he was -acquainted with the language of birds, and could penetrate the most -hidden secrets of nature; on which account he enjoyed up to his death an -ever-increasing reputation among the Thebans. We have already related -how, in extreme old age, when his native city could no longer withstand -the assaults of the Epigoni, he experienced the bitter lot of having to -take refuge in flight, and at length succumbed beneath the hardships of -the journey. In the second century A.D. his grave was still shown in the -neighbourhood of Haliartus. - -Among the fugitive Thebans who fell into the hands of the Argives is -said to have been Manto, the daughter of Tiresias, who was likewise -renowned as a prophetess. She was dedicated, together with a large -portion of the spoils, to the oracle at Delphi. By the command of the -god she was sent into Asia Minor, where she founded the oracle of -Claros, near Colophon. She here married the Cretan Rhacius, and became -by him the mother of Mopsus, who afterwards founded the oracle of Mallos -in Cilicia. - -Among the names of the mythic bards that have been handed down to us are -undoubtedly to be found some recollections of those who first cultivated -the art of poetry; partly, however, they are nothing more than -personifications of certain tendencies and modes of poetry. Such is -probably the case with the mythic bard Linus, who was celebrated in -Argos, Thebes, and Eubœa. Nothing is more common than for an -unsophisticated people to burst forth in lamentation over the decay and -final extinction of the blooming life of nature. This, as we see in the -myth of Hyacinthus, was often portrayed under the metaphor of a -beautiful boy slain by a quoit or by savage dogs—both symbols of the -scorching heat of the sun. The dirges which from time immemorial were -sung over the beautiful boy Linus, at the season of vintage, probably -gave rise to the myth which makes Linus himself the singer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 64.—Orpheus and Eurydice. Marble Relief In the Villa -Albani.] - -Similar doleful memories are linked with the name of Orpheus, who is -often termed a brother of Linus, though he was really not an Æolian, but -a Thracian of Pieria. That which is best known of him is the story of -his love for the beautiful nymph Eurydice. She was bitten in the foot by -a snake, and thus snatched away from him by death. Orpheus then filled -mountain and valley with songs of lamentation so piteous, that the wild -beasts of the forest were enchanted at the sound, and followed him like -lambs; and the very rocks and trees moved from their places. His -yearning towards his beloved Eurydice induced him to descend to the -lower world, to beg her release from the grim king of shadows. Here his -piteous lay caused even the Erinyes to shed tears of compassion, and -moved the hard heart of the Stygian king. He released Eurydice on -condition that Orpheus should not look back on her till he reached the -upper world. Orpheus, however, violated this condition, and Eurydice was -once more lost to him. He himself, not long afterwards, whilst wandering -in his despair over the Thracian mountains, was torn in pieces by some -women in the mad excitement of their nightly Bacchanalian orgies. - - A splendid representation of the second parting of the lovers by - Hermes, the guide of souls, has come down to us on a marble relief, - which is preserved in the Villa Albani (Fig. 64). - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - - INDEX. - - - Ăbas, 187. - - Ăcastus, 234, 237, 246. - - Ăchĕlōus, 110, 210. - - Ăchĕrōn, 149. - - Ăchilles (Ăchilleus), 35, 168, 246, 251, 253. - - Āchĭrŏē, 186. - - Ăcrĭsĭus, 187, 191. - - Actæon, 49, 171. - - Actŏrĭdæ, 209. - - Admētē, 202. - - Admētus, 231, 234 - - Ădōnis, 57. - - Adrastus, 240, 241, 248. - - Æăcus, 149, 245, 247. - - Ăēdōn, 179. - - Æētēs, 90, 235. - - Ægeus, 220, 223, 237. - - Ægĭăleus, 241. - - Ægĭmĭus, 211. - - Ægīna, 180, 245. - - Ægis, 22, 35, 40. - - Ægisthus, 64, 152, 245, 257. - - Ægyptus, 186. - - Ænēas, 58, 157, 251. - - Æŏlus, 94, 179, 232. - - Æscŭlāpĭus (_vide_ Asclepius). - - Æsōn, 233. - - Æthra, 220. - - Ætna, 21, 69. - - Ăgămemnōn, 49, 64, 152, 245, 257. - - Ăgăthŏdæmōn, 98. - - Ăgāvē, 115, 171. - - Ăgēnōr, 170, 186, 227. - - Aglăĭa, 83. - - Aglaurus, 218. - - Agrĭus, 248. - - Ăĭdōneus, 146 (_vide_ Hades). - - Ājax, Telamonian, 247, 253. - - Ājax, Locrian, 247, 248, 259. - - Alcæus, 198. - - Alcăthŏus, 247. - - Alcmæon, 241. - - Alcmēnē, 26, 191, 198. - - Ālectō, 151. - - Ălēus, 209. - - Ălōīdæ, 102. - - Althæa, 232. - - Ămalthēa, 19, 210. - - Ămāzons, 180, 182, 202, 224. - - Ămor, 78. - - Amphĭărāus, 188, 231, 234, 240. - - Amphicty̆ōn, 218. - - Amphīōn, 171, 172. - - Amphitrītē, 101, 104. - - Amphitry̆ōn, 191, 198. - - Ămy̆cus, 195, 234. - - Ămyntor, 246. - - Ămy̆thāŏnĭdæ, 188, 240, 248. - - Ănăcĕs, 196. - - Ancæus, 231. - - Anchĭnŏē, 186. - - Anchīsēs, 58, 242. - - Andrŏgĕōs, 222, 228. - - Andrŏmĕda, 102, 190. - - Anna Pĕrenna, 98. - - Antæus, 102, 205. - - Antēa, 187. - - Antĕros, 57, 78. - - Anthestērĭa, 118. - - Anticlēa, 249. - - Antĭgŏnē, 240. - - Antĭlŏchus, 253. - - Antĭŏpē, 224. - - Ăphăreus, 194. - - Ăphărīdæ, 194, 231. - - Ăphidnæ, 195, 224. - - Aphrŏdītē, 25, 52, 56, 78, 83, 163, 222, 249. - - Ăpollo, 14, 26, 40, 62, 152, 155, 176, 206, 242. - - Apsyrtus, 236. - - Ăquĭlo, 94. - - Arcas, 93. - - Arctus, 93. - - Areopagus, 52, 152. - - Ărēs, 26, 51, 57, 78, 170, 171, 202, 233. - - Argēs, 18. - - Argīphontēs, 185. - - Argonauts, 90, 107, 195, 201, 225, 230, 232, 234, 248. - - Argō, 234. - - Argŏs, 31, 185, 244. - - Argus, 64, 185, 186, 234. - - Ărĭadnē, 116, 123, 222, 228. - - Ăristæus, 171. - - Artĕmis, 25, 48, 155, 171, 201, 230, 250, 258. - - Asclēpĭus, 42, 94, 229. - - Ăsōpus, 180, 245. - - Assărăcus, 242. - - Astĕrĭa, 18, 153. - - Astĕrĭōn, 227. - - Astræus, 92. - - Asty̆dămīa, 246. - - Ătălantē, 231. - - Ăthămas, 108, 232. - - Ăthēnē, 13, 34, 163, 206, 249. - - Ăthēnē Pŏlĭas, 35, 38, 219. - - Atlas, 62, 162, 205. - - Atreus, 244. - - Atrŏpos, 98. - - Attica, 36, 217. - - Attis (Ātys), 114, 130. - - Augē, 209. - - Augēas, 201, 208, 212. - - Aurōra, 92. - - Autŏly̆cus, 249. - - Autŏnŏē, 171. - - - Bacchus, 114. - - Bellĕrŏphōn (Belīĕrŏphontēs), 180, 239. - - Bellōna, 54. - - Bēlus, 186. - - Benthĕsĭcȳmē, 104. - - Bĕrŏē, 115. - - Bĭas, 188, 240. - - Bŏnă Dĕă, 132. - - Bŏnus Ēventus, 98. - - Bŏrĕădæ, 94, 234. - - Bŏrĕas, 92, 94, 219. - - Brĭăreus, 18. - - Brontēs, 18. - - Būsīris, 205. - - - Căbīrī, 70. - - Cācus, 204, 214. - - Cadmus, 26, 52, 114, 170, 171, 217, 232, 237, 240. - - Cæneus, 165. - - Călăĭs, 94, 219, 234. - - Calchas, 250, 262. - - Callĭŏpē, 82. - - Callĭrhŏē, 203. - - Callistō, 93. - - Calydonian Hunt, 195, 225, 230, 246. - - Călypsō, 64. - - Cămēnæ, 83. - - Căpys, 242. - - Carna (Cardĕa), 97. - - Carpō, 85. - - Cassandra, 250, 257, 259. - - Cassĭŏpēa, 190. - - Castōr, 168, 175, 194, 231. - - Catreus, 228. - - Cecrops, 217, 218. - - Cēlĕus, 140. - - Centaurs, 165, 200, 223. - - Centaurs, fight with, 166. - - Centimanes, 17. - - Cĕphălus, 219. - - Cēpheus (Æthiopia), 190. - - Cēpheus (Tegea), 209. - - Cēphīsus, 125. - - Cerbĕrus, 149, 197, 206. - - Cercōpes, 208. - - Cercy̆ōn, 102, 221. - - Cĕres, 25, 137, 143. - - Cēres (Fates), 155. - - Cētō, 18, 106, 109, 189. - - Cēÿx, 210. - - Chăŏs, 17. - - Chărĭtĕs, 25, 83. - - Chărōn, 149. - - Chĭmæra, 181. - - Chīrōn, 168, 171, 220, 233, 245. - - Chrȳsăor, 190, 203. - - Chrȳsippus, 244. - - Circē, 90, 259. - - Clărus, oracle of, 42, 262. - - Clīō, 82. - - Clŏācīna, 59. - - Clōthō, 98. - - Cly̆mĕnē, 162. - - Cly̆tæmnestra, 152, 194, 245, 257, 258. - - Cōcălus, 229. - - Cœus, 18. - - Cŏlossus of Rhodes, 91. - - Cŏra, 138, 143. - - Cŏry̆bantes, 113. - - Cŏry̆nētēs, 221. - - Cottus, 18. - - Crănăus, 218. - - Crĕōn, 198, 199, 238, 241. - - Crētheus, 233. - - Crĕūsa, 237. - - Crīus, 17. - - Crŏnus, 18, 71, 113, 134, 168. - - Cŭpīdo, 79. - - Cūrētes, 19, 113, 231. - - Cy̆bĕlē, 113, 127. - - Cychreus, 247. - - Cyclōpes, 17, 70, 187. - - Cycnus, 210, 251. - - Cyllēnē, 62. - - - Dædălus, 228, 229. - - Dæmons, 100. - - Dămastēs, 221. - - Dănăē, 26, 188. - - Danaids, 149, 186. - - Dănăus, 186. - - Dardănus, 242. - - Death, 154. - - Dēĭănīra, 210. - - Dēĭphŏbus, 256. - - Delphian Oracle, 42, 72, 112, 170. - - Dēmētēr, 19, 25, 109, 137, 139, 186, 243. - - Dēmŏphōn, 140, 225. - - Dēmus, 52, 57. - - Dēō, 137. - - Deucălĭōn, 162, 164, 218. - - Dĭāna, 49 (_vide_ Artemis). - - Dĭcē, 84. - - Dictys, 189. - - Didymæan Oracle, 42. - - Dĭoclēs, 140. - - Dĭŏmēdēs, Argive, 168, 247, 259. - - Dĭŏmēdēs, Thracian, 202. - - Dĭōnē, 25, 56. - - Dĭŏnȳsĭa, Greater, 119. - - Dĭŏnȳsĭa, Lesser, 118. - - Dĭō̆nȳsus, 26, 57, 68, 83, 114, 130, 223. - - Dĭoscūri, 194, 224, 231, 234, 246, 250. - - Dircē, 173. - - Dis, 147. - - Dōdōna, Oracle of, 24. - - Dōris, 106. - - Dryads, 125. - - Dry̆ŏpes, 211, 212. - - Dry̆ops, 128. - - - Ĕchidna, 181, 200, 204. - - Ēchō, 58, 124. - - Ēgĕrĭa, 83. - - Ēlectra (daughter of Agamemnon), 258. - - Ēlectra (daughter of Atlas), 242. - - Ēlectra (daughter of Oceanus), 106. - - Ēlectry̆ōn, 191, 198. - - Ĕleusīnĭa, 141. - - Ĕleusis, 140. - - Ēly̆sĭum, 149, 161. - - Ēmăthĭōn, 205. - - Endēĭs, 168, 245. - - Endy̆mĭōn, 91. - - Ĕnȳō, 54. - - Ē̆ōs, 18, 92, 219, 253. - - Ĕpăphus, 185, 186. - - Ĕpēus, 254. - - Ĕpĭgŏni, 241, 248, 262. - - Ĕpĭmētheus, 163. - - Ĕpōpeus, 173. - - Ĕrătō, 82. - - Ĕrechtheus, 94, 218, 229. - - Ergīnus, 199. - - Ĕrichthŏnĭus (_vide_ Erechtheus). - - Ĕrīnȳes, 99, 150, 151, 231, 258, 264. - - Ĕriphȳlē, 240. - - Ĕris, 249. - - Ĕros, 17, 57, 58, 78. - - Ĕry̆sichthōn, 141. - - Ĕtĕoclēs, 240, 241. - - Eumĕnĭdes, 152, 239. - - Eumolpus, 140. - - Eunŏmĭa, 84. - - Euphrŏsy̆nē, 83. - - Eurōpē (Europa), 26, 227. - - Eurus, 92. - - Eury̆ălē, 190. - - Eury̆bĭa, 18. - - Eury̆dĭcē, 264. - - Eury̆nŏmē, 25, 68, 83. - - Eurystheus, 198, 202, 244. - - Eury̆tĭōn, 165, 246. - - Eury̆tus, 206, 211. - - Euterpē, 82. - - - Fates (_vide_ Mœræ). - - Fauna, 132. - - Faunālĭa, 132. - - Faunus, 131. - - Făvōnĭus, 94. - - Fēlīcĭtas, 100. - - Flōra, 136. - - Fontus, 76, 110. - - Fortūna, 98. - - Fūrĭæ (Furies) (_vide_ Erinyes). - - - Gæa, 17, 19, 112, 129, 153, 204, 218. - - Găny̆mēdēs, 87, 203. - - Gē, 17 (_vide_ Gæa). - - Gĕlānōr, 186. - - Gĕnĭi, 100. - - Gēry̆ŏnēs (Geryon), 190, 203. - - Gĭgantes (Giants), 21. - - Glaucus Pontius, 107. - - Glaucus (son of Minos), 228. - - Glaucus (son of Sisyphus), 180. - - Gorgŏnēum (_vide_ Ægis). - - Gorgons, 18, 107, 189. - - Graces, 83, 163. - - Grā̆dīvus, 53. - - Grææ, 18, 107, 189. - - Grātĭæ (_vide_ Graces). - - Gy̆ēs, 18. - - - Hādēs, 19, 139, 146, 187, 224. - - Hamadryads, 125. - - Harmŏnĭa, 52, 171, 240. - - Harpies, 18, 106, 235. - - Hēbē, 26, 87, 197, 212. - - Hĕcăbē (_vide_ Hecuba). - - Hĕcătē, 91, 153. - - Hector, 251. - - Hĕcŭba, 243, 249, 256. - - Hĕlĕnē (Helen), 58, 194, 224, 245, 256, 259. - - Hĕlĕnus, 254. - - Hēlĭos, 18, 89, 139, 203, 228. - - Hellē, 232. - - Hēphæstus, 26, 52, 57, 68, 163, 221, 229, 235, 252. - - Hēra, 13, 19, 26, 31, 68, 87, 96, 197, 202, 204, 238, 249. - - Hēraclēs, 79, 87, 106, 161, 183, 187, 197, 234. - - Hēræum, 32. - - Hercŭles, 204, 214 (_vide_ Heracles). - - Hermēs, 14, 25, 57, 62, 163, 186, 189, 206, 243. - - Heroes, 159. - - Hersē, 218, 219. - - Hēsĭŏne, 203, 208, 247. - - Hespĕrĭdes, 90, 107, 204. - - Hespĕrus, 93. - - Hestĭa, 19, 71. - - Hīmĕrus, 58. - - Hippŏcŏōn, 209, 212. - - Hippŏdămīa, 243. - - Hippŏly̆tē, 224. - - Hippŏly̆tus, 58, 224. - - Homer, 13, 35, 52, 86, 144, 206, 249. - - Hŏnos, 196. - - Hōræ, 25, 84. - - Hy̆ăcinthus, 41, 263. - - Hy̆ădes, 93. - - Hydra, 200. - - Hy̆gĭēa, 36, 96. - - Hy̆las, 234. - - Hyllus, 210. - - Hy̆mēn, 58. - - Hy̆mĕnæus, 58. - - Hy̆pĕrīōn, 18, 90, 92. - - Hy̆permnestra, 187. - - Hypnus, 155. - - - Īăpĕtus, 17, 162. - - Īcărĭus, 194, 249. - - Īcărŭs, 229. - - Ichthyocentaurs, 105. - - Īdas, 195, 231. - - Īdŏmĕneus, 229, 259. - - Iliad, 231, 242, 248. - - Īlīthyia, 96. - - Īlus, 242. - - Īnăchus, 185. - - Īnō, 108, 115, 171, 232. - - Ĭnŭus, 131. - - Īō, 26, 64, 185. - - Īŏbătēs, 181, 187. - - Ĭŏcastē, 238. - - Ĭŏlāus, 200, 204, 206, 231. - - Ĭŏlē, 206, 211. - - Ĭōn, 219. - - Īphĭănassa, 188. - - Īphiclēs, 198, 231. - - Īphĭgĕnīa, 49, 251. - - Īphĭtus, 206, 234. - - Īrēnē, 84. - - Īrĭs, 18, 86, 106. - - Īsis, 186. - - Ismenian Oracle, 42. - - Isthmian Games, 101. - - Ĭty̆lus, 179. - - Ixīōn, 149, 166. - - - Jānus, 13, 74. - - Jāsōn, 231, 233. - - Jūno, 13, 26, 32. - - Jūpĭter, 13, 22, 24, 36, 77. - - Jŭventas, 87. - - - Labdăcĭdæ, 237. - - Labdăcus, 179. - - Lăchĕsis, 98. - - Lādōn, 204. - - Lāërtēs, 249. - - Lāĭus, 179, 237. - - Lampus, 92. - - Lāŏcŏōn, 254. - - Lāŏdămas, 241. - - Lāŏmĕdōn, 102, 203, 208, 242. - - Lăpĭthæ, 165, 211, 223. - - Lărēs, 157. - - Larvæ, 158. - - Lātōna (_vide_ Leto). - - Lĕarchus, 108, 232. - - Lēda, 26, 194. - - Lĕmŭrālĭa, 158. - - Lĕmŭrēs, 158. - - Lĕnæa, 118. - - Lētō, 18, 25, 41, 48, 150. - - Leucippus, 195. - - Leucŏthĕa (_vide_ Ino). - - Līber, 120, 143. - - Lībĕrālĭa, 120. - - Lĭbĭtīna, 59. - - Lĭby̆a, 186. - - Lĭchas, 212. - - Lĭnus, 42, 199, 263. - - Lower World, 147. - - Lūna, 49, 91. - - Lŭpercālĭa, 132. - - Lŭpercus, 131. - - Ly̆æus, 117. - - Ly̆cŏmēdēs, 225, 247. - - Ly̆cus (Thebes), 173. - - Ly̆cus (Megara), 220. - - Lynceus (Scythian), 141. - - Lynceus (son of Aphareus), 195, 231. - - Lynceus (son of Danaus), 187. - - - Măchāōn, 254. - - Maia, 25, 62, 132. - - Mānēs, 158. - - Mantō, 241, 262. - - Mars, or Māvors, 26, 52, 77. - - Marsy̆as, 127. - - Māter Magna Īdæa, 113, 130. - - Māter Mātūta, 92 (note). - - Matrōnālia, 33. - - Mēdēa, 221, 230, 235, 246. - - Mĕdūsa, 35, 103, 181, 189. - - Mĕgăpenthēs, 191. - - Mĕgæra, 150. - - Mĕgăra, 199, 206. - - Mĕlampūs, 188, 240. - - Mĕlĕāger, 168, 210, 230, 234. - - Mĕlĭa, 185. - - Mĕlīcertēs, 108, 232. - - Melpŏmĕnē, 82. - - Memnōn, 92, 253. - - Mĕnĕlāus, 245, 250, 258. - - Mĕnestheus, 225. - - Mĕnœtĭus, 162. - - Mercŭrĭus, 65. - - Mĕrŏpē, 180, 238. - - Mētĭōn, 220, 229. - - Mētĭŏnĭdæ, 220. - - Mētis, 25. - - Mĕtus, 54. - - Mĭdas, 127. - - Mĭnerva, 13, 26, 36, 137, 228. - - Mīnōs, 116, 149, 202, 222, 227, 228. - - Minotaur, 222, 227, 228. - - Mnēmŏsy̆nē, 17, 19, 25, 81. - - Mœræ, 25, 98, 232. - - Mŏlĭŏnĭdæ, 209. - - Mopsus, 262. - - Morpheus, 155. - - Mŏsychlus, 70. - - Mulcĭber, 71. - - Murcĭa, 59. - - Muses, 25, 42, 80, 81, 121. - - Mūtūnus, 133. - - Myrtĭlus, 244. - - - Naiads, 124. - - Năpææ, 124. - - Narcissus, 58, 124. - - Nēleus, 209, 212, 248. - - Nĕmĕsis, 98. - - Nĕoptŏlĕmus, 254, 256. - - Nĕphĕlē, 232. - - Neptune (Neptūnus), 104. - - Nereids, 105, 190, 253. - - Nēreus, 18, 105, 205. - - Nerio, 54. - - Nessus, 210. - - Nestor, 165, 168, 209, 247. - - Nīcē, 85. - - Night, 154. - - Nīlus, 186. - - Nĭŏbē, 48, 176, 243. - - Nīsus, 220, 222. - - Nŏtus, 92. - - Nycteus, 172. - - Nymphs, 123, 189, 204. - - - Oceanids, 68, 83, 110, 168. - - Ōcĕănus, 18, 25, 91, 109, 162. - - Ŏdysseus, 64, 102, 109, 249, 253, 259. - - Œdĭpūs, 153, 238. - - Œneus, 210, 230, 248. - - Œnŏmăus, 243. - - Ŏïclēs, 208. - - Ŏīleus, 248. - - Olympian Games, 24, 43, 196. - - Omphălē, 208. - - Ops, 133. - - Orcus, 155. - - Oreads, 124, 129. - - Ŏrestēs, 49, 152, 258. - - Ōrīōn, 92, 93. - - Ōrīthyia, 94, 219. - - Orpheus, 42, 234, 264. - - Oschŏphŏrĭa, 223. - - - Pāgānāalĭa, 113. - - Pălæmōn, 109. - - Pălămēdēs, 251. - - Păles, 136. - - Pallădĭum, 242, 249, 254. - - Pallas, 220, 222. - - Pallas Athēnē (_vide_ Athene). - - Pallor, 54. - - Pān, 115, 128. - - Pănăthĕnæa, 37, 223. - - Pandărĕōs, 179. - - Pandīōn, 220. - - Pandōra, 163. - - Pandrŏsus, 218. - - Pānes, 125, 130, 135. - - Parcæ, 98, 155. - - Păris, 249, 253, 254. - - Parthĕnōn, 36. - - Pāsĭphăē, 228. - - Patroclus, 252. - - Pēgăsus, 103, 181, 190. - - Pēleus, 58, 106, 168, 208, 231, 234, 245, 249. - - Pĕlĭas, 180, 233, 246, 248. - - Pĕlŏpĭdæ, 243, 258. - - Pĕlops, 150, 176, 243. - - Pĕnātēs, 73, 156. - - Pēnĕlŏpē, 191, 249, 259. - - Pēnĕlŏpē (Nymph), 128. - - Penthĕsĭlēa, 183, 252. - - Pentheus, 115. - - Pĕrĭbœa, 247. - - Pĕricly̆mĕnus, 209, 234. - - Pĕrĭphētēs, 221. - - Persē, 90. - - Persēïs, 228. - - Persĕphŏnē, 25, 91, 109, 138, 143, 155, 224. - - Perseus, 102, 188, 198, 244. - - Phædra, 58, 224, 228. - - Phăĕthōn (son of Helios), 90. - - Phăĕthōn (horse of Eos), 92. - - Phĭloctētēs, 212, 251, 254, 259. - - Phĭly̆ra, 168. - - Phīneus, 107, 191, 235. - - Phŏbus, 57. - - Phœbē, 18, 49. - - Phœnix, 246. - - Phŏlus, 200. - - Phorcys, 18, 106, 109, 189. - - Phosphŏrus, 93. - - Phrixus, 232. - - Phȳleus, 209. - - Pīrĭthŏus, 165, 206, 231. - - Pittheus, 220. - - Pĭty̆ŏcamptēs, 221. - - Pleiădes, 93. - - Plexippus, 232. - - Plūteus, 146. - - Plūtō, 146, 155. - - Plūtō (fem.), 243. - - Pŏdarcēs, 208. - - Pœas, 212. - - Pŏly̆bus, 238. - - Pŏly̆castē, 194. - - Pŏly̆clētus, 32. - - Pŏly̆dectēs, 189, 190. - - Pŏly̆deucēs (Pollux), 168, 175, 194, 231. - - Pŏly̆dōrus, 172, 179. - - Pŏly̆hymnĭa, 83. - - Pŏly̆ĭdus, 229. - - Pŏly̆nīcēs, 240. - - Pŏly̆phēmus, 102. - - Pŏlyxĕna, 253, 256. - - Pōmōna, 135. - - Pontus, 17, 18, 105. - - Pŏseidōn, 13, 19, 20, 72, 100, 180, 209. - - Pŏthus, 58. - - Prĭămus (Priam), 183, 208, 243, 249, 256. - - Prĭāpus, 133. - - Procris, 219. - - Procrustēs, 102, 221. - - Prœtĭdes, 188. - - Prœtus, 181, 187, 191. - - Prŏmētheus, 162, 205. - - Prōserpĭna (_vide_ Persephone). - - Prōtĕsĭlāus, 251. - - Prōteus, 107. - - Psȳchē, 79. - - Py̆ănepsĭa, 223, 226. - - Py̆lădēs, 258. - - Pyrrha, 164. - - Pȳthĭa (_vide_ Delphian Oracle). - - Pȳthōn, 41, 189. - - - Quinquatrūs Mājōrēs, 37. - - Quĭrīnus, 77. - - - Recarānus, 214. - - Rhădămanthys (Rhadamanthus), 149, 227. - - Rhēa, 18, 71. - - Rhēa Cy̆bĕlē, 113. - - Rhŏdē, 104. - - - Sălăcĭa, 105. - - Salmōneus, 233. - - Sălus, 97. - - Sandōn, 207. - - Sarpēdōn, 227. - - Sāturnālia, 134. - - Sāturnus, 26, 133. - - Satyrs, 125. - - Scīrōn, 221. - - Scŏtŏs, 153. - - Scylla, 222. - - Sĕlēnē, 18, 49, 91, 153. - - Sĕmĕlē, 26, 108, 114, 171. - - Semnæ, 152. - - Sibyls, 42. - - Sīlēni, 125, 127. - - Sīlēnus, 115, 126. - - Silvānus, 131. - - Sĭmŏīs, 242. - - Sĭnis, 221. - - Sĭnōn, 254. - - Sirens, 109. - - Sīrĭus, 93. - - Sīsy̆phus, 149, 179. - - Sleep, 154. - - Sol, 89, 90. - - Sŏly̆mi, 182. - - Sphinx, 238. - - Stars, the, 93. - - Stĕrŏpēs, 18. - - Sthĕnĕbœa, 187. - - Sthĕnĕlus, 198, 244. - - Sthēnō, 190. - - Strēnĭa, 97. - - Strĭges, 97. - - Strŏphĭus, 258. - - Stymphālĭdes, 201. - - Styx, 149. - - Sȳleus, 208. - - Symplēgădes, 235. - - Sȳrinx, 126, 129. - - - Tălōs, 229. - - Tantălus, 149, 176, 243. - - Tartărus, 17, 19, 21. - - Tĕlămōn, 208, 231, 234, 245, 247, 259. - - Tēlĕbŏæ, 198. - - Tēlĕgŏnus, 259. - - Tēlĕmăchus, 259. - - Tēlĕphassa, 170. - - Tēlĕphus, 209. - - Tellus, 112. - - Termĭnus, 131, 137. - - Terpsĭchŏrē, 82. - - Tēthys, 18, 99. - - Teucer, 208, 247, 259. - - Teuthras, 210. - - Thălīa, 82, 83. - - Thallō, 85. - - Thănătus, 155. - - Thaumas, 18, 106. - - Thēa (Thīa), 18, 90, 92. - - Thĕmis, 17, 25, 78, 84. - - Thersander, 241. - - Thēseus, 43, 102, 116, 166, 168, 183, 206, 219, 228, 231, 234. - - Thesmŏphŏrĭa, 141. - - Thesprōtus, 245. - - Thestĭus, 194, 232. - - Thĕtis, 58, 68, 106, 246, 249, 252, 253. - - Thŏōsa, 120. - - Thy̆estēs, 244. - - Tĭbĕrīnus, 76, 110. - - Tīrĕsĭas, 241, 262. - - Tīsĭphŏnē, 151. - - Titans, 17, 18, 19, 90. - - Tīthōnus, 92, 205. - - Tĭty̆us, 41, 149. - - Toxeus, 232. - - Triptŏlĕmus, 140. - - Trītōn, 35, 104, 105, 129. - - Trōĭlus, 251. - - Trōs, 88, 203, 242. - - Ty̆chē, 99. - - Tȳdeus, 210, 234, 240, 248. - - Tyndărĕus, 194, 209, 245, 249. - - Ty̆phōeus, 21. - - Tȳphōn, 200, 204. - - Tȳrō, 233. - - - Ŭlysses (_vide_ Odysseus). - - Ūrănĭa, 82. - - Ūrănus, 17, 18, 19, 21, 152. - - - Vĕnus, 58. - - Vertumnus, 135. - - Vesta, 72, 156. - - Victōrĭa, 85. - - Vulcan (Volcānus), 70. - - - Winds, the, 93. - - - Zĕphy̆rus, 92, 94. - - Zētēs, 94, 219, 234. - - Zēthus, 171, 172, 179. - - Zeus, 12, 13, 16, 19, 22, 31, 62, 88, 115, 162, 185. - -[Illustration] - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - -Transcriber’s note: - - 1. 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