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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..76fcfa3 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #61901 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/61901) diff --git a/old/61901-0.txt b/old/61901-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b926be7..0000000 --- a/old/61901-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9623 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Mythology of Greece and Rome, by Otto -Seemann, Edited by G. H. (George Henry) Bianchi - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: The Mythology of Greece and Rome - With Special Reference to Its Use in Art - - -Author: Otto Seemann - -Editor: G. H. (George Henry) Bianchi - -Release Date: April 23, 2020 [eBook #61901] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MYTHOLOGY OF GREECE AND ROME*** - - -E-text prepared by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading -Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by -Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 61901-h.htm or 61901-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/61901/61901-h/61901-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/61901/61901-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/TheMythologyOfGreeceAndRome - - -Transcriber’s note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). - - - - - -Greek and Roman Mythology - - -[Illustration: Fig. 53.—Head of Niobe. Florence.] - - -THE MYTHOLOGY OF GREECE AND ROME - -With Special Reference to Its Use in Art - -Edited by - -G. H. BIANCHI, M.A. - -Late Scholar of St. Peter’S College, Cambridge Brotherton Sanskrit -Prizeman, 1875 - -With Sixty-four Illustrations - -New and Revised Edition - - - - - - -London: Chapman and Hall, Ld. - -Made and Printed in Great Britain. -Richard Clay & Sons, Limited. -Printers, Bungay, Suffolk. - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - PREFACE. - - -No apology can be needed for introducing to the public a work like the -present. There has long been a want of a book which should, in a -moderate compass, give a clear and readable account of these legends; -for Dictionaries of Mythology do not give a view of the subject as a -whole; and the price of most other works on the Greek and Roman myths -would prevent their being used as class-books. These considerations have -led the publishers to bring out this book in an English dress. - -If any should be inclined to ask what Mythology has to do with men of -the present day, the reply is plain. The works of art in our galleries -and museums require a certain amount of knowledge of the mythology of -the Greeks and Romans for the full appreciation of their subjects. There -is hardly any literature in Europe which has not been more or less -coloured by these legends; and in our own day their power to inspire the -poet has by no means ceased. Nay, they have incorporated themselves into -our very language: “Herculean strength” is almost as common an -expression now as it was two thousand years ago; and we still talk of -“chimerical” expectations, describe a man as “tantalised,” and use the -Sphinx as the symbol of the mysterious. - -The present work, translated from the German of O. Seemann, seems well -adapted to convey a knowledge of these myths. It is illustrated with -cuts after some of the masterpieces of ancient and modern art. -Particular attention has been paid to this branch of the subject, and -the principal works of art in each case are mentioned. - -The distinction between Greek and Roman deities and heroes has been -preserved, but the conventional spelling has been retained. A full index -is appended, in which the quantities of the vowels are carefully marked. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION. - I. SUBJECTS OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY 11 - II. POPULAR IDEAS CONCERNING THE GODS 13 - - PART I.—COSMOGONY AND THEOGONY 17 - - PART II.—THE GODS. - - THE GODS OF OLYMPUS. - - A.—SUPERIOR DEITIES. - Zeus (Jupiter) 22 - Hera (Juno) 31 - Pallas Athene (Minerva) 34 - Apollo 40 - Artemis (Diana) 48 - Ares (Mars) 51 - Aphrodite (Venus) 56 - Hermes (Mercurius) 62 - Hephæstus (Vulcanus) 68 - Hestia (Vesta) 71 - Janus 74 - Quirinus 77 - - B.—SECONDARY DEITIES. - 1. Attendant and Ministering Deities— - Eros (Amor) 78 - The Muses 80 - The Charites (Gratiæ) 83 - Themis and the Horæ (Seasons) 84 - Nice (Victoria) 85 - Iris 86 - Hebe (Juventas) 87 - Ganymedes 88 - 2. The Phenomena of the Heavens— - Helios (Sol) 89 - Selene (Luna) 91 - Eos (Aurora) 92 - The Stars 93 - The Winds 93 - 3. Gods of Birth and Healing— - Asclepius (Æsculapius) 94 - Inferior Deities of Birth and Healing 96 - 4. Deities of Fate— - The Mœræ (Parcæ) 98 - Nemesis, Tyche (Fortuna), and Agathodæmon (Bonus Eventus) 98 - - THE GODS OF THE SEA AND WATERS. - Poseidon (Neptunus) 100 - Amphitrite 104 - Triton and the Tritons 105 - Pontus and his Descendants— - _Nereus and his Daughters_ 105 - _Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto_ 106 - Proteus 107 - Glaucus 107 - Ino Leucothea, and Melicertes 108 - The Sirens 109 - The Race of Oceanus 109 - - THE GODS OF THE EARTH AND LOWER WORLD. - Gæa (Tellus) 112 - Rhea Cybele (Magna Mater Idæa) 113 - Dionysus, or Bacchus (Liber) 114 - The Nymphs 123 - The Satyrs 125 - Silenus 126 - Greek and Roman Wood-Spirits— - _Pan_ 128 - _Silvanus_ 131 - _Faunus and Fauna_ 131 - Priapus 133 - Saturnus and Ops 133 - Vertumnus and Pomona 135 - Flora 136 - Pales 136 - Terminus 137 - Demeter (Ceres) 137 - Persephone (Proserpina) 143 - Hades (Pluto) 146 - The Lower World 147 - The Erinyes (Furiæ) 150 - Hecate 153 - Sleep and Death 154 - - ROMAN DEITIES OF THE HOUSE AND FAMILY. - The Penates 156 - The Lares 157 - The Larvæ, Lemures, and Manes 158 - - - PART III.—THE HEROES. - - INTRODUCTORY 159 - - THE CREATION AND PRIMITIVE CONDITION OF MANKIND 162 - - PROVINCIAL HEROIC LEGENDS— - The Lapithæ and the Centaurs 165 - Theban Legend— - _Cadmus_ 170 - _Actæon_ 171 - _Amphion and Zethus_ 172 - Corinthian Legend— - _Sisyphus_ 179 - _Glaucus_ 180 - _Bellerophon and the Legend of the Amazons_ 180 - Argive Legend— - _Io_ 185 - _Danaüs and the Danaïds_ 186 - _Prœtus and his Daughters_ 187 - _Perseus_ 188 - The Dioscuri 194 - Heracles (Hercules) 197 - _The Birth and Youth of Heracles_ 198 - _Heracles in the Service of Eurystheus_ 199 - _Deeds of Heracles after his Service_ 206 - _Death and Apotheosis_ 211 - _Heracles as God_ 212 - Attic Legend— - _Cecrops_ 217 - _Erechtheus, or Erichthonius_ 218 - _Theseus_ 219 - Cretan Legend— - _Minos and the Minotaur_ 227 - _Talos_ 229 - - COMBINED UNDERTAKINGS OF THE LATER HEROIC AGE— - The Calydonian Hunt 230 - The Argonauts 232 - The Theban Cycle 237 - The Trojan Cycle 241 - The Heroic Races of the Trojan War— - _The Dardanidæ, or Race of Dardanus_ 241 - _The Pelopidæ, or Race of Pelops_ 242 - _The Æacidæ, or Race of Æacus_ 245 - _Nestor, the Locrian Ajax, Diomedes, and Odysseus_ 247 - The War 249 - The Return 257 - - MYTHIC SEERS AND BARDS 262 - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - FIG. PAGE - 1. Bust of Cronus. Vatican Museum, 20 - 2. Cameo of Athenion 21 - 3. Zeus of Otricoli. Vatican Museum, 27 - 4. Jupiter Verospi. Vatican Museum, 29 - 5. Coins of Elis with Phidias’ Zeus. (After - Overbeck.) 30 - 6. Barberini Juno. Vatican Museum, 32 - 7. Head of Hera, perhaps after Polycletus. Naples, 33 - 8. Pallas Giustiniani. Vatican, 38 - 9. Athene Polias. Villa Albani, 39 - 10. Pallas Athene. Naples, 40 - 11. Apollo Belvedere. Vatican, 44 - 12. Head of Apollo Belvedere, 45 - 13. Apollo Citharœdus. Munich, 47 - 14. Diana of Versailles, 50 - 15. Mars Ludovisi, 55 - 16. Bust of Ares. Sculpture Gallery at Munich, 56 - 17. Venus of Milo. Louvre, 60 - 18. Venus Genetrix. Villa Borghese, 61 - 19. Resting Hermes. Bronze Statue at Naples, 66 - 20. Statue of Hermes. Capitoline Collection, 67 - 21. Hephæstus. Bronze Figure in the British Museum, 70 - 22. Vesta Giustiniani. Torlonia Collection, 74 - 23. Head of Eros. Vatican, 78 - 24. Eros trying his Bow. Capitoline Museum, 79 - 25. Polyhymnia. Berlin Museum, 80 - 26. Melpomene. Vatican, 81 - 27. Euterpe. Vatican, 82 - 28. The Horæ. Relief from the Villa Albani, 85 - 29. Victoria. United Collections in Munich, 86 - 30. Hebe. From Antonio Canova, 88 - 31. Ganymedes and the Eagle. From Thorwaldsen, 89 - 32. Asclepius. Berlin, 95 - 33. Head of Asclepius. British Museum, 96 - 34. Night and the Fates. From Carstens, 97 - 35. Poseidon. Dolce Gem, 103 - 36. Dionysus and Lion. From the Monument of - Lysicrates, 116 - 37. The so-called Sardanapalus in the Vatican, 119 - 38. Youthful Dionysus. From the Chateau Richelieu, now - in the Louvre, 120 - 39. Marble Head of Youthful Dionysus at Leyden, 121 - 40. Sleeping Ariadne. Vatican, 122 - 41. Dannecker’s Ariadne. Frankfort-on-the-Main, 123 - 42. Head of Satyr. Munich Sculpture Gallery, 126 - 43. Pan. From a Mural Painting at Herculaneum, 130 - 44. Demeter Enthroned. Painting from Pompeii. Naples, 142 - 45. Persephone Enthroned. Painting from Pompeii. - Naples, 145 - 46. Head of Hades. Palazzo Chigi. Rome, 147 - 47. Three-formed Hecate. Capitoline Museum, 154 - 48. Metope of the Parthenon, 166 - 49. From the Frieze of the Temple at Bassæ 167 - 50. Centaur teaching a boy to play upon the Pipe. - Relief by Kundmann, 169 - 51. Actæon. Group. British Museum, 172 - 52. Farnese Bull. Naples, 174 - 53. Head of Niobe. Florence, _Frontispiece_. - 54. Niobe. Florence, 178 - 55. Amazon. Berlin, 183 - 56. Perseus and Andromeda. Marble Relief in the Museum - at Naples, 192 - 57. Rondanini Medusa. Munich, 193 - 58. Farnese Hercules, 215 - 59. Elgin Theseus. British Museum, 225 - 60. Theseus Lifting the Rock. Relief in the Villa - Albani, 226 - 61. Laocoön. Group, 255 - 62. Priam before Achilles. Relief by Thorwaldsen, 260 - 63. Rape of Helen. Campana Collection. Paris, 261 - 64. Orpheus and Eurydice. Marble Relief in the Villa - Albani, 263 - -[Illustration] - - - - - GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. - - - - - INTRODUCTION. - - - I.—SUBJECTS OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. - -Myths may be described as poetic narratives of the birth, life, and -actions of the old heathen gods and heroes or demigods. Both myth and -legend[1] are distinguished from the “Mährchen,” or popular tale, by not -being, like the latter, a mere product of the imagination, but always -being founded on some preceding reality, whether that be an -oft-recurring phase of nature, or a distinct and real occurrence. It is -often most difficult to recognise with any precision the true germ of a -myth, on account of the numerous additions and alterations made by the -poets. And therefore the question, whether a particular tradition be a -myth or not, is very hard to answer: on one side we are tempted to view, -in the god or demigod, the hero of a tribe magnified to superhuman -proportions by the admiration of posterity; and, on the other side, -comparison of the legends of different families of nations points us to -the operations of nature, not only in the demigod or the hero, but in -the animals of fable and the traditions of the nursery. - -Footnote 1: - - The German word “sage” (legend) is really only a translation of the - Greek word “mythos,” and is often used in that sense. But lately the - custom has tacitly sprung up of employing the term “mythos” when - speaking of the life or actions of the gods, and “sage” when speaking - of those of heroes. - -A large proportion of these myths are due to men’s observations of -Nature, and her various active and creative forces, which appeared to -their lively Southern fancy as manifestations of single supernatural -beings. These were regarded, now as friendly, now as hostile, to man; -and men therefore strove as eagerly to gain their favour as to appease -their wrath. Of the appearance of the deities who thus manifested -themselves in the workings of nature, men necessarily formed at first -very crude and fantastic ideas. But later, when men emerged from the -simple conditions of the early patriarchal epoch, and began to dwell in -regular political communities, they gradually ceased to regard the gods -as mere personifications of natural forces. They began to regard them as -beings acting in accordance with unchangeable moral laws, and endowed -with forms similar to those of men (Anthropomorphism). They brought the -gods into connection with each other by means of genealogies in a great -measure artificial, and built up a vast political system, which has its -centre in Zeus, the “father of gods and men.” - -Strange to say, however, it was only among the Greeks that this system -of development prevailed. The nations of Italy still continued to regard -their gods as mere natural forces—that looked down on them in a cold, -strange fashion—of whose form and mode of life they had no clear idea. -It was only later, when the Romans came into intellectual contact with -their Greek neighbours, and began to study their language and -literature, that they adopted the popular Greek conceptions concerning -the gods. They now transferred existing myths, and fathered them on -those of their own gods and goddesses who bore the closest resemblance -to the Greek divinities, and harmonised best with their natural -interpretation. Thus it was that the Roman Jupiter was identified with -the Greek Zeus, Juno with Hera, Minerva with Athene; though for peculiar -deities, such as Janus, they could find no Greek prototype. - - - II.—POPULAR IDEAS CONCERNING THE GODS. - -We learn most concerning the conceptions the ancients formed of their -gods from the numerous Greek and Roman poets whose works have come down -to us, and who contributed so largely to the construction of the myths. -First, both in antiquity and importance, are the poems attributed to -Homer, in which we find the whole political system of Olympus, with Zeus -at its head, already constructed. - -Henceforth the gods, in outward appearance at least, are endowed with -forms entirely human; more grand and beautiful and majestic, but still -not verging on the monstrous or fantastic. - -Not only in beauty and grandeur, but also in strength and vigour, do the -gods surpass men. Let but Zeus shake his ambrosial locks, and the whole -of Olympus trembles. The other deities are also endowed in proportion -with great strength. As corporeal, indeed, they are limited in regard to -space, and cannot therefore be omnipresent; but this restriction affects -them far less than mortals, for they can compass the greatest distances -at lightning speed. In a moment Athene drops from the heights of Olympus -down to Ithaca; and Poseidon, the ocean-god, passes in three or four -steps from Samothrace to Ægæ in Eubœa. Moreover, the gods can see and -hear at a much greater distance than men. In regard to hearing, indeed, -they seem to have unlimited powers. Prayers ascend to them from every -place, irrespective of their personal presence. In the same manner Zeus, -from his high throne in Olympus, sees all that passes among men, and, -sitting on the highest summit of Mount Ida, he can follow all the events -of the battle that rages before Troy. - -On the other hand, the gods are subject to the same bodily wants as men. -They refresh themselves in the same way with sleep, and have to support -themselves with food and drink. Here again, however, they are far less -fettered than mortals, for they can hold out much longer without -satisfying these wants. Nor is their food so coarse as that of men; they -live on ambrosia and nectar. Another natural necessity is clothing, on -the tasteful ordering of which the goddesses even bestow extraordinary -care, and in this, as in many other respects, greatly resemble the -daughters of Eve. Although later art delights in representing some of -the deities either slightly clothed or quite naked, yet we cannot justly -conclude from this that the popular belief of the ancients conceived -thus of those gods. - -Gods endowed with frames like those of mortals must necessarily be born -in the same way, and develope gradually both in mind and body. But here, -again, everything proceeds with the utmost rapidity. For instance, the -new-born Hermes rises from his cradle to steal the cattle of Apollo, -and, coming into the world in the morning, he is found in the afternoon -playing on the lyre, which he has himself invented. The most important -point, however, in which they surpass mortals is that, when once in full -possession of bodily and intellectual powers, they never grow old, but -remain ever young and beautiful, ever free from disease and death. -Compared with the race of men, who are subject to need and pain, they -are the “happy,” “blessed” gods, the gods “who live at ease,” who can -readily gratify every desire. But this does not by any means prevent -their suffering occasionally from the pangs of sorrow and grief; they -are vulnerable alike in body and soul, and exposed to every kind of -painful sensation. So completely did the Greeks subject their gods to -human passions. - -As regards mental qualifications they are naturally far superior to men. -In the first place, they stand higher morally; they shun all that is -evil, impure, and unjust, and visit with punishment the impiety and -injustice of man. This, again, does not prevent their giving way to -every description of vice and folly, such as deceit, lying, hatred, -cruelty, jealousy, &c. They are far from holy, therefore, in the sense -in which we speak of the Supreme Being. Still less are they conceived as -omniscient or omnipotent. Their powers indeed are great, and so is their -knowledge. They are able to interrupt the course of nature—to send -sudden storms, pestilences, and other evils—to endow themselves or -others with any forms they like, and to do many other things, of which -we read in fairy tales. But even Zeus, to whom a far greater measure of -power is accorded than to other gods, and on whose will the government -of the universe depends, is himself subjected to the immutable decrees -of fate; whilst the possibility of deceiving and duping him is by no -means excluded. - -Where then are we to seek for the explanation of these apparent -inconsistencies? We have already said that the active and creative -forces of Nature were personified by the imagination of men. Let us take -one of the first conceptions likely to spring up—that of the love of the -heaven for the earth, from which all nature is born. Different names -will be used in different localities; men will at last forget that they -all once meant the same, and out of the simple personification will -spring a series of divine marriages; or if one be recognised by the -whole nation as the wife, the other brides will sink into mistresses. - -So with the everlasting war of the sun with the clouds; we shall not -only find several gods of the light in Greece, but almost every tribe -had a particular hero, whose great deeds we shall generally find to be -those of the sun. Yet in the midst of all this confusion, men had a -feeling that there was something above them better and holier than they, -to which that which is good and holy alone was pleasing. This idea was -more and more attached to Zeus himself, as the notion grew that Zeus was -the supreme god, the king of heaven. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - - PART I.—COSMOGONY AND THEOGONY. - - -By Cosmogony, we understand the legends relating to the creation of the -world; by Theogony, those relating to the origin of the gods. On both -points we have to deal with the Greeks alone, since the Romans never -indulged in any researches of this kind. All that their poets have to -say on the subject is, without exception, borrowed from the Greeks. - -According to the common account the world was formed out of Chaos. By -this, however, we must not understand a huge and shapeless mass, but -merely dark, unbounded space. The accounts of the poets vary very -materially as to how the world proceeded from Chaos. The most popular -view is that according to which Gæa or Ge (the earth) first issued from -Chaos; whereupon Tartarus (the abyss beneath the earth) immediately -severed itself, and Eros (the love that forms and binds all things) -sprang into existence. Gæa then begot of herself Uranus (heaven), the -mountains, and Pontus (the sea). - -The first gods who peopled this new world were begotten of the earth -partly by Uranus and partly by Pontus. From her union with Uranus sprang -the Titans, the Cyclopes, and the Centimanes; from her union with Pontus -various sea-deities. - -1. The race of Uranus. According to Hesiod there were twelve Titans: six -males—Oceanus, Cœus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Cronus; and six -females—Thia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phœbe, and Tethys. The -interpretation of these divinities is somewhat difficult, but they -doubtless represented the elementary forces of nature. The Cyclopes were -three in number—Brontes (thunder), Steropes (lightning), and Arges -(sheet-lightning): these, we can clearly see, refer to the phenomena of -the storm. The Centimanes (hundred-handed), again, are three in -number—Cottus, Briareus, and Gyes. These, too, represent destructive -forces of nature—perhaps the earthquake, the tempestuous sea, and the -storm-wind. - -2. The race of Pontus. By Pontus Gæa became the mother of the fabulous -sea-deities—Nereus, Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto, and Eurybia. These, again, -had numerous descendants. Nereus represents the sea in its quiet state: -we shall have to speak of him and his daughters later on. Thaumas -represents to us the majesty of the sea. He is the father of Iris (the -rainbow), and of the Harpies (storm-winds). Lastly, Phorcys and Ceto, -from whose union the frightful Gorgons and Grææ proceeded, typify all -the dangers and terrors of the sea. - -Many marriages also took place among the Titans themselves. The numerous -sea-nymphs are descended from Oceanus and Tethys; from Hyperion and Thia -come the deities of the light—Helios (sun), Selene (moon), and Eos -(dawn); from Cœus and Phœbe the deities of the night—Leto (dark night) -and Asteria (starry night). - -The most important of all the Titans, however, are Cronus and Rhea, who -pave the way for the universal dominion of their son Zeus. - -Uranus, fearing lest his last-born sons, the powerful Cyclopes and -Centimanes, might one day seize his power, buried them directly after -birth in the deep abyss beneath the earth. This displeased Gæa, their -mother, who thereupon prompted the Titans to conspire against their -father, and induced Cronus, the youngest and bravest of them, to lay -violent hands on Uranus. Uranus was mutilated, cast into chains, and -compelled by his sons to abdicate his sovereignty, which now passed to -Cronus. But Cronus was not long destined to enjoy the fruits of his -crime. The curse of Uranus, who prophesied that he would suffer a like -fate at the hands of his own son, was fulfilled. So anxious was he to -avert such a catastrophe, that he swallowed his children immediately -after their birth. Five had already suffered this fate—Hestia, Demeter, -Hera, Hades, and Poseidon. But their mother Rhea, grieved at their lot, -determined to rescue her next son, Zeus, by a stratagem. In the place of -her child, she gave to her suspicious and cruel husband a stone wrapped -in swaddling clothes, which he swallowed without further examination. -Zeus, who was thus rescued, was reared by the nymphs in a grotto on -Mount Dicte, in Crete. The she-goat Amalthea served as his nurse, whilst -the bees brought him honey to eat. In order that the cries of the child -might not betray his presence to his suspicious father, the Curetes, or -attendant priests of Rhea, drowned his voice in the clashing of their -weapons. Zeus remained thus hidden until he had become a mighty though -youthful god. He then attacked and overthrew his father Cronus, whom he -also compelled, by means of a device of Gæa, to bring forth the children -that he had devoured. One part of the Titans—Oceanus, Themis, Mnemosyne, -and Hyperion—submitted without hesitation to the dominion of the new -ruler of the world. The others, however, refused allegiance; but Zeus, -after a contest of ten years, overthrew them, with the help of the -Cyclopes and Centimanes. As a punishment, they were cast into Tartarus, -which was then closed by Poseidon with brazen gates. Thessaly, the land -which bears the clearest traces of natural convulsions, was supposed to -have been the scene of this mighty war. Zeus and his adherents fought -from Olympus; the Titans from the opposite mountain of Othrys. - -Comparison of the legends of other nations does not show us any such -elaborate genealogy. Zeus has his counterparts almost everywhere, and -Uranus himself appears in India; but Cronus, in the sense of the father -of Zeus, is probably traceable to the common epithet of Zeus, Cronion, -which was assumed in later times to be a patronymic. It was natural to -deduce from the idea that one power of nature sprang from another, the -expression that the god of the first power was the child of the god of -the second; it would perhaps be more correct to say that it was the same -thing to the early races of men. As to the wars, which were so great a -stumbling-block to the Greek philosophers, we may notice that the -supreme god must, of course, have been the son of a supreme god; and -yet, if his predecessor were supreme, must have dispossessed him. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.—Bust of Cronus. Vatican Museum.] - - The Titans, not being actually objects of worship, were not - frequently represented in ancient art. Cronus is the only exception, - which may be explained by the fact that the Romans identified him - with their own Saturn, or harvest-god. He is generally depicted with - a severe and gloomy expression of countenance, the back of his head - being veiled, as a symbol of his reserved character. In the Vatican - Museum at Rome there is a bust of this kind in good preservation, an - engraving of which we give (Fig. 1). - -After his victory over the Titans, Zeus shared the empire of the world -with his two brothers, Poseidon and Hades. The former he made ruler of -the ocean and waters; the latter he set over the infernal regions; -everything else he retained for himself. This new order of things, -however, was by no means securely established. The resentment of Gæa led -her to produce with Tartarus, her youngest and most powerful son, the -giant Typhoeus, a monster with a hundred fire-breathing dragons’ heads, -whom she sent to overthrow the dominion of Zeus. A great battle took -place, which shook heaven and earth. Zeus, by means of his never-ceasing -thunderbolts, at length overcame Typhoeus, and cast him into Tartarus, -or, according to later writers (Pindar and Virgil), buried him beneath -Mount Ætna in Sicily, whence at times he still breathes out fire and -flames toward heaven. - -Some poets tell of another rebellion, that of the Giants, against the -dominion of Zeus. These are said to have sprung from the drops of blood -which fell on the earth from the mutilated body of Uranus. From the -plains of Phlegra, in Thessaly, they sought to storm Olympus by piling -Pelion on Ossa. But after a bloody battle, in which all the gods took -part, the two were conquered, and sent to share the fate of the -vanquished Titans. The dominion of Zeus was now securely established, -and no hostile attack ever after disturbed the peaceful ease of the -inhabitants of Olympus. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.—Cameo of Athenion.] - - The early history of Zeus, as well as his contests for the empire of - the universe, commonly called the Giganto-machia, was a favourite - subject with Greek art. In the more ancient of these works the - Giants do not differ, either in form or appearance, from the Gods - and Heroes. In later works they are represented with the bodies of - dragons, only the upper portion of the body being human. They appear - thus on the celebrated cameo of the Naples Museum, where Zeus, in - his chariot drawn by four fiery horses, is in the act of charging - them (Fig. 2). - -[Illustration] - - - - - PART II.—THE GODS. - - - I.—THE GODS OF OLYMPUS. - - - A.—SUPERIOR DEITIES. - - -=1. Zeus (Jupiter).=—Chief of the celestial deities is Zeus, called by -the Romans Jupiter, the controller and ruler of the universe. As being -the god of heaven _par excellence_, the “Skyfather,” he is to both -nations the source of all life in nature, and from his gracious hand are -shed blessing and abundance. All the phenomena of the air were supposed -to proceed from him. He gathers and disperses the clouds, casts forth -his lightning, stirs up his thunder, sends down rain, hail, snow, and -fertilising dew on the earth. With his ægis—an impenetrable shield hung -with a hundred golden tassels, in the midst of which the fearful head of -the Gorgon is fastened—he produces storm and tempest. The ægis, though -often meaning shield, is properly a goat-skin fastened to and supporting -the true shield; later it appears as a short cloak, and even as a -breastplate, covered with scales, and fringed with serpents. It is not -often found in representations of Zeus; though a statue of him at Leyden -shows it, and in a cameo he is seen with it wrapped around his left arm: -similarly it was common to wrap the chlamys or scarf round the left arm, -for purposes of defence. The ægis usually belongs to Athene, who borrows -it from her father in the _Iliad_. She is seen wearing it in Fig. 9. In -this word we probably see a confusion of two ideas, different, though of -similar origin; from the same root that gives us the “springing” goat we -have the storm-cloud “tossed” over the sky. - -The ancients, however, were not content to regard Zeus merely as a -personification of Nature; they regarded him also from an ethical -standpoint, from which side he appears far more important and awful. -They saw in him a personification, so to speak, of that principle of -undeviating order and harmony which pervades both the physical and moral -world. The strict unalterable laws by which he rules the community of -the gods form a strong contrast to the capricious commands of his father -Cronus. Hence Zeus is regarded as the protector and defender of all -political order. From him the kings of the earth receive their -sovereignty and rights; to him they are responsible for a conscientious -fulfilment of their duties. Those among them who unjustly exceed their -powers and pervert justice he never fails to punish. Zeus, moreover, -also presides over councils and assemblies, keeps watch over their -orderly course, and suggests to them wise counsels. One of the most -important props of political society is the oath; and accordingly, as -Zeus Horkios (ὅρκιος, _deus fidius_ of the Romans), he watches over -oaths, and punishes perjury. He also watches over boundaries, and -accompanies the youths of the land as they march to the defence of their -country’s borders, giving them the victory over the invaders. All civil -and political communities enjoy his protection; but he particularly -watches over that association which is the basis of the political -fabric—the family. The head of every household was therefore, in a -certain sense, the priest of Zeus. It was he who presented the offerings -to the god in the name of the family. At his altar, which generally -stood in the middle of the court (in small households this was -represented by the hearth), all strangers, fugitives, and suppliants -found shelter. As Zeus Xenius (_hospitalis_) he protects the wanderer, -and punishes those who violate the ancient laws of hospitality by -mercilessly turning the helpless stranger from their door. - -The superstition of early times saw in all the phenomena of the heavens -manifestations of the divine will. Thus the chief deity of heaven was -naturally regarded as the highest source of inspiration, and was -believed to reveal his will to men in the thunder, the lightning, the -flight of birds, or dreams. As the supreme oracular deity, Zeus not only -had an oracle of his own at Dodona in Epirus, which was the most ancient -in Greece, but also revealed the future by the mouth of his favourite -son Apollo. Though he possessed no proper oracle among the Romans, yet -the latter looked with all the more care and anxiety on the phenomena of -the air and sky, the right interpretation of which formed a special and -difficult branch of knowledge. - -Zeus was the earliest national god of the Greeks. His worship extended -throughout the whole of Greece, though some of his shrines had a special -importance. The most ancient of them was that at Dodona, where the -Pelasgian Zeus was worshipped at a time prior to the existence of any -temples in Greece. He was here represented in the celebrated form of the -sacred oak, in the rustling of whose branches the deity revealed himself -to the faithful. He was also worshipped on the summit of Mount Tomarus, -at the foot of which lay Dodona—mountain-tops being naturally the -earliest seats of his worship. But all the earlier shrines were -overshadowed by the great national seat of the worship of Hellenic Zeus -at Olympia, on the northern banks of the river Alpheus, in Elis, where -the renowned Olympian games were celebrated. The magnificent statue of -Zeus, by Phidias, was an additional inducement to devotees, who flocked -thither from every quarter. - -Neither was the worship of Jupiter any less extensive in Italy. The most -renowned of all his shrines was undoubtedly the temple erected by -Tarquin on the Capitol at Rome. This, after being nearly destroyed by -fire in the time of Sulla, was restored to more than its pristine -splendour. The original earthen image was replaced by a statue of gold -and ivory, the work of the Greek artist Apollonius, after the model of -the Olympian Zeus. - -Before proceeding to discuss the god as he appears in art, we must take -a glance at his numerous family. The mythology of the Greeks stands in -notorious contrast to that of the Romans, in attributing to Zeus a great -number of mortal as well as immortal spouses, and an unusually numerous -posterity. Here we must remark that, in spite of the occasional jokes of -the comic poets on the numerous amours of the god, and the consequent -jealousy of Hera, there was nothing farther from the intention of the -Greeks than to represent the supreme deity of heaven as a sensual and -lascivious being. The explanation lies partly in the great number of -contemporaneous local forms of worship that existed independently of -each other, and partly in the fact that the lively fancy of the Greek -pictured every new production under the guise of procreation. In that -part of mythology which teaches the genealogy of the gods, the earliest -wife of Zeus was Metis (prudence), the daughter of Oceanus. Zeus -devoured her, fearing lest she should bear a son, who would deprive him -of the empire it had cost him so much to attain. It was soon after this -that he produced Pallas Athene from his own head. His second -goddess-wife was Themis, one of the Titans, by whom he became the father -of the Horæ and the Mœræ (Fates). Dione appears as the wife of Zeus of -Dodona, and the mother of Aphrodite; whilst Arcadian Zeus was wedded to -Maia, by whom he had Hermes. By Demeter (Ceres) he became the father of -Persephone (Proserpine, goddess of vegetation); by Eurynome, a daughter -of Oceanus, of the Charites (Graces); by Mnemosyne, of the Muses; by -Leto (Latona), of Apollo and Artemis. The youngest of all his divine -wives, who was recognised by later mythology as his only legitimate -queen, was his sister Hera. By her he became the father of Ares (Mars), -Hephæstus (Vulcan), and Hebe. - -Among his mortal mistresses the most celebrated is Semele, the daughter -of Cadmus, king of Thebes, and mother of Dionysus. The others—Leda, -Danaë, Alcmene, Europa, and Io—will be mentioned hereafter. - -The mythology of the Romans, as we have already remarked, first depicted -Jupiter as devoid of all family ties. It was only after their religion -had been Hellenised that men termed him the son of Saturn and Ops, made -Juno his wife and Minerva his daughter. - - Statues of Zeus were necessarily very numerous, both from the great - extent of his worship and the great number of his temples that - existed in Greece. Of all these the most renowned was the - magnificent statue of Zeus at Olympia, the work of the Athenian - sculptor Phidias (500–432 B.C.). The figure was seated on a lofty - throne, and was more than 40 feet high. It was made of gold and - ivory, or more probably a statue of wood was overlaid with plates of - ivory and gold. The uncovered parts—the face, throat, breast, and - hands—were of ivory. In his right hand was a figure of Victory, also - of gold and ivory; in his left was a royal sceptre, on the top of - which perched an eagle. The numerous lengthy descriptions that exist - can give us but a faint idea of the lofty majesty that the sculptor - diffused over the countenance of the god. The object of Phidias was - to represent him to mankind, not only as the omnipotent ruler of - Olympus, far superior to all gods and men, both in power and wisdom; - but also as the gracious father of all, and the kindly dispenser of - all good gifts. The hair, which rose straight from the brow, and - then fell in equal divisions on either side, imparted to the face a - lion-like expression of conscious power. This was rendered still - more effective by the high forehead and strongly-formed nose. At the - same time, the expression of the slightly-opened lips lent an idea - of kindly benevolence. The story goes that Phidias, after completing - the statue, prayed of the god a sign that he was well pleased with - his work. Zeus thereupon caused a flash of lightning to descend - through the open roof of the temple, and thus acknowledged his own - image. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.—Zeus of Otricoli. Vatican Museum.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.—Jupiter Verospi. Vatican Museum.] - - This sublime masterpiece of Phidias, which was reckoned among the - seven wonders of the world, continued in existence, though not - without injury, for upwards of 800 years. It appears to have been - destroyed by fire in the time of Theodosius III. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.—Coins of Elis with Phidias’ Zeus. (After -Overbeck.)] - - The following are the most important of the existing statues of Zeus - by Greek and Roman sculptors. The first in point of artistic worth - is a bust of Zeus, in Carrara marble—now in the Vatican Museum at - Rome—which was discovered in the last century at Otricoli (Fig. 3). - The union of serene majesty and benevolence is the chief feature in - the sublime countenance. Next comes a colossal statue in marble, - known as the Jupiter of Verospi, also in the Vatican Museum (Fig. - 4). Lastly, there is a bust of Zeus, discovered at Pompeii, and now - in the Museum at Naples, besides an equally beautiful bronze statue - in the British Museum, found at Paramythia in Epirus. On comparing - all the extant art monuments of Zeus, we may gather that the object - of ancient art was to present him especially as the benign ruler of - the universe, sitting enthroned in conscious majesty and blissful - ease on the heights of Olympus. His characteristic features are the - clustering hair, falling like a mane on either side of his fine - arched brow, and the rich wavy beard. His attributes consist of the - sceptre, as a symbol of his sovereignty; the thunderbolt; the eagle; - the votive bowl, as a symbol of his worship; the ball beneath or - near his seat, as a symbol of the universe he rules; and, lastly, a - figure of Victory. His head is sometimes adorned with a garland of - oak-leaves, the oak being sacred to him; and sometimes with an - olive-branch or plain band, the latter being a mark of sovereignty. - In Fig. 5 we give an engraving of two coins of Elis, one of which is - in the Florentine and the other in the Paris Museum. - - -=2. Hera (Juno).=—Hera, according to Homer, was the eldest of the -daughters of Cronus and Rhea. She is the feminine counterpart of Zeus, -her brother and husband. She represents the air or atmosphere; for which -reason she, like Zeus, was supposed to control the phenomena of the air -and sky, and, as queen of heaven, shared with him all the honours of his -position. Her conjugal relations to Zeus, which form the substance of -all the myths that refer to her, afforded the poets a rich and -productive material for serious and sportive poetry. They sang of the -solemn marriage of Zeus and Hera, the remembrance of which was -celebrated at springtide with festive offerings and marriage rites -before the shrine of the goddess. Neither did they fail to tell of the -conjugal strife of the royal pair, and of the cruel fate which overtook -the mortal women who enjoyed the favours of Zeus. It was thus that -jealousy and contention became the leading features in the character of -the goddess; whereas, both in her worship and in the representations of -artists, she appears as a gracious and kindly deity, the especial -protectress of her own sex. - -The natural signification of Hera appears to have quickly disappeared -among the Greeks, and she seems to have been chiefly honoured as the -guardian of the marriage tie. The nobleness of the woman who preserves -inviolate the sanctity of this bond finds in her its most sublime -expression. As the special patroness of marriage, she was supposed to -watch over its sanctity, to vouchsafe the blessing of children, and to -protect women in childbirth. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.—Barberini Juno. Vatican Museum.] - -The worship of Hera was originally not very extensive. The cradle of her -worship was Argos, on which account she is often termed Argive. Argos, -Mycenæ, and Sparta are pointed out in the time of Homer as her favourite -towns. Her worship naturally extended as her new character of goddess of -marriage became more prominent. In Bœotia and Eubœa her worship was very -ancient, but her chief shrine was the Heræum, between Argos and Mycenæ. -Here was a most magnificent statue of the goddess, made of ivory and -gold, the work of the Sicyonian artist, Polycletus.[2] - -Footnote 2: - - Polycletus, a native of Sicyon, was a sculptor, architect, and caster - in bronze. He was a contemporary of Phidias, and, next to him, the - most celebrated artist of antiquity. - -Juno (properly Jovino) takes the same place as goddess of childbirth and -patroness of marriage among the Romans as Hera did among the Greeks. In -addition to this she was venerated, under the name of Juno Regina, as -the tutelary deity of the city and empire of Rome. Her chief shrine was -on the Capitol, where she had a separate chapel in the temple of -Jupiter. The Matronalia, the chief festival of the goddess, was -celebrated on the first day of March, when all the matrons of the city -marched in procession to her temple on the Esquiline, and there offered -her flowers and libations. The victims usually sacrificed to Juno were -young heifers: her sacred birds were the goose and the crow, to which -the peacock of the Greek Hera was afterwards added. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.—Head of Hera, perhaps after Polycletus. Naples.] - - The most celebrated of the art monuments that relate to Juno is the - Juno Ludovisi, a colossal marble bust of remarkable beauty, which, - thanks to casts and photographs, is tolerably well known. Her lofty - and commanding countenance is the ideal of perfect womanly beauty, - combining in a rare degree woman’s chief ornaments—dignity and - grace. - - After this comes the Juno Barberini of the Vatican Museum, an entire - and upright figure of great size (Fig. 6), distinguished by the - admirable draping of the garments. The Farnese Juno, now in the - Naples Museum, also deserves mention. In the same museum there is a - singularly beautiful head of Hera (Fig. 7), which perhaps lays claim - to reflect the conception of Polycletus. - - The characteristic features of Juno are a somewhat prominent chin, - expressing unbending determination of will; somewhat curling lips, - well-defined nostrils, large full eyes, and a high and noble - forehead. The attributes of the goddess consist of the sceptre and - diadem, significant of her power; the veil (often omitted in the - statues of later artists), as a symbol of the married woman; the - votive bowl in the hand, the pomegranate as a symbol of love, and - the peacock or goose at her feet, also at times the cuckoo, as - herald of spring. - - -=3. Pallas Athene (Minerva).=—The accounts which the Greeks gave of the -birth of Pallas vary considerably. The most common is that which has -been already mentioned. According to this, Zeus produced her from his -head, which he had ordered Hephæstus to cleave open. The great goddess -of war, in full armour, with poised spear, then sprang forth from her -father’s head, chanting a war-song, whilst a mighty commotion both on -sea and land announced the great event to the world. In her physical -character Pallas appears as the goddess of the dawn. The birth of the -dawn from the forehead of the sky is not only a natural idea, but one -which can be traced in the legends of other nations. Several of the -other stories of her birth are connected with the name Tritogenia, the -daughter of Tritos, a god, whose name, though not actually found in -Greek mythology, may be traced in Amphitrite, Triton, and the Lake -Tritonis. This name, which originally expressed the birth of the dawn -from the water, was afterwards explained in various ways, and the first -part was even derived from a provincial Greek word meaning head. Looked -at from her ethical side, she appears as the goddess of wisdom, a -reflection and personification of that profound wisdom and sagacity with -which Father Zeus controls the destinies of the world. Hence we may -easily gather the other features of her character. She is, in the first -place, the protectress of states; and all that their welfare requires in -peace or war proceeds from her. Thus she appears as goddess of peace as -well as war. In the latter capacity she accompanies the army on its -march, inspires the soldiers with ardour for the fray, and rewards them -with victory and rich spoils; she also affords her mighty protection to -towns and cities at home. In Homer she figures, besides, as the kindly -guide and protectress of individual heroes, such as Odysseus, Achilles, -Diomedes. It was she who first taught mankind to manage the horse, and -to build ships and chariots; she also invented the war-trumpet and -flute. As goddess of war she usually wears, besides helmet, shield, and -spear, the dreadful ægis. The latter, in art monuments, is represented -as a breastplate covered with dragon’s scales, and surrounded with -serpents, in the midst of which is the dreadful head of Medusa, which -has the effect of turning every one that looks on it into stone. - -As goddess of peace, Athene is equally lavish in blessing. Everything -necessary either to the physical or intellectual welfare of mankind was -believed to proceed from her, and to be subject to her influence. -Accordingly, useful inventions of all kinds are ascribed to her. It was -she who first gave men the rake and the plough; it was she who invented -the distaff and loom, as well as the art of dyeing woven stuffs, and -many other feminine accomplishments. - -By later writers this skill in art is extended to other things, and she -is represented as the patroness of every branch of science, art, and -manufacture. - -She is also called Athene Hygiea, because she was believed to send pure -atmosphere, to ward off pestilence, and to promote the growth and health -of the youth of the land. - -We cannot wonder, therefore, that the worship of a goddess so -benevolent, and exercising such an important influence on human life, -was very extensive in Greece. Nowhere did she receive a higher degree of -veneration than at Athens, of which city she was really the tutelary -deity. Her most important shrine was the Parthenon (temple of the virgin -goddess), which was erected by Pericles on the Acropolis, and the -remains of which, even in the present day, excite the wonder and -admiration of the world. The whole land of Attica was, indeed, in a -certain measure, the peculiar property of the goddess, which she won -after her well-known contest with Poseidon. Zeus had decreed the -sovereignty over Attica to that deity who should bestow on the land the -most useful present. Poseidon thereupon created the horse; but Athene -caused the olive-tree to grow, and was thus held to have won the -victory. The sacred olive-tree, which was thus called into existence, -was shown in the Temple of Erechtheus on the Acropolis, and possessed -such a wonderful vitality that, when the Persians burnt it after -capturing the town, it immediately put forth a fresh shoot. Argos and -Corinth were also renowned seats of the worship of Pallas Athene; and -she also enjoyed the highest veneration in Sparta, Bœotia, Thessaly, -Arcadia, and Rhodes. - -The Roman Minerva, whose name was derived from a root meaning “to -think,” was Hellenised at a very early period, and identified with the -Greek Pallas. In Rome, however, the warlike character of the goddess was -completely merged in that of the peaceful inventress and patroness of -the art and sciences, and of all handiwork of women. She was here -worshipped, in company with Jupiter and Juno, as the tutelary deity of -the city and empire, and had, in consequence, her own shrine in the -temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. She also had temples on the Aventine and -Cœlian hills, to which a third was added by Pompey, in 61 B.C., in the -Campus Martius. - -_Festivals of the goddess._—The Panathenæa, the chief festival of the -Greek Pallas, were celebrated with great pomp every four years. A solemn -procession passed through the streets of Athens up to the Acropolis; and -an offering was made to the goddess in the shape of a costly garment -(peplus), artistically embroidered by the Athenian maidens. Horse races, -athletic and musical contests, took place at the same time. Another -festival of less importance, called the Lesser Panathenæa, was -celebrated every year at Athens in honour of the goddess. - -At Rome the chief festival of Minerva, the Quinquatrus Majores, was held -on the 19th of March, and was, in later times, extended to five days. It -was especially observed by all engaged in intellectual pursuits, and by -artists and artisans. As Minerva was also patroness of schools, the -schoolboys also took part in the celebration, and enjoyed a welcome -holiday. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.—Pallas Giustiniani. Vatican.] - - The virgin goddess was at all times a favourite subject with ancient - art. Even in the earliest times, before casting in bronze or marble - sculpture was known, while the images of the gods were as yet rudely - carved in wood, Pallas was a frequent subject of delineation. These - wooden images usually represented the goddess as standing upright - with poised spear in front of the battle, and were then called - Palladia. Men delighted to believe them to have fallen from heaven, - and to be a sure means of protection against hostile attack. When - Greek art was in its prime, the first masters vied with each other - in the representation of the goddess. Phidias outdid them all in his - renowned statue of Athene Parthenos, which stood in the temple on - the Acropolis. The figure was 39 feet high, and was constructed of - ivory and gold. Its majestic beauty naturally formed one of the - chief attractions of the magnificent temple. It disappeared, without - leaving any clue behind it, during the stormy period of the invasion - of the nomadic tribes. In proceeding to give an account of the most - important existing statues of the goddess, we must first mention a - magnificent marble bust which King Ludwig I. of Bavaria procured for - the Munich collection, and which was formerly in the Villa Albani, - at Rome. The goddess here wears a tight-fitting helmet, the top of - which is decorated with a serpent, the emblem of wisdom. Her - breastplate, which is bordered with serpents, falls like a cape over - her shoulders, and is fastened in the middle by the Gorgon’s head, a - terrible but striking contrast to the pure and noble countenance of - the goddess. A fine bust, with a delicate and youthful expression of - countenance, is preserved in the Vatican Museum at Rome. - - Another, not less beautiful, but with grave and almost masculine - features, was discovered in the excavations of Pompeii, and is now - in the Naples Museum. - - Among existing (full-length) statues, the Pallas Giustiniani, of the - Vatican Museum at Rome, is held to be the finest (Fig. 8). This - probably once stood in a Roman temple, having been found in a place - where there was formerly a temple of Minerva. This statue, in - accordance with the Roman conception, bears a more peaceable - character, although neither the spear nor helmet are wanting. Next - come two statues found near Velletri, one of which is in the - Capitoline Museum at Rome, whilst the other forms a chief ornament - of the Louvre collection in Paris. Both represent the goddess in the - character of a benign deity fostering all peaceful works, with a - gentle but earnest expression of countenance. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.—Athene Polias. Villa Albani.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.—Pallas Athene. Naples.] - - The Farnese Minerva of the Naples Museum and the “Hope” copy in - London betray similar characteristics. On the other hand, in a - statue discovered at Herculaneum (now at Naples), Minerva appears as - a warlike goddess, in an evidently hostile attitude (Fig. 10). This - is also the case with the celebrated statue at the Louvre, which, on - account of the necklace worn by the goddess, is generally called - _Minerve au Collier_; and again in a statue of the Villa Albani, in - which a lion’s skin thrown over the head takes the place of the - helmet (Fig. 9). - - On combining the characteristic features of Minerva, we may gather - that her most prominent trait is a lofty seriousness, well befitting - the chaste, grave character of the virgin goddess. The closed lips - and the prominent chin betray a determined and resolute disposition, - whilst her mien and bearing give token of strength and dignity. - - Among the favourite animals of Minerva we may mention the serpent, - the owl, and the cock. The first is a symbol of wisdom, the second - of profound meditation, and the last of eager desire for the fray. - The attributes of Minerva consist of the ægis, which serves as a - shield, the spear, and the helmet. The helmet is sometimes adorned - with the figures of griffins, significant of the overpowering might - of the wearer. The statues are all fully clothed, in accordance with - the chaste character of the goddess. - - -=4. Apollo.=—As Athene is the favourite daughter of Zeus, so Apollo -ranks as the most glorious and beautiful of his sons. Like other sons of -Zeus, he is a god of light, and, indeed, the purest and highest -representative of this mighty power in nature. His mother, Leto -(Latona), is a representative of the darkness of the night. According to -the sacred legend, she was compelled when pregnant to wander about, -because mankind, dreading the appearance of the mighty god, refused to -receive her. This myth was afterwards altered by later writers, who -assign the jealousy of Hera as the cause of her wanderings. Leto at -length found a refuge on Delos, which was once a floating island, and -had to be fastened to the bottom of the sea by means of lofty columns. -As the bright god of heaven, to whom everything impure and unholy is -hateful, we find Apollo, soon after his birth, preparing to do battle -with the evil powers of darkness. With his arrows he slew both the giant -Tityus and the serpent Python, the latter a monster that inhabited the -valley of the Plistus, near Delphi, and destroyed both men and cattle. -These and similar myths are merely a panegyric on the conquering power -exercised by the genial warmth of Spring over the dark gloom of Winter. - -But though Apollo thus appears as the foe of all that is evil and -impure, ancient myths, nevertheless, represent him also as a terrible -god of death, sending virulent pestilences and dealing out destruction -to men and animals by means of his unerring arrows. This may be easily -explained, however, by glancing at the natural signification of the god. -The rays of the sun do indeed put to flight the cold of winter, but as -their heat increases they themselves ultimately become the cause of -disease and death. This is beautifully portrayed in the fable of the -death of Hyacinthus. - -To proceed further in the analysis of his character as god of light, -Apollo next appears as the protector of streets and houses. A conical -pillar was usually erected at the side of the doors of houses as a -symbol of him, and a defence against all sorceries. Connected with this -is his repute as a god of health; one who is indeed able to send disease -and death, but who, on the other hand, is all-powerful to protect -against physical maladies. This feature in his character, however, is -more extensively developed in the person of his son, Asclepius -(Æsculapius). But it is not only outward ills that this wonder-working -deity can cure: as the true redeemer from sin and crime, he alone can -afford consolation to guilty souls. Even those pursued by the Furies he -sometimes receives in tenderness and pity, a fine instance of which is -found in the story of Orestes. It is here that we must seek the -explanation of his character as god of music; in the fact that it -exercises so soothing and tranquillising an influence on the soul of -man. His favourite instrument was the lyre, which he was wont to play -with masterly skill at the banquets of the gods, whilst the Muses -accompanied him with their wondrous strains. Apollo was therefore -regarded as the leader of the Muses (Musagetes); and all the great -singers of antiquity, such as Orpheus and Linus, are mythically -represented as his sons. - -But Apollo attained his greatest importance among the Greeks as god of -prophecy. His oracles continued to exercise an important influence on -social and political life, even down to the latest times. The -inspiration of Apollo was distinguished by the fact that the god -revealed the future less by means of outward signs than by inducing an -ecstatic condition of mind bordering on madness in those persons through -whom he wished to proclaim his oracles. These were generally women and -maidens, who, either at oracular shrines proper, or dwelling alone as -Sibyls, gave forth the responses of the god. In early times they were -somewhat numerous. There was an oracle at Clarus, near Colophon; an -oracle at Didyma, near Miletus; and an oracle on the Ismenus, near -Thebes. These were eventually all thrown into the shade by that of -Delphi. The responses of this oracle exercised, during a long period of -Grecian history, an all-powerful influence, especially on the Dorian -tribes. The convulsions of the Pythia, or priestess of Apollo, were -brought about partly by the chewing of laurel leaves, and partly by the -gaseous vapours that issued from a cleft in the earth beneath the sacred -tripod. The ecstatic condition in which she gave the responses, which -were comprehensible only to the initiated priests, manifested itself in -a foaming at the mouth and in convulsions of the body. - -Delphi naturally became the chief seat of the worship of Apollo. The -gorgeous temple was rebuilt in the time of the Pisistratidæ, after the -destruction of the old one by fire. Its wealth from offerings became so -great that their value was computed at 10,000 talents (more than -£2,000,000). In the neighbourhood of Delphi the Pythian games were -celebrated in the third year of every Olympiad. - -The shrine of the god at Delos, his birthplace, was little less -renowned. The sanctuary itself was situated at the foot of Mount -Cynthus; but the whole island was sacred to the god, for which reason no -one was buried there. Here, too, games, said to have been instituted by -Theseus, were celebrated every four years in honour of the god. Apollo -had, besides, a great number of less celebrated shrines and temples, not -only in Greece, but also in Asia Minor, and wherever the Greek colonies -extended. - -The Apollo of the Romans, as his name indicates, was transferred to Rome -from Greece. At a comparatively early period men began to feel the want -of a prophetic deity, as the Roman gods, although they vouchsafed hints -as to the future, confined their responses to a mere Yea or Nay. -Moreover, in the character of god of healing, he was early admitted into -the Roman system, as we gather from the fact that the first temple -really dedicated to Apollo was erected in 429 B.C., under the pressure -of a grievous pestilence. The worship of Apollo was especially exalted -by the Emperor Augustus, who ascribed his victory at Actium chiefly to -the assistance of the god. He accordingly erected a magnificent temple -to Apollo on the Palatine, which was embellished with the celebrated -statue of Apollo Citharœdus, by Scopas. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.—Apollo Belvedere. Vatican.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.—Head of Apollo Belvedere.] - - This remark leads us to contemplate the different statues of the - god. Apollo constantly bears a very youthful appearance, and is - always beardless. His figure is strong and handsome, his head - covered with fair clustering locks, and his face expressive of - majesty, but marked withal by a cheerful serenity. Such is the - original and fundamental type, which was usually followed in the - representation of the god. It was principally developed by Scopas - and Praxiteles, who belonged to the later Attic school, which - flourished from the end of the Peloponnesian war to the reign of - Alexander the Great. The principal creation of Scopas was a marble - statue, representing the god as a Pythian Citharœdus with the lyre - in his hand, clothed in a long robe reaching to the feet. - - This invaluable work was procured by Augustus for the temple he - erected to Apollo on the Palatine. Praxiteles, a younger - contemporary of Scopas, acquired considerable renown by his bronze - figure of a youthful Apollo pursuing a lizard (Apollo Sauroctonus). - - In existing art monuments sometimes the conception of a warlike, - vengeful deity obtains, in which case the god is represented as - nude, or nearly so, and armed with quiver and bow. At other times - he wears a mild and benevolent aspect; he is then distinguished by - his lute, and completely enveloped in a chlamys. Of the former - kind is the most beautiful and celebrated of all his existing - statues, the Apollo Belvedere, which was discovered in 1503, near - Nettuno, the ancient Antium, and is now in the Vatican. The proud - self-consciousness of a conquering deity is inimitably expressed - in his whole attitude. He stands with his right hand and leg - against the trunk of a tree, his left arm outstretched, with the - ægis, probably as a symbol of fear and terror, in his hand. The - serpent creeping up the tree is a symbol of the powers of darkness - vanquished by the god (Fig. 11). It may also be taken as the - symbol of life and healing, like the serpent of Asclepius (see p. - 96). We have also given a larger engraving of the head of the - Belvedere Apollo, in order to afford a clearer idea of its - wondrous beauty (Fig. 12). - - The so-called Apollino, of the Florence gallery, a youthful figure - resting after battle, is a work of scarcely less beauty. The shape - of the body, which is entirely nude, is wonderfully soft and - delicate. With his left arm the god leans upon a tree; in his left - hand he negligently holds the bow, whilst his right hand is raised - to his head in a meditative fashion. The Farnese Apollo of the - Naples Museum possesses an equally graceful form. The god is here - represented as a musician; in his left hand he holds the lyre, - whilst his right glides over the strings. The animated expression of - his face, indicating his entire devotion to his art, is exquisitely - beautiful. The goose at his feet, which was regarded even by the - ancients as a music-loving bird, appears to drink in with rapture - the heavenly tones. - - In those works which represent the god as a Pythian lute-player in a - long Ionian garment, we perceive an almost feminine figure and a - visionary expression of face. The most important works of this kind - are the Apollo Citharœdus of the Munich collection (Fig. 13), - formerly called the Muse of Barberini, which is marked by a somewhat - quieter attitude; and the so-called Apollo Musagetes of the Vatican - collection, which is characterised by a lively dancing movement of - the figure, and is generally regarded as an imitation of the - masterpiece of Scopas already mentioned. A pure and heavenly - inspiration seems to pervade the features of the laurel-crowned god; - his mighty lyre, to the tones of which he appears to be singing, is - suspended from a band across the chest, and is aptly adorned with - the portrait of Marsyas, his vanquished rival. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.—Apollo Citharœdus. Munich.] - - Lastly, the graceful statue of Apollo Sauroctonus (Lizard-slayer) - deserves mention. Many copies of it still exist, the chief of which - is a marble statue in the Vatican collection. The delicate figure of - the god, midway between youth and boyhood, leans carelessly against - the trunk of a tree, up which a lizard is creeping. The god is - eagerly watching its movements, in order to seize a favourable - moment to nail it to the tree with his arrow. - - The principle attributes of Apollo are the bow, arrows, quiver, - laurel crown, and lyre. To these may be added, as symbols of his - prophetic power, the tripod and the omphalos (navel), the latter - being a representation of the earth’s centre in the temple at - Delphi, on which he is often depicted as sitting. The god also - appears standing on the omphalos; as in the case of a marble statue - lately found in the theatre of Dionysus. His sacred animals were the - wolf, the hind, the bat, the swan, the goose, and the dolphin; the - three last being music-loving creatures. - - -=5. Artemis (Diana).=—Artemis is the feminine counterpart of her twin -brother Apollo, with whom she entirely harmonises when regarded from her -physical aspect. Like him, she is a beautiful and propitious deity; but -like him, too, she can deal out, at times, death and destruction among -mankind. Like Apollo, she promotes the growth of the young plant, and is -equally the foe of all that is evil and impure. Like him, she is skilled -in the use of the bow, of which she avails herself, however, not only -for the destruction of monsters, but also at times to chastise the -insolence of man—witness the death of the children of Niobe. Her -favourite amusement is the chase; armed with quiver and bow she ranges -mountain and valley, accompanied by a band of nymphs. The chase ended, -she delights to bathe in some fresh spring, or to lead off some -favourite dance on the flowery meadows, surrounded by her nymphs, all of -whom she overtops by a head. Then the heart of her mother, Leto, -rejoices as she gazes on the innocent sports of her lovely daughter. - -As a virgin goddess she was especially venerated by young maidens, whose -patroness she remained till their marriage, and to whom she afforded an -example of chastity. The story of Actæon, who was changed into a stag -and then torn to pieces by his own dogs, shows that she did not suffer -any injury to her virgin modesty to go unpunished. (For this story see -the Theban legends.) - -Originally, Artemis appears to have been the goddess of the moon, just -as her brother Apollo is unmistakably identical with the sun. This -conception, however, continued to grow fainter and fainter, until, in -the later days of confusion of religions, it was again revived. Artemis -was frequently confounded with Selene or Phœbe (Luna). - -The national Artemis of the Greeks was originally quite distinct from -the Artemis Orthia, a dark and cruel deity, to whom human sacrifices -were offered in Laconia. Lycurgus abolished this barbarous custom, but -caused instead a number of boys to be cruelly whipped before the image -of the goddess on the occasion of her annual festival. This is the same -Artemis to whom Agamemnon was about to offer, in Aulis, his daughter -Iphigenia, previous to the departure of the Greeks for Troy. The -Scythians in Tauris likewise had a goddess whom they propitiated with -human sacrifices. This caused her to be confounded with Artemis Orthia, -and the story arose that Iphigenia was conveyed by the goddess to -Tauris, from which place she subsequently, assisted by her brother -Orestes, brought the image of the goddess to Greece. - -The Ephesian Artemis, known to us as “Diana of the Ephesians,” was -distinct from all that have been mentioned. She was, in fact, an -Asiatic, not a Hellenic deity. - -The Roman Diana, who was early identified with the Greek Artemis, was -likewise originally a goddess of the moon. As such, she possessed a very -ancient shrine on Mount Algidus, near Tusculum. Like the Greek Artemis, -she was also regarded as the tutelary goddess of women, and was invoked -by women in childbirth. This was also the case with Artemis, although -the matrons of Greece looked for more protection in this respect at the -hands of Hera. She gained, however, a certain political importance in -Rome after having been made by Servius Tullius the tutelary deity of the -Latin League. As such, she possessed a sacred grove and temple on the -Aventine. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.—Diana of Versailles.] - - Artemis is a favourite subject with the masters of the later Attic - school. She is always represented as youthful, slender and light of - foot, and without womanly fulness. Her devotion to the chase is - clearly betokened by the quiver and bow which she generally bears, - and by the high girt robe and Cretan shoes, which allow her to pass - unencumbered through the thickets of the forest. - - Among existing statues, the most celebrated is the so-called Diana - of Versailles, which came from the Villa of Hadrian, at Tibur (Fig. - 14). It is now a chief ornament of the Louvre collection, and is a - worthy companion to the Belvedere Apollo, although it does not quite - equal this in beauty. In this statue the goddess does not appear as - a huntress, but rather as the protectress of wild animals. She is - conceived as having just come to the rescue of a hunted deer, and is - in the act of turning with angry mien on the pursuers. With her - right hand she grasps an arrow from the quiver that hangs at her - back, and in her left she holds the bow. - - A really beautiful statue of the Vatican collection depicts the - goddess in a most striking attitude. She has just sent forth her - deadly arrow, and is eagerly watching its effect. The hound at her - side is just about to start in eager pursuit of the mark, which was - evidently therefore a wild animal. In her left hand is the bow, - still strung, from which her right hand has just directed the arrow. - Her foot is likewise upraised in triumph, and her whole deportment - expresses the proud joy of victory. The chief attributes of Diana - are bow, quiver, and spear, and also a torch, as an emblem of her - power to dispense light and life. The hind, the dog, the bear, and - the wild boar were esteemed sacred to her. - - -=6. Ares (Mars).=—Ares, the son of Zeus and Hera, represents war from -its fatal and destructive side, by which he is clearly distinguished -from Athene, the wise disposer of battles. He was, it is probable, -originally a personification of the angry clouded sky. His home, -according to Homer, was in Thrace, the land of boisterous, wintry -storms, among whose warlike inhabitants he was held in high esteem, -although his worship was not so extensive in Greece. Homer, in the -_Iliad_, paints in particularly lively colours the picture of the rude -“manslaying” god of war. He here appears as a deity who delights only in -the wild din of battle, and is never weary of strife and slaughter. Clad -in brazen armour from head to foot, with waving plume, helmet, and -high-poised spear, his bull’s hide shield on his left arm, he ranges the -battlefield, casting down all before him in his impetuous fury. With -strength he combines great agility, and is, according to Homer, the -fleetest of the gods. Strong though he be, however, he is overmatched in -battle by Athene; a palpable indication that prudent courage often -accomplishes more than impetuous violence. - -The usual attendants and servants of Ares are Fear and Terror. By some -writers they are described as his sons, yet in Homer they fight against -him. There is little to be said of the principal seats of his worship in -Greece. In Thebes he was regarded as the god of pestilence; and -Aphrodite, who elsewhere appears as the wife of Hephæstus, was given him -to wife. By her he became the father of Harmonia, who married Cadmus, -and thus became the ancestress of the Cadmean race in Thebes. According -to an Athenian local legend, his having slain a son of Poseidon gave -rise to the institution of the Areopagus. He was here regarded as the -god of vengeance. A celebrated statue by Alcamenes adorned his temple at -Athens. Among the warlike people of Sparta the worship of Ares was also -extensive. - -This deity was regarded with a far greater degree of veneration in Rome, -under the appellation of Mars, or Mavors. He seems to have occupied an -important position even among the earliest Italian tribes. It was not as -god of war, however—for which, amid the peaceful pursuits of -cattle-rearing and husbandry, they cared little—but as the god of the -spring triumphing over the powers of winter that he was worshipped. It -was from his bounty that the primitive people looked for the prosperous -growth of their flocks and the fruits of their fields; it was Mars on -whom they called for protection against bad weather and destructive -pestilence. - -In warlike Rome, however, this deity soon laid aside his peaceful -character, and donned the bright armour of the god of war. He was even -regarded as being, after Jupiter, the most important god of the state -and people of Rome. Numa himself gave him a flamen of his own, and -created or restored in his honour the priesthood of the Salii. The -occasion, according to the sacred legend, was on this wise. As King Numa -one morning, from the ancient palace at the foot of the Palatine, raised -his hands in prayer to Jove, beseeching his protection and favour for -the infant state of Rome, the god let fall from heaven, as a mark of his -favour, an oblong brazen shield (ancile). At the same time a voice was -heard declaring that Rome should endure as long as this shield was -preserved. Numa then caused the sacred shield, which was recognised as -that of Mars, to be carefully preserved. The better to prevent its -abstraction, he ordered an artist to make eleven others exactly similar, -and instituted for their protection the college of the Salii, twelve in -number, like the shields, who were selected from the noblest families in -Rome. Every year in the month of March, which was sacred to Mars, they -bore the sacred shields in solemn procession through the streets of -Rome, executing warlike dances and chanting ancient war-songs. From the -days of Numa the worship of “Father Mars” continued to acquire an -ever-increasing popularity. Before the departure of a Roman army on any -expedition, the imperator retired to the sanctuary of the god in the old -palace, and there touched the sacred shields and the spear of the statue -of Mars, crying aloud at the same time, “Mars, watch over us!” According -to popular belief, the god himself went unseen before the host as it -marched to battle, whence he was called “Gradivus.” In the war with the -Lucanians and Bruttians (282 B.C.), when the consuls were hesitating -whether to begin the attack, an unknown youth of extraordinary stature -and beauty encouraged the troops to begin the assault on the enemy’s -camp, and was himself the first to scale the wall. When he was -afterwards sought for, in order that he might receive his richly merited -reward, he had disappeared, leaving no trace behind him. As it could -have been none other than Father Mars, the consul, Fabricius, decreed -him a thanksgiving of three days’ duration. - -Mars naturally received a due share of all booty taken in war. Defeat -was ascribed to his wrath, which men strove to avert by extraordinary -sin-offerings. - -Popular belief made Mars the father, by a vestal virgin, of Romulus and -Remus, the legendary founders of the city. His wife appears to have been -Nerio; but she enjoyed no honours at Rome. - -In attendance on Mars we find Metus and Pallor, who answer to the Greek -deities already mentioned; and also his sister Bellona, corresponding to -the Enyo, who was worshipped in Pontus and Cappadocia, though not in -Greece proper. Bellona had a temple in the Campus Martius. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15—Mars Ludovisi.] - -The Campus Martius (Field of Mars), the celebrated place of exercise of -the Roman youth, stretched from the Quirinal westwards to the Tiber, and -was dedicated to the god of war. Augustus, after the overthrow of the -murderers of Cæsar, his adoptive father, erected a temple to Mars, which -was built in Greek style, and far surpassed in grandeur and splendour -all the other temples of the god. Three columns of it are still -standing, mute witnesses of vanished splendour. A large number of -religious festivities were celebrated in the month of March in honour of -Mars. The procession of the Salii formed the chief feature of the -festival; but there were also races and games. On the Ides of October -also a chariot race took place in honour of Mars, at which the singular -custom prevailed of offering the near horse of the victorious team to -the god. The inhabitants of the two oldest quarters of the city -contended for the head of the slaughtered animal, and whoever got it was -supposed to reap great blessings from its possession. - - Ancient artists represented Mars as a tall and powerful young man, - whose activity, however, is as apparent as his strength. His - characteristic features are short curly hair, small eyes, and broad - nostrils, significant of the violence and passionateness of his - nature. The most celebrated of existing statues is the Mars Ludovisi - of the Villa Ludovisi, at Rome. It has often been conjectured that - this is an imitation of the renowned work of Scopas. The deity is - depicted as resting after battle; and, in spite of the usual - turbulence of his disposition, he here appears to have surrendered - himself to a more gentle frame of mind. The little god of love - crouching at his feet gazes into his face with a roguish, triumphant - smile, as though rejoiced to see that even the wildest and most - untameable must submit to his sway, and thus shows us what has - called forth this gentle mood. (Fig. 15.) The Mars Ludovisi is an - original work, Greek in its origin, though belonging to a somewhat - late period. The Borghese Mars of the Louvre, on the other hand, is - undoubtedly of Roman origin. It is supposed to represent Ares bound - by the craft of Hephæstus. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 16.—Bust of Ares. Sculpture Gallery at Munich.] - - Besides these two principal statues, the bust of Mars of the Munich - collection deserves mention. It is distinguished by a peculiarly - expressive head, of which we give an engraving (Fig. 16). - - The attributes of Mars are the helmet (decorated with the figures of - wolf-hounds and griffins), shield, and spear. The animals sacred to - him were the wolf, the horse, and the woodpecker. - - -=7. Aphrodite (Venus).=—In the _Iliad_, Aphrodite is represented as the -daughter of Zeus and Dione, the goddess of moisture, who, as the wife of -the god of heaven, was held in high esteem among the old Pelasgians. The -same notion of the goddess being produced from moisture is seen in the -legend, which relates that Aphrodite was born of the foam of the sea, -and first touched land on the island of Cyprus, which was henceforth -held sacred to her. She was probably a personification of the creative -and generative forces of nature, and figured among the Greeks as goddess -of beauty and sexual love. We must not forget that this conception does -not cover the whole character of the goddess. She not only appears as -Aphrodite Pandemus (the earthly Aphrodite), a goddess of the spring, by -whose wondrous power all germs in the natural and vegetable world are -quickened, but we also hear of Aphrodite Urania, a celestial deity, who -was venerated as the dispenser of prosperity and fertility; and also an -Aphrodite Pontia (of the sea), the tutelary deity of ships and mariners, -who controlled the winds and the waves, and granted to ships a fair and -prosperous passage. As the worship of Aphrodite was extremely popular -among the numerous islands and ports of the Grecian seas, we can well -imagine that it was in this latter character that she received her -greatest share of honour. - -The poets paint Aphrodite as the most beautiful of all the goddesses, -whose magic power not even the wisest could withstand. Even wild animals -were conscious of her influence, and pressed round her like lambs. She -was endowed with the celebrated love-begetting magic girdle, which she -could lay aside at will and lend to others. And as she thus gave rise to -passion in others, she herself was not free from its influence. This is -evidenced by the numerous stories of her amours with the gods or -favoured mortals, which it is so difficult to bring into harmony with -each other. Sometimes Ares, sometimes Hephæstus, is said to be her -husband. The latter account, which originated in Lemnos, was the more -popular; doubtless because its very strangeness in mating the sweetest -and most lovely of the goddesses with the lame and ugly god of fire had -a certain charm. No children are mentioned as springing from the union -of Aphrodite with Hephæstus; but Eros and Anteros, as well as Demus and -Phobus, are said to be her children by Ares. Other legends, generally of -a local character, unite her to Dionysus, or to Hermes. - -The story of her love for the beautiful Adonis clearly represents the -decay of nature in autumn, and its resuscitation in spring. Adonis, whom -Aphrodite tenderly loved, was killed, when hunting, by a wild boar. -Inconsolable at her loss, Aphrodite piteously entreated Father Zeus to -restore his life. Zeus at length consented that Adonis should spend one -part of the year in the world of shadows, and the other in the upper -world. Clearly the monster that deprived Adonis of life is only a symbol -of the frosty winter, before whose freezing blast all life in nature -decays. - -In the story of Troy, Aphrodite plays an important part. She was the -original cause of the war, having assisted Paris in his elopement with -Helen. This was his reward for his celebrated judgment, in which he -awarded the prize of beauty to Aphrodite in preference to Hera or -Athene. Besides the Trojan prince Anchises enjoyed her favours, and she -became by him the mother of the pious hero Æneas. - -The goddess appears ever ready to assist unfortunate lovers; thus she -aided the hero Peleus to obtain the beautiful sea-nymph Thetis. On the -other hand, she punishes with the utmost severity those who from pride -or disdain resist her power. This appears in the legend of Hippolytus, -son of Theseus, King of Athens, whom she ruined through the love of his -step-mother Phædra; also in the story of the beautiful youth Narcissus, -whom she punished by an ungratified self-love, because he had despised -the love of the nymph Echo. - -The Seasons and the Graces appear in attendance on Aphrodite. Their -office is to dress and adorn her. She is also accompanied by Eros, -Pothus, and Himerus (Love, Longing, and Desire), besides Hymen, or -Hymenæus, the god of marriage. - -The Roman Venus (the Lovely One) was regarded by the earlier Italian -tribes as the goddess of spring, for which reason April, the month of -buds, was held sacred to her. She early acquired a certain social -importance, by having ascribed to her a beneficent influence in -promoting civil harmony and sociability among men. - -After her identification with the Aphrodite of the Greeks, she became -more and more a goddess merely of sensual love and desire. She had three -principal shrines—those of Venus Murcia, Venus Cloacina, and Libitina. -The first of these surnames points to Venus as the myrtle goddess (the -myrtle being an emblem of chaste love); her temple was situated on the -brow of the Aventine, and was supposed to have been erected by the -Latins, who were planted there by Ancus Marcius. - -The temple of Venus Cloacina (the Purifier) was said to have been -erected in memory of the reconciliation of the Romans and Sabines, after -the rape of the Sabine women. The surname of Libitina points to her as -goddess of corpses. All the apparatus of funerals were kept in this -temple, and her attendants were at the same time the public undertakers -of the city. - -To these ancient shrines was added another in the time of Julius Cæsar, -who erected a temple to Venus Genetrix, the goddess of wedlock, in -fulfilment of a vow made at the battle of Pharsalus. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.—Venus of Milo. Louvre.] - - Aphrodite, or Venus, is notoriously an especially common subject of - representation among the artists of antiquity. The task of giving - expression to the most perfect female beauty, arrayed in all the - charms of love, by means of chisel or brush, continually spurs the - artist to fresh endeavours. It was especially among the masters of - the later Attic school, who devoted themselves to the representation - of the youthful and beautiful among the gods in whom the nude - appeared least offensive, that statues of Venus were attempted. The - Venus of Cnidus, by Praxiteles, was the most important work of that - master; and the people of Cnidus were so proud of it that they - engraved her image on their coins. The fact that they ventured to - portray the goddess as entirely nude may be regarded as a sign both - of the falling away of the popular faith and of the decay of art. - Henceforth, except in the case of statues for the temples, it became - an established custom to represent Venus and other kindred deities - as nude. Venus is further distinguished by a fulness of form, which - is, nevertheless, combined with slenderness and grace. The - countenance is oval; the eyes are not large, and have a languishing - expression; the mouth is small, and the cheeks and chin full and - round. - - Of the numerous existing statues we can here mention only the most - important. First among them in artistic worth is a marble statue - larger than life, which was found in 1820 on the island of Melos - (Milo), and is now in the Louvre at Paris (Fig. 17). In this - statue only the upper part of the body is nude, the lower - portions, from the hips downward, being covered with a light - garment. One scarcely knows which to admire most in this splendid - statue—the singularly dignified expression of the head, or the - charming fulness and magnificent proportions of the limbs. The - arms are quite broken off, so that we cannot determine the - conception of the artist with any certainty. It is supposed that - the goddess held in her hand either an apple, which was a symbol - of the Isle of Melos, or the bronze shield of Ares. Her looks - express proud and joyous self-consciousness. - - In the Venus of Capua (so called because found among the ruins of - the Amphitheatre) she again appears as a victorious goddess (Venus - Victrix). This statue is now in the Museum at Naples. The shape of - the nude body is not so vigorous or fresh as that of the Venus of - Milo, but somewhat soft and ill-defined. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.—Venus Genetrix. Villa Borghese.] - - The Medicean Venus, formerly in the Villa Medici at Rome, is better - known. It is a work of the later Attic school, in which, at the end - of the second century B.C., Greek art once more blooms for a while. - It is the work of the Athenian artist Cleomenes, though probably - chiselled in Rome. As Venus Anadyomene (rising from the sea) the - goddess appears entirely nude. This is the most youthful in - appearance of all her statues, and is distinguished by the perfect - regularity and beauty of its form, though there is no trace of the - lofty dignity of the goddess. “What a descent,” says Kraus in his - _Christian Art_, “is there from the Venus of Milo to this coquette, - whose apparently bashful posture is only meant to challenge the - notice of the beholder.” - - The “Venus crouching in the bath” of the Vatican collection, and the - “Venus loosing her sandal” of the Munich Gallery, are creations - similar in style. In some imitations of the Cnidian Venus, the most - important of which are in Rome and Munich, the goddess wears a more - dignified demeanour; and also in the wonderfully graceful Venus - Genetrix of the Villa Borghese, at Rome (Fig. 18). - - The attributes of Venus vary much according to the prevailing - conception of the goddess. The dove, the sparrow, and the dolphin, - and among plants the myrtle, the rose, the apple, the poppy, and the - lime-tree, were sacred to her. - - -=8. Hermes (Mercurius).=—Hermes was the son of Zeus and Maia, a daughter -of Atlas. He was born in a grotto of Mount Cyllene in Arcadia, whence he -is called Cyllenius. We know the stories of his youth chiefly from the -so-called Homeric Hymn. - -From this we learn how Hermes, soon after his birth, sprang from his -mother’s lap to seek the oxen of Apollo. Finding outside the cave a -tortoise, he stretched strings across its shell, and thus made a lyre, -to which he sung the loves of Zeus and Maia. Then hiding the lyre in his -cradle, he went out to seek for food. Coming to Pieria in the evening, -he stole thence fifty cows from the herds of Apollo, and drove them to -the river Alpheüs. Here he slew two of them, and roasted the flesh, but -could not swallow it. Then returning home in the early morning, he -passed through the key-hole like the morning breeze, and lay down in his -cradle. Apollo, however, soon remarked the theft, and hurried after the -impudent robber. Hermes now played the innocent, and obstinately denied -the charge; but Apollo was not to be deceived, and forced the young -thief to accompany him to the throne of Zeus to have their quarrel -decided. Zeus ordered Hermes to restore the cattle, but Apollo gladly -made them over to Hermes on receiving the newly-invented lyre. Thus -Hermes became the god of shepherds and pastures, whilst Apollo -henceforth zealously devoted himself to the art of music. - -As a token of their thorough reconciliation, Apollo gave his brother god -the golden Caduceus, or magic wand, by means of which he could bestow -happiness on whomsoever he would; and henceforth both dwelt together in -the utmost harmony and love, the favourite sons of their father Zeus. - -Various interpretations have been given of the nature of Hermes. Some -have seen in him the thunderstorm, some the dawn, and some the morning -breeze. The name Hermes, compared with the corresponding Indian words, -seems to make his connection with the morning certain. Several points in -the legend just related guide us to the breeze rather than the dawn; the -invention of music, the kine carried off—which, nevertheless, he cannot -eat (the wind cannot consume as fire does what it breaks down and -carries off)—and the passing through the key-hole “like the morning -breeze.” So also his function of guide and conductor of the soul, which -we shall speak of presently. - -The following are the most important features in the character of -Hermes:—Not only does he promote the fruitfulness of flocks and herds, -but he also bestows prosperity and success on all undertakings, -especially those of trade and commerce. As the guardian of the streets -and roads, and the friendly guide of those travelling on business, -Hermes must have appeared especially worthy of honour among the Greeks, -who were at all times sharp and greedy men of business. Accordingly, men -erected in his honour, on the roads, what were called Hermæ—mere blocks -of stone, or posts, with one or more heads: these latter were at -cross-roads, and also served as finger-posts. Hermæ[3] were also often -to be seen in the streets of towns and in public squares. Not only did -Hermes protect and guide merchants whilst travelling, but he also -endowed them with shrewdness and cunning to outwit others. And as a god -who had himself commenced his career by a dexterous theft, he was fain -to allow thieves and rogues to invoke his protection before entering on -their operations; just as in the present day robbers and bandits in -Italy or Greece see nothing strange in asking their patron saint to -bestow on them a rich prey. Every chance gain—in gambling, for -instance—and every fortunate discovery were attributed to Hermes. - -Footnote 3: - - In this meaning, however, some have derived the word from a different - root, and supposed it to mean originally only “pillars.” - -Though playing such an important part in human life, Hermes also appears -as the fleet messenger and dexterous agent of Zeus. It is in this guise -that the epic poets love to depict him. With his golden-winged shoes he -passes more swiftly than the wind over land and sea, executing the -commissions of his father Zeus or the other inhabitants of Olympus. Thus -he is sent by Zeus to command the nymph Calypso to release Odysseus, and -to warn Ægisthus against the murder of Agamemnon. At times, difficult -tasks are allotted to him; for instance, the destruction of the -hundred-eyed guardian of Io, on which account Homer calls him the -Argus-slayer. Doubtless in this myth the hundred-eyed Argus represents -the starry heavens; Argus is slain by Hermes, that is, in the morning -the stars cease to be visible. As messenger and herald of the gods, he -is a model for all earthly heralds, who, in ancient times, were the -indispensable agents of kings in every difficult business. Hence he -bears the herald’s staff, or _caduceus_. This is the same wand once -given him by Apollo, consisting of three branches, one of which forms -the handle, whilst the other two branch off like a fork, and are joined -in a knot. The origin of this herald’s staff appears to have been the -olive branch wreathed with fillets of wool. It was only at a later -period that the two last were converted into serpents. By means of this -wand Hermes can either induce deep sleep or rouse a slumberer, but he -uses it chiefly in guiding souls to the infernal regions. This leads us -to speak of the important office of Hermes as Psychopompus, or conductor -of the soul. Every soul, after death, commenced its journey to the -region of shadows under the guidance of the god. On extraordinary -occasions, where, for instance, the spirits were summoned in the oracles -of the dead, Hermes had to reconduct the souls of the departed to the -upper world, thus becoming a mediator between these two regions, in -other respects so far divided. - -As dreams come from the lower world, Hermes was naturally regarded as -the deity from whom they proceeded; on which account people were wont to -ask him for good dreams before going to sleep. - -The highest conception of Hermes, however, is that of the god who -presides over the bringing up of children; and, indeed, what god was -more fitted to be presented as an example to Grecian youth than the -messenger of the gods, equally dexterous in mind and body? He is the -fleetest of runners and the most skilful of disc-throwers and boxers; -and though he does not, like Apollo, represent any of the higher forms -of intellectual life, still he possesses in the highest degree that -practical common sense which was so greatly valued among the Greeks. The -wrestling school and the gymnasium were consequently regarded as his -institutions, and adorned with his statues. In further development of -his relation to the education of the young, later poets even made him -the inventor of speech, of the alphabet, and of the art of interpreting -languages. The custom which prevailed among the Greeks of offering him -the tongues of the slaughtered animals, shows clearly that they also -considered him as the patron of eloquence. - -There is little to be said of the Roman Mercury. As his name (from -_mercari_, to trade) signifies, he was considered by the Romans solely -as god of trade. His worship was introduced at the same time as that of -Ceres—some years after the expulsion of the Tarquins, at a season of -great scarcity—but appears to have become confined to the plebeians. The -guild of merchants regarded him as their tutelary deity, and offered -sacrifices to him and his mother Maia on the Ides of May. - - The plastic representation of Hermes made equal progress with his - ideal development. The first statues of the god, founded on the - ancient Hermæ already mentioned, represented him as a shepherd, - sometimes as the herald and messenger of the gods, always as a - powerful, bearded man. Later, he assumed a more youthful appearance, - and was represented as a beardless youth in the very prime of - strength, with broad chest, lithe but powerful limbs, curly hair, - and small ears, mouth, and eyes; altogether a wonderful combination - of grace and vigour. If we add to this the expression of kindly - benevolence which plays around his finely-cut lips, and the - inquiring look of his face as he bends forward thoughtfully, we have - the principal characteristic features of the god. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.—Resting Hermes. Bronze Statue at Naples.] - - Among existing statues, a full-sized “Hermes at rest,” in bronze, - which was found at Herculaneum, and is now in the Naples Museum, is - perhaps most worthy of mention. He here appears as the messenger of - the gods, and has just sat down on a rock to rest. The winged - sandals form his only clothing, and these are, strictly speaking, - not really sandals, but simply straps covering the foot, to which - wings are fastened close to the ankles (Fig. 19). - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.—Statue of Hermes. Capitoline Collection.] - - A splendid marble statue of the Vatican collection, which, was once - taken for Antinous, portrays the god as the patron of wrestling; the - Caduceus which he holds in his left hand is, however, a modern - addition. In the Hermes Ludovisi of Rome we have a graceful - representation of Hermes Logius, the patron of the art of rhetoric. - The wings are here not placed on the feet, or even directly on the - head, as is often the case, but are fastened to a low round - travelling-hat. - - A pretty bronze statuette in the British Museum depicts Hermes as - the god of trade and commerce, with a well-filled purse in his hand. - Such is also the conception of a fine statue of the Capitoline - collection at Rome (Fig. 20). The principal attributes of the god - have already been incidentally mentioned: they are wings on the - feet, head, or cap; the herald’s staff, the votive bowl, and the - purse. - - -=9. Hephæstus (Vulcan).=—Hephæstus, the god of fire and the forge, was -commonly regarded as a son of Zeus and Hera. He was so lame and ugly -that his mother in shame cast him from heaven into the sea. But Eurynome -and Thetis, the Oceanids, took pity on him, and tended him for nine -years in a deep grotto of the sea, in return for which he made them many -ornaments. After being reconciled to his mother, he returned to Olympus -under the guidance of Dionysus. According to another not less popular -account, it was not his mother who treated him so cruelly, but Zeus. -Hephæstus, on the occasion of a quarrel between Zeus and Hera, came to -the help of his mother, whereupon the angry god of heaven seized him by -the foot and hurled him from Olympus. The unfortunate Hephæstus fell for -a whole day, but alighted at sundown on the isle of Lemnos with but -little breath in his body. Here the Sintians, who inhabited the island, -tended him till his recovery. Later writers say that it was from this -fall that he became lame. The same fundamental idea lies at the root of -these various legends, viz., that fire first came down from heaven in -the form of lightning. Hephæstus originally represented the element of -fire, and all the effects of fire are accordingly referred to him. The -fires of the earth break forth from the open craters of volcanoes; it -must therefore be Hephæstus who is working in the midst of the fiery -mountain, where he has his forges and his smithies. So says the legend -of Mount Mosychlus, in Lemnos, the chief seat of his worship. Scarcely -less celebrated, from its connection with him, was Mount Ætna, in -Sicily. After it was observed that the wine was particularly good in the -neighbourhood of volcanic mountains, the story of the intimate -friendship between Hephæstus and Dionysus was concocted. - -The most beneficial action of fire is manifested in its power to melt -metals and render them useful to man in the shape of implements and -tools of all kinds. Hence the conception of the character of Hephæstus -tended ever more and more to represent him as the master of all -ingenious working in metals, and as the patron of artificers and -craftsmen using fire. In this character he was brought into close -connection with the art-loving goddess Athene, and hence we see why both -these divinities enjoyed so many kindred honours and had so many -festivals in common at Athens, the chief seat of Greek science and art. -It was also chiefly in the character of artificer that Hephæstus was -treated of by the poets, who delight to describe the gorgeous brazen -palace which he built himself on Olympus, in which was a huge workshop -with twenty cunningly-devised pairs of bellows. He also constructed -there the imperishable dwellings of the gods. Many also were the -ingenious implements which he constructed, such as the walking tables, -or tripods, which moved of their own accord into the banqueting-chamber -of the gods, and then returned to their places after the meal was over. -He also made himself two golden statues of maidens, to assist him in -walking, and bestowed on them speech and motion. Among the other works -of his mentioned by the poets are the ægis and sceptre of Zeus, the -trident of Poseidon, the shield of Heracles, and the armour of Achilles, -among which, also, was a shield of extraordinary beauty. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 21.—Hephæstus. Bronze Figure in the British Museum.] - -The worship of Hephæstus was not very extensive in Greece. The most -important seat of his worship was the isle of Lemnos, where he was -supposed to dwell on Mount Mosychlus with his workmen, the Cabiri, who -answer to the Cyclopes of Ætna. He was held in great esteem at Athens, -where, at different festivals, torch races were held in his honour. -Young men ran with burning torches, and whoever first reached the goal -with his torch alight received the prize. He was, moreover, highly -venerated by the Greeks in Campania and Sicily, a fact which may be -easily explained by the fiery mountains of these places. - -The Romans called this god Vulcanus, or, according to its more ancient -spelling, Volcanus. They honoured in him the blessings and beneficial -action of fire. They also sought his protection against conflagrations. -Under the influence of the Greek writers, the original and more common -conception of the god gave place to the popular image of the smith-god, -or Mulciber, who had his forges in Ætna, or on the Lipari Isles, and who -vied with his comrades in wielding the hammer. In correspondence with -the Greek myths, Venus was given him to wife; by this men doubtless -sought to convey the idea that truly artistic works can only be created -in harmony with beauty. - -The chief shrine of the god in Rome was the Volcanal, in the Comitium, -which was not really a temple, but merely a covered fire-place. In the -Campus Martius, however, was a real temple close to the Flaminian -Circus, where the festival of the Volcanalia was celebrated with every -kind of game on the 23rd day of August. - - Greek and Roman artists generally represented this god as a - powerful, bearded man of full age. He is distinguished by the - shortness of his left leg, by the sharp, shrewd glance of his - cunning eye, and his firm mouth. His attributes are the smith’s - tools, the pointed oval workman’s cap, and the short upper garment - of the craftsman or humble citizen. - - With the exception of some small bronzes in London and Berlin, and a - newly discovered marble bust of the Vatican collection, we possess - no antique statues of the god worth mentioning. The engraving (Fig. - 21) is from a bronze in the British Museum. - - -=10. Hestia (Vesta).=—It must have been at a comparatively late period -that Hestia, the daughter of Cronus and Rhea, attained a general -veneration, as her name is not mentioned either in the _Iliad_ or -_Odyssey_. Hestia is the guardian angel of mankind, who guards the -security of the dwelling, and is, in consequence, regarded as the -goddess of the family hearth, the centre of domestic life. The hearth -possessed among the ancients a far higher significance than it does in -modern life. It not only served for the preparation of meals, but was -also esteemed the sacred altar of the house; there the images of the -household gods were placed, and thither, after the old patriarchal -fashion, the father and priest of the family offered sacrifice on all -the important occasions of domestic life. No offering was made in which -Hestia, the very centre of all domestic life, had not her share. - -And as the state is composed of families, the goddess of the domestic -circle naturally becomes the protectress of every political community. -On this account, in Greek states the Prytaneum, or seat of the governing -body, was dedicated to Hestia; there she had an altar, on which a fire -was ever kept burning. From this altar colonists, who were about to -leave their native land in search of new homes, always took some fire—a -pleasing figurative indication of the moral ties between the colony and -the mother country. - -As the hearth-fire of the Prytaneum was an outward and visible sign to -the members of a state that they were one great family, so the Hestia of -the temple at Delphi signified to the Greeks their national connection -and the unity of their worship. Her altar in this temple was placed in -the hall before the cave of the oracle; on it was placed the celebrated -omphalus (navel of the earth, likewise an emblem of the goddess), Delphi -being regarded by the Greeks as the centre of the whole earth. Here, -too, a fire was kept ever burning in honour of Hestia. The character of -the goddess was as pure and untarnished as flame itself. Not only did -she herself remain a virgin, though wooed by both Poseidon and Apollo, -but her service could be performed only by chaste virgins. She does not -appear to have had a separate temple of her own in Greece, since she had -a place in every temple. - -The service of Vesta occupied a far more important place in the public -life of the Romans. Her most ancient temple, which was supposed to have -been built by Numa Pompilius, was situated on the slope of the Palatine -opposite the Forum. It was built in a circle, and was of moderate -dimensions, being, indeed, little more than a covered fire-place. In it -the eternal fire, a symbol of the life of the state, was kept burning. -Here, too, the service was performed by virgins, whose number was at -first four, but was afterwards increased to six. Their chief occupation -was to maintain the sacred fire, and to offer up daily prayers at the -altar of the goddess for the welfare of the Roman people. The extinction -of the sacred flame was esteemed an omen of coming misfortune, and -brought severe punishment on the negligent priestess. The choice of -vestals lay with the Pontifex Maximus. They were chosen between the ages -of six and ten years, always out of the best Roman families. For thirty -years they remained bound to their sacred office, during which time they -had to preserve the strictest chastity. After the lapse of thirty years -they returned to civil life, and were permitted to marry if they liked. - -Another sanctuary of Vesta existed in Lavinium, the metropolis of the -Latins, where the Roman consuls, after entering on their office, had to -perform a solemn sacrifice. The festival of Vesta was celebrated on the -9th of June, on which occasion the Roman women were wont to make a -pilgrimage barefooted to the temple of the goddess, and place before her -offerings of food. - -In the domestic life of the Romans the hearth and the hearth-goddess -Vesta occupied as important a position as among the Greeks. The worship -of Vesta is closely connected with that of the Penates, the kindly, -protecting, household gods, who provided for the daily wants of life, -and about whom we shall have more to say before concluding the subject -of the gods. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 22.—Vesta Giustiniani. Torlonia Collection.] - - Agreeably to the chaste, pure character of the goddess, she could - only be represented in art with an expression of the strictest moral - purity; she generally appears either sitting or standing, her - countenance characterised by a thoughtful gravity of expression. Her - principal attributes consist of the votive bowl, the torch, the - simpulum, or small cup, which was used in making libations, and the - sceptre. In consequence of the dignity and sanctity of her - character, she was always represented as fully clothed, which may - account for the fact that the ancients had so few statues of the - goddess. We may, therefore, consider it fortunate that such a - splendid example as the Vesta Giustiniani, which belongs to the - private collection of Prince Torlonia, at Rome, has come down to us. - It is supposed to be an original work of the best period of Greek - art. The goddess is represented as standing in a calm posture, her - right hand pressed against her side, whilst with the left she points - significantly towards heaven, as though wishing to impress on - mankind where to direct their prayers and thoughts (Fig. 22). - - -=11. Janus.=—Among the most important gods of the Romans was the -celebrated Janus, a deity quite unknown to the Greeks. In his original -character he was probably a god of the light and sun—the male -counterpart, in fact, of Jana, or Diana, and thus very similar to the -Greek Apollo. As long as he maintained this original character, derived -from nature, he was regarded as the god of all germs and first -beginnings, and possessed, in consequence, an important influence both -on the public and private life of the Romans. We must confine ourselves -to mentioning some of the most important traits resulting from this view -of his character. First, Janus is the god of all beginnings of time. He -begins the new year, whose first month was called January after him, and -was dedicated to him. Thus, New Year’s Day (_Kalendæ Januariæ_) was the -most important festival of the god; on this occasion the houses and -doors were adorned with garlands and laurel boughs, the laurel being -supposed to exercise a potent influence against all magic and diseases. -Relatives and friends exchanged small presents (principally sweets; for -example, dates and figs wrapped in laurel leaves) and good wishes for -the coming year. The god himself received offerings of cake, wine, and -incense, and his statue was adorned with fresh laurel boughs. This -offering was repeated on the first day of every month, for Janus opened -up every month; and as the Kalends were sacred to Juno, he was therefore -called Junonius. In the same way Janus was supposed to begin every new -day, and called _Matutinus Pater_. He also appears as the doorkeeper of -heaven, whose gates he opened in the morning and closed in the evening. - -From being the god of all temporal beginnings, he soon became the patron -and protector of all the beginnings of human activity. The Romans had a -most superstitious belief in the importance of a good commencement for -everything, concluding that this had a magical influence on the good or -evil result of every undertaking. Thus, neither in public nor private -life did they ever undertake anything of importance without first -confiding the beginning to the protection of Janus. Among the most -important events of political life was the departure of the youth of the -country to war. An offering was therefore made to the god by the -departing general, and the temple, or covered passage sacred to the god, -was left open during the continuance of the war, as a sign that the god -had departed with the troops and had them under his protection. The -consul never neglected, when he entered on his office, to ask the -blessing of Janus, and the assemblies never began their consultations -without invoking Janus. In the same way the private citizen, in all -important occurrences and undertakings, sought by prayers and vows to -acquire the favour of Janus. The husbandman, before he commenced either -to sow or to reap, brought to Janus Consivius an offering of cake and -wine. The merchant, when he entered on a journey of business, and the -sailor, when he weighed anchor and started on a long and dangerous -voyage, never omitted to invoke the blessing of the god. This view of -the god also explains the custom of calling on Janus first in every -prayer and at every sacrifice, since, as keeper of the gates of heaven, -he also appeared to give admittance to the prayers of men. - -As the god of all first beginnings, Janus is also the source of all -springs, rivers, and streams of the earth. On this account the fountain -nymphs were generally looked on as his wives, and Fontus and Tiberinus -as his sons. - -The power of Janus in causing springs to rise suddenly from the earth -was experienced, to their cost, by the Sabines. The latter, in -consequence of the rape of their women, had overrun the infant state of -Rome, and were about to introduce themselves into the town on the -Palatine through an open gate, when they suddenly found themselves -drenched by a hot sulphur spring that gushed violently from the earth, -and were obliged to retire. - -In the legend alluded to, Janus appears as the protector of the gates of -the city. As the god who presided over the fortunate entrance to and -exit from all houses, streets, and towns, Janus was held in high honour -among the people. His character as guardian of gates and doors brought -him into close connection with the Penates and other household gods; -hence the custom of erecting over the doors an image of the deity with -the well-known two faces, one of which looked out and the other in. - -Janus had no temple, in the proper sense of the word, at Rome. His -shrines consisted of gateways in common places of resort and at -cross-roads, or of arched passages, in which the image of the god was -erected. The Temple of Janus in the Forum at Rome, which has been -already alluded to, was a sanctuary of this kind closed with doors, and -was probably the most ancient in the city. Its doors stood open only in -time of war. - - Roman art never succeeded in executing a plastic representation - peculiar to Janus, the double head being only an imitation of the - Greek double Hermæ. In course of time entire figures of Janus - appeared, but these always had a double face. They were generally - bearded, but in later times one face was bearded, the other - youthful. Not one specimen of these works of art has been preserved, - so that we only know these forms from coins. The usual attributes of - Janus were keys and staff. - - -=12. Quirinus.=—Quirinus was also a purely Roman divinity, but having -been reckoned among the great deities of heaven, he must therefore be -mentioned here. In his symbolic meaning he bore a great resemblance to -Mars; and as Mars was the national god of the Latin population of Rome, -so Quirinus was the national god of the Sabines who came to Rome with -Titus Tatius. Together with Jupiter and Mars, he formed the tutelary -Trinity of the Roman empire. His shrine was on the Quirinal, which was -originally inhabited by the Sabines, and which was named after him. Numa -gave Quirinus a priest of his own. He had a special feast on the 17th of -February, but his worship appears to have assimilated itself more and -more to that of Mars. He was subsequently identified with Romulus. - - - B.—SECONDARY DEITIES. - - - _1. Attendant and Ministering Deities._ - - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.—Head of Eros. Vatican.] - -=1. Eros (Amor).=—Of the deities who appear in the train of Aphrodite, -Eros alone seems to have enjoyed divine honours; Longing and Desire -being no more than allegorical figures typifying some of the influences -that emanate from the goddess of love. Eros was commonly reputed the son -of Aphrodite and Ares, and was generally depicted as a boy of wondrous -beauty, on the verge of youth. His characteristic weapon is a golden -bow, with which he shoots forth his arrows from secret lurking-places, -with an unfailing effect that represents the sweet but consuming pangs -of love. Zeus himself is represented as unable to withstand his -influence—an intimation that love is one of the most terrible and mighty -forces of nature. - -As unrequited love is aimless, Anteros was conceived by the imagination -of the poets as the brother and companion of Eros, and consequently a -son of Aphrodite. As the little Eros, says the myth, would neither grow -nor thrive, his mother, by the advice of Themis, gave him this brother -as a playfellow; after which the boy was glad so long as his brother was -with him, but sad in his absence. - -Eros was not only venerated as the god who kindles love between the -sexes, but was also regarded as the author of love and friendship -between youths and men. On this account his statue was generally placed -in the gymnasia between those of Hermes and Heracles; and the Spartans -sacrificed to him before battle, binding themselves to hold together -faithfully in battle, and to stand by one another in the hour of need. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 24.—Eros trying his Bow. Capitoline Museum.] - -This deity was termed by the Romans Amor, or Cupido, but this was solely -in imitation of the Greek Eros, since he never enjoyed among them any -public veneration. - -The significant fable of the love of Cupid for Psyche, a personification -of the human soul, is of comparatively late origin, though it was a very -favourite subject in art. - - Artists followed the poets in the delineation of Eros, in so far as - they generally depicted him as a boy on the confines of youth. An - Eros by the renowned artist Praxiteles was esteemed one of the best - works of antiquity. It was brought to Rome by Nero, but was - destroyed by fire in the reign of Titus. In later times the god of - love was represented as much younger, because the mischievous pranks - attributed to him by the poets were more adapted to the age of - childhood. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.—Polyhymnia. Berlin Museum.] - - A considerable number of statues or statuettes of Eros have come - down to us from antiquity. Among the most celebrated is the Torso - (mutilated statue) of the Vatican, of the glorious head of which we - give an engraving (Fig. 23). There is also an “Eros trying his bow” - (Fig. 24) in the Capitoline Museum at Rome, and an “Eros playing - with dice” in the Berlin Museum. Lastly, there is the celebrated - group of the Capitoline Museum, which represents the embraces of - Cupid and Psyche. - - Eros generally appears with wings in the art monuments of antiquity. - His insignia are bow and arrows, in addition to a burning torch. The - rose was held especially sacred to him, for which reason he often - appears crowned with roses. - - In connection with Venus and in company with Amor we find Hymenæus, - a personification of the joys of marriage, who was, however, only - recognised by later writers and by later art. He is portrayed as a - beautiful youth, winged like Eros, but taller, and of a more serious - aspect. His indispensable attribute is the marriage torch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26—Melpomene. Vatican.] - - -=2. The Muses.=—Pindar gives the following account of the origin of the -Muses. After the defeat of the Titans, the celestials besought Zeus to -create some beings who might perpetuate in song the mighty deeds of the -gods. In answer to this prayer, Zeus begot with Mnemosyne (Memory) the -nine Muses. They sing of the present, the past, and the future, while -Apollo’s lute accompanies their sweet strains, which gladden the hearts -of the gods as they sit assembled in the lofty palace of Father Zeus, in -Olympus. Looked at in connection with nature, there is little doubt but -that the Muses were originally nymphs of the fountains. The veneration -of the Muses first arose in Pieria, a district on the eastern declivity -of Mount Olympus in Thessaly, from whose steep and rocky heights a -number of sweet rippling brooks descend to the plains. The perception of -this natural music led at once to a belief in the existence of such -song-loving goddesses. Their seat was subsequently transferred from the -declivities of Olympus to Mount Helicon in Bœotia, or to Mount -Parnassus, at the foot of which the Castalian fountain, which was sacred -to them, had its source. Originally the Muses were only goddesses of -song, though they are sometimes represented with instruments on vases. -In early times, too, they only appear as a chorus or company, but at a -later period separate functions were assigned to each, as presiding over -this or that branch of art. Their names were Clio, Melpomene, -Terpsichore, Polyhymnia, Thalia, Urania, Euterpe, Erato, and Calliope. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.—Euterpe. Vatican.] - - According to the art-distribution made, probably, at the time of the - Alexandrine school, Calliope represents epic poetry and science - generally, her attributes being a roll of parchment and a pen. Clio - is the muse of history, and is likewise characterised by a roll and - pen, so that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish her from - Calliope. Euterpe represents lyric poetry, and is distinguished by - her double flute. Melpomene, the muse of tragedy, generally appears - with a tragic mask, a club or sword, and a garland of vine leaves. - Terpsichore is the muse of dancing, and has a lyre and plectrum. To - Erato is assigned erotic poetry, together with geometry and the - mimic art; she generally bears a large stringed instrument. Thalia, - the muse of comedy, is distinguished by a comic mask, an ivy - garland, and a crook. Polyhymnia presides over the graver chant of - religious service; she may be recognised by her dress, wrapped - closely round her, and her grave, thoughtful countenance, but is - without attribute of any kind. Lastly, Urania, the muse of - astronomy, holds in one hand a celestial globe, and in the other a - small wand. - - Several European museums possess ancient groups of the Muses, among - which, perhaps, the finest is that preserved in the Vatican. From - this group are copied our engravings of Melpomene and Euterpe (Figs. - 26 and 27). The original of Polyhymnia (Fig. 25) is in the Berlin - Museum. - -The Romans venerated a number of fountain-nymphs of song and prophecy -under the name of Camenæ, among whom the Egeria of the history of Numa -is well known. The Roman writers seem to have identified these goddesses -with the Muses at pleasure. - - -=3. The Charites (Gratiæ).=—The Charites generally appear in the train -of the goddess of love, whom it was their duty to clothe and adorn. They -are often found, however, in attendance on other gods, since all that is -charming and graceful, either to the senses or the intellect, was -supposed to proceed from them. - -Their names are Aglaïa, Euphrosyne, and Thalia. They were commonly -represented as the daughters of Zeus and Eurynome, the Oceanid. Later -writers, however, make them the daughters of Dionysus and Aphrodite. -They were venerated as the source of all that makes human life more -beautiful and pleasant, without whom there could be no real enjoyment of -life. Thus, even the gods would not sit down to banquets without the -Charites; and whenever men came together to feast, they first called on -them and offered them the first bowl. Music, eloquence, art, and poetry -received the higher consecration only at their hands; whence Pindar -terms his songs a gift from them. Wisdom, bravery, kindly benevolence, -and gratitude—in fine, all those qualities which become men most, and -make them agreeable in the eyes of their fellow-men, were supposed to -proceed from the Charites. - -The Graces of the Romans were simply transferred from the mythology of -the Greeks, and have, therefore, the same meaning as the Charites. - - Art represented the Charites or Graces as blooming maidens, of - slender, comely form, characterised by an expression of joyous - innocence. In their hands they often hold flowers, either roses or - myrtles. They are less often distinguished by definite attributes - than by a mutual intertwining of arms. In earlier Greek art they - always appear fully clothed; but gradually their clothing became - less and less, until at length, in the age of Scopas and Praxiteles, - when nude figures had become common, it entirely disappeared. There - are, however, few ancient statues of the Charites in existence. - - -=4. Themis and the Horæ (Seasons).=—In intimate connection with the -Charites we find the Horæ, the daughters of Zeus and Themis. They were -generally represented as three in number—Eunomia, Dice, and Irene. They -represent the regular march of nature in the changes of the seasons, and -Themis, who personifies the eternal laws of nature, and as the daughter -of Uranus and Gæa ranks among the most ancient deities, is consequently -their mother. Themis is the representative of the reign of law among -gods and men; at Zeus’ command she calls together the assemblies of the -gods. She also occupies a similar position on earth, as presiding over -national assemblies and the laws of hospitality. Her daughters, the -Horæ, appear in a similar though in a subordinate and attendant -character. In Homer they figure as the servants of Zeus, who watch the -gates of heaven, now closing them with thick clouds, now clearing the -clouds away. They also appear as the servants and attendants of other -divinities, such as Hera, Aphrodite, Apollo, and the Muses. Like their -mother, they preside over all law and order in human affairs; and under -their protection thrives all that is noble and beautiful and good. - -We know but little concerning the worship of the Horæ among the Greeks. -The Athenians celebrated a special festival in their honour, but they -recognised only two—Thallo, the season of blossom, and Carpo, the season -of the ripened fruit. The adoption of four Horæ, corresponding to the -four seasons of the year, appears to have arisen at a later period. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.—The Horæ. Relief from the Villa Albani.] - - In plastic art Themis is generally represented with a balance in one - hand and a palm branch in the other. The Horæ generally appear as - lovely girls dancing with their garments tucked up, and adorned with - flowers, fruit, and garlands. Subsequently they were distinguished - by various attributes, typical of the different seasons. Such is the - case in the engraving (Fig. 28), after a relief in the Villa Albani. - - -=5. Nice (Victoria).=—Nice is nothing but a personification of the -irresistible and invincible power exercised by the god of heaven by -means of his lightning. She also appears in the company of Pallas -Athene, who was herself honoured by the Athenians as the goddess of -victory. Victory does not seem to have had many separate temples or -festivals, since she generally appears only in attendance on her -superior deities. - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.—Victoria. United Collections in Munich.] - -Far more extensive was the veneration of Victoria at Rome, a fact for -which the warlike character of the people easily accounts. Her chief -shrine was on the Capitol, where successful generals were wont to erect -statues of the goddess in remembrance of their exploits. The most -magnificent statue of this kind was one erected by Augustus in -fulfilment of a vow after his victory at Actium. The proper festival of -the goddess took place on the 12th of April. - - In both Greek and Roman art Victory was represented as a winged - goddess. She is distinguished by a palm branch and laurel garland, - which were the customary rewards of bravery among the ancients. - Large statues of the goddess are seldom met with, though she is - often depicted on vases, coins, and small bronzes. The museum of - Cassel has a small bronze statue of the goddess, whilst a fine - _alto-relievo_ in terra-cotta exists in the Royal Collection at - Munich (Fig. 29). - - -=6. Iris.=—Iris was originally a personification of the rainbow, but she -was afterwards converted into the swift messenger of the gods, the -rainbow being, as it were, a bridge between earth and heaven. In this -character she makes her appearance in Homer, but, later still, she was -again transformed into a special attendant of Hera. Her swiftness was -astounding; “Like hail or snow,” says Homer, “that falls from the -clouds,” she darts from one end of the world to the other—nay, dives to -the hidden depths of the ocean and into the recesses of the lower world, -executing the commands of the gods. - - In art Iris was represented with wings, like Nice, to whom she, in - many respects, bears a strong resemblance. She may be distinguished - from the latter, however, by her herald’s staff (Caduceus). A very - much injured specimen, from the east pediment of the Parthenon at - Athens, is now preserved in the British Museum. - - -=7. Hebe (Juventas).=—Hebe was the daughter of Zeus and Hera, and, -according to her natural interpretation, represented the youthful bloom -of Nature. In the fully developed mythology of the Greeks she appears as -the cupbearer of the gods, to whom, at meals, she presents the sweet -nectar. It may at first seem strange that the daughter of the greatest -of the divinities of Greece should be relegated to so inferior a -position. This, however, is easily explained by the old patriarchal -custom of the Greeks, by which the young unmarried daughters, even in -royal palaces, waited at table on the men of the family and the guests. - -In post-Homeric poetry and legend Hebe no longer appears as cupbearer of -the gods, the office having been assigned to Ganymedes. This was either -in consequence of the promotion of the son of the King of Troy, or on -account of Hebe’s marriage with the deified Heracles. - -Hebe occupies no important place in the religious system of the Greeks; -she seems to have been chiefly honoured in connection with her mother -Hera, or now and then with Heracles. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.—Hebe. From Antonio Canova.] - -Juventas, or Juventus, is the corresponding deity of the Romans; but, as -was the case with so many others, they contrived to bring her into a -more intimate connection with their political life by honouring in her -the undying and unfading vigour of the state. She had a separate chapel -in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. - - With regard to the artistic representation of Hebe, statues of this - goddess appear to have been very rare in ancient times; at least, - among all the numerous statues that have been discovered, none can - be safely identified with Hebe. She is the more often met with on - ornamental vases and reliefs, on which the marriage of Heracles and - Hebe is a favourite subject. She is usually depicted as a - highly-graceful, modest maiden, pouring out nectar from an upraised - vessel. She appears thus in the world-renowned masterpiece of the - Italian sculptor Canova, so well known from casts. In default of an - ancient statue, we give an engraving of this work (Fig. 30). - - -=8. Ganymedes.=—A similar office in Olympus was filled by the son of -Tros, the King of Troy, Ganymedes, who was made immortal by Zeus, and -installed as cupbearer of the gods. Neither Homer nor Pindar, however, -relate the episode of Zeus sending his eagle to carry off Ganymedes. -This feature of the story, which is a favourite subject of artistic -representation, is first found in Apollodorus. The Roman poet, Ovid, -then went a step farther, and made the ruler of Olympus transform -himself into an eagle, in order to carry off his favourite. - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.—Ganymedes and the Eagle. From Thorwaldsen.] - - The rape of the beautiful boy is often portrayed in ancient art. The - most famous monument is a bronze group of Leochares, an artist who - flourished in the fourth century B.C. A copy of it still exists in - the celebrated statue of Ganymedes in the Vatican collection. In - modern art the story has been treated with still greater frequency. - There is an extremely beautiful group of this kind by Thorwaldsen, - in which Ganymedes is represented as giving the eagle drink out of a - bowl (Fig. 31). - - - _2. The Phenomena of the Heavens._ - - -=1. Helios (Sol).=—Helios (Latin _Sol_), the sun-god, belongs to that -small class of deities who have preserved their physical meaning intact. -His worship was confined to a few places, the most important of which -was the island of Rhodes. An annual festival, attended with musical and -athletic contests, was here celebrated with great pomp in honour of the -sun-god. He is portrayed by the poets as a handsome youth with flashing -eyes and shining hair covered with a golden helmet. His daily office was -to bring the light of day to gods and men, which he performed by rising -from Oceanus in the east, where the Ethiopians live, and completing his -course along the firmament. For this purpose the post-Homeric poets -endow him with a sun-chariot drawn by four fiery horses; and though -Homer and Hesiod do not attempt to explain how he passed from the west -where he sets, to the east where he rises, later poets obviate the -difficulty by making him sail round half the world in a golden boat -(according to others a golden bed); and thus he was supposed again to -arrive at the east. In the far west Helios had a splendid palace, and -also a celebrated garden, which was under the charge of the Hesperides. -He is described as the son of the Titans Hyperion and Thea, whence he -himself is called a Titan. By his wife Perse, a daughter of Oceanus, he -became the father of Æëtes, King of Colchis, celebrated in the legend of -the Argonauts, and of the still more celebrated sorceress Circe. Another -son of Helios was Phaëthon, who, in attempting to drive his father’s -horses, came to an untimely end. - -Helios sees and hears every thing; whence he was believed to bring -hidden crimes to light, and was invoked as a witness at all solemn -declarations and oaths. - -All the stories relating to Helios were gradually transferred to the -Roman Sol, who was originally a Sabine deity, chiefly by means of the -Metamorphoses of Ovid. The untiring charioteer of the heavens was also -honoured as the patron of the race-course; but he never attained a -prominent position in religious worship. - - Helios, or Sol, is depicted as a handsome youth, his head encircled - by a crown, which gives forth twelve bright rays corresponding to - the number of the months, his mantle flying about his shoulders as - he stands in his chariot. It was chiefly in Rhodes, however, that - Helios was made the subject of the sculptor’s art. Here, in 280 - B.C., was erected in his honour the celebrated colossal statue which - has acquired a world-wide celebrity under the name of the Colossus - of Rhodes, and which was reckoned as one of the seven “wonders of - the world.” It was the work of Chares of Lindus, and was 105 feet in - height. - - -=2. Selene (Luna).=—As Artemis is the twin sister of Apollo, so is -Selene the twin sister of Helios; he representing the sun, she the moon. -Selene, however, never really enjoyed divine honours in Greece. The -poets depict her as a white-armed goddess, whose beautiful tresses are -crowned with a brilliant diadem. In the evening she rises from the -sacred river of Oceanus, and pursues her course along the firmament of -heaven in her chariot drawn by two white horses. She is gentle and -timid, and it is only in secret that she loves beautiful youths and -kisses them in sleep. Poets delight to sing of the secret love she -cherished for the beautiful Endymion, the son of the King of Elis. She -caused him to fall into an eternal sleep, and he now reposes in a rocky -grotto on Mount Latmus, where Selene nightly visits him, and gazes with -rapture on his countenance. - -In later times she was often confounded with Artemis, Hecate, and -Persephone. The same remarks apply to the Roman Luna. The latter, -however, had a temple of her own on the Aventine, which was supposed to -have been dedicated to her by Servius Tullius. Like her brother Sol, she -was honoured in Rome in connection with the circus, and was held to -preside over the public games. - - In sculpture, Selene, or Luna, may be recognised by the half moon on - her forehead, and by the veil over the back of her head; she also - bears in her hand a torch. The sleeping Endymion was a frequent - subject of representation on sarcophagi and monuments. - - -=3. Eos (Aurora).=—Eos, the goddess of the dawn, was also a daughter of -Hyperion and Thea, and a sister of Selene and Helios. She was first -married to the Titan Astræus, by whom she became the mother of the -winds—Boreas, Zephyrus, Eurus, and Notus (north, west, east, and south -winds). This is a mythological mode of intimating the fact that the wind -generally rises at dawn. After Astræus, who, like most of the Titans, -had rebelled against the sovereignty of Zeus, and had been cast into -Tartarus, Eos chose the handsome hunter Orion for her husband. The gods, -however, would not consent to their union, and Orion was slain by the -arrows of Artemis, after which Eos married Tithonus, the son of the King -of Troy. She begged Zeus to bestow on him immortality, but, having -forgotten to ask for eternal youth, the gift was of doubtful value, -since Tithonus at last became a shrivelled-up, decrepid old man, in whom -the goddess took no pleasure. - -Memnon, King of Æthiopia, celebrated in the story of the Trojan war, was -a son of Eos and Tithonus. He came to the assistance of Troy, and was -slain by Achilles. Since then, Eos has wept without ceasing for her -darling son, and her tears fall to the earth in the shape of dew. - -Eos is represented by the poets as a glorious goddess, with beautiful -hair, rosy arms and fingers—a true picture of the invigorating freshness -of the early morning. Cheerful and active, she rises early from her -couch, and, enveloped in a saffron-coloured mantle, she harnesses her -horses Lampus and Phaëthon (Brightness and Lustre), in order that she -may hasten on in front of the sun-god and announce the day. - -The views and fables connected with Eos were transferred by the Roman -writers to the person of their goddess Aurora[4] without undergoing any -alteration. - -Footnote 4: - - The Mater Matuta of the Romans was a deity very similar to the Eos of - the Greeks. She was the goddess of the early dawn, and was held in - high estimation among the Roman women as a deity who assisted them in - childbirth. Like the Greek Leucothea, she was also regarded as a - goddess of the sea and harbours, who assisted those in peril. - - Representations of this goddess are found now and then on vases and - gems. She either appears driving a chariot and four horses, as - harnessing the steeds of Helios, or as gliding through the air on - wings and sprinkling the earth with her dew. - - -=4. The Stars.=—Only a few of the stars are of any importance in -mythology. Phosphorus and Hesperus, the morning star and the evening -star, which were formerly regarded as two distinct beings, were -represented in art in the guise of beautiful boys with torches in their -hands. There were also several legends relating to Orion, whom we have -already alluded to as the husband of Eos. He himself was made a -constellation after having been slain by the arrows of Artemis, while -his dog was Sirius, whose rising announces the hottest season of the -year. All kinds of myths were invented about other constellations; among -others, the Hyades, whose rising betokened the advent of the stormy, -rainy season, during which the sailor avoids going to sea. The story -went that they were placed among the constellations by the gods out of -pity, because they were inconsolable at the death of their brother Hyas, -who was killed by a lion whilst hunting. Connected with them are the -Pleiades, _i.e._, the stars of mariners, so called because on their -rising in May the favourable season for voyages begins. They were seven -in number, and were likewise set in the heavens by the gods. Finally, we -must not forget to mention Arctus, the Bear. Tradition asserted that -this was none other than the Arcadian nymph Callisto, who had been -placed among the constellations by Zeus when slain in the form of a -she-bear by Artemis. She had broken her vows of chastity, and borne a -son, Arcas, to Zeus. - - -=5. The Winds.=—The four chief winds have been already alluded to as the -sons of Eos. They were especially venerated by those about to make -voyages, who then solicited their favour with prayers and offerings. -Otherwise, they maintained their character of pure natural forces, and -were, consequently, of little importance in mythology. The rude north -wind, Boreas, or Aquilo, was especially dreaded on account of his stormy -violence, and was hence regarded as a bold ravisher of maidens. Thus an -Attic legend asserts that he carried off Orithyia, the daughter of -Erechtheus, as she was playing on the banks of the Ilissus. She bore him -Calaïs and Zetes, well known in the story of the Argonauts. Boreas, -however, stood in high favour among the Athenians, who erected an altar -and chapel to him, because, during the Persian war, he had partially -destroyed the fleet of Xerxes off Cape Sepias. - -As Boreas is the god of the winter storm, so Zephyrus appears as the -welcome messenger of Spring; on which account one of the Horæ was given -him to wife. Zephyrus was called Favonius by the Romans, to intimate the -favourable influence he exercised on the prosperous growth of the -vegetable world. - -These, together with the other chief winds, Notus (south wind) and Eurus -(east wind) were sometimes said to reside in separate places; at other -times they were said to dwell together in the Wind-mountain, on the -fabulous island of Æolia, where they were ruled over by King Æolus. - - - _3. Gods of Birth and Healing._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.—Asclepius. Berlin.] - - -=1. Asclepius (Æsculapius).=—It was only in later times that the -necessity of having special gods of birth and healing made itself felt; -at all events, Asclepius, or Æsculapius, as he is called by the Romans, -does not appear as a god in Homer. The worship of this deity, who was -said to be the son of Apollo, appears to have originated in Epidaurus, -the seat of his principal shrine, and thence to have become generally -diffused. In Epidaurus his priests erected a large hospital, which -enjoyed a great reputation. The common method of cure consisted in -allowing those who were sick to sleep in the temple, on which occasion, -if they had been zealous in their prayers and offerings, the god -appeared to them in a dream and discovered the necessary remedy. - -The worship of this deity was introduced into Rome in the year 291 B.C., -in consequence of a severe pestilence which for years had depopulated -town and country. The Sibylline books were consulted, and they -recommended that Asclepius of Epidaurus should be brought to Rome. The -story goes that the sacred serpent of the god followed the Roman -ambassadors of its own accord, and chose for its abode the Insula -Tiberina at Rome, where a temple was at once erected to Æsculapius. A -gilded statue was added to the temple in the year 13 B.C. The method -already mentioned of sleeping in the temple was also adopted here. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 33.—Head of Asclepius. British Museum.] - - In art, Asclepius is represented as a bearded man of ripe years, - with singularly noble features, from which the kindly benevolence of - a benefactor of mankind looks forth. He is generally accompanied by - a serpent, as a symbol of self-renovating vital power, which he is - feeding and caressing, or which is more commonly represented as - creeping up his staff. Such is the conception in the engraving (Fig. - 32), which is after a statue preserved at Berlin. As the god of - healing, he has also other attributes—a bowl containing the healing - draught, a bunch of herbs, a pine-apple, or a dog; the latter being - a symbol of the vigilance with which the physician watches disease. - - There are numerous extant statues of the god, although the great - statue in gold and ivory of the temple at Epidaurus has been - entirely lost. A fine head of colossal proportions was discovered on - the Isle of Melos, and is now an ornament of the British Museum - (Fig. 33). There is, on the other hand, a very fine statue without a - head in existence at Athens, near the temple of Zeus. There are, - moreover, celebrated statues in Florence, Paris, and Rome (Vatican); - in the last case, of a beardless Æsculapius. - - -=2. Inferior Deities of Birth and Healing.=—The Greeks also honoured -Ilithyia as a goddess of birth. This appears to have been originally a -surname of Hera, as a deity who succoured women in childbirth. Hygiea -was looked on as a goddess of health, and was described as a daughter of -Asclepius. - -The Romans had no need of a special goddess presiding over birth, -although they honoured a deity often identified with Hygiea, whom they -called Strenia, or Salus. As guardian of the chamber of birth, they -honoured Carna, or Cardea, who was supposed to drive away the evil -Striges (screech owls) that came at night to suck the blood of the -new-born child. Carna was further regarded as the protectress of -physical health. Another of these inferior deities, of whom men sought -long life and continued health, bore the name of Anna Perenna (the -circling year). - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.—Night and the Fates. From Carstens.] - - - _4. Deities of Fate._ - - -=1. Mœræ (Parcæ).=—The Mœræ, better known by the Latin name of Parcæ, -really denote that portion of a man’s life and fortune which is -determined from his birth; so that, in this sense, there are as many -Mœræ as individuals. The Greeks, however, who were wont to revere all -such indefinite numbers under the sacred number three, generally -recognised three. These they regarded as the dark and inexplicable -powers of fate, daughters of the night. Their names were Clotho -(spinner), Lachesis (allotter), and Atropos (inevitable). - -Only two Parcæ were originally known to the Romans, but a third was -afterwards added to make their own mythology harmonise with that of the -Greeks. - - The popular conception of the Parcæ as grave hoary women was not - followed in art, where they always appear as young. In the first - instance, their attributes were all alike, separate functions not - yet having been allotted to them. But at a subsequent period it was - Clotho who spun, Lachesis who held, and Atropos who cut the thread - of life. This arrangement was first adopted by later artists, who - generally give Clotho a spindle, Lachesis a roll of parchment, and - Atropos a balance, or let the last point to the hour of death on a - dial. Such is the case in a talented creation of Carstens, in which - the conception of modern times is brought into harmony with the - ideal of antiquity (Fig. 34). - - -=2. Nemesis, Tyche (Fortuna), and Agathodæmon (Bonus Eventus).=—Nemesis -really denotes the apportionment of that fate which is justly deserved, -and a consequent repugnance to that which is not. Homer does not -acknowledge Nemesis as a goddess, and so it is probable that her claim -to public veneration dates from a later period. She was regarded as a -goddess of equality, who watches over the equilibrium of the moral -universe, and sees that happiness and misfortune are allotted to man -according to merit. Hence arose, subsequently, the idea of an avenging -deity, who visits with condign punishment the crimes and wickedness of -mankind. In this character she resembles the Furies. The Romans likewise -introduced Nemesis into their system; at least her statue stood on the -Capitol, though popular superstition never regarded her with a friendly -eye. - - The various conceptions of Nemesis are again displayed in works of - art. The kindly, gentle goddess, who dispenses what is just, is - depicted as a young woman of grave and thoughtful aspect, holding in - her hand the instruments of measurement and control (cubit, bridle, - and rudder). As the stern avenger of human crimes, she appears with - wings in a chariot drawn by griffins, with a sword or whip in her - hand. - -Tyche, the goddess of good fortune, was, according to common accounts, -the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys. She was usually honoured as the -tutelary deity of towns, and as such had temples and statues in many -populous cities of Greece and Asia. In course of time, however, the idea -gained ground that Tyche was the author of evil as well as of good -fortune. She resembled, in this respect, the Fortuna of the Romans, who -was regarded as the source of all that is unexpected in human life. -Servius Tullius was said to have introduced into Rome the worship of -Fortuna, whose favourite he had certainly every reason to regard -himself. He erected a temple to her under the name of Fors Fortuna, and -made the 24th of June the common festival of the goddess. Later, her -worship became still more extensive. Under the most different surnames, -some of which referred to the state (_Fortuna populi Romani_), and -others to every description of private affairs, she had a great number -of temples and chapels erected in her honour. She had also celebrated -temples in Antium and Præneste. - - Ancient artists endowed this goddess with various attributes, the - most important of which was the rudder, which she held in her hand - in token of her power to control the fortunes of mankind. She is - also endowed with a sceptre for the same purpose, and with a horn of - plenty as the giver of good fortune; sometimes she is also - represented with the youthful Plutus in her arms. The later - conception of an impartial goddess of fate is apparent in those - art-monuments which depict her standing on a ball or wheel. Among - the larger existing works, we may mention a copy preserved in the - Vatican of a Tyche by Eutychides of Sicyon, which was formerly - exhibited in Antioch. The goddess here wears a mural crown on her - head as the tutelary deity of towns, and has a sheaf of corn in her - right hand. - -Besides Fortuna, the Romans honoured a deity called Felicitas as the -goddess of positive good fortune. Lucullus is said to have erected a -temple to her in Rome, which was adorned with the works of art brought -by Mummius from the spoils of Corinth. Even this did not suffice for the -religious needs of the people, and we find that the belief in personal -protecting deities grew rapidly among both Greeks and Romans. These -deities were termed by the Greeks “dæmones,” and by the Romans “genii.” -They were believed to be the invisible counsellors of every individual, -accompanying him from birth to death, through all the stages of life, -with advice and comfort. Offerings of wine, cake, incense, and garlands -were made to them, particularly on birthdays. - - - II.—THE GODS OF THE SEA AND WATERS. - - -=1. Poseidon (Neptunus).=—Poseidon, or Neptunus, as he was called by the -Romans, was the son of Cronus and Rhea. Homer calls him the younger -brother of Zeus, in which case his subjection to the latter is only -natural. According to the common account, however, Zeus was the youngest -of the sons of Cronus, but acquired the sovereignty over his brothers by -having overthrown their cruel father. Poseidon was accordingly indebted -to his brother for his dominion over the sea and its deities, and was -therefore subject to him. He usually dwelt, not in Olympus, but at the -bottom of the sea. Here he was supposed to inhabit, with Amphitrite his -wife, a magnificent golden palace in the neighbourhood of Ægæ. -Originally, like Oceanus and Pontus, he was a mere symbol of the watery -element, but he afterwards attained an entirely independent personality. -Even in Homer he no longer appears as the sea itself, but as its mighty -ruler, who with his powerful arms upholds and circumscribes the earth. -He is violent and impetuous, like the element he represents. When he -strikes the sea with his trident, the symbol of his sovereignty, the -waves rise with violence, dash in pieces the ships, and inundate the -land far and wide. Poseidon likewise possesses the power of producing -earthquakes, cleaving rocks, and raising islands in the midst of the -sea. On the other hand, a word or look from him suffices to allay the -wildest tempest. Virgil, in the first book of the _Æneid_, has given a -beautiful description of the taming of the fierce elements by the god. - -Poseidon was naturally regarded as the chief god of all the seafaring -classes, such as fishermen, boatmen, and sailors, who esteemed him as -their patron and tutelary deity. To him they addressed their prayers -before entering on a voyage, to him they brought their offerings in -gratitude for their safe return from the perils of the deep. - -Poseidon, therefore, enjoyed the highest reputation among the seafaring -Ionians. His temples, altars, and statues were most numerous in the -harbours and seaport towns, and on islands and promontories. Among the -numerous shrines of this deity we may mention that of Corinth, in the -neighbourhood of which were celebrated in his honour the Isthmian games, -which subsequently became a national festival in Greece, Pylus, Athens, -and the islands of Rhodes, Cos, and Tenos. - -It was only natural that many legends, local and provincial, should -exist about a god who played such an important part in the lives of -seafaring folk. In the Trojan epos he figures as a violent enemy of -Troy, his indignation having been provoked by the injustice of the -Trojan king, Laomedon. Poseidon had built the walls of Troy at the -king’s request with the aid of Apollo, but Laomedon having cheated him -in the matter of the stipulated reward, Poseidon thereupon sent a -terrible sea-monster, which laid waste the crops and slew the -inhabitants. They had recourse to the oracle, which counselled the -sacrifice of the king’s daughter Hesione. The unhappy maiden was exposed -to the monster, but was rescued by Heracles. The fable of this monster, -which is manifestly a symbol of the inundation of the sea, is repeated -in many succeeding stories (_e.g._, in the story of Perseus, who rescued -in a similar way Andromeda, the daughter of the king of Æthiopia). There -are numberless stories, in which Poseidon appears as the father of the -different national heroes. The most important is, perhaps, the legend of -Theseus, of which we shall speak later on. There was scarcely a Grecian -town or district which did not lay claim to divine origin for the person -of its founder or ancestral hero. Again, the conception of the wild -stormy nature of the sea caused Poseidon to be represented as the father -of various giants and monsters. By the nymph Thoösa he became the father -of the savage Polyphemus, slain by Odysseus, who thus provoked the -implacable enmity of Poseidon. The giant Antæus, who fought with -Heracles, was also said to be a son of Poseidon; besides many other -monsters, such as Procrustes, Cercyon, and the Aloïdæ. - -The favourite animal of Poseidon was the horse, which he was supposed to -have created. This may, perhaps, be due to the fact that the imagination -of the Greeks pictured to itself the horses of Poseidon in the rolling -and bounding waves. In Athens the origin of the horse was referred to -the contest between Athene and Poseidon, as to who should make the land -the most useful present. In Corinthian legend Poseidon appears as the -father of the winged horse Pegasus by Medusa. This story is connected -with the taming of the horse, which was ascribed to Poseidon. On account -of his intimate connection with the horse, Poseidon was especially -regarded as the patron of the games, and had, in consequence, an altar -of his own on all race-courses. The competitors, before the races, -solicited his favour with prayers and sacrifices. - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.—Poseidon. Dolce Gem.] - -The dolphin and the pine-tree were held sacred to Poseidon, the latter -probably because it was so extensively used in shipbuilding. Black -steers, horses, rams, and wild boars were sacrificed to him. - -The Romans not being a seafaring people, Neptune never stood in such -high estimation among them as among the Greeks. In Rome his prominent -characteristic was his connection with the horse and the race-course. -These were placed under his special protection, for which reason the -only temple he had in Rome stood in the Circus Flaminius. - - The representation of Poseidon, or Neptune, in art harmonises - tolerably well with the descriptions of the poets. He is accordingly - represented as similar to his brother Zeus in size and figure, with - broad deep chest, dark wavy hair, and piercing eyes. - - Artists intimated the greater violence of his nature by giving him - more angularity of face, and a more bristling and disordered head of - hair than Zeus. The expression of his countenance is more grave and - severe, and the kindly smile that plays around the mouth of Zeus is - altogether wanting. - - Ancient statues of Poseidon are comparatively rare. The Vatican - Museum possesses a fine bust, and also a marble statue of the god. - He is generally distinguished by the trident in his right hand; - sometimes in its place we find a tiller. A band similar to a diadem - denotes his dominion over the sea. Our engraving of the god is after - a beautiful gem of the Dolce collection (Fig. 35). - - -=2. Amphitrite.=—After Poseidon had attained an almost exclusive -veneration as god of the sea, Amphitrite, one of the Nereids, was given -him to wife. According to the usual account, he carried her away from -Naxos. Others say that she fled to Atlas to avoid the rude wooing of the -god, but Poseidon’s dolphin found her and fetched her back. She had -three children by Poseidon—Triton, Rhode, and Benthesicyme. - - In plastic art, Amphitrite is generally depicted as a slim and - beautiful young woman, either nude or half clothed, riding in the - chariot of Poseidon at his side, or by herself. On gems she also - appears enthroned on the back of a mighty Triton, or riding a - seahorse or dolphin. Her hair generally falls loosely about her - shoulders. She is distinguished by the royal insignia of the diadem - and sceptre, at times she also wields the trident of her husband. - -The worship of Amphitrite was entirely unknown to the Romans, who -recognised the sea-goddess Salacia as the wife of Neptune. - - -=3. Triton and the Tritons.=—Triton was the only son of Poseidon and -Amphitrite; he never appears, however, to have enjoyed divine honours. -This perhaps explains how it came to pass that he was subsequently -degraded to the level of a fabulous sea-monster. The poet Apollonius -Rhodius describes him as having a body, the upper parts of which were -those of a man, while the lower parts were those of a dolphin. Such too -is his appearance in works of art. Poets and artists soon revelled in -the conception of a whole race of similar Tritons, who were regarded as -a wanton, mischievous tribe, like the Satyrs on land. - - The Tritons, as sea-deities of fantastic form, are of little - importance in higher art, though they were all the more frequently - employed in fountains and water-works. The fore-legs of a horse were - sometimes added to the human body and dolphin’s tail, thus giving - rise to the figure termed the Ichthyocentaur. - - -=4. Pontus and his Descendants.=—We have already spoken of Pontus and -his race in our account of the Theogony. Here we can only mention those -of his children who either enjoyed divine honours, or are of importance -in art. The eldest among them was Nereus. - -_1. Nereus and his Daughters._—Nereus presents to us the calm and -pleasant side of the sea. He appears as a kindly, benevolent old man, -the good spirit of the Ægean sea, where he dwells with his fifty lovely -daughters, the Nereids, ever ready to assist the storm-beaten sailor in -the hour of need. Like all water-spirits, Nereus possessed the gift of -prophecy, though he did not always choose to make use of it. Heracles -sought him on his way to the garden of the Hesperides, in order to learn -how he might get possession of the golden apples. In spite of his urgent -entreaties, Nereus endeavoured to elude him by assuming every kind of -shape, though he was at length vanquished by the persistence of the -hero, who would not let him go until he had obtained the necessary -information. - -By his wife Doris, the daughter of Oceanus, he became the father of -fifty, or, according to some, of a hundred daughters, who were all -venerated as kindly, beneficent sea-nymphs. They are a charming, lovely -tribe, who win the hearts of the sailors—now by their merry sports and -dances, now by their timely assistance in the hour of danger. This -joyous band generally forms the train of Poseidon and Amphitrite. -Besides Amphitrite, the chosen bride of Poseidon, we find among them -Thetis, the beautiful mother of Achilles, so celebrated in ancient -poetry, who usually figures as their leader. Her beauty and grace were -so great that Zeus himself became her lover. He surrendered her, -however, to Peleus, son of Æacus, because an oracle had declared that -the son of Thetis should become greater than his father. - - In art Nereus generally appears as an old man with thin grey locks. - He is commonly distinguished by a sceptre, or even a trident. The - Nereids were depicted as graceful maidens, in earlier times slightly - clothed, but later entirely nude, riding on dolphins, Tritons, or - other fabulous monsters of the deep. - -_2. Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto._—Whilst Nereus and his daughters represent -the sea in its peaceful aspect, Thaumas, the second son of Pontus, -represents it as the world of wonders. By Electra, a daughter of -Oceanus, he became the father of Iris, the messenger of the gods, and -also of the Harpies. The latter personify the storm-winds. Originally -fair maidens, they were afterwards represented as winged creatures, half -man and half bird; they had the faces of maidens, but their bodies were -covered with vultures’ feathers; they were pale and emaciated in -appearance, and were continually tormented with an insatiable hunger. -They are best known from the story of the Argonauts, where they appear -as the tormentor of the blind king Phineus, whose table they continually -robbed of its viands, which they either devoured or spoiled. They were -regarded by the ancients as the ministers of sudden death, and were said -to be either two or three in number. Phorcys and Ceto, the brother and -sister of Thaumas, present to us the sea under its terrible aspect. This -pair, from whose union sprang the Gorgons, the Grææ, and the dragon of -the Hesperides, typify all the terrors and dangers of the deep. We shall -have more to say concerning the Gorgons and Grææ in the story of -Perseus. - - -=5. Proteus.=—Proteus is a deity of inferior rank. He is represented as -an old man (the servant of Poseidon) endowed with the gift of prophecy. -He plays the same part in the story of Troy as Nereus does in that of -Heracles. His usual abode was the island of Pharos. It was thither that -Menelaus turned after he had been driven to the coast of Egypt, on his -return from Troy, to seek the advice of the “unerring old man of the -sea.” But Proteus, being in no amiable mood, sought to elude the -importunity of the hero by converting himself into a lion, a dragon, a -panther, a wild boar, and many other forms. At length, however, he was -vanquished by the persistence of Menelaus, and vouchsafed an answer. He -was supposed to be the keeper of the fish who inhabit the depths of the -sea, and of the other marine animals. - - In works of art he generally appears like a Triton, i.e., with body - ending in a fish’s tail. He is usually distinguished by a crook. - - -=6. Glaucus.=—Among the inferior sea-deities, Glaucus deserves mention -as playing a part in the story of the Argonauts. He was really only a -local god of the Anthedonians in Bœotia, and his worship was not -extended to other places in Greece. But though he had no splendid -temples, he stood in very high estimation among the lower classes of -sailors and fishermen; indeed we find universally that the common -people, in all their cares, turned rather to the inferior deities, whom -they supposed to stand closer to them, than to the higher and more -important gods. According to the story, Glaucus was originally a -fisherman of Anthedon, who attained in a wonderful manner the rank of a -god. One day, after having caught some fish, he laid them half dead on -the turf close by. He was astonished to see, however, that on coming in -contact with a certain herb, which was unknown to him, they were -restored to life and sprang back into the sea. He himself now ate of -this wonderful herb, and immediately felt himself penetrated by so -wondrous a sensation of bliss and animation that, in his excitement, he -too sprang into the sea. Oceanus and Thetis hereupon cleansed him from -all his human impurities, and gave him a place among the sea-gods. He -was venerated on many of the islands and coasts of Greece as a friendly -deity, ever ready to assist the shipwrecked sailor or the castaway. - - In art he is represented as a Triton, rough and shaggy in - appearance, his body covered with mussels or sea-weed. His hair and - beard show that luxuriance which characterises sea-gods. - - -=7. Ino Leucothea, and Melicertes.=—Like Glaucus, Ino, the daughter of -Cadmus, attained at once immortality and divine rank by a leap into the -sea. She was a sister of Semele, the mother of Dionysus, and the wife of -Athamas, king of Orchomenus. It was she who, after the unhappy death of -Semele, took charge of the infant Dionysus. Hera, however, avenged -herself by driving Athamas mad, whereupon he dashed Learchus, his eldest -son by Ino, against a rock. He was about to inflict the same fate on -Melicertes, his second son, when in frantic haste the unhappy mother -sought to save her child by flight. Athamas, however, pursued her as far -as the Isthmus, when Ino, seeing no hope of escape, cast herself from -the rock Moluris into the sea. Here she was kindly received by the -Nereids, who converted both her and her son into sea-deities. She -henceforth bore the name of Leucothea, and her son that of Palæmon. They -were both regarded as benevolent deities of the stormy sea, who came to -the assistance of those who were shipwrecked or in other peril. They -appear in this guise in the _Odyssey_, where Odysseus, who saw only -certain death before him, is represented as having been saved by a scarf -thrown to him by Leucothea. - - -=8. The Sirens.=—The Sirens must also be reckoned among the sea-deities. -They are best known from the story how Odysseus succeeded in passing -them with his companions without being seduced by their song. He had the -prudence to stop the ears of his companions with wax, and to have -himself bound to the mast. The Sirens were regarded as the daughters -either of the river-god Achelous by one of the nymphs, or of Phorcys and -Ceto. Only two Sirens are mentioned in Homer, but three or four were -recognised in later times and introduced into various legends, such as -that of the Argonauts, or the Sicilian story of the rape of Persephone. -Demeter is said to have changed their bodies into those of birds, -because they refused to go to the help of their companion, Persephone, -when she was carried off by the god of the lower world. - - In art they are represented, like the Harpies, as young women with - the wings and feet of birds. Sometimes they appear altogether like - birds, only with human faces; at other times with the arms and - bodies of women, in which case they generally hold instruments of - music in their hands. As their songs were death to those who were - seduced by them, they are often depicted on tombs as spirits of - death. - - -=9. The Race of Oceanus.=—Lastly, we must enumerate among the -water-deities the numerous descendants of Oceanus, viz., the Oceanids, -and also the rivers that are spread over the earth. The latter were -believed to have their common source in the ocean encircling the earth, -and thence to flow beneath the ground until they reached the surface in -springs. - -Oceanus himself appears in the myths which treat of the genealogy of the -gods as the eldest son of Uranus and Gæa, and therefore, like his wife -Tethys, a Titan. As he did not take part in the rebellion of the other -Titans against the dominion of Zeus, he did not share their dreadful -fate, but was allowed to remain in undisturbed enjoyment of his ancient -domain. He was supposed to dwell on the most western shores of the -earth, which he never left even to attend the assemblies of the gods. - -On account of their great importance to the fertility of the soil, the -river-gods enjoyed a great reputation among the Greeks, although their -worship was entirely of a local nature. Only Achelous, the greatest of -all the Greek rivers, appears to have enjoyed general veneration. The -river-gods were believed to dwell either in the depths of the rivers -themselves, or in rocky grottoes near their sources. They were depicted -either as delicate youths, or as men in their prime, or as old men, -according to the magnitude of the river. They all possess a conformity -with the nature of their element, viz., that power of transformation -which we discover in the other sea-deities. They also appear, like other -water-spirits, to possess the gift of prophecy. - -Among the Romans all flowing waters were held sacred. Fontus, the son of -Janus, was especially esteemed as the god of springs and fountains in -general; but, as among the Greeks, each river had its special deity. The -most important of these was Tiberinus. The springs were popularly -supposed to be inhabited by nymphs gifted with the powers of prophecy -and magic, who sometimes honoured mortals with their favours, as Egeria -did King Numa. - - In art the river-gods were commonly represented in the guise of - those animals whose forms they were most in the habit of assuming. - They thus appear as serpents, bulls, or even as men with bulls’ - heads. They were also portrayed, however, in purely human guise, - with the exception of having small horns on either side of the head. - Their attributes consist of urns and horns of plenty, symbols of the - blessings that proceed from them. - - - III.—THE GODS OF THE EARTH AND LOWER WORLD. - -We now come to a class of deities who stand in the most decided contrast -to the gods of the heaven and the sea, whom we have previously -described. It consists of those deities whose power is incessantly -exerted either on the surface or in the depths of the earth, and who are -accordingly brought into the closest connection with the life of man. -The worship of these deities assumed among the Greeks a passionate and -excited character, at first entirely strange to the Romans, though it -gradually crept in here also. - -Though the ancients saw in the earth, on the one hand, the fruitful -source of all life in nature, they did not seek to disguise the fact -that it is, on the other hand, also the open sepulchre into which all -earthly existence sinks when its time is over. The worship of these -deities was therefore celebrated with festivals of joy and mirth at the -season of the revival of nature, and with mournful solemnities at the -season of its decay. The devotees manifested both their mirth and -mourning in a loud, noisy, passionate manner, usually designated -orgiastic. An element of mystery never failed to introduce itself into -the worship of these deities, who, in virtue of their dwellings, were -able to inspire a greater feeling of awe than the bright forms of the -gods of heaven. Their wrath also, which manifested itself in the -sterility of the soil, was the subject of especial fear. Mysteries -proper, or secret rites, existed only among the Greeks, but never found -their way into the religious systems of Italy. We shall enumerate first -the deities of the upper world, who preside over the growth of flocks -and the fruits of the earth, and then those who inhabit the lower world. - - -=1. Gæa (Tellus).=—First among them is Gæa, or Mother Earth herself. -This deity appears in the Cosmogony (or myths relating to the formation -of the universe) as one of the primeval creative forces, having herself -proceeded immediately from Chaos. In later times she acquired a more -personal and plastic character, although she never attained any real -importance in the religious system of the Greeks, owing to the existence -of more definite and substantial deities, such as Rhea, Hestia, Demeter, -and Themis. The worship of Tellus in Rome was more important, although -here, too, it was somewhat thrown into the shade by the worship of Ceres -and kindred deities. - -The chief significance of Gæa lies in the fact that she is the source of -all life and increase in nature. She is hence regarded as a mother who -tends with loving care all her children. Under this aspect her praises -are sung by Hesiod, and also in an ancient Dodonaic hymn. Like Demeter -and other deities who dispense prosperity and abundance, she appears as -tending and nourishing the young, and is often represented thus on -ancient monuments. - -At the same time Gæa is the common grave of mankind, and draws all -things, with inexorable severity, down into her dark womb. She thus -becomes a goddess of death and the lower world, and was on this account -invoked, together with the Manes, as a witness of all solemn compacts -and oaths. - -A very ancient shrine of this goddess existed at Delphi, and the oracle -there had once, said the Delphians, belonged to her. - -In Rome, where she was also venerated as a goddess of marriage, her -temple stood on the site of the house of Spurius Cassius. Festive -offerings were made to her before and after seed-time. On the occasion -of the Paganalia, she and Ceres were propitiated by the sacrifice of a -pregnant sow, which was supposed to promote the prosperity of the coming -year. - - -=2. Rhea Cybele (Magna Mater Idæa).=—Rhea is well known as the daughter -of Uranus and Gæa, and the wife of Cronus, by whom she became the mother -of Zeus and the other Cronidæ. She seems to have enjoyed only a limited -measure of divine honours, until she was identified with the Phrygian -goddess Cybele, who, like the Egyptian Isis, was an Asiatic symbol of -fertility. She was worshipped throughout Lydia and Phrygia under the -appellation of the “Mighty Mother.” Thence her worship, which was of a -peculiarly noisy character, made its way through the Greek colonies into -Greece itself, and towards the end of the second Punic war was, at the -instance of the Sibylline books, introduced into Rome. Attalus, king of -Pergamus, was on this occasion good enough to present the Romans with a -sacred stone, which was regarded by the inhabitants of Pessinus as the -great mother herself. After its arrival at Ostia, this stone was carried -to Rome amid a solemn procession of Roman matrons. The day of its -arrival (10th April) was ever afterwards kept as a festival, at which -games were celebrated under the superintendence of the prætor. The -worship of Cybele, however, never seems to have become naturalised in -Rome, perhaps because Romans were not allowed to officiate as her -priests. - -The true home of the worship of Cybele was the district of Pessinus, a -rough and rocky mountain land. It was here that she made her noisy -processions, seated in a chariot drawn by lions or panthers, amid the -boisterous music of her weird attendants, the Corybantes and Curetes. -The myths that relate to the goddess bear a wild, fantastic character, -similar to that of her rites. The best known among them is the story of -her favourite, Attis, or Atys. He was a Phrygian youth of a beauty so -exceptional that the great mother of the gods chose him for her husband. -At first he returned her affection, but afterwards he proved faithless, -and was about to marry a daughter of the king of Pessinus. But the -vengeance of the angry goddess overtook him, for when the wedding guests -were assembled at the festive banquet the goddess appeared in their -midst, and filled those present with panic fear, and troubled their -minds. Atys fled to the mountains, where he slew himself in a fit of -frenzy. Afterwards, the goddess instituted a great mourning in memory of -him, which took place about the time of the vernal equinox. The priests -of the goddess marched, amid the loud noise of kettle-drums and fifes, -to the mountains, in order to search for the lost youth; and when at -length he, or an image representing him, was found, the priests, in an -ecstasy of joy, danced about in wild excitement, gashing themselves with -knives. - - Representations of Rhea Cybele are rare. A statue representing her - seated on a throne is shown in the Vatican. Her usual attribute is a - kettle-drum. - - -=3. Dionysus, or Bacchus (Liber).=—Dionysus, or Bacchus, was regarded by -Greeks and Romans alike as the god of wine and vineyards. In his more -extended meaning he represents the blessings of the autumn. It is he who -causes the fruits to ripen for the use of man; it is likewise he who -dispenses to mankind all the advantages of civilisation and refinement, -and of well-ordered political affairs. - -Thebes was described as the birthplace of the god. His mother was -Semele, the daughter of Cadmus, whom Zeus, the great god of heaven, -honoured with his love. This very love, however, proved fatal to Semele, -for the ever-jealous Hera came to her in the guise of her nurse, Beroë, -and succeeded in exciting her suspicions as to the truth of her lover’s -divinity. She insidiously persuaded Semele to make her lover swear to do -what she desired, and then to put him to the test. Semele did so, and -then besought Zeus to appear to her in the full majesty of his divine -form. In vain did Zeus adjure her to take back her foolish request; she -insisted on its fulfilment, and perished miserably, being burnt to ashes -by the flame of Zeus, who approached her in a flash of lightning. Her -unborn child was preserved by Zeus, who ordered Hermes to carry it to -the nymphs of Nysa to be brought up. A later legend makes Ino, the -sister of Semele, the foster-mother of Dionysus. The locality of this -Nysa is somewhat uncertain, but it is generally supposed to be a -district of Mount Pangæus in Thrace. - -Dionysus, after growing up amid the solitude of the forest and -strengthening himself by his contests with its wild beasts, at length -planted the vine. Both the god and his attendants soon became -intoxicated with its juice; after which, crowned with wreaths of laurel -and ivy, and accompanied by a crowd of nymphs, satyrs, and fauns, he -ranged the woods, which resounded with the loud and joyful cries of his -inspired worshippers. The legend says that his education was then -completed by Silenus, the son of Pan. In company with his preceptor and -the rest of his train, he then set forth to spread his worship and the -cultivation of the vine among the nations of the earth. He did not -confine himself to mere vine-planting, however, but proved a real -benefactor of mankind by founding cities, and by introducing more -civilised manners and a more pleasant and sociable mode of life among -men. On such as refused his favours his wrath fell with dreadful effect. -Agave, the mother of the Theban king Pentheus, who had refused to -receive him, and the rest of the Theban women, were driven mad by him; -and in their frenzy they mistook the king for a wild boar and tore him -to pieces. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36.—Dionysus and Lion. From the Monument of -Lysicrates.] - -The most celebrated among the myths which testify to the wondrous power -of Dionysus is the story of the punishment of the Tyrrhenian pirates. On -the occasion of his passage from Icaria to Naxos, these pirates put -Dionysus in chains, purposing to take him to Italy, and there sell him -as a slave. At a nod from the youthful god the chains fell from his -limbs; he appeared as a lion, while a bear was seen at the other end of -the ship. Vines and ivy tendrils wound themselves round the mast and -sails of the ship, which stood still, whilst the strains of the nymphs -burst forth. The sailors, terrified by the transformation of the god, -leaped overboard, and were changed into dolphins. A fine representation, -in relief, of this scene still exists on the monument of Lysicrates, at -Athens. The most beautiful feature in it is the figure of the god -playing with his lion in the most joyous unconsciousness (Fig. 36). With -the name of Naxos, which was a chief seat of his worship, is connected -the celebrated story of his marriage with Ariadne, the daughter of -Minos, king of Crete. The Attic hero, Theseus, after escaping the -dangers of the Labyrinth by her means, had taken her away with him from -Crete in order to marry her. He deserted her, however, whilst asleep on -the island of Naxos, either of his own accord or because warned of the -god in a dream. The indescribable anguish and consternation of Ariadne, -on awaking to find herself alone and deserted on a foreign strand, was -only equalled by her joyous surprise when Bacchus, returning from his -travels in India, found her and made her his bride. The poets, indeed, -do not relate that Zeus then bestowed on her that immortality which he -had already given his son on account of his glorious achievements and -extraordinary merit toward mankind; but such appears to have been the -popular tradition. At Athens a sort of harvest thanksgiving was -celebrated in honour of both Dionysus and his bride, at which vines with -the grapes on them were borne in solemn procession through the streets -of the city. - -The worship of Dionysus extended not only over the whole of Greece, but -also to Italy, Asia Minor, Thrace, and Macedonia, and to every place -where the vine was cultivated by the Greeks. The god was extolled as -Lyæus, the deliverer from care, and great festivals were instituted in -his honour, which were of a disorderly character, but very popular among -the common people. At the time of the winter solstice there was -mourning, because at this season the vine seemed to die away, and the -god was believed to be suffering persecution at the hands of the evil -spirits of winter, and obliged to flee in consequence to the sea or -lower world. It was, therefore, thought right to suffer with him, and -people manifested their grief at his disappearance by every kind of wild -gesture. At the winter festivals of Dionysus, which were celebrated -every other year, only women and girls took part. The festivals of the -god at the beginning of spring, when the new wine was tasted for the -first time, were purely festivals of gladness, like the greater Dionysia -at Athens. On these occasions the reawakening of nature was celebrated -with boundless joy and boisterous mirth. All kinds of jokes and -mischievous pranks were indulged in, and festive processions and -theatrical performances followed each other in quick succession. - -The following festivals were celebrated at Athens in honour of -Dionysus:— - -1. The _Lesser_ or _Rural Dionysia_. This was the vintage festival -proper, which did not take place in Attica till the end of November or -beginning of December, because they liked to let the grapes hang as long -as possible. A he-goat was first solemnly sacrificed to the god; this -was followed by a festive procession bearing the sacred things, and the -festival concluded with all kinds of country amusements, dancing, -masquerading, and revelling. The chief amusement of the young men was -dancing on the leather bag. Out of the skin of the slaughtered goat was -made a leather bag, which was inflated and smeared with oil: the young -men then attempted to dance on it. - -2. The _Lenæa_, or feast of the wine-press, was celebrated in the month -of January at Athens, in the place where, according to an old tradition, -the first wine-press had stood. Here stood the Lenæon, one of the two -chief temples of the god. The chief feature of the festival was a -magnificent procession with the sacred symbols of the god. This was -followed by a great banquet, the viands for which were furnished by the -city of Athens. The new wine which was drunk on these occasions did not -tend to diminish the hilarity of the worshippers, so that all kinds of -mischievous jokes were perpetrated. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 37.—The so-called Sardanapalus in the Vatican.] - -3. The _Anthesteria_ were celebrated in February, on the 11th, 12th, and -13th days of the month Anthesterion. They were supposed to commemorate -the return of Dionysus from the lower world, or, in other words, the -reawakening of nature from the sleep of winter. The first day was called -πιθοιγία (cask-opening), because on this day the new wine was first -broached. The second and chief day of the festival was called χόες -(cups). A procession and a great banquet took place, at which the guests -were crowned with flowers. Many liberties were permitted to the slaves -on this occasion, as at the Roman Saturnalia. The third day was called -χύτροι (pots), because vessels were displayed filled with all kinds of -boiled vegetables. These were regarded in the light of offerings for the -souls of the dead, who were popularly supposed to revisit the upper -world on this occasion. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 38.—Youthful Dionysus. From the Chateau Richelieu, now in the - Louvre.] - -4. The _Greater_ or _City Dionysia_ formed the chief festival of the -god, and the proper spring-feast of the Athenians. It was celebrated -with extraordinary splendour in the month of March, and lasted several -days, bringing together a vast concourse of strangers from all parts. -The city, renowned alike for the refined artistic taste and the keen wit -of its inhabitants, then donned its holiday garb, and innumerable merry -antics were played by the crowds assembled in the streets and squares. -The chief feature of the festival was a solemn procession, in which an -old wooden statue of the god was borne through the streets. There were -likewise banquets and comic processions in masks, and grand -representations of new comedies and tragedies. The proceedings concluded -with the presentation of prizes to the successful competitors. - -The Italian nationalities likewise celebrated a festival on the 17th of -March, called the Liberalia, in honour of Liber, or Liber Pater, the -Italian god of the vine. It was distinguished throughout by the simple -countrified character of the proceedings, and resembled the Lesser -Dionysia of the inhabitants of Attica. People amused themselves with all -kinds of jokes and antics, and with masquerades, the masks for which -were cut from the bark of trees. The chief object of the festival was to -pray for the fertility of the vines. These innocent festivals had -nothing to do with the voluptuous Bacchanalia which were afterwards -introduced into Rome in imitation of the Greek mysteries, and which the -most rigorous interference of the authorities was unable to suppress. - -If we try to conceive briefly the significance of the worship of -Dionysus in the religion of the ancients, we shall find that in his -primitive character the god was a personification of the active, -productive power of nature. As Demeter was supposed to give corn and the -other fruits of the field, so Dionysus was supposed to give the fruits -of trees, and especially of the vine. He was likewise regarded as the -author of the blessings of civilisation, so that, on this point, he -supplements the idea of the great culture-goddess Demeter, with whom, -both among the Greeks and Romans, he had many temples and festivals in -common. Looking at his character from another side, we find him coming -into contact with Apollo, since he was supposed not only to endow men -with a kindly, cheerful disposition, but also to inspire them with a -love of music, on which account he was honoured with Apollo as the -friend and leader of the Muses. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 39.—Marble Head of Youthful Dionysus at Leyden.] - - Artistic representations of Dionysus have come down to us on - numerous monuments. In earlier art he was generally depicted as - majestic and grave, and on that account represented with a beard. We - have given an instance of this earlier conception in the so-called - Sardanapalus of the Vatican (Fig. 37). In later art he became more - youthful, and was characterised by a delicate roundness of form. The - statues of this period are distinguished by the almost feminine - expression of face with which they endow the god, as well as by the - rounded limbs and the graceful ease of every attitude. The statue of - a youthful Dionysus in the Louvre at Paris is an instance of this - later mode of conception (Fig. 38). So likewise is the head of - Dionysus at Leyden, which is distinguished by a sweet expression of - reverie. His soft hair, which falls about his shoulders in delicate - ringlets, is generally intertwined with a garland of vine leaves or - ivy (Fig. 39). The other attributes of the god are the thyrsus, or - Bacchic wand, the diadem, the skin of a wild beast falling across - his chest, which often forms his sole clothing, and the drinking-cup - in his hand. He is generally accompanied by lions, tigers, or - panthers; and the bull and ram, as the symbols of fertility, were - held sacred to him, while the latter was also his usual sacrifice. - Among plants, besides the vine and the ivy, the laurel was held - sacred to him on account of its powers of inspiration. - -[Illustration: Fig. 40.—Sleeping Ariadne. Vatican.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 41.—Dannecker’s Ariadne. Frankfort-on-the-Main.] - - Of all the prominent personages in the stories of Dionysus, Ariadne - has received most attention at the hands of the sculptor. The most - celebrated of such ancient monuments is a marble figure of great - beauty, larger than life, representing the sleeping Ariadne. It is - now preserved in the Vatican Museum at Rome (Fig. 40). Among the - productions of modern sculptors, the Ariadne of Dannecker, at - Frankfort-on-the-Main, which represents her as the bride of Theseus, - riding on a panther, justly enjoys a very high reputation (Fig. 41). - - -=4. The Nymphs.=—We now come to a class of inferior terrestrial -divinities who are often found in the train of Bacchus. The most -numerous and important of these are the Nymphs. They personify the -restless activity and energy of nature, over the whole of which their -power extends. They manifest their presence in the murmuring, rippling -streams and brooks, as well as in the sprouting vegetation of wood and -meadow. They are tender, graceful maidens, who, though kindly disposed -towards men, yet avoid human habitations, and prefer the peaceful -solitude of the woods and mountains, where they lead a merry, joyous -life among the clefts and grottoes. - -Sometimes they devote themselves to useful pursuits, and spin and weave; -sometimes they engage in graceful dances, and sing merry songs, or bathe -their delicate limbs in the white spray of lonely brooks. They gladly -join the train of those superior deities supposed to preside in the -realms of nature. Thus we see them joining in the Bacchic revelry with -Dionysus, or figuring in the train of Aphrodite, or ranging field and -wood as they hunt in the company of Artemis. - -According to the divisions of nature, over which the Nymphs were -supposed to preside, we may distinguish the following classes:— - -1. The _Water-Nymphs_, to whom, in their wider signification, the -Oceanids and Nereids also belong. Here, however, we have only to deal -with the water-nymphs of the brooks and fountains of the land, who are -distinguished by the name of _Naiads_. As the kindly nourishers of -plants, and as thereby ministering indirectly to the sustenance of both -man and beast, they enjoyed a large measure of veneration among the -ancients, although, being inferior deities, they could claim no temples -of their own. Like the sea-nymphs, they possessed the gift of prophecy, -and appear as the patrons of poetry and song. - -_2. Nymphs of the Mountains_, or _Oreads_, to whom belong the nymphs of -the valleys and glens (Napææ). These were very numerous, and received -special names from the particular mountains or districts they inhabited. -The most celebrated among them was the Bœotian nymph Echo. She was -consumed by love for the beautiful youth Narcissus, a son of the -river-god Cephisus, and finding that he did not reciprocate her -affection, she pined away in ever-increasing grief, until at length her -emaciated frame was changed into rock, and nothing but her voice -remained. But Aphrodite avenged this injury to her sex on Narcissus, who -had in his vain self-love thus contemned the beautiful nymph. As he was -hunting one day on Mount Helicon, he bent down to quench his thirst from -a spring clear as crystal, and the goddess caused him to fall in love -with his own shadow, which was reflected in the water. The object of his -desires being unattainable, he too pined away from grief, and the flower -named after him has ever since continued an emblem of heartless beauty. - -3. The _Dryads_, or _Hamadryads_ (wood-nymphs). These appear to have -been a conception of later times. It was supposed that their existence -depended on that of the trees they inhabited, so that when the latter -were destroyed the nymphs also perished. Not sharing immortality, -therefore, they cannot properly be reckoned among the gods. - -The veneration of nymphs was very ancient in Greece, and was thence -transferred to Rome. Goats, lambs, milk, and oil were offered to them. - - In art they are depicted as lovely maidens, generally only slightly - clad, and adorned with flowers and garlands. The Naiads are also - represented as drawing water, or with attributes relating to their - element. - - -=5. The Satyrs.=—In contrast to the Nymphs, or female personifications -of the life of Nature, we find a number of inferior wood and -water-deities of the male sex, called Satyrs, Sileni, and Panes, between -whom it is difficult to distinguish clearly. Generally by Satyrs (Fauni) -we understand the wood and mountain-spirits proper, who are inseparably -connected with Dionysus, whose attendant train they form. Coarse -sensuality and a wanton spirit of mischief are the leading features of -their character. On account of their animal propensities they were -fabled to be only half human in appearance, with blunt noses and -otherwise ignoble features, bristling hair, goat-like ears, and a goat’s -tail. Like the Muses, they love music and dancing, their instruments -being the Syrinx and the flute, together with cymbals and castanets. -Like their master, they were passionately addicted to excessive -indulgence in wine; but whereas in the former this produced only a -rapturous enthusiasm and an exalted frame of mind, with them its effects -were purely sensual, and excited them to insane and unseemly pranks of -all kinds. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 42.—Head of Satyr. Munich Sculpture Gallery.] - - The Satyrs were not an uncommon subject of representation among - ancient artists. The conception was based on the original hideous - half-man, half-animal type; and in art, as well as in poetry, the - blunt nose, the pointed ears, and the goat’s tail form their - characteristic features. The Bacchic insignia of a band round the - brow and an ivy garland also belong to them. There are some - particularly fine antique statues of satyrs in the art-collections - of Munich and Rome. - - The engraving (Fig. 42) shows the highly-expressive face of a satyr - in the Munich collection. - - -=6. Silenus.=—Silenus, according to the common tradition, was an old -satyr who tended and brought up Dionysus, and afterwards became the -faithful companion of his wanderings. He is depicted by the poets as a -somewhat elderly man, with blunt nose and bald head, hairy chest and -thighs, and a stomach so large that he can scarcely walk. He generally -appears riding on an ass in front of the Bacchic company, with a satyr -on either side supporting his half-drunken form. - - The artists of antiquity seem to have devoted themselves frequently - to the subject of Silenus. They either represented him as the nurse - and preceptor of the youthful Bacchus, holding the child in his arms - and regarding him with a look of affection, in which the comic - element is entirely lacking, or they present him to us as the - insatiable but good-natured wine-bibber. His standing attribute is - the wine-skin, besides which, like other members of the Bacchic - train, he bears a thyrsus and ivy garland. - -Besides Silenus, who was celebrated as the preceptor of Dionysus, there -was a whole tribe of Sileni. Whether this is due to the fact that the -older satyrs were called Sileni, or whether they form a special class of -deities presiding over the flowing, gushing water, cannot be determined -with any certainty. - -Among the Sileni were two personages who play a part in the story of -Dionysus. These were Marsyas and Midas. The former, like all satyrs, was -an accomplished master of the flute, and challenged Apollo to a trial of -skill which proved fatal to him. The conditions of the contest were that -he who was vanquished should put himself entirely in the power of his -adversary. Apollo won, and made a cruel use of his victory by hanging -Marsyas on a pine tree and flaying him alive. - -Midas was the mythic founder of the kingdom of Phrygia, in Asia Minor, -whither he had emigrated from Macedonia. Tradition makes him a son of -Cybele, and, as her favourite, endowed with fabulous wealth. But, like -many of the sons of men in the present day, the richer he grew the -greater was his thirst for gold, until it betrayed him at length into an -act of great folly. One day, the drunken Silenus strayed from the -company of Bacchus into the garden of Midas. The latter received him -with great hospitality, and after entertaining him sumptuously for ten -days brought him to Bacchus. Pleased with his kindness, the god rewarded -him with the gratification of any wish he might make. Midas now wished -that everything he touched might turn to gold. Naturally the -gratification of this wish well-nigh proved his ruin; and he only -escaped by washing, at the command of the god, in the river Pactolus, -which has ever since washed down gold in its sands. A later fable makes -Midas the judge in the rivalry of Apollo and Pan, on which occasion he -decided in favour of the latter, for which the god changed his ears into -those of an ass. Modern criticism has seen in the rich Midas one of the -many personifications of the sun, who, as he rises over the earth, turns -all things to gold. - - -=7. Greek and Roman Wood-Spirits.=—_1. Pan._—Pan was a very ancient god -of the woods and meadows. He was at first honoured only by the -inhabitants of the mountain-land of Arcadia and by other pastoral -tribes. Subsequently his divinity was more generally acknowledged and -more highly esteemed. Common accounts make him the son of Hermes by the -nymph Penelope, a daughter of Dryops. His mother was not a little -terrified at his birth, since he was hairy all over, and had horns and -goat’s feet. His father wrapped him in a hare-skin, and bore him to -Olympus, where the assembled gods showed no small pleasure at the sight -of the strange little wood-demon. From time immemorial Pan was regarded -by the shepherds of Greece as their most doughty protector; for which -reason the mountain caves in which they gathered their herds together at -night, or in threatening weather, were held sacred to him. There were -many such caves of Pan in the mountains of Arcadia, and also one at the -foot of the Acropolis at Athens, besides others on Mount Parnassus in -Bœotia, and elsewhere. Pan was esteemed a god of great cheerfulness and -activity of character, who loved to range the woods as a huntsman, and -was on this account regarded with little less veneration by huntsmen -than by shepherds. He was also looked on as the patron of fishing and -bee-keeping. - -As the god of shepherds, Pan was also a lover of music, and on returning -in the evening from the chase, says the Homeric story, he was wont to -play sweet tunes on his pan-pipe (Syrinx), whilst the Oreads, or -mountain-nymphs, sang the praises of the gods and led off their spirited -dances. The poets have founded a story on his discovery of the Syrinx. -They invented a fabulous nymph called Syrinx, with whom Pan was supposed -to have fallen violently in love. The nymph, however, did not return his -affection, and fled from his embraces. Pan pursued her, and in her -extremity she sought the aid of Gæa, who transformed her into a reed. -Out of this reed Pan, by joining seven pieces together, made an -instrument which he called the Syrinx, after the nymph. - -Pan was as passionately fond of dancing as of music. According to -Pindar, he was the most accomplished dancer among the gods. His -favourite amusement was to dance in company with the mountain-nymphs, on -which occasions he regaled them with every kind of droll leap, in the -performance of which his goat’s feet stood him in good stead. - -As a wood-deity, Pan also possessed the gift of prophecy; indeed, -according to some, it was he who first imparted this gift to Apollo. He -certainly had a very ancient oracle at Acacesium in Arcadia. - -Wild mountainous country and the thick untrodden forest are both alike -apt to impress the lonely traveller with feelings of awe. All such -sensations of sudden and unaccountable fear were ascribed to Pan -(Panic). He was also said to delight in terrifying travellers with all -kinds of strange noises. Hence, at a later period, arose the story that -in the contest with the Titans he rendered good service to Zeus by -blowing on a shell trumpet which he had invented, whereupon the Titans -were seized with a sudden terror. This, however, is only another version -of Triton’s services at the battle with the giants. It is well known -that the Athenians introduced the worship of Pan, to which they had been -hitherto strangers, into their city after the battle of Marathon, in -consequence of the assistance which they believed they had received from -the god. - -Such are the more ancient and simple features of the character of Pan. -He assumed a higher significance when men began to regard him as the -companion of the “Mighty Mother,” and assigned him a place in the -Bacchic circle. Men now saw in him a productive force of nature like the -Phrygian Attis; indeed, in consequence of a misinterpretation of his -name, he was made the creator and god of the universe. He seems to have -originally signified the “purifying” breeze, which at one time whistled -through the reeds, or at another moaned dismally in the forest, -frightening the belated traveller. - -After he had once been introduced into the company of Dionysus, poets -and artists alike set themselves to work to invent a number of Panes and -little Pans (Panisci), who were easily confounded with the Satyrs and -Sileni. - -The chief shrine of Pan was at Acacesium in Arcadia. Cows, goats, and -sheep were sacrificed to him, besides offerings of milk, honey, and new -wine. - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.—Pan. From a Mural Painting at Herculaneum.] - - In art we must distinguish the earlier and later types of the god. - In the former, which dates from the best days of Greek art, he is - conceived as entirely human in appearance, with the exception of two - sprouting horns on either side of the forehead. Later, he was - depicted with larger horns, a long goat’s beard, and goat’s feet. We - give an engraving of this later conception (Fig. 43), which is taken - from a mural painting at Naples. The usual attributes of Pan are a - Syrinx and shepherd’s crook, sometimes also a pine garland. - -_2. Silvanus._—Among the Roman wood-deities, Silvanus occupies a -position most akin to that of Pan, although they are not exactly -identical. His name, derived from _silva_ (wood), points him out as the -god of the forest, where he was supposed to dwell, a deity kindly -disposed towards mankind, and propitious to the welfare of trees, -plants, and cattle. At times, however, he appears, like Pan, as a -mischievous sprite, who delights to trick and terrify the lonely -traveller. His sphere of activity was not confined to the woods, since -he was also regarded as the author of fruitfulness in gardens and -orchards. In this character Silvanus bears a close resemblance to -Terminus, the god of boundaries and landed property, inasmuch as he -preserves fields, gardens, and houses from harm. The first of the fruits -of the field were offered to him. He had two shrines in Rome, one on the -Viminal and another on the Aventine. - - Artists and poets agree in representing Silvanus as an old man with - a rustic head-gear, scattering blooming lilies and other flowers. He - is usually distinguished by a pruning-knife. - -_3. Faunus and Fauna._—Closely resembling Silvanus is another deity -called Faunus, one of the most ancient national gods of Italy. He -appears as the good spirit of the mountains, pastures, and plains. He -was regarded by the shepherds as their best protector, since he made -their cattle fruitful and drove off noxious beasts of prey. In the -former character he was also called Inuus (the fertiliser); in the -latter Lupercus (the warder-off of wolves). - -Like Pan, he appears to have his seat in the woods, whence he sometimes -terrifies and annoys travellers. At night, too, he creeps into men’s -houses, and torments them with evil dreams and horrible apparitions -(Incubus). - -Like Pan, too, Faunus possessed the gift of prophecy, and answered both -by direct revelations and by dreams. In this character he was called -Fatuus, and had a celebrated oracle in the grove at Tibur, on the spring -Albunea. - -Having once invented a number of Fauns, the poets soon began to identify -them with the Satyrs of the Greeks. - -In honour of this decidedly national deity, different festivals were -celebrated, at which rams were sacrificed and libations of wine and milk -made. The Faunalia were celebrated on the Nones of December, on which -occasion the guests at the festive board surrendered themselves to the -most unrestrained mirth, and granted many liberties also to their -slaves. The Lupercalia, however, formed the proper expiatory festival of -Faunus. This festival was celebrated on the 15th of February, and was -remarkable for the number of ancient customs which were observed. The -chief of these was the course of the Luperci, or priests of Faunus, who, -after making their offering, ran from the shrine of the god (Lupercal), -on the Palatine, through the streets of Rome, their only clothing being -an apron cut from the skin of the slaughtered animal. They struck all -whom they met with thongs, also cut from the same blood-stained skin. -Barren women placed themselves in the way of the Luperci, believing that -by means of the strokes the reproach of barrenness would be taken away -from them. As a day of atonement, this day was termed _dies februatus_ -(from _februare_, to purify), whence the name of the month. - -The feminine counterpart of Faunus, though not his wife, was Fauna, a -propitious, kindly goddess of the plains. She is also called Maia, or -Bona Dea. The women made an offering to her every year at night, on -which occasion males were strictly excluded. - - In art Faunus bears exactly the same appearance as Pan, with whom, - indeed, he was often identified. - - -=8. Priapus.=—The worship of Priapus, the god of fields and gardens, -appears to have been long of a purely local character, confined -principally to the districts on the Hellespont, since he is not even -mentioned by earlier writers. He was the son of Dionysus and Aphrodite, -and presided over the exuberant fertility of nature. He was supposed to -exercise influence over the fruitfulness of flocks and herds, whilst -fishing and the rearing of bees were also placed under his protection. -His special sphere, however, was the protection of gardens and -vineyards. Asses were sacrificed to him, a fact which gave rise to all -sorts of comical stories relating to the hostility of Priapus to this -animal. Besides this, he received the first fruits of the garden and -field and drink-offerings of milk and honey. The worship of Priapus was -introduced into Italy at the same time as that of Aphrodite, and he was -identified with the native Mutunus. - - This deity was scarcely noticed in higher art. In the gardens of - Italy, however, rough-hewn pillars of wood, similar to those of - Hermes, were erected in his honour. He is usually distinguished by a - pruning-knife and club. - - -=9. Saturnus and Ops.=—Before passing to Demeter, or Ceres, the great -goddess of civilisation, to whom by Greeks and Romans alike the -blessings of the harvest were ascribed, and who forms the best link -between the gods of the upper and lower worlds, we must pause to -consider some gods of agriculture and cattle-rearing peculiar to the -Romans. Among them are Saturn and Ops, who belong to the most ancient -national deities of Italy. To Saturn was ascribed the introduction of -agriculture, together with the cultivation of the vine and other fruits. -He was, therefore, venerated as the great benefactor of mankind, who not -only promoted the physical welfare of men, but who also introduced a -higher standard of civilisation. After the Romans had become acquainted -with the mythology of the Greeks, they identified him with Cronus. In -consequence of this, the story arose that, after his dethronement by -Jupiter, Saturn fled to Italy, where he was hospitably received by -Janus. There he is said to have brought together the inhabitants, who -had hitherto wandered about without any fixed homes, and to have united -them in regular political communities, over which he himself ruled. This -was the golden age. In remembrance of the happy age when men were not -yet troubled by sorrow or need, the Saturnalia were celebrated during -three days, beginning from the 17th of December. This festival, which -with changed meaning still continues in the Carnival of the present day, -was celebrated in Rome with particularly great splendour. Unbounded -festivity reigned throughout the whole town, and vented itself in every -description of joke and prank. The distinctions of class were suspended, -the courts and schools kept holiday, and the shops were closed. The -chief day was the 19th of December, which was especially a festive day -for the slaves, for on this day there were practically no slaves in -Rome. No services were required of them, and they were allowed to don -the clothes of their masters and to eat and drink as much as they liked, -whilst their masters waited on them at table. And this custom allowed a -class, otherwise subject to so many afflictions, to forget their sorrows -for at least one day in a year. Wealthy Romans generally kept open house -on this day, and vied with each other in the splendour of their -hospitalities; and of course a solemn sacrifice was made to Saturn. The -woollen bandages which, during the greater part of the year, enveloped -the feet of his statue in order that he might not depart without -vouchsafing a blessing, were on this day unloosed, and throughout the -night the temple was illuminated with wax tapers. This festival, which -was extremely popular among the Romans, was also celebrated with games -in the circus. - -The chief temple of Saturn, which was begun by Tarquinius Superbus and -finished in the first years of the Republic, was situated on the ascent -to the Capitol from the Forum. Beneath it was a vault containing the -state treasury, or _ærarium_, the guardianship of the state treasures -being committed to this god as the dispenser of every blessing. - -Regarded as the wife of Saturn, and therefore identified with Rhea, Ops -was the goddess of the seed-time and harvest. On this account her -worship was closely connected with that of Saturn, and she had a place -in his temple on the Capitoline. A festival was celebrated in honour of -her on the 25th of August, when the newly-gathered corn was threshed. - -When taken together, Saturn and Ops were regarded as deities who -presided over marriage and the education of children, it being an easy -step from the deity of the sprouting, ripening seed, to that of the -budding, thriving season of human life. - - Saturn is always represented as an old man, and is generally - distinguished by a pruning-knife or sickle. - - -=10. Vertumnus and Pomona.=—Vertumnus and Pomona much resemble Saturn -and Ops, the only difference being that the former exert their influence -solely on the growth and welfare of the fruits of the garden and -orchard. Vertumnus properly signifies the self-changing one; referring, -probably, to the manifold changes which the fruit undergoes from the -time of its first appearance in blossom to that of its maturity. For the -same reason the god was said to possess the faculty of assuming any -shape he liked. The first of the flowers and fruits were offered to him. -Pomona, as her name signifies, was the goddess of the fruit harvest, and -called by the poets the wife of Vertumnus. Each deity had a special -priest (flamen), though the latter naturally held only an inferior -position. - - In art Vertumnus generally appears as a beautiful youth, his head - crowned with a garland of ears of corn or laurel, with a horn of - plenty, as a symbol of the blessings he bestows, in his right hand. - He is sometimes distinguished by a dish filled with fruit, or a - pruning-knife. Pomona is generally represented as the season of - Autumn, a beautiful maiden with boughs of fruit-trees in her hand. - - -=11. Flora.=—Among the inferior deities of the plain was Flora, the -goddess of blossoms and flowers, who was held in great honour by the -Sabines, and everywhere in the interior of Italy. Her worship is said to -have been introduced into Rome by Numa, who assigned the goddess a -priest of her own. She attained a higher significance by becoming a -goddess of maternity, whom women invoked before their confinement. Her -festival was celebrated with great rejoicings from the 28th of April to -the 1st of May (Floralia). The doors of the houses were adorned with -flowers, and wreaths were worn in the hair. After the first Punic war, -the festival, which was remarkable throughout for its merry and -tumultuous character, was also celebrated with games, hares and deer -being hunted in the circus. - - Artists appear to have represented Flora as the season of Spring, in - the guise of a beautiful girl crowned with flowers. There is a fine - marble statue of this kind, larger than life, in the museum at - Naples, called the Farnese Flora. - - -=12. Pales.=—Pales was the ancient pastoral goddess of the Italian -tribes, from whom the name Palatine, which originally meant nothing but -a pastoral colony, was derived. She was especially venerated by the -shepherds, who besought her to send fruitfulness and health to their -flocks. A festival in her honour was celebrated on the 21st of April, -the anniversary of the foundation of the city (Palilia), at which very -ancient rustic customs were observed. The most remarkable of these was -the kindling of a large straw fire, through which the shepherds rushed -with their flocks, thinking thus to purify themselves from their sins. -Milk and baked millet-cakes were offered to the goddess. There is no -statue of her now in existence. - - -=13. Terminus.=—Terminus, although he had nothing to do either with the -welfare of the crops or the fruitfulness of the flocks, may yet be -reckoned among the field deities, as the god who specially presided over -boundaries. All landmarks were held sacred to him, and their erection -was attended with religious ceremonies. In order that his people might -fully appreciate the sanctity of boundaries, King Numa instituted a -special festival in honour of the god, called the Terminalia, and -annually celebrated on the 23rd of February. The proprietors of lands -bordering on each other were wont on this occasion to crown the boundary -stone with garlands, and to make an offering of a flat cake to the god. - -In his wider signification Terminus was regarded as the god under whose -protection the boundaries of the state reposed, and in this character he -had a chapel in the temple of Minerva on the Capitol. A statue of the -god also stood in the midst of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, which -is explained by the following story:—After Tarquinius had conceived the -plan of building the great temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, the limited -space necessitated the removal of several existing shrines, which could -only occur with the consent of the deities themselves. They all -expressed by means of auguries their readiness to make way for the -highest god of heaven, except Terminus, who refused, and whose shrine -had therefore to be included in the temple of Jupiter. - - Statues of Terminus are exactly like the Hermæ of the Greeks, and - have no importance in art. - - -=14. Demeter (Ceres).=—Demeter was a daughter of Cronus and Rhea. Her -name signifies Mother Earth, and she is, therefore, an expression of the -ancient conception of the earth-goddess, with a special reference to -nature and human civilisation. She was also named Deo, and by comparison -of these two words, her name has been interpreted as Dawn-Mother, from -the same root as Zeus, the sky. The thriving of the crops was ascribed -to her influence; she was further regarded as the patroness of all those -arts which are more or less intimately connected with agriculture, and -which men first learned from her. Demeter thus rises to the rank of a -goddess of civilisation. She rescued men by means of agriculture from -the lower grades of hunters and shepherds, and brought their former rude -and barbarous manners into subjection to law and morality. She thus -becomes that “bountiful daughter of Heaven,” who, as Schiller sings in -his _Lay of the Bell_, - - “of old - Called the wild man from waste and wold, - And, in his hut thy presence stealing, - Roused each familiar household feeling; - And, best of all the happy ties, - The centre of the social band,— - The instinct of the Fatherland.” - -Regarded in this light, she comes into contact with Dionysus, whose -beneficial influence on human civilisation and manners we have already -described. This accounts for the intimate connection of these two -deities in the Eleusinian mysteries, where Dionysus-Iacchus even appears -as the son of Demeter and the husband of Cora-Persephone. Owing to the -important part she played in the institution of law and order among -mankind, she was venerated as the goddess of marriage, marriage being -the necessary foundation of civil society. She was also regarded as the -tutelary goddess of national assemblies. - -Of the numerous legends which are linked with the name of this goddess, -none perhaps is more celebrated, or more pregnant with meaning in regard -to her worship, than the rape of her daughter Persephone, or Cora. The -latter was once playing with the daughters of Oceanus in a flowery -meadow, where they were picking flowers and making garlands. Persephone -happened to quit her companions for a moment to pluck a narcissus she -had perceived, when suddenly the ground opened at her feet, and Pluto, -or Hades, the god of the infernal regions, appeared in a chariot drawn -by snorting horses. Swift as the wind he seized and carried off the -terrified maiden in spite of her struggles, and vanished again into the -regions of darkness before her companions were aware of the catastrophe. -All this occurred, however, with the knowledge of Zeus, who had, unknown -to Demeter, promised her daughter to Pluto. When Demeter missed her -darling child, and none could tell her where she had gone, she kindled -torches, and during many days and nights wandered in anxiety through all -the countries of the earth, not even resting for food or sleep. At -length Helios, who sees and hears everything, told Demeter what had -happened, not disguising, however, that it had occurred with the consent -of Zeus. Full of wrath and grief, the goddess now withdrew from the -society of the other gods into the deepest solitude. Meanwhile all the -fruits of the earth ceased, and a general famine threatened to -extinguish the human race. In vain Zeus sent one messenger after -another, beseeching the angry goddess to return to Olympus. Demeter -swore that she would neither return nor allow the fruits of the earth to -grow until her daughter was restored to her. At length Zeus was fain to -consent, and despatched Hermes to the lower world to bring Persephone -back. Persephone joyfully prepared to obey this command, but as she was -about to depart Hades gave her a pomegranate-seed to eat, whereupon she -found herself bound to him and unable to return. By means of Zeus, -however, a compact was made by which Persephone was to spend two-thirds -of the year in the upper world with her mother, and the remaining -portion with her husband. And thus every year at springtide she ascends -from her subterraneous kingdom to enjoy herself in her mother’s company, -but returns again late in autumn to the regions of darkness and death. - -It is not difficult to discover the meaning of this myth. It is simply -an allegorical representation of the spectacle that is annually renewed -before our eyes—the dying away and coming to life again of the vegetable -world. Whilst Cora is dwelling during the winter months in the realms of -Hades, Nature appears to wear a garb of mourning for her lost daughter. -In the Eleusinian mysteries this inevitable decease and resurrection of -the vegetable world was conceived as a symbol of higher meaning, setting -forth the immortality of the soul. Every living being shares the fate of -Cora; every life becomes the prey of cold, inexorable death, only to -arise from the darkness of the grave more beautiful and glorious than -before. - -Closely connected with this beautiful and expressive myth is another -which refers to the institution of the Eleusinian mysteries. When -Demeter, after the loss of her daughter, was wandering over the earth in -the guise of a poor old woman, she came to Eleusis. The daughters of -Celeüs, the king of the city, found her sitting on a stone by the -Maidens’ Well as they came thither to draw water, and offered the old -woman service in their father’s house as nurse to their youngest brother -Demophon. The goddess consented, and was kindly received in the house of -Celeüs, where she was at once installed as nurse to the young prince. -She became so fond of the child that she resolved to make him immortal -by anointing him with ambrosia, and then laying him at night in the glow -of the fire. She was discovered at her work, however, by the mother of -the child, whose cries disturbed her, and thus prevented her from -fulfilling her benevolent intention. She now revealed herself to Celeüs, -and commanded him to build her a temple in Eleusis. When it had been -hastily completed, with the help of the goddess, she initiated Celeüs -and some other princes of Eleusis—Triptolemus, Eumolpus, and Diocles—in -the solemn rites of her service. On Triptolemus, who is called the son -of Celeüs, she imposed the task of disseminating a knowledge of -agriculture and of her own worship throughout the earth, and for this -purpose lent him her own chariot and dragons. On this he travelled -through the countries of the earth, making known everywhere the -blessings of agriculture, and uniting men in regular political -communities. He was not well received in all places, and the goddess had -sometimes to step in and punish those who contemned her benefits. Such -was the case with the Scythian king Lynceus and the Thessalian prince -Erysichthon; but at length her cause triumphed, and the worship of the -bountiful goddess spread itself over the whole world. - -The chief seat of her worship was the city of Eleusis, which was -beautifully situated on the bay of Salamis. It retained this honour even -after it had lost its independence and come into the possession of the -Athenians. The Eleusinian mysteries were celebrated both here and at -Athens, in honour of Demeter and the deities associated with her. They -probably contained a symbolical history of Cora. - -There was a distinction between the greater and lesser mysteries. The -latter were celebrated at Athens in the month of Anthesterion -(February), and were a kind of preparation for the greater mysteries, -which took place in September, and were celebrated during nine days, -partly at Athens and partly at Eleusis. In these secret rites only those -could take part who had been initiated. The chief feature of the -festival was a great and solemn procession on the sixth day from Athens -to Eleusis, a distance of about twelve miles. All those who took part in -it—often as many as 30,000—were crowned with myrtle, and bore torches in -their hands, as the procession started from Athens at the earliest dawn. - -The festival of the Thesmophoria, which was celebrated at the beginning -of November, in honour of Demeter in her character of lawgiver and -goddess of marriage, was less important than the Eleusinia. It lasted -for five days, and only married women were allowed to take part in it. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44.—Demeter Enthroned. Painting from Pompeii. -Naples.] - -The Ceres of the Romans, though undoubtedly an ancient Italian goddess, -was the very counterpart of the Greek Demeter, with whom, after the -successful introduction of her worship during the first years of the -Republic, she was entirely identified. - -The chief festival of Ceres and her associate deities, Liber and Libera, -fell on the 19th of April, which, as the proper spring month, was -especially dedicated by the inhabitants of Italy to deities presiding -over agriculture. The Cerealia were opened by a grand procession, in -which every one was clothed in white. It was further celebrated with -solemn sacrifices and games in the circus, the management of which lay -with the plebeian ædiles. - -The usual sacrifice, both among Greeks and Romans, was the sow (the -symbol of fruitfulness), but, besides this, cows and the first fruits of -the trees and hives were offered to her. - - In the representations of the goddess an expression of lofty dignity - is blended with condescending benevolence and gentleness. Her - principal attributes are a torch, a sheaf of corn, a garland of ears - of corn interwoven in her hair, and a basket filled with flowers at - her side. Among the few antique statues, a large marble figure in - the Capitoline Museum at Rome deserves especial mention. The - engraving (Fig. 44), which is after a Pompeian painting, depicts - Demeter as the bountiful goddess of agriculture. She is seated on a - throne, and holds a torch consisting of two calices in her right - hand, and a bunch of corn in her left. - - -=15. Persephone (Proserpina).=—In Persephone, the goddess of the lower -world, whom the Athenians preferred to call by her mystic name of Cora, -two distinct conceptions are embodied. On the one hand she appears as -the wife of the dark god of the lower world—like him, a gloomy, -awe-inspiring deity, who pitilessly drags down all that lives into the -hidden depths of the earth; whence the grave is called the chamber of -Persephone. Such is the view of her taken by Homer and later epic poets. -These represent her as sitting enthroned at the side of her grim lord, -the joyless queen of the infernal regions, to dwell in which were worse -than to be a slave on earth. On the other hand she appears as Cora, the -lovely daughter of the all-bountiful Mother Earth; a personification, in -fact, of that never-dying force of nature which, year by year, causes -the most luxuriant vegetation to spring up before our eyes, only, -however, to die away again in the autumn. In a somewhat narrower sense -Persephone may be regarded as a type of the grain, which long remains in -the ground where it has been sown as though dead, but afterwards breaks -forth into new life. It was only natural to associate with this last -conception ideas of the immortality of the soul, of which, in the secret -doctrines of the mysteries, Persephone was a symbol. Though we know but -little concerning the details of the mysteries, we are yet aware that -their chief object was to disseminate better and purer ideas of a future -life than the popular faith of the Greeks afforded. It was commonly -believed that the souls of men after death led a dull, miserable -existence in the world of shadows. Those initiated in the mysteries, -however, were taught that death was only a resurrection of the soul to a -brighter and better life, on the condition, of course, that a man had -fully pleased the gods and rendered himself worthy of such a happy lot. - -Persephone, or Proserpina, as she is called in Latin, was a deity -originally entirely strange to the Romans, who borrowed all their ideas -of the lower world from the Greeks. Nevertheless, they identified her -with Libera, an ancient rustic goddess of fertility, the feminine -counterpart of Liber, under which name she signifies the same as the -Greek Cora. Black, barren cows were sacrificed to Persephone as an -infernal goddess, but she does not appear to have had any temples of her -own. - -[Illustration: Fig. 45.—Persephone Enthroned. Painting from Pompeii. -Naples.] - - Persephone is of no great importance in art, and statues of her are - rare. She is represented either as the fair daughter of Demeter, or - as the grave, severe queen of the world of shadows. In the latter - character she may generally be recognised by her sceptre and diadem. - Her other attributes are ears of corn, a poppy, and a torch, as a - symbol of her connection with the Eleusinian mysteries, besides the - pomegranate and narcissus. The engraving (Fig. 45), after a painting - in the Naples Museum, represents her as the Stygian queen. - - -=16. Hades (Pluto).=—The same twofold nature which we meet with in -Persephone may be observed also in her husband, Hades, or Aïdoneus (the -invisible), as he is called by the epic poets, on account of the -mysterious gloom in which his kingdom as well as his person was -enveloped. He first appears as the unrelenting, inexorable foe of human -life, on whom one cannot even think without fear and trembling. For this -reason, says Homer, “he is of all the gods the most detested among -mortals.” This conception, however, was subsequently supplanted by one -of a less dismal nature, in which the other side of his character is -brought into prominence. From this point of view he is represented not -only as sending nourishment to plants from the deep bosom of the earth, -but also as offering unbounded riches to mankind in the shape of the -precious metals which lie in his subterraneous passages and chambers. In -this sense he was also called Pluto, or Pluteus—that is, the god of -riches. - -Hades belonged to the earliest deities of Greece, being, like Poseidon, -a brother of Zeus. When the three brothers partitioned the universe -among themselves, Hades received the dark regions of the earth as his -exclusive kingdom, the portals of which he was said to keep closed, in -order that no soul might return to the upper world without his consent. -He was also termed Polydectes (the receiver of many), from the fact of -his seizing on all men, without distinction, at their appointed time, -and conveying them to his dismal realms. The ideas which men first -entertained, as to the mode in which Hades exercised his power over -mortals, exactly corresponded with their grim conception of the god. He -was looked on as a powerful and dreaded robber, who, as in the case of -Persephone, seizes on his prey and carries it off with his swift horses. -Later, a milder conception of the god was introduced. The task of -carrying the souls of the dead to the lower world was delegated to -Hermes, who thus became a servant of Pluto, the Zeus of the infernal -regions, just as he was otherwise a servant of the Zeus of heaven. But -though the original dismal conception of this deity as the inexorable -god of death was much diminished in course of time, yet Hades, -nevertheless, always conveyed an idea of something grim and mysterious -to the Greek mind; which is perhaps the reason why so few myths, beyond -that of the rape of Proserpina, were circulated concerning him. He can, -in fact, scarcely be said to have had a place in the public worship of -the Greeks. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 46.—Head of Hades. Palazzo Chigi. Rome.] - -The Roman conception of this deity differed little from that of the -Greeks, having been, in fact, borrowed entirely from a Greek source. By -them he was called Pluto, or Pater Dis. He had no temple in Rome, but -had, in common with Proserpina, a subterranean altar in the Campus -Martius, which was uncovered and used once a-year. Only black animals -were sacrificed to him. - - Artists naturally hesitated to portray a being whose very name they - feared to pronounce, and consequently antique statues of Hades are - very rare. His characteristic features—a grim expression of - countenance, tightly-closed lips, and long tangled hair—are embodied - in a marble head, in the possession of Prince Chigi at Rome, of - which we give an engraving (Fig. 46). His principal attributes are a - sceptre, a votive bowl, and sometimes a two-pronged fork, or a key. - - -=17. The Lower World.=—To our consideration of Hades we must add some -remarks on the ideas which the ancient Greeks and Romans had of the -other life and of the abodes of the dead. It may be well to remark, at -the outset, that the Romans do not originally appear to have believed in -a kingdom of the dead in the interior of the earth, and that all their -ideas on this subject were borrowed from the writings of the Greeks. -Neither do their ideas on this subject, nor even those of the Greeks, -appear to have been invariably the same at all times. Even in the poetry -of Homer we come across two very different views as to the situation of -the realms of the dead. According to that which we find in the _Iliad_, -it was situated beneath the disc-shaped earth, only a thin layer -separating it from the upper world. This is made evident on the occasion -of the great battle of the gods in the 20th book, where we read— - - “Pluto, the infernal monarch, heard alarmed, - And, springing from his throne, cried out in fear, - Lest Neptune, breaking through the solid earth, - To mortals and immortals should lay bare - His dark and drear abode of gods abhorred.” - -According to another view which prevails in the _Odyssey_, the world of -shadows was not situated beneath the earth, but lay far to the westward, -on the other side of Oceanus, or on an island in the same; so indefinite -and vague were men’s ideas as to the locality of the kingdom of death in -the time of Homer, and so undeveloped were their conceptions as to the -lives of departed souls. The lower world appears as a desolate, dismal -region, where departed spirits lead a shadowy, dreamy existence, to -reach which is no happiness. There is no difference in their lots; for -we as yet hear nothing of the judgment of the dead. The Elysian fields, -to which the special favourites of the gods were transferred, form no -part of the lower world in Homer, but were supposed to lie in an -entirely distinct region in the far West (the isles of the blest). Later -on, the outlines of the lower world become more clearly defined. It was -now supposed to be a region in the centre of the earth, with several -passages to and from the upper world. Through it flowed several -rivers—Cocytus, Pyriphlegethon, Acheron, and Styx. The last of these -encompassed the lower world several times, and could only be crossed by -the aid of Charon, the ferryman, who was depicted as a sullen old man -with a bristling beard. The Greeks therefore used to place an obolus -(small copper coin) in the mouths of their dead, in order that the soul -might not be turned back by Charon for lack of money. On the farther -side of the river the portals were watched by the dreadful hell-hound -Cerberus, a three-headed monster, who refused no one entrance, but -allowed none to leave the house of Pluto. All souls, on reaching the -lower world, had to appear before the tribunal of Minos, Rhadamanthus, -and Æacus. Those whose lives had been upright were then permitted to -enter Elysium, where they led a life of uninterrupted bliss; whilst -those who on earth had been criminal and wicked were consigned to -Tartarus, where they were tormented by the Furies and other evil -spirits. Those whose lives had not been distinctly good or bad remained -in the asphodel meadow, where as dim shadows they passed a dull, joyless -existence. - -The punishments of great criminals in the infernal regions were a -fruitful theme for the imagination of the poets. The most celebrated -criminals were Tityus, Tantalus, Sisyphus, Ixion, and the Danaids. We -have said that the idea of the judgment of the dead is not found in the -earliest legends. Hence we must expect to find, in some cases, that the -crimes supposed to have drawn down the wrath of the gods were either -later inventions, or had very little connection with the punishment -inflicted. Thus to take the case of Tantalus, the original idea appears -to have been the burning sun looking upon sweet fruits and streams of -water, and drying them up instead of being able to enjoy them. It is -possible that another part of the legend, the offering of his children -for the gods of heaven to eat, may have a similar origin. So the story -of Sisyphus seems to point to the sun daily toiling up the steep hill of -heaven, yet ever obliged to recommence his weary task. So the name Ixion -seems to be derived from a word meaning wheel, and to be yet another -allusion to the orb of day. As men began to forget the reality -underlying these words, and to think that some real person suffered -these woes, it was only natural that they should try to find a reason. -Generally, perhaps always, some point in the story could be twisted into -a crime deserving of punishment (compare the legend of Œdipus). The -punishment of Tityus, who had offered violence to Leto, consisted in -being chained to the earth, whilst two vultures continually gnawed at -his ever-growing liver. Tantalus, the ancestor of the Atridæ, Agamemnon -and Menelaus, had been deemed worthy to hold intercourse with the gods, -until he thought fit to put their omniscience to the test by setting -before them the flesh of his son Pelops. This crime he was condemned to -expiate by the torments of continual hunger and thirst. Above his head -were suspended the most beautiful fruits; but when he attempted to -snatch them, a gust of wind blew them beyond his reach. At his feet -flowed a stream of the purest water; but when he tried to quench his -thirst, it suddenly vanished into the ground. Sisyphus, formerly king of -Corinth, had provoked the wrath of the gods by his numerous crimes, and -was condemned, in consequence, to roll a block of stone up a high -mountain, which, on reaching the top, always rolled down again to the -plain. Ixion, a not less insolent offender, was bound hand and foot to -an ever-revolving wheel. Lastly, the Danaids, or daughters of Danaus, -who, at their father’s command, had slain their husbands on the wedding -night, were condemned to pour water continually into a cask full of -holes, which could never be filled. - - -=18. The Erinyes (Furiæ).=—The Erinyes, or Furies, were denizens of the -lower world, who executed the commands of Hades and Persephone. They -were ultimately three in number, and their names were Tisiphone, Alecto, -and Megæra; and this number, like that of the Graces, the Fates, and -others, is due to the fact that the Greeks expressed any undefined -number by the sacred numeral three. In their original signification they -appear as the avengers of every violation, either on the part of gods or -men, of the moral laws of the universe. When, at a later period, the -idea of an avenging Nemesis had become more and more developed, the -significance of the Erinyes diminished, and their avenging duties were -confined to the family. - -As the inexorable pursuers of every injury done to the sacred ties of -blood—especially the murder of kindred—they received a much greater -degree of attention at the hands of the Greek tragic poets, by whom they -were frequently brought on the stage. The pictures thus drawn of the -relentless activity of the Erinyes are both powerful and striking. -Nothing can equal the keen scent with which they trace the crime, or the -untiring speed with which they pursue the criminal. As a symbol of this -latter quality, the poets have endowed them with brazen feet. Their -appearance is wan and Gorgon-like; wild lust for blood is written in -their features, and the serpents which twine round their heads in the -place of hair deal out destruction and death on their unhappy victims. -Flight avails them nought, for there is no region whither the avenging -Furies cannot follow, no distance that they cannot compass. With torch -swung on high they dog the steps of the unhappy wretch, like swift -huntresses following in the track of their hard-pressed game, and never -rest until they have driven him to madness and death. - -What, then, was the origin of the belief in these dreadful beings? Two -explanations have been given, and in each case we shall see in them the -powers of nature. Whether we are to look upon them as the storm-clouds -darting lightnings upon the criminal, or as the bright dawn rising over -the earth and pointing out his hiding-place, we must recognise the idea -of the punishment of sin, inflicted by the powers of heaven. If, as -seems most probable (_cf._ the genealogy given them by Æschylus and -Sophocles), we are to take the latter explanation, we shall have some -reason for the names of “kindly” and “venerable,” applied to them by the -Greeks, partly, no doubt, owing to the ancient custom of avoiding words -of ill-omen. Yet poetical mythology treated this as a transformation of -their nature, and associated it with a special event, namely, the -institution of the Areopagus at Athens, and the purification of the -matricide Orestes effected by this venerable court. The story relates -that Orestes, after having slain his mother Clytæmnestra and her -infamous paramour Ægisthus, in revenge for the murder of his father -Agamemnon, wandered for a long time about the earth in a state bordering -on madness, owing to the persecution of the Erinyes. At length, however, -he was befriended by Apollo and Athene, the kindly deities of the -luminous Æther. Apollo first purified him before his own altar at -Delphi, and then defended him before the court of the Areopagus, which -had been founded by Athene. Orestes was here acquitted, for Athene, when -the votes for and against him were equal, declared that then and in all -future time the criminal should have the benefit of the doubt. The -Furies, indeed, were at first very wroth, and threatened the land with -barrenness both of women and soil; but Athene succeeded in pacifying -them, by promising that a shrine should be erected to them on the hill -of the Areopagus. After they had taken possession of this sanctuary, -they were thenceforth venerated by the Athenians, under the names of -Semnæ (venerable), or Eumenides (benevolent), as propitious deities who, -though they still continued to punish crimes, were ever ready to grant -mercy to the repentant sinner, and to give succour to all good men. - -There were different traditions concerning the origin of the Erinyes. -According to Hesiod, they owed their existence to the first execrable -crime committed since the beginning of the world, for they were the -daughters of Earth, and sprang from the drops of blood that fell from -the mangled body of Uranus. They here appear, therefore, as an -embodiment of the curses which the angry father invoked on the head of -his unnatural son. Sophocles, on the other hand, calls them the -daughters of Gæa and Scotos (darkness of night). Æschylus simply terms -them the daughters of the Night. Besides the shrine in Athens already -mentioned, they had another near the city, a sacred grove in Colonus, -which was celebrated as the last refuge of the unfortunate Œdipus. In -Athens they had an annual festival, at which libations of milk and honey -were made to them. - - In art the Erinyes are represented as swift huntresses, armed with - spear, bow, and quiver. Torches, scourges, or snakes were also put - in their hands. They were, moreover, provided with wings on their - shoulders or head as a token of their swiftness. - - -=19. Hecate.=—Among the mystic deities of the lower world we must not -omit to mention Hecate. By the Romans, indeed, she was never publicly -venerated, though she was not exactly unknown to them. Common tradition -made her a daughter of the Titan Perseus and Asteria. She ruled -principally over the secret forces of Nature, which perhaps explains the -spectral and awe-inspiring form which this goddess assumed. She was -supposed to preside over all nocturnal horrors, and not only to haunt -the tombs and cross-roads herself in company with the spirits of the -dead, but also to send nightly phantoms from the lower world, such as -the man-eating spectre Empusa, and other fabulous goblins. - -As her name seems to signify, Hecate (far-striking) was originally a -moon-goddess, not like either Artemis or Selene, but representing the -new moon in its invisible phase. The ancients not being able to account -for the different phases of the moon, naturally came to the conclusion -that, when invisible, it was tarrying in the lower world. The public -worship of the goddess was not very extensive, but her importance in -connection with the mysteries was all the greater. Men were wont to -affix small pictures of her to houses and city gates, which were -supposed to prevent any bad spells from affecting the town or house. On -the last day of every month her image on the house doors was crowned -with garlands, and viands were set before it in her honour, which were -afterwards eaten by the poor, and termed the meals of Hecate. Wooden -images of the goddess with three faces were generally set up where three -roads met, and here dogs were sacrificed to her as sin-offerings for the -dead. This usually took place on the thirtieth day after death. As in -the case of other infernal deities, black lambs were sacrificed to her, -besides libations of milk and honey. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 47.—Three-formed Hecate. Capitoline Museum.] - - Hecate was generally represented as three-formed (_triformis_), - which probably has some connection with the appearance of the full, - half, and new moon. In order to explain more clearly the nature of - such a representation, we give an engraving (Fig. 47) after a bronze - statuette in the Capitoline Museum at Rome. The figure facing us - holds in her hands a key and a rope, which point her out as the - portress of the lower world; over her brow is a disc, representing, - probably, the dark surface of the new moon. The figure on the right - holds in either hand a torch, in virtue of her character as a mystic - goddess, whilst on her brow is a half-moon and a lotus-flower. - Lastly, the third figure bears, as a symbol of the full moon, a - Phrygian cap with a radiant diadem fastened on it, which gives forth - seven rays; in her right hand is a knife, in her left the tail of a - serpent, of which no satisfactory interpretation has hitherto been - discovered. - - -=20. Sleep and Death.=—Sleep and Death were conceived by the ancients as -twin brothers. According to Hesiod, they were children of Night alone. -They dwelt in the lower world, whence they visited the earth to steal -over mortals; the former a kindly benevolent spirit, the latter grim and -cruel. Apart from this conception, which was especially developed by -later poets and artists, Death was sometimes depicted as quite distinct -from Sleep, and in a still less amiable guise. The different forms of -violent death were personified as female deities of formidable aspect, -called the Ceres; or Apollo and Artemis among the inhabitants of heaven, -and Pluto and Persephone among those of the lower world, were -represented, as the deities of death. The Romans had a personal god of -death, whom they called Orcus; he was represented as an armed warrior -dealing out mortal wounds among mankind. But none of these special gods -of death had any great importance, either in religion or art. Artists, -indeed, laboured sedulously to diminish the dreadful appearance of -Thanatus (death), and to render him more and more like his brother -Hypnus (sleep). - - Thanatus and Hypnus often appear in company, either sleeping or - standing; the former usually bears a reversed torch, the latter a - poppy-stalk or a horn, out of which he is pouring some liquid. They - are both generally represented in the bloom of youth. In Fig. 34, - which is after a drawing of Asmus Carstens, they appear as the - children of Night, and are here brought into immediate connection - with the other powers, Nemesis and the Parcæ, who control the - destinies of man. - -Besides Sleep and Death, Hesiod also mentions Dreams as the children of -Night. Other writers, however, call them the sons of Sleep, who dwell in -the far West, close to the realms of Hades. This house of dreams has, in -Homer’s well-known description, two gates—one of ivory, through which -pass flattering, deceptive dreams, and one of horn, whence the true -dreams proceed. Morpheus was made the special god of dreams by the -poets, and termed the son of Hypnus. - - - IV.—ROMAN DEITIES OF THE HOUSE AND FAMILY. - -Before passing to the heroic legends, some remarks are necessary -concerning the inferior deities, who played such an important part in -the domestic worship of the Romans. We have already incidentally -remarked that the people of Italy generally passed by the greater gods -of the heaven and earth in anxious awe. Their invocation and adoration -was left to public worship, whilst, in their less important domestic -concerns, men had recourse to certain inferior deities, whom they -thought nearer to them; just as in the present day, in Italy, the common -people prefer to communicate their prayers and wishes to their patron -saints rather than to the Almighty himself. - - -=1. The Penates.=—The Penates were the kindly domestic deities of the -Romans—the guardians of the household, who especially provided for its -daily wants. Of their name, number, and sex nothing is known—not because -the facts have been lost to us, but because the Romans themselves were -content with this indefinite conception. Similar good spirits, exerting -an active influence in the household, were recognised by popular German -superstition, without experiencing any necessity of having distinct -names for them. The shrine of the Penates consisted of the hearth, the -central point of the house, which not only served for the preparation of -meals, but was also especially dedicated to religious purposes. It stood -in the “atrium,” the only large room in the Roman house, where the -family met for meals and received visitors. On the hearth, a fire was -continually kept burning in honour of Vesta and the Penates. Around it, -after the introduction of images of the gods, were placed the statues of -the Penates. These were generally small and puppet-like, and, among the -poorer classes, were only roughly cut out of wood. There was no domestic -occurrence, either of joy or mourning, in which the Penates did not take -part. Like the Lares, of whom we shall speak presently, they -participated in the daily meal, portions being set on certain plates for -that purpose before the images. There were also State Penates, the -ancients regarding the state as nothing but an extended family. The -temple of Vesta was to the state what the hearth was to the household. -Here was the seat of their worship, and here it was that the Roman -Pontifex Maximus brought those offerings which, in private households, -were the part of the head of the family. In the innermost sanctuary of -the temple of Vesta there were statues of these Penates, of great -sanctity, since Æneas was reported to have brought them with him from -Troy. We have no trustworthy information as to their number or -appearance, for, with the exception of the Pontifex and the Vestal -Virgins, none ever entered the holy place. It is scarcely necessary to -add that they were believed to exercise an especial influence on the -welfare and prosperity of the state and people of Rome. - - -=2. The Lares.=—The Lares, like the Penates, were the tutelary deities -of the house and family, and on that account often confounded with them. -They were commonly supposed to be the glorified spirits of ancestors, -who, as guardian deities, strove to promote the welfare of the family. -The seat of their worship was also the family hearth in the atrium, -where their images of wood or wax were generally preserved in a separate -shrine of their own (Lararium). The Lares received an especial degree of -veneration on the first day of every month; but, like the Penates, they -took part in all the domestic occurrences, whether of joy or sorrow. -Like the Penates, they also received their share at every meal on -particular dishes, and were crowned with garlands on the occasion of -every family rejoicing. When a son assumed the _toga virilis_ (came of -age), he dedicated his _bulla_[5] to the Lares, amid prayers and -libations and burning of incense. When the father of the house started -on a journey or returned in safety, the Lares were again addressed, and -their statues crowned with wreaths, flowers and garlands being their -favourite offerings. - -Footnote 5: - - A gold or silver ornament, like a medal, which was worn round the neck - during childhood. - -The same conception which pervades the domestic Lares may be perceived -in a more extensive form in the Lares of the Gens, the city, and the -state itself. The Lares do not appear, in fact, to have differed in many -respects from the heroes worshipped by the Greeks. At all events, -Romulus and Remus, the mythical founders of the city, were regarded as -its Lares, and, in the time of Augustus, the genius of the emperor was -associated with them. - - -=3. Larvæ, Lemures, and Manes.=—Just as the Lares were regarded as the -good and happy spirits of ancestors, the souls of others were supposed -to wander about in the guise of evil demons and spectres, giving rise to -weird terrors, and casting bad spells on the senses of those whom they -met. Such was especially believed to be the fate of those who had not -received burial, or in whose case the prescribed ceremonies had been -neglected, and who being, in consequence, unable to find rest, were -doomed to flit about the earth. Such spirits were called Larvæ, or -Lemures. The propitiatory festival of the Lemuria, or Lemuralia, which -was said to have been instituted in memory of the murdered Remus, was -celebrated annually in their honour on the 9th, 11th, and 13th of May. -Every paterfamilias was supposed during these days to perform certain -midnight ceremonies, and to repeat certain forms, which had the effect -of banishing any evil spirits. - -In contrast to the Lares and Larvæ, the souls of the dead were also -commonly venerated as Manes, or good spirits. These were believed after -burial to have been converted into beings of a higher order, who dwelt, -indeed, in the interior of the earth, but exercised, notwithstanding, a -considerable influence on the affairs of the upper world. It was -possible to summon them from the lower world by means of sacrifices. A -general festival of the dead took place in February, when the Manes were -propitiated with offerings and libations. These offerings were placed on -the tombs of the deceased, and, of course, varied extremely, according -to the means of the donors. - -[Illustration] - - - - - PART III.—THE HEROES. - - - I.—INTRODUCTORY. - -On passing to heroic mythology, a world still more rich in marvels than -that with which we have already become acquainted presents itself to our -view. The greater extent of this department of mythic lore is easily -comprehensible, if we take into consideration the multitude of separate -existences into which Greek life was split up, even from the earliest -times. Each of the numberless countries, islands, cities, and towns -endeavoured to trace back its peculiar institutions to mythical founders -and ancestors; and as these were always described either as the sons or -as the favourites of the gods, there accordingly sprang up, in course of -time, a vast number of local heroic legends. These fabulous founders of -states, however, were not the only heroes of Greek mythology. The -attempt to pierce the clouds of obscurity which enveloped the early -history of mankind, and the desire of a more enlightened age to bridge -over the intervening gulf, and fill it with beings who should form a -connecting link between the sublime forms of the great inhabitants of -Olympus and the puny race of mortals, naturally gave rise to a whole -series of heroic legends. These were partly the property of entire -nationalities, or even of the whole Hellenic race, and partly of a local -or provincial character. Moreover, as the gods collectively were divided -into gods proper and dæmones—that is to say, spirits resembling the -gods, but inferior to them in wisdom and power, whose workings men saw -in air and earth and sea—even so the race of mortals was divided into -heroes and men, between whom a similar difference subsisted. The latter -are, in their nature, not different from the former—both are alike -mortal, and must at length fall a prey to inexorable death. But the -heroes are endowed with a degree of physical strength and dexterity, -courage and endurance under difficulties, such as never fall to the lot -of ordinary men. It was not, however, by any means all who lived in this -early mythical period who were accounted heroes; but, just as in Genesis -vi. 2 a distinction is made between the “sons of God” and the “daughters -of men,” so in the present instance the heroes were the mighty ones—the -ruling spirits of the age—those whose marvellous exploits contributed to -remove the obstacles to civilisation and culture, who delivered -countries from cruel robbers and savage beasts, who drained marshes, -made roads through untrodden forests, and regulated the course of -rivers. By their actions they proved themselves men of no ordinary -powers, endowed with divine strength, and, therefore, apparently of -divine origin. It appeared, at least, that such beings must have had an -origin different from that of ordinary men, who were made out of clay, -or sprang from trees or stones. Some of these heroes may perhaps have -had a real existence, having probably been the ancestors of the later -dominant races, to whom a dim tradition reached. Others were undoubtedly -a product of the imagination. To these may be added a third class, and -this is by far the most numerous, including those who were originally -personifications of various natural phenomena, and, as such, deified and -venerated in local forms of worship, but who were later, in consequence -of the birth of new political communities, expelled from their place in -public worship, and only continued to exist in the popular faith in the -inferior character of heroes. Many such heroes were afterwards again -promoted to the rank of gods, though with an altered meaning (_e.g._, -Heracles). - -Any real veneration of heroes by prayers and sacrifices can scarcely be -said to have existed before the migration of the Heraclidæ—at least -there is no mention of it in Homer. Even later, except in the case of -those heroes who were raised to the rank of gods for their great deeds, -and who were, therefore, worshipped in temples of their own, the worship -of heroes is scarcely to be distinguished from that of the dead. Homer -makes no distinction between the fate of heroes after death and that of -ordinary mortals, all being doomed alike to the gloomy realms of Hades. -As we have already observed, it was only certain special favourites, or -sons of Zeus, who were excepted from this gloomy lot, and were -transported in their bodily shape to the Isles of the Blest. Hesiod, on -the other hand, says that all heroes—whom he, in the first instance, -terms demigods—were transported to the Isles of the Blest, where Cronus -ruled over them. Here, for the first time, the idea of a just -retribution in the other world takes a definite shape; for Hesiod -obviously conceives a residence in Elysium to be the reward of -meritorious actions performed in the upper world. This idea was -subsequently more fully developed, especially in the mysteries, and men -were gradually elevated to a belief in the immortality of the soul. The -spirits of the dead were believed, even after they were in their graves, -to exert continually a mysterious influence; on which account men strove -to gain their favour by means of offerings, thereby removing every real -distinction between the worship of heroes and that of the dead. - -Amid the multitude of legends of this kind, we shall only dwell upon -those which occupy a prominent position either in poetry or in art. We -shall begin with those which relate to the creation and early -civilisation of mankind, after which we shall pass to the most -celebrated provincial legends, and conclude with those that refer to the -more important of the common undertakings of the later heroic age. - - - II.—THE CREATION AND PRIMITIVE CONDITION OF MANKIND. - -The legends concerning the origin of the human race differ very widely. -The most ancient are undoubtedly those which describe men as springing -from the trees or rocks. Another tradition asserts that the human race -was of later growth, having been first called into existence by Zeus and -the gods of Olympus. A third account makes the Titan Prometheus, the son -of Iapetus, the creator of mankind, but leaves it uncertain whether this -took place before or after the flood of Deucalion. Prometheus, according -to this account, made men of clay and water, after which Athene breathed -a soul into them. There were likewise various accounts concerning the -primeval condition of mankind. According to one, the human race raised -itself, with the assistance of the gods, from a state of helpless -barbarism: this progress was the subject of numerous legends. Another -account represents men as living originally in a holy and happy -communion with the gods (the golden age), and asserts that they first -became savage after having lost this good fortune by their presumption. - -Of the myths that relate to the introduction of the first elements of -civilisation among mankind by divine aid, there is none, except those -already mentioned concerning Dionysus and Demeter, more celebrated than -the story of Prometheus. The Titan Iapetus had, by Clymene, the daughter -of Oceanus, four sons—the stout-hearted Atlas, the presumptuous -Menœtius, the crafty Prometheus, and the foolish Epimetheus. With the -name of Prometheus is linked the idea of the first commencement of -civilisation among mankind by the introduction of fire. Prometheus is -said to have stolen fire from heaven, and to have taught its use to man. -By being employed for all the common purposes of daily life, however, -this pure celestial element became polluted; whereupon Zeus visited the -author of this sacrilege with a fearful punishment. He ordered -Prometheus to be chained to a rock, where, during the day-time, an eagle -devoured his liver (the seat of all evil desires), which always grew -again during the night. - -It is very difficult to see the origin of this series of legends, but -the foundation seems to be the discovery of fire by man. At any rate, -one word, closely resembling the name Prometheus, appears in India as -the name of the stick used to produce fire by friction. If this be the -case, we shall see in parts of the Greek legend instances of the -ever-recurring principle, that when the real derivation of a word is -lost, men try to give it an explanation by attaching it to the nearest -word in the existing language (_cf._ the derivation of Pan mentioned p. -130). When the notion of “forethought” had once been attached to his -name, it would be natural to invent a complementary legend about his -brother Epimetheus (afterthought). - -The legend of Prometheus appears in its grandest form in Æschylus’ play, -“Prometheus Bound.” - -The idea that, together with the introduction of civilisation, many -evils which were before unknown to man came into existence, is expressed -in the myth of Pandora. Zeus determined to leave mankind in possession -of Prometheus’ gift; but he ordered Hephæstus to make an image of a -beautiful woman, which the gods then endowed with life and adorned with -all kinds of gifts, whence she was called Pandora. Aphrodite bestowed on -her the seductive charms that kindle love, Athene instructed her in -every art, Hermes endued her with a smooth tongue and a crafty -disposition, whilst the Seasons and Graces adorned her with flowers and -fine dresses. Zeus then sent her, under the guidance of Hermes, to the -foolish Epimetheus, who, in spite of the warning of his brother not to -accept any present from Zeus, received Pandora and made her his wife. -There was in the house of Epimetheus a closed jar, which he had been -forbidden to open, and which contained all kinds of diseases and ills. -Pandora removed the cover and these escaped, and men who had before been -free from disease and care have ever since been tormented. Pandora -closed the jar in time to keep in Hope. Thus both Greek legend and -Biblical tradition alike represent woman as the first cause of evil and -death. - -The legend of the five ages of mankind transports us to quite another -region of tradition. According to this, the gods first created a golden -race of men, who lived free from care and sorrow, while the earth, of -its own accord, furnished them with all that was necessary to support -life. Subject neither to the infirmities of age nor to the pangs of -sickness and disease, men at last sank peacefully, as into a sweet -sleep, to death. In what manner the golden age disappeared is not -related; we are only told that this race, notwithstanding its -disappearance, still continues to exist in the upper world, in the shape -of good spirits, who guard and protect mortals. After this, the gods -created a second (silver) race of men, who were, however, far inferior -to their predecessors, both in mind and body. They passed their time in -idle and effeminate pursuits, and refused to pay the gods due honours. -Zeus, in his wrath, thereupon blotted them out from the face of the -earth, and created the third (brazen) race of mankind out of ash wood. -This race proved headstrong and violent. They were of giant stature and -great strength, and took pleasure in nothing but battle and strife. -Their weapons, houses, and utensils were of bronze, iron not yet being -known. Zeus was not compelled to destroy this evil race, since they -destroyed themselves in their bloodthirsty strife. According to another -account, they were destroyed by the flood of Deucalion. - -Deucalion appears to have been a son of Prometheus, while his wife -Pyrrha was the daughter of Epimetheus and Pandora. Zeus having -determined to destroy the corrupt race of the third or bronze age by a -flood, Prometheus warned his son, who built himself an ark, into which -he retired with his wife when the waters began to rise. Nine days and -nights he was tossed on the waters; at length his vessel rested on Mount -Parnassus in Bœotia. He disembarked, and immediately offered a sacrifice -of thanksgiving to Zeus the preserver. Pleased at his gratitude, Zeus -granted his prayer for the restoration of the human race; and Deucalion -and Pyrrha were commanded by Hermes to cast stones behind them, from -which sprang a new race of men. Such is the legend in its most ancient -form; later writers engrafted on it still farther incidents of Biblical -tradition, until at last the Greek Noah was represented as having taken -living animals with him into the ark, and as having let loose a dove -after his landing on Parnassus. - - - III.—PROVINCIAL HEROIC LEGENDS. - - -=1. The Lapithæ and the Centaurs.=—We shall commence with the Thessalian -legend of the Lapithæ and Centaurs, on account of its great antiquity -and its importance in sculpture. We read in the Homeric poems how the -hoary Nestor on one occasion boasts of having, in his younger days, -taken part with his friends Pirithoüs and Cæneus, and the other princes -of the Lapithæ, in their contest with the savage Centaurs. In Homer’s -account the Centaurs are merely depicted as an old Thessalian mountain -tribe of giant strength and savage ferocity, utterly unable to control -their rude, sensual nature. Nor do we find here any mention of their -being half horses and half men; they are merely said to have inhabited -the mountain districts of Œta and Pelion, in Thessaly, and to have been -driven thence by the Lapithæ into the higher mountain-lands of Pindus. - -Their contest with the Lapithæ is sometimes conceived as a symbol of the -struggle of Greek civilisation with the still existing barbarism of the -early Pelasgian period. This may be the reason why Greek art, when in -its bloom, devoted itself so especially to this subject. The origin of -this contest is referred to the marriage feast of Pirithoüs and -Hippodamia, to which the principal Centaurs had been invited. On this -occasion the Centaur Eurytion, heated with wine, attempted to carry off -the bride; this gave rise to a contest which, after dreadful losses on -both sides, ended in the complete defeat of the Centaurs. The Centaurs, -however, since they were thus able to sit with the Lapithæ at meat, must -have been endowed with purely human forms. - -Theseus and Nestor, the friends of Pirithoüs, both took part in the -battle. Another prominent warrior was the gigantic Cæneus (Slayer), who -had been rendered invulnerable by Poseidon, but whom the Centaurs slew -on this occasion by burying him beneath a mass of trees and rocks. - -There is, however, also a natural explanation of the tales of these -strange beings. The father of the Centaurs is Ixion, who, as we have -already seen, may be interpreted to be the sun. The crime said to have -been the cause of his punishment was his love for Hera (the goddess of -the atmosphere). If we take these points, together with the legend that -Ixion begat the Centaurs of Nephele, the cloud, we may be prepared to -see in the horse-formed Centaurs a parallel to the cows of the sun, the -bright clouds which pass over the sky. There is the more ground for -this, as similar beings appear in Indian mythology, and their name has, -with much probability, been identified with that of the Centaurs. - -[Illustration: Fig. 48.—Metope of the Parthenon.] - - As we have already mentioned, the Centaurs play an important part in - art. The custom of depicting them half horse and half man came into - vogue after the time of Pindar, and was quickly adopted in - sculpture. In the representations of earlier art the face of a man - is joined to the body and hind legs of a horse. But in its higher - stage of development, after the time of Phidias, this was replaced - by a more elegant conception, and the body of a man from the navel - upwards was joined to the complete body of a horse, so that the - Centaurs of this period have the four feet of a horse and the hands - and arms of a man. Such is their appearance on numerous extant art - monuments, of which we shall mention the most important. - - In the first place, there are the reliefs from the frieze of the - Theseum at Athens. This temple, which is still in a good state of - preservation, was converted during the middle ages into a chapel of - St. George. It is supposed to have been built at the instance of - Cimon, after he had brought back the bones of the Attic hero from - Scyros. Besides other important pieces, which we shall mention - hereafter, the temple has, on its western or hinder frieze, a - representation of the contests of the Centaurs and Lapithæ at the - wedding of Pirithoüs, done in Parian marble. It is executed in such - a manner that it is impossible to discover which party will get the - upper hand; and this has enabled the artist, whose name has not come - down to us, to introduce a lively variety into the different scenes - of the combat. - -[Illustration: Fig. 49.—From the Frieze of the Temple at Bassæ.] - - We have another series of most splendid representations from the - battle of the Centaurs, full of life and spirit, on some dilapidated - metopes[6] of the Parthenon at Athens. This splendid specimen of - Doric architecture is 227 feet in length and 101 feet in breadth. It - was ruined in 1687, during the war between the Venetians and Turks, - by a shell which broke through the midst of the marble roof. A large - part of the ninety-two metopes of the outer frieze contain a number - of the most beautiful and life-like scenes from the battle of the - Giants and that of the Centaurs. Of these metopes, thirty-nine still - remain on the temple, though they are all in a terribly mutilated - condition; seventeen are in the British Museum, and one in the - Louvre at Paris. Those from the south side are comparatively in the - best state of preservation; these are seventeen in number, the whole - number on the south side having been thirty-two. They represent, - exclusively, scenes from the battle of the Centaurs. Here a bearded - Centaur is carrying off a woman, whom he holds in his powerful - grasp; there, another is galloping away over the body of his fallen - enemy; another is engaged in a fierce contest with a human foe; - whilst a fourth lies slain on the field. The engraving we append may - give a faint idea of the beauty and bold design of this splendid - creation (Fig. 48). To these grand monuments of Greek art we must - add the frieze of the temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassæ, near - Phigalia in Arcadia, which was discovered in 1812, and is now in the - British Museum. It represents, likewise, a series of the most vivid - scenes from the battle of the Lapithæ and Centaurs. In the - individual groups and scenes of the battle, which is here completed - before our eyes, there is the same variety and animation, so that we - must ascribe it to some great artist (Fig. 49). - -Footnote 6: - - The squares between the triglyphs of the frieze which are intended - to support the gable, every one of which is generally adorned with - a separate sculpture in relief. - - Besides these sculptures in relief, some splendid single statues of - Centaurs have come down to us from antiquity. Among these, the first - place must be assigned to the two Centaurs in the Capitoline Museum. - They are executed in black marble, and were found in the villa of - Hadrian at Tivoli, where so many ancient art treasures have been - brought to light. - -Among the Centaurs, Chiron, who was famous alike for his wisdom and his -knowledge of medicine, deserves mention as the preceptor of many of the -heroes of antiquity. So far superior was he to his savage kindred, both -in education and manners, that he was commonly reported to have had a -different origin, and was therefore described as a son of Cronus and -Philyra, or Phyllira, one of the Oceanids. Homer, who knew nothing of -the equine shape of the Centaurs, represents him as the most upright of -the Centaurs, and makes him the friend of Peleus and the preceptor of -the youthful Achilles, whom he instructed in the art of healing and -gymnastic exercises. He was, moreover, related to both these heroes, his -daughter Endeïs having been the mother of Peleus. Subsequently, other -mythical heroes were added to the number of his pupils, such as Castor -and Polydeuces, Theseus, Nestor, Meleager, and Diomedes. Music, too, was -now represented as a subject of his instruction, though this is perhaps -due to a misinterpretation of the name of his mother. He inhabited a -cave on Mount Pelion; later mythology, however, transferred his -residence, after the Centaurs had been driven from Pelion by the -Lapithæ, to the promontory of Malea. Here, by an unlucky accident, he -was wounded with a poisoned arrow by his friend Heracles, and, the wound -being incurable, he voluntarily chose to die in the place of Prometheus. - -[Illustration: Fig. 50.—Centaur teaching a Boy to play upon the Pipe. -Relief by Kundmann.] - - The idea of the connection of the Centaurs with the arts and - sciences originated in the story of Chiron and Achilles, and has - since furnished modern art with the subjects for some of its most - valuable works. Fig. 50 represents a Centaur teaching a boy to play - on the flute, and is after an _alto-relievo_ of the Viennese - sculptor Kundmann. - - -=2. Theban Legend.=—_1. Cadmus._—Among Theban legends, none is more -celebrated than the founding of Thebes by Cadmus. Cadmus was a son of -the Phœnician king Agenor. After Zeus carried off his sister Europa to -Crete (_vide_ the _Cretan Legends_), he was despatched by his father in -search of her. Accompanied by his mother Telephassa, he came to Thrace -and thence to Delphi, where he was commanded by the oracle to relinquish -his quest. It further ordered him to follow a young heifer with the mark -of a crescent on either side, and to build a town on the place where the -heifer should lie down. Cadmus obeyed, and, finding the heifer in -Phocis, he followed her. She led him into Bœotia, and at length lay down -on a rising ground. On this spot Cadmus founded a town, which he called -Cadmea, after himself, though he had first to experience a perilous -adventure. Before sacrificing the heifer, he sent some of his companions -to fetch water from a neighbouring spring, where they were slain by a -dragon belonging to Ares which guarded the spring. Cadmus then went -himself, and slew the dragon, the teeth of which he sowed in the ground -by the advice of Pallas. Hereupon armed men sprang from the ground; they -immediately turned their arms against each other, and were all slain -except five. Cadmus built his new town with the assistance of these men, -who thus became the ancestors of the noble families of Thebes. In -expiation of the dragon’s death, Cadmus was obliged to do service to -Ares for eight years. At the end of this period Ares pardoned Cadmus and -gave him Harmonia—his daughter by Aphrodite—to wife. Harmonia became the -mother of four daughters—Autonoë, Ino, Semele, and Agave. After reigning -for a long time at Thebes, Cadmus was compelled in his old age to retire -to the Enchelians in Illyria; but whether he was driven out by Amphion -and Zethus (who appear in Homer as the founders of Thebes) or withdrew -from some other cause is not manifest. He and his wife were afterwards -changed into serpents, and transferred, by the command of Zeus, to the -Elysian fields. - -In this story we see another form of the combat of the hero with the -monster, and can probably give it the same explanation. The dragon -guards the waters, and the hero, by killing it, frees them. Do we not -see in this the combat of the sun with the cloud; and in the armed men -who turn their weapons against one another, the clouds that seem to -fight with one another in the thunderstorm? Yet even admitting this -interpretation, it may be that we have in the name of Cadmus an allusion -to the civilisation and the arts received by the Greeks from the East. -So, too, with the alphabet, the invention of which Hellenic tradition -ascribed to him. - -[Illustration: Fig. 51.—Actæon Group. British Museum.] - -_2. Actæon._—We have already incidentally mentioned the fortunes of -three of the daughters of Cadmus—Ino, Semele, and Agave. The eldest, -Autonoë, married Aristæus, the son of Apollo, and became by him the -mother of Actæon. Actæon was handed over to Chiron to be reared as a -stout hunter and warrior; but he had scarcely reached the prime of youth -when he was overtaken by a lamentable fate. Whilst hunting one day on -Mount Cithæron, he was changed by Artemis into a stag, and was torn in -pieces by his own dogs. The cause of her anger was either that Actæon -had boasted that he was a more skilful hunter than Artemis, or that he -had surprised the virgin goddess bathing. The latter tradition -ultimately prevailed, and, in later times, even the rock whence he -beheld Artemis was pointed out on the road between Megara and Platæa. He -received heroic honours in Bœotia, and his protection was invoked -against the deadly power of the sun in the dog-days. The story of Actæon -is probably nothing but a representation of the decay of verdant nature -beneath an oppressive summer heat. - - The story of Actæon’s transformation and death was a favourite - subject for sculpture. A small marble group, representing Actæon - beating off two dogs which are attacking him, was found in 1774, and - is now preserved in the British Museum (Fig. 51). - -_3. Amphion and Zethus._—Besides the royal family of Cadmus, which was -continued in Thebes after his departure by his son Polydorus, we come -across the scions of another ruling family of Thebes which came from -Hyria, or Hysia, in Bœotia, in the persons of Amphion and Zethus. -Nycteus, king of Thebes, had a wonderfully beautiful daughter called -Antiope, whose favours Zeus enjoyed on approaching her in the form of a -Satyr. On becoming pregnant, she fled from the resentment of her father -to Sicyon, where the king, Epopeus, received her and made her his wife. -This enraged Nycteus, who made war on Epopeus in order to compel him to -deliver up his daughter Antiope. He was obliged to retire without -accomplishing his purpose, but, on his death, he entrusted the execution -of his vengeance to his brother Lycus, who succeeded him. Lycus defeated -and slew Epopeus, destroyed Sicyon, and took Antiope back with him as -prisoner. On the way, at Eleutheræ on Cithæron, she gave birth to the -twins Amphion and Zethus. These were immediately exposed, but were -subsequently discovered and brought up by a compassionate shepherd. -Antiope was not only kept prisoner in the house of Lycus, but had also -to submit to the most harsh and humiliating treatment at the hands of -his wife Dirce. At length she managed to escape, and by a wonderful -chance discovered her two sons, who had grown, on lonely Cithæron, into -sturdy youths. The story of her wrongs so enraged them that they -resolved to wreak a cruel vengeance on Dirce. After having taken Thebes -and slain Lycus, they bound Dirce to the horns of a wild bull, which -dragged her about till she perished. According to another story, Dirce -came to Cithæron to celebrate the festival of Bacchus. Here she found -her runaway slave, whom she was about to punish by having her bound to -the horns of a bull. Happily, however, Amphion and Zethus recognised -their mother, and inflicted on the cruel Dirce the punishment she had -destined for another. Her mangled remains they cast into the spring near -Thebes which bears her name. - -[Illustration: Fig. 52.—Farnese Bull. Naples.] - - The punishment of Dirce forms the subject of numerous pieces of - sculpture. The most important among them is the Farnese Bull (_Toro - Farnese_) in the museum at Naples (Fig. 52). This world-renowned - marble group is supposed, with the exception of certain parts which - have been restored in modern times, to have been the work of the - brothers Apollonius and Tauriscus, of Tralles in Caria, Apollonius - and Tauriscus belonged to the Rhodian school, which flourished in - the third century B.C. This colossal group—undoubtedly the largest - which has descended to us from antiquity—was first erected in - Rhodes, but came, during the reign of Augustus, into the possession - of Asinius Pollio, the great art-patron. It was discovered in 1547 - in the Thermæ of Caracalla at Rome, and was set up in the Palazzo - Farnese. It was thence transferred to Naples in 1786, as a portion - of the Farnese inheritance. The following is a brief explanation of - the group, though, of course, the most complete account could give - but an imperfect idea of its beauty. The scene is laid on the rocky - heights of Cithæron. The position of the handsome youths on a rocky - crag is as picturesque as it is dangerous, and serves not only to - lend the group a pyramidal aspect pleasing to the eye, but also to - set before us their marvellous strength. There are several tokens - that the occurrence took place during a Bacchic festival: the wicker - _cista mystica_ in use at the festivals of Dionysus—the fawn skin - which Dirce wears—the ivy garland that has fallen at her feet—the - broken thyrsus, and, lastly, the Bacchic insignia which distinguish - the shepherd boy, who is sitting on the right watching the - proceedings with painful interest—all point to this fact. The lyre - which rests against the tree behind Amphion is a token of his - well-known love of music. The female figure in the background is - Antiope. - -The story goes on to relate that the two brothers, after the expulsion -and death of Lyons, acquired the sovereignty of Thebes, though Amphion -always figures as the real king. The two brothers were widely different -in disposition and character. Zethus appears to have been rude and -harsh, and passionately fond of the chase. Amphion, on the other hand, -is represented as a friend of the Muses, and devoted to music and -poetry. He soon had an opportunity of proving his wondrous skill when -they began to enclose Thebes, which had been before unprotected, with -walls and towers; for whilst Zethus removed great blocks and piled them -one on another by means of his vast strength, Amphion had but to touch -the strings of his lyre and break forth into some sweet melody, and the -mighty stones moved of their own accord and obediently fitted themselves -together. This is why Amphion is always represented in sculpture with a -lyre and Zethus with a club. We can scarcely doubt that these Theban -Dioscuri, like the Castor and Polydeuces of Sparta, who are well known -to be only symbols of the morning and evening star, were originally -personifications of some natural phenomenon; though we are no longer in -a position to say what it was. - -Amphion is further celebrated on account of the melancholy fate of his -sons and daughters. He married Niobe, the daughter of the Phrygian king -Tantalus, and sister of Pelops. Great was the happiness of this -marriage; the gods seemed to shower down their blessings on the royal -pair. Many blooming and lovely children grew up in their palace, the -pride and delight of their happy parents. From this paradise of purest -joy and happiness they were soon to pass into a night of the deepest -mourning and most cruel affliction through the presumption of Niobe—the -same presumption which had led her father Tantalus to trifle with the -gods and consummate his own ruin. The heart of Niobe was lifted up with -pride at the number of her children,[7] and she ventured to prefer -herself to Latona, who had only two; nay, she even went so far as to -forbid the Thebans to offer sacrifice to Latona and her children, and to -claim these honours herself. The vengeance of the offended deities, -however, now overtook her, and all her children were laid low in one day -before the unerring arrows of Apollo and his sister. The parents did not -survive this deep affliction. Amphion slew himself, and Niobe, already -paralysed with grief, was turned into stone by the pity of the gods, and -transferred to her old Phrygian home on Mount Sipylus, though even the -stone has not ceased to weep. - -Footnote 7: - - The number of Niobe’s children varies materially. Homer (_Il._ xxiv., - 602) gives her six sons and as many daughters. According to Hesiod and - Pindar, she had ten sons and ten daughters; but the most common - account, and that followed by the tragic poets, allows her fourteen - children. Everywhere the number of sons and daughters appears to be - equal. The story of Niobe was frequently treated of by the tragic - poets, both Æschylus and Sophocles having written tragedies bearing - her name. - -Such is the substance of this beautiful legend, though its details vary -considerably in the accounts of the poets and mythologists. The most -circumstantial and richly-coloured account of it is contained in the -_Metamorphoses_ of Ovid. The poets have continually striven to impose a -purely ethical interpretation on the story, by representing the -destruction of the children of Niobe as the consequence of the great sin -of their mother; but it is more probably a physical meaning which lies -at the root of the legend. It is, in fact, a picture of the melting of -the snow before the hot scorching rays of the sun. This incident the -fertile imagination of the Greeks portrayed in the most beautiful -metaphors. But just as a subject so purely tragic as the history of -Niobe found its first true development in tragic poetry, so likewise it -only attained its proper place in sculpture after art had laid aside its -earlier and more simple epic character, and set itself to depict, in -their full force, the inward passions of the soul. This tendency towards -pathos and effect is characteristic of the age of Praxiteles and Scopas, -and the later Attic school. - - To this age (4th century B.C.) belonged the group of Niobe, which - was so highly celebrated even among the ancients, and which was seen - by Pliny in the temple of Apollo Sosianus at Rome, although people - even then hesitated whether to ascribe it to Praxiteles or Scopas. - None but one of these great masters could have been the author of - this tragedy hewn in stone. Although the original figures of this - magnificent group have disappeared, yet copies of most of them are - still in existence. With regard to the celebrated Florentine Niobe - group, the dissimilarity of its treatment and the various kinds of - marble employed serve to show that it is not a Greek original, but a - Roman imitation. It was found at Rome in 1583, near the Lateran - Church, and was purchased by Cardinal Medici to adorn his villa on - the Monte Pincio. In 1775 it was brought to Florence, where it has - remained since 1794 in the gallery of the Uffizi. - - There has never been but one opinion as to the beauty of this group. - First among the figures—not only in size, but also in artistic - perfection—is that of Niobe herself. The unhappy queen displays in - her whole hearing so majestic and noble a demeanour, that, even if - none of the other splendid results of Greek sculpture had come down - to us, this alone would bear ample testimony to the high perfection - and creative power of Greek art. The following description of the - arrangement of the group is taken from Lübke’s _History of Plastic - Art_:— - -[Illustration: Fig. 54.—Niobe. Florence.] - - “Apollo and Artemis are to be supposed outside the group; they have - accomplished their work of vengeance and destruction from an - invisible position in the heavens. This is denoted by each movement - of the flying figures, who either gaze upwards in affright towards - the heavens, or seek to cover themselves with their garments. One of - the sons is already stretched dead on the earth; another leans in - mortal agony against a rock, fixing his eyes, already glazed in - death, on the spot whence destruction has overtaken him. A third - brother is striving in vain to protect with his robe his sister, who - has fallen wounded at his feet, and to catch her in his arms; - another has sunk on his knees, and clutches in agony at the wound in - his back; whilst his preceptor is endeavouring to shield the - youngest boy. All the others are fleeing instinctively to their - mother, thinking, doubtless, that she who had so often afforded - protection could save them also from the avenging arrows of the - gods. Thus from either side the waves of this dreadful flight rush - towards the centre, to break on the sublime figure of Niobe as upon - a rock. She alone stands unshaken in all her sorrow, mother and - queen to the last. Clasping her youngest daughter, whose tender - years have not preserved her, in her arms, and bending over as - though to shield the child, she turns her own proud head upwards, - and, before her left hand can cover her sorrow-stricken face with - her robe, she casts towards the avenging goddess a look in which - bitter grief is blended with sublime dignity of soul (Fig. 54). In - this look there is neither defiance nor prayer for mercy, but a - sorrowful and yet withal lofty expression of heroic resignation to - inexorable fate that is worthy of a Niobe. This admirable figure, - then, is pre-eminently the central point of the composition, since - it expresses an atonement which, in a scene of horror and - annihilation, stirs the heart to the deepest sympathy.” - -Zethus was not more fortunate than Amphion in his domestic affairs. He -married Aëdon (nightingale), the daughter of Pandareos. Pandareos was -the friend and companion of Tantalus, for whom he stole a living dog -made of brass from the temple of Zeus in Crete, and was on that account -turned into stone. - -Aëdon was jealous of the good-fortune of Niobe in having so many -beautiful children; she herself having only one son, Itylus. She -resolved, one night, to slay the eldest son of Niobe, but she killed, in -mistake, her own child instead. Zeus took compassion on her, and changed -her into a nightingale. In this guise she still continues to bewail her -loss in long-drawn mournful notes. Tradition says nothing as to the -death of Zethus, although the common grave of the Theban Dioscuri was -pointed out in Thebes. After his death, Laius, the son of Labdacus and -grandson of Polydorus, restored in his person the race of Cadmus to the -throne of Thebes. (See the legend of the Labdacidæ later on.) - - -=3. Corinthian Legend.=—_1. Sisyphus._—Corinth, or Ephyra, as it was -formerly called, was said to have been founded by Sisyphus, the son of -Æolus. Its inhabitants, on account of the position of their city between -two seas, were naturally inclined to deify that element, and it is not -improbable that Sisyphus was merely an ancient symbol of the restless, -ever-rolling waves of the sea. This interpretation, however, is by no -means certain; and the idea of Sisyphus in the lower world ever rolling -a huge stone to the top of a mountain might equally well refer to the -sun, which, after attaining its highest point in the heavens at the time -of the summer solstice, glides back again, only to begin its career anew -on the shortest day. In any case, the rolling of the stone does not -appear to have been originally a punishment. It was only later—after -people had become familiar with the idea of retribution in the lower -world—that it assumed this character. In order to account for it, a -special crime had to be found for Sisyphus. According to some, he was -punished at the instance of Zeus, because he had revealed to the -river-god Asopus the hiding-place of his daughter Ægina, whom Zeus had -secretly carried off from Phlius. According to another tradition, he -used to attack travellers, and put them to death by crushing them with -great stones. The Corinthians being crafty men of business, it was -natural that they should accredit their mythical founder with a refined -cunning. Of the numerous legends which existed concerning him, none was -more celebrated than that of the cunning mode in which he succeeded in -binding Death, whom Ares had to be despatched to release. - -_2. Glaucus._—Tradition describes Glaucus as a son of Sisyphus by -Merope. He also appears to have had a symbolic meaning, and was once -identical with Poseidon, though he was afterwards degraded from the rank -of a god to that of a hero. He is remarkable for his unfortunate end. On -the occasion of some funeral games, celebrated in Iolcus in honour of -Pelias, he took part in the chariot race, and was torn in pieces by his -own horses, which had taken fright. - -_3. Bellerophon and the Legend of the Amazons._—The third national hero -of Corinth was Bellerophon, or Bellerophontes. Here the reference to the -sun is so obvious, that the signification of the myth is unmistakeable. -He was termed the son of Poseidon or Glaucus, and none could appreciate -this genealogy better than the Corinthians, who daily saw the sun rise -from the sea. We must first, however, narrate the substance of the -story. Bellerophon was born and brought up at Corinth, but was obliged -from some cause or other to leave his country. That he killed Bellerus, -a noble of Corinth, is nothing but a fable arising from an unfortunate -misinterpretation of his name. He was hospitably received by Prœtus, -king of Tiryns, whose wife at once fell in love with the handsome, -stately youth. Finding, however, that Bellerophon slighted her passion, -she slandered him to her husband, and Prœtus forthwith sent him to his -father-in-law, Iobates, king of Lycia, with a tablet, mysterious signs -on which bade Iobates put the bearer to death. At this juncture the -heroic career of Bellerophon begins. Iobates sought to fulfil the -command of Prœtus by involving his guest in all kinds of desperate -adventures. He first sent him to destroy the Chimæra, a dangerous -monster that devastated the land. The fore part of its body was that of -a lion, the centre that of a goat, and the hinder part that of a dragon. -According to Hesiod, it had three heads—that of a lion, a goat, and a -dragon. According to the same poet, the Chimæra was a fire-breathing -monster of great swiftness and strength, the daughter of Typhon and -Echidna. Bellerophon destroyed the monster by raising himself in the air -on his winged horse Pegasus, and shooting it with his arrows. Pegasus -was the offspring of Poseidon and Medusa, from whose trunk it sprung -after Perseus had struck off her head. Bellerophon captured this -wonderful animal as it descended at the Acro-Corinthus to drink of the -spring of Pirene. In this he was assisted by the goddess Athene, who -also taught him how to tame and use it. Here, then, he appears to have -already possessed the horse at Corinth; though another tradition relates -that Pegasus was first sent to him when he set out to conquer the -Chimæra. The origin of the story is ascribed to a fiery mountain in -Lycia; but, as all dragons and suchlike monsters of antiquity are -represented as breathing forth fire and flames, we are perhaps scarcely -justified in having recourse to a volcano. This characteristic is, in -fact, merely a common symbol of the furious and dangerous character of -these monsters. The contest of Bellerophon is far more likely to be a -picture of the drying up, by means of the sun’s rays, of the furious -mountain torrents which flood the corn-fields. Others, again, have -thought that the Chimæra represents the storms of winter conquered by -the sun. - -The next adventure in which Iobates engaged Bellerophon was an -expedition against the Solymi, a neighbouring but hostile mountain -tribe. After he had been successful in subduing them, Iobates sent him -against the warlike Amazons, hoping that among them he would be certain -to meet his death. We here, for the first time, come across this -remarkable nation of women, with whom other Greek heroes, such as -Heracles and Theseus, are said to have fought; and it will not, -therefore, be foreign to our object to dwell here on their most -important features. - -[Illustration: Fig. 55—Amazon. Berlin.] - -The Amazons appear in legend as early as Homer, though he only mentions -them incidentally. They were said to be a nation of women, who suffered -no men among them, except so far as it was necessary to keep up the -race. The women, on the other hand, were trained from their earliest -years in all warlike exercises; so that they were not only sufficiently -powerful to defend their own land against foreign invaders, but also to -make plundering incursions into other countries. Their dominions, the -situation of which was at first indefinitely described as in the far -north or far west, were afterwards reduced to more distinct limits, and -placed in Cappadocia, on the river Thermodon, their capital being -Themiscyra in Scythia, on the borders of Lake Mæotis, where their -intercourse with the Scythians is said to have given rise to the -Sarmatian tribes. Later writers also speak of the Amazons in Western -Libya. Of the numerous stories rife concerning them, none is more -tasteless than that of their cutting off or burning out the right -breast, in order not to incommode themselves in the use of the bow. From -the Thermodon they are said to have made great expeditions as far as the -Ægean sea; they are even reported to have invaded Attica, and made war -on Theseus. They also play a prominent part in the story of Heracles, by -whom they were defeated; and in the Trojan war, when, under their queen -Penthesilea, they came to the assistance of Priam against the Greeks. - - The Amazons were frequently represented in Greek art. They are here - depicted as fine, powerful women, resembling Artemis and her nymphs, - though with stouter legs and arms. They generally appear armed, - their weapons being a long double-edged battle-axe (_bipennis_) and - a semicircular shield. An anecdote related by Pliny proves what a - favourite subject the Amazons were with Greek artists. He says that - the celebrated sculptors, Phidias, Polycletus, Phradmon, and - Cresilas, made a wager as to who should create the most beautiful - Amazon. Polycletus received the prize, so that we may conclude that - he brought this statue—the ideal Amazon of the Greeks—to its highest - perfection. Unfortunately, we know nothing of it, except that it was - of bronze, and stood with the statues of the other artists in the - temple of the Ephesian Artemis. The Amazon of Phidias, we are told, - was represented as leaning on a spear; Cresilas, on the other hand, - endeavoured to portray a wounded Amazon. Besides these statues, we - hear a great deal of the Amazon of Strongylion, celebrated for the - beauty of her legs, which was in the possession of Nero. - - We still possess a considerable number of Amazon statues, some of - which are supposed to be imitations in marble of the renowned statue - at Ephesus. There are, moreover, several statues of wounded Amazons, - some of which are believed to be copies of the work of Cresilas. - There is also another marble statue, considerably larger than life, - which takes a still higher rank. It was originally set up in the - Villa Mattei, but since the time of Clement XIV. it has been in the - Vatican collection. It is apparently a representation of an Amazon - resting after battle; she is in the act of laying aside her bow, as - she has already done her shield, battle-axe, and helmet. In doing so - she raises herself slightly on her left foot, an attitude which is - as charming as it is natural. - - Lastly, we must not omit to mention a statue that has newly come - into the possession of the Berlin Museum, which is supposed to be - after a work of Polycletus (Fig. 55). - -We must now return to the history of Bellerophon. After returning in -triumph from his expedition against the Amazons, the life of the young -hero was once more attempted by Iobates, who caused him to be surprised -by an ambuscade. Bellerophon, however, again escaped, slaying all his -assailants. Iobates now ceased from further persecution, and gave him -his daughter in marriage, and a share in the kingdom of Lycia. -Bellerophon, in full possession of power and riches, and surrounded by -blooming children, seemed to have reached the summit of earthly -prosperity, when he was overtaken by a grievous change of fortune. He -was seized with madness, and wandered about alone, fleeing the society -of men, until he at length perished miserably. Pindar says that he -incurred the enmity of the gods by attempting to fly to heaven on his -winged horse Pegasus; whereupon Zeus sent a gadfly to sting the horse. -Pegasus cast off Bellerophon, and flew of his own accord to the stables -of Zeus, whose thunder-chariot he has ever since drawn. The sad fate of -Bellerophon was the subject of a touching tragedy of Euripides, some -parts of which are still in existence. Heroic honours were paid to -Bellerophon in Corinth, and he also had a shrine in the celebrated -cypress-grove of Poseidon. - - -=4. Argive Legend.=—_1. Io._—The first personage who meets us on the -very threshold of the mythic age of Argos is Inachus, the god of the -Argive river of that name. Inachus was venerated by the inhabitants as -the first founder of Argive civilisation after the flood of Deucalion. -By his union with Melia, the daughter of Oceanus, he became the father -of Io, famed for her beauty, whose history, which is of great antiquity, -has been so greatly embellished by the poets and legendary writers. The -following is the substance of the story:— - -Io was the priestess of Hera. Her great beauty attracted the notice of -Zeus. On remarking this, Hera, in her jealousy, changed Io into a white -heifer, and set the hundred-eyed Argus Panoptes (the all-seeing) to -watch her. Zeus, however, sent Hermes to take away the heifer. Hermes -first lulled the guardian to sleep with his wand and then slew him, -whence he is called Argiphontes (slayer of Argus). Hera avenged herself -by sending a gadfly to torment Io, who, in her madness, wandered through -Europe and Asia, until she at length found rest in Egypt, where, touched -by the hand of Zeus, she recovered her original form, and gave birth to -a son. This son, who was called Epaphus, afterwards became king of -Egypt, and built Memphis. The myth, as we have already remarked, has -received many embellishments, for the wanderings of Io grew more and -more extensive with the growth of geographical knowledge. The true -interpretation of the myth is due to F. W. Welcker, whose meritorious -researches in Greek mythology have proved of such great value. Io (the -wanderer) is the moon, whose apparently irregular course and temporary -disappearance was considered a most curious phenomenon by the ancients. -The moon-goddess of antiquity was very frequently represented under the -figure of a heifer; and Isis herself, the Egyptian goddess of the moon, -was always depicted with horns. The guardian of the heifer, the -hundred-eyed Argus, is a symbol of the starry heaven. Whether we see in -Hermes the dawn or the morning breeze, in either case the slaying of -Argus will simply mean that the stars become invisible at sunrise. There -is nothing extraordinary in representing the apparent irregularity of -the moon’s course, inexplicable as it was to the ancients, under the -guise of mental disorder. Similar representations occur in the stories -of the solar heroes, Bellerophon and Heracles. In the south-east—the -direction in which Egypt lay from Greece—Io again appears as full moon, -in her original shape. - -_2. Danaüs and the Danaïds._—According to the legend, Danaüs was a -descendant of Io. Epaphus, the son of Io, had a daughter Libya, who bore -to Poseidon two sons, Agenor and Belus. The former reigned over -Phœnicia, the latter over Egypt. Belus, by his union with Anchinoë, or -Achiroë, the daughter of the Nile, became the father of Ægyptus and -Danaüs. Between these two brothers—the former of whom had fifty sons and -the latter fifty daughters—a deadly enmity arose; this induced Danaüs to -migrate from Egypt and seek the old home of his ancestress Io. He -embarked with his fifty daughters in a ship—the first that was ever -built—and thus came to Argos, where Gelanor, the reigning descendant of -Inachus, resigned the crown in his favour. As king of Argos, Danaüs is -said to have brought the land, which suffered from want of water, to a -higher state of cultivation by watering it with wells and canals. He is -also said to have introduced the worship of Apollo and Demeter. The -story proceeds to relate that the fifty sons of Ægyptus followed their -uncle to Argos, and compelled him to give them his fifty daughters in -marriage. Danaüs, in revenge, gave each of his daughters on the wedding -day a dagger, and commanded them to slay their husbands in the night. -All obeyed his command except Hypermnestra, who spared her husband -Lynceus, and afterwards even succeeded, with the assistance of -Aphrodite, in effecting his reconciliation with her father. Lynceus -succeeded Danaüs in the kingdom, and became, by his son Abas, the -ancestor of both the great Argive heroes, Perseus and Heracles. At a -later period, the fable sprang up that the Danaïds were punished for -their crimes in the lower world by having continually to pour water into -a cask full of holes. It has been frequently remarked that this -punishment has no conceivable connection with the crime. Neither must we -forget that the idea of retribution in the lower world was of a -comparatively late date. Originally, too, the idea prevailed that the -pursuits of the upper world were continued after death in the realms of -Hades. And herein lies the key to the interpretation of the myth, which -is evidently connected with the irrigation of Argos ascribed to Danaüs. - -_3. Prœtus and his Daughters._—Acrisius and Prœtus were twin sons of -Abas, the son of Lynceus and Hypermnestra. Between these two brothers an -implacable hostility existed, which was said by the poets to have -commenced even in their mother’s womb. Prœtus received, as his share of -the patrimony, the kingdom of Tiryns; but he was subsequently expelled -by his brother, and took refuge at the court of Iobates, king of Lycia. -Iobates gave him his daughter Antea, or Sthenebœa, in marriage, and -afterwards restored him to his kingdom of Tiryns. Prœtus, with the aid -of the Lycian workmen whom he had brought with him (Cyclopes), built a -strong fortress, which enabled him not only to maintain peaceable -possession of Tiryns, but also to extend his dominion as far as Corinth. -The legend then passes to the history of his three daughters, the -Prœtides, whose pride was so excited by their father’s greatness and -their own beauty that they began to think themselves superior to the -gods. Their arrogance, however, was soon punished, for they were visited -with a foul disease and driven mad. They now fled the society of -mankind, and wandered about among the mountains and woods of Argos and -Arcadia. At length Prœtus succeeded in procuring the services of the -celebrated soothsayer and purifier Melampus, who undertook the -purification and cure of his daughters. It was reported of Melampus that -serpents had licked his ears whilst asleep, and that he acquired, in -consequence, a knowledge of the language of birds. He successfully -accomplished the cure of the Prœtides, and received, as a reward, the -hand of the princess Iphianassa, in addition to which both he and his -brother Bias received a share in the sovereignty of Tiryns. Thus it was -that the race of the Amythaonidæ, who all inherited the gift of seeing -into futurity, and from whom the celebrated soothsayer Amphiaraüs -himself was descended, came to Argos. - -_4. Perseus._—Acrisius, the brother of Prœtus, had a daughter called -Danaë, whose fortune it was to gain the love of the great ruler of -Olympus. Her father, Acrisius, was induced by an oracle, which foretold -that he should be killed by his own grandson, to immure Danaë in a -subterraneous chamber. Zeus, however, in his love for her, changed -himself into a shower of golden rain, and thus introduced himself -through the roof of her prison. Thus was the god-like hero Perseus born. -There can be no doubt that this myth, too, is founded on the idea of the -bridal union of heaven and earth; this is one of the pictures of nature -which the mind most readily forms. Danaë represents the country of -Argos; her prison is the heaven, enveloped, during the gloomy months of -winter, with thick clouds. Her offspring by Zeus represents the light of -the sun, which returns in the spring-time and begins, like a veritable -hero, its contest with the powers of death and darkness. The Gorgon -Medusa has the same significance in the history of Perseus that the -hideous Python has in that of Apollo. - -The legend then proceeds to relate that Acrisius, having heard of the -birth of his grandson, to avert the fate threatened by the oracle, -ordered mother and child to be confined in a chest and cast into the -sea. But human wisdom avails nought against the inevitable decrees of -heaven. The chest was cast by the waves on the rocky island of Seriphus, -where it was found by the fisherman Dictys; and Danaë and her child were -hospitably received and cared for by Dictys and his brother Polydectes, -the ruler of the island. The latter, however, subsequently wished to -marry Danaë, and on her rejecting his advances made her a slave. Fearing -the vengeance of Perseus, he despatched him, as soon as he was grown up, -on a most perilous adventure. This was no other than to bring him the -head of the Gorgon Medusa—a terrible winged woman, who dwelt with her -two sisters, the daughters of Phorcys and Ceto, on the farthest western -shore of the earth, on the border of Oceanus. Perseus set out, though he -was in the greatest perplexity how to accomplish so perilous a task. -Hermes, however, at this juncture came to his aid; and Athene, the -special patroness of heroes, inspired him with courage. These deities -first showed him how to procure the necessary means for accomplishing -his undertaking, which consisted of an invisible helmet, a magic wallet, -and a pair of winged sandals. All these were in the hands of the Nymphs, -by whom probably the water-nymphs are meant. The way to their abode he -could only learn from the Grææ. These creatures, who were likewise the -daughters of Phorcys and Ceto, were reported to have come into the world -as old women; their very appearance was appalling, and they had but one -eye and one tooth between them, of which they made use in turn. They, -too, dwelt on the outskirts of the gloomy region inhabited by the -Gorgons, whence they are called by Æschylus their sentinels. Under the -guidance of Apollo and Athene, Perseus came to the Grææ. He then robbed -them of their one eye and one tooth, and thus forced them to tell him -the way to the habitations of the Nymphs. From the latter he at once -obtained the objects he sought; and having donned his winged sandals, he -hastened to the abode of the Gorgons, whom he fortunately discovered -asleep. Athene then pointed out to him Medusa—the other two sisters, -Stheno and Euryale, being immortal—and enjoined him to approach them -carefully backwards, as the sight of their faces would infallibly turn -any mortal into stone. With the help of her mirror-like shield and the -sickle of Hermes, Perseus succeeded in cutting off the head of Medusa -without looking round; and having placed the head in his wallet, he -hastened away. His helmet, which rendered him invisible, enabled him to -escape the pursuit of the other Gorgons, who had meanwhile awaked. From -the trunk of Medusa sprang the winged horse Pegasus, and Chrysaor, the -father of Geryones. On his return to Seriphus, Perseus turned the -unrighteous Polydectes into stone by means of the Gorgon’s head, which -he then presented to Athene; and after making his benefactor, Dictys, -king of the island, he turned his steps towards his native place, Argos. -Such are the essential features of the myth—concerning which, in spite -of its antiquity, we have no earlier sources of information—such is the -original framework on which was afterwards built up the history of the -further adventures of the hero. The most celebrated of these was the -rescue of Andromeda, which formed the subject of a drama of Euripides, -and was also highly popular among artists and poets. The following is a -brief account of this exploit:—Cassiopea, the wife of Cepheus, king of -Æthiopia, ventured to extol her own beauty above that of the Nereids, -who thereupon besought Poseidon to avenge them. He granted their -request, and not only overwhelmed the land with disastrous floods, but -sent also a terrible sea-monster, which devoured both man and beast. The -oracle of Ammon declared that the land could only be saved by the -sacrifice of the king’s daughter, Andromeda, to the monster. Cepheus, -after some time, yielded to the entreaties of his people, and Andromeda -was chained to a rock close to the sea. In this situation she was found -by Perseus, on his return from his adventure with the Gorgons. He -forthwith attacked and slew the sea-monster, and released the trembling -maiden, who soon after married her preserver. Later writers, not -satisfied with this adventure, added that Perseus was also obliged to -vanquish a rival in Phineus, the king’s brother, to whom Andromeda had -been already promised. Phineus, together with his warriors, was changed -into stone by means of the Gorgon’s head. - -The legend concludes with the return of the hero to Argos, where he was -reconciled to his grandfather Acrisius, who had at first fled in terror -to Larissa. On the occasion, however, of some games which the people of -Larissa had instituted in his honour, Perseus was unfortunate enough to -kill Acrisius with his discus, thus involuntarily fulfilling the -prophecy of the oracle. In this feature of the story we recognise an -unmistakeable reference to the symbolic meaning of Perseus; for the -discus here represents, as in the story of the death of Hyacinthus, the -face of the sun. Perseus, unwilling to enter on the inheritance of the -grandfather he had slain, exchanged the kingdom of Argos for that of -Tiryns, which was handed over to him by its king, Megapenthes, the son -of Prœtus. He here founded the cities of Midea and Mycenæ, and became, -through his children by Andromeda, the ancestor of many heroes, and, -among others, of Heracles. His son Electryon became the father of -Alcmene, whilst Amphitryon was descended from another of his sons. -According to Pausanias, heroic honours were paid to Perseus, not only -throughout Argos, but also in Athens and the island of Seriphus. - - Perseus occupies a prominent position in Greek art. His common - attributes are the winged sandals, the sickle which he made use of - to slay Medusa, and the helmet of Hades. In bodily form, as well as - in costume, he appears very like Hermes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 56.—Perseus and Andromeda. Marble Relief in the -Museum at Naples.] - - Among the art monuments which relate to his adventures is a marble - relief from the Villa Pamfili, now in the Capitoline Museum at Rome, - depicting the rescue of Andromeda. The sea-monster lies dead at the - feet of Perseus, who is assisting the joyful Andromeda to descend - from the rock. The attitude and expression of both figures are very - striking: on the one side, maidenly modesty; on the other, proud - self-reliance. It is worth remarking that Perseus, in addition to - his winged shoes, has also wings on his head. The same conception is - perceptible, with a few minor points of difference, in several - Pompeian paintings, and on a marble relief of the Naples Museum - (Fig. 56). Representations of Medusa are mostly confined to masks, - which are often found on coats of mail, shields, leaves of folding - doors, and instruments of all kinds. There are two types, - representing an earlier and a later conception of Medusa. Earlier - art set itself to depict the horrible only in the head of Medusa; - and artists, therefore, strove to impart to the face as strong an - expression of rage and ferocity as was possible, representing her - with tongue lolling forth, and boar-like tusks. It is worthy of - remark that, in the earlier examples of these masks—which are - frequently met with on coins, gems, and pottery—the hair generally - falls stiff and straight over the forehead, serving to render the - horrible breadth of the face still more striking, while the snakes - appear to be fastened round the neck like a necklace. Very different - is the conception adopted by the later and more sensuous school. - This laboured principally to give expression to the gradual ebbing - away of life in the countenance of the dying Gorgon, an effect which - was rendered still more striking by transforming the hideous Gorgon - face of earlier times into an ideal of the most perfect beauty. The - most splendid example of this later conception, which had been - creeping in since the age of Praxiteles, is to be found in the - Medusa Rondanini of the Munich collection—a marble mask of most - beautiful workmanship, which was brought from the Rondanini Palace - at Rome (Fig. 57). This Medusa, like many others of the later type, - has wings on the head. - -[Illustration: Fig. 57.—Rondanini Medusa. Munich.] - - -=5. The Dioscuri.=—On passing to Laconia and Messenia, the southern -districts of the Peloponnesus, we come in contact with the legend of the -Dioscuri. Tyndareüs and his brother Icarius were said to have founded -the most ancient sovereignty in Lacedæmon. They were driven thence, -however, by their half-brother Hippocoön, and were kindly received by -Thestius, the ruler of the ancient city of Pleuron in Ætolia, who gave -Tyndareüs his daughter Leda in marriage. Icarius received the hand of -Polycaste, who bore him Penelope—afterwards the wife of Odysseus; while -Leda was the mother of the Dioscuri, Castor and Polydeuces (Pollux). -Tyndareüs was afterwards reinstated in his Lacedæmonian kingdom at -Amyclæ by Heracles. Besides these two sons, Leda had also two daughters, -Clytæmnestra and Helene (Helen), who are celebrated in connection with -the Trojan war. An ancient legend also existed to the effect that Leda -had been beloved by Zeus, who had approached her under the guise of a -swan. The greatest incongruity prevails as to which of the children -could claim a divine origin. In Homer, Helen alone is represented as the -daughter of Zeus; while Clytæmnestra, together with Castor and -Polydeuces, appear as the children of Tyndareüs. At a subsequent period, -the name of “Dioscuri” (sons of Zeus) and a belief in their divine -origin arose simultaneously. Later still, Castor was represented as a -mortal, and the son of Tyndareüs; and Polydeuces as immortal, and the -son of Zeus. After Castor, however, had fallen in the contest with the -sons of Aphareus, his brother Polydeuces, unwilling to part from him, -prevailed on Zeus to allow them to remain together, on condition of -their spending one day in Olympus and the next in Hades. They thus led a -life divided between mortality and immortality. The following is an -account of their heroic deeds:—On attaining manhood, Castor -distinguished himself by his skill in the management of horses; whilst -Polydeuces became renowned as a skilful boxer, though he too had skill -in riding. They first made war on Theseus, who had carried off their -sister Helen, then ten years old, and set her free by the conquest of -Aphidnæ. They next took part in the expedition of the Argonauts, in -which Polydeuces gained still further renown by his victory with the -cestus over the celebrated boxer Amycus. They were also present at the -Calydonian boar hunt. Their last undertaking was the rape of the -daughters of Leucippus, king of Messenia. This was the cause of their -combat with their cousins Idas and Lynceus, the sons of Aphareus, to -whom the damsels had been betrothed. According to others, however, it -sprang from a quarrel as to the division of some booty that they had -carried off together. Castor was slain by Idas, whereupon Polydeuces in -his wrath slew Lynceus, while Idas himself was overwhelmed by a -thunderbolt from Zeus. - -The interpretation of this myth is by no means void of difficulty. It is -commonly supposed that they were ancient Peloponnesian divinities of -light, who, after the Dorian invasion, were degraded to the rank of -heroes. They are often interpreted as personifications of the morning -and evening star, or of the twilight (dawn and dusk). This view died out -after the second deification that they underwent. They were venerated, -not only in their native Sparta, but throughout the whole of Greece, as -kindly, beneficent deities, whose aid might be invoked either in battle -or in the dangers of shipwreck. In this latter character they are lauded -by an Homeric hymn, in which they are represented as darting through the -air on their golden wings, in order to calm the storm at the prayer of -the terror-stricken mariner. It has often been remarked, and with a -great appearance of truth, that these Dioscuri flitting about on their -golden wings are probably nothing more than what is commonly called St. -Elmo’s fire—an electric flame which, is often seen playing round the -tops of the masts during a storm, and which is regarded by the sailors -as a sign of its speedy abatement; indeed the name Elmo has been -supposed a corruption of Helene. In Sparta, the Dioscuri were regarded -as the tutelary deities of the state, as well as an example of warlike -valour for the youth of the country. Their shrines here were very -numerous. Their ancient symbol, which the Spartans always took with them -on a campaign, consisted of two parallel beams joined by cross-bars. -They had other festivals and temples besides those of Sparta; in -Mantinea, for instance, where an eternal fire was kept burning in their -honour; also in Athens, where they were venerated under the appellation -of Anaces. Their festival was here celebrated with horse-racing. The -Olympic games also stood under their special protection, and their -images were set up in all the palæstra. They were, in fact, everywhere -regarded as extremely benevolent and sociable deities, who foster all -that is noble and beautiful among men. - -The Dioscuri were believed to have assisted the Romans against the -Latins at the Lake Regillus; and the dictator, A. Postumius, vowed a -temple to them, which was erected in the Forum, opposite the temple of -Vesta. In commemoration of this aid, the Equites made a solemn -procession from the temple of Honos, past the temple of the Dioscuri, to -the Capitol every year on the Ides of July. - - In art the Dioscuri are represented as heroic youths of noble mien - and slim but powerful forms. Their characteristic marks are conical - caps, the points of which are adorned with a star. They generally - appear nude, or clothed only with a light chlamys, and nearly always - in connection with their horses, either riding, standing by and - holding them, or leading them by the bridle. The most celebrated - representation of the Dioscuri that has come down to us from - antiquity consists of the marble statues called the Colossi of Monte - Cavallo, in Rome. These are eighteen feet in height, and the - proportions of the figures, together with those of the horses, are - exquisite. They are set up on the Quirinal, which has received from - them the name of Monte Cavallo. They are not, indeed, original - works, but are probably imitations of bronzes of the most - flourishing period of Greek art, executed in the time of Augustus. - - -=6. Heracles (Hercules).=—Of all the myths of the countries originally -inhabited by the Æolians the myth of Heracles is the most glorious. This -hero, though his fame was chiefly disseminated by means of the Dorians, -was yet by birth the common property of the Æolian race—their national -hero, in fact, just as he afterwards became the national hero of the -whole of Greece. No other Greek myth has received so many subsequent -additions—not only from native, but also from foreign sources—as this; -which is, in consequence, the most extensive and complicated of all -Greek myths. We shall, therefore, have to confine ourselves to the -consideration of its most characteristic features, and those which are -the most important in the history of art. - -In Homer, who is here again our most ancient authority, the leading -features of the myth are traced—the enmity of Hera towards the hero; his -period of subjection to Eurystheus, and the labours by which he -emancipated himself (though special mention is made only of his seizure -of Cerberus); his expeditions against Pylus, Ephyra, Œchalia, and Troy. -The verses in the _Odyssey_ (xi. 602–4), which refer to his deification -and subsequent marriage with Hebe, are probably a later insertion. In -the _Iliad_, Heracles is spoken of as a great hero of olden time, “whom -the Fates and the grievous wrath of Hera subdued.” In Homer, too, he -appears as a purely Grecian hero, his warlike undertakings having never -yet led him beyond Troy, and his armour differing in no respect from -that of other heroes. The description of him in Hesiod’s _Theogony_ and -in the _Shield of Heracles_ is somewhat more minute, but is otherwise -essentially the same. From what source the deification of Heracles -sprang—whether it was due to Phœnician influences or not—has hitherto -remained an undetermined question; we only know that it appears as an -accomplished fact about 700 B.C. - -I. THE BIRTH AND YOUTH OF HERACLES.—This portion of the legend found its -chief development in Bœotia. Amphitryon, a son of Alcæus and grandson of -Perseus, was compelled to flee from Tiryns with his betrothed -Alcmene—likewise a descendant of Perseus by her father Electryon—on -account of a murder, and found an asylum at the court of Creon, king of -Thebes. From this place he undertook an expedition against the robber -tribes of the Teleboæ (Taphians), in consequence of a promise made to -Alcmene, whose brother they had slain. After the successful termination -of this expedition, the marriage was to have been celebrated at Thebes. -But, in the meanwhile, the great ruler of Olympus himself had been -smitten with the charms of Alcmene, and, taking the form of the absent -Amphitryon, had left her pregnant with Heracles, to whom she afterwards -gave birth at the same time with Iphicles, the son of Amphitryon. The -sovereignty over all the descendants of Perseus, which Zeus had destined -for Heracles, was snatched from him by the crafty jealousy of Hera, who -prolonged the pains of Alcmene and hastened the delivery of the wife of -Sthenelus, the uncle of Amphitryon, by two months. Not content with -having subjected the hero to the will of the weak and cowardly -Eurystheus, Hera, according to a subsequent account of the poets, sent -two serpents to kill the child when he was about eight months old. -Heracles, however, gave the first proof of his divine origin by -strangling the serpents with his hands. An account of this scene has -descended to us in a beautiful poem of Pindar. In Thebes, the boy grew -up and was put under the care of the best preceptors. But, though he -excelled in every feat of strength and valour, he made no progress in -musical arts, and even slew his master Linus on account of a somewhat -harsh reproof which his inaptitude entailed on him. As a punishment, -Amphitryon sent him to Mount Cithæron to mind the flocks, a mode of life -which Heracles continued until he had completed his eighteenth year. It -was to this period that the sophist Prodicus, a contemporary of -Socrates, referred his beautiful allegory of the _Choice of Heracles_. -After attaining his full growth (according to Apollodorus he was four -cubits in height) and strength, the young hero performed his first great -feat by killing the lion of Cithæron. Whether it was this skin or that -of the Nemean lion which he afterwards used as a garment is not certain. -His next act was to free the Thebans from the ignominious tribute which -they were compelled to pay to Erginus, king of Orchomenus, by a -successful expedition, in which Amphitryon, however, lost his life. -Creon, the king of Thebes, in gratitude gave the hero his daughter -Megara in marriage, while Iphicles married her sister. - -II. HERACLES IN THE SERVICE OF EURYSTHEUS—THE TWELVE LABOURS.—We now -come to the second epoch in the life of the hero, in which he performed -various labours at the bidding of Eurystheus, king of Mycenæ or Tiryns. -The number of these was first fixed at twelve in the Alexandrian age, -when Heracles was identified with the Phœnician sun-god, Baal; probably -from the analogy afforded in the course of the sun through the twelve -signs of the Zodiac. The subjection of Heracles to his unmanly cousin -Eurystheus is generally represented as a consequence of the stratagem by -which Hera obtained for the latter the sovereignty over all the -descendants of Perseus. At a later period Heracles was said to have -become insane, in consequence of the summons of Eurystheus to do his -bidding. The following is an account of the labours of Heracles:— - -_1. The Fight with the Nemean Lion._—The district of Nemea and Cleonæ -was inhabited by a monstrous lion, the offspring of Typhon and Echidna, -whose skin bade defiance to every weapon. Heracles, after using his -arrows and club against the animal in vain, at last drove it into a -cave, and there strangled it with his hands. He afterwards used the head -of the lion as a helmet, and the impenetrable skin as a defence. - -_2. The Lernæan Hydra._—This was a great water-serpent, likewise the -offspring of Typhon and Echidna. The number of its heads varies in the -accounts of poets, though ancient gems usually represent it with seven. -It ravaged the country of Lerna in Argolis, destroying both men and -beasts. In this adventure Heracles was accompanied by Iolaüs, the son of -his brother Iphicles, who, on this as on other occasions, appears as his -faithful companion. After driving the monster from its lair by means of -his arrows, he advanced fearlessly, and, seizing it in his hands, began -to strike off its heads with his sword. To his amazement, in the place -of each head he struck off two sprang up. He then ordered Iolaüs to set -on fire a neighbouring wood, and with the firebrands seared the throats -of the serpent, until he at length succeeded in slaying it. He then -dipped his arrows in its gall, thus rendering the wounds inflicted by -them incurable. - -_3. The Erymanthian Boar._—This animal inhabited the mountain district -of Erymanthus in Arcadia, from which place it wasted the corn-fields of -Psophis. Heracles drove the boar up to the snow-covered summit of the -mountain, and then caught it alive, as Eurystheus had commanded him. -When he arrived at Mycenæ with the terrible beast on his back, -Eurystheus was so terrified that he hid himself in a vessel. This comic -scene is frequently depicted on vases. It was on this occasion that -Heracles destroyed the Centaurs. On the road the hero, hungry and -thirsty, was hospitably received by the friendly Centaur Pholus, who -holds the same place among the Arcadian Centaurs as Chiron does among -those of Thessaly. Pholus broached, in honour of his guest, a cask of -wine lying in his cave, which was the common property of all the -Centaurs. The fragrance of the wine attracted the other Centaurs living -on Mount Pholoë, and they immediately attacked the tippling hero with -pieces of rock and trunks of trees. Heracles, however, drove them back -with arrows and firebrands, and completely vanquished them after a -terrible fight. On returning to the cave of Pholus, he found his friend -dead. He had drawn an arrow out of a dead body to examine it, but -accidentally let it fall on his foot, from the wound of which he died. - -_4. The Hind of Cerynea._—This animal, which was sacred to the Arcadian -Artemis, had golden horns and brazen hoofs, the latter being a symbol of -its untiring fleetness. Heracles was commanded to bring it alive to -Mycenæ, and for a whole year he continued to pursue it over hill and -dale with untiring energy. At length it returned to Arcadia, where he -succeeded in capturing it on the banks of the Ladon, and bore it in -triumph to Mycenæ. - -_5. The Stymphalian Birds._—These voracious birds, which fed on human -flesh, had brazen claws, wings, and beaks, and were able to shoot out -their feathers like arrows. They inhabited the district round Lake -Stymphalis in Arcadia. Heracles slew some, and so terrified the rest by -means of his brazen rattle that they never returned. This latter -circumstance is apparently an addition of later times, to explain their -reappearance in the history of the Argonauts. - -_6. Cleansing of the Stables of Augeas._—The sixth task of Heracles was -to cleanse in one day the stables of Augeas, king of Elis, whose wealth -in cattle had become proverbial. Heracles repaired to Elis, where he -offered to cleanse the stables, in which were three thousand oxen, if -the king would consent to give him a tenth part of the cattle. Augeas -agreed to do so; Heracles then turned the course of the Peneus or the -Alpheus, or, according to some, of both rivers, through the stalls, and -thus carried off the filth. Augeas, however, on learning that Heracles -had undertaken the labour at the command of Eurystheus, refused to give -him the stipulated reward, a breach of faith for which Heracles, later, -took terrible vengeance on the king. - -_7. The Cretan Bull._—In the history of Minos, king of Crete, we find -that Poseidon once sent up a bull out of the sea for Minos to sacrifice, -but that Minos was induced by the beauty of the animal to place it among -his own herds, and sacrificed another in its stead; whereupon Poseidon -drove the bull mad. The seventh labour of Heracles consisted in -capturing this bull and bringing it to Mycenæ. It was afterwards set -free by Eurystheus, and appears later, in the story of Theseus, as the -bull of Marathon. - -_8. The Mares of Diomedes._—Diomedes was king of the Bistones, a warlike -tribe of Thrace. He inhumanly caused all strangers cast upon his coasts -to be given to his wild mares, who fed on human flesh. To bind these -horses and bring them alive to Mycenæ was the next task of Heracles. -This, too, he successfully accomplished, after inflicting on Diomedes -the same fate to which he had condemned so many others. - -_9. The Girdle of Hippolyte._—Admete, the daughter of Eurystheus, was -anxious to obtain the girdle which the queen of the Amazons had received -from Ares; and Heracles was accordingly despatched to fetch it. After -various adventures he landed in Themiscyra, and was at first kindly -received by Hippolyte, who was willing to give him the girdle. But Hera, -in the guise of an Amazon, spread a report that Heracles was about to -carry off the queen, upon which the Amazons attacked Heracles and his -followers. In the battle which ensued Hippolyte was killed, and the -hero, after securing the girdle, departed. On his journey homewards -occurred his celebrated adventure with Hesione, the daughter of -Laomedon, king of Troy. This king had refused Poseidon and Apollo the -rewards he had promised them for their assistance in building the walls -of Troy. In consequence of his perfidy, Apollo visited the country with -a pestilence, and Poseidon sent a sea-monster, which devastated the land -far and wide. By the advice of the oracle, Hesione, the king’s daughter, -was exposed to be devoured by the animal. Heracles offered to destroy -the monster, if Laomedon would give him the horses which his father Tros -had received as a compensation for the loss of Ganymedes. Laomedon -agreed, and Heracles then slew the monster. Laomedon, however, again -proved false to his word, and Heracles, with a threat of future -vengeance, departed. - -_10. The Oxen of Geryones._—The next task of Heracles was to fetch the -cattle of the three-headed winged giant Geryones, or Geryoneus (Geryon). -This monster was the offspring of Chrysaor (red slayer) and Callirrhoë -(fair-flowing), an Oceanid, and inhabited the island of Erythia, in the -far West, in the region of the setting sun, where he had a herd of the -finest and fattest cattle. It was only natural that Heracles, in the -course of his long journey to Erythia and back, should meet with -numerous adventures; and this expedition has, accordingly, been more -richly embellished than any other by the imagination of the poets. He is -generally supposed to have passed through Libya, and to have sailed -thence to Erythia in a golden boat, which he forced Helios (the sun) to -lend him by shooting at him with his arrows. Having arrived in Erythia, -he first slew the herdsman who was minding the oxen, together with his -dog. He was then proceeding to drive off the cattle, when he was -overtaken by Geryon. A violent contest ensued, in which the three-headed -monster was at length vanquished by the arrows of the mighty hero. -Heracles is then supposed to have recrossed the ocean in the boat of the -sun, and, starting from Tartessus, to have journeyed on foot through -Iberia, Gaul, and Italy. We pass over his contests with the Celts and -Ligurians, and only notice briefly his victory over the giant Cacus, -mentioned by Livy, which took place in the district where Rome was -afterwards built, because Roman legend connected with this the -introduction of the worship of Hercules into Italy. At length, after -many adventures, he arrived at Mycenæ, where Eurystheus sacrificed the -oxen to the Argive goddess Hera. - -Heracles has now completed ten of his labours, but Eurystheus, as -Apollodorus relates, refused to admit the destruction of the Lernæan -Hydra, because on that occasion Heracles had availed himself of the help -of Iolaüs, or the cleansing of the stables of Augeas, because of the -reward for which he had stipulated; so that the hero was compelled to -undertake two more. This account does not, however, harmonise with the -tradition of the response of the oracle, in deference to which Heracles -surrendered himself to servitude, and which offered the prospect of -twelve labours from the first. - -_11. The Apples of the Hesperides._—This adventure has been even more -embellished with later and foreign additions than the last. The golden -apples, which were under the guardianship of the Hesperides, or nymphs -of the west, constituted the marriage present which Hera had received -from Gæa on the occasion of her marriage with Zeus. They were closely -guarded by the terrible dragon Ladon, who, like all monsters, was the -offspring of Typhon and Echidna. This, however, was far less -embarrassing to the hero than his total ignorance of the site of the -garden of the Hesperides, which led him to make several fruitless -efforts before he succeeded in reaching the desired spot. - -His first object was to gain information as to the situation of the -garden, and for this purpose he journeyed through Illyria to the -Eridanus (Po), in order to inquire the way of the nymphs who dwelt on -this river. By them he was referred to the treacherous sage Nereus, whom -he managed to seize whilst asleep, and refused to release until he had -obtained the desired information. Heracles then proceeded by way of -Tartessus to Libya, where he was challenged to a wrestling match by the -giant Antæus, a powerful son of Earth, who was, according to Libyan -tradition, of a monstrous height (some say sixty cubits). He was -attacked by Heracles, but, as he received new strength from his mother -Earth as often as he touched the ground, the hero lifted him up in the -air and squeezed him to death in his arms. - -From Libya Heracles passed into Egypt, where the cruel king Busiris was -in the habit of seizing all strangers who entered the country and -sacrificing them to Zeus. Heracles would have suffered a similar fate, -had he not broken the chains laid upon him, and slain the king and his -son. His indulgence at the richly-furnished table of the king was a -feature in the story which afforded no small amusement to the comic -writers, who were especially fond of jesting on the subject of the -healthy and heroic appetite of Heracles. From Egypt the hero made his -way into Æthiopia, where he slew Emathion, the son of Tithonus and Eos, -for his cruelty to strangers. He next crossed the sea to India, and -thence came to the Caucasus, where he set Prometheus free and destroyed -the vulture that preyed on his liver. After Prometheus had described to -him the long road to the Hesperides, he passed through Scythia, and came -at length to the land of the Hyperboreans, where Atlas bore the pillars -of heaven on his shoulders. This was the end of his journey, for Atlas, -at his request, fetched the apples, whilst Heracles supported the -heavens. Here again the comic poets introduced an amusing scene. Atlas, -having once tasted the delights of freedom, betrayed no anxiety to -relieve his substitute, but offered, instead, to bear the apples himself -to Eurystheus. Heracles, however, proved even more cunning than he, for, -apparently agreeing to the proposition, he asked Atlas just to relieve -him until he had arranged more comfortably a cushion for his back. When -Atlas good-humouredly consented, Heracles of course left him in his -former position, and made off with the apples. Another account states -that he descended himself into the garden and slew the hundred-headed -dragon who kept guard over the trees. - -_12. Cerberus._—The most daring of all the feats of Heracles, and that -which bears the palm from all the others, and is in consequence, always -put at the end of his labours, was the bringing of Cerberus from the -lower world. In this undertaking, which is mentioned even by Homer, he -was accompanied by Hermes and Athene, though he had hitherto been able -to dispense with divine aid. He is commonly reported to have made his -descent into the lower world at Cape Tænarum in Laconia. Close to the -gates of Hades he found the adventurous heroes Theseus and Pirithoüs, -who had gone down to carry off Persephone, fastened to a rock. He -succeeded in setting Theseus free, but Pirithoüs he was obliged to leave -behind him, because of the violent earthquake which occurred when he -attempted to touch him. After several further adventures, he entered the -presence of the lord of the lower world. Hades consented to his taking -Cerberus, on condition that he should master him without using any -weapons. Heracles seized the furious beast, and, having chained him, he -brought him to Eurystheus, and afterwards carried him back to his place -in the lower world. The completion of this task released Heracles from -his servitude to Eurystheus. - -III. DEEDS OF HERACLES AFTER HIS SERVICE.—_1. The Murder of Iphitus and -Contest with Apollo._—The hero, after his release from servitude, -returned to Thebes, where he gave his wife Megara in marriage to Iolaüs. -He then proceeded to the court of Eurytus, king of Œchalia, who had -promised his beautiful daughter Iole in marriage to the man who should -vanquish himself and his sons in shooting with the bow. The situation of -Œchalia is variously given; sometimes it is placed in Thessaly, -sometimes in the Peloponnesus, on the borders of Arcadia and Messenia, -and sometimes in the island of Eubœa, close to Eretria. Heracles gained -a most complete victory; but Eurytus, nevertheless, refused to give him -his daughter, reproaching him with the murder of his children by Megara, -and with his ignominious bondage to Eurystheus. Heracles, with many -threats of future vengeance, withdrew, and when, not long afterwards, -Iphitus, the son of Eurytus, fell into his hands, he cast him from the -highest tower of his citadel in Tiryns. This somewhat treacherous action -being at variance with the general character of the hero, the story -subsequently arose that Iphitus was a friend of Heracles, and had -advocated his cause with Eurytus, and that Heracles only treated him -thus in a fit of insanity. The bloody deed was fraught with the gravest -consequences. After seeking purification and absolution in vain among -men, Heracles came to Delphi, in order to seek the aid and consolation -of the oracle. But Apollo, with whom the royal family of Œchalia stood -in high favour, rejected him; whereupon Heracles forced his way into the -temple, and was already in the act of bearing away the holy tripod, in -order to erect an oracle of his own, when he was confronted by the angry -deity. A fearful combat would doubtless have ensued, if the father of -gods and men himself had not interfered to prevent this unnatural strife -between his favourite sons by separating the combatants with his -lightning. Heracles was now commanded by the Pythian priestess to allow -himself to be sold by Hermes into slavery for three years, to expiate -the murder of Iphitus. - -_2. Heracles in the Service of Omphale._—This portion of the story is of -Lydian origin, but was cleverly interwoven with the Greek legend. The -Lydians, in fact, honoured a sun-hero called Sandon, who resembled -Heracles in many respects, as the ancestor of their kings. The oriental -character of the Lydian Heracles at once manifests itself in the fact -that he here appears as entirely devoted to sensual pleasures, becoming -effeminate in the society of women, and allowing himself to be clothed -in female attire, whilst his mistress Omphale donned his lion-skin and -club, and flaunted up and down before him. He did not always linger in -such inactivity, however; sometimes the old desire for action urged him -forth to gallant deeds. Thus he vanquished and chastised the Cercopes, a -race of goblins who used to trick and waylay travellers. He also slew -Syleus, who compelled all passing travellers to dig in his vineyard; -which formed the subject of a satyric drama of Euripides. - -_3. His Expedition against Troy._—After performing several other feats -in the service of Omphale, Heracles again became free. He now appears to -have undertaken an expedition against the faithless Laomedon, king of -Troy, in company with other Greek heroes, such as Peleus, Telamon, and -Oïcles, whose number increased as time went on. The city was taken by -storm: Oïcles, indeed, was slain, but, on the other hand, Laomedon and -all his sons except Podarces fell before the arrows of Heracles. -Hesione, the daughter of the king, was given by Heracles to his friend -Telamon, and became by him the mother of Teucer. She received permission -from Heracles to release one of the prisoners, and chose her brother -Podarces, who afterwards bore the name of Priamus (the redeemed), and -continued the race of Dardanus in Ilium. - -_4. The Peloponnesian Expeditions of Heracles._—The legend relates that -the hero now undertook his long-deferred expedition against Augeas, -which was the means of kindling a Messenian and Lacedæmonian war. After -assembling an army in Arcadia, which was joined by many gallant Greek -heroes, he advanced against Elis. Heracles, however, fell sick; and in -his absence his army was attacked and driven back with great loss by the -brave Actoridæ or Molionidæ, the nephews of Augeas. It was only after -Heracles had slain these heroes in an ambuscade at Cleonæ, as they were -on their way to the Isthmian games, that he succeeded in penetrating -into Elis. He then slew Augeas, and gave the kingdom to his son Phyleus, -with whom he was on friendly terms. It was on this occasion that he -instituted the Olympic games. He then marched against Pylus, either -because its king, Neleus, had given assistance to the Molionidæ, or else -because Neleus had refused to purify him from the murder of Iphitus. -This expedition against Pylus was subsequently greatly embellished by -the poets, who made it into a great battle of the gods, one part of whom -fought for Neleus, and the other part for Heracles. The chief feature -was the combat between Heracles and Periclymenus, the bravest of the -sons of Neleus, who had received from Poseidon, the tutelary deity of -the Pylians, the power of transforming himself into any kind of animal. -The result of the combat was of course a complete victory for Heracles. -Neleus, with his eleven gallant sons, was slain, and only the youngest, -Nestor, remained to perpetuate the celebrated race. The Lacedæmonian -expedition of Heracles, which follows close on that against Pylus, was -undertaken against Hippocoön, the half-brother of Tyndareüs, whom he had -expelled. Hippocoön was defeated and slain by Heracles, who gave his -kingdom to Tyndareüs. On this occasion Heracles was assisted by Cepheus, -king of Tegea, with his twenty sons, a circumstance which is only -mentioned on account of a remarkable legend connected with his stay in -Tegea. Heracles is here said to have left Auge, the beautiful sister of -Cepheus, and priestess of Athene, pregnant with Telephus, whose wondrous -adventures have occupied artists and poets alike. Auge concealed her -child in the grove of Athene, whereupon the angry goddess visited the -land with a famine. Aleüs, the father of Auge, on discovering the fact, -caused the child to be exposed, and sold the mother beyond the sea. Auge -thus came into Mysia, where the king Teuthras made her his wife. -Telephus was suckled by a hind. He grew up, and ultimately, after some -wonderful adventures, succeeded in finding his mother. He succeeded -Teuthras, and, later, became embroiled with the Greeks when they landed -on their expedition against Troy, on which occasion he was wounded by -Achilles. Telephus, among all the sons of Heracles, is said to have -borne the greatest resemblance to his father. - -_5. Acheloüs, Nessus, Cycnus._—The next episode in the history of the -hero is his wooing of Deïanira, the daughter of Œneus, king of Ætolia. -Œneus is celebrated as the first cultivator of the vine in that country, -and as the father of the Ætolian heroes, Meleager and Tydeus. The -river-god Acheloüs was also a suitor for the hand of Deïanira, and as -neither he nor Heracles would relinquish their claim, it was decided by -the combat between the rivals[8] so often described by the poets. The -power of assuming various forms was of little use to Acheloüs, for, -having finally transformed himself into a bull, he was deprived of a -horn by Heracles, and compelled to declare himself vanquished. Heracles -restored him his horn, and received in exchange that of the goat -Amalthea. After his marriage with Deïanira, Heracles lived for some time -happily at the court of his father-in-law, where his son Hyllus was -born. In consequence of an accidental murder, he was obliged to leave -Ætolia and retire to the court of his friend Ceÿx, king of Trachis, at -the foot of Mount Œta. On the road occurred his celebrated adventure -with the Centaur Nessus. On coming to the river Evenus, Heracles -entrusted Deïanira to Nessus to carry across, whilst he himself waded -through the swollen stream. The Centaur, induced by the beauty of his -burden, attempted to carry off Deïanira, but was pierced by an arrow of -Heracles, and expiated his attempt with his life. He avenged himself by -giving Deïanira some of his blood to make a magic salve, with which he -assured her she could always secure the love of her husband. - -Footnote 8: - - The most beautiful description exists in a chorus in the _Trachiniæ_ - of Sophocles, and in Ovid’s _Metamorphoses_. - -On reaching Trachis they were hospitably received by Ceÿx. Heracles -first defeated the Dryopes, and assisted the Dorian king Ægimius in his -contest with the Lapithæ. He next engaged in his celebrated combat with -Cycnus, the son of Ares, which took place at Iton, in the neighbourhood -of the Gulf of Pagasæ. Heracles not only slew his opponent, but even -wounded the god of war himself, who had come to the assistance of his -son. This contest is the subject of the celebrated poem called the -_Shield of Hercules_, which goes under the name of Hesiod. - -IV. DEATH AND APOTHEOSIS.—The death of Heracles, of which we learn most -from the masterly description of Sophocles in the _Trachiniæ_, is -generally supposed to have been connected with his expedition against -Eurytus. The hero, who could not forget the ignominious treatment he had -received at the hands of Eurytus, now marched with an army from Trachis -against Œchalia. The town and citadel were taken by storm, and Eurytus -and his sons slain; whilst the beautiful Iole, who was still unmarried, -fell into the hands of the conqueror. Heracles now withdrew with great -booty, but halted on the promontory of Cenæum, opposite the Locrian -coast, to raise an altar and offer a solemn sacrifice of thanksgiving to -his father Zeus. Deïanira, who was tormented with jealous misgivings -concerning Iole, thought it was now high time to make use of the charm -of Nessus. She accordingly sent her husband a white sacrificial garment, -which she anointed with the ointment prepared from the blood of the -Centaur. Heracles donned the garment without suspicion, but scarcely had -the flames from the altar heated the poison than it penetrated the body -of the unhappy hero. In the most fearful agony he strove to tear off the -garment, but in vain, for it stuck like a plaster to his skin; and where -he succeeded in rending it away by force, it tore out great pieces of -his flesh at the same time. In his frenzy he seized the herald Lichas, -the bearer of the unfortunate present, and violently dashed him in -pieces against a rock of the sea. In this state Heracles was brought to -Trachis, where he found that Deïanira, full of sorrow and despair on -learning the consequences of her act, had put an end to her own life. -Convinced that cure was hopeless, the dying hero proceeded from Trachis -to Œta, and there erected a funeral pile on which to end his torments. -None of those around him, however, would consent to set the pile on -fire, until Pœas, the father of Philoctetes, happened to pass by, and -rendered him the service, in return for which Heracles presented him -with his bow and arrows. As the flames rose high, a cloud descended from -heaven, and, amid furious peals of thunder, a chariot with four horses, -driven by Athene, appeared and bore the illustrious hero to Olympus, -where he was joyfully received by the gods. He here became reconciled to -Hera, who gave him the hand of her beauteous daughter Hebe in marriage. - -V. HERACLES AS GOD.—We have already laid before our readers the most -characteristic features of the myth. To interpret it and trace it back -in all its details to the original sources would be, amid the mass of -provincial and foreign legends with which it is amalgamated, almost -impossible. Thus much is certain, however, that, apart from the -conceptions which were engrafted on the story from Tyrian and Egyptian -sources, even in the case of the Greek Heracles, myths based on natural -phenomena are mixed up with historical and allegorical myths. The -historic element, for instance, is apparent in the wars of Heracles -against the Dryopes—against Augeas, Neleus, and Hippocoön. Here the -exploits of the whole Dorian race are personified in the actions of the -hero. On the other hand, in most of his single combats a symbolic -meaning, derived from natural phenomena, is unmistakeable. Heracles, in -fact, appears to have been, originally, a symbol of the power of the sun -triumphing over the dark powers in nature. Driven from Argos by the -worship of the Argive Hera, he first sank to the level of a hero, but -was, subsequently, again raised to the dignity of a god. This occurred -at a time when the gods of Greece had altogether cast aside their -physical meaning; so that he was now regarded principally from an -ethical point of view. He appears as a symbol of that lofty force of -character which triumphs over all difficulties and obstacles. Poets and -philosophers alike vied with each other in presenting him to the youth -of their country in this character, pointing to his career as a -brilliant example of what a man might accomplish, in spite of a thousand -obstacles, by mere determination and force of will. The well-known -allegory of the sophist Prodicus,[9] called “The Choice of Hercules,” is -an instance of the mode in which the history of the hero was used to -inculcate moral precepts. - -Footnote 9: - - Prodicus, a native of the island of Ceos, was an elder contemporary of - Socrates. Like the latter, he taught in Athens, and met with a similar - fate, having been condemned to death as an enemy of the popular - religion and a corruptor of the Athenian youth. - -In the religious system of the Greeks, Heracles was specially honoured -as the patron of the gymnasia; the gymnasium of Cynosarges in Athens -being solely dedicated to him. After his deification, Heracles was also -regarded in the character of a saviour and benefactor of his nation; as -one who had not only merited the lasting gratitude of mankind by his -deeds throughout an active and laborious life—in having rid the world of -giants and noxious beasts, in having extinguished destructive forces of -nature, and abolished human sacrifices and other barbarous institutions -of antiquity—but also as a kindly and beneficent deity, ever ready to -afford help and protection to mankind in the hour of need. In this -character he was known by the names of Soter (Saviour) and Alexicacus -(averter of evil). He had temples and festivals in various parts of -Greece. In Marathon, which boasted of being the first seat of his -worship, games were celebrated in his honour every four years, at which -silver cups were given as prizes. The fourth day of every month was held -sacred to him, this day being regarded as his birthday. - -We have already mentioned the legendary introduction of his worship into -Rome.[10] Hercules, as he was called in Italy, was identified with the -Italian hero Recaranus. He had an altar in the _Forum Boarium_, -established, according to tradition, by Evander. The Roman poets, of -course, devoted especial attention to the stories of his journey through -Italy, and his fight with Cacus. - -Footnote 10: - - There seems ground for thinking that the Italian Hercules was properly - a rural deity confounded with Heracles on account of the similarity of - their names; while Recaranus properly corresponded with the great - Heracles in meaning. - - In Heracles ancient art sought to portray the conception of gigantic - bodily strength. He is, therefore, generally represented as a - full-grown man—rarely as a child or youth. We may observe the manner - in which the prominent idea of physical force is expressed by - regarding the formation of the neck and throat in the statue of - Heracles. Nothing can express better a bull-like strength than the - short neck and the prominent muscles, especially if associated with - a broad, deep chest. We shall be able to appreciate this distinctive - character still more clearly if we compare the form of Heracles with - that of the ideal god Apollo, whose neck is especially long and - slender. The figure of Heracles is, moreover, characterised by a - head small in comparison with the giant body; by curly hair, bushy - eyebrows, and muscular arms and legs. This conception was - principally developed by Myron and Lysippus. A statue of Heracles by - the former artist played a part in connection with the art robberies - of Verres in Sicily. Lysippus erected several celebrated statues of - Heracles, the most remarkable of which was the bronze colossus in - Tarentum, which the Romans, after the capture of that town, - transferred to the Capitol. Thence it was brought, by order of - Constantine, to his new capital of Constantinople, where it remained - until the Latin crusade of 1202, when it was melted down. Lysippus - portrayed in this statue a mourning Heracles, which no one had ever - attempted before him. The hero appeared in a sitting posture, - without his weapons, his left elbow resting on his left leg, while - his head, full of thought and sorrow, rests on the open hand. The - same artist, in a still greater work, depicted the twelve labours of - Heracles. These formed a group which was originally executed for - Alyzia, a seaport town of Acarnania, but which was, subsequently, - likewise transferred to Rome. - -[Illustration: Fig. 58.—Farnese Hercules.] - - First among existing statues is the Farnese Hercules (Fig. 58). This - celebrated colossal statue, now in the Naples Museum, was discovered - in 1540, on the site of the Thermæ of Caracalla. The hero is - standing upright, resting his left shoulder on his club, from which - hangs his lion’s skin. This attitude, as well as the head drooping - towards the breast, and the gloomy gravity of his countenance, - clearly show that the hero feels bowed down by the burden of his - laborious life. Even the thought that he is soon to be released from - his ignominious servitude (he holds behind him, in his right hand, - the three apples of the Hesperides, the fruit of his last labour) is - unable to cheer him, and his thoughts seem to revert only to the - past. On account of the conception of the piece, and the existence - of another copy bearing the name of Lysippus, the Farnese Hercules - is supposed to be a copy of a work of Lysippus, of which nothing - further is known. - - Still more important as a work of art, though it has reached us in a - terribly mutilated condition—minus head, arms, and legs—is the - celebrated Torso of Hercules, in the Vatican. This was found in Rome - during the reign of Pope Julius II., on a spot where the theatre of - Pompey, of which it was probably an ornament, once stood. - - _Groups._—Heracles in action was a still more favourite subject with - artists, who delighted to portray the different scenes of his - versatile life. Numberless representations of such scenes occur, not - only in the form of statues and works in relief, but more especially - on ancient vases. We mention here, in the chronological order of the - events, some of the most important. - - _1. Heracles and the Serpents._—This scene was early depicted by the - celebrated painter Zeuxis, who represented Heracles as strangling - the serpents, whilst Alcmene and Amphitryon stood by in amazement. - There are also several statues representing this feat, among which - that at Florence takes the first rank. There is also a painting from - Herculaneum in the Naples Museum. - - _2. The Twelve Labours._—These have naturally been treated of times - out of number. We have already mentioned the groups of Lysippus, - which he executed for the town of Alyzia. A still existing bronze - statue in the Capitoline Museum, representing Heracles battling with - the Hydra, appears to belong to this series. Among interesting - remains are the metope reliefs on the Theseum at Athens. Ten on the - east side of the temple represent scenes from the life of Heracles. - Nine of them belong to the twelve labours, viz., the Nemean lion, - the Hydra, the Arcadian hind, the Erymanthian boar, the horses of - Diomedes, Cerberus, the girdle of Hippolyte, Geryon, and the - Hesperides; whilst the tenth tablet represents his contest with - Cycnus. The remains of the splendid temple of Zeus at Olympia, which - was completed about 435 B.C., are less important. The metopes of the - front and back of the temple contained six of the labours of - Heracles. Those representing the contest with the Cretan bull, the - dying lion, a portion from the fight with Geryon, and some other - fragments, were found in 1829, and conveyed to the museum of the - Louvre at Paris. The only one which is perfect, however, is the - spirited and life-like representation of the struggle with the - Cretan bull. - - _3. Parerga_ (_Subordinate Deeds_).—First among these come the - scenes from his contest with the Centaurs, which were frequently - treated of in art. Groups of these exist in the museum at Florence; - there are also various representations to be found on vases. His - adventure with Nessus is represented separately on a Pompeian - painting in the Naples Museum; Nessus crouches in a humble posture - before Heracles, who has the little Hyllus in his arms, and he - appears to be asking permission to carry Deïanira across the stream. - There is also an interesting representation of the release of - Prometheus on the Sarcophagus of the Capitol, from the Villa - Pamfili, which is, in other respects, also worthy of mention. The - seizure of the tripod at Delphi is also frequently portrayed in art. - - _4. Heracles and Omphale._—Of the monuments referring to Heracles’ - connection with Omphale, the most important is the beautiful Farnese - group in marble in the Naples Museum. Omphale has thrown the lion’s - skin round her beautiful limbs, and holds in her right hand the - hero’s club. Thus equipped, she smiles triumphantly at Heracles, who - is clothed in female attire, with a distaff in his hand. - - _5. Heracles and Telephus._—The romantic history of Telephus was - also frequently treated of in art. The Naples Museum possesses a - fine painting, representing the discovery of the child after it has - been suckled by the hind, on which occasion, strange to say, - Heracles himself is present. In the Vatican Museum there is a fine - marble group, representing Heracles with the child Telephus in his - arms. - - -=7. Attic Legend.=—_1. Cecrops._—Cecrops, the first founder of -civilisation in Attica, plays a similar part here to that which Cadmus -does in Thebes. Like Cadmus, he was afterwards called an immigrant; -indeed he was said to have come from Sais in Lower Egypt. In his case, -however, we are able to trace the rise of the erroneous tradition with -far greater distinctness. Pure Attic tradition recognises him only as an -autochthon—that is, an original inhabitant born of the earth; and -further adds, that, like the giants, he was half man and half serpent. -As the mythical founder of the state, he was also regarded as the -builder of the citadel (Cecropia); and marriage, as well as other -political and social institutions, were ascribed to him. Perhaps he is -only a local personification of Hermes. The probability of this view is -greatly enhanced by the fact that his three daughters, Herse, Aglaurus, -and Pandrosus, received divine honours. It was under Cecrops that the -celebrated contest occurred between Poseidon and Athene for the -possession of Attica, and was by his means decided in favour of the -goddess. We have already given an account of it, and need only here -remark that the story is purely the result of the observation of natural -phenomena. In Attica, in fact, there are only two seasons—a cold, wet, -and rainy winter (Poseidon), and a warm, dry, genial summer (Pallas). -These seem to be continually striving for the supremacy of the land. -Cecrops was succeeded in the government by Cranaüs, who is represented -by some as his son. The common mythological account places the flood of -Deucalion in his reign. After the expulsion of Cranaüs, Amphictyon, one -of the sons of Deucalion, succeeded to the sovereignty of Attica, of -whom nothing more is known than that he was deprived of the government -by Erechtheus. - -_2. Erechtheus, or Erichthonius._—Erechtheus, or Erichthonius, is really -only a second Cecrops—the mythical founder of the state after the flood, -as Cecrops was before it. Being also earthborn, he is, like Cecrops, -endowed with a serpent’s form. There was another very sacred legend -concerning him, which stated that Gæa (Ge), immediately after his birth, -gave him to the goddess Pallas to nurse. The latter first entrusted him -to the daughters of Cecrops, her attendants and priestesses, enclosed in -a chest. The latter, however, prompted by curiosity, opened the chest, -contrary to the commands of the goddess, and were punished in -consequence with madness. Erichthonius was now reared by the goddess -herself in her sanctuary on the citadel, and was subsequently made king -of Athens. The same stories are then related of him as of Cecrops—that -he regulated the state, introduced the worship of the gods, and settled -the dispute between Poseidon and Athene. - -The tomb of Erechtheus was shown in the Erechtheum, the ancient temple -dedicated to Athene Polias, where the never-dying olive tree created by -the goddess was also preserved. - -Two among the daughters of Erechtheus are celebrated in legend. The -first is Orithyia, who was carried off by Boreas, and became the mother -of Calaïs and Zetes, whom we come across again in the story of the -Argonauts; the other is Procris, the wife of the handsome hunter -Cephalus, who was said to be a son of Hermes by Herse, the daughter of -Cecrops. Cephalus was carried off by Eos, who was unable to shake his -fidelity to his wife. It served, however, to excite the jealousy of the -latter, which ultimately proved fatal to her. Procris had hidden herself -among the bushes, in order to watch her husband, when Cephalus, taking -her for a wild animal, unwittingly killed her. After the death of -Erechtheus, the tragic poets relate that Ion, the mythical ancestor of -the Ionians, ruled in Athens. This means nothing more than that the -primitive Pelasgian age in Attica had now come to an end, and the -dominion of the Ionians commenced. - -_3. Theseus._—Theseus is the national hero of the Ionians, just as -Heracles is of the Æolians. He has not unjustly been called the second -Heracles; and he has, indeed, many features in common with the Æolian -hero, since the national jealousy of the Ionians led them to adopt every -possible means of making their own hero rival that of their neighbours. -They therefore strove to represent him, likewise, as a hero tried in -numberless contests—generous, unselfish, and devoted to the interests of -mankind—and of course ascribed to him a multitude of adventurous -exploits. There is no great undertaking of antiquity in which Theseus is -not supposed to have taken part, and he was even sent on an expedition -to hell, in imitation of Heracles. - -He was the son of the Athenian king Ægeus, whom mythological tradition -made a great-grandson of Erechtheus. After his father Pandion had been -driven out by his relations, the sons of Metion, Ægeus betook himself to -Megara, where he was hospitably received by the ruler, Pylas. From -Megara, Ægeus, Pallas, Nisus, and Lycus, the sons of Pandion, undertook -an expedition against Athens, which ended in the expulsion of the -Metionidæ, and the restoration of the former royal family in the person -of Ægeus. Such, at least, is the tradition; although it is more probable -that Athens never had a king of this name, and that Ægeus (wave-man) is -only a surname of Poseidon, the chief deity of the seafaring Ionians. -Ægeus, though twice married, had no heir, and now undertook a journey to -Delphi to seek the advice of the oracle. On his way back he stopped at -the court of Pittheus, king of Trœzen, and became, by his daughter -Æthra, the father of Theseus. Before his departure, he placed his sword -and sandals beneath a heavy stone, and commanded Æthra to send his son -to Athens as soon as he was able to move the stone and take his father’s -sword. Theseus was carefully trained in music and gymnastics by the -sagacious Pittheus, and soon developed into a stately youth. He is also -supposed to have been educated by the Centaur Chiron, whose instruction -had now become a necessary item in the education of a real hero. - -When Theseus was sixteen, his mother took him to the stone beneath which -lay his father’s sword and sandals. With a slight effort he raised the -stone, and thus entered on his heroic career. His earlier adventures -consisted in overcoming a series of obstacles that beset him in his -journey from Trœzen to Athens. They are generally supposed to have been -six in number. - -1. Between Trœzen and Epidaurus he slew Periphetes, the son of -Hephæstus—who was lame, like his father—because he was in the habit of -murdering travellers with his iron club; whence he is called Corynetes, -or club-bearer. - -2. He next delivered the Isthmus from another powerful robber called -Sinis. He used to fasten travellers who fell into his hands to the top -of a pine tree, which he bent to the earth, and then allowed to recoil; -after which, on their reaching the ground, he would kill them outright; -whence he is called Pityocamptes, or pine-bender. Theseus inflicted the -same fate on him. - -3. In the woody district of Crommyon he destroyed a dangerous wild sow -that laid waste the country. - -4. Not far from this, on the rock of Sciron, on the borders of Megara, -dwelt another monster, called Sciron, who compelled travellers to wash -his feet, and then kicked them into the sea. Theseus served him in a -similar fashion. - -5. In the neighbourhood of Eleusis he vanquished the giant Cercyon, who -compelled all who fell into his hands to wrestle with him. - -6. His last combat awaited him on the confines of Eleusis, where dwelt -the inhuman Damastes. This monster used to lay his victims in a bed: if -this was too short, he would hack off their projecting limbs; if too -long, he would beat out and pull asunder their limbs, whence he is -called Procrustes. He was also slain by Theseus. - -On reaching Athens, he found his father Ægeus in the toils of the -dangerous sorceress Medea, who had fled from Corinth to Athens. She was -on the point of making away with the newcomer by poison, when Ægeus, -fortunately, recognised him by the sword he bore, and preserved him from -his impending fate. - -Medea was compelled to flee; but a new danger awaited the hero from the -fifty sons of Pallas, who had reckoned on succeeding their childless -uncle Ægeus. Theseus, however, slew some in battle and expelled the -rest. - -He now undertook his greatest and most adventurous feat, in order to -free his country from its shameful tribute to Minos, king of Crete, -whose son, the youthful hero Androgeos, had been treacherously murdered -by the Athenians and Megareans. Another account says that he was sent by -Ægeus against the bull of Marathon, and thus slain. At any rate, Minos -undertook a war of revenge. He first marched against Megara, of which -Nisus, the brother of Ægeus, was king. Minos conquered him by means of -his own daughter Scylla, who became enamoured of Minos, and cut off from -her father’s head the purple lock on which his life depended. After -having taken Megara and slain Nisus, Minos marched against Athens. Here -he was equally successful, and compelled the vanquished Athenians to -expiate the blood of his son by sending, every eight or (according to -the Greek method of reckoning) every nine years, seven youths and seven -maidens to be devoured by the Minotaur. This was a monster, half man and -half bull. Twice already had the bloody tribute been sent, and the third -fell just after Theseus’ arrival in Athens; he at once bravely offered -to go among the allotted victims. He was resolved to do battle with the -Minotaur, and to stake his life on the liberation of his country from -the shameful tribute. Under the guidance of Aphrodite he passed over to -Crete, and soon discovered the efficacy of her protection. The goddess -kindled a passionate love for the hero in the breast of Ariadne, the -daughter of Minos. Ariadne rendered him every possible assistance in his -undertaking, and especially presented him with a clew of thread, by -means of which Theseus, after having slain the Minotaur, was enabled to -find his way out of the Labyrinth. We have already narrated how Ariadne -was deserted by Theseus on the isle of Naxos, only to become the bride -of Dionysus, the divine son of Semele. Theseus also landed at Delos, -where he instituted the festival of the Delia in honour of the divine -children of Leto. On reaching Athens, he showed his gratitude to his -divine protectress by the institution of the worship of Aphrodite -Pandemus. In honour of Dionysus and Ariadne, he instituted the -Oschophoria, in which festival Athene also had a share. Lastly, in -honour of Apollo, he instituted the Pyanepsia, a festival which was -celebrated on the seventh day of the month Pyanepsion (end of October). - -The happy return of Theseus from his Cretan expedition, however, proved -the death of his aged father. Ægeus, as he stood on the coast looking -for his son’s return, perceived that the ships had black sails instead -of white, which were to have been hoisted in the event of his son’s -success; and believing that all was lost, he cast himself headlong into -the sea. This story was perhaps only invented to account for the name of -the Ægean Sea. - -With regard to the other exploits of Theseus, there exists the greatest -variety of accounts as to the order in which they took place. As king, -he is said to have been the first to unite the separate districts of -Attica into one political community, with one state Prytaneum, and to -have instituted the festival of the Panathenæa in commemoration of this -event. The following, among his later exploits, are worthy of mention:— - -1. He captured the bull of Marathon (said to have been the same which -Heracles brought alive from Crete), and sacrificed it in Athens to -Apollo Delphinius. - -2. He assisted his friend Pirithoüs, the prince of the Lapithæ, in his -contest with the Centaurs. - -3. He undertook with Pirithoüs an expedition to Lacedæmon, in which they -carried off Helen, the sister of the Dioscuri. - -4. At the request of Pirithoüs, he accompanied him to the lower world to -carry off Persephone; but Hades, enraged at their audacity, caused them -both to be bound in chains and fastened to a rock. Theseus was rescued -from this plight by Heracles, but during his absence the Dioscuri had -released their sister from Aphidnæ, where she was confined. - -5. He next joined Heracles in his expedition against the Amazons, and -received, as the reward of victory, their queen Antiope, or Hippolyte. -Another tradition asserts that Antiope followed him of her own free will -to Athens, where she was married to him, and became the mother of -Hippolytus, famed for his unhappy fate. His great beauty caused his -step-mother Phædra, a later wife of Theseus, and a sister of Ariadne, to -fall in love with him. As he withdrew himself from her dishonourable -proposals by flight, she accused him to his father of attempts on her -virtue. Theseus, in his wrath, besought Poseidon to punish his faithless -son; and the god, who had sworn to grant any request of Theseus, sent a -wild bull (_i.e._, a breaker) out of the sea as Hippolytus was driving -in his chariot along the sea-shore. This so terrified his horses that -Hippolytus was thrown from his chariot, and dragged along the ground -till he was dead. This story—the scene of which was afterwards -transferred to Trœzen, whither Theseus was supposed to have fled on -account of a murder—was dealt with in a touching manner by the tragic -poets. The _Hippolytus_ of Euripides is still extant. - -6. As a result of the carrying off of Antiope, a second contest with the -Amazons was subsequently invented, in which Theseus was engaged alone, -and which took place in the immediate neighbourhood of Athens. The -Amazons are supposed to have invaded Attica, in order to release their -queen. Antiope, however, was so enamoured of Theseus that she refused to -return, and fought at her husband’s side, against her kindred, until she -was slain. - -Lastly, Theseus is said to have taken part in the Calydonian boar hunt, -and also in the expedition of the Argonauts, of which we shall have more -to say hereafter. - -[Illustration: Fig. 59.—Elgin Theseus. British Museum.] - -The death of Theseus is commonly agreed to have taken place in the -following manner:—He had been deprived of the sovereignty of Athens by -Menestheus, who was aided by the Dioscuri; and then withdrew to the -island of Scyros. Here he was at first hospitably received, but -subsequently murdered in a treacherous manner by Lycomedes, the ruler of -the island. Demophoön, the son of Theseus, is said to have afterwards -recovered his father’s kingdom. At a still later period the bones of the -hero were brought to Athens by Cimon, at the command of the Delphic -oracle. Cimon is also supposed to have caused the erection of the temple -of Theseus, which still exists in Athens, and serves as an art museum. -The eighth day of every month was held sacred to Theseus, besides which -he had a special festival, called the Thesea, on the eighth of -Pyanepsion. - -[Illustration: Fig. 60.—Theseus Lifting the Rock. Relief in the Villa -Albani.] - - Art has followed the example of the poets and mythologists in - depicting Theseus as a second Heracles. Here, however, the - characteristic differences that existed between the Doric and Ionic - races become apparent. Just as the latter race surpassed the former - in elasticity, both of mind and body, so their national hero gives - token not only of a higher intellectual being, but also of a body - more lithe, and capable of greater swiftness and dexterity, than - that of the Doric hero. The slighter and more elegant form of - Theseus lacks, perhaps, the sheer brute strength of Heracles, but is - compensated by the possession of a far greater degree of activity - and adroitness. The expression of face is more amiable and the hair - less bristling than that of Heracles, while there is generally no - beard. Such is Theseus as depicted by Greek art at the epoch of its - full development; later art strove to render the form of the body - still more lithe and graceful. The costume of Theseus consists, like - that of his prototype Heracles, of a lion’s skin and club; sometimes - also of the chlamys and petasus of the Attic youth. Existing art - monuments are far less numerous in his case than in that of - Heracles. If the explanation is correct, the British Museum - possesses a Theseus of priceless value. Among the statues of the - Parthenon which have been preserved, there is one of a figure - negligently reclining on a lion’s skin, which, with the exception of - the nose, hands, and feet, is in a tolerably good state of - preservation (Fig. 59). It belonged to the great group of the east - gable, which represented the first appearance of the new-born Athene - to the astonished gods. It is the figure of a youth in his prime, - somewhat larger than life, and altogether a perfect ideal of manly - beauty. - - A representation of the conflict of Theseus with the invading army - of the Amazons still exists on a large piece of frieze-work, which, - together with the representations of the battle of the Lapithæ and - Centaurs (which have been already mentioned), formerly decorated the - walls of the shrine of Apollo’s temple in Phigalia, and is now the - property of the British Museum. Among the Greek warriors Theseus may - be easily recognised by his lion’s skin and the club, which he is in - the act of swinging against a mounted Amazon, probably the leader of - the hostile army. We give an engraving of the scene where Theseus - obtained the sword and sandals of his father from beneath the rock, - after a relief in the Villa Albani (Fig. 60). - - -=8. Cretan Legend.=—_1. Minos and the Minotaur._—Cretan myths are both -obscure and difficult of interpretation, because Phœnician and Phrygian -influences made themselves felt at a very early period, and native -sources fail us. Minos is commonly supposed to have been the first king -of the country. He was the son of Zeus and Europa, who is called in -Homer a daughter of Phœnix. This Phœnix was subsequently made into -Agenor, a Phœnician, king of Sidon; and the story then arose that Zeus, -in the form of a white bull, had carried off Europa, and arrived with -his lovely prey in Crete. Europa is there said to have given birth to -Minos, Rhadamanthys (Rhadamanthus), and some say Sarpedon. She -afterwards married Asterion, who brought up the sons of Zeus as his own -children, and, at his death, left the kingdom to Minos. He, after -expelling his brothers Sarpedon and Rhadamanthus, became sole king of -Crete. Of his brothers, Sarpedon went to Lycia, whilst the pious -Rhadamanthus found a refuge in Bœotia. Minos next married Pasiphaë, a -daughter of Helios and Perseïs, by whom he became the father of Catreus, -who succeeded him, Deucalion, Glaucus, and Androgeos, besides several -daughters, of whom the most celebrated are Ariadne and Phædra. Minos -gave wise laws to his people, and became supreme at sea among the isles -of the Ægean Sea, and even as far as Attica. In his name we find the -same root (meaning “to think”) which we have seen in Minerva, and which -appears in the name of the Indian lawgiver Manu. - -In order to vindicate his right to the crown, Minos besought Poseidon to -send him a bull out of the sea, which he was then to sacrifice to the -god. Poseidon granted his prayer, but Minos was induced by the beauty of -the animal to place it among his own herds. As a punishment of his -perfidy, Poseidon kindled in the breast of Pasiphaë an unnatural love -for the bull, and the fruit of their connection was the Minotaur. This -was a monster, half man and half bull, which Minos shut up in the -labyrinth that had been made by the skill of Dædalus. The food of the -monster consisted of human beings, who were partly criminals and partly -youths and maidens, sent as tribute from the subjugated countries. This -lasted until Theseus came to Crete, and, with the aid of Ariadne and -Dædalus, destroyed the Minotaur. Such is the substance of this -perplexing mythical tradition, of which the simplest interpretation is -that the Minotaur was originally an ancient idol of the Phœnician -sun-god Baal, which had the form of a bull, and to which human -sacrifices were offered. The destruction of the Minotaur by Theseus is a -symbol of the triumph of the higher Greek civilisation over Phœnician -barbarism, and the consequent abolition of human sacrifices. - -Closely connected with the royal family of Crete we find Dædalus, the -most celebrated artist of the legendary period. He is said to have been -a son of Metion, and a descendant of Erechtheus, and to have fled from -Athens to Crete after murdering his nephew Talus in a fit of -professional jealousy. During his residence in Crete he constructed the -Labyrinth, an underground building with an endless maze of passages, as -a dwelling-place for the Minotaur; besides many other wonderful works of -art. For having aided Theseus in his combat with the Minotaur, Dædalus -and his son Icarus were both imprisoned in the Labyrinth of Minos. The -story of his flight, which he accomplished by means of the artificial -wings that he made for himself and his son, is well known from the -_Metamorphoses_ of Ovid. Icarus fell into the sea that is named after -him, and was drowned, but Dædalus reached Cumæ in safety. From this -place he passed over to Sicily, where he was hospitably received by -Cocalus. When Minos, however, pursued the fugitive and demanded his -surrender, not only was his request refused, but he was even put to -death by the contrivance of the king’s daughters. - -Of the other sons of Minos, Deucalion is celebrated as having taken part -in the Calydonian boar hunt, and also as the father of the hero -Idomeneus, who fought against Troy. Glaucus was killed, while yet a boy, -by falling into a cask of honey as he was pursuing a mouse. He is -reported, however, to have been restored to life by the Corinthian augur -Polyidus, or, according to others, by Asclepius himself. - -_2. Talos._—The legend of Talos, the brazen man, betrays likewise a -Phœnician origin, and refers to the cruel practice of offering human -sacrifices. This Talos was made of brass, and was invulnerable. -Hephæstus, or, as others say, Zeus gave him to Minos as guardian of the -island of Crete, round which he travelled thrice a-day. If he perceived -any strangers approach he would spring into the fire, and, after -becoming red-hot, he would clasp them to his breast, until they expired -beneath the sardonic chuckle of the demon. He attempted to drive off the -Argonauts with stones, but was destroyed by the skill of Medea. Talos -had a single vein, which ran from his head to his feet, and was closed -at the top with a nail. This nail Medea cleverly succeeded in -extracting, in consequence of which Talos bled to death. - - - IV.—COMBINED UNDERTAKINGS OF THE LATER HEROIC AGE. - - -=1. The Calydonian Hunt.=—The story of Meleager and the Calydonian boar -hunt was undoubtedly, in its origin, nothing more than a provincial myth -based on natural phenomena, like other myths that we have already -explained. In this case the physical significance involved in the myth -soon disappeared, owing to the treatment it received at the hands of the -epic and dramatic poets. The poets, in fact, succeeded in introducing -some striking ethical conceptions, which absorbed all higher interest. - -Œneus, king of Calydon in Ætolia, on the occasion of a great festival -which was celebrated after a successful vintage, had accidentally or -purposely omitted to sacrifice to Artemis. To punish this neglect she -sent a huge wild boar, which devastated the fields of Calydon, and -seemed invincible by any ordinary means on account of its vast size. -Meleager, the brave and heroic son of Œneus, therefore assembled men and -hounds in great number to slay it. The boar was slain; but Artemis -stirred up strife over the head and hide between the Ætolians and the -Curetes of Pleuron. At first the former were victorious; but when -Meleager withdrew in wrath from the battle because his mother had cursed -him for the death of her brother, they were no longer able to keep the -field, and soon saw their city closely invested by their enemies. In -vain did the elders and priests of Calydon beseech Meleager; in vain did -his father, sisters, and even mother beseech him to aid his hard-pressed -countrymen. Like Achilles in the Trojan war, when he was wroth with -Agamemnon on account of the loss of Briseis, Meleager long refused to -stir. At last his wife—the beautiful Cleopatra—succeeded in moving him. -He donned his armour, and put himself at the head of his countrymen for -a sally against the besiegers. Brilliant, indeed, was the victory of the -men of Calydon; but the hero Meleager did not return from the battle, -for the cruel Erinyes, who had heard his mother’s curse, destroyed him -with the arrows of Apollo. - -Such is the earliest form of the legend, as it exists in the _Iliad_. In -time, however, Meleager was said to have called together against the -boar all the renowned heroes of Greece. Among others there came the -Dioscuri, Castor and Pollux; Theseus and his friend Pirithoüs; Idas and -Lynceus, the sons of Aphareus; Admetus of Pheræ; Jason, from Iolcus; -Iphicles and Iolaüs, from Thebes; Peleus, the father of Achilles; -Telamon, from Salamis; Ancæus and the beautiful huntress Atalante -(Atalanta), from Arcadia; besides the soothsayer Amphiaraüs, from Argos. -After Œneus had entertained his guests royally for nine days, the hunt -began, and the huge beast, which was as large as an ox, was surrounded -and driven from its lair. Atalante, the swift huntress, was the first to -inflict a wound. Ancæus then advanced with his battle-axe, but the -enraged beast, with one stroke of his dreadful tusks, tore open his body -and killed him on the spot. At length the monster received a mortal -wound from a spear hurled by the powerful arm of Meleager, and was soon -despatched by the rest. Meleager received as his due the head and hide -of the slaughtered animal, but resigned the prize to Atalante, of whom -he was enamoured, on the ground that she was the first to wound the -boar. This act excited the bitter jealousy of Plexippus and Toxeus, the -sons of Thestius, king of Pleuron, and brothers of Althæa, the mother of -Meleager. They accordingly lay in wait for Atalante, and robbed her of -the present. Enraged at this, Meleager slew them both. But Meleager’s -death, though caused by the wrath of his mother, was worked out -differently in the time of the tragic poets. The Fates had appeared to -Althæa, soon after the birth of Meleager, and informed her that her son -would only live until a certain brand, which was then burning on the -fire, was consumed. Althæa immediately snatched the brand from the -flames and carefully treasured it up. After Meleager had slain her -brothers, in the first outburst of grief and indignation against her -son, she placed the brand again in the fire, and thus cut off the noble -hero in the prime of his youth and beauty. Althæa, on learning the -unhappy fate of her son, full of sorrow for her hasty deed, put an end -to her own life. - - -=2. The Argonauts.=—The story of the Argonauts experienced a similar -fate to that of the Calydonian hunt. It was originally nothing but a -myth based on natural phenomena; but in the hands of the poets it -swelled to a mass of legends common to all the tribes of Greece, the -nucleus of which was the history of the golden fleece. Athamas, the son -of Æolus, was king of the Minyæ. He put away his first wife, Nephele -(cloud), in order to marry Ino, the daughter of Cadmus; though he still -kept Phrixus (rain-shower) and Helle (ray of light), his children by -Nephele, with him. By Ino he had two other children, Learchus and -Melicertes, whom their mother naturally preferred to her stepchildren, -and for whose sake she endeavoured to drive the latter from their -father’s house. Soon afterwards, either at the command of Nephele, whom -some represent as a goddess, or in consequence of her prayers for the -punishment of Athamas, the land was visited with a long drought, and Ino -persuaded her husband to sacrifice Phrixus as a sin-offering to Zeus, in -order to put an end to the calamity. Whether Helle was to have shared -her brother’s fate we cannot tell, for, before Ino could accomplish her -purpose, Nephele came to the assistance of her children, and gave them a -winged ram with a golden fleece, which Hermes had presented to her for -that purpose. Seated on this ram they fled over the sea to Colchis. On -the way Helle fell into that part of the sea which bears her name, and -was drowned, but Phrixus arrived safely in Colchis (Æa), where he -sacrificed the ram to Zeus, who had preserved him in his flight. The -fleece he hung up in the grove of Ares as a sacred treasure, setting -over it a terrible, ever-watchful dragon as its guardian. To fetch this -treasure from a foreign land, and thereby to release the country and -people of the Minyæ from the calamity with which they were oppressed, -was the task of the heroes of the race of Æolus. Athamas was so grieved -at the evil he had brought on his country that he became insane, and -sought to slay Ino and her children. He did, indeed, kill Learchus by -dashing him against a rock, but Ino succeeded in saving herself and her -younger child Melicertes by leaping into the sea (_cf._ Ino Leucothea). -Athamas then fled to Epirus, and the kingdom devolved on his brother -Cretheus. Cretheus married Tyro, the daughter of his younger brother -Salmoneus, king of Elis. Tyro bore him three sons, the eldest of whom, -Æson, succeeded his father in the kingdom, but was soon after expelled -by his step-brother Pelias, who is described as a son of Tyro and -Poseidon. Æson with difficulty managed to rescue his little son Jason -from the hands of Pelias, and brought him to the Centaur Chiron to be -educated. In Chiron’s cave the young hero grew up, a favourite with gods -and men. After completing his twentieth year, he betook himself to -Iolcus to demand of his uncle his rightful inheritance. Pelias, not -daring to use violence to the sturdy youth, endeavoured to get rid of -his unwelcome guest by involving him in a most dangerous adventure. He -declared that he would gladly resign the crown if Jason would recover -the golden fleece from Colchis. Jason, like a true hero, at once -accepted the perilous adventure. In the harbour of Iolcus he caused a -large ship with fifty oars to be constructed, which he called the -“Argo,” after its builder, Argus. He then called together the heroes, -who had consented at his invitation to take part in the expedition. In -the original version of the story, the expedition was stated to have -been undertaken only by the heroes of the race of the Minyæ—such as -Acastus, Admetus, and Periclymenus. At a later period, however—when the -date of the expedition had been fixed at one generation before the -Trojan war—no hero of any note was allowed to be absent from the -undertaking. In this manner were added the Dioscuri, the sons of Boreas, -Calaïs and Zetes, Telamon, Peleus, Meleager, Tydeus, Iphitus, Theseus, -Orpheus, Amphiaraüs, and even Heracles. In the last case, the -incongruity of allowing the hero to play only a subordinate part was -soon felt, and his name was withdrawn. He was said to have been left -behind in Mysia, where he had landed in order to search for his -favourite Hylas, who had been carried off by the Naiads. The number of -the Argonauts was finally computed at fifty, tallying with the number of -oars. - -The expedition proceeded from Iolcus to Lemnos, and thence through the -Hellespont to Cyzicus, where they were kindly received by the Doliones. -From Cyzicus they proceeded to Bithynia, where they were opposed by the -Bebryces, whose king, Amycus, was slain by Pollux in a boxing match. -Their greatest difficulty lay in the passage of the Bosporus, there -being at the entrance of the Pontus (Black Sea) two terrible rocks, -which were in constant motion—now retreating to the shore on either -side, now hastily dashing together again; whence they were called the -Symplegades. This occurred so rapidly that even the swiftest vessel had -not time enough to get through. The Argonauts were in great perplexity. -At length the blind seer Phineus, who dwelt in Thracian Salmydessus, and -whose gratitude they won by delivering him from the Harpies who had -tormented him, assisted them with his advice. By means of a stratagem he -recommended they were enabled to bring the Argo through without any -considerable damage, after which the Symplegades remained stationary. -After this they stood along the south coast towards their destination, -which, in the original legend, appears to have been the utterly fabulous -Æa, subsequently converted into Colchis. This was the residence of the -mighty king Æetes, a son of the sun-god. To rob him, either by craft or -by violence, of the golden fleece was the task of Jason, the leader of -the Argonauts. - -The second prominent character in the story, Medea, the daughter of -Æetes, now makes her appearance. It was, in fact, only through her love -that Jason was enabled to surmount the vast obstacles which stood -between him and the possession of the golden fleece. When the hero -demanded the fleece of Æetes, the latter declared that he would deliver -it up to him after he had accomplished two tasks. The first was to -harness two brazen-footed, fire-breathing bulls, which Æetes had -received from Hephæstus, to a plough, and with them to till an -uncultivated field. The second was to sow in the furrows the dragon’s -teeth that Æetes would give him, and to destroy the armed men which -would then spring up. Jason’s heart failed him on hearing these -conditions, but Medea, who was an enchantress and priestess of Hecate, -was equal to the occasion. She gave the hero a magic salve to protect -him against the fiery breath of the bulls and to endow him with -invincible strength, which enabled him to accomplish his first task -successfully. In the case of the armed men who sprang from the dragon’s -teeth, by the advice of Medea he followed the example of Cadmus, and -cast among them a heavy stone, whereupon in blind fury they turned their -arms against each other, and were all destroyed. - -The conditions imposed upon him by Æetes were thus accomplished; but the -king, who perceived that Jason had only succeeded through the aid of his -daughter, made this a pretext for refusing to surrender the fleece. -Jason then removed it by night from the grove of Ares, after Medea had, -by means of her enchantments, lulled the watchful dragon to sleep. That -same night the Argonauts embarked on board their ship and put to sea, -Medea accompanying them as the future wife of Jason. The wrathful Æetes -attempted to overtake the fugitives, but Medea succeeded in staying the -pursuit by slaying her younger brother Apsyrtus, whom she had brought -with her, and scattering his limbs in the sea. - -The most diverse accounts exist as to the road taken by the Argonauts on -their homeward journey. Some say that they sailed up the Phasis to the -Eastern Sea, and then, passing through the Red Sea and Libyan desert, -over which they had to carry the Argo twelve days’ journey, came to Lake -Tritonis, and thence to the Mediterranean. According to another account, -they sought to pass through the Ister (Danube) and Eridanus (Po) to the -Western Ocean; but the object of this account was manifestly to subject -them to the same vicissitudes and adventures as Odysseus and his -companions. - -At length Jason landed happily in Iolcus, and delivered the golden -fleece into the hands of his uncle. Pelias, however, still refused to -surrender the kingdom to Jason, and Medea therefore determined to make -away with him by craft. Having persuaded the daughters of Pelias that -she possessed a means of making the old man young again, she directed -them to slay their father, cut him in pieces, and boil the limbs in a -cauldron filled with all manner of herbs; this they did in the vain -expectation of seeing him restored to youth. Jason now took possession -of his father’s kingdom, but was soon afterwards expelled by Acastus, -the son of Pelias, and took refuge in Corinth. His subsequent -misfortunes are well known. Thinking to better his condition, he was -about to marry Creüsa, the daughter of the king of Corinth, when he was -arrested by the fearful vengeance of his first wife. Medea sent the -bride a poisoned garment, which caused her to die an agonising death, -and then slew her own children by Jason; after which she fled in her -chariot drawn by winged dragons to Athens, where she long found -protection at the court of Ægeus. Jason either put an end to his own -life, or was killed by the fall of a rotten beam of the Argo. - -In the history of the golden fleece we have one of the most widely -spread myths of all, namely, that of the loss and recovery of a -treasure. In Teutonic tradition we have the treasure of the Nibelungs, -in which the very name is almost identical; and if we include the -stories of women carried off and rescued, the list becomes endless. And -the treasure of all those stories has been interpreted to be the golden -clouds. The Dragon which guards the treasure again appears in the story -of the apples of the Hesperides, and is closely allied to the Sphinx. - - -=3. The Theban Cycle.=—The highly tragic history of the Theban house of -the Labdacidæ, teeming as it does with important characters and events, -has at all times furnished subjects for Greek art and poetry, and has -given birth to a whole series of epic and dramatic works. The former, -which would have conduced far more to an exact acquaintance with the -legend, have, unfortunately, perished, with the exception of a few -unimportant fragments; although many important works of the great tragic -poets, Æschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, relating to the subject, -still remain. The common account runs thus:—Laius, a great-grandson of -Cadmus, was warned by the oracle to beget no children, as he was doomed -to perish by the hands of his son, who would then marry his mother. When -his wife Iocaste gave birth to a son, Laius accordingly exposed the -child, with its feet pierced, on Mount Cithæron. The child, called -Œdipus from the swelling of its feet, did not die, but was found by some -Corinthian shepherds, who brought it to Polybus, king of Corinth. -Polybus, having no children of his own, adopted Œdipus, who grew up in -the belief that Polybus and Merope were his real parents, until one day -a taunt of his companions as to his mysterious origin raised doubts in -his mind. In order to solve his misgivings, he went to consult the -oracle of Delphi, but he here received only the obscure direction not to -return to his country, since, if he did, he would kill his father and -marry his mother. Fearing on this account to return to Corinth, he took -the road to Thebes, and thus, by his presumptuous prudence, brought -about the very consequences he was so anxious to avoid. On the road he -was met by Laius, who was on his way to the oracle to ask its advice -concerning the Sphinx. A quarrel arose, in a narrow defile, between -Laius and Œdipus; and Œdipus slew his father without knowing who he was. -On arriving at Thebes he succeeded in delivering the country from the -Sphinx. This monster, which had the combined form of a woman and a lion, -had been sent by Hera, whom Laius had in some way offended, from -Ethiopia to devastate the land of Thebes. Seated on a rock close to the -town, she put to every one that passed by a riddle, and whoever was -unable to solve it, she cast from the rock into a deep abyss. This -calamity induced Creon, on the death of his brother-in-law Laius, to -proclaim that whoever solved the riddle should obtain the crown and the -hand of Iocaste. Œdipus succeeded in solving it, and thus delivered the -country from the monster, who cast herself into the abyss. - -The Sphinx belongs to the same family as many of the monsters we have -spoken of already; she is called by Hesiod the child of Orthros and -Chimæra, whom we have seen to be the daughter of Typhon and Echidna. It -would seem, therefore, probable that the contest between her and her -opponent may be interpreted in the same way as that of Bellerophon and -the Chimæra, or of Zeus and Typhon. In support of this, the following -considerations may be adduced. Since we know that thunder was supposed -to be a warning or encouragement to men, it is easy to see in it the -mysterious voice of the cloud, only intelligible to the wisest of men. -Hence the conqueror of the cloud was called the man who understood her -language. (It would not a little help this idea, that Œdipus might seem -derived from a word meaning “to know.”) Then the death of the Sphinx -will be the cloud falling upon the earth in the shape of rain. Œdipus, -on the other hand, will be the same antagonist as we have before seen -victorious over the cloud dragons; the sun, born helpless, rising to -take the kingdom after the slaughter of his enemies, yet at last sinking -blinded into an unknown grave. This, however, does not cover the crimes -laid to his charge. But they have been explained in this way: that when -people lost consciousness of the real meaning of the misfortunes of -Œdipus, they cast about for some adequate cause, and found one in the -two great crimes of incest and parricide. We have seen something similar -to this in the case of Ixion. Further, the names of the wives assigned -by various writers to Œdipus are connected with the light, and the name -Laius has been interpreted as “enemy” of the light. Sphinx itself -signifies “throttler.” - - In art, the Sphinx had the form of a lion, generally in a recumbent - position, with the breast and upper part of a beautiful woman. When - the Greeks saw similar figures in Egypt, they naturally gave them - the name of Sphinx. But name, family, and meaning of the Sphinx are - alike Greek, although the Egyptian statues have taken too firm - possession of the name ever to lose it. Ancient Egyptian art - revelled in the creation of colossal Sphinxes, which were carved out - of granite. A notable example of this kind exists in the giant - Sphinx near the Pyramids of Gizeh, which is eighty-nine feet long. - From such monstrous figures as these, Greek art held aloof. - -Œdipus was rewarded with the sovereignty of Thebes and the hand of -Iocaste; and for several years he enjoyed uninterrupted happiness, -surrounded by four blooming children, the fruit of his incestuous -marriage. By the secret agency of the goddess, the dreadful truth was at -length discovered. Iocaste hanged herself, and Œdipus, in despair, put -out his own eyes. Not content with this voluntary penance, the -hard-hearted Thebans compelled him besides to leave their city and -country, while his sons Eteocles and Polynices, who were now grown up, -refused to stir a foot in their father’s behalf. Œdipus, after invoking -bitter curses on their heads, withdrew, and, guided by his faithful -daughter Antigone, at last found an asylum in the grove of the Eumenides -at Colonus, near Athens. His grave there was regarded, in consequence of -an ancient response of the oracle, as a national treasure. - -The curse of their father took effect on his unnatural sons. The elder, -Eteocles, drove out his brother Polynices, who then sought the -assistance of Adrastus, king of Argos. Adrastus was a grandson of Bias, -of the race of the Amythaonidæ, and by his marriage with the daughter of -the wealthy Polybus acquired the sovereignty of Sicyon. He not only -hospitably received the fugitive Polynices, but gave him his daughter in -marriage, and promised to assist him in recovering the crown of Thebes. -In this expedition Adrastus sought to gain the aid of the other Argive -heroes. They all declared their readiness to accompany him, with the -exception of Amphiaraüs, his brother-in-law, who was equally renowned -for his wisdom and courage. Amphiaraüs was a great-grandson of the -celebrated seer Melampus, and inherited from him the gift of prophecy. -He was thus enabled to perceive the disastrous termination of the war, -and strove to hinder it. But Polynices and the fiery Tydeus—likewise a -son-in-law of Adrastus—were so unceasing in their entreaties, that he at -length sought to escape their importunity by flight. Polynices, however, -bribed his wife Eriphyle, by the present of a magnificent necklace, -which had formerly been given to Harmonia on the occasion of her -marriage with Cadmus, to betray his place of concealment. Hereupon -Amphiaraüs was obliged unwillingly to join the expedition, which ended -as he had prophesied. The attack on Thebes was not only repulsed, but -all the Argive leaders, with the exception of Adrastus, who was saved by -the fleetness of his horse, were slain. Polynices and Eteocles fell in -single combat with each other. The flight of Adrastus to Attica, where -he procured the assistance of Theseus in compelling the Thebans to grant -the fallen heroes a solemn burial, is a feature unknown to the original -legend, and may be ascribed to the patriotic impulses of the Athenian -dramatists. The celebrated tragedy of Sophocles, called _Antigone_, is -based on the assumption that Creon, the new king of Thebes, allowed the -burial of the other heroes, but left Polynices to lie unburied on the -field like a dog, and condemned Antigone to death because she ventured -to bury her brother in despite of his command. Creon was destined to -meet with a dreadful retribution, for his own son, who was betrothed to -Antigone, killed himself in grief at her fate. - -Ten years later, the sons of the fallen heroes are said to have combined -with Ægialeus, the son of Adrastus, to avenge their fathers’ defeat. -This expedition has therefore been called the war of the Epigoni -(descendants), and not being undertaken, like that of their fathers, in -manifest opposition to the will of the gods, proved successful. -Laodamas, the savage son of Eteocles, who was now king of Thebes, was -defeated in a decisive battle near Thebes, and, after Ægialeus had -fallen by his hands, was himself slain by Alcmæon, the son of -Amphiaraüs. The Thebans were unable any longer to hold their city, and, -following the advice of the blind seer Tiresias, they withdrew under the -cover of darkness and mist. The aged Tiresias expired on the road, at -the fountain of Tilphusa; of the rest, some took refuge in Thessalia, -and some sought other lands. The victorious Argives, after plundering -and partly destroying the city, dedicated a great portion of the -booty—among which was Manto, the daughter of Tiresias—to the oracle of -Delphi. They then made Thersander, the son of Polynices, king of Thebes; -upon which many of the fugitive inhabitants returned. Thersander -subsequently took part in the Trojan war, and there perished. - - -=4. The Trojan Cycle.=—We now come to the Trojan war, the fourth and -most celebrated of the common undertakings of the later heroic age. Here -the sources of our information are far more plentiful than in any former -period of mythic history, because both the grand national epics, the -_Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_, which are commonly ascribed to Homer, relate -to the Trojan war. As the contents of these immortal poems are probably -well known to our readers, we shall only dwell on the most essential -features of the story. - -I. THE HEROIC RACES OF THE TROJAN WAR.—_1. The Dardanidæ, or race of -Dardanus._—The royal family of Troy were descended from Dardanus, a son -of Zeus by Electra, a daughter of Atlas. Dardanus is said to have -emigrated from Samothrace, or, according to others, from Italy to -Arcadia, to the north-west portion of Asia Minor, between the range of -Ida and the Hellespont, where he received from king Teucer some land to -form a settlement. By a daughter of the river-god Simoïs, or, as others -say, of Scamander, Dardanus had a son called Tros, from whom the Trojans -derived their name. Tros had three sons—Assaracus, Ilus, and Ganymedes. -The last, who, like all the scions of the race of Dardanus, was -possessed of wonderful beauty, was raised by Zeus to the dignity of -cupbearer to the gods, and thus became immortal. Ilus and Assaracus -became the founders of two different branches of the Dardanian race. The -latter remained in his native settlement of Dardania, where he became -the father of Capys and the grandfather of Anchises, the father of -Æneas. Ilus, on the other hand, emigrated to the plains of the -Scamander, where he founded the city of Ilium, or Troy. After completing -the town, he begged Zeus to bestow on him a sign of his favour. The next -morning he found in front of his tent the celebrated Palladium—an image -of Pallas Athene, carved in wood. On the possession of this depended the -fortune and welfare of the city. After the death of Ilus, his son -Laomedon became king of Troy. At his request, Poseidon and Apollo built -the citadel of Pergamum. We have already related how this king, by his -faithless conduct provoked the wrath of Heracles, and the first capture -of the city. Of his sons only Priam remained; in him the race of -Dardanus flourished afresh, for by his wife Hecuba and by his concubines -he had a great number of sons and daughters. - -_2. The Pelopidæ, or race of Pelops._—The Pelopidæ, who were chiefly -instrumental in the destruction of Troy, were descended from the -Phrygian king Tantalus, who was renowned alike for his unexampled good -fortune and his subsequent unhappy fate. He was the son of Zeus and -Pluto (rich plenty), and inhabited a citadel on Mount Sipylus, whence -his rich pasture-lands and fruitful corn-fields extended twelve days’ -journey, as far as Ida and the Propontis. The very gods honoured him -with their friendship, and lived on such intimate terms that they -invited him to eat at their table. This unheard-of good fortune, -however, begot in the puny mortal such presumption, that he began to -indulge in the grossest outrages on gods and men. At length he went so -far as to cut his son Pelops in pieces to boil them, and set them before -the gods in order to test their omniscience. The cup of his iniquity now -seemed full, and the gods brought down a heavy retribution on the head -of the criminal by his well-known punishment in the lower world, where, -though surrounded by the most delicious fruits, and standing up to his -neck in water, he was nevertheless condemned to suffer the pangs of -continual hunger and thirst. Another tradition relates that he was kept -in constant anxiety by a huge rock which was suspended over his head. -(See pp. 149, 150.) - -The children of Tantalus were Pelops and Niobe. The unhappy fate of the -latter has already been described in the mythic history of Thebes. -Pelops was restored to life by the art of Hermes; and a portion of his -shoulder, which had been consumed by Demeter, was replaced by the gods -with a piece of ivory. Pelops is said to have grown up in Olympus, -amongst the blessed gods. On being restored to earth, he proceeded to -Elis, where he became a suitor for the hand of Hippodamia, the beautiful -daughter of the king Œnomaüs. The latter had promised his daughter to -the man who should vanquish him in a chariot race: whoever failed was -obliged to expiate his temerity with his life, as Œnomaüs transfixed him -with his unerring lance as he passed. Thirteen noble youths had already -suffered this fate, when Pelops appeared to undergo the dangerous -ordeal. By means of the untiring winged horses which had been given him -by Poseidon, and also by bribing Myrtilus, the King’s charioteer—who, -before starting, withdrew the linch-pins from his master’s chariot or -replaced them with wax—he came off victorious. Œnomaüs either was killed -by the breaking down of his chariot, or put an end to his own life on -seeing himself vanquished. Pelops now obtained both Hippodamia and the -kingdom of Elis; but he ill rewarded Myrtilus, who had rendered him such -valuable service, by casting him into the sea, in order to release -himself from his obligations. Hermes, whose son he is reputed to have -been, set him amongst the stars as charioteer. - -The sons of Pelops by Hippodamia were Atreus and Thyestes, whose -history, which is full of the most revolting crimes, formed a favourite -subject with the tragic poets. First, Atreus and Thyestes murdered their -step-brother Chrysippus, and were compelled to leave their country in -company with their mother. They were hospitably received at Mycenæ by -their brother-in-law Sthenelus, the son of Perseus, or by his son -Eurystheus. On Eurystheus’ death, they inherited the sovereignty of the -Persidæ in Argos, and Atreus now took up his residence in the proud -capital of Mycenæ, whence, strange to say, the most ancient specimen of -Greek sculpture has come down to us in the so-called Gate of Lions. Soon -an implacable enmity arose between the two brothers, and Thyestes, in -consequence, was banished from Argos. He took with him, in revenge, -Pleisthenes, the young son of Atreus, brought him up as his own son, and -despatched him, later, to Mycenæ to kill Atreus. His design was -discovered, and he expiated his intended crime with his life. When -Atreus learned that it was his own son whom he had condemned to death, -he determined on a dreadful revenge. Pretending to be reconciled, he -recalled Thyestes and his children to Mycenæ; and Thyestes, trusting to -his brother’s word, returned. Atreus then privately seized the two young -sons of Thyestes, slew them, and set this horrible food before their -father. Horror-struck at this inhuman cruelty, the sun turned his -chariot and went back in his course. Thyestes, uttering fearful curses -against his brother and the whole race of the Pelopidæ, again escaped, -and took refuge with Thesprotus, king of Epirus. Later, he succeeded, -with the help of his only remaining son Ægisthus, in avenging himself on -his brother. Atreus was slain by Ægisthus whilst offering up a sacrifice -on the sea-shore, and Thyestes now acquired the sovereignty of Mycenæ. -The sons of Atreus, Agamemnon and Menelaüs, fled from their barbarous -uncle to Sparta, where Tyndareüs, the king, received them kindly, and -gave them his daughters, Clytæmnestra and Helen, in marriage. With his -aid Agamemnon recovered his father’s kingdom, slew Thyestes, and drove -out Ægisthus. Menelaüs remained in Sparta—where he succeeded -Tyndareüs—until the carrying off of his wife Helen by Paris gave rise to -the Trojan war. - -_3. The Æacidæ, or race of Æacus._—After the sons of Atreus, the Æacidæ -play the most important part in the Trojan war; in fact, we are almost -justified in saying that the war was an exploit of these two races of -heroes and their peoples, the Achæans of Argos and the Hellenes of -Phthia. The ancestor of the Æacidæ was Æacus, who was renowned alike for -his wisdom and justice, and on this account subsequently made a judge in -the lower world. Æacus was a son of Zeus by Ægina, a daughter of the -river-god Asopus. He ruled over the island of Ægina, and married Endeïs, -the daughter of the wise Centaur Chiron. She bore him two sons, Peleus -and Telamon. On reaching manhood they were compelled to leave their -country, because, like the sons of Pelops, they had murdered, in a fit -of jealousy, a step-brother who was a favourite with their father. -Peleus betook himself to Phthia, where he was kindly received by -Eurytion, who bestowed on him the hand of his daughter and a third part -of his kingdom. Peleus afterwards took part in the boar hunt of Calydon, -on which occasion he had the misfortune to kill his father-in-law. In -consequence of this, he left Phthia and proceeded to Iolcus, where he -took part in the funeral games which Acastus was celebrating in honour -of his father Pelias, who had perished by the treachery of Medea. Here -he experienced a similar fate to that of Bellerophon at the court of -Prœtus. Astydameia, the wife of Acastus, finding herself unable to -seduce him, slandered him to her husband, who thereupon sought to take -his life. After hunting on Pelion one day, Peleus fell asleep, and was -left thus unprotected by Acastus, who hoped by this means to get rid of -him. He would, indeed, have been murdered by the Centaurs, if the gods -had not taken pity on him, and sent him by Hermes a sword of wonderful -power, with which he was enabled to repel the assaults of the wild -inhabitants of the forest. Peleus, with the help of the Dioscuri, -subsequently took Iolcus, and put the treacherous Acastus and his wife -to death. As a reward for his chastity, the gods gave him the goddess -Thetis—a beautiful daughter of Nereus—to wife. She bore him one son, -Achilleus (Achilles), the greatest and bravest hero of the Trojan war. A -later tradition asserts that Thetis left her husband soon after the -birth of Achilles, because he had disturbed her when she was about to -render her child immortal in the fire, just as Demeter intended to do to -the child of Celeüs; but this story is unknown to Homer. According to a -still later legend, she plunged her son into the Styx, and thereby -rendered him invulnerable in every part except the heel by which she -held him. Like all noble heroes, Achilles was instructed by Chiron, -under whom he acquired such wonderful skill in all feats of strength and -agility that he soon surpassed all his contemporaries. In addition to -Chiron, Homer names Phœnix, the son of Amyntor, as the instructor of the -youthful hero. Achilles proceeded to the Trojan war with cheerful -determination, although he knew beforehand that he was not fated to -return alive. The story that his mother Thetis, in order to avert his -fate, sent him, disguised in women’s clothes, to the court of Lycomedes, -king of Scyros, where he was discovered by the craft of Odysseus, is a -post-Homeric invention. - -From Telamon, the second son of Æacus, was descended Aias or Ajax, a -hero of but little less importance. Telamon, after his flight from -Ægina, found a new home in Salamis, where he married the daughter of the -king Cychreus. On the decease of Cychreus, he succeeded to the crown. -After the death of his first wife, he married Peribœa, a daughter of -Alcathoüs, king of Megara, who bore him Ajax. Tradition tells us much of -the intimate friendship of Heracles and Telamon, who took part in the -Trojan expedition of his mighty friend. Heracles, in return, gave him -Hesione, the daughter of Laomedon, by whom he became the father of a -second son, Teucer. Like every celebrated hero of antiquity, he is said -to have taken part in the Calydonian hunt and the expedition of the -Argonauts. Nothing inferior to this brave and doughty father was his son -Ajax, on whom the mighty hero Heracles had invoked the blessing of his -father Zeus, when as a child he held him in his arms. He was of greater -size and strength than any of the other heroes; though he appears -somewhat uncouth and clumsy when contrasted with the swift and agile -form of Achilles. His mighty shield was as characteristic of him as the -ponderous deadly spear was of Achilles. Beside him, his brother Teucer -ranks as the best archer among the Greeks. - -_4. Nestor, the Locrian Ajax, Diomedes, and Odysseus._—Associated with -the heroes of the race of Pelops and Æacus were some other renowned -chieftains. First among them was the aged Nestor, of Pylus, whose wise -counsels were as indispensable to the Greeks before Troy as the -dauntless courage of an Achilles or an Ajax. Nestor was the youngest of -the twelve sons of Neleus, who was himself a son of Poseidon and Tyro, -and twin-brother of Pelias. Neleus, having been driven out by Pelias, -took refuge in Messenia, where he became the founder of a new kingdom. -Later, however, both his sovereignty and the glory of his house were -well-nigh extinguished by the hostility of Heracles, who slew all the -sons of Neleus except Nestor. When quite young, Nestor defeated the -neighbouring tribes of the Epei and Arcadians, and restored the -dominions of his father to their former extent. He likewise took part in -the contest between the Lapithæ and the Centaurs, in the Calydonian boar -hunt, and in the expedition of the Argonauts. Though so far advanced in -years—having ruled over three generations of men—he could not withstand -the desire to take part in the Trojan war. - -The Locrian Ajax—also called the Lesser Ajax, to distinguish him from -his mighty namesake—was a son of the Locrian king Oïleus, of whom -nothing more is known than that he took part in the expedition of the -Argonauts. Ajax was renowned among the Greeks for his skill in hurling -the spear and for his great fleetness, in which he was surpassed only by -Achilles. He always appears in a linen corslet, and his followers, the -Opuntian Locrians, are also light-armed troops. - -Diomedes was a member of the oft-mentioned race of the Æolian -Amythaonidæ. His father was the hot-headed Tydeus, who was killed in the -war of the Seven against Thebes. Diomedes, who inherited no small -portion of his father’s wild, untameable disposition, of course took -part in the war of the Epigoni, and subsequently succeeded his -grandfather Adrastus in his Argive sovereignty at Sicyon. He also -restored his paternal grandfather, the aged Ætolian king Œneus, who had -been dethroned by the sons of his brother Agrius, to his kingdom. In the -_Iliad_ he appears as a special favourite of Pallas Athene, and Homer -makes him play an important part in the contests of the Greeks before -the walls of Troy. In post-Homeric story he is represented as having -carried off the Trojan Palladium. - -Finally, Odysseus (Ulysses), the most popular of the Greek heroes of the -Trojan war, was a son of Laërtes, king of Ithaca, by Anticlea, the -daughter of Autolycus. Autolycus inhabited a district on Mount -Parnassus, and was renowned for his cunning. His grandson seems to have -inherited no small part of his grandfather’s disposition. Through his -noble and virtuous wife Penelope, Odysseus was closely related to the -Atridæ; Penelope being the daughter of Icarius, who was a brother of the -Spartan king Tyndareüs. He was therefore obliged—though much against his -will—to comply with the request of Menelaüs, and join the expedition -against Troy. On account of his wisdom and eloquence, his dexterity in -all feats of strength, and his dauntless valour in the midst of danger, -he also was a special favourite of Pallas. - -II. THE WAR.—The _Iliad_ of Homer, the most important source of our -information with regard to the Trojan war, does not deal with the events -of the first nine years; and of those of the tenth and last year it only -gives such episodes as relate to the quarrel of Achilles and Agamemnon. -Of the origin of the war, and the events of the first nine years, it -speaks only incidentally, for the sake of explanation. The gap has to be -filled up from the works of those writers who had access to other epic -poems of the Trojan cycle, which are now no longer extant. - -Eris, the goddess of discord, not having been invited to the marriage -festivities of Peleus and Thetis, avenged herself by casting into the -assembly a golden apple, with the inscription—“To the fairest.” The -three rival goddesses—Hera, Athene, and Aphrodite—each claimed the apple -for herself, but were referred by Zeus to the decision of Paris. Paris -was a son of Priam, the Trojan king. Immediately after birth, he was -exposed on Mount Ida, in consequence of an ill-omened dream which his -mother Hecuba had during her pregnancy. He was found, however, and -brought up by some shepherds. He decided in favour of Aphrodite, who had -promised him the most beautiful woman on earth as his wife. Soon -afterwards, at some games given by the king, the youth, who was equally -distinguished for his handsome person and his bodily dexterity, after -having wrested the prize from all his brethren, was recognised by the -prophetess Cassandra, and received into his father’s favour. He next -undertook a journey across the sea to Greece, and, among other places, -visited the court of Menelaüs, king of Sparta, by whom he was hospitably -received and entertained. Aphrodite kindled in the breast of the young -wife of Menelaüs a fatal love for their handsome guest, who dazzled her -as much by the beauty of his person as by the oriental splendour of his -appearance. While Menelaüs was absent in Crete, and her brothers, the -Dioscuri, were engaged in their strife with the sons of Aphareus, Helen -fled with her seducer to Troy. On the refusal of the king of Troy to -surrender Helen, Menelaüs succeeded in rousing the whole of Greece to a -war of revenge. This task was the more easy, as most of the Grecian -chieftains had been suitors of Helen, and had bound themselves by an -oath to Tyndareüs to unite in support of the husband whom Helen should -choose, in the event of his ever being injured or attacked. The -well-manned ships of the Greeks assembled in the Bœotian port of Aulis. -Their number amounted to eleven hundred and eighty-six, according to -Homer; of which Agamemnon, who had been chosen leader of the expedition, -alone furnished over one hundred. Agamemnon, however, having offended -Artemis by killing a hind sacred to the goddess, the departure of the -expedition was delayed by continuous calms, until at length, at the -command of the priest Calchas, Agamemnon determined to appease the wrath -of the goddess by sacrificing his daughter Iphigenia on her altar. At -the fatal moment Artemis rescued the victim, and, after substituting a -hind in her stead, conveyed Iphigenia to Tauris, where she became a -priestess in the temple of the goddess. The fleet now sailed with a fair -wind. The expedition first stopped at Tenedos, opposite the coast of -Troy. Here, on the occasion of a banquet, Philoctetes, who possessed the -bow and arrows of Heracles on which the conquest of Troy depended, was -bitten in the foot by a serpent, and on account of his cries and the -offensive smell of the wound was carried to Lemnos, and there left to -his fate. The Greeks next effected a landing on the coast of Troy, in -spite of the opposition of Hector and Æneas; for Protesilaüs devoted -himself to death for the Greeks, and sprang first on the Trojan shore. -Even Cycnus, the mighty son of Poseidon, who was king of Colonæ in -Troas, and came to the assistance of the Trojans, was unable to stem the -advance of the Greeks; and his body being invulnerable, he was strangled -by Achilles by means of a thong twisted round his neck. - -After the Greeks had made a station for their ships, the war began in -earnest. Several of their attacks on the town having been successfully -repelled by the Trojans, the Greeks now confined themselves to making -inroads and plundering excursions into the surrounding country, in which -Achilles was always the most prominent actor. The first nine years of -the war were by no means fruitful in important events, and the wearisome -monotony of the siege was broken only by the single combat between -Achilles and Troïlus, the youngest son of Priam, in which Troïlus was -slain, and by the fall of Palamedes of Eubœa, the head of the Greek -peace-party, which was brought about by the treachery of Odysseus. At -length, in the tenth year of the war, a quarrel broke out between -Achilles and Agamemnon respecting a female slave who had been taken -captive, and gave for the time quite another aspect to affairs. It is at -this point that the _Iliad_ commences. Achilles, in his wrath, retired -to his tent, and refused to take any further part in the war; whilst the -Trojans, who feared him more than all the other Greeks, became bolder, -and no longer kept to the protection of their walls. Zeus, at the -request of Thetis, gave them the victory in their first engagement with -the Greeks. Hector drove the latter back to their ships, and was already -about to set them on fire, when Achilles consented to allow his friend -Patroclus to don his armour and lead his Myrmidons to the assistance of -the Greeks. The Trojans were now driven back, but Patroclus, in the -ardour of pursuit, was slain by Hector, and deprived of his armour, and -Menelaüs, with the help of the greater Ajax and other heroes, only -succeeded in rescuing his corpse after a bloody and obstinate struggle. -The wrath of Achilles was now entirely diverted by the desire of -avenging on Hector the death of his much-loved friend Patroclus. He was -scarcely willing even to wait for the new armour which his -goddess-mother procured him from the workshop of Hephæstus. No sooner -was he in possession of it than he again appeared on the field, and -Hector—the bulwark of Troy—soon succumbed to his furious onslaught. -Achilles, however, was generous enough to surrender his corpse to the -entreaties of Priam. The _Iliad_ concludes with the solemn funeral of -Hector. - -The succeeding events, up to the death of Achilles and the contest for -his arms, were narrated in the _Æthiopis_ of Arctinus of Miletus, with -the contents of which we have some slight acquaintance, although the -work itself is lost. All kinds of brilliant exploits are reported to -have been performed by Achilles before the walls of Troy, which were -manifestly unknown to the earlier story. In the first place, immediately -after Hector’s death, Penthesilea, the queen of the Amazons, came to the -assistance of the Trojans, and fought so bravely at the head of her army -that the Greeks were hard pressed. Achilles at length overcame the -heroic daughter of Ares. After her fall, a new ally of the Trojans -appeared in Memnon, king of Æthiopia, who is called a son of Eos, -because the Æthiopians were supposed to dwell in the far East. Among -those who fell by the hand of this handsome and courageous hero was -Antilochus, the valiant son of Nestor. When Memnon, however, ventured to -meet the invincible Achilles, he also was vanquished, after a brave -struggle. The fresh morning dew, which springs from the tears of Eos, -proves that she has never ceased to lament her heroic son. But death was -soon to overtake him before whom so many heroes had bitten the dust. In -an assault on the Scæan gate, Achilles was killed, at the head of his -Myrmidons, by an arrow of Paris, which was directed by Apollo. According -to later writers, whose accounts were followed by the tragic poets, he -was treacherously murdered here on the occasion of his betrothal to -Polyxena, the beautiful daughter of Priam. A furious contest, lasting -the whole day, took place for the possession of his corpse and armour: -at length Odysseus and Ajax succeeded in conveying it to a place of -safety. Mourning and confusion reigned among the Greeks at his death. -During seventeen days and nights Thetis, with the whole band of Nereids, -bewailed his untimely fate in mourning melodies, so sad and touching -that neither gods nor men could refrain from tears. - - “See, tears are shed by every god and goddess, to survey - How soon the Beautiful is past, the Perfect dies away!” - -The death of the bravest of the Greeks was followed by an unhappy -quarrel between Ajax and Odysseus respecting his arms. Ajax, on account -of his near relationship to the deceased hero, and the great services he -had rendered to the cause of the Greeks, seemed to have the best claim; -but Agamemnon, by the advice of Athene, adjudged them to Odysseus. Ajax -was so mortified at this decision that he became insane, and put an end -to his own life. An entire tragedy of Sophocles, treating of the -mournful fate of the son of Telamon, has come down to us. - -After Ajax had quitted the scene, Odysseus became decidedly the chief -personage among the Greeks. It was he who captured the Trojan seer -Helenus, and extorted from him the secret that Ilium could not be taken -without the arrows of Heracles. Hereupon Philoctetes, who was still -lying sick at Lemnos, was fetched, and his wound healed by Machaon. -Paris soon afterwards fell by his hand. It was Odysseus, moreover, who, -in company with Diomedes, undertook the perilous task of entering Troy -in disguise and stealing the Palladium, on which the safety of the city -depended. It was he who fetched Neoptolemus, the young son of Achilles, -from Scyros to the Trojan camp, it having been decreed that his presence -was necessary to the success of the Greeks. Lastly—and this was his -greatest service—it was Odysseus who devised the celebrated wooden -horse, and the stratagem which led to the final capture of the city. In -the belly of the horse, which was built by Epeüs, one hundred chosen -warriors of the Greeks concealed themselves. The rest of the Greeks set -fire to their camp, and sailed away to Tenedos; whereupon the Trojans, -deceived by the assurances of Sinon, dragged the fatal horse, amid cries -of joy, into the city. In vain did the Trojan priest of Apollo, Laocoön, -seek to divert them from their folly. None would give heed to his -warnings; and when, soon afterwards, both he and his sons, whilst -sacrificing to Poseidon on the sea-shore, were strangled by two serpents -that came up out of the sea, the Trojans regarded this as a punishment -sent by the gods for his evil counsel, and were the more confirmed in -their purpose. - - The death of Laocoön and his sons forms the subject of one of the - most splendid of the creations of Greek art that have come down to - us from antiquity. The group was found, in the year 1506, by a Roman - citizen in his vineyard, close to the former Thermæ of Titus, and - was made over by him, for a considerable annuity, to Pope Julius - II., who then placed it in the Vatican collection. The right arm of - Laocoön, which was wanting, has, unfortunately, been incorrectly - restored. This is attested by a copy of the group which was - subsequently discovered in Naples. We give an engraving of the group - in its original form (Fig. 61). - -[Illustration: Fig. 61.—Laocoön. Group.] - - It treats really of three distinct incidents, which have been - skilfully incorporated, by the artists to whom we owe the work (the - Rhodians Agesander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus), into one harmonious - group. The eldest son is as yet unhurt, and appears to be so loosely - held by the coils of the serpent that he might easily escape his - impending fate, if he were not more effectually restrained by his - loving sympathy with his noble father, on whom he gazes with piteous - looks. Laocoön himself, who naturally forms the centre of the group, - is depicted at the moment in which, mortally wounded by the serpent, - he sinks on the altar, to rise from which he vainly exerts his last - remaining strength. With his left arm he still mechanically seeks to - repel the serpents. His hitherto energetic resistance has begun to - fail, and his noble head is raised in mournful resignation to - heaven, as though to ask the gods why they had condemned him to so - terrible a fate. The dignified and resolute aspect of his - countenance forms a beautiful contrast to that of his body, which is - manifestly quivering in the keenest agony. The younger son on his - right is already in the last agonies of death, and though his left - hand grasps instinctively the head of the snake, he is evidently - incapable of further resistance. He is drooping like a plucked - flower, and in one more moment will have breathed his last. - -On the night succeeding Laocoön’s horrible end, and the rejoicings of -the Trojans at the apparent departure of the Greeks, the Greek fleet -returned in silence at a signal given by Sinon. The heroes who were -hidden in the wooden horse then descended and opened the gates to the -Greek host, who rushed into the doomed city. A terrible scene of plunder -and carnage ensued, the Trojans, in their dismay and confusion, offering -no resistance. The fate of the sacred city was fulfilled; Priam perished -before the altar of Zeus by the hand of Neoptolemus, and with him the -glory of Troy was laid in the dust. The men were put to death, the women -and children, together with the rich booty, were carried off, the former -being destined to the hard lot of slavery. Among them was the aged queen -Hecuba, with all her daughters and daughters-in-law. Helen—the cause of -all this misfortune—was found in the house of Deïphobus, whom she had -married after the death of his brother Paris. - -The city was burnt to the ground, and, long after, other cities rose on -its site. Still the tradition of the siege remained among the -inhabitants, though, even in Roman times, learned men had begun to -declare that Old Troy must have had another site. And now when the last -Ilium had been no more for many centuries, and the very existence of -Homer’s Troy had been declared a fable, the palace and the traces of the -conflagration have been found. Dr. Schliemann has excavated the -legendary site, and we know now that Athene was worshipped in the city, -and that it perished by fire. We can hardly tell at present the full -importance of these discoveries, nor of those at Mycenæ, where the -traditional tombs of the Grecian leaders have been examined, and their -long-buried wealth brought to light. - -Yet this, too, the greatest of all the Grecian legend series, dissolves -into the phenomena of nature. That there was a Trojan war, and that we -have some historical facts about it, we can hardly doubt; but so many -myths have crystallised round it, that to us it must be merely legend. -The very names of Achilles, and Paris, and Helen, upon whom the whole -story turns, have been recognised in Indian legend. Point after point in -their history is found in the legend history of every nation of the -Aryan family. The only conclusion that we can draw is, that such stories -must have come into being before the separation of the Aryan family, and -cannot therefore contain the later history of any one branch. - -III. THE RETURN.—The Greeks, after sacrificing Polyxena on the grave of -Achilles at Sigeum, prepared to return to their country. Few, however, -were destined to reach their homes without some misfortune, or, even -when arrived there, to experience a kindly welcome. Of the two sons of -Atreus, Agamemnon, after escaping a storm on the coast of Eubœa, landed -safely on his native shores, but was soon after murdered by his wife and -Ægisthus, who had, during his absence, returned to Argos and married -Clytæmnestra. Cassandra, the Trojan prophetess, who, in the division of -the spoils, had fallen to Agamemnon, shared his fate. She had -continually predicted the unfortunate end of the war and the ultimate -fate of the city, but had always been laughed to scorn by her -incredulous countrymen. The fate of the commander of the Greeks, with -its eventful consequences, was a favourite subject with the tragic -poets. His murder did not go unavenged. Orestes, the only son of -Agamemnon and Clytæmnestra, had been hastily removed from the scene by -his sister Electra, and sent to his uncle, Strophius, king of Phocis. -Strophius had him carefully educated with his own son Pylades, who was -about the same age. A most intimate friendship soon sprang up between -the two youths, which, from its faithfulness and constancy, has become -proverbial. On reaching manhood, the sole thought of Orestes was to -avenge his noble father’s treacherous death at the hands of the crafty -Ægisthus and his mother Clytæmnestra. Accompanied by his friend Pylades, -he returned, in the eighth year of his exile, to Mycenæ, and there slew -both Ægisthus and Clytæmnestra. Although in so doing he had only -fulfilled a duty, he yet incurred the deepest guilt by the murder of her -who gave him birth, and at once found himself pursued by the avenging -Furies. They dogged his steps, and ceased not to pursue him through all -the countries of the earth, until he was at length directed by the -oracle at Delphi to convey the statue of Artemis from Tauris to Attica. -After he had, with the help of his newly-found sister, successfully -achieved this task, he was purified by Apollo (see page 152). Of the -numerous dramas that were written on the subject of the fortunes of the -Pelopidæ, which we have here briefly touched on, the _Agamemnon_, -_Choëphoræ_, and _Eumenides_ of Æschylus, the _Electra_ of Sophocles, -and the _Electra_ and _Iphigenia in Tauris_ of Euripides, are still -extant. - -We must now turn to the fortunes of the other Greek leaders. Agamemnon’s -brother Menelaus was overtaken, off Cape Malea, by a fearful storm, -which carried him to Crete and Egypt, whence, after seven years of -wandering, he returned to Sparta with Helen and his share of the spoils -of Troy. - -The Locrian Ajax experienced a still more unhappy fate. On the night of -the destruction of Troy he had penetrated into the temple of Pallas, and -had not only torn away the priestess Cassandra, who was clinging for -safety to the altar and statue of the goddess, but had also overturned -the statue of Pallas herself. As a punishment for this offence, his ship -was wrecked on Cape Caphareus, He would still have been able to escape -with his life—having succeeded in getting hold of a rock—if he had not -given such offence to Poseidon by his impious boast that he needed not -the help of the gods, that the god split the rock with his trident, -whereupon Ajax fell into the sea and was drowned. - -Diomedes, Philoctetes, and Idomeneus reached their homes in safety, but -were all soon afterwards driven out, after which they all three -emigrated to Italy. Here Diomedes founded many towns, and was long -worshipped with heroic honours. - -Teucer also succeeded in reaching Salamis in safety, but his father -Telamon was so wroth because he had not better protected his brother -Ajax, or at least avenged his death, that he refused to receive him. He -was, therefore, likewise obliged to leave his country, and subsequently -settled on the island of Cyprus. - -But of all the Greek heroes Odysseus experienced the most reverses, -while at home his faithful wife Penelope and his son Telemachus were -hard pressed by the suitors. It was only in the tenth year after the -fall of Troy, and after numerous wanderings and vicissitudes, that he -was permitted to return to his native Ithaca and punish the shameless -suitors who had wasted his substance and goods. The story of his -adventures is so well known that we need not dwell on it here, further -than to mention that, according to post-Homeric accounts, Odysseus was -killed by the hand of Telegonus, his own son by Circe. - - The events of the Trojan cycle have supplied not only the poet, but - also the artist and the sculptor, with a large number of their most - acceptable subjects. Single scenes, such as the judgment of Paris, - have been continually selected, ever since the time of Raphael, as - favourite subjects of representation. Of modern masters, Carstens, - Thorwaldsen the great Danish sculptor, Cornelius, Genelli, and - Preller (Landscapes of the _Odyssey_) have illustrated the story of - Troy in a series of splendid compositions. We give an engraving of a - relief by Thorwaldsen, representing Priam before Achilles (Fig. 62). - -[Illustration: Fig. 62.—Priam before Achilles. Relief by Thorwaldsen.] - - Of the more important extant works of antiquity, we may mention the - wedding of Peleus and Thetis, depicted on the Français vase in the - Naples Museum; the abduction of Helen, depicted on a marble relief - in the former Campana collection, now in the Louvre (Fig. 63); the - marble group in Rome, known by the name of “Pasquino,” which - represents Menelaüs raising the corpse of Patroclus; and, lastly, - the celebrated Ægina marbles in Munich. These last are the remains - of a marble group from the gable of a temple of Pallas at Ægina, - representing a battle between the Greeks and Trojans. They were - discovered at Ægina in the year 1811; King Ludwig I. of Bavaria, who - was a great patron of art, bought the Ægina marbles, and, after - having them restored by Thorwaldsen, placed them in the Munich - collection. The Laocoön, the most important of all the works - relating to the Trojan cycle, has already been discussed. - -[Illustration: Fig. 63.—Rape of Helen. Campana Collection. Paris.] - - - V.—MYTHIC SEERS AND BARDS. - -We have already incidentally mentioned most of the seers of -antiquity—Melampus, the son of Amythaon, who figures in Argive legend; -likewise Amphiaraüs, Tiresias, and Calchas. Concerning Tiresias, we may -remark that the ancients ascribed to him a fabulous age, extending over -seven or even nine generations; so that he was thus a witness of all -that happened to Thebes, from the foundation of the city to its -destruction by the Epigoni. Like all celebrated soothsayers, he was -acquainted with the language of birds, and could penetrate the most -hidden secrets of nature; on which account he enjoyed up to his death an -ever-increasing reputation among the Thebans. We have already related -how, in extreme old age, when his native city could no longer withstand -the assaults of the Epigoni, he experienced the bitter lot of having to -take refuge in flight, and at length succumbed beneath the hardships of -the journey. In the second century A.D. his grave was still shown in the -neighbourhood of Haliartus. - -Among the fugitive Thebans who fell into the hands of the Argives is -said to have been Manto, the daughter of Tiresias, who was likewise -renowned as a prophetess. She was dedicated, together with a large -portion of the spoils, to the oracle at Delphi. By the command of the -god she was sent into Asia Minor, where she founded the oracle of -Claros, near Colophon. She here married the Cretan Rhacius, and became -by him the mother of Mopsus, who afterwards founded the oracle of Mallos -in Cilicia. - -Among the names of the mythic bards that have been handed down to us are -undoubtedly to be found some recollections of those who first cultivated -the art of poetry; partly, however, they are nothing more than -personifications of certain tendencies and modes of poetry. Such is -probably the case with the mythic bard Linus, who was celebrated in -Argos, Thebes, and Eubœa. Nothing is more common than for an -unsophisticated people to burst forth in lamentation over the decay and -final extinction of the blooming life of nature. This, as we see in the -myth of Hyacinthus, was often portrayed under the metaphor of a -beautiful boy slain by a quoit or by savage dogs—both symbols of the -scorching heat of the sun. The dirges which from time immemorial were -sung over the beautiful boy Linus, at the season of vintage, probably -gave rise to the myth which makes Linus himself the singer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 64.—Orpheus and Eurydice. Marble Relief In the Villa -Albani.] - -Similar doleful memories are linked with the name of Orpheus, who is -often termed a brother of Linus, though he was really not an Æolian, but -a Thracian of Pieria. That which is best known of him is the story of -his love for the beautiful nymph Eurydice. She was bitten in the foot by -a snake, and thus snatched away from him by death. Orpheus then filled -mountain and valley with songs of lamentation so piteous, that the wild -beasts of the forest were enchanted at the sound, and followed him like -lambs; and the very rocks and trees moved from their places. His -yearning towards his beloved Eurydice induced him to descend to the -lower world, to beg her release from the grim king of shadows. Here his -piteous lay caused even the Erinyes to shed tears of compassion, and -moved the hard heart of the Stygian king. He released Eurydice on -condition that Orpheus should not look back on her till he reached the -upper world. Orpheus, however, violated this condition, and Eurydice was -once more lost to him. He himself, not long afterwards, whilst wandering -in his despair over the Thracian mountains, was torn in pieces by some -women in the mad excitement of their nightly Bacchanalian orgies. - - A splendid representation of the second parting of the lovers by - Hermes, the guide of souls, has come down to us on a marble relief, - which is preserved in the Villa Albani (Fig. 64). - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - - INDEX. - - - Ăbas, 187. - - Ăcastus, 234, 237, 246. - - Ăchĕlōus, 110, 210. - - Ăchĕrōn, 149. - - Ăchilles (Ăchilleus), 35, 168, 246, 251, 253. - - Āchĭrŏē, 186. - - Ăcrĭsĭus, 187, 191. - - Actæon, 49, 171. - - Actŏrĭdæ, 209. - - Admētē, 202. - - Admētus, 231, 234 - - Ădōnis, 57. - - Adrastus, 240, 241, 248. - - Æăcus, 149, 245, 247. - - Ăēdōn, 179. - - Æētēs, 90, 235. - - Ægeus, 220, 223, 237. - - Ægĭăleus, 241. - - Ægĭmĭus, 211. - - Ægīna, 180, 245. - - Ægis, 22, 35, 40. - - Ægisthus, 64, 152, 245, 257. - - Ægyptus, 186. - - Ænēas, 58, 157, 251. - - Æŏlus, 94, 179, 232. - - Æscŭlāpĭus (_vide_ Asclepius). - - Æsōn, 233. - - Æthra, 220. - - Ætna, 21, 69. - - Ăgămemnōn, 49, 64, 152, 245, 257. - - Ăgăthŏdæmōn, 98. - - Ăgāvē, 115, 171. - - Ăgēnōr, 170, 186, 227. - - Aglăĭa, 83. - - Aglaurus, 218. - - Agrĭus, 248. - - Ăĭdōneus, 146 (_vide_ Hades). - - Ājax, Telamonian, 247, 253. - - Ājax, Locrian, 247, 248, 259. - - Alcæus, 198. - - Alcăthŏus, 247. - - Alcmæon, 241. - - Alcmēnē, 26, 191, 198. - - Ālectō, 151. - - Ălēus, 209. - - Ălōīdæ, 102. - - Althæa, 232. - - Ămalthēa, 19, 210. - - Ămāzons, 180, 182, 202, 224. - - Ămor, 78. - - Amphĭărāus, 188, 231, 234, 240. - - Amphicty̆ōn, 218. - - Amphīōn, 171, 172. - - Amphitrītē, 101, 104. - - Amphitry̆ōn, 191, 198. - - Ămy̆cus, 195, 234. - - Ămyntor, 246. - - Ămy̆thāŏnĭdæ, 188, 240, 248. - - Ănăcĕs, 196. - - Ancæus, 231. - - Anchĭnŏē, 186. - - Anchīsēs, 58, 242. - - Andrŏgĕōs, 222, 228. - - Andrŏmĕda, 102, 190. - - Anna Pĕrenna, 98. - - Antæus, 102, 205. - - Antēa, 187. - - Antĕros, 57, 78. - - Anthestērĭa, 118. - - Anticlēa, 249. - - Antĭgŏnē, 240. - - Antĭlŏchus, 253. - - Antĭŏpē, 224. - - Ăphăreus, 194. - - Ăphărīdæ, 194, 231. - - Ăphidnæ, 195, 224. - - Aphrŏdītē, 25, 52, 56, 78, 83, 163, 222, 249. - - Ăpollo, 14, 26, 40, 62, 152, 155, 176, 206, 242. - - Apsyrtus, 236. - - Ăquĭlo, 94. - - Arcas, 93. - - Arctus, 93. - - Areopagus, 52, 152. - - Ărēs, 26, 51, 57, 78, 170, 171, 202, 233. - - Argēs, 18. - - Argīphontēs, 185. - - Argonauts, 90, 107, 195, 201, 225, 230, 232, 234, 248. - - Argō, 234. - - Argŏs, 31, 185, 244. - - Argus, 64, 185, 186, 234. - - Ărĭadnē, 116, 123, 222, 228. - - Ăristæus, 171. - - Artĕmis, 25, 48, 155, 171, 201, 230, 250, 258. - - Asclēpĭus, 42, 94, 229. - - Ăsōpus, 180, 245. - - Assărăcus, 242. - - Astĕrĭa, 18, 153. - - Astĕrĭōn, 227. - - Astræus, 92. - - Asty̆dămīa, 246. - - Ătălantē, 231. - - Ăthămas, 108, 232. - - Ăthēnē, 13, 34, 163, 206, 249. - - Ăthēnē Pŏlĭas, 35, 38, 219. - - Atlas, 62, 162, 205. - - Atreus, 244. - - Atrŏpos, 98. - - Attica, 36, 217. - - Attis (Ātys), 114, 130. - - Augē, 209. - - Augēas, 201, 208, 212. - - Aurōra, 92. - - Autŏly̆cus, 249. - - Autŏnŏē, 171. - - - Bacchus, 114. - - Bellĕrŏphōn (Belīĕrŏphontēs), 180, 239. - - Bellōna, 54. - - Bēlus, 186. - - Benthĕsĭcȳmē, 104. - - Bĕrŏē, 115. - - Bĭas, 188, 240. - - Bŏnă Dĕă, 132. - - Bŏnus Ēventus, 98. - - Bŏrĕădæ, 94, 234. - - Bŏrĕas, 92, 94, 219. - - Brĭăreus, 18. - - Brontēs, 18. - - Būsīris, 205. - - - Căbīrī, 70. - - Cācus, 204, 214. - - Cadmus, 26, 52, 114, 170, 171, 217, 232, 237, 240. - - Cæneus, 165. - - Călăĭs, 94, 219, 234. - - Calchas, 250, 262. - - Callĭŏpē, 82. - - Callĭrhŏē, 203. - - Callistō, 93. - - Calydonian Hunt, 195, 225, 230, 246. - - Călypsō, 64. - - Cămēnæ, 83. - - Căpys, 242. - - Carna (Cardĕa), 97. - - Carpō, 85. - - Cassandra, 250, 257, 259. - - Cassĭŏpēa, 190. - - Castōr, 168, 175, 194, 231. - - Catreus, 228. - - Cecrops, 217, 218. - - Cēlĕus, 140. - - Centaurs, 165, 200, 223. - - Centaurs, fight with, 166. - - Centimanes, 17. - - Cĕphălus, 219. - - Cēpheus (Æthiopia), 190. - - Cēpheus (Tegea), 209. - - Cēphīsus, 125. - - Cerbĕrus, 149, 197, 206. - - Cercōpes, 208. - - Cercy̆ōn, 102, 221. - - Cĕres, 25, 137, 143. - - Cēres (Fates), 155. - - Cētō, 18, 106, 109, 189. - - Cēÿx, 210. - - Chăŏs, 17. - - Chărĭtĕs, 25, 83. - - Chărōn, 149. - - Chĭmæra, 181. - - Chīrōn, 168, 171, 220, 233, 245. - - Chrȳsăor, 190, 203. - - Chrȳsippus, 244. - - Circē, 90, 259. - - Clărus, oracle of, 42, 262. - - Clīō, 82. - - Clŏācīna, 59. - - Clōthō, 98. - - Cly̆mĕnē, 162. - - Cly̆tæmnestra, 152, 194, 245, 257, 258. - - Cōcălus, 229. - - Cœus, 18. - - Cŏlossus of Rhodes, 91. - - Cŏra, 138, 143. - - Cŏry̆bantes, 113. - - Cŏry̆nētēs, 221. - - Cottus, 18. - - Crănăus, 218. - - Crĕōn, 198, 199, 238, 241. - - Crētheus, 233. - - Crĕūsa, 237. - - Crīus, 17. - - Crŏnus, 18, 71, 113, 134, 168. - - Cŭpīdo, 79. - - Cūrētes, 19, 113, 231. - - Cy̆bĕlē, 113, 127. - - Cychreus, 247. - - Cyclōpes, 17, 70, 187. - - Cycnus, 210, 251. - - Cyllēnē, 62. - - - Dædălus, 228, 229. - - Dæmons, 100. - - Dămastēs, 221. - - Dănăē, 26, 188. - - Danaids, 149, 186. - - Dănăus, 186. - - Dardănus, 242. - - Death, 154. - - Dēĭănīra, 210. - - Dēĭphŏbus, 256. - - Delphian Oracle, 42, 72, 112, 170. - - Dēmētēr, 19, 25, 109, 137, 139, 186, 243. - - Dēmŏphōn, 140, 225. - - Dēmus, 52, 57. - - Dēō, 137. - - Deucălĭōn, 162, 164, 218. - - Dĭāna, 49 (_vide_ Artemis). - - Dĭcē, 84. - - Dictys, 189. - - Didymæan Oracle, 42. - - Dĭoclēs, 140. - - Dĭŏmēdēs, Argive, 168, 247, 259. - - Dĭŏmēdēs, Thracian, 202. - - Dĭōnē, 25, 56. - - Dĭŏnȳsĭa, Greater, 119. - - Dĭŏnȳsĭa, Lesser, 118. - - Dĭō̆nȳsus, 26, 57, 68, 83, 114, 130, 223. - - Dĭoscūri, 194, 224, 231, 234, 246, 250. - - Dircē, 173. - - Dis, 147. - - Dōdōna, Oracle of, 24. - - Dōris, 106. - - Dryads, 125. - - Dry̆ŏpes, 211, 212. - - Dry̆ops, 128. - - - Ĕchidna, 181, 200, 204. - - Ēchō, 58, 124. - - Ēgĕrĭa, 83. - - Ēlectra (daughter of Agamemnon), 258. - - Ēlectra (daughter of Atlas), 242. - - Ēlectra (daughter of Oceanus), 106. - - Ēlectry̆ōn, 191, 198. - - Ĕleusīnĭa, 141. - - Ĕleusis, 140. - - Ēly̆sĭum, 149, 161. - - Ēmăthĭōn, 205. - - Endēĭs, 168, 245. - - Endy̆mĭōn, 91. - - Ĕnȳō, 54. - - Ē̆ōs, 18, 92, 219, 253. - - Ĕpăphus, 185, 186. - - Ĕpēus, 254. - - Ĕpĭgŏni, 241, 248, 262. - - Ĕpĭmētheus, 163. - - Ĕpōpeus, 173. - - Ĕrătō, 82. - - Ĕrechtheus, 94, 218, 229. - - Ergīnus, 199. - - Ĕrichthŏnĭus (_vide_ Erechtheus). - - Ĕrīnȳes, 99, 150, 151, 231, 258, 264. - - Ĕriphȳlē, 240. - - Ĕris, 249. - - Ĕros, 17, 57, 58, 78. - - Ĕry̆sichthōn, 141. - - Ĕtĕoclēs, 240, 241. - - Eumĕnĭdes, 152, 239. - - Eumolpus, 140. - - Eunŏmĭa, 84. - - Euphrŏsy̆nē, 83. - - Eurōpē (Europa), 26, 227. - - Eurus, 92. - - Eury̆ălē, 190. - - Eury̆bĭa, 18. - - Eury̆dĭcē, 264. - - Eury̆nŏmē, 25, 68, 83. - - Eurystheus, 198, 202, 244. - - Eury̆tĭōn, 165, 246. - - Eury̆tus, 206, 211. - - Euterpē, 82. - - - Fates (_vide_ Mœræ). - - Fauna, 132. - - Faunālĭa, 132. - - Faunus, 131. - - Făvōnĭus, 94. - - Fēlīcĭtas, 100. - - Flōra, 136. - - Fontus, 76, 110. - - Fortūna, 98. - - Fūrĭæ (Furies) (_vide_ Erinyes). - - - Gæa, 17, 19, 112, 129, 153, 204, 218. - - Găny̆mēdēs, 87, 203. - - Gē, 17 (_vide_ Gæa). - - Gĕlānōr, 186. - - Gĕnĭi, 100. - - Gēry̆ŏnēs (Geryon), 190, 203. - - Gĭgantes (Giants), 21. - - Glaucus Pontius, 107. - - Glaucus (son of Minos), 228. - - Glaucus (son of Sisyphus), 180. - - Gorgŏnēum (_vide_ Ægis). - - Gorgons, 18, 107, 189. - - Graces, 83, 163. - - Grā̆dīvus, 53. - - Grææ, 18, 107, 189. - - Grātĭæ (_vide_ Graces). - - Gy̆ēs, 18. - - - Hādēs, 19, 139, 146, 187, 224. - - Hamadryads, 125. - - Harmŏnĭa, 52, 171, 240. - - Harpies, 18, 106, 235. - - Hēbē, 26, 87, 197, 212. - - Hĕcăbē (_vide_ Hecuba). - - Hĕcătē, 91, 153. - - Hector, 251. - - Hĕcŭba, 243, 249, 256. - - Hĕlĕnē (Helen), 58, 194, 224, 245, 256, 259. - - Hĕlĕnus, 254. - - Hēlĭos, 18, 89, 139, 203, 228. - - Hellē, 232. - - Hēphæstus, 26, 52, 57, 68, 163, 221, 229, 235, 252. - - Hēra, 13, 19, 26, 31, 68, 87, 96, 197, 202, 204, 238, 249. - - Hēraclēs, 79, 87, 106, 161, 183, 187, 197, 234. - - Hēræum, 32. - - Hercŭles, 204, 214 (_vide_ Heracles). - - Hermēs, 14, 25, 57, 62, 163, 186, 189, 206, 243. - - Heroes, 159. - - Hersē, 218, 219. - - Hēsĭŏne, 203, 208, 247. - - Hespĕrĭdes, 90, 107, 204. - - Hespĕrus, 93. - - Hestĭa, 19, 71. - - Hīmĕrus, 58. - - Hippŏcŏōn, 209, 212. - - Hippŏdămīa, 243. - - Hippŏly̆tē, 224. - - Hippŏly̆tus, 58, 224. - - Homer, 13, 35, 52, 86, 144, 206, 249. - - Hŏnos, 196. - - Hōræ, 25, 84. - - Hy̆ăcinthus, 41, 263. - - Hy̆ădes, 93. - - Hydra, 200. - - Hy̆gĭēa, 36, 96. - - Hy̆las, 234. - - Hyllus, 210. - - Hy̆mēn, 58. - - Hy̆mĕnæus, 58. - - Hy̆pĕrīōn, 18, 90, 92. - - Hy̆permnestra, 187. - - Hypnus, 155. - - - Īăpĕtus, 17, 162. - - Īcărĭus, 194, 249. - - Īcărŭs, 229. - - Ichthyocentaurs, 105. - - Īdas, 195, 231. - - Īdŏmĕneus, 229, 259. - - Iliad, 231, 242, 248. - - Īlīthyia, 96. - - Īlus, 242. - - Īnăchus, 185. - - Īnō, 108, 115, 171, 232. - - Ĭnŭus, 131. - - Īō, 26, 64, 185. - - Īŏbătēs, 181, 187. - - Ĭŏcastē, 238. - - Ĭŏlāus, 200, 204, 206, 231. - - Ĭŏlē, 206, 211. - - Ĭōn, 219. - - Īphĭănassa, 188. - - Īphiclēs, 198, 231. - - Īphĭgĕnīa, 49, 251. - - Īphĭtus, 206, 234. - - Īrēnē, 84. - - Īrĭs, 18, 86, 106. - - Īsis, 186. - - Ismenian Oracle, 42. - - Isthmian Games, 101. - - Ĭty̆lus, 179. - - Ixīōn, 149, 166. - - - Jānus, 13, 74. - - Jāsōn, 231, 233. - - Jūno, 13, 26, 32. - - Jūpĭter, 13, 22, 24, 36, 77. - - Jŭventas, 87. - - - Labdăcĭdæ, 237. - - Labdăcus, 179. - - Lăchĕsis, 98. - - Lādōn, 204. - - Lāërtēs, 249. - - Lāĭus, 179, 237. - - Lampus, 92. - - Lāŏcŏōn, 254. - - Lāŏdămas, 241. - - Lāŏmĕdōn, 102, 203, 208, 242. - - Lăpĭthæ, 165, 211, 223. - - Lărēs, 157. - - Larvæ, 158. - - Lātōna (_vide_ Leto). - - Lĕarchus, 108, 232. - - Lēda, 26, 194. - - Lĕmŭrālĭa, 158. - - Lĕmŭrēs, 158. - - Lĕnæa, 118. - - Lētō, 18, 25, 41, 48, 150. - - Leucippus, 195. - - Leucŏthĕa (_vide_ Ino). - - Līber, 120, 143. - - Lībĕrālĭa, 120. - - Lĭbĭtīna, 59. - - Lĭby̆a, 186. - - Lĭchas, 212. - - Lĭnus, 42, 199, 263. - - Lower World, 147. - - Lūna, 49, 91. - - Lŭpercālĭa, 132. - - Lŭpercus, 131. - - Ly̆æus, 117. - - Ly̆cŏmēdēs, 225, 247. - - Ly̆cus (Thebes), 173. - - Ly̆cus (Megara), 220. - - Lynceus (Scythian), 141. - - Lynceus (son of Aphareus), 195, 231. - - Lynceus (son of Danaus), 187. - - - Măchāōn, 254. - - Maia, 25, 62, 132. - - Mānēs, 158. - - Mantō, 241, 262. - - Mars, or Māvors, 26, 52, 77. - - Marsy̆as, 127. - - Māter Magna Īdæa, 113, 130. - - Māter Mātūta, 92 (note). - - Matrōnālia, 33. - - Mēdēa, 221, 230, 235, 246. - - Mĕdūsa, 35, 103, 181, 189. - - Mĕgăpenthēs, 191. - - Mĕgæra, 150. - - Mĕgăra, 199, 206. - - Mĕlampūs, 188, 240. - - Mĕlĕāger, 168, 210, 230, 234. - - Mĕlĭa, 185. - - Mĕlīcertēs, 108, 232. - - Melpŏmĕnē, 82. - - Memnōn, 92, 253. - - Mĕnĕlāus, 245, 250, 258. - - Mĕnestheus, 225. - - Mĕnœtĭus, 162. - - Mercŭrĭus, 65. - - Mĕrŏpē, 180, 238. - - Mētĭōn, 220, 229. - - Mētĭŏnĭdæ, 220. - - Mētis, 25. - - Mĕtus, 54. - - Mĭdas, 127. - - Mĭnerva, 13, 26, 36, 137, 228. - - Mīnōs, 116, 149, 202, 222, 227, 228. - - Minotaur, 222, 227, 228. - - Mnēmŏsy̆nē, 17, 19, 25, 81. - - Mœræ, 25, 98, 232. - - Mŏlĭŏnĭdæ, 209. - - Mopsus, 262. - - Morpheus, 155. - - Mŏsychlus, 70. - - Mulcĭber, 71. - - Murcĭa, 59. - - Muses, 25, 42, 80, 81, 121. - - Mūtūnus, 133. - - Myrtĭlus, 244. - - - Naiads, 124. - - Năpææ, 124. - - Narcissus, 58, 124. - - Nēleus, 209, 212, 248. - - Nĕmĕsis, 98. - - Nĕoptŏlĕmus, 254, 256. - - Nĕphĕlē, 232. - - Neptune (Neptūnus), 104. - - Nereids, 105, 190, 253. - - Nēreus, 18, 105, 205. - - Nerio, 54. - - Nessus, 210. - - Nestor, 165, 168, 209, 247. - - Nīcē, 85. - - Night, 154. - - Nīlus, 186. - - Nĭŏbē, 48, 176, 243. - - Nīsus, 220, 222. - - Nŏtus, 92. - - Nycteus, 172. - - Nymphs, 123, 189, 204. - - - Oceanids, 68, 83, 110, 168. - - Ōcĕănus, 18, 25, 91, 109, 162. - - Ŏdysseus, 64, 102, 109, 249, 253, 259. - - Œdĭpūs, 153, 238. - - Œneus, 210, 230, 248. - - Œnŏmăus, 243. - - Ŏïclēs, 208. - - Ŏīleus, 248. - - Olympian Games, 24, 43, 196. - - Omphălē, 208. - - Ops, 133. - - Orcus, 155. - - Oreads, 124, 129. - - Ŏrestēs, 49, 152, 258. - - Ōrīōn, 92, 93. - - Ōrīthyia, 94, 219. - - Orpheus, 42, 234, 264. - - Oschŏphŏrĭa, 223. - - - Pāgānāalĭa, 113. - - Pălæmōn, 109. - - Pălămēdēs, 251. - - Păles, 136. - - Pallădĭum, 242, 249, 254. - - Pallas, 220, 222. - - Pallas Athēnē (_vide_ Athene). - - Pallor, 54. - - Pān, 115, 128. - - Pănăthĕnæa, 37, 223. - - Pandărĕōs, 179. - - Pandīōn, 220. - - Pandōra, 163. - - Pandrŏsus, 218. - - Pānes, 125, 130, 135. - - Parcæ, 98, 155. - - Păris, 249, 253, 254. - - Parthĕnōn, 36. - - Pāsĭphăē, 228. - - Patroclus, 252. - - Pēgăsus, 103, 181, 190. - - Pēleus, 58, 106, 168, 208, 231, 234, 245, 249. - - Pĕlĭas, 180, 233, 246, 248. - - Pĕlŏpĭdæ, 243, 258. - - Pĕlops, 150, 176, 243. - - Pĕnātēs, 73, 156. - - Pēnĕlŏpē, 191, 249, 259. - - Pēnĕlŏpē (Nymph), 128. - - Penthĕsĭlēa, 183, 252. - - Pentheus, 115. - - Pĕrĭbœa, 247. - - Pĕricly̆mĕnus, 209, 234. - - Pĕrĭphētēs, 221. - - Persē, 90. - - Persēïs, 228. - - Persĕphŏnē, 25, 91, 109, 138, 143, 155, 224. - - Perseus, 102, 188, 198, 244. - - Phædra, 58, 224, 228. - - Phăĕthōn (son of Helios), 90. - - Phăĕthōn (horse of Eos), 92. - - Phĭloctētēs, 212, 251, 254, 259. - - Phĭly̆ra, 168. - - Phīneus, 107, 191, 235. - - Phŏbus, 57. - - Phœbē, 18, 49. - - Phœnix, 246. - - Phŏlus, 200. - - Phorcys, 18, 106, 109, 189. - - Phosphŏrus, 93. - - Phrixus, 232. - - Phȳleus, 209. - - Pīrĭthŏus, 165, 206, 231. - - Pittheus, 220. - - Pĭty̆ŏcamptēs, 221. - - Pleiădes, 93. - - Plexippus, 232. - - Plūteus, 146. - - Plūtō, 146, 155. - - Plūtō (fem.), 243. - - Pŏdarcēs, 208. - - Pœas, 212. - - Pŏly̆bus, 238. - - Pŏly̆castē, 194. - - Pŏly̆clētus, 32. - - Pŏly̆dectēs, 189, 190. - - Pŏly̆deucēs (Pollux), 168, 175, 194, 231. - - Pŏly̆dōrus, 172, 179. - - Pŏly̆hymnĭa, 83. - - Pŏly̆ĭdus, 229. - - Pŏly̆nīcēs, 240. - - Pŏly̆phēmus, 102. - - Pŏlyxĕna, 253, 256. - - Pōmōna, 135. - - Pontus, 17, 18, 105. - - Pŏseidōn, 13, 19, 20, 72, 100, 180, 209. - - Pŏthus, 58. - - Prĭămus (Priam), 183, 208, 243, 249, 256. - - Prĭāpus, 133. - - Procris, 219. - - Procrustēs, 102, 221. - - Prœtĭdes, 188. - - Prœtus, 181, 187, 191. - - Prŏmētheus, 162, 205. - - Prōserpĭna (_vide_ Persephone). - - Prōtĕsĭlāus, 251. - - Prōteus, 107. - - Psȳchē, 79. - - Py̆ănepsĭa, 223, 226. - - Py̆lădēs, 258. - - Pyrrha, 164. - - Pȳthĭa (_vide_ Delphian Oracle). - - Pȳthōn, 41, 189. - - - Quinquatrūs Mājōrēs, 37. - - Quĭrīnus, 77. - - - Recarānus, 214. - - Rhădămanthys (Rhadamanthus), 149, 227. - - Rhēa, 18, 71. - - Rhēa Cy̆bĕlē, 113. - - Rhŏdē, 104. - - - Sălăcĭa, 105. - - Salmōneus, 233. - - Sălus, 97. - - Sandōn, 207. - - Sarpēdōn, 227. - - Sāturnālia, 134. - - Sāturnus, 26, 133. - - Satyrs, 125. - - Scīrōn, 221. - - Scŏtŏs, 153. - - Scylla, 222. - - Sĕlēnē, 18, 49, 91, 153. - - Sĕmĕlē, 26, 108, 114, 171. - - Semnæ, 152. - - Sibyls, 42. - - Sīlēni, 125, 127. - - Sīlēnus, 115, 126. - - Silvānus, 131. - - Sĭmŏīs, 242. - - Sĭnis, 221. - - Sĭnōn, 254. - - Sirens, 109. - - Sīrĭus, 93. - - Sīsy̆phus, 149, 179. - - Sleep, 154. - - Sol, 89, 90. - - Sŏly̆mi, 182. - - Sphinx, 238. - - Stars, the, 93. - - Stĕrŏpēs, 18. - - Sthĕnĕbœa, 187. - - Sthĕnĕlus, 198, 244. - - Sthēnō, 190. - - Strēnĭa, 97. - - Strĭges, 97. - - Strŏphĭus, 258. - - Stymphālĭdes, 201. - - Styx, 149. - - Sȳleus, 208. - - Symplēgădes, 235. - - Sȳrinx, 126, 129. - - - Tălōs, 229. - - Tantălus, 149, 176, 243. - - Tartărus, 17, 19, 21. - - Tĕlămōn, 208, 231, 234, 245, 247, 259. - - Tēlĕbŏæ, 198. - - Tēlĕgŏnus, 259. - - Tēlĕmăchus, 259. - - Tēlĕphassa, 170. - - Tēlĕphus, 209. - - Tellus, 112. - - Termĭnus, 131, 137. - - Terpsĭchŏrē, 82. - - Tēthys, 18, 99. - - Teucer, 208, 247, 259. - - Teuthras, 210. - - Thălīa, 82, 83. - - Thallō, 85. - - Thănătus, 155. - - Thaumas, 18, 106. - - Thēa (Thīa), 18, 90, 92. - - Thĕmis, 17, 25, 78, 84. - - Thersander, 241. - - Thēseus, 43, 102, 116, 166, 168, 183, 206, 219, 228, 231, 234. - - Thesmŏphŏrĭa, 141. - - Thesprōtus, 245. - - Thestĭus, 194, 232. - - Thĕtis, 58, 68, 106, 246, 249, 252, 253. - - Thŏōsa, 120. - - Thy̆estēs, 244. - - Tĭbĕrīnus, 76, 110. - - Tīrĕsĭas, 241, 262. - - Tīsĭphŏnē, 151. - - Titans, 17, 18, 19, 90. - - Tīthōnus, 92, 205. - - Tĭty̆us, 41, 149. - - Toxeus, 232. - - Triptŏlĕmus, 140. - - Trītōn, 35, 104, 105, 129. - - Trōĭlus, 251. - - Trōs, 88, 203, 242. - - Ty̆chē, 99. - - Tȳdeus, 210, 234, 240, 248. - - Tyndărĕus, 194, 209, 245, 249. - - Ty̆phōeus, 21. - - Tȳphōn, 200, 204. - - Tȳrō, 233. - - - Ŭlysses (_vide_ Odysseus). - - Ūrănĭa, 82. - - Ūrănus, 17, 18, 19, 21, 152. - - - Vĕnus, 58. - - Vertumnus, 135. - - Vesta, 72, 156. - - Victōrĭa, 85. - - Vulcan (Volcānus), 70. - - - Winds, the, 93. - - - Zĕphy̆rus, 92, 94. - - Zētēs, 94, 219, 234. - - Zēthus, 171, 172, 179. - - Zeus, 12, 13, 16, 19, 22, 31, 62, 88, 115, 162, 185. - -[Illustration] - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - -Transcriber’s note: - - 1. 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- line-height: 1; } - h2.pgx { text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 135%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - page-break-before: avoid; - line-height: 1; } - h3.pgx { text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 110%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - line-height: 1; } - h4.pgx { text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 100%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - line-height: 1; } - hr.pgx { width: 100%; - margin-top: 3em; - margin-bottom: 0em; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - height: 4px; - border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ - border-style: solid; - border-color: #000000; - clear: both; } - </style> -</head> -<body> -<h1 class="pgx" title="header title">The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Mythology of Greece and Rome, by Otto -Seemann, Edited by G. H. (George Henry) Bianchi</h1> -<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States -and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no -restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it -under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this -eBook or online at <a -href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you are not -located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this ebook.</p> -<p>Title: The Mythology of Greece and Rome</p> -<p> With Special Reference to Its Use in Art</p> -<p>Author: Otto Seemann</p> -<p>Editor: G. H. (George Henry) Bianchi</p> -<p>Release Date: April 23, 2020 [eBook #61901]</p> -<p>Language: English</p> -<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p> -<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MYTHOLOGY OF GREECE AND ROME***</p> -<p> </p> -<h4 class="pgx" title="credit">E-text prepared by Richard Tonsing<br /> - and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> - (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> - from page images generously made available by<br /> - Internet Archive<br /> - (<a href="https://archive.org">https://archive.org</a>)</h4> -<p> </p> -<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> - <tr> - <td valign="top"> - Note: - </td> - <td> - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - <a href="https://archive.org/details/TheMythologyOfGreeceAndRome"> - https://archive.org/details/TheMythologyOfGreeceAndRome</a> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p> </p> -<hr class="pgx" /> -<p> </p> - -<div class='section ph1'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c001'> - <div>Greek and Roman Mythology</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div id='f_53' class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/f_53.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 53.—Head of Niobe. Florence.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='titlepage'> - -<div> - <h1 class='c002'><span class='xlarge'>THE MYTHOLOGY</span><br /> <span class='small'>OF</span><br /> GREECE AND ROME<br /> <span class='large'><em>WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ITS USE IN ART</em></span></h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div><span class='small'>EDITED BY</span></div> - <div class='c004'><span class='large'>G. H. BIANCHI, M.A.</span></div> - <div class='c004'><span class='xsmall'>LATE SCHOLAR OF ST. PETER’S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE BROTHERTON SANSKRIT PRIZEMAN, 1875</span></div> - <div class='c003'><em>WITH SIXTY-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS</em></div> - <div class='c003'>New and Revised Edition</div> - <div class='c003'>LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL, <span class='sc'>Ld.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c001'> - <div><span class='small'><span class='sc'>Made and Printed in Great Britain.</span></span></div> - <div><span class='small'><span class='sc'>Richard Clay & Sons, Limited.</span></span></div> - <div><span class='small'><span class='sc'>Printers, Bungay, Suffolk.</span></span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_005.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span> - <h2 class='c005'>PREFACE.</h2> -</div> - -<div class='c006'> - <img class='drop-capi' src='images/di_005.jpg' width='100' alt='' /> -</div><p class='drop-capi_8'> -No apology can be needed for introducing to the public a -work like the present. There has long been a want of -a book which should, in a moderate compass, give a clear and -readable account of these legends; for Dictionaries of Mythology -do not give a view of the subject as a whole; and the price of -most other works on the Greek and Roman myths would prevent -their being used as class-books. These considerations have led -the publishers to bring out this book in an English dress.</p> - -<p class='c007'>If any should be inclined to ask what Mythology has to do -with men of the present day, the reply is plain. The works of -art in our galleries and museums require a certain amount of -knowledge of the mythology of the Greeks and Romans for the -full appreciation of their subjects. There is hardly any literature -in Europe which has not been more or less coloured by -these legends; and in our own day their power to inspire the -poet has by no means ceased. Nay, they have incorporated -themselves into our very language: “Herculean strength” is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>almost as common an expression now as it was two thousand years -ago; and we still talk of “chimerical” expectations, describe a -man as “tantalised,” and use the Sphinx as the symbol of the -mysterious.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The present work, translated from the German of O. Seemann, -seems well adapted to convey a knowledge of these myths. It -is illustrated with cuts after some of the masterpieces of ancient -and modern art. Particular attention has been paid to this -branch of the subject, and the principal works of art in each -case are mentioned.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The distinction between Greek and Roman deities and heroes -has been preserved, but the conventional spelling has been -retained. A full index is appended, in which the quantities of -the vowels are carefully marked.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id003'> -<img src='images/i_006.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span> -<img src='images/i_007.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary='TABLE OF CONTENTS'> -<colgroup> -<col width='4%' /> -<col width='1%' /> -<col width='88%' /> -<col width='5%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <th class='c008'></th> - <th class='c009'> </th> - <th class='c009'> </th> - <th class='c010'><span class='small'>PAGE</span></th> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c011' colspan='4'>INTRODUCTION.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>I.</td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Subjects of Greek and Roman Mythology</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_11'>11</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>II.</td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'><span class='sc'>Popular Ideas concerning the Gods</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012' colspan='3'>PART I.—COSMOGONY AND THEOGONY</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c011' colspan='4'>PART II.—THE GODS.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c013' colspan='4'>THE GODS OF OLYMPUS.</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c013' colspan='4'>A.—SUPERIOR DEITIES.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Zeus (Jupiter)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_22'>22</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Hera (Juno)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Pallas Athene (Minerva)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_34'>34</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Apollo</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Artemis (Diana)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Ares (Mars)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Aphrodite (Venus)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_56'>56</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Hermes (Mercurius)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_62'>62</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Hephæstus (Vulcanus)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Hestia (Vesta)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_71'>71</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Janus</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_74'>74</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Quirinus</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_77'>77</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c013' colspan='4'><span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>B.—SECONDARY DEITIES.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>1.</td> - <td class='c014' colspan='3'>Attendant and Ministering Deities—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Eros (Amor)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Muses</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Charites (Gratiæ)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Themis and the Horæ (Seasons)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_84'>84</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Nice (Victoria)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_85'>85</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Iris</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_86'>86</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Hebe (Juventas)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Ganymedes</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_88'>88</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>2.</td> - <td class='c014' colspan='3'>The Phenomena of the Heavens—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Helios (Sol)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#t89'>89</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Selene (Luna)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_91'>91</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Eos (Aurora)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_92'>92</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Stars</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Winds</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>3.</td> - <td class='c014' colspan='3'>Gods of Birth and Healing—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Asclepius (Æsculapius)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_94'>94</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Inferior Deities of Birth and Healing</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#t96'>96</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>4.</td> - <td class='c014' colspan='3'>Deities of Fate—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Mœræ (Parcæ)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_98'>98</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Nemesis, Tyche (Fortuna), and Agathodæmon (Bonus Eventus)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_98'>98</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c013' colspan='4'>THE GODS OF THE SEA AND WATERS.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Poseidon (Neptunus)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_100'>100</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Amphitrite</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_104'>104</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Triton and the Tritons</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_105'>105</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c013' colspan='3'>Pontus and his Descendants—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Nereus and his Daughters</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_105'>105</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_106'>106</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Proteus</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_107'>107</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Glaucus</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_107'>107</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Ino Leucothea, and Melicertes</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_108'>108</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Sirens</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Race of Oceanus</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c013' colspan='4'>THE GODS OF THE EARTH AND LOWER WORLD.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Gæa (Tellus)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_112'>112</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Rhea Cybele (Magna Mater Idæa)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Dionysus, or Bacchus (Liber)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Nymphs</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_123'>123</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Satyrs</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_125'>125</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Silenus</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_126'>126</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c013' colspan='3'>Greek and Roman Wood-Spirits—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Pan</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_128'>128</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Silvanus</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_131'>131</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Faunus and Fauna</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_131'>131</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Priapus</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_133'>133</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Saturnus and Ops</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_133'>133</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Vertumnus and Pomona</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_135'>135</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Flora</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Pales</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Terminus</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Demeter (Ceres)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Persephone (Proserpina)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_143'>143</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Hades (Pluto)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_146'>146</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Lower World</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_147'>147</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Erinyes (Furiæ)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Hecate</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_153'>153</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Sleep and Death</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_154'>154</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c013' colspan='4'>ROMAN DEITIES OF THE HOUSE AND FAMILY.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Penates</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_156'>156</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Lares</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_157'>157</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Larvæ, Lemures, and Manes</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_158'>158</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c011' colspan='4'>PART III.—THE HEROES.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015' colspan='3'>INTRODUCTORY</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_159'>159</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015' colspan='3'>THE CREATION AND PRIMITIVE CONDITION OF MANKIND</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c013' colspan='4'>PROVINCIAL HEROIC LEGENDS—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Lapithæ and the Centaurs</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_165'>165</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c013' colspan='3'>Theban Legend—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Cadmus</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Actæon</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_171'>171</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Amphion and Zethus</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_172'>172</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c013' colspan='3'>Corinthian Legend—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Sisyphus</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_179'>179</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Glaucus</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_180'>180</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Bellerophon and the Legend of the Amazons</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_180'>180</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span> </td> - <td class='c014' colspan='3'>Argive Legend—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Io</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Danaüs and the Danaïds</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_186'>186</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Prœtus and his Daughters</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_187'>187</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Perseus</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Dioscuri</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_194'>194</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>Heracles (Hercules)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_197'>197</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>The Birth and Youth of Heracles</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Heracles in the Service of Eurystheus</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_199'>199</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Deeds of Heracles after his Service</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_206'>206</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Death and Apotheosis</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_211'>211</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Heracles as God</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_212'>212</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c014' colspan='3'>Attic Legend—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Cecrops</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_217'>217</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Erechtheus, or Erichthonius</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_218'>218</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Theseus</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_219'>219</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c014' colspan='3'>Cretan Legend—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Minos and the Minotaur</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_227'>227</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Talos</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_229'>229</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c013' colspan='4'>COMBINED UNDERTAKINGS OF THE LATER HEROIC AGE—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Calydonian Hunt</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_230'>230</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Argonauts</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_232'>232</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Theban Cycle</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_237'>237</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Trojan Cycle</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_241'>241</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c014' colspan='3'>The Heroic Races of the Trojan War—</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>The Dardanidæ, or Race of Dardanus</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_241'>241</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>The Pelopidæ, or Race of Pelops</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_242'>242</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>The Æacidæ, or Race of Æacus</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_245'>245</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c009'><em>Nestor, the Locrian Ajax, Diomedes, and Odysseus</em></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_247'>247</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The War</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_249'>249</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009' colspan='2'>The Return</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_257'>257</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015' colspan='3'>MYTHIC SEERS AND BARDS</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_262'>262</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_010.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span> -<img src='images/i_011.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> -</div> -<table class='table0' summary='LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS'> -<colgroup> -<col width='5%' /> -<col width='72%' /> -<col width='21%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <th class='c008'><span class='small'>FIG.</span></th> - <th class='c009'> </th> - <th class='c010'><span class='small'>PAGE</span></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>1.</td> - <td class='c009'>Bust of Cronus. Vatican Museum,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_01'>20</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>2.</td> - <td class='c009'>Cameo of Athenion</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_02'>21</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>3.</td> - <td class='c009'>Zeus of Otricoli. Vatican Museum,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_03'>27</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>4.</td> - <td class='c009'>Jupiter Verospi. Vatican Museum,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_04'>29</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>5.</td> - <td class='c009'>Coins of Elis with Phidias’ Zeus. (After Overbeck.)</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_05'>30</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>6.</td> - <td class='c009'>Barberini Juno. Vatican Museum,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_06'>32</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>7.</td> - <td class='c009'>Head of Hera, perhaps after Polycletus. Naples,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_07'>33</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>8.</td> - <td class='c009'>Pallas Giustiniani. Vatican,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_08'>38</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>9.</td> - <td class='c009'>Athene Polias. Villa Albani,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_09'>39</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>10.</td> - <td class='c009'>Pallas Athene. Naples,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_10'>40</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>11.</td> - <td class='c009'>Apollo Belvedere. Vatican,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_11'>44</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>12.</td> - <td class='c009'>Head of Apollo Belvedere,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_12'>45</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>13.</td> - <td class='c009'>Apollo Citharœdus. Munich,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_13'>47</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>14.</td> - <td class='c009'>Diana of Versailles,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_14'>50</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>15.</td> - <td class='c009'>Mars Ludovisi,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_15'>55</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>16.</td> - <td class='c009'>Bust of Ares. Sculpture Gallery at Munich,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_16'>56</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>17.</td> - <td class='c009'>Venus of Milo. Louvre,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_17'>60</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>18.</td> - <td class='c009'>Venus Genetrix. Villa Borghese,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_18'>61</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>19.</td> - <td class='c009'>Resting Hermes. Bronze Statue at Naples,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_19'>66</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>20.</td> - <td class='c009'>Statue of Hermes. Capitoline Collection,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_20'>67</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>21.</td> - <td class='c009'>Hephæstus. Bronze Figure in the British Museum,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_21'>70</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>22.</td> - <td class='c009'>Vesta Giustiniani. Torlonia Collection,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_22'>74</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>23.</td> - <td class='c009'>Head of Eros. Vatican,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_23'>78</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>24.</td> - <td class='c009'>Eros trying his Bow. Capitoline Museum,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_24'>79</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>25.</td> - <td class='c009'>Polyhymnia. Berlin Museum,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_25'>80</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>26.</td> - <td class='c009'>Melpomene. Vatican,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_26'>81</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>27.</td> - <td class='c009'>Euterpe. Vatican,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_27'>82</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>28.</td> - <td class='c009'>The Horæ. Relief from the Villa Albani,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_28'>85</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>29.</td> - <td class='c009'>Victoria. United Collections in Munich,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_29'>86</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>30.</td> - <td class='c009'>Hebe. From Antonio Canova,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_30'>88</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>31.</td> - <td class='c009'>Ganymedes and the Eagle. From Thorwaldsen,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_31'>89</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>32.</td> - <td class='c009'>Asclepius. Berlin,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_32'>95</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>33.</td> - <td class='c009'>Head of Asclepius. British Museum,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_33'>96</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>34.</td> - <td class='c009'>Night and the Fates. From Carstens,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_34'>97</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>35.</td> - <td class='c009'>Poseidon. Dolce Gem,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_35'>103</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>36.</td> - <td class='c009'>Dionysus and Lion. From the Monument of Lysicrates,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_36'>116</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>37.</td> - <td class='c009'>The so-called Sardanapalus in the Vatican,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_37'>119</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>38.</td> - <td class='c009'>Youthful Dionysus. From the Chateau Richelieu, now in the Louvre,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_38'>120</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>39.</td> - <td class='c009'>Marble Head of Youthful Dionysus at Leyden,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_39'>121</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>40.</td> - <td class='c009'>Sleeping Ariadne. Vatican,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_40'>122</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>41.</td> - <td class='c009'>Dannecker’s Ariadne. Frankfort-on-the-Main,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_41'>123</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>42.</td> - <td class='c009'>Head of Satyr. Munich Sculpture Gallery,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_42'>126</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>43.</td> - <td class='c009'>Pan. From a Mural Painting at Herculaneum,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_43'>130</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>44.</td> - <td class='c009'>Demeter Enthroned. Painting from Pompeii. Naples,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_44'>142</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>45.</td> - <td class='c009'>Persephone Enthroned. Painting from Pompeii. Naples,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_45'>145</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>46.</td> - <td class='c009'>Head of Hades. Palazzo Chigi. Rome,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_46'>147</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>47.</td> - <td class='c009'>Three-formed Hecate. Capitoline Museum,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_47'>154</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>48.</td> - <td class='c009'>Metope of the Parthenon,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_48'>166</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>49.</td> - <td class='c009'>From the Frieze of the Temple at Bassæ</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_49'>167</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>50.</td> - <td class='c009'>Centaur teaching a boy to play upon the Pipe. Relief by Kundmann,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_50'>169</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>51.</td> - <td class='c009'>Actæon. Group. British Museum,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_51'>172</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>52.</td> - <td class='c009'>Farnese Bull. Naples,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_52'>174</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>53.</td> - <td class='c009'>Head of Niobe. Florence,</td> - <td class='c010'><em><a href='#f_53'>Frontispiece</a></em>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>54.</td> - <td class='c009'>Niobe. Florence,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_54'>178</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>55.</td> - <td class='c009'>Amazon. Berlin,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_55'>183</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>56.</td> - <td class='c009'>Perseus and Andromeda. Marble Relief in the Museum at Naples,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_56'>192</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>57.</td> - <td class='c009'>Rondanini Medusa. Munich,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_57'>193</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>58.</td> - <td class='c009'>Farnese Hercules,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_58'>215</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>59.</td> - <td class='c009'>Elgin Theseus. British Museum,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_59'>225</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>60.</td> - <td class='c009'>Theseus Lifting the Rock. Relief in the Villa Albani,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_60'>226</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>61.</td> - <td class='c009'>Laocoön. Group,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_61'>255</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>62.</td> - <td class='c009'>Priam before Achilles. Relief by Thorwaldsen,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_62'>260</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>63.</td> - <td class='c009'>Rape of Helen. Campana Collection. Paris,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_63'>261</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>64.</td> - <td class='c009'>Orpheus and Eurydice. Marble Relief in the Villa Albani,</td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#f_64'>263</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span> -<img src='images/i_013.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='section ph1'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c001'> - <div><span class='sc'>Greek and Roman Mythology.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div> - <h2 class='c005'>INTRODUCTION.</h2> -</div> - -<h3 class='c016'>I.—SUBJECTS OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY.</h3> - -<div class='c017'> - <img class='drop-capi' src='images/di_013.jpg' width='100' alt='' /> -</div><p class='drop-capi_8'> -Myths may be described as poetic narratives of the birth, -life, and actions of the old heathen gods and heroes or -demigods. Both myth and legend<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c018'><sup>[1]</sup></a> are distinguished -from the “Mährchen,” or popular tale, by not being, like the latter, -a mere product of the imagination, but always being founded on -some preceding reality, whether that be an oft-recurring phase -of nature, or a distinct and real occurrence. It is often most -difficult to recognise with any precision the true germ of a myth, -on account of the numerous additions and alterations made by -the poets. And therefore the question, whether a particular -tradition be a myth or not, is very hard to answer: on one side -we are tempted to view, in the god or demigod, the hero of a -tribe magnified to superhuman proportions by the admiration of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>posterity; and, on the other side, comparison of the legends of -different families of nations points us to the operations of nature, -not only in the demigod or the hero, but in the animals of fable -and the traditions of the nursery.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f1'> -<p class='c007'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. The German word “sage” (legend) is really only a translation of the -Greek word “mythos,” and is often used in that sense. But lately the -custom has tacitly sprung up of employing the term “mythos” when -speaking of the life or actions of the gods, and “sage” when speaking of -those of heroes.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>A large proportion of these myths are due to men’s observations -of Nature, and her various active and creative forces, which -appeared to their lively Southern fancy as manifestations of -single supernatural beings. These were regarded, now as friendly, -now as hostile, to man; and men therefore strove as eagerly to -gain their favour as to appease their wrath. Of the appearance -of the deities who thus manifested themselves in the workings -of nature, men necessarily formed at first very crude and -fantastic ideas. But later, when men emerged from the simple -conditions of the early patriarchal epoch, and began to dwell in -regular political communities, they gradually ceased to regard -the gods as mere personifications of natural forces. They began -to regard them as beings acting in accordance with unchangeable -moral laws, and endowed with forms similar to those of men -(Anthropomorphism). They brought the gods into connection -with each other by means of genealogies in a great measure -artificial, and built up a vast political system, which has its -centre in Zeus, the “father of gods and men.”</p> - -<p class='c007'>Strange to say, however, it was only among the Greeks that -this system of development prevailed. The nations of Italy -still continued to regard their gods as mere natural forces—that -looked down on them in a cold, strange fashion—of whose form -and mode of life they had no clear idea. It was only later, -when the Romans came into intellectual contact with their Greek -neighbours, and began to study their language and literature, -that they adopted the popular Greek conceptions concerning the -gods. They now transferred existing myths, and fathered them -on those of their own gods and goddesses who bore the closest -resemblance to the Greek divinities, and harmonised best with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>their natural interpretation. Thus it was that the Roman -Jupiter was identified with the Greek Zeus, Juno with Hera, -Minerva with Athene; though for peculiar deities, such as -Janus, they could find no Greek prototype.</p> - -<h3 class='c019'>II.—POPULAR IDEAS CONCERNING THE GODS.</h3> - -<p class='c017'>We learn most concerning the conceptions the ancients formed -of their gods from the numerous Greek and Roman poets whose -works have come down to us, and who contributed so largely to -the construction of the myths. First, both in antiquity and -importance, are the poems attributed to Homer, in which we -find the whole political system of Olympus, with Zeus at its -head, already constructed.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Henceforth the gods, in outward appearance at least, are -endowed with forms entirely human; more grand and beautiful -and majestic, but still not verging on the monstrous or fantastic.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Not only in beauty and grandeur, but also in strength and -vigour, do the gods surpass men. Let but Zeus shake his -ambrosial locks, and the whole of Olympus trembles. The other -deities are also endowed in proportion with great strength. -As corporeal, indeed, they are limited in regard to space, and -cannot therefore be omnipresent; but this restriction affects them -far less than mortals, for they can compass the greatest distances -at lightning speed. In a moment Athene drops from the -heights of Olympus down to Ithaca; and Poseidon, the ocean-god, -passes in three or four steps from Samothrace to Ægæ in -Eubœa. Moreover, the gods can see and hear at a much greater -distance than men. In regard to hearing, indeed, they seem to -have unlimited powers. Prayers ascend to them from every -place, irrespective of their personal presence. In the same -manner Zeus, from his high throne in Olympus, sees all that -passes among men, and, sitting on the highest summit of Mount -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>Ida, he can follow all the events of the battle that rages before -Troy.</p> - -<p class='c007'>On the other hand, the gods are subject to the same bodily -wants as men. They refresh themselves in the same way with -sleep, and have to support themselves with food and drink. -Here again, however, they are far less fettered than mortals, for -they can hold out much longer without satisfying these wants. -Nor is their food so coarse as that of men; they live on -ambrosia and nectar. Another natural necessity is clothing, on -the tasteful ordering of which the goddesses even bestow extraordinary -care, and in this, as in many other respects, greatly -resemble the daughters of Eve. Although later art delights in -representing some of the deities either slightly clothed or quite -naked, yet we cannot justly conclude from this that the popular -belief of the ancients conceived thus of those gods.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Gods endowed with frames like those of mortals must necessarily -be born in the same way, and develope gradually both in -mind and body. But here, again, everything proceeds with the -utmost rapidity. For instance, the new-born Hermes rises from -his cradle to steal the cattle of Apollo, and, coming into the -world in the morning, he is found in the afternoon playing on -the lyre, which he has himself invented. The most important -point, however, in which they surpass mortals is that, when -once in full possession of bodily and intellectual powers, they -never grow old, but remain ever young and beautiful, ever free -from disease and death. Compared with the race of men, who -are subject to need and pain, they are the “happy,” “blessed” -gods, the gods “who live at ease,” who can readily gratify every -desire. But this does not by any means prevent their suffering -occasionally from the pangs of sorrow and grief; they are -vulnerable alike in body and soul, and exposed to every kind of -painful sensation. So completely did the Greeks subject their -gods to human passions.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>As regards mental qualifications they are naturally far superior -to men. In the first place, they stand higher morally; they -shun all that is evil, impure, and unjust, and visit with punishment -the impiety and injustice of man. This, again, does not -prevent their giving way to every description of vice and folly, -such as deceit, lying, hatred, cruelty, jealousy, &c. They are -far from holy, therefore, in the sense in which we speak of -the Supreme Being. Still less are they conceived as omniscient -or omnipotent. Their powers indeed are great, and so is their -knowledge. They are able to interrupt the course of nature—to -send sudden storms, pestilences, and other evils—to endow themselves -or others with any forms they like, and to do many other -things, of which we read in fairy tales. But even Zeus, to -whom a far greater measure of power is accorded than to other -gods, and on whose will the government of the universe depends, -is himself subjected to the immutable decrees of fate; whilst -the possibility of deceiving and duping him is by no means -excluded.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Where then are we to seek for the explanation of these apparent -inconsistencies? We have already said that the active -and creative forces of Nature were personified by the imagination -of men. Let us take one of the first conceptions likely to -spring up—that of the love of the heaven for the earth, from -which all nature is born. Different names will be used in -different localities; men will at last forget that they all once -meant the same, and out of the simple personification will spring -a series of divine marriages; or if one be recognised by the -whole nation as the wife, the other brides will sink into -mistresses.</p> - -<p class='c007'>So with the everlasting war of the sun with the clouds; we -shall not only find several gods of the light in Greece, but -almost every tribe had a particular hero, whose great deeds we -shall generally find to be those of the sun. Yet in the midst of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>all this confusion, men had a feeling that there was something -above them better and holier than they, to which that which -is good and holy alone was pleasing. This idea was more and -more attached to Zeus himself, as the notion grew that Zeus -was the supreme god, the king of heaven.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_018.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span> -<img src='images/i_019.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>PART I.—COSMOGONY AND THEOGONY.</h2> -</div> - -<div class='c006'> - <img class='drop-capi' src='images/di_019.jpg' width='100' alt='' /> -</div><p class='drop-capi_8'> -By Cosmogony, we understand the legends relating to the -creation of the world; by Theogony, those relating to the -origin of the gods. On both points we have to deal with the -Greeks alone, since the Romans never indulged in any researches -of this kind. All that their poets have to say on the subject is, -without exception, borrowed from the Greeks.</p> - -<p class='c007'>According to the common account the world was formed out -of Chaos. By this, however, we must not understand a huge -and shapeless mass, but merely dark, unbounded space. The -accounts of the poets vary very materially as to how the world -proceeded from Chaos. The most popular view is that according -to which Gæa or Ge (the earth) first issued from Chaos; whereupon -Tartarus (the abyss beneath the earth) immediately -severed itself, and Eros (the love that forms and binds all -things) sprang into existence. Gæa then begot of herself -Uranus (heaven), the mountains, and Pontus (the sea).</p> - -<p class='c007'>The first gods who peopled this new world were begotten of -the earth partly by Uranus and partly by Pontus. From her -union with Uranus sprang the Titans, the Cyclopes, and the -Centimanes; from her union with Pontus various sea-deities.</p> - -<p class='c007'>1. The race of Uranus. According to Hesiod there were twelve -Titans: six males—Oceanus, Cœus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, -and Cronus; and six females—Thia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, -Phœbe, and Tethys. The interpretation of these divinities is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>somewhat difficult, but they doubtless represented the elementary -forces of nature. The Cyclopes were three in number—Brontes -(thunder), Steropes (lightning), and Arges (sheet-lightning): -these, we can clearly see, refer to the phenomena of the storm. -The Centimanes (hundred-handed), again, are three in number—Cottus, -Briareus, and Gyes. These, too, represent destructive -forces of nature—perhaps the earthquake, the tempestuous sea, -and the storm-wind.</p> - -<p class='c007'>2. The race of Pontus. By Pontus Gæa became the mother -of the fabulous sea-deities—Nereus, Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto, -and Eurybia. These, again, had numerous descendants. Nereus -represents the sea in its quiet state: we shall have to speak of -him and his daughters later on. Thaumas represents to us the -majesty of the sea. He is the father of Iris (the rainbow), and -of the Harpies (storm-winds). Lastly, Phorcys and Ceto, from -whose union the frightful Gorgons and Grææ proceeded, typify -all the dangers and terrors of the sea.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Many marriages also took place among the Titans themselves. -The numerous sea-nymphs are descended from Oceanus and -Tethys; from Hyperion and Thia come the deities of the light—Helios -(sun), Selene (moon), and Eos (dawn); from Cœus and -Phœbe the deities of the night—Leto (dark night) and Asteria -(starry night).</p> - -<p class='c007'>The most important of all the Titans, however, are Cronus and -Rhea, who pave the way for the universal dominion of their son Zeus.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Uranus, fearing lest his last-born sons, the powerful Cyclopes -and Centimanes, might one day seize his power, buried them -directly after birth in the deep abyss beneath the earth. This -displeased Gæa, their mother, who thereupon prompted the -Titans to conspire against their father, and induced Cronus, the -youngest and bravest of them, to lay violent hands on Uranus. -Uranus was mutilated, cast into chains, and compelled by his -sons to abdicate his sovereignty, which now passed to Cronus. -But Cronus was not long destined to enjoy the fruits of his crime. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>The curse of Uranus, who prophesied that he would suffer a -like fate at the hands of his own son, was fulfilled. So anxious -was he to avert such a catastrophe, that he swallowed his -children immediately after their birth. Five had already suffered -this fate—Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon. -But their mother Rhea, grieved at their lot, determined to -rescue her next son, Zeus, by a stratagem. In the place of her -child, she gave to her suspicious and cruel husband a stone -wrapped in swaddling clothes, which he swallowed without -further examination. Zeus, who was thus rescued, was reared -by the nymphs in a grotto on Mount Dicte, in Crete. The she-goat -Amalthea served as his nurse, whilst the bees brought him -honey to eat. In order that the cries of the child might not -betray his presence to his suspicious father, the Curetes, or -attendant priests of Rhea, drowned his voice in the clashing of -their weapons. Zeus remained thus hidden until he had become -a mighty though youthful god. He then attacked and overthrew -his father Cronus, whom he also compelled, by means of a -device of Gæa, to bring forth the children that he had devoured. -One part of the Titans—Oceanus, Themis, Mnemosyne, and -Hyperion—submitted without hesitation to the dominion of the -new ruler of the world. The others, however, refused allegiance; -but Zeus, after a contest of ten years, overthrew them, with the -help of the Cyclopes and Centimanes. As a punishment, they -were cast into Tartarus, which was then closed by Poseidon -with brazen gates. Thessaly, the land which bears the clearest -traces of natural convulsions, was supposed to have been the -scene of this mighty war. Zeus and his adherents fought from -Olympus; the Titans from the opposite mountain of Othrys.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Comparison of the legends of other nations does not show us -any such elaborate genealogy. Zeus has his counterparts almost -everywhere, and Uranus himself appears in India; but Cronus, -in the sense of the father of Zeus, is probably traceable to the -common epithet of Zeus, Cronion, which was assumed in later -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>times to be a patronymic. It was natural to deduce from the -idea that one power of nature sprang from another, the expression -that the god of the first power was the child of the god -of the second; it would perhaps be more correct to say that it -was the same thing to the early races of men. As to the wars, -which were so great a stumbling-block to the Greek philosophers, -we may notice that the supreme god must, of course, have been -the son of a supreme god; and yet, if his predecessor were -supreme, must have dispossessed him.</p> - -<div id='f_01' class='figleft id004'> -<img src='images/f_01.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 1.—Bust of Cronus. Vatican Museum.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>The Titans, not -being actually objects -of worship, were not -frequently represented -in ancient art. -Cronus is the only -exception, which may -be explained by the -fact that the Romans -identified him with -their own Saturn, or -harvest-god. He is -generally depicted -with a severe and -gloomy expression of -countenance, the back -of his head being -veiled, as a symbol of -his reserved character. -In the Vatican -Museum at Rome -there is a bust of this -kind in good preservation, -an engraving -of which we give -(Fig. 1).</p> - -<p class='c007'>After his victory over the Titans, Zeus shared the empire of -the world with his two brothers, Poseidon and Hades. The -former he made ruler of the ocean and waters; the latter he set -over the infernal regions; everything else he retained for himself. -This new order of things, however, was by no means -<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>securely established. The resentment of Gæa led her to produce -with Tartarus, her youngest and most powerful son, the -giant Typhoeus, a monster with a hundred fire-breathing dragons’ -heads, whom she sent to overthrow the dominion of Zeus. -A great battle took place, which shook heaven and earth. Zeus, -by means of his never-ceasing thunderbolts, at length overcame -Typhoeus, and cast him into Tartarus, or, according to later writers -(Pindar and Virgil), buried him beneath Mount Ætna in Sicily, -whence at times he still breathes out fire and flames toward heaven.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Some poets tell of another rebellion, that of the Giants, against -the dominion of Zeus. These are said to have sprung from the -drops of blood which fell on the earth from the mutilated body of -Uranus. From the plains of Phlegra, in Thessaly, they sought -to storm Olympus by piling Pelion on Ossa. But after a bloody -battle, in which all the gods took part, the two were conquered, -and sent to share the fate of the vanquished Titans. The dominion -of Zeus was now securely established, and no hostile attack ever -after disturbed the peaceful ease of the inhabitants of Olympus.</p> - -<div id='f_02' class='figright id004'> -<img src='images/f_02.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 2.—Cameo of Athenion.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>The early history of Zeus, as well as his contests for the empire of the -universe, commonly called the Giganto-machia, was a favourite subject -with Greek art. In -the more ancient -of these works the -Giants do not differ, -either in form -or appearance, -from the Gods and -Heroes. In later -works they are represented -with the -bodies of dragons, -only the upper -portion of the body -being human. -They appear thus -on the celebrated -cameo of the -Naples Museum, -where Zeus, in his chariot drawn by four fiery horses, is in the act of -charging them (Fig. 2).</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span> -<img src='images/i_024.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>PART II.—THE GODS.</h2> -</div> - -<h3 class='c016'>I.—THE GODS OF OLYMPUS.</h3> - -<h4 class='c016'>A.—SUPERIOR DEITIES.</h4> - -<p class='c006'><b>1. Zeus (Jupiter).</b>—Chief of the celestial deities is Zeus, -called by the Romans Jupiter, the controller and ruler of the -universe. As being the god of heaven <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">par excellence</span></i>, the “Skyfather,” -he is to both nations the source of all life in nature, and -from his gracious hand are shed blessing and abundance. All the -phenomena of the air were supposed to proceed from him. He -gathers and disperses the clouds, casts forth his lightning, stirs -up his thunder, sends down rain, hail, snow, and fertilising dew -on the earth. With his ægis—an impenetrable shield hung -with a hundred golden tassels, in the midst of which the fearful -head of the Gorgon is fastened—he produces storm and tempest. -The ægis, though often meaning shield, is properly a goat-skin -fastened to and supporting the true shield; later it appears -as a short cloak, and even as a breastplate, covered with scales, -and fringed with serpents. It is not often found in representations -of Zeus; though a statue of him at Leyden shows it, and -in a cameo he is seen with it wrapped around his left arm: -similarly it was common to wrap the chlamys or scarf round the -left arm, for purposes of defence. The ægis usually belongs -to Athene, who borrows it from her father in the <cite>Iliad</cite>. She -<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>is seen wearing it in Fig. 9. In this word we probably see a -confusion of two ideas, different, though of similar origin; from -the same root that gives us the “springing” goat we have the -storm-cloud “tossed” over the sky.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The ancients, however, were not content to regard Zeus merely -as a personification of Nature; they regarded him also from an -ethical standpoint, from which side he appears far more important -and awful. They saw in him a personification, so to speak, of that -principle of undeviating order and harmony which pervades both -the physical and moral world. The strict unalterable laws by -which he rules the community of the gods form a strong contrast -to the capricious commands of his father Cronus. Hence Zeus is -regarded as the protector and defender of all political order. -From him the kings of the earth receive their sovereignty and -rights; to him they are responsible for a conscientious fulfilment -of their duties. Those among them who unjustly exceed -their powers and pervert justice he never fails to punish. Zeus, -moreover, also presides over councils and assemblies, keeps -watch over their orderly course, and suggests to them wise -counsels. One of the most important props of political society -is the oath; and accordingly, as Zeus Horkios (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅρκιος</span>, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">deus -fidius</span></i> of the Romans), he watches over oaths, and punishes -perjury. He also watches over boundaries, and accompanies -the youths of the land as they march to the defence of their -country’s borders, giving them the victory over the invaders. -All civil and political communities enjoy his protection; but he -particularly watches over that association which is the basis of -the political fabric—the family. The head of every household -was therefore, in a certain sense, the priest of Zeus. It was he -who presented the offerings to the god in the name of the -family. At his altar, which generally stood in the middle of -the court (in small households this was represented by the -hearth), all strangers, fugitives, and suppliants found shelter. -As Zeus Xenius (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">hospitalis</span></i>) he protects the wanderer, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>punishes those who violate the ancient laws of hospitality by -mercilessly turning the helpless stranger from their door.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The superstition of early times saw in all the phenomena of -the heavens manifestations of the divine will. Thus the chief -deity of heaven was naturally regarded as the highest source of -inspiration, and was believed to reveal his will to men in the -thunder, the lightning, the flight of birds, or dreams. As the -supreme oracular deity, Zeus not only had an oracle of his own -at Dodona in Epirus, which was the most ancient in Greece, but -also revealed the future by the mouth of his favourite son -Apollo. Though he possessed no proper oracle among the -Romans, yet the latter looked with all the more care and -anxiety on the phenomena of the air and sky, the right interpretation -of which formed a special and difficult branch of -knowledge.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Zeus was the earliest national god of the Greeks. His worship -extended throughout the whole of Greece, though some of -his shrines had a special importance. The most ancient of them -was that at Dodona, where the Pelasgian Zeus was worshipped -at a time prior to the existence of any temples in Greece. He -was here represented in the celebrated form of the sacred oak, -in the rustling of whose branches the deity revealed himself to -the faithful. He was also worshipped on the summit of Mount -Tomarus, at the foot of which lay Dodona—mountain-tops being -naturally the earliest seats of his worship. But all the earlier -shrines were overshadowed by the great national seat of the -worship of Hellenic Zeus at Olympia, on the northern banks of -the river Alpheus, in Elis, where the renowned Olympian games -were celebrated. The magnificent statue of Zeus, by Phidias, -was an additional inducement to devotees, who flocked thither -from every quarter.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Neither was the worship of Jupiter any less extensive in -Italy. The most renowned of all his shrines was undoubtedly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>the temple erected by Tarquin on the Capitol at Rome. This, -after being nearly destroyed by fire in the time of Sulla, was -restored to more than its pristine splendour. The original -earthen image was replaced by a statue of gold and ivory, the -work of the Greek artist Apollonius, after the model of the -Olympian Zeus.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Before proceeding to discuss the god as he appears in art, we -must take a glance at his numerous family. The mythology of -the Greeks stands in notorious contrast to that of the Romans, -in attributing to Zeus a great number of mortal as well as immortal -spouses, and an unusually numerous posterity. Here we -must remark that, in spite of the occasional jokes of the comic -poets on the numerous amours of the god, and the consequent -jealousy of Hera, there was nothing farther from the intention -of the Greeks than to represent the supreme deity of heaven as -a sensual and lascivious being. The explanation lies partly in -the great number of contemporaneous local forms of worship -that existed independently of each other, and partly in the fact -that the lively fancy of the Greek pictured every new production -under the guise of procreation. In that part of mythology -which teaches the genealogy of the gods, the earliest wife of -Zeus was Metis (prudence), the daughter of Oceanus. Zeus -devoured her, fearing lest she should bear a son, who would -deprive him of the empire it had cost him so much to attain. -It was soon after this that he produced Pallas Athene from his -own head. His second goddess-wife was Themis, one of the -Titans, by whom he became the father of the Horæ and the -Mœræ (Fates). Dione appears as the wife of Zeus of Dodona, -and the mother of Aphrodite; whilst Arcadian Zeus was wedded -to Maia, by whom he had Hermes. By Demeter (Ceres) he -became the father of Persephone (Proserpine, goddess of vegetation); -by Eurynome, a daughter of Oceanus, of the Charites -(Graces); by Mnemosyne, of the Muses; by Leto (Latona), of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>Apollo and Artemis. The youngest of all his divine wives, who -was recognised by later mythology as his only legitimate queen, -was his sister Hera. By her he became the father of Ares -(Mars), Hephæstus (Vulcan), and Hebe.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Among his mortal mistresses the most celebrated is Semele, -the daughter of Cadmus, king of Thebes, and mother of -Dionysus. The others—Leda, Danaë, Alcmene, Europa, and -Io—will be mentioned hereafter.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The mythology of the Romans, as we have already remarked, -first depicted Jupiter as devoid of all family ties. It was only -after their religion had been Hellenised that men termed him -the son of Saturn and Ops, made Juno his wife and Minerva his -daughter.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Statues of Zeus were necessarily very numerous, both from the -great extent of his worship and the great number of his temples that -existed in Greece. Of all these the most renowned was the magnificent -statue of Zeus at Olympia, the work of the Athenian sculptor -Phidias (500–432 <span class='fss'>B.C.</span>). The figure was seated on a lofty throne, and -was more than 40 feet high. It was made of gold and ivory, or more -probably a statue of wood was overlaid with plates of ivory and gold. -The uncovered parts—the face, throat, breast, and hands—were of -ivory. In his right hand was a figure of Victory, also of gold and -ivory; in his left was a royal sceptre, on the top of which perched an -eagle. The numerous lengthy descriptions that exist can give us but -a faint idea of the lofty majesty that the sculptor diffused over the -countenance of the god. The object of Phidias was to represent him -to mankind, not only as the omnipotent ruler of Olympus, far -superior to all gods and men, both in power and wisdom; but also -as the gracious father of all, and the kindly dispenser of all good -gifts. The hair, which rose straight from the brow, and then fell in -equal divisions on either side, imparted to the face a lion-like expression -of conscious power. This was rendered still more effective -by the high forehead and strongly-formed nose. At the same time, -the expression of the slightly-opened lips lent an idea of kindly -benevolence. The story goes that Phidias, after completing the -statue, prayed of the god a sign that he was well pleased with his -work. Zeus thereupon caused a flash of lightning to descend through -the open roof of the temple, and thus acknowledged his own image.</p> - -<div id='f_03' class='figcenter id001'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span> -<img src='images/f_03.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 3.—Zeus of Otricoli. Vatican Museum.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id='f_04' class='figcenter id001'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span> -<img src='images/f_04.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 4.—Jupiter Verospi. Vatican Museum.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>This sublime masterpiece of Phidias, which was reckoned among -the seven wonders of the world, continued in existence, though not -without injury, for upwards of 800 years. It appears to have been -destroyed by fire in the time of Theodosius III.</p> - -<div id='f_05' class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span> -<img src='images/f_05.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 5.—Coins of Elis with Phidias’ Zeus. (After Overbeck.)</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>The following are the most important of the existing statues of -Zeus by Greek and Roman sculptors. The first in point of artistic -worth is a bust of Zeus, in Carrara marble—now in the Vatican -Museum at Rome—which was discovered in the last century at -Otricoli (Fig. 3). The union of serene majesty and benevolence is -the chief feature in the sublime countenance. Next comes a colossal -statue in marble, known as the Jupiter of Verospi, also in the -Vatican Museum (Fig. 4). Lastly, there is a bust of Zeus, discovered -at Pompeii, and now in the Museum at Naples, besides an equally -beautiful bronze statue in the British Museum, found at Paramythia -in Epirus. On comparing all the extant art monuments of Zeus, we -may gather that the object of ancient art was to present him -especially as the benign ruler of the universe, sitting enthroned in -conscious majesty and blissful ease on the heights of Olympus. His -characteristic features are the clustering hair, falling like a mane on -either side of his fine arched brow, and the rich wavy beard. His -attributes consist of the sceptre, as a symbol of his sovereignty; -the thunderbolt; the eagle; the votive bowl, as a symbol of his -worship; the ball beneath or near his seat, as a symbol of the -universe he rules; and, lastly, a figure of Victory. His head is sometimes -adorned with a garland of oak-leaves, the oak being sacred to -him; and sometimes with an olive-branch or plain band, the latter -being a mark of sovereignty. In Fig. 5 we give an engraving of two -coins of Elis, one of which is in the Florentine and the other in the -Paris Museum.</p> - -<p class='c006'><span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span><b>2. Hera (Juno).</b>—Hera, according to Homer, was the -eldest of the daughters of Cronus and Rhea. She is the -feminine counterpart of Zeus, her brother and husband. -She represents the air or atmosphere; for which reason she, -like Zeus, was supposed to control the phenomena of the air -and sky, and, as queen of heaven, shared with him all the -honours of his position. Her conjugal relations to Zeus, -which form the substance of all the myths that refer to her, -afforded the poets a rich and productive material for serious -and sportive poetry. They sang of the solemn marriage of Zeus -and Hera, the remembrance of which was celebrated at springtide -with festive offerings and marriage rites before the shrine of -the goddess. Neither did they fail to tell of the conjugal strife -of the royal pair, and of the cruel fate which overtook the -mortal women who enjoyed the favours of Zeus. It was thus -that jealousy and contention became the leading features in the -character of the goddess; whereas, both in her worship and in -the representations of artists, she appears as a gracious and -kindly deity, the especial protectress of her own sex.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The natural signification of Hera appears to have quickly -disappeared among the Greeks, and she seems to have been -chiefly honoured as the guardian of the marriage tie. The -nobleness of the woman who preserves inviolate the sanctity of -this bond finds in her its most sublime expression. As the -special patroness of marriage, she was supposed to watch over its -sanctity, to vouchsafe the blessing of children, and to protect -women in childbirth.</p> - -<div id='f_06' class='figleft id004'> -<img src='images/f_06.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 6.—Barberini Juno. Vatican Museum.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>The worship of Hera was originally not very extensive. The -cradle of her worship was Argos, on which account she is often -termed Argive. Argos, Mycenæ, and Sparta are pointed out in -the time of Homer as her favourite towns. Her worship -naturally extended as her new character of goddess of marriage -became more prominent. In Bœotia and Eubœa her worship -<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>was very ancient, -but her chief -shrine was the -Heræum, between -Argos and Mycenæ. -Here was a -most magnificent -statue of the goddess, -made of ivory -and gold, the work -of the Sicyonian -artist, Polycletus.<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c018'><sup>[2]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f2'> -<p class='c007'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. Polycletus, a native of Sicyon, was a sculptor, architect, and caster in -bronze. He was a contemporary of Phidias, and, next to him, the most -celebrated artist of antiquity.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>Juno (properly -Jovino) takes the -same place as goddess -of childbirth -and patroness of -marriage among -the Romans as -Hera did among -the Greeks. In -addition to this -she was venerated, -under the name -of Juno Regina, -as the tutelary -deity of the city -and empire of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>Rome. Her chief shrine was on the Capitol, where she had -a separate chapel in the temple of Jupiter. The Matronalia, -the chief festival of the goddess, was celebrated on the first -day of March, when all the matrons of the city marched in -procession to her temple on the Esquiline, and there offered -her flowers and libations. The victims usually sacrificed to -Juno were young heifers: her sacred birds were the goose and -the crow, to which the peacock of the Greek Hera was afterwards -added.</p> - -<div id='f_07' class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/f_07.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 7.—Head of Hera, perhaps after Polycletus. Naples.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>The most celebrated of the art monuments that relate to Juno is -the Juno Ludovisi, a colossal marble bust of remarkable beauty, -which, thanks to casts and photographs, is tolerably well known. -Her lofty and commanding countenance is the ideal of perfect -womanly beauty, combining in a rare degree woman’s chief ornaments—dignity -and grace.</p> - -<p class='c020'>After this comes the Juno Barberini of the Vatican Museum, an -entire and upright figure of great size (Fig. 6), distinguished by the -admirable draping of the garments. The Farnese Juno, now in the -Naples Museum, also deserves mention. In the same museum there -is a singularly beautiful head of Hera (Fig. 7), which perhaps lays -claim to reflect the conception of Polycletus.</p> - -<p class='c020'>The characteristic features of Juno are a somewhat prominent chin, -expressing unbending determination of will; somewhat curling lips, -well-defined nostrils, large full eyes, and a high and noble forehead. -The attributes of the goddess consist of the sceptre and diadem, -significant of her power; the veil (often omitted in the statues of -later artists), as a symbol of the married woman; the votive bowl in -the hand, the pomegranate as a symbol of love, and the peacock or -goose at her feet, also at times the cuckoo, as herald of spring.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>3. Pallas Athene (Minerva).</b>—The accounts which the -Greeks gave of the birth of Pallas vary considerably. -The most common is that which has been already mentioned. -According to this, Zeus produced her from his head, which -he had ordered Hephæstus to cleave open. The great goddess -of war, in full armour, with poised spear, then sprang -forth from her father’s head, chanting a war-song, whilst a -mighty commotion both on sea and land announced the great -event to the world. In her physical character Pallas appears as -the goddess of the dawn. The birth of the dawn from the forehead -of the sky is not only a natural idea, but one which can -be traced in the legends of other nations. Several of the other -stories of her birth are connected with the name Tritogenia, the -daughter of Tritos, a god, whose name, though not actually -found in Greek mythology, may be traced in Amphitrite, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>Triton, and the Lake Tritonis. This name, which originally -expressed the birth of the dawn from the water, was afterwards -explained in various ways, and the first part was even derived -from a provincial Greek word meaning head. Looked at from -her ethical side, she appears as the goddess of wisdom, a reflection -and personification of that profound wisdom and sagacity -with which Father Zeus controls the destinies of the world. -Hence we may easily gather the other features of her character. -She is, in the first place, the protectress of states; and all that -their welfare requires in peace or war proceeds from her. Thus -she appears as goddess of peace as well as war. In the latter -capacity she accompanies the army on its march, inspires the -soldiers with ardour for the fray, and rewards them with victory -and rich spoils; she also affords her mighty protection to towns -and cities at home. In Homer she figures, besides, as the kindly -guide and protectress of individual heroes, such as Odysseus, -Achilles, Diomedes. It was she who first taught mankind to -manage the horse, and to build ships and chariots; she also -invented the war-trumpet and flute. As goddess of war she -usually wears, besides helmet, shield, and spear, the dreadful ægis. -The latter, in art monuments, is represented as a breastplate -covered with dragon’s scales, and surrounded with serpents, in -the midst of which is the dreadful head of Medusa, which has -the effect of turning every one that looks on it into stone.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As goddess of peace, Athene is equally lavish in blessing. -Everything necessary either to the physical or intellectual welfare -of mankind was believed to proceed from her, and to be -subject to her influence. Accordingly, useful inventions of all -kinds are ascribed to her. It was she who first gave men the -rake and the plough; it was she who invented the distaff and -loom, as well as the art of dyeing woven stuffs, and many other -feminine accomplishments.</p> - -<p class='c007'>By later writers this skill in art is extended to other things, -and she is represented as the patroness of every branch of -science, art, and manufacture.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>She is also called Athene Hygiea, because she was believed -to send pure atmosphere, to ward off pestilence, and to promote -the growth and health of the youth of the land.</p> - -<p class='c007'>We cannot wonder, therefore, that the worship of a goddess -so benevolent, and exercising such an important influence on -human life, was very extensive in Greece. Nowhere did she -receive a higher degree of veneration than at Athens, of which -city she was really the tutelary deity. Her most important -shrine was the Parthenon (temple of the virgin goddess), which -was erected by Pericles on the Acropolis, and the remains of -which, even in the present day, excite the wonder and admiration -of the world. The whole land of Attica was, indeed, in a certain -measure, the peculiar property of the goddess, which she won -after her well-known contest with Poseidon. Zeus had decreed -the sovereignty over Attica to that deity who should bestow on -the land the most useful present. Poseidon thereupon created -the horse; but Athene caused the olive-tree to grow, and was -thus held to have won the victory. The sacred olive-tree, which -was thus called into existence, was shown in the Temple of -Erechtheus on the Acropolis, and possessed such a wonderful -vitality that, when the Persians burnt it after capturing the -town, it immediately put forth a fresh shoot. Argos and -Corinth were also renowned seats of the worship of Pallas -Athene; and she also enjoyed the highest veneration in Sparta, -Bœotia, Thessaly, Arcadia, and Rhodes.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Roman Minerva, whose name was derived from a root -meaning “to think,” was Hellenised at a very early period, and -identified with the Greek Pallas. In Rome, however, the -warlike character of the goddess was completely merged in that -of the peaceful inventress and patroness of the art and sciences, -and of all handiwork of women. She was here worshipped, in -company with Jupiter and Juno, as the tutelary deity of the -city and empire, and had, in consequence, her own shrine in the -temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. She also had temples on the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>Aventine and Cœlian hills, to which a third was added by -Pompey, in 61 <span class='fss'>B.C.</span>, in the Campus Martius.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>Festivals of the goddess.</em>—The Panathenæa, the chief festival -of the Greek Pallas, were celebrated with great pomp every -four years. A solemn procession passed through the streets of -Athens up to the Acropolis; and an offering was made to the -goddess in the shape of a costly garment (peplus), artistically -embroidered by the Athenian maidens. Horse races, athletic -and musical contests, took place at the same time. Another -festival of less importance, called the Lesser Panathenæa, was -celebrated every year at Athens in honour of the goddess.</p> - -<p class='c007'>At Rome the chief festival of Minerva, the Quinquatrus -Majores, was held on the 19th of March, and was, in later times, -extended to five days. It was especially observed by all engaged -in intellectual pursuits, and by artists and artisans. As Minerva -was also patroness of schools, the schoolboys also took part in -the celebration, and enjoyed a welcome holiday.</p> - -<div id='f_08' class='figleft id004'> -<img src='images/f_08.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 8.—Pallas Giustiniani. Vatican.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>The virgin goddess was at all times a favourite subject with -ancient art. Even in the earliest times, before casting in bronze or -marble sculpture was known, while the images of the gods were as -yet rudely carved in wood, Pallas was a frequent subject of -delineation. These wooden images usually represented the goddess -as standing upright with poised spear in front of the battle, and -were then called Palladia. Men delighted to believe them to have -fallen from heaven, and to be a sure means of protection against -hostile attack. When Greek art was in its prime, the first masters -vied with each other in the representation of the goddess. Phidias -outdid them all in his renowned statue of Athene Parthenos, which -stood in the temple on the Acropolis. The figure was 39 feet high, -and was constructed of ivory and gold. Its majestic beauty naturally -formed one of the chief attractions of the magnificent temple. It -disappeared, without leaving any clue behind it, during the stormy -period of the invasion of the nomadic tribes. In proceeding to give an -account of the most important existing statues of the goddess, we must -first mention a magnificent marble bust which King Ludwig I. of Bavaria -procured for the Munich collection, and which was formerly in -the Villa Albani, at Rome. The goddess here wears a tight-fitting -helmet, the top of which is decorated with a serpent, the emblem of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>wisdom. Her breastplate, which is bordered with serpents, falls like -a cape over her shoulders, and is fastened in the middle by the -Gorgon’s head, a terrible -but striking contrast to the -pure and noble countenance -of the goddess. A -fine bust, with a delicate -and youthful expression of -countenance, is preserved -in the Vatican Museum at -Rome.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Another, not less beautiful, -but with grave and -almost masculine features, -was discovered in the excavations -of Pompeii, and is -now in the Naples Museum.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Among existing (full-length) -statues, the Pallas -Giustiniani, of the Vatican -Museum at Rome, is held -to be the finest (Fig. 8). -This probably once stood -in a Roman temple, having -been found in a place -where there was formerly -a temple of Minerva. -This statue, in accordance -with the Roman conception, -bears a more peaceable -character, although -neither the spear nor helmet -are wanting. Next -come two statues found -near Velletri, one of which -is in the Capitoline Museum -at Rome, whilst the -other forms a chief ornament -of the Louvre collection -in Paris. Both represent -the goddess in the -character of a benign deity -fostering all peaceful works, -with a gentle but earnest -expression of countenance.</p> - -<div id='f_09' class='figcenter id001'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span> -<img src='images/f_09.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 9.—Athene Polias. Villa Albani.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id='f_10' class='figright id004'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span> -<img src='images/f_10.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 10.—Pallas Athene. Naples.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>The Farnese Minerva of the Naples Museum and the “Hope” -copy in London betray similar characteristics. On the other hand, -in a statue discovered at Herculaneum (now at Naples), Minerva -appears as a warlike goddess, in an evidently hostile attitude -(Fig. 10). This is also the case with the celebrated statue at the Louvre, -which, on account of the necklace worn by the goddess, is generally -called <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Minerve au Collier</span></i>; and again in a statue of the Villa Albani, -in which a lion’s skin -thrown over the head -takes the place of the -helmet (Fig. 9).</p> - -<p class='c020'>On combining the -characteristic features of -Minerva, we may gather -that her most prominent -trait is a lofty seriousness, -well befitting the -chaste, grave character -of the virgin goddess. -The closed lips and the -prominent chin betray a -determined and resolute -disposition, whilst her -mien and bearing give -token of strength and -dignity.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Among the favourite -animals of Minerva we -may mention the serpent, -the owl, and the -cock. The first is a -symbol of wisdom, the -second of profound -meditation, and the last -of eager desire for the -fray. The attributes of -Minerva consist of the -ægis, which serves as a shield, the spear, and the helmet. The helmet -is sometimes adorned with the figures of griffins, significant of the -overpowering might of the wearer. The statues are all fully clothed, -in accordance with the chaste character of the goddess.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>4. Apollo.</b>—As Athene is the favourite daughter of Zeus, so -Apollo ranks as the most glorious and beautiful of his sons. -Like other sons of Zeus, he is a god of light, and, indeed, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>purest and highest representative of this mighty power in -nature. His mother, Leto (Latona), is a representative of the -darkness of the night. According to the sacred legend, she was -compelled when pregnant to wander about, because mankind, -dreading the appearance of the mighty god, refused to receive -her. This myth was afterwards altered by later writers, who -assign the jealousy of Hera as the cause of her wanderings. -Leto at length found a refuge on Delos, which was once a -floating island, and had to be fastened to the bottom of the -sea by means of lofty columns. As the bright god of heaven, -to whom everything impure and unholy is hateful, we find -Apollo, soon after his birth, preparing to do battle with the evil -powers of darkness. With his arrows he slew both the giant -Tityus and the serpent Python, the latter a monster that inhabited -the valley of the Plistus, near Delphi, and destroyed -both men and cattle. These and similar myths are merely a -panegyric on the conquering power exercised by the genial -warmth of Spring over the dark gloom of Winter.</p> - -<p class='c007'>But though Apollo thus appears as the foe of all that is evil -and impure, ancient myths, nevertheless, represent him also as -a terrible god of death, sending virulent pestilences and dealing -out destruction to men and animals by means of his unerring -arrows. This may be easily explained, however, by glancing at -the natural signification of the god. The rays of the sun do -indeed put to flight the cold of winter, but as their heat -increases they themselves ultimately become the cause of disease -and death. This is beautifully portrayed in the fable of the -death of Hyacinthus.</p> - -<p class='c007'>To proceed further in the analysis of his character as god of -light, Apollo next appears as the protector of streets and houses. -A conical pillar was usually erected at the side of the doors of -houses as a symbol of him, and a defence against all sorceries. -Connected with this is his repute as a god of health; one who is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>indeed able to send disease and death, but who, on the other -hand, is all-powerful to protect against physical maladies. This -feature in his character, however, is more extensively developed -in the person of his son, Asclepius (Æsculapius). But it is not -only outward ills that this wonder-working deity can cure: as -the true redeemer from sin and crime, he alone can afford consolation -to guilty souls. Even those pursued by the Furies he -sometimes receives in tenderness and pity, a fine instance of -which is found in the story of Orestes. It is here that we must -seek the explanation of his character as god of music; in the fact -that it exercises so soothing and tranquillising an influence on -the soul of man. His favourite instrument was the lyre, which he -was wont to play with masterly skill at the banquets of the -gods, whilst the Muses accompanied him with their wondrous -strains. Apollo was therefore regarded as the leader of the -Muses (Musagetes); and all the great singers of antiquity, such -as Orpheus and Linus, are mythically represented as his sons.</p> - -<p class='c007'>But Apollo attained his greatest importance among the -Greeks as god of prophecy. His oracles continued to exercise -an important influence on social and political life, even down to -the latest times. The inspiration of Apollo was distinguished -by the fact that the god revealed the future less by means of -outward signs than by inducing an ecstatic condition of mind -bordering on madness in those persons through whom he wished -to proclaim his oracles. These were generally women and -maidens, who, either at oracular shrines proper, or dwelling -alone as Sibyls, gave forth the responses of the god. In early -times they were somewhat numerous. There was an oracle at -Clarus, near Colophon; an oracle at Didyma, near Miletus; and -an oracle on the Ismenus, near Thebes. These were eventually -all thrown into the shade by that of Delphi. The responses of -this oracle exercised, during a long period of Grecian history, an -all-powerful influence, especially on the Dorian tribes. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>convulsions of the Pythia, or priestess of Apollo, were brought -about partly by the chewing of laurel leaves, and partly by the -gaseous vapours that issued from a cleft in the earth beneath -the sacred tripod. The ecstatic condition in which she gave the -responses, which were comprehensible only to the initiated -priests, manifested itself in a foaming at the mouth and in convulsions -of the body.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Delphi naturally became the chief seat of the worship of -Apollo. The gorgeous temple was rebuilt in the time of the -Pisistratidæ, after the destruction of the old one by fire. Its -wealth from offerings became so great that their value was computed -at 10,000 talents (more than £2,000,000). In the -neighbourhood of Delphi the Pythian games were celebrated in -the third year of every Olympiad.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The shrine of the god at Delos, his birthplace, was little less -renowned. The sanctuary itself was situated at the foot of -Mount Cynthus; but the whole island was sacred to the god, for -which reason no one was buried there. Here, too, games, said to -have been instituted by Theseus, were celebrated every four -years in honour of the god. Apollo had, besides, a great number -of less celebrated shrines and temples, not only in Greece, but -also in Asia Minor, and wherever the Greek colonies extended.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Apollo of the Romans, as his name indicates, was transferred -to Rome from Greece. At a comparatively early period -men began to feel the want of a prophetic deity, as the Roman -gods, although they vouchsafed hints as to the future, confined -their responses to a mere Yea or Nay. Moreover, in the character -of god of healing, he was early admitted into the Roman system, -as we gather from the fact that the first temple really dedicated -to Apollo was erected in 429 <span class='fss'>B.C.</span>, under the pressure -of a grievous pestilence. The worship of Apollo was especially -exalted by the Emperor Augustus, who ascribed his victory at -Actium chiefly to the assistance of the god. He accordingly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>erected a magnificent temple to Apollo on the Palatine, which -was embellished with the celebrated statue of Apollo Citharœdus, -by Scopas.</p> - -<div id='f_11' class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/f_11.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 11.—Apollo Belvedere. Vatican.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id='f_12' class='figcenter id001'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span> -<img src='images/f_12.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 12.—Head of Apollo Belvedere.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>This remark leads us to contemplate the different statues of the -god. Apollo constantly bears a very youthful appearance, and is -always beardless. His figure is strong and handsome, his head -covered with fair clustering locks, and his face expressive of majesty, -but marked withal by a cheerful serenity. Such is the original and -fundamental type, which was usually followed in the representation -of the god. It was principally developed by Scopas and Praxiteles, -who belonged to the later Attic school, which flourished from the -end of the Peloponnesian war to the reign of Alexander the Great. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>The principal creation of Scopas was a marble statue, representing -the god as a Pythian Citharœdus with the lyre in his hand, clothed -in a long robe reaching to the feet.</p> - -<p class='c020'>This invaluable work was procured by Augustus for the temple -he erected to Apollo on the Palatine. Praxiteles, a younger contemporary -of Scopas, acquired considerable renown by his bronze -figure of a youthful Apollo pursuing a lizard (Apollo Sauroctonus).</p> - -<p class='c020'>In existing art monuments sometimes the conception of a warlike, -vengeful deity obtains, in which case the god is represented as nude, -or nearly so, and armed with quiver and bow. At other times he -wears a mild and benevolent aspect; he is then distinguished by his -lute, and completely enveloped in a chlamys. Of the former kind -is the most beautiful and celebrated of all his existing statues, the -Apollo Belvedere, which was discovered in 1503, near Nettuno, the -ancient Antium, and is now in the Vatican. The proud self-consciousness -of a conquering deity is inimitably expressed in his whole -attitude. He stands with his right hand and leg against the trunk -of a tree, his left arm outstretched, with the ægis, probably as a -symbol of fear and terror, in his hand. The serpent creeping up the -tree is a symbol of the powers of darkness vanquished by the god -(Fig. 11). It may also be taken as the symbol of life and healing, -like the serpent of Asclepius (see p. <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>). We have also given a -larger engraving of the head of the Belvedere Apollo, in order to -afford a clearer idea of its wondrous beauty (Fig. 12).</p> - -<p class='c020'>The so-called Apollino, of the Florence gallery, a youthful figure -resting after battle, is a work of scarcely less beauty. The shape of -the body, which is entirely nude, is wonderfully soft and delicate. -With his left arm the god leans upon a tree; in his left hand he -negligently holds the bow, whilst his right hand is raised to his head -in a meditative fashion. The Farnese Apollo of the Naples Museum -possesses an equally graceful form. The god is here represented as -a musician; in his left hand he holds the lyre, whilst his right glides -over the strings. The animated expression of his face, indicating his -entire devotion to his art, is exquisitely beautiful. The goose at -his feet, which was regarded even by the ancients as a music-loving -bird, appears to drink in with rapture the heavenly tones.</p> - -<p class='c020'>In those works which represent the god as a Pythian lute-player -in a long Ionian garment, we perceive an almost feminine figure and -a visionary expression of face. The most important works of this -kind are the Apollo Citharœdus of the Munich collection (Fig. 13), -formerly called the Muse of Barberini, which is marked by a somewhat -quieter attitude; and the so-called Apollo Musagetes of the -Vatican collection, which is characterised by a lively dancing movement -of the figure, and is generally regarded as an imitation of the -masterpiece of Scopas already mentioned. A pure and heavenly -inspiration seems to pervade the features of the laurel-crowned -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>god; his mighty lyre, to the tones of which he appears to be singing, -is suspended from a band across the chest, and is aptly adorned with -the portrait of Marsyas, -his vanquished rival.</p> - -<div id='f_13' class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/f_13.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 13.—Apollo Citharœdus. Munich.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>Lastly, the graceful statue of Apollo Sauroctonus (Lizard-slayer) -deserves mention. Many copies of it still exist, the chief of which is -a marble statue in the Vatican collection. The delicate figure of the -god, midway between youth and boyhood, leans carelessly against -the trunk of a tree, up which a lizard is creeping. The god is -eagerly watching its movements, in order to seize a favourable -moment to nail it to the tree with his arrow.</p> - -<p class='c020'>The principle attributes of Apollo are the bow, arrows, quiver, -laurel crown, and lyre. To these may be added, as symbols of his -prophetic power, the tripod and the omphalos (navel), the latter -being a representation of the earth’s centre in the temple at Delphi, -on which he is often depicted as sitting. The god also appears -standing on the omphalos; as in the case of a marble statue lately -found in the theatre of Dionysus. His sacred animals were the -wolf, the hind, the bat, the swan, the goose, and the dolphin; the -three last being music-loving creatures.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>5. Artemis (Diana).</b>—Artemis is the feminine counterpart -of her twin brother Apollo, with whom she entirely harmonises -when regarded from her physical aspect. Like him, -she is a beautiful and propitious deity; but like him, too, she -can deal out, at times, death and destruction among mankind. -Like Apollo, she promotes the growth of the young plant, and is -equally the foe of all that is evil and impure. Like him, she is -skilled in the use of the bow, of which she avails herself, however, -not only for the destruction of monsters, but also at times -to chastise the insolence of man—witness the death of the -children of Niobe. Her favourite amusement is the chase; -armed with quiver and bow she ranges mountain and valley, -accompanied by a band of nymphs. The chase ended, she -delights to bathe in some fresh spring, or to lead off some -favourite dance on the flowery meadows, surrounded by her -nymphs, all of whom she overtops by a head. Then the heart -of her mother, Leto, rejoices as she gazes on the innocent sports -of her lovely daughter.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As a virgin goddess she was especially venerated by young -maidens, whose patroness she remained till their marriage, and -to whom she afforded an example of chastity. The story of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>Actæon, who was changed into a stag and then torn to pieces -by his own dogs, shows that she did not suffer any injury to her -virgin modesty to go unpunished. (For this story see the -Theban legends.)</p> - -<p class='c007'>Originally, Artemis appears to have been the goddess of the -moon, just as her brother Apollo is unmistakably identical with -the sun. This conception, however, continued to grow fainter -and fainter, until, in the later days of confusion of religions, -it was again revived. Artemis was frequently confounded with -Selene or Phœbe (Luna).</p> - -<p class='c007'>The national Artemis of the Greeks was originally quite -distinct from the Artemis Orthia, a dark and cruel deity, to -whom human sacrifices were offered in Laconia. Lycurgus -abolished this barbarous custom, but caused instead a number of -boys to be cruelly whipped before the image of the goddess on -the occasion of her annual festival. This is the same Artemis -to whom Agamemnon was about to offer, in Aulis, his daughter -Iphigenia, previous to the departure of the Greeks for Troy. -The Scythians in Tauris likewise had a goddess whom they -propitiated with human sacrifices. This caused her to be confounded -with Artemis Orthia, and the story arose that Iphigenia -was conveyed by the goddess to Tauris, from which place she -subsequently, assisted by her brother Orestes, brought the -image of the goddess to Greece.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Ephesian Artemis, known to us as “Diana of the -Ephesians,” was distinct from all that have been mentioned. -She was, in fact, an Asiatic, not a Hellenic deity.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Roman Diana, who was early identified with the Greek -Artemis, was likewise originally a goddess of the moon. As -such, she possessed a very ancient shrine on Mount Algidus, near -Tusculum. Like the Greek Artemis, she was also regarded as -the tutelary goddess of women, and was invoked by women in -childbirth. This was also the case with Artemis, although the -matrons of Greece looked for more protection in this respect at -the hands of Hera. She gained, however, a certain political -importance in Rome after having been made by Servius Tullius -the tutelary deity of the Latin League. As such, she possessed -a sacred grove and temple on the Aventine.</p> - -<div id='f_14' class='figcenter id001'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span> -<img src='images/f_14.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 14.—Diana of Versailles.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>Artemis is a favourite subject with the masters of the later Attic -school. She is always represented as youthful, slender and light of -foot, and without womanly fulness. Her devotion to the chase is -clearly betokened by the quiver and bow which she generally bears, -and by the high girt robe and Cretan shoes, which allow her to pass -unencumbered through the thickets of the forest.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Among existing statues, the most celebrated is the so-called Diana -of Versailles, which came from the Villa of Hadrian, at Tibur -(Fig. 14). It is now a chief ornament of the Louvre collection, and -is a worthy companion to the Belvedere Apollo, although it does not -quite equal this in beauty. In this statue the goddess does not appear -as a huntress, but rather as the protectress of wild animals. She is -conceived as having just come to the rescue of a hunted deer, and is -in the act of turning with angry mien on the pursuers. With her -right hand she grasps an arrow from the quiver that hangs at her -back, and in her left she holds the bow.</p> - -<p class='c020'>A really beautiful statue of the Vatican collection depicts the -goddess in a most striking attitude. She has just sent forth her -deadly arrow, and is eagerly watching its effect. The hound at her -side is just about to start in eager pursuit of the mark, which was -evidently therefore a wild animal. In her left hand is the bow, still -strung, from which her right hand has just directed the arrow. Her -foot is likewise upraised in triumph, and her whole deportment -expresses the proud joy of victory. The chief attributes of Diana are -bow, quiver, and spear, and also a torch, as an emblem of her power -to dispense light and life. The hind, the dog, the bear, and the wild -boar were esteemed sacred to her.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>6. Ares (Mars).</b>—Ares, the son of Zeus and Hera, represents -war from its fatal and destructive side, by which he is clearly -distinguished from Athene, the wise disposer of battles. He was, -it is probable, originally a personification of the angry clouded -sky. His home, according to Homer, was in Thrace, the land of -boisterous, wintry storms, among whose warlike inhabitants he -was held in high esteem, although his worship was not so -<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>extensive in Greece. Homer, in the <cite>Iliad</cite>, paints in particularly -lively colours the picture of the rude “manslaying” god of war. -He here appears as a deity who delights only in the wild din -of battle, and is never weary of strife and slaughter. Clad in -brazen armour from head to foot, with waving plume, helmet, -and high-poised spear, his bull’s hide shield on his left arm, he -ranges the battlefield, casting down all before him in his -impetuous fury. With strength he combines great agility, and -is, according to Homer, the fleetest of the gods. Strong though -he be, however, he is overmatched in battle by Athene; a -palpable indication that prudent courage often accomplishes -more than impetuous violence.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The usual attendants and servants of Ares are Fear and -Terror. By some writers they are described as his sons, yet in -Homer they fight against him. There is little to be said of the -principal seats of his worship in Greece. In Thebes he was -regarded as the god of pestilence; and Aphrodite, who elsewhere -appears as the wife of Hephæstus, was given him to wife. -By her he became the father of Harmonia, who married Cadmus, -and thus became the ancestress of the Cadmean race in Thebes. -According to an Athenian local legend, his having slain a son of -Poseidon gave rise to the institution of the Areopagus. He was -here regarded as the god of vengeance. A celebrated statue by -Alcamenes adorned his temple at Athens. Among the warlike -people of Sparta the worship of Ares was also extensive.</p> - -<p class='c007'>This deity was regarded with a far greater degree of veneration -in Rome, under the appellation of Mars, or Mavors. He seems -to have occupied an important position even among the earliest -Italian tribes. It was not as god of war, however—for which, -amid the peaceful pursuits of cattle-rearing and husbandry, they -cared little—but as the god of the spring triumphing over the -powers of winter that he was worshipped. It was from his -bounty that the primitive people looked for the prosperous -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>growth of their flocks and the fruits of their fields; it was Mars -on whom they called for protection against bad weather and -destructive pestilence.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In warlike Rome, however, this deity soon laid aside his -peaceful character, and donned the bright armour of the god of -war. He was even regarded as being, after Jupiter, the most -important god of the state and people of Rome. Numa himself -gave him a flamen of his own, and created or restored in his -honour the priesthood of the Salii. The occasion, according to -the sacred legend, was on this wise. As King Numa one morning, -from the ancient palace at the foot of the Palatine, raised his -hands in prayer to Jove, beseeching his protection and favour -for the infant state of Rome, the god let fall from heaven, as a -mark of his favour, an oblong brazen shield (ancile). At the -same time a voice was heard declaring that Rome should endure -as long as this shield was preserved. Numa then caused the -sacred shield, which was recognised as that of Mars, to be carefully -preserved. The better to prevent its abstraction, he ordered -an artist to make eleven others exactly similar, and instituted -for their protection the college of the Salii, twelve in number, -like the shields, who were selected from the noblest families in -Rome. Every year in the month of March, which was sacred -to Mars, they bore the sacred shields in solemn procession -through the streets of Rome, executing warlike dances and -chanting ancient war-songs. From the days of Numa the -worship of “Father Mars” continued to acquire an ever-increasing -popularity. Before the departure of a Roman army on any -expedition, the imperator retired to the sanctuary of the god in -the old palace, and there touched the sacred shields and the spear -of the statue of Mars, crying aloud at the same time, “Mars, watch -over us!” According to popular belief, the god himself went -unseen before the host as it marched to battle, whence he was -called “Gradivus.” In the war with the Lucanians and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>Bruttians (282 <span class='fss'>B.C.</span>), when the consuls were hesitating whether -to begin the attack, an unknown youth of extraordinary stature -and beauty encouraged the troops to begin the assault on the -enemy’s camp, and was himself the first to scale the wall. -When he was afterwards sought for, in order that he might -receive his richly merited reward, he had disappeared, leaving -no trace behind him. As it could have been none other than -Father Mars, the consul, Fabricius, decreed him a thanksgiving of -three days’ duration.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Mars naturally received a due share of all booty taken in -war. Defeat was ascribed to his wrath, which men strove to -avert by extraordinary sin-offerings.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Popular belief made Mars the father, by a vestal virgin, of -Romulus and Remus, the legendary founders of the city. His -wife appears to have been Nerio; but she enjoyed no honours at -Rome.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In attendance on Mars we find Metus and Pallor, who answer -to the Greek deities already mentioned; and also his sister -Bellona, corresponding to the Enyo, who was worshipped in -Pontus and Cappadocia, though not in Greece proper. Bellona -had a temple in the Campus Martius.</p> - -<div id='f_15' class='figright id004'> -<img src='images/f_15.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 15—Mars Ludovisi.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>The Campus Martius (Field of Mars), the celebrated place of -exercise of the Roman youth, stretched from the Quirinal westwards -to the Tiber, and was dedicated to the god of war. -Augustus, after the overthrow of the murderers of Cæsar, his -adoptive father, erected a temple to Mars, which was built in -Greek style, and far surpassed in grandeur and splendour all the -other temples of the god. Three columns of it are still standing, -mute witnesses of vanished splendour. A large number of -religious festivities were celebrated in the month of March in -honour of Mars. The procession of the Salii formed the chief -feature of the festival; but there were also races and games. -On the Ides of October also a chariot race took place in honour -<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>of Mars, at which the singular custom prevailed of offering the -near horse of the victorious team to the god. The inhabitants -of the two oldest quarters of the city contended for the head -of the slaughtered -animal, and whoever -got it was supposed -to reap great blessings -from its possession.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Ancient artists represented -Mars as a tall -and powerful young -man, whose activity, -however, is as apparent -as his strength. -His characteristic -features are short curly -hair, small eyes, and -broad nostrils, significant -of the violence -and passionateness of -his nature. The most -celebrated of existing -statues is the Mars -Ludovisi of the Villa -Ludovisi, at Rome. It -has often been conjectured -that this is -an imitation of the -renowned work of -Scopas. The deity is -depicted as resting -after battle; and, in -spite of the usual -turbulence of his disposition, -he here appears to have surrendered himself to a more -gentle frame of mind. The little god of love crouching at his feet -gazes into his face with a roguish, triumphant smile, as though -rejoiced to see that even the wildest and most untameable must -submit to his sway, and thus shows us what has called forth this -gentle mood. (Fig. 15.) The Mars Ludovisi is an original work, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>Greek in its origin, though belonging -to a somewhat late period. -The Borghese Mars of the Louvre, -on the other hand, is undoubtedly -of Roman origin. It is supposed -to represent Ares bound by the -craft of Hephæstus.</p> - -<div id='f_16' class='figleft id004'> -<img src='images/f_16.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 16.—Bust of Ares. Sculpture Gallery at Munich.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>Besides these two principal statues, -the bust of Mars of the Munich -collection deserves mention. It is -distinguished by a peculiarly expressive -head, of which we give an -engraving (Fig. 16).</p> - -<p class='c020'>The attributes of Mars are the -helmet (decorated with the figures -of wolf-hounds and griffins), -shield, and spear. The animals -sacred to him were the wolf, the -horse, and the woodpecker.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>7. Aphrodite (Venus).</b>—In -the <cite>Iliad</cite>, Aphrodite is represented -as the daughter of Zeus -and Dione, the goddess of moisture, -who, as the wife of the -god of heaven, was held in high -esteem among the old Pelasgians. -The same notion of the -goddess being produced from moisture is seen in the legend, -which relates that Aphrodite was born of the foam of the sea, -and first touched land on the island of Cyprus, which was -henceforth held sacred to her. She was probably a personification -of the creative and generative forces of nature, and figured -among the Greeks as goddess of beauty and sexual love. We -must not forget that this conception does not cover the whole -character of the goddess. She not only appears as Aphrodite -Pandemus (the earthly Aphrodite), a goddess of the spring, by -whose wondrous power all germs in the natural and vegetable -<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>world are quickened, but we also hear of Aphrodite Urania, a -celestial deity, who was venerated as the dispenser of prosperity -and fertility; and also an Aphrodite Pontia (of the sea), the -tutelary deity of ships and mariners, who controlled the winds -and the waves, and granted to ships a fair and prosperous -passage. As the worship of Aphrodite was extremely popular -among the numerous islands and ports of the Grecian seas, we -can well imagine that it was in this latter character that she -received her greatest share of honour.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The poets paint Aphrodite as the most beautiful of all the -goddesses, whose magic power not even the wisest could withstand. -Even wild animals were conscious of her influence, and -pressed round her like lambs. She was endowed with the -celebrated love-begetting magic girdle, which she could lay aside -at will and lend to others. And as she thus gave rise to passion -in others, she herself was not free from its influence. This is -evidenced by the numerous stories of her amours with the gods -or favoured mortals, which it is so difficult to bring into harmony -with each other. Sometimes Ares, sometimes Hephæstus, is -said to be her husband. The latter account, which originated in -Lemnos, was the more popular; doubtless because its very strangeness -in mating the sweetest and most lovely of the goddesses -with the lame and ugly god of fire had a certain charm. No -children are mentioned as springing from the union of Aphrodite -with Hephæstus; but Eros and Anteros, as well as Demus and -Phobus, are said to be her children by Ares. Other legends, -generally of a local character, unite her to Dionysus, or to -Hermes.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The story of her love for the beautiful Adonis clearly represents -the decay of nature in autumn, and its resuscitation in -spring. Adonis, whom Aphrodite tenderly loved, was killed, -when hunting, by a wild boar. Inconsolable at her loss, -Aphrodite piteously entreated Father Zeus to restore his life. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>Zeus at length consented that Adonis should spend one part of -the year in the world of shadows, and the other in the upper -world. Clearly the monster that deprived Adonis of life is only -a symbol of the frosty winter, before whose freezing blast all -life in nature decays.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In the story of Troy, Aphrodite plays an important part. She -was the original cause of the war, having assisted Paris in his -elopement with Helen. This was his reward for his celebrated -judgment, in which he awarded the prize of beauty to Aphrodite -in preference to Hera or Athene. Besides the Trojan prince -Anchises enjoyed her favours, and she became by him the -mother of the pious hero Æneas.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The goddess appears ever ready to assist unfortunate lovers; -thus she aided the hero Peleus to obtain the beautiful sea-nymph -Thetis. On the other hand, she punishes with the utmost -severity those who from pride or disdain resist her power. This -appears in the legend of Hippolytus, son of Theseus, King of -Athens, whom she ruined through the love of his step-mother -Phædra; also in the story of the beautiful youth Narcissus, -whom she punished by an ungratified self-love, because he -had despised the love of the nymph Echo.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Seasons and the Graces appear in attendance on -Aphrodite. Their office is to dress and adorn her. She is -also accompanied by Eros, Pothus, and Himerus (Love, Longing, -and Desire), besides Hymen, or Hymenæus, the god of -marriage.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Roman Venus (the Lovely One) was regarded by the -earlier Italian tribes as the goddess of spring, for which reason -April, the month of buds, was held sacred to her. She early -acquired a certain social importance, by having ascribed to her -a beneficent influence in promoting civil harmony and sociability -among men.</p> - -<p class='c007'>After her identification with the Aphrodite of the Greeks, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>she became more and more a goddess merely of sensual -love and desire. She had three principal shrines—those -of Venus Murcia, Venus Cloacina, and Libitina. The first -of these surnames points to Venus as the myrtle goddess -(the myrtle being an emblem of chaste love); her temple -was situated on the brow of the Aventine, and was supposed -to have been erected by the Latins, who were planted there -by Ancus Marcius.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The temple of Venus Cloacina (the Purifier) was said -to have been erected in memory of the reconciliation of the -Romans and Sabines, after the rape of the Sabine women. -The surname of Libitina points to her as goddess of corpses. -All the apparatus of funerals were kept in this temple, and -her attendants were at the same time the public undertakers -of the city.</p> - -<p class='c007'>To these ancient shrines was added another in the time of -Julius Cæsar, who erected a temple to Venus Genetrix, the -goddess of wedlock, in fulfilment of a vow made at the battle of -Pharsalus.</p> - -<div id='f_17' class='figleft id004'> -<img src='images/f_17.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 17.—Venus of Milo. Louvre.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>Aphrodite, or Venus, is notoriously an especially common subject -of representation among the artists of antiquity. The task of giving -expression to the most perfect female beauty, arrayed in all the -charms of love, by means of chisel or brush, continually spurs the -artist to fresh endeavours. It was especially among the masters of -the later Attic school, who devoted themselves to the representation -of the youthful and beautiful among the gods in whom the nude -appeared least offensive, that statues of Venus were attempted. The -Venus of Cnidus, by Praxiteles, was the most important work of that -master; and the people of Cnidus were so proud of it that they -engraved her image on their coins. The fact that they ventured to -portray the goddess as entirely nude may be regarded as a sign both -of the falling away of the popular faith and of the decay of art. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>Henceforth, except in the case of statues for the temples, it became an -established custom to represent Venus and other kindred deities as -nude. Venus is further distinguished by a fulness of form, which -is, nevertheless, combined with slenderness and grace. The countenance -is oval; the eyes are not large, -and have a languishing expression; the -mouth is small, and the cheeks and chin -full and round.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Of the numerous existing statues we -can here mention only the most important. -First among them in artistic worth -is a marble statue larger than life, which -was found in 1820 on the island of Melos -(Milo), and is now in the Louvre at Paris -(Fig. 17). In this statue only the upper -part of the body is nude, the lower portions, -from the hips downward, being -covered with a light garment. One -scarcely knows which to admire most in -this splendid statue—the singularly -dignified expression of the head, or the -charming fulness and magnificent proportions -of the limbs. The arms are quite -broken off, so that we cannot determine -the conception of the artist with any -certainty. It is supposed that the goddess -held in her hand either an apple, -which was a symbol of the Isle of Melos, -or the bronze shield of Ares. Her looks -express proud and joyous self-consciousness.</p> - -<p class='c020'>In the Venus of Capua (so called because -found among the ruins of the -Amphitheatre) she again appears as a -victorious goddess (Venus Victrix). This -statue is now in the Museum at Naples. -The shape of the nude body is not so -vigorous or fresh as that of the Venus of Milo, but somewhat soft -and ill-defined.</p> - -<div id='f_18' class='figright id004'> -<img src='images/f_18.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 18.—Venus Genetrix. Villa Borghese.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>The Medicean Venus, formerly in the Villa Medici at Rome, is -better known. It is a work of the later Attic school, in which, at the -end of the second century <span class='fss'>B.C.</span>, Greek art once more blooms for a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>while. It is the work of -the Athenian artist Cleomenes, -though probably -chiselled in Rome. As -Venus Anadyomene (rising -from the sea) the -goddess appears entirely -nude. This is the most -youthful in appearance -of all her statues, and is -distinguished by the perfect -regularity and beauty -of its form, though there -is no trace of the lofty -dignity of the goddess. -“What a descent,” says -Kraus in his <cite>Christian -Art</cite>, “is there from the -Venus of Milo to this -coquette, whose apparently -bashful posture is -only meant to challenge -the notice of the beholder.”</p> - -<p class='c020'>The “Venus crouching -in the bath” of the Vatican -collection, and the -“Venus loosing her sandal” -of the Munich -Gallery, are creations -similar in style. In some -imitations of the Cnidian -Venus, the most important -of which are in Rome -and Munich, the goddess -wears a more dignified -demeanour; and also in the wonderfully graceful Venus Genetrix -of the Villa Borghese, at Rome (Fig. 18).</p> - -<p class='c020'>The attributes of Venus vary much according to the prevailing -conception of the goddess. The dove, the sparrow, and the dolphin, -and among plants the myrtle, the rose, the apple, the poppy, and the -lime-tree, were sacred to her.</p> - -<p class='c006'><span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span><b>8. Hermes (Mercurius).</b>—Hermes was the son of Zeus -and Maia, a daughter of Atlas. He was born in a grotto of Mount -Cyllene in Arcadia, whence he is called Cyllenius. We know -the stories of his youth chiefly from the so-called Homeric Hymn.</p> - -<p class='c007'>From this we learn how Hermes, soon after his birth, sprang -from his mother’s lap to seek the oxen of Apollo. Finding outside -the cave a tortoise, he stretched strings across its shell, and -thus made a lyre, to which he sung the loves of Zeus and Maia. -Then hiding the lyre in his cradle, he went out to seek for food. -Coming to Pieria in the evening, he stole thence fifty cows from -the herds of Apollo, and drove them to the river Alpheüs. -Here he slew two of them, and roasted the flesh, but could not -swallow it. Then returning home in the early morning, he -passed through the key-hole like the morning breeze, and lay -down in his cradle. Apollo, however, soon remarked the -theft, and hurried after the impudent robber. Hermes now -played the innocent, and obstinately denied the charge; but -Apollo was not to be deceived, and forced the young thief to -accompany him to the throne of Zeus to have their quarrel -decided. Zeus ordered Hermes to restore the cattle, but Apollo -gladly made them over to Hermes on receiving the newly-invented -lyre. Thus Hermes became the god of shepherds and -pastures, whilst Apollo henceforth zealously devoted himself to -the art of music.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As a token of their thorough reconciliation, Apollo gave his -brother god the golden Caduceus, or magic wand, by means of -which he could bestow happiness on whomsoever he would; and -henceforth both dwelt together in the utmost harmony and love, -the favourite sons of their father Zeus.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Various interpretations have been given of the nature of -Hermes. Some have seen in him the thunderstorm, some the -dawn, and some the morning breeze. The name Hermes, compared -with the corresponding Indian words, seems to make his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>connection with the morning certain. Several points in the -legend just related guide us to the breeze rather than the dawn; -the invention of music, the kine carried off—which, nevertheless, -he cannot eat (the wind cannot consume as fire does what it -breaks down and carries off)—and the passing through the key-hole -“like the morning breeze.” So also his function of guide -and conductor of the soul, which we shall speak of presently.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The following are the most important features in the character -of Hermes:—Not only does he promote the fruitfulness of flocks -and herds, but he also bestows prosperity and success on all -undertakings, especially those of trade and commerce. As the -guardian of the streets and roads, and the friendly guide of those -travelling on business, Hermes must have appeared especially -worthy of honour among the Greeks, who were at all times -sharp and greedy men of business. Accordingly, men erected in -his honour, on the roads, what were called Hermæ—mere blocks -of stone, or posts, with one or more heads: these latter were at -cross-roads, and also served as finger-posts. Hermæ<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c018'><sup>[3]</sup></a> were also -often to be seen in the streets of towns and in public squares. Not -only did Hermes protect and guide merchants whilst travelling, -but he also endowed them with shrewdness and cunning to outwit -others. And as a god who had himself commenced his -career by a dexterous theft, he was fain to allow thieves and -rogues to invoke his protection before entering on their operations; -just as in the present day robbers and bandits in Italy -or Greece see nothing strange in asking their patron saint to -bestow on them a rich prey. Every chance gain—in gambling, -for instance—and every fortunate discovery were attributed to -Hermes.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f3'> -<p class='c007'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. In this meaning, however, some have derived the word from a different -root, and supposed it to mean originally only “pillars.”</p> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>Though playing such an important part in human life, Hermes -also appears as the fleet messenger and dexterous agent of Zeus. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>It is in this guise that the epic poets love to depict him. With -his golden-winged shoes he passes more swiftly than the wind -over land and sea, executing the commissions of his father Zeus -or the other inhabitants of Olympus. Thus he is sent by Zeus -to command the nymph Calypso to release Odysseus, and to -warn Ægisthus against the murder of Agamemnon. At times, -difficult tasks are allotted to him; for instance, the destruction -of the hundred-eyed guardian of Io, on which account Homer -calls him the Argus-slayer. Doubtless in this myth the hundred-eyed -Argus represents the starry heavens; Argus is slain by -Hermes, that is, in the morning the stars cease to be visible. -As messenger and herald of the gods, he is a model for all -earthly heralds, who, in ancient times, were the indispensable -agents of kings in every difficult business. Hence he bears the -herald’s staff, or <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">caduceus</span></i>. This is the same wand once given -him by Apollo, consisting of three branches, one of which forms -the handle, whilst the other two branch off like a fork, and are -joined in a knot. The origin of this herald’s staff appears to -have been the olive branch wreathed with fillets of wool. It -was only at a later period that the two last were converted into -serpents. By means of this wand Hermes can either induce -deep sleep or rouse a slumberer, but he uses it chiefly in guiding -souls to the infernal regions. This leads us to speak of the important -office of Hermes as Psychopompus, or conductor of the -soul. Every soul, after death, commenced its journey to the -region of shadows under the guidance of the god. On extraordinary -occasions, where, for instance, the spirits were summoned -in the oracles of the dead, Hermes had to reconduct the -souls of the departed to the upper world, thus becoming a -mediator between these two regions, in other respects so far -divided.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As dreams come from the lower world, Hermes was naturally -regarded as the deity from whom they proceeded; on which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>account people were wont to ask him for good dreams before -going to sleep.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The highest conception of Hermes, however, is that of the god -who presides over the bringing up of children; and, indeed, -what god was more fitted to be presented as an example to -Grecian youth than the messenger of the gods, equally dexterous -in mind and body? He is the fleetest of runners and the most -skilful of disc-throwers and boxers; and though he does not, -like Apollo, represent any of the higher forms of intellectual life, -still he possesses in the highest degree that practical common -sense which was so greatly valued among the Greeks. The -wrestling school and the gymnasium were consequently regarded -as his institutions, and adorned with his statues. In further -development of his relation to the education of the young, later -poets even made him the inventor of speech, of the alphabet, -and of the art of interpreting languages. The custom which -prevailed among the Greeks of offering him the tongues of the -slaughtered animals, shows clearly that they also considered him -as the patron of eloquence.</p> - -<p class='c007'>There is little to be said of the Roman Mercury. As his -name (from <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">mercari</span></i>, to trade) signifies, he was considered by -the Romans solely as god of trade. His worship was introduced -at the same time as that of Ceres—some years after the -expulsion of the Tarquins, at a season of great scarcity—but -appears to have become confined to the plebeians. The guild -of merchants regarded him as their tutelary deity, and offered -sacrifices to him and his mother Maia on the Ides of May.</p> - -<p class='c020'>The plastic representation of Hermes made equal progress with -his ideal development. The first statues of the god, founded on the -ancient Hermæ already mentioned, represented him as a shepherd, -sometimes as the herald and messenger of the gods, always as a -powerful, bearded man. Later, he assumed a more youthful appearance, -and was represented as a beardless youth in the very prime of -strength, with broad chest, lithe but powerful limbs, curly hair, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>small ears, mouth, and eyes; altogether a wonderful combination of -grace and vigour. If we add to this the expression of kindly benevolence -which plays around his finely-cut lips, and the inquiring look -of his face as he bends forward thoughtfully, we have the principal -characteristic features of the god.</p> - -<div id='f_19' class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/f_19.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 19.—Resting Hermes. Bronze Statue at Naples.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>Among existing statues, a full-sized “Hermes at rest,” in bronze, -which was found at Herculaneum, and is now in the Naples Museum, -is perhaps most worthy of mention. He here appears as the messenger -of the gods, and has just sat down on a rock to rest. The winged -sandals form his only clothing, and these are, strictly speaking, not -really sandals, but simply straps covering the foot, to which wings -are fastened close to the ankles (Fig. 19).</p> - -<div id='f_20' class='figcenter id003'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span> -<img src='images/f_20.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 20.—Statue of Hermes. Capitoline Collection.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>A splendid marble statue of the Vatican collection, which, was -once taken for Antinous, portrays the god as the patron of wrestling; -the Caduceus which he holds in his left hand is, however, a modern -addition. In the Hermes Ludovisi of Rome we have a graceful representation -of Hermes Logius, the patron of the art of rhetoric. The -wings are here not placed on the feet, or even directly on the head, -as is often the case, but are fastened to a low round travelling-hat.</p> - -<p class='c020'>A pretty bronze statuette in the British Museum depicts Hermes -as the god of trade and commerce, with a well-filled purse in his -hand. Such is also the conception of a fine statue of the Capitoline -collection at Rome (Fig. 20). The principal attributes of the god -have already been incidentally mentioned: they are wings on the -feet, head, or cap; the herald’s staff, the votive bowl, and the purse.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>9. Hephæstus (Vulcan).</b>—Hephæstus, the god of fire and -the forge, was commonly regarded as a son of Zeus and Hera. -He was so lame and ugly that his mother in shame cast him -from heaven into the sea. But Eurynome and Thetis, the -Oceanids, took pity on him, and tended him for nine years in a -deep grotto of the sea, in return for which he made them many -ornaments. After being reconciled to his mother, he returned -to Olympus under the guidance of Dionysus. According to -another not less popular account, it was not his mother who -treated him so cruelly, but Zeus. Hephæstus, on the occasion -of a quarrel between Zeus and Hera, came to the help of his -mother, whereupon the angry god of heaven seized him by the -foot and hurled him from Olympus. The unfortunate Hephæstus -fell for a whole day, but alighted at sundown on the isle of -Lemnos with but little breath in his body. Here the Sintians, -who inhabited the island, tended him till his recovery. Later -writers say that it was from this fall that he became lame. The -same fundamental idea lies at the root of these various legends, -viz., that fire first came down from heaven in the form of -lightning. Hephæstus originally represented the element of -fire, and all the effects of fire are accordingly referred to him. -The fires of the earth break forth from the open craters of volcanoes; -it must therefore be Hephæstus who is working in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>midst of the fiery mountain, where he has his forges and his -smithies. So says the legend of Mount Mosychlus, in Lemnos, -the chief seat of his worship. Scarcely less celebrated, from its -connection with him, was Mount Ætna, in Sicily. After it was -observed that the wine was particularly good in the neighbourhood -of volcanic mountains, the story of the intimate friendship -between Hephæstus and Dionysus was concocted.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The most beneficial action of fire is manifested in its power to -melt metals and render them useful to man in the shape of implements -and tools of all kinds. Hence the conception of the -character of Hephæstus tended ever more and more to represent -him as the master of all ingenious working in metals, and as the -patron of artificers and craftsmen using fire. In this character -he was brought into close connection with the art-loving goddess -Athene, and hence we see why both these divinities enjoyed so -many kindred honours and had so many festivals in common at -Athens, the chief seat of Greek science and art. It was also -chiefly in the character of artificer that Hephæstus was treated -of by the poets, who delight to describe the gorgeous brazen -palace which he built himself on Olympus, in which was a huge -workshop with twenty cunningly-devised pairs of bellows. He -also constructed there the imperishable dwellings of the gods. -Many also were the ingenious implements which he constructed, -such as the walking tables, or tripods, which moved of their -own accord into the banqueting-chamber of the gods, and then -returned to their places after the meal was over. He also -made himself two golden statues of maidens, to assist him in -walking, and bestowed on them speech and motion. Among -the other works of his mentioned by the poets are the ægis and -sceptre of Zeus, the trident of Poseidon, the shield of Heracles, -and the armour of Achilles, among which, also, was a shield of -extraordinary beauty.</p> - -<div id='f_21' class='figleft id004'> -<img src='images/f_21.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 21.—Hephæstus. Bronze Figure in the British Museum.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>The worship of Hephæstus was not very extensive in Greece. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>The most important seat of his worship was the isle of Lemnos, -where he was supposed to dwell on Mount Mosychlus with his -workmen, the Cabiri, -who answer to the -Cyclopes of Ætna. He -was held in great esteem -at Athens, where, -at different festivals, -torch races were held in -his honour. Young -men ran with burning -torches, and whoever -first reached the goal -with his torch alight -received the prize. He -was, moreover, highly -venerated by the Greeks -in Campania and Sicily, -a fact which may be -easily explained by the -fiery mountains of these -places.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Romans called -this god Vulcanus, or, -according to its more -ancient spelling, Volcanus. -They honoured -in him the blessings and -beneficial action of fire. -They also sought his -protection against conflagrations. -Under the influence of the Greek writers, the -original and more common conception of the god gave place to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>the popular image of the smith-god, or Mulciber, who had his -forges in Ætna, or on the Lipari Isles, and who vied with his -comrades in wielding the hammer. In correspondence with the -Greek myths, Venus was given him to wife; by this men doubtless -sought to convey the idea that truly artistic works can only -be created in harmony with beauty.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The chief shrine of the god in Rome was the Volcanal, in the -Comitium, which was not really a temple, but merely a covered -fire-place. In the Campus Martius, however, was a real temple -close to the Flaminian Circus, where the festival of the Volcanalia -was celebrated with every kind of game on the 23rd day -of August.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Greek and Roman artists generally represented this god as a -powerful, bearded man of full age. He is distinguished by the -shortness of his left leg, by the sharp, shrewd glance of his cunning -eye, and his firm mouth. His attributes are the smith’s tools, -the pointed oval workman’s cap, and the short upper garment of the -craftsman or humble citizen.</p> - -<p class='c020'>With the exception of some small bronzes in London and Berlin, -and a newly discovered marble bust of the Vatican collection, we -possess no antique statues of the god worth mentioning. The -engraving (Fig. 21) is from a bronze in the British Museum.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>10. Hestia (Vesta).</b>—It must have been at a comparatively -late period that Hestia, the daughter of Cronus and Rhea, -attained a general veneration, as her name is not mentioned -either in the <cite>Iliad</cite> or <cite>Odyssey</cite>. Hestia is the guardian angel -of mankind, who guards the security of the dwelling, and is, in -consequence, regarded as the goddess of the family hearth, the -centre of domestic life. The hearth possessed among the ancients -a far higher significance than it does in modern life. It not only -served for the preparation of meals, but was also esteemed the -sacred altar of the house; there the images of the household -gods were placed, and thither, after the old patriarchal fashion, -the father and priest of the family offered sacrifice on all the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>important occasions of domestic life. No offering was made in -which Hestia, the very centre of all domestic life, had not her -share.</p> - -<p class='c007'>And as the state is composed of families, the goddess of the -domestic circle naturally becomes the protectress of every political -community. On this account, in Greek states the Prytaneum, -or seat of the governing body, was dedicated to Hestia; there -she had an altar, on which a fire was ever kept burning. From -this altar colonists, who were about to leave their native land in -search of new homes, always took some fire—a pleasing figurative -indication of the moral ties between the colony and the mother -country.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As the hearth-fire of the Prytaneum was an outward and -visible sign to the members of a state that they were one great -family, so the Hestia of the temple at Delphi signified to the -Greeks their national connection and the unity of their worship. -Her altar in this temple was placed in the hall before the cave -of the oracle; on it was placed the celebrated omphalus (navel -of the earth, likewise an emblem of the goddess), Delphi being -regarded by the Greeks as the centre of the whole earth. Here, -too, a fire was kept ever burning in honour of Hestia. The -character of the goddess was as pure and untarnished as flame -itself. Not only did she herself remain a virgin, though wooed -by both Poseidon and Apollo, but her service could be performed -only by chaste virgins. She does not appear to have had a -separate temple of her own in Greece, since she had a place in -every temple.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The service of Vesta occupied a far more important place in -the public life of the Romans. Her most ancient temple, which -was supposed to have been built by Numa Pompilius, was -situated on the slope of the Palatine opposite the Forum. It -was built in a circle, and was of moderate dimensions, being, -indeed, little more than a covered fire-place. In it the eternal -<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>fire, a symbol of the life of the state, was kept burning. Here, -too, the service was performed by virgins, whose number was at -first four, but was afterwards increased to six. Their chief -occupation was to maintain the sacred fire, and to offer up daily -prayers at the altar of the goddess for the welfare of the Roman -people. The extinction of the sacred flame was esteemed an -omen of coming misfortune, and brought severe punishment on -the negligent priestess. The choice of vestals lay with the -Pontifex Maximus. They were chosen between the ages of six -and ten years, always out of the best Roman families. For -thirty years they remained bound to their sacred office, during -which time they had to preserve the strictest chastity. After -the lapse of thirty years they returned to civil life, and were -permitted to marry if they liked.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Another sanctuary of Vesta existed in Lavinium, the metropolis -of the Latins, where the Roman consuls, after entering on -their office, had to perform a solemn sacrifice. The festival of -Vesta was celebrated on the 9th of June, on which occasion the -Roman women were wont to make a pilgrimage barefooted to -the temple of the goddess, and place before her offerings of -food.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In the domestic life of the Romans the hearth and the hearth-goddess -Vesta occupied as important a position as among the -Greeks. The worship of Vesta is closely connected with that -of the Penates, the kindly, protecting, household gods, who provided -for the daily wants of life, and about whom we shall have -more to say before concluding the subject of the gods.</p> - -<div id='f_22' class='figright id004'> -<img src='images/f_22.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 22.—Vesta Giustiniani. Torlonia Collection.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>Agreeably to the chaste, pure character of the goddess, she could -only be represented in art with an expression of the strictest moral -purity; she generally appears either sitting or standing, her countenance -characterised by a thoughtful gravity of expression. Her -principal attributes consist of the votive bowl, the torch, the simpulum, -or small cup, which was used in making libations, and the -sceptre. In consequence of the dignity and sanctity of her character, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>she was always represented as -fully clothed, which may account -for the fact that the -ancients had so few statues of -the goddess. We may, therefore, -consider it fortunate that -such a splendid example as -the Vesta Giustiniani, which -belongs to the private collection -of Prince Torlonia, at -Rome, has come down to us. -It is supposed to be an original -work of the best period of -Greek art. The goddess is -represented as standing in a -calm posture, her right hand -pressed against her side, whilst -with the left she points significantly -towards heaven, as -though wishing to impress on -mankind where to direct their -prayers and thoughts (Fig. 22).</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>11. Janus.</b>—Among the -most important gods of the -Romans was the celebrated -Janus, a deity quite unknown -to the Greeks. In his original -character he was probably -a god of the light and sun—the -male counterpart, in fact, -of Jana, or Diana, and thus -very similar to the Greek -Apollo. As long as he maintained -this original character, -derived from nature, he was -regarded as the god of all -germs and first beginnings, -and possessed, in consequence, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>an important influence both on the public and private -life of the Romans. We must confine ourselves to mentioning -some of the most important traits resulting from this view of his -character. First, Janus is the god of all beginnings of time. -He begins the new year, whose first month was called January -after him, and was dedicated to him. Thus, New Year’s Day -(<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Kalendæ Januariæ</span></i>) was the most important festival of the god; -on this occasion the houses and doors were adorned with garlands -and laurel boughs, the laurel being supposed to exercise a potent -influence against all magic and diseases. Relatives and friends -exchanged small presents (principally sweets; for example, dates -and figs wrapped in laurel leaves) and good wishes for the -coming year. The god himself received offerings of cake, wine, -and incense, and his statue was adorned with fresh laurel boughs. -This offering was repeated on the first day of every month, for -Janus opened up every month; and as the Kalends were sacred -to Juno, he was therefore called Junonius. In the same way -Janus was supposed to begin every new day, and called <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Matutinus -Pater</span></i>. He also appears as the doorkeeper of heaven, -whose gates he opened in the morning and closed in the -evening.</p> - -<p class='c007'>From being the god of all temporal beginnings, he soon became -the patron and protector of all the beginnings of human activity. -The Romans had a most superstitious belief in the importance of -a good commencement for everything, concluding that this had -a magical influence on the good or evil result of every undertaking. -Thus, neither in public nor private life did they ever -undertake anything of importance without first confiding the -beginning to the protection of Janus. Among the most important -events of political life was the departure of the youth of -the country to war. An offering was therefore made to the god -by the departing general, and the temple, or covered passage -sacred to the god, was left open during the continuance of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>war, as a sign that the god had departed with the troops and -had them under his protection. The consul never neglected, -when he entered on his office, to ask the blessing of Janus, and -the assemblies never began their consultations without invoking -Janus. In the same way the private citizen, in all important -occurrences and undertakings, sought by prayers and vows to -acquire the favour of Janus. The husbandman, before he commenced -either to sow or to reap, brought to Janus Consivius an -offering of cake and wine. The merchant, when he entered on a -journey of business, and the sailor, when he weighed anchor and -started on a long and dangerous voyage, never omitted to invoke -the blessing of the god. This view of the god also explains the -custom of calling on Janus first in every prayer and at every -sacrifice, since, as keeper of the gates of heaven, he also appeared -to give admittance to the prayers of men.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As the god of all first beginnings, Janus is also the source of -all springs, rivers, and streams of the earth. On this account -the fountain nymphs were generally looked on as his wives, and -Fontus and Tiberinus as his sons.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The power of Janus in causing springs to rise suddenly -from the earth was experienced, to their cost, by the Sabines. -The latter, in consequence of the rape of their women, had overrun -the infant state of Rome, and were about to introduce -themselves into the town on the Palatine through an open gate, -when they suddenly found themselves drenched by a hot sulphur -spring that gushed violently from the earth, and were obliged to -retire.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In the legend alluded to, Janus appears as the protector of the -gates of the city. As the god who presided over the fortunate -entrance to and exit from all houses, streets, and towns, Janus -was held in high honour among the people. His character as -guardian of gates and doors brought him into close connection -with the Penates and other household gods; hence the custom -<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>of erecting over the doors an image of the deity with the well-known -two faces, one of which looked out and the other in.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Janus had no temple, in the proper sense of the word, at -Rome. His shrines consisted of gateways in common places of -resort and at cross-roads, or of arched passages, in which the -image of the god was erected. The Temple of Janus in the -Forum at Rome, which has been already alluded to, was a sanctuary -of this kind closed with doors, and was probably the -most ancient in the city. Its doors stood open only in time of -war.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Roman art never succeeded in executing a plastic representation -peculiar to Janus, the double head being only an imitation of the -Greek double Hermæ. In course of time entire figures of Janus -appeared, but these always had a double face. They were generally -bearded, but in later times one face was bearded, the other youthful. -Not one specimen of these works of art has been preserved, so that -we only know these forms from coins. The usual attributes of Janus -were keys and staff.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>12. Quirinus.</b>—Quirinus was also a purely Roman divinity, -but having been reckoned among the great deities of heaven, he -must therefore be mentioned here. In his symbolic meaning -he bore a great resemblance to Mars; and as Mars was the -national god of the Latin population of Rome, so Quirinus was -the national god of the Sabines who came to Rome with Titus -Tatius. Together with Jupiter and Mars, he formed the tutelary -Trinity of the Roman empire. His shrine was on the Quirinal, -which was originally inhabited by the Sabines, and which was -named after him. Numa gave Quirinus a priest of his own. -He had a special feast on the 17th of February, but his worship -appears to have assimilated itself more and more to that of Mars. -He was subsequently identified with Romulus.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span> - <h4 class='c016'>B.—SECONDARY DEITIES.</h4> -</div> - -<h5 class='c016'><em>1. Attendant and Ministering Deities.</em></h5> - -<div id='f_23' class='figleft id004'> -<img src='images/f_23.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 23.—Head of Eros. Vatican.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c006'><b>1. Eros (Amor).</b>—Of the deities who appear in the train of -Aphrodite, Eros alone seems to have enjoyed divine honours; -Longing and Desire being no more than allegorical figures -typifying some of the influences that emanate from the goddess -of love. Eros was commonly reputed the son of Aphrodite and -Ares, and was generally depicted as a boy of wondrous beauty, -on the verge of youth. His characteristic weapon is a golden -bow, with which he shoots forth his arrows from secret -lurking-places, with an unfailing effect that represents the -sweet but consuming -pangs of -love. Zeus himself -is represented -as unable to withstand -his influence—an -intimation -that love is one -of the most terrible -and mighty -forces of nature.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As unrequited -love is aimless, -Anteros was conceived -by the imagination -of the -poets as the -brother and companion -of Eros, and consequently a son of Aphrodite. As the -little Eros, says the myth, would neither grow nor thrive, his -mother, by the advice of Themis, gave him this brother as a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>playfellow; after which the boy was glad so long as his brother -was with him, but sad in his absence.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Eros was not only venerated as the god who kindles love -between the sexes, but was also regarded as the author of love -and friendship between youths and men. On this account his -statue was generally placed in the gymnasia between those of -Hermes and Heracles; and the Spartans sacrificed to him before -battle, binding themselves to hold together faithfully in battle, -and to stand by one another in the hour of need.</p> - -<div id='f_24' class='figright id004'> -<img src='images/f_24.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 24.—Eros trying his Bow. Capitoline Museum.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>This deity was termed by the Romans Amor, or Cupido, but -this was solely in imitation -of the Greek Eros, since he -never enjoyed among them -any public veneration.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The significant fable of the -love of Cupid for Psyche, a -personification of the human -soul, is of comparatively -late origin, though it was a -very favourite subject in art.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Artists followed the poets in -the delineation of Eros, in so -far as they generally depicted -him as a boy on the confines -of youth. An Eros by the renowned -artist Praxiteles was -esteemed one of the best works -of antiquity. It was brought -to Rome by Nero, but was destroyed -by fire in the reign of -Titus. In later times the god -of love was represented as -much younger, because the -mischievous pranks attributed -to him by the poets were more -adapted to the age of childhood.</p> - -<div id='f_25' class='figleft id004'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span> -<img src='images/f_25.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 25.—Polyhymnia. Berlin Museum.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>A considerable number of statues or statuettes of Eros have come -down to us from antiquity. Among the most celebrated is the Torso -(mutilated statue) of the Vatican, of the glorious head of which we -give an engraving (Fig. 23). There is also an “Eros trying his -bow” (Fig. 24) in the Capitoline Museum at Rome, and an “Eros -playing with dice” in the Berlin Museum. Lastly, there is the -celebrated group of the -Capitoline Museum, which -represents the embraces of -Cupid and Psyche.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Eros generally appears -with wings in the art monuments -of antiquity. His insignia -are bow and arrows, -in addition to a burning -torch. The rose was held -especially sacred to him, for -which reason he often appears -crowned with roses.</p> - -<p class='c020'>In connection with Venus -and in company with Amor -we find Hymenæus, a personification -of the joys of -marriage, who was, however, -only recognised by -later writers and by later -art. He is portrayed as -a beautiful youth, winged -like Eros, but taller, and of -a more serious aspect. His -indispensable attribute is -the marriage torch.</p> - -<div id='f_26' class='figright id004'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span> -<img src='images/f_26.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 26—Melpomene. Vatican.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c006'><b>2. The Muses.</b>—Pindar -gives the following -account of the origin of -the Muses. After the -defeat of the Titans, the -celestials besought Zeus -to create some beings who -might perpetuate in song -the mighty deeds of the gods. In answer to this prayer, -Zeus begot with Mnemosyne (Memory) the nine Muses. They -sing of the present, the past, and the future, while Apollo’s lute -accompanies their sweet strains, which gladden the hearts of the -gods as they sit assembled -in the lofty -palace of Father Zeus, -in Olympus. Looked -at in connection with -nature, there is little -doubt but that the -Muses were originally -nymphs of the fountains. -The veneration -of the Muses first arose -in Pieria, a district on -the eastern declivity of -Mount Olympus in -Thessaly, from whose -steep and rocky heights -a number of sweet rippling -brooks descend to -the plains. The perception -of this natural -music led at once to a -belief in the existence of -such song-loving goddesses. -Their seat was -subsequently transferred -from the declivities -of Olympus -to Mount Helicon in -Bœotia, or to Mount -Parnassus, at the foot of which the Castalian fountain, which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>was sacred to them, had its source. Originally the Muses were -only goddesses of song, though they are sometimes represented -with instruments on vases. In early times, too, they only -appear as a chorus or company, but at a later period separate -functions were assigned to each, as presiding over this or that -branch of art. Their -names were Clio, Melpomene, -Terpsichore, Polyhymnia, -Thalia, Urania, -Euterpe, Erato, and Calliope.</p> - -<div id='f_27' class='figleft id004'> -<img src='images/f_27.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 27.—Euterpe. Vatican.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>According to the art-distribution -made, probably, -at the time of the -Alexandrine school, Calliope -represents epic poetry -and science generally, her -attributes being a roll of -parchment and a pen. Clio -is the muse of history, and -is likewise characterised -by a roll and pen, so that -it is sometimes difficult to -distinguish her from Calliope. -Euterpe represents -lyric poetry, and is distinguished -by her double -flute. Melpomene, the -muse of tragedy, generally -appears with a tragic -mask, a club or sword, and -a garland of vine leaves. -Terpsichore is the muse of -dancing, and has a lyre -and plectrum. To Erato -is assigned erotic poetry, -together with geometry -and the mimic art; she -generally bears a large stringed instrument. Thalia, the muse of -comedy, is distinguished by a comic mask, an ivy garland, and a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>crook. Polyhymnia presides over the graver chant of religious -service; she may be recognised by her dress, wrapped closely round -her, and her grave, thoughtful countenance, but is without attribute -of any kind. Lastly, Urania, the muse of astronomy, holds in one -hand a celestial globe, and in the other a small wand.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Several European museums possess ancient groups of the Muses, -among which, perhaps, the finest is that preserved in the Vatican. -From this group are copied our engravings of Melpomene and -Euterpe (Figs. 26 and 27). The original of Polyhymnia (Fig. 25) is -in the Berlin Museum.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Romans venerated a number of fountain-nymphs of song -and prophecy under the name of Camenæ, among whom the -Egeria of the history of Numa is well known. The Roman -writers seem to have identified these goddesses with the Muses -at pleasure.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>3. The Charites (Gratiæ).</b>—The Charites generally appear -in the train of the goddess of love, whom it was their duty to -clothe and adorn. They are often found, however, in attendance -on other gods, since all that is charming and graceful, either to -the senses or the intellect, was supposed to proceed from -them.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Their names are Aglaïa, Euphrosyne, and Thalia. They were -commonly represented as the daughters of Zeus and Eurynome, -the Oceanid. Later writers, however, make them the daughters -of Dionysus and Aphrodite. They were venerated as the source -of all that makes human life more beautiful and pleasant, without -whom there could be no real enjoyment of life. Thus, even the -gods would not sit down to banquets without the Charites; and -whenever men came together to feast, they first called on them -and offered them the first bowl. Music, eloquence, art, and -poetry received the higher consecration only at their hands; -whence Pindar terms his songs a gift from them. Wisdom, -bravery, kindly benevolence, and gratitude—in fine, all those -qualities which become men most, and make them agreeable -<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>in the eyes of their fellow-men, were supposed to proceed from -the Charites.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Graces of the Romans were simply transferred from the -mythology of the Greeks, and have, therefore, the same meaning -as the Charites.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Art represented the Charites or Graces as blooming maidens, of -slender, comely form, characterised by an expression of joyous innocence. -In their hands they often hold flowers, either roses or -myrtles. They are less often distinguished by definite attributes -than by a mutual intertwining of arms. In earlier Greek art they -always appear fully clothed; but gradually their clothing became -less and less, until at length, in the age of Scopas and Praxiteles, -when nude figures had become common, it entirely disappeared. -There are, however, few ancient statues of the Charites in existence.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>4. Themis and the Horæ (Seasons).</b>—In intimate connection -with the Charites we find the Horæ, the daughters of -Zeus and Themis. They were generally represented as three -in number—Eunomia, Dice, and Irene. They represent the -regular march of nature in the changes of the seasons, and -Themis, who personifies the eternal laws of nature, and as the -daughter of Uranus and Gæa ranks among the most ancient -deities, is consequently their mother. Themis is the representative -of the reign of law among gods and men; at Zeus’ -command she calls together the assemblies of the gods. She -also occupies a similar position on earth, as presiding over -national assemblies and the laws of hospitality. Her daughters, -the Horæ, appear in a similar though in a subordinate and -attendant character. In Homer they figure as the servants of -Zeus, who watch the gates of heaven, now closing them with -thick clouds, now clearing the clouds away. They also appear -as the servants and attendants of other divinities, such as Hera, -Aphrodite, Apollo, and the Muses. Like their mother, they -preside over all law and order in human affairs; and under their -protection thrives all that is noble and beautiful and good.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>We know but little concerning the worship of the Horæ -among the Greeks. The Athenians celebrated a special festival -in their honour, but they recognised only two—Thallo, the season -of blossom, and Carpo, the season of the ripened fruit. The -adoption of four Horæ, corresponding to the four seasons of the -year, appears to have arisen at a later period.</p> - -<div id='f_28' class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/f_28.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 28.—The Horæ. Relief from the Villa Albani.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>In plastic art Themis is generally represented with a balance in -one hand and a palm branch in the other. The Horæ generally -appear as lovely girls dancing with their garments tucked up, and -adorned with flowers, fruit, and garlands. Subsequently they were -distinguished by various attributes, typical of the different seasons. -Such is the case in the engraving (Fig. 28), after a relief in the -Villa Albani.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>5. Nice (Victoria).</b>—Nice is nothing but a personification -of the irresistible and invincible power exercised by the god of -heaven by means of his lightning. She also appears in the -company of Pallas Athene, who was herself honoured by the -Athenians as the goddess of victory. Victory does not seem -to have had many separate temples or festivals, since she generally -appears only in attendance on her superior deities.</p> - -<div id='f_29' class='figleft id004'> -<img src='images/f_29.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 29.—Victoria. United Collections in Munich.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>Far more extensive was the veneration of Victoria at Rome, -a fact for which the warlike character of the people easily -accounts. Her chief shrine was on the Capitol, where successful -generals were wont to erect statues of the goddess in remembrance -of their exploits. The most magnificent statue of this -kind was one erected by Augustus in fulfilment of a vow after -<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>his victory at -Actium. The -proper festival -of the goddess -took place on -the 12th of -April.</p> - -<p class='c020'>In both Greek -and Roman art -Victory was represented -as a -winged goddess. -She is distinguished -by a palm -branch and laurel -garland, which -were the customary -rewards of -bravery among -the ancients. -Large statues of -the goddess are -seldom met with, -though she is -often depicted on -vases, coins, and -small bronzes. -The museum of -Cassel has a small -bronze statue of -the goddess, whilst a fine <em>alto-relievo</em> in terra-cotta exists in the -Royal Collection at Munich (Fig. 29).</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>6. Iris.</b>—Iris was originally a personification of the rainbow, -but she was afterwards converted into the swift messenger of the -gods, the rainbow being, as it were, a bridge between earth and -heaven. In this character she makes her appearance in Homer, -but, later still, she was again transformed into a special attendant -of Hera. Her swiftness was astounding; “Like hail or snow,” -<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>says Homer, “that falls from the clouds,” she darts from one -end of the world to the other—nay, dives to the hidden depths -of the ocean and into the recesses of the lower world, executing -the commands of the gods.</p> - -<p class='c020'>In art Iris was represented with wings, like Nice, to whom she, in -many respects, bears a strong resemblance. She may be distinguished -from the latter, however, by her herald’s staff (Caduceus). A very -much injured specimen, from the east pediment of the Parthenon at -Athens, is now preserved in the British Museum.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>7. Hebe (Juventas).</b>—Hebe was the daughter of Zeus and -Hera, and, according to her natural interpretation, represented -the youthful bloom of Nature. In the fully developed mythology -of the Greeks she appears as the cupbearer of the gods, to -whom, at meals, she presents the sweet nectar. It may at first -seem strange that the daughter of the greatest of the divinities -of Greece should be relegated to so inferior a position. This, -however, is easily explained by the old patriarchal custom of -the Greeks, by which the young unmarried daughters, even in -royal palaces, waited at table on the men of the family and the -guests.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In post-Homeric poetry and legend Hebe no longer appears -as cupbearer of the gods, the office having been assigned to -Ganymedes. This was either in consequence of the promotion of -the son of the King of Troy, or on account of Hebe’s marriage with -the deified Heracles.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Hebe occupies no important place in the religious system -of the Greeks; she seems to have been chiefly honoured in -connection with her mother Hera, or now and then with -Heracles.</p> - -<div id='f_30' class='figleft id004'> -<img src='images/f_30.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 30.—Hebe. From Antonio Canova.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>Juventas, or Juventus, is the corresponding deity of the -Romans; but, as was the case with so many others, they contrived -to bring her into a more intimate connection with their -political life by honouring in her the undying and unfading -<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>vigour of the state. She -had a separate chapel in -the temple of Jupiter -Capitolinus.</p> - -<p class='c020'>With regard to the artistic -representation of Hebe, -statues of this goddess -appear to have been very -rare in ancient times; at -least, among all the numerous -statues that have been -discovered, none can be -safely identified with Hebe. -She is the more often met -with on ornamental vases -and reliefs, on which the -marriage of Heracles and -Hebe is a favourite subject. -She is usually depicted as -a highly-graceful, modest -maiden, pouring out nectar -from an upraised vessel. -She appears thus in the -world-renowned masterpiece -of the Italian sculptor -Canova, so well known -from casts. In default of -an ancient statue, we give -an engraving of this work -(Fig. 30).</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>8. Ganymedes.</b>—A -similar office in Olympus -was filled by the son of -Tros, the King of Troy, -Ganymedes, who was -made immortal by Zeus, -and installed as cupbearer of the gods. Neither Homer nor -Pindar, however, relate the episode of Zeus sending his eagle -to carry off Ganymedes. This feature of the story, which is a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>favourite subject of artistic representation, is first found in -Apollodorus. The Roman poet, Ovid, then went a step farther, -and made the ruler of Olympus transform himself into an eagle, -in order to carry off his favourite.</p> - -<div id='f_31' class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/f_31.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 31.—Ganymedes and the Eagle. From Thorwaldsen.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>The rape of the beautiful boy is often portrayed in ancient art. -The most famous monument is a bronze group of Leochares, an artist -who flourished in the fourth century B.C. A copy of it still exists in -the celebrated statue of Ganymedes in the Vatican collection. In -modern art the story has been treated with still greater frequency. -There is an extremely beautiful group of this kind by Thorwaldsen, -in which Ganymedes is represented as giving the eagle drink out of -a bowl (Fig. 31).</p> - -<h5 id='t89' class='c016'><em>2. The Phenomena of the Heavens.</em></h5> - -<p class='c006'><b>1. Helios (Sol).</b>—Helios (Latin <em>Sol</em>), the sun-god, belongs -to that small class of deities who have preserved their physical -<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>meaning intact. His worship was confined to a few places, the -most important of which was the island of Rhodes. An annual -festival, attended with musical and athletic contests, was here -celebrated with great pomp in honour of the sun-god. He is -portrayed by the poets as a handsome youth with flashing eyes -and shining hair covered with a golden helmet. His daily office -was to bring the light of day to gods and men, which he performed -by rising from Oceanus in the east, where the Ethiopians -live, and completing his course along the firmament. For this -purpose the post-Homeric poets endow him with a sun-chariot -drawn by four fiery horses; and though Homer and Hesiod do -not attempt to explain how he passed from the west where he -sets, to the east where he rises, later poets obviate the difficulty -by making him sail round half the world in a golden boat -(according to others a golden bed); and thus he was supposed -again to arrive at the east. In the far west Helios had a -splendid palace, and also a celebrated garden, which was under -the charge of the Hesperides. He is described as the son of the -Titans Hyperion and Thea, whence he himself is called a Titan. -By his wife Perse, a daughter of Oceanus, he became the father -of Æëtes, King of Colchis, celebrated in the legend of the -Argonauts, and of the still more celebrated sorceress Circe. -Another son of Helios was Phaëthon, who, in attempting to -drive his father’s horses, came to an untimely end.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Helios sees and hears every thing; whence he was believed to -bring hidden crimes to light, and was invoked as a witness at -all solemn declarations and oaths.</p> - -<p class='c007'>All the stories relating to Helios were gradually transferred to -the Roman Sol, who was originally a Sabine deity, chiefly by -means of the Metamorphoses of Ovid. The untiring charioteer -of the heavens was also honoured as the patron of the race-course; -but he never attained a prominent position in religious -worship.</p> - -<p class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>Helios, or Sol, is depicted as a handsome youth, his head encircled -by a crown, which gives forth twelve bright rays corresponding to the -number of the months, his mantle flying about his shoulders as he -stands in his chariot. It was chiefly in Rhodes, however, that Helios -was made the subject of the sculptor’s art. Here, in 280 <span class='fss'>B.C.</span>, was -erected in his honour the celebrated colossal statue which has -acquired a world-wide celebrity under the name of the Colossus of -Rhodes, and which was reckoned as one of the seven “wonders of -the world.” It was the work of Chares of Lindus, and was 105 feet -in height.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>2. Selene (Luna).</b>—As Artemis is the twin sister of Apollo, -so is Selene the twin sister of Helios; he representing the sun, -she the moon. Selene, however, never really enjoyed divine -honours in Greece. The poets depict her as a white-armed -goddess, whose beautiful tresses are crowned with a brilliant -diadem. In the evening she rises from the sacred river of -Oceanus, and pursues her course along the firmament of heaven -in her chariot drawn by two white horses. She is gentle and -timid, and it is only in secret that she loves beautiful youths -and kisses them in sleep. Poets delight to sing of the secret -love she cherished for the beautiful Endymion, the son of the -King of Elis. She caused him to fall into an eternal sleep, and -he now reposes in a rocky grotto on Mount Latmus, where Selene -nightly visits him, and gazes with rapture on his countenance.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In later times she was often confounded with Artemis, Hecate, -and Persephone. The same remarks apply to the Roman Luna. -The latter, however, had a temple of her own on the Aventine, -which was supposed to have been dedicated to her by Servius -Tullius. Like her brother Sol, she was honoured in Rome in -connection with the circus, and was held to preside over the -public games.</p> - -<p class='c020'>In sculpture, Selene, or Luna, may be recognised by the half moon -on her forehead, and by the veil over the back of her head; she also -bears in her hand a torch. The sleeping Endymion was a frequent -subject of representation on sarcophagi and monuments.</p> - -<p class='c006'><span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span><b>3. Eos (Aurora).</b>—Eos, the goddess of the dawn, was also a -daughter of Hyperion and Thea, and a sister of Selene and -Helios. She was first married to the Titan Astræus, by whom she -became the mother of the winds—Boreas, Zephyrus, Eurus, and -Notus (north, west, east, and south winds). This is a mythological -mode of intimating the fact that the wind generally rises -at dawn. After Astræus, who, like most of the Titans, had -rebelled against the sovereignty of Zeus, and had been cast into -Tartarus, Eos chose the handsome hunter Orion for her husband. -The gods, however, would not consent to their union, and Orion -was slain by the arrows of Artemis, after which Eos married -Tithonus, the son of the King of Troy. She begged Zeus to -bestow on him immortality, but, having forgotten to ask for -eternal youth, the gift was of doubtful value, since Tithonus at -last became a shrivelled-up, decrepid old man, in whom the -goddess took no pleasure.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Memnon, King of Æthiopia, celebrated in the story of the -Trojan war, was a son of Eos and Tithonus. He came to the -assistance of Troy, and was slain by Achilles. Since then, Eos -has wept without ceasing for her darling son, and her tears fall -to the earth in the shape of dew.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Eos is represented by the poets as a glorious goddess, with -beautiful hair, rosy arms and fingers—a true picture of the invigorating -freshness of the early morning. Cheerful and active, -she rises early from her couch, and, enveloped in a saffron-coloured -mantle, she harnesses her horses Lampus and Phaëthon -(Brightness and Lustre), in order that she may hasten on in -front of the sun-god and announce the day.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The views and fables connected with Eos were transferred by -the Roman writers to the person of their goddess Aurora<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c018'><sup>[4]</sup></a> -without undergoing any alteration.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f4'> -<p class='c007'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. The Mater Matuta of the Romans was a deity very similar to the Eos -of the Greeks. She was the goddess of the early dawn, and was held in -high estimation among the Roman women as a deity who assisted them in -childbirth. Like the Greek Leucothea, she was also regarded as a goddess -of the sea and harbours, who assisted those in peril.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>Representations of this goddess are found now and then on vases -and gems. She either appears driving a chariot and four horses, as -harnessing the steeds of Helios, or as gliding through the air on -wings and sprinkling the earth with her dew.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>4. The Stars.</b>—Only a few of the stars are of any importance -in mythology. Phosphorus and Hesperus, the morning -star and the evening star, which were formerly regarded as two -distinct beings, were represented in art in the guise of beautiful -boys with torches in their hands. There were also several -legends relating to Orion, whom we have already alluded to as -the husband of Eos. He himself was made a constellation after -having been slain by the arrows of Artemis, while his dog was -Sirius, whose rising announces the hottest season of the year. -All kinds of myths were invented about other constellations; -among others, the Hyades, whose rising betokened the advent of -the stormy, rainy season, during which the sailor avoids going -to sea. The story went that they were placed among the -constellations by the gods out of pity, because they were inconsolable -at the death of their brother Hyas, who was killed by a -lion whilst hunting. Connected with them are the Pleiades, -<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, the stars of mariners, so called because on their rising in -May the favourable season for voyages begins. They were seven -in number, and were likewise set in the heavens by the gods. -Finally, we must not forget to mention Arctus, the Bear. -Tradition asserted that this was none other than the Arcadian -nymph Callisto, who had been placed among the constellations -by Zeus when slain in the form of a she-bear by Artemis. She -had broken her vows of chastity, and borne a son, Arcas, to Zeus.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>5. The Winds.</b>—The four chief winds have been already -alluded to as the sons of Eos. They were especially venerated -<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>by those about to make voyages, who then solicited their favour -with prayers and offerings. Otherwise, they maintained their -character of pure natural forces, and were, consequently, of little -importance in mythology. The rude north wind, Boreas, or -Aquilo, was especially dreaded on account of his stormy -violence, and was hence regarded as a bold ravisher of maidens. -Thus an Attic legend asserts that he carried off Orithyia, the -daughter of Erechtheus, as she was playing on the banks of -the Ilissus. She bore him Calaïs and Zetes, well known in the -story of the Argonauts. Boreas, however, stood in high favour -among the Athenians, who erected an altar and chapel to him, -because, during the Persian war, he had partially destroyed the -fleet of Xerxes off Cape Sepias.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As Boreas is the god of the winter storm, so Zephyrus appears -as the welcome messenger of Spring; on which account one of -the Horæ was given him to wife. Zephyrus was called Favonius -by the Romans, to intimate the favourable influence he exercised -on the prosperous growth of the vegetable world.</p> - -<p class='c007'>These, together with the other chief winds, Notus (south -wind) and Eurus (east wind) were sometimes said to reside in -separate places; at other times they were said to dwell together -in the Wind-mountain, on the fabulous island of Æolia, where -they were ruled over by King Æolus.</p> - -<h5 class='c016'><em>3. Gods of Birth and Healing.</em></h5> - -<div id='f_32' class='figright id004'> -<img src='images/f_32.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 32.—Asclepius. Berlin.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c006'><b>1. Asclepius (Æsculapius).</b>—It was only in later times -that the necessity of having special gods of birth and healing -made itself felt; at all events, Asclepius, or Æsculapius, as he is -called by the Romans, does not appear as a god in Homer. The -worship of this deity, who was said to be the son of Apollo, -appears to have originated in Epidaurus, the seat of his principal -shrine, and thence to have become generally diffused. In -Epidaurus his priests erected a large hospital, which enjoyed a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>great reputation. The -common method of -cure consisted in allowing -those who were sick -to sleep in the temple, -on which occasion, if -they had been zealous in -their prayers and offerings, -the god appeared -to them in a dream and -discovered the necessary -remedy.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The worship of this -deity was introduced -into Rome in the year -291 <span class='fss'>B.C.</span>, in consequence -of a severe pestilence -which for years had -depopulated town and -country. The Sibylline -books were consulted, -and they recommended -that Asclepius of Epidaurus -should be -brought to Rome. The -story goes that the sacred -serpent of the god followed -the Roman ambassadors -of its own -accord, and chose for -its abode the Insula -Tiberina at Rome, -where a temple was at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>once erected to Æsculapius. A gilded statue was added to the -temple in the year 13 <span class='fss'>B.C.</span> The method already mentioned of -sleeping in the temple was also adopted here.</p> - -<div id='f_33' class='figleft id004'> -<img src='images/f_33.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 33.—Head of Asclepius. British Museum.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>In art, Asclepius is represented as a bearded man of ripe years, -with singularly noble features, from which the kindly benevolence -of a benefactor of mankind looks -forth. He is generally accompanied -by a serpent, as a symbol of -self-renovating vital power, which -he is feeding and caressing, or -which is more commonly represented -as creeping up his staff. -Such is the conception in the -engraving (Fig. 32), which is after -a statue preserved at Berlin. As -the god of healing, he has also -other attributes—a bowl containing -the healing draught, a bunch -of herbs, a pine-apple, or a dog; -the latter being a symbol of the -vigilance with which the physician -watches disease.</p> - -<p class='c020'>There are numerous extant statues -of the god, although the great -statue in gold and ivory of the -temple at Epidaurus has been entirely -lost. A fine head of colossal -proportions was discovered on the -Isle of Melos, and is now an ornament -of the British Museum (Fig. 33). There is, on the other hand, -a very fine statue without a head in existence at Athens, near the -temple of Zeus. There are, moreover, celebrated statues in Florence, -Paris, and Rome (Vatican); in the last case, of a beardless Æsculapius.</p> - -<p class='c006'><a id='t96'></a><b>2. Inferior Deities of Birth and Healing.</b>—The Greeks -also honoured Ilithyia as a goddess of birth. This appears to -have been originally a surname of Hera, as a deity who succoured -women in childbirth. Hygiea was looked on as a -goddess of health, and was described as a daughter of Asclepius.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Romans had no need of a special goddess presiding over -birth, although they honoured a deity often identified with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>Hygiea, whom they called Strenia, or Salus. As guardian of -the chamber of birth, they honoured Carna, or Cardea, who was -supposed to drive away the evil Striges (screech owls) that came -at night to suck the blood of the new-born child. Carna was -further regarded as the protectress of physical health. Another -of these inferior deities, of whom men sought long life and continued health, bore the name of Anna Perenna (the circling -year).</p> - -<div id='f_34' class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/f_34.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 34.—Night and the Fates. From Carstens.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span> - <h5 class='c016'><em>4. Deities of Fate.</em></h5> -</div> - -<p class='c006'><b>1. Mœræ (Parcæ).</b>—The Mœræ, better known by the Latin -name of Parcæ, really denote that portion of a man’s life and -fortune which is determined from his birth; so that, in this -sense, there are as many Mœræ as individuals. The Greeks, -however, who were wont to revere all such indefinite numbers -under the sacred number three, generally recognised three. -These they regarded as the dark and inexplicable powers of fate, -daughters of the night. Their names were Clotho (spinner), -Lachesis (allotter), and Atropos (inevitable).</p> - -<p class='c007'>Only two Parcæ were originally known to the Romans, but -a third was afterwards added to make their own mythology harmonise -with that of the Greeks.</p> - -<p class='c020'>The popular conception of the Parcæ as grave hoary women was -not followed in art, where they always appear as young. In the first -instance, their attributes were all alike, separate functions not yet -having been allotted to them. But at a subsequent period it was -Clotho who spun, Lachesis who held, and Atropos who cut the thread -of life. This arrangement was first adopted by later artists, who -generally give Clotho a spindle, Lachesis a roll of parchment, and -Atropos a balance, or let the last point to the hour of death on a dial. -Such is the case in a talented creation of Carstens, in which the conception -of modern times is brought into harmony with the ideal of -antiquity (Fig. 34).</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>2. Nemesis, Tyche (Fortuna), and Agathodæmon -(Bonus Eventus).</b>—Nemesis really denotes the apportionment -of that fate which is justly deserved, and a consequent repugnance -to that which is not. Homer does not acknowledge -Nemesis as a goddess, and so it is probable that her claim to -public veneration dates from a later period. She was regarded -as a goddess of equality, who watches over the equilibrium of -the moral universe, and sees that happiness and misfortune are -allotted to man according to merit. Hence arose, subsequently, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>the idea of an avenging deity, who visits with condign punishment -the crimes and wickedness of mankind. In this character -she resembles the Furies. The Romans likewise introduced -Nemesis into their system; at least her statue stood on the -Capitol, though popular superstition never regarded her with a -friendly eye.</p> - -<p class='c020'>The various conceptions of Nemesis are again displayed in works -of art. The kindly, gentle goddess, who dispenses what is just, is -depicted as a young woman of grave and thoughtful aspect, holding -in her hand the instruments of measurement and control (cubit, -bridle, and rudder). As the stern avenger of human crimes, she -appears with wings in a chariot drawn by griffins, with a sword or -whip in her hand.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Tyche, the goddess of good fortune, was, according to common -accounts, the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys. She was usually -honoured as the tutelary deity of towns, and as such had temples -and statues in many populous cities of Greece and Asia. In -course of time, however, the idea gained ground that Tyche was -the author of evil as well as of good fortune. She resembled, -in this respect, the Fortuna of the Romans, who was regarded as -the source of all that is unexpected in human life. Servius -Tullius was said to have introduced into Rome the worship of -Fortuna, whose favourite he had certainly every reason to regard -himself. He erected a temple to her under the name of Fors -Fortuna, and made the 24th of June the common festival of the -goddess. Later, her worship became still more extensive. -Under the most different surnames, some of which referred to -the state (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fortuna populi Romani</span></i>), and others to every description -of private affairs, she had a great number of temples and -chapels erected in her honour. She had also celebrated temples -in Antium and Præneste.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Ancient artists endowed this goddess with various attributes, the -most important of which was the rudder, which she held in her hand -in token of her power to control the fortunes of mankind. She is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>also endowed with a sceptre for the same purpose, and with a horn of -plenty as the giver of good fortune; sometimes she is also represented -with the youthful Plutus in her arms. The later conception -of an impartial goddess of fate is apparent in those art-monuments -which depict her standing on a ball or wheel. Among the larger -existing works, we may mention a copy preserved in the Vatican of a -Tyche by Eutychides of Sicyon, which was formerly exhibited in -Antioch. The goddess here wears a mural crown on her head as the -tutelary deity of towns, and has a sheaf of corn in her right hand.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Besides Fortuna, the Romans honoured a deity called Felicitas -as the goddess of positive good fortune. Lucullus is said to -have erected a temple to her in Rome, which was adorned with -the works of art brought by Mummius from the spoils of -Corinth. Even this did not suffice for the religious needs of -the people, and we find that the belief in personal protecting -deities grew rapidly among both Greeks and Romans. These -deities were termed by the Greeks “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">dæmones</span>,” and by the -Romans “genii.” They were believed to be the invisible -counsellors of every individual, accompanying him from birth to -death, through all the stages of life, with advice and comfort. -Offerings of wine, cake, incense, and garlands were made to -them, particularly on birthdays.</p> - -<h3 class='c019'>II.—THE GODS OF THE SEA AND WATERS.</h3> - -<p class='c006'><b>1. Poseidon (Neptunus).</b>—Poseidon, or Neptunus, as he -was called by the Romans, was the son of Cronus and Rhea. -Homer calls him the younger brother of Zeus, in which case his -subjection to the latter is only natural. According to the common -account, however, Zeus was the youngest of the sons of -Cronus, but acquired the sovereignty over his brothers by having -overthrown their cruel father. Poseidon was accordingly indebted -to his brother for his dominion over the sea and its -<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>deities, and was therefore subject to him. He usually dwelt, -not in Olympus, but at the bottom of the sea. Here he was -supposed to inhabit, with Amphitrite his wife, a magnificent -golden palace in the neighbourhood of Ægæ. Originally, like -Oceanus and Pontus, he was a mere symbol of the watery -element, but he afterwards attained an entirely independent -personality. Even in Homer he no longer appears as the sea -itself, but as its mighty ruler, who with his powerful arms -upholds and circumscribes the earth. He is violent and impetuous, -like the element he represents. When he strikes the -sea with his trident, the symbol of his sovereignty, the waves -rise with violence, dash in pieces the ships, and inundate -the land far and wide. Poseidon likewise possesses the power -of producing earthquakes, cleaving rocks, and raising islands -in the midst of the sea. On the other hand, a word or look -from him suffices to allay the wildest tempest. Virgil, in the -first book of the <cite>Æneid</cite>, has given a beautiful description of the -taming of the fierce elements by the god.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Poseidon was naturally regarded as the chief god of all the -seafaring classes, such as fishermen, boatmen, and sailors, who -esteemed him as their patron and tutelary deity. To him they -addressed their prayers before entering on a voyage, to him they -brought their offerings in gratitude for their safe return from the -perils of the deep.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Poseidon, therefore, enjoyed the highest reputation among -the seafaring Ionians. His temples, altars, and statues were -most numerous in the harbours and seaport towns, and on -islands and promontories. Among the numerous shrines of this -deity we may mention that of Corinth, in the neighbourhood of -which were celebrated in his honour the Isthmian games, which -subsequently became a national festival in Greece, Pylus, Athens, -and the islands of Rhodes, Cos, and Tenos.</p> - -<p class='c007'>It was only natural that many legends, local and provincial, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>should exist about a god who played such an important part in -the lives of seafaring folk. In the Trojan epos he figures as a -violent enemy of Troy, his indignation having been provoked by -the injustice of the Trojan king, Laomedon. Poseidon had -built the walls of Troy at the king’s request with the aid of -Apollo, but Laomedon having cheated him in the matter of the -stipulated reward, Poseidon thereupon sent a terrible sea-monster, -which laid waste the crops and slew the inhabitants. They had -recourse to the oracle, which counselled the sacrifice of the king’s -daughter Hesione. The unhappy maiden was exposed to the -monster, but was rescued by Heracles. The fable of this -monster, which is manifestly a symbol of the inundation of the -sea, is repeated in many succeeding stories (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">e.g.</span></i>, in the story of -Perseus, who rescued in a similar way Andromeda, the daughter -of the king of Æthiopia). There are numberless stories, in -which Poseidon appears as the father of the different national -heroes. The most important is, perhaps, the legend of Theseus, -of which we shall speak later on. There was scarcely a Grecian -town or district which did not lay claim to divine origin for the -person of its founder or ancestral hero. Again, the conception of -the wild stormy nature of the sea caused Poseidon to be represented -as the father of various giants and monsters. By the -nymph Thoösa he became the father of the savage Polyphemus, -slain by Odysseus, who thus provoked the implacable enmity of -Poseidon. The giant Antæus, who fought with Heracles, was -also said to be a son of Poseidon; besides many other monsters, -such as Procrustes, Cercyon, and the Aloïdæ.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The favourite animal of Poseidon was the horse, which he was -supposed to have created. This may, perhaps, be due to the -fact that the imagination of the Greeks pictured to itself the -horses of Poseidon in the rolling and bounding waves. In -Athens the origin of the horse was referred to the contest -between Athene and Poseidon, as to who should make the land -<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>the most useful present. In Corinthian legend Poseidon appears -as the father of the winged horse Pegasus by Medusa. This -story is connected with the taming of the horse, which was -ascribed to Poseidon. On account of his intimate connection -with the horse, Poseidon was especially regarded as the patron -of the games, and had, in consequence, an altar of his own on -all race-courses. The competitors, before the races, solicited his -favour with prayers and sacrifices.</p> - -<div id='f_35' class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/f_35.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 35.—Poseidon. Dolce Gem.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>The dolphin and the pine-tree were held sacred to Poseidon, -the latter probably because it was so extensively used in shipbuilding. -Black steers, horses, rams, and wild boars were sacrificed -to him.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Romans not being a seafaring people, Neptune never -stood in such high estimation among them as among the Greeks. -In Rome his prominent characteristic was his connection with -the horse and the race-course. These were placed under his -special protection, for which reason the only temple he had in -Rome stood in the Circus Flaminius.</p> - -<p class='c020'>The representation of Poseidon, or Neptune, in art harmonises -tolerably well with the descriptions of the poets. He is accordingly -represented as similar to his brother Zeus in size and figure, with -broad deep chest, dark wavy hair, and piercing eyes.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Artists intimated the greater violence of his nature by giving him -more angularity of face, and a more bristling and disordered head of -hair than Zeus. The expression of his countenance is more grave -and severe, and the kindly smile that plays around the mouth of -Zeus is altogether wanting.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Ancient statues of Poseidon are comparatively rare. The Vatican -Museum possesses a fine bust, and also a marble statue of the god. -He is generally distinguished by the trident in his right hand; sometimes -in its place we find a tiller. A band similar to a diadem -denotes his dominion over the sea. Our engraving of the god is -after a beautiful gem of the Dolce collection (Fig. 35).</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>2. Amphitrite.</b>—After Poseidon had attained an almost -exclusive veneration as god of the sea, Amphitrite, one of the -Nereids, was given him to wife. According to the usual account, -he carried her away from Naxos. Others say that she fled to -Atlas to avoid the rude wooing of the god, but Poseidon’s -dolphin found her and fetched her back. She had three children -by Poseidon—Triton, Rhode, and Benthesicyme.</p> - -<p class='c020'>In plastic art, Amphitrite is generally depicted as a slim and -beautiful young woman, either nude or half clothed, riding in the -chariot of Poseidon at his side, or by herself. On gems she also -appears enthroned on the back of a mighty Triton, or riding a seahorse -<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>or dolphin. Her hair generally falls loosely about her shoulders. -She is distinguished by the royal insignia of the diadem and sceptre, -at times she also wields the trident of her husband.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The worship of Amphitrite was entirely unknown to the -Romans, who recognised the sea-goddess Salacia as the wife of -Neptune.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>3. Triton and the Tritons.</b>—Triton was the only son of -Poseidon and Amphitrite; he never appears, however, to have -enjoyed divine honours. This perhaps explains how it came to -pass that he was subsequently degraded to the level of a fabulous -sea-monster. The poet Apollonius Rhodius describes him as -having a body, the upper parts of which were those of a man, -while the lower parts were those of a dolphin. Such too is his -appearance in works of art. Poets and artists soon revelled in -the conception of a whole race of similar Tritons, who were -regarded as a wanton, mischievous tribe, like the Satyrs on -land.</p> - -<p class='c020'>The Tritons, as sea-deities of fantastic form, are of little importance -in higher art, though they were all the more frequently employed -in fountains and water-works. The fore-legs of a horse were sometimes -added to the human body and dolphin’s tail, thus giving rise -to the figure termed the Ichthyocentaur.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>4. Pontus and his Descendants.</b>—We have already -spoken of Pontus and his race in our account of the Theogony. -Here we can only mention those of his children who either -enjoyed divine honours, or are of importance in art. The eldest -among them was Nereus.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>1. Nereus and his Daughters.</em>—Nereus presents to us the -calm and pleasant side of the sea. He appears as a kindly, -benevolent old man, the good spirit of the Ægean sea, where he -dwells with his fifty lovely daughters, the Nereids, ever ready -to assist the storm-beaten sailor in the hour of need. Like all -water-spirits, Nereus possessed the gift of prophecy, though he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>did not always choose to make use of it. Heracles sought him -on his way to the garden of the Hesperides, in order to learn -how he might get possession of the golden apples. In spite of -his urgent entreaties, Nereus endeavoured to elude him by -assuming every kind of shape, though he was at length vanquished -by the persistence of the hero, who would not let him -go until he had obtained the necessary information.</p> - -<p class='c007'>By his wife Doris, the daughter of Oceanus, he became the -father of fifty, or, according to some, of a hundred daughters, -who were all venerated as kindly, beneficent sea-nymphs. They -are a charming, lovely tribe, who win the hearts of the sailors—now -by their merry sports and dances, now by their timely -assistance in the hour of danger. This joyous band generally -forms the train of Poseidon and Amphitrite. Besides Amphitrite, -the chosen bride of Poseidon, we find among them Thetis, the -beautiful mother of Achilles, so celebrated in ancient poetry, -who usually figures as their leader. Her beauty and grace -were so great that Zeus himself became her lover. He surrendered -her, however, to Peleus, son of Æacus, because an -oracle had declared that the son of Thetis should become greater -than his father.</p> - -<p class='c020'>In art Nereus generally appears as an old man with thin grey -locks. He is commonly distinguished by a sceptre, or even a trident. -The Nereids were depicted as graceful maidens, in earlier times -slightly clothed, but later entirely nude, riding on dolphins, Tritons, -or other fabulous monsters of the deep.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>2. Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto.</em>—Whilst Nereus and his daughters -represent the sea in its peaceful aspect, Thaumas, the -second son of Pontus, represents it as the world of wonders. -By Electra, a daughter of Oceanus, he became the father of Iris, -the messenger of the gods, and also of the Harpies. The latter -personify the storm-winds. Originally fair maidens, they were -afterwards represented as winged creatures, half man and half -<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>bird; they had the faces of maidens, but their bodies were -covered with vultures’ feathers; they were pale and emaciated -in appearance, and were continually tormented with an insatiable -hunger. They are best known from the story of the Argonauts, -where they appear as the tormentor of the blind king Phineus, -whose table they continually robbed of its viands, which they -either devoured or spoiled. They were regarded by the ancients -as the ministers of sudden death, and were said to be either two -or three in number. Phorcys and Ceto, the brother and sister -of Thaumas, present to us the sea under its terrible aspect. This -pair, from whose union sprang the Gorgons, the Grææ, and the -dragon of the Hesperides, typify all the terrors and dangers of -the deep. We shall have more to say concerning the Gorgons -and Grææ in the story of Perseus.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>5. Proteus.</b>—Proteus is a deity of inferior rank. He is -represented as an old man (the servant of Poseidon) endowed -with the gift of prophecy. He plays the same part in the story -of Troy as Nereus does in that of Heracles. His usual abode -was the island of Pharos. It was thither that Menelaus turned -after he had been driven to the coast of Egypt, on his return -from Troy, to seek the advice of the “unerring old man of the -sea.” But Proteus, being in no amiable mood, sought to elude -the importunity of the hero by converting himself into a lion, a -dragon, a panther, a wild boar, and many other forms. At -length, however, he was vanquished by the persistence of Menelaus, -and vouchsafed an answer. He was supposed to be the -keeper of the fish who inhabit the depths of the sea, and of the -other marine animals.</p> - -<p class='c020'>In works of art he generally appears like a Triton, i.e., with body -ending in a fish’s tail. He is usually distinguished by a crook.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>6. Glaucus.</b>—Among the inferior sea-deities, Glaucus deserves -mention as playing a part in the story of the Argonauts. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>He was really only a local god of the Anthedonians in Bœotia, -and his worship was not extended to other places in Greece. -But though he had no splendid temples, he stood in very high -estimation among the lower classes of sailors and fishermen; -indeed we find universally that the common people, in all their -cares, turned rather to the inferior deities, whom they supposed -to stand closer to them, than to the higher and more important -gods. According to the story, Glaucus was originally a fisherman -of Anthedon, who attained in a wonderful manner the rank of a -god. One day, after having caught some fish, he laid them half -dead on the turf close by. He was astonished to see, however, that -on coming in contact with a certain herb, which was unknown -to him, they were restored to life and sprang back into the sea. -He himself now ate of this wonderful herb, and immediately -felt himself penetrated by so wondrous a sensation of bliss and -animation that, in his excitement, he too sprang into the sea. -Oceanus and Thetis hereupon cleansed him from all his human -impurities, and gave him a place among the sea-gods. He was -venerated on many of the islands and coasts of Greece as a -friendly deity, ever ready to assist the shipwrecked sailor or the -castaway.</p> - -<p class='c020'>In art he is represented as a Triton, rough and shaggy in appearance, -his body covered with mussels or sea-weed. His hair and beard -show that luxuriance which characterises sea-gods.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>7. Ino Leucothea, and Melicertes.</b>—Like Glaucus, Ino, -the daughter of Cadmus, attained at once immortality and divine -rank by a leap into the sea. She was a sister of Semele, the -mother of Dionysus, and the wife of Athamas, king of Orchomenus. -It was she who, after the unhappy death of Semele, -took charge of the infant Dionysus. Hera, however, avenged -herself by driving Athamas mad, whereupon he dashed Learchus, -his eldest son by Ino, against a rock. He was about to inflict -the same fate on Melicertes, his second son, when in frantic -<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>haste the unhappy mother sought to save her child by flight. -Athamas, however, pursued her as far as the Isthmus, when Ino, -seeing no hope of escape, cast herself from the rock Moluris -into the sea. Here she was kindly received by the Nereids, who -converted both her and her son into sea-deities. She henceforth -bore the name of Leucothea, and her son that of Palæmon. -They were both regarded as benevolent deities of the stormy -sea, who came to the assistance of those who were shipwrecked -or in other peril. They appear in this guise in the <cite>Odyssey</cite>, where -Odysseus, who saw only certain death before him, is represented -as having been saved by a scarf thrown to him by Leucothea.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>8. The Sirens.</b>—The Sirens must also be reckoned among -the sea-deities. They are best known from the story how -Odysseus succeeded in passing them with his companions -without being seduced by their song. He had the prudence to -stop the ears of his companions with wax, and to have himself -bound to the mast. The Sirens were regarded as the daughters -either of the river-god Achelous by one of the nymphs, or of -Phorcys and Ceto. Only two Sirens are mentioned in Homer, -but three or four were recognised in later times and introduced -into various legends, such as that of the Argonauts, or the -Sicilian story of the rape of Persephone. Demeter is said to -have changed their bodies into those of birds, because they -refused to go to the help of their companion, Persephone, when -she was carried off by the god of the lower world.</p> - -<p class='c020'>In art they are represented, like the Harpies, as young women with -the wings and feet of birds. Sometimes they appear altogether like -birds, only with human faces; at other times with the arms and -bodies of women, in which case they generally hold instruments of -music in their hands. As their songs were death to those who were -seduced by them, they are often depicted on tombs as spirits of death.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>9. The Race of Oceanus.</b>—Lastly, we must enumerate -among the water-deities the numerous descendants of Oceanus, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>viz., the Oceanids, and also the rivers that are spread over the -earth. The latter were believed to have their common source -in the ocean encircling the earth, and thence to flow beneath the -ground until they reached the surface in springs.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Oceanus himself appears in the myths which treat of the -genealogy of the gods as the eldest son of Uranus and Gæa, and -therefore, like his wife Tethys, a Titan. As he did not take -part in the rebellion of the other Titans against the dominion of -Zeus, he did not share their dreadful fate, but was allowed to -remain in undisturbed enjoyment of his ancient domain. He -was supposed to dwell on the most western shores of the earth, -which he never left even to attend the assemblies of the gods.</p> - -<p class='c007'>On account of their great importance to the fertility of the -soil, the river-gods enjoyed a great reputation among the Greeks, -although their worship was entirely of a local nature. Only -Achelous, the greatest of all the Greek rivers, appears to have -enjoyed general veneration. The river-gods were believed to -dwell either in the depths of the rivers themselves, or in rocky -grottoes near their sources. They were depicted either as delicate -youths, or as men in their prime, or as old men, according -to the magnitude of the river. They all possess a conformity -with the nature of their element, viz., that power of -transformation which we discover in the other sea-deities. -They also appear, like other water-spirits, to possess the gift -of prophecy.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Among the Romans all flowing waters were held sacred. -Fontus, the son of Janus, was especially esteemed as the god of -springs and fountains in general; but, as among the Greeks, -each river had its special deity. The most important of these -was Tiberinus. The springs were popularly supposed to be -inhabited by nymphs gifted with the powers of prophecy and -magic, who sometimes honoured mortals with their favours, as -Egeria did King Numa.</p> - -<p class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>In art the river-gods were commonly represented in the guise of -those animals whose forms they were most in the habit of assuming. -They thus appear as serpents, bulls, or even as men with bulls’ heads. -They were also portrayed, however, in purely human guise, with the -exception of having small horns on either side of the head. Their -attributes consist of urns and horns of plenty, symbols of the blessings -that proceed from them.</p> - -<h3 class='c019'>III.—THE GODS OF THE EARTH AND LOWER WORLD.</h3> - -<p class='c017'>We now come to a class of deities who stand in the most -decided contrast to the gods of the heaven and the sea, whom -we have previously described. It consists of those deities whose -power is incessantly exerted either on the surface or in the -depths of the earth, and who are accordingly brought into the -closest connection with the life of man. The worship of these -deities assumed among the Greeks a passionate and excited -character, at first entirely strange to the Romans, though it -gradually crept in here also.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Though the ancients saw in the earth, on the one hand, the -fruitful source of all life in nature, they did not seek to disguise -the fact that it is, on the other hand, also the open sepulchre -into which all earthly existence sinks when its time is over. -The worship of these deities was therefore celebrated with festivals -of joy and mirth at the season of the revival of nature, and -with mournful solemnities at the season of its decay. The -devotees manifested both their mirth and mourning in a loud, -noisy, passionate manner, usually designated orgiastic. An -element of mystery never failed to introduce itself into the -worship of these deities, who, in virtue of their dwellings, were -able to inspire a greater feeling of awe than the bright forms of -the gods of heaven. Their wrath also, which manifested itself -in the sterility of the soil, was the subject of especial fear. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>Mysteries proper, or secret rites, existed only among the Greeks, -but never found their way into the religious systems of Italy. -We shall enumerate first the deities of the upper world, who -preside over the growth of flocks and the fruits of the earth, and -then those who inhabit the lower world.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>1. Gæa (Tellus).</b>—First among them is Gæa, or Mother -Earth herself. This deity appears in the Cosmogony (or myths -relating to the formation of the universe) as one of the primeval -creative forces, having herself proceeded immediately from -Chaos. In later times she acquired a more personal and plastic -character, although she never attained any real importance in -the religious system of the Greeks, owing to the existence of -more definite and substantial deities, such as Rhea, Hestia, -Demeter, and Themis. The worship of Tellus in Rome was -more important, although here, too, it was somewhat thrown -into the shade by the worship of Ceres and kindred deities.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The chief significance of Gæa lies in the fact that she is the -source of all life and increase in nature. She is hence regarded -as a mother who tends with loving care all her children. Under -this aspect her praises are sung by Hesiod, and also in an ancient -Dodonaic hymn. Like Demeter and other deities who dispense -prosperity and abundance, she appears as tending and nourishing -the young, and is often represented thus on ancient monuments.</p> - -<p class='c007'>At the same time Gæa is the common grave of mankind, and -draws all things, with inexorable severity, down into her dark -womb. She thus becomes a goddess of death and the lower -world, and was on this account invoked, together with the -Manes, as a witness of all solemn compacts and oaths.</p> - -<p class='c007'>A very ancient shrine of this goddess existed at Delphi, and -the oracle there had once, said the Delphians, belonged to -her.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In Rome, where she was also venerated as a goddess of marriage, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>her temple stood on the site of the house of Spurius -Cassius. Festive offerings were made to her before and after -seed-time. On the occasion of the Paganalia, she and Ceres -were propitiated by the sacrifice of a pregnant sow, which was -supposed to promote the prosperity of the coming year.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>2. Rhea Cybele (Magna Mater Idæa).</b>—Rhea is well -known as the daughter of Uranus and Gæa, and the wife of -Cronus, by whom she became the mother of Zeus and the other -Cronidæ. She seems to have enjoyed only a limited measure of -divine honours, until she was identified with the Phrygian -goddess Cybele, who, like the Egyptian Isis, was an Asiatic -symbol of fertility. She was worshipped throughout Lydia and -Phrygia under the appellation of the “Mighty Mother.” Thence -her worship, which was of a peculiarly noisy character, made its -way through the Greek colonies into Greece itself, and towards -the end of the second Punic war was, at the instance of the -Sibylline books, introduced into Rome. Attalus, king of -Pergamus, was on this occasion good enough to present the -Romans with a sacred stone, which was regarded by the inhabitants -of Pessinus as the great mother herself. After its -arrival at Ostia, this stone was carried to Rome amid a solemn -procession of Roman matrons. The day of its arrival (10th -April) was ever afterwards kept as a festival, at which games -were celebrated under the superintendence of the prætor. The -worship of Cybele, however, never seems to have become -naturalised in Rome, perhaps because Romans were not allowed -to officiate as her priests.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The true home of the worship of Cybele was the district of -Pessinus, a rough and rocky mountain land. It was here that -she made her noisy processions, seated in a chariot drawn by -lions or panthers, amid the boisterous music of her weird -attendants, the Corybantes and Curetes. The myths that relate -<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>to the goddess bear a wild, fantastic character, similar to that of -her rites. The best known among them is the story of her -favourite, Attis, or Atys. He was a Phrygian youth of a beauty -so exceptional that the great mother of the gods chose him for -her husband. At first he returned her affection, but afterwards -he proved faithless, and was about to marry a daughter of the -king of Pessinus. But the vengeance of the angry goddess -overtook him, for when the wedding guests were assembled at -the festive banquet the goddess appeared in their midst, and -filled those present with panic fear, and troubled their minds. -Atys fled to the mountains, where he slew himself in a fit of -frenzy. Afterwards, the goddess instituted a great mourning in -memory of him, which took place about the time of the vernal -equinox. The priests of the goddess marched, amid the loud -noise of kettle-drums and fifes, to the mountains, in order to -search for the lost youth; and when at length he, or an image -representing him, was found, the priests, in an ecstasy of joy, -danced about in wild excitement, gashing themselves with -knives.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Representations of Rhea Cybele are rare. A statue representing -her seated on a throne is shown in the Vatican. Her usual attribute -is a kettle-drum.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>3. Dionysus, or Bacchus (Liber).</b>—Dionysus, or Bacchus, -was regarded by Greeks and Romans alike as the god of wine -and vineyards. In his more extended meaning he represents -the blessings of the autumn. It is he who causes the fruits to -ripen for the use of man; it is likewise he who dispenses to mankind -all the advantages of civilisation and refinement, and of -well-ordered political affairs.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Thebes was described as the birthplace of the god. His -mother was Semele, the daughter of Cadmus, whom Zeus, the -great god of heaven, honoured with his love. This very love, -however, proved fatal to Semele, for the ever-jealous Hera came -<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>to her in the guise of her nurse, Beroë, and succeeded in exciting -her suspicions as to the truth of her lover’s divinity. She -insidiously persuaded Semele to make her lover swear to do -what she desired, and then to put him to the test. Semele did -so, and then besought Zeus to appear to her in the full majesty -of his divine form. In vain did Zeus adjure her to take back -her foolish request; she insisted on its fulfilment, and perished -miserably, being burnt to ashes by the flame of Zeus, who -approached her in a flash of lightning. Her unborn child was -preserved by Zeus, who ordered Hermes to carry it to the -nymphs of Nysa to be brought up. A later legend makes Ino, the -sister of Semele, the foster-mother of Dionysus. The locality of -this Nysa is somewhat uncertain, but it is generally supposed to -be a district of Mount Pangæus in Thrace.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Dionysus, after growing up amid the solitude of the forest and -strengthening himself by his contests with its wild beasts, at -length planted the vine. Both the god and his attendants soon -became intoxicated with its juice; after which, crowned with -wreaths of laurel and ivy, and accompanied by a crowd of -nymphs, satyrs, and fauns, he ranged the woods, which resounded -with the loud and joyful cries of his inspired worshippers. The -legend says that his education was then completed by Silenus, -the son of Pan. In company with his preceptor and the rest of -his train, he then set forth to spread his worship and the cultivation -of the vine among the nations of the earth. He did not -confine himself to mere vine-planting, however, but proved a -real benefactor of mankind by founding cities, and by introducing -more civilised manners and a more pleasant and sociable -mode of life among men. On such as refused his favours his -wrath fell with dreadful effect. Agave, the mother of the Theban -king Pentheus, who had refused to receive him, and the rest of -the Theban women, were driven mad by him; and in their frenzy -they mistook the king for a wild boar and tore him to pieces.</p> - -<div id='f_36' class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span> -<img src='images/f_36.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 36.—Dionysus and Lion. From the Monument of Lysicrates.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>The most celebrated among the myths which testify to the -wondrous power of Dionysus is the story of the punishment of -the Tyrrhenian pirates. On the occasion of his passage from -Icaria to Naxos, these pirates put Dionysus in chains, purposing -to take him to Italy, and there sell him as a slave. At a nod -from the youthful god the chains fell from his limbs; he -appeared as a lion, while a bear was seen at the other end of the -ship. Vines and ivy tendrils wound themselves round the mast -and sails of the ship, which stood still, whilst the strains of the -nymphs burst forth. The sailors, terrified by the transformation -of the god, leaped overboard, and were changed into dolphins. -A fine representation, in relief, of this scene still exists on the -monument of Lysicrates, at Athens. The most beautiful feature -in it is the figure of the god playing with his lion in the most -joyous unconsciousness (Fig. 36). With the name of Naxos, -which was a chief seat of his worship, is connected the celebrated -story of his marriage with Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, king -of Crete. The Attic hero, Theseus, after escaping the dangers of -the Labyrinth by her means, had taken her away with him from -<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>Crete in order to marry her. He deserted her, however, whilst -asleep on the island of Naxos, either of his own accord or -because warned of the god in a dream. The indescribable -anguish and consternation of Ariadne, on awaking to find herself -alone and deserted on a foreign strand, was only equalled by her -joyous surprise when Bacchus, returning from his travels in -India, found her and made her his bride. The poets, indeed, -do not relate that Zeus then bestowed on her that immortality -which he had already given his son on account of his glorious -achievements and extraordinary merit toward mankind; but -such appears to have been the popular tradition. At Athens a -sort of harvest thanksgiving was celebrated in honour of both -Dionysus and his bride, at which vines with the grapes on them -were borne in solemn procession through the streets of the -city.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The worship of Dionysus extended not only over the whole -of Greece, but also to Italy, Asia Minor, Thrace, and Macedonia, -and to every place where the vine was cultivated by the Greeks. -The god was extolled as Lyæus, the deliverer from care, and -great festivals were instituted in his honour, which were of a -disorderly character, but very popular among the common -people. At the time of the winter solstice there was mourning, -because at this season the vine seemed to die away, and the god -was believed to be suffering persecution at the hands of the evil -spirits of winter, and obliged to flee in consequence to the sea or -lower world. It was, therefore, thought right to suffer with -him, and people manifested their grief at his disappearance by -every kind of wild gesture. At the winter festivals of Dionysus, -which were celebrated every other year, only women and girls -took part. The festivals of the god at the beginning of spring, -when the new wine was tasted for the first time, were purely -festivals of gladness, like the greater Dionysia at Athens. On -these occasions the reawakening of nature was celebrated with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>boundless joy and boisterous mirth. All kinds of jokes and -mischievous pranks were indulged in, and festive processions -and theatrical performances followed each other in quick succession.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The following festivals were celebrated at Athens in honour -of Dionysus:—</p> - -<p class='c007'>1. The <em>Lesser</em> or <em>Rural Dionysia</em>. This was the vintage festival -proper, which did not take place in Attica till the end of -November or beginning of December, because they liked to let -the grapes hang as long as possible. A he-goat was first -solemnly sacrificed to the god; this was followed by a festive -procession bearing the sacred things, and the festival concluded -with all kinds of country amusements, dancing, masquerading, and -revelling. The chief amusement of the young men was dancing -on the leather bag. Out of the skin of the slaughtered goat was -made a leather bag, which was inflated and smeared with oil: -the young men then attempted to dance on it.</p> - -<p class='c007'>2. The <em>Lenæa</em>, or feast of the wine-press, was celebrated in -the month of January at Athens, in the place where, according -to an old tradition, the first wine-press had stood. Here stood -the Lenæon, one of the two chief temples of the god. The chief -feature of the festival was a magnificent procession with the -sacred symbols of the god. This was followed by a great -banquet, the viands for which were furnished by the city of -Athens. The new wine which was drunk on these occasions did -not tend to diminish the hilarity of the worshippers, so that all -kinds of mischievous jokes were perpetrated.</p> - -<div id='f_37' class='figleft id004'> -<img src='images/f_37.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 37.—The so-called Sardanapalus in the Vatican.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>3. The <em>Anthesteria</em> were celebrated in February, on the 11th, -12th, and 13th days of the month Anthesterion. They were -supposed to commemorate the return of Dionysus from the lower -world, or, in other words, the reawakening of nature from the -sleep of winter. The first day was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πιθοιγία</span> (cask-opening), -because on this day the new wine was first broached. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>second and chief day of the festival was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χόες</span> (cups). A -procession and a great banquet took place, at which the guests -were crowned with flowers. Many liberties were permitted to -the slaves on this occasion, as at the Roman Saturnalia. The -third day was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χύτροι</span> -(pots), because vessels were -displayed filled with all -kinds of boiled vegetables. -These were regarded in the -light of offerings for the -souls of the dead, who were -popularly supposed to revisit -the upper world on -this occasion.</p> - -<div id='f_38' class='figright id004'> -<img src='images/f_38.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 38.—Youthful Dionysus. From the Chateau Richelieu, now in the Louvre.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>4. The <em>Greater</em> or <em>City -Dionysia</em> formed the chief -festival of the god, and the -proper spring-feast of the -Athenians. It was celebrated -with extraordinary -splendour in the month of -March, and lasted several -days, bringing together a -vast concourse of strangers -from all parts. The city, -renowned alike for the refined -artistic taste and the -keen wit of its inhabitants, -then donned its holiday -garb, and innumerable merry -antics were played by the -crowds assembled in the -streets and squares. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>chief feature of the festival was a solemn procession, in which -an old wooden statue of the god was borne through the streets. -There were likewise banquets and comic processions in masks, -and grand representations of new comedies and tragedies. The -proceedings concluded with -the presentation of prizes to -the successful competitors.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Italian nationalities -likewise celebrated a festival -on the 17th of March, -called the Liberalia, in -honour of Liber, or Liber -Pater, the Italian god of the -vine. It was distinguished -throughout by the simple -countrified character of the -proceedings, and resembled -the Lesser Dionysia of the -inhabitants of Attica. People -amused themselves with all -kinds of jokes and antics, -and with masquerades, the -masks for which were cut -from the bark of trees. The -chief object of the festival -was to pray for the fertility -of the vines. These innocent -festivals had nothing to do -with the voluptuous Bacchanalia -which were afterwards introduced into Rome in imitation -of the Greek mysteries, and which the most rigorous interference -of the authorities was unable to suppress.</p> - -<p class='c007'>If we try to conceive briefly the significance of the worship of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>Dionysus in the religion of the ancients, we shall find that in his -primitive character the god was a personification of the active, -productive power of nature. As Demeter was supposed to give -corn and the other fruits of the field, so Dionysus was supposed -to give the fruits of trees, and especially of the vine. He was -likewise regarded as the author of the blessings of civilisation, so -that, on this point, he supplements the idea of the great culture-goddess -Demeter, with whom, both among the Greeks and -Romans, he had many temples and festivals in common. Looking -at his character from another side, we find him coming into contact -with Apollo, since he was supposed not only to endow men -with a kindly, cheerful disposition, but also to inspire them with -a love of music, on which account he was honoured with Apollo -as the friend and leader of the Muses.</p> - -<div id='f_39' class='figleft id004'> -<img src='images/f_39.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 39.—Marble Head of Youthful Dionysus at Leyden.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>Artistic representations of Dionysus have come down to us on -numerous monuments. In earlier art he was generally depicted as -majestic and grave, and on that account represented with a beard. -We have given an instance of this earlier conception in the so-called -Sardanapalus of the Vatican (Fig. 37). In later art he became more -youthful, and was characterised by a -delicate roundness of form. The statues -of this period are distinguished by the -almost feminine expression of face with -which they endow the god, as well as by -the rounded limbs and the graceful ease -of every attitude. The statue of a youthful -Dionysus in the Louvre at Paris is -an instance of this later mode of conception -(Fig. 38). So likewise is the -head of Dionysus at Leyden, which is -distinguished by a sweet expression of -reverie. His soft hair, which falls about -his shoulders in delicate ringlets, is -generally intertwined with a garland of -vine leaves or ivy (Fig. 39). The other -attributes of the god are the thyrsus, or -Bacchic wand, the diadem, the skin of -a wild beast falling across his chest, -which often forms his sole clothing, and -the drinking-cup in his hand. He is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>generally accompanied by lions, tigers, or panthers; and the bull -and ram, as the symbols of fertility, were held sacred to him, -while the latter was also his usual sacrifice. Among plants, -besides the vine and the ivy, the laurel was held sacred to him on -account of its powers of inspiration.</p> - -<div id='f_40' class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/f_40.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 40.—Sleeping Ariadne. Vatican.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id='f_41' class='figcenter id001'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span> -<img src='images/f_41.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 41.—Dannecker’s Ariadne. Frankfort-on-the-Main.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>Of all the prominent personages in the stories of Dionysus, Ariadne -has received most attention at the hands of the sculptor. The most -celebrated of such ancient monuments is a marble figure of great -beauty, larger than life, representing the sleeping Ariadne. It is now -preserved in the Vatican Museum at Rome (Fig. 40). Among the -productions of modern sculptors, the Ariadne of Dannecker, at -Frankfort-on-the-Main, which represents her as the bride of Theseus, -riding on a panther, justly enjoys a very high reputation (Fig. 41).</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>4. The Nymphs.</b>—We now come to a class of inferior -terrestrial divinities who are often found in the train of Bacchus. -The most numerous and important of these are the Nymphs. -They personify the restless activity and energy of nature, over the -whole of which their power extends. They manifest their presence -<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>in the murmuring, rippling streams and brooks, as well as in the -sprouting vegetation of wood and meadow. They are tender, -graceful maidens, who, though kindly disposed towards men, -yet avoid human habitations, and prefer the peaceful solitude of -the woods and mountains, where they lead a merry, joyous life -among the clefts and grottoes.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Sometimes they devote themselves to useful pursuits, and spin -and weave; sometimes they engage in graceful dances, and sing -merry songs, or bathe their delicate limbs in the white spray of -lonely brooks. They gladly join the train of those superior -deities supposed to preside in the realms of nature. Thus we -see them joining in the Bacchic revelry with Dionysus, or -figuring in the train of Aphrodite, or ranging field and wood as -they hunt in the company of Artemis.</p> - -<p class='c007'>According to the divisions of nature, over which the Nymphs -were supposed to preside, we may distinguish the following -classes:—</p> - -<p class='c007'>1. The <em>Water-Nymphs</em>, to whom, in their wider signification, -the Oceanids and Nereids also belong. Here, however, we have -only to deal with the water-nymphs of the brooks and fountains -of the land, who are distinguished by the name of <em>Naiads</em>. As -the kindly nourishers of plants, and as thereby ministering -indirectly to the sustenance of both man and beast, they enjoyed -a large measure of veneration among the ancients, although, -being inferior deities, they could claim no temples of their own. -Like the sea-nymphs, they possessed the gift of prophecy, and -appear as the patrons of poetry and song.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>2. Nymphs of the Mountains</em>, or <em>Oreads</em>, to whom belong the -nymphs of the valleys and glens (Napææ). These were very -numerous, and received special names from the particular -mountains or districts they inhabited. The most celebrated -among them was the Bœotian nymph Echo. She was consumed -by love for the beautiful youth Narcissus, a son of the river-god -<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>Cephisus, and finding that he did not reciprocate her affection, -she pined away in ever-increasing grief, until at length her -emaciated frame was changed into rock, and nothing but her -voice remained. But Aphrodite avenged this injury to her sex -on Narcissus, who had in his vain self-love thus contemned the -beautiful nymph. As he was hunting one day on Mount -Helicon, he bent down to quench his thirst from a spring clear -as crystal, and the goddess caused him to fall in love with his -own shadow, which was reflected in the water. The object of -his desires being unattainable, he too pined away from grief, and -the flower named after him has ever since continued an emblem -of heartless beauty.</p> - -<p class='c007'>3. The <em>Dryads</em>, or <em>Hamadryads</em> (wood-nymphs). These -appear to have been a conception of later times. It was supposed -that their existence depended on that of the trees they -inhabited, so that when the latter were destroyed the nymphs -also perished. Not sharing immortality, therefore, they cannot -properly be reckoned among the gods.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The veneration of nymphs was very ancient in Greece, and -was thence transferred to Rome. Goats, lambs, milk, and oil -were offered to them.</p> - -<p class='c020'>In art they are depicted as lovely maidens, generally only slightly -clad, and adorned with flowers and garlands. The Naiads are also -represented as drawing water, or with attributes relating to their -element.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>5. The Satyrs.</b>—In contrast to the Nymphs, or female personifications -of the life of Nature, we find a number of inferior -wood and water-deities of the male sex, called Satyrs, Sileni, and -Panes, between whom it is difficult to distinguish clearly. -Generally by Satyrs (Fauni) we understand the wood and -mountain-spirits proper, who are inseparably connected with -Dionysus, whose attendant train they form. Coarse sensuality -and a wanton spirit of mischief are the leading features of their -<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>character. On account of their animal propensities they were -fabled to be only half human in appearance, with blunt noses -and otherwise ignoble features, bristling hair, goat-like ears, and a -goat’s tail. Like the Muses, they love music and dancing, their -instruments being the Syrinx and the flute, together with -cymbals and castanets. Like their master, they were passionately -addicted to excessive indulgence in wine; but whereas in the -former this produced only a rapturous enthusiasm and an -exalted frame of mind, with them its effects were purely -sensual, and excited them to -insane and unseemly pranks -of all kinds.</p> - -<div id='f_42' class='figright id004'> -<img src='images/f_42.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 42.—Head of Satyr. Munich Sculpture Gallery.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>The Satyrs were not an uncommon -subject of representation -among ancient artists. -The conception was based on -the original hideous half-man, -half-animal type; and in art, -as well as in poetry, the blunt -nose, the pointed ears, and the -goat’s tail form their characteristic -features. The Bacchic -insignia of a band round the -brow and an ivy garland also -belong to them. There are -some particularly fine antique -statues of satyrs in the art-collections -of Munich and Rome.</p> - -<p class='c020'>The engraving (Fig. 42) shows the highly-expressive face of a -satyr in the Munich collection.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>6. Silenus.</b>—Silenus, according to the common tradition, was -an old satyr who tended and brought up Dionysus, and afterwards -became the faithful companion of his wanderings. He is -depicted by the poets as a somewhat elderly man, with blunt -nose and bald head, hairy chest and thighs, and a stomach so -large that he can scarcely walk. He generally appears riding on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>an ass in front of the Bacchic company, with a satyr on either -side supporting his half-drunken form.</p> - -<p class='c020'>The artists of antiquity seem to have devoted themselves frequently -to the subject of Silenus. They either represented him as the nurse -and preceptor of the youthful Bacchus, holding the child in his -arms and regarding him with a look of affection, in which the comic -element is entirely lacking, or they present him to us as the insatiable -but good-natured wine-bibber. His standing attribute is the wine-skin, -besides which, like other members of the Bacchic train, he -bears a thyrsus and ivy garland.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Besides Silenus, who was celebrated as the preceptor of -Dionysus, there was a whole tribe of Sileni. Whether this is -due to the fact that the older satyrs were called Sileni, or -whether they form a special class of deities presiding over -the flowing, gushing water, cannot be determined with any -certainty.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Among the Sileni were two personages who play a part in -the story of Dionysus. These were Marsyas and Midas. The -former, like all satyrs, was an accomplished master of the flute, -and challenged Apollo to a trial of skill which proved fatal to -him. The conditions of the contest were that he who was -vanquished should put himself entirely in the power of his -adversary. Apollo won, and made a cruel use of his victory by -hanging Marsyas on a pine tree and flaying him alive.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Midas was the mythic founder of the kingdom of Phrygia, -in Asia Minor, whither he had emigrated from Macedonia. -Tradition makes him a son of Cybele, and, as her favourite, -endowed with fabulous wealth. But, like many of the sons of -men in the present day, the richer he grew the greater was his -thirst for gold, until it betrayed him at length into an act of -great folly. One day, the drunken Silenus strayed from the -company of Bacchus into the garden of Midas. The latter -received him with great hospitality, and after entertaining him -sumptuously for ten days brought him to Bacchus. Pleased -<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>with his kindness, the god rewarded him with the gratification -of any wish he might make. Midas now wished that everything -he touched might turn to gold. Naturally the gratification -of this wish well-nigh proved his ruin; and he only escaped by -washing, at the command of the god, in the river Pactolus, -which has ever since washed down gold in its sands. A later -fable makes Midas the judge in the rivalry of Apollo and Pan, -on which occasion he decided in favour of the latter, for which -the god changed his ears into those of an ass. Modern criticism -has seen in the rich Midas one of the many personifications of -the sun, who, as he rises over the earth, turns all things to gold.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>7. Greek and Roman Wood-Spirits.</b>—<em>1. Pan.</em>—Pan -was a very ancient god of the woods and meadows. He -was at first honoured only by the inhabitants of the mountain-land -of Arcadia and by other pastoral tribes. Subsequently -his divinity was more generally acknowledged and more -highly esteemed. Common accounts make him the son of -Hermes by the nymph Penelope, a daughter of Dryops. His -mother was not a little terrified at his birth, since he was hairy -all over, and had horns and goat’s feet. His father wrapped -him in a hare-skin, and bore him to Olympus, where the -assembled gods showed no small pleasure at the sight of the -strange little wood-demon. From time immemorial Pan was -regarded by the shepherds of Greece as their most doughty -protector; for which reason the mountain caves in which they -gathered their herds together at night, or in threatening weather, -were held sacred to him. There were many such caves of Pan -in the mountains of Arcadia, and also one at the foot of the -Acropolis at Athens, besides others on Mount Parnassus in -Bœotia, and elsewhere. Pan was esteemed a god of great cheerfulness -and activity of character, who loved to range the woods -as a huntsman, and was on this account regarded with little less -veneration by huntsmen than by shepherds. He was also looked -on as the patron of fishing and bee-keeping.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>As the god of shepherds, Pan was also a lover of music, and -on returning in the evening from the chase, says the Homeric -story, he was wont to play sweet tunes on his pan-pipe (Syrinx), -whilst the Oreads, or mountain-nymphs, sang the praises of the -gods and led off their spirited dances. The poets have founded -a story on his discovery of the Syrinx. They invented a fabulous -nymph called Syrinx, with whom Pan was supposed to -have fallen violently in love. The nymph, however, did not -return his affection, and fled from his embraces. Pan pursued -her, and in her extremity she sought the aid of Gæa, who transformed -her into a reed. Out of this reed Pan, by joining seven -pieces together, made an instrument which he called the Syrinx, -after the nymph.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Pan was as passionately fond of dancing as of music. -According to Pindar, he was the most accomplished dancer -among the gods. His favourite amusement was to dance in -company with the mountain-nymphs, on which occasions he -regaled them with every kind of droll leap, in the performance -of which his goat’s feet stood him in good stead.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As a wood-deity, Pan also possessed the gift of prophecy; -indeed, according to some, it was he who first imparted this gift -to Apollo. He certainly had a very ancient oracle at Acacesium -in Arcadia.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Wild mountainous country and the thick untrodden forest -are both alike apt to impress the lonely traveller with feelings of -awe. All such sensations of sudden and unaccountable fear -were ascribed to Pan (Panic). He was also said to delight in -terrifying travellers with all kinds of strange noises. Hence, at -a later period, arose the story that in the contest with the -Titans he rendered good service to Zeus by blowing on a shell -trumpet which he had invented, whereupon the Titans were -seized with a sudden terror. This, however, is only another -version of Triton’s services at the battle with the giants. It is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>well known that the Athenians introduced the worship of Pan, -to which they had been hitherto strangers, into their city after -the battle of Marathon, in consequence of the assistance which -they believed they had received from the god.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Such are the more ancient and simple features of the character -of Pan. He assumed a higher significance when men began to -regard him as the companion of the “Mighty Mother,” and -assigned him a place in the Bacchic circle. Men now saw in him -a productive force of nature like the Phrygian Attis; indeed, in -consequence of a misinterpretation of his name, he was made the -creator and god of the universe. He seems to have originally -signified the “purifying” breeze, which at one time whistled -through the reeds, or at another moaned dismally in the forest, -frightening the belated traveller.</p> - -<p class='c007'>After he had once been introduced into the company of -Dionysus, poets and artists alike set themselves to work to -invent a number of Panes and little Pans (Panisci), who were -easily confounded with the Satyrs and Sileni.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The chief shrine of Pan was at Acacesium in Arcadia. Cows, -goats, and sheep were sacrificed to him, besides offerings of milk, -honey, and new wine.</p> - -<div id='f_43' class='figleft id005'> -<img src='images/f_43.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 43.—Pan. From a Mural Painting at Herculaneum.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>In art we must distinguish -the earlier and later types -of the god. In the former, -which dates from the best -days of Greek art, he is -conceived as entirely -human in appearance, with -the exception of two sprouting -horns on either side of -the forehead. Later, he -was depicted with larger -horns, a long -goat’s beard, -and goat’s feet. -We give an engraving -of this -later conception (Fig. 43), which is taken from a mural painting at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>Naples. The usual attributes of Pan are a Syrinx and shepherd’s -crook, sometimes also a pine garland.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>2. Silvanus.</em>—Among the Roman wood-deities, Silvanus occupies -a position most akin to that of Pan, although they are -not exactly identical. His name, derived from <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">silva</span></i> (wood), -points him out as the god of the forest, where he was supposed -to dwell, a deity kindly disposed towards mankind, and propitious -to the welfare of trees, plants, and cattle. At times, -however, he appears, like Pan, as a mischievous sprite, who -delights to trick and terrify the lonely traveller. His sphere of -activity was not confined to the woods, since he was also regarded -as the author of fruitfulness in gardens and orchards. In this -character Silvanus bears a close resemblance to Terminus, the -god of boundaries and landed property, inasmuch as he preserves -fields, gardens, and houses from harm. The first of the fruits -of the field were offered to him. He had two shrines in Rome, -one on the Viminal and another on the Aventine.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Artists and poets agree in representing Silvanus as an old man -with a rustic head-gear, scattering blooming lilies and other flowers. -He is usually distinguished by a pruning-knife.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>3. Faunus and Fauna.</em>—Closely resembling Silvanus is -another deity called Faunus, one of the most ancient national -gods of Italy. He appears as the good spirit of the mountains, -pastures, and plains. He was regarded by the shepherds as -their best protector, since he made their cattle fruitful and -drove off noxious beasts of prey. In the former character he -was also called Inuus (the fertiliser); in the latter Lupercus (the -warder-off of wolves).</p> - -<p class='c007'>Like Pan, he appears to have his seat in the woods, whence -he sometimes terrifies and annoys travellers. At night, too, he -creeps into men’s houses, and torments them with evil dreams -and horrible apparitions (Incubus).</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>Like Pan, too, Faunus possessed the gift of prophecy, and -answered both by direct revelations and by dreams. In this -character he was called Fatuus, and had a celebrated oracle in -the grove at Tibur, on the spring Albunea.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Having once invented a number of Fauns, the poets soon -began to identify them with the Satyrs of the Greeks.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In honour of this decidedly national deity, different festivals -were celebrated, at which rams were sacrificed and libations of -wine and milk made. The Faunalia were celebrated on the -Nones of December, on which occasion the guests at the festive -board surrendered themselves to the most unrestrained mirth, -and granted many liberties also to their slaves. The Lupercalia, -however, formed the proper expiatory festival of Faunus. This -festival was celebrated on the 15th of February, and was -remarkable for the number of ancient customs which were -observed. The chief of these was the course of the Luperci, -or priests of Faunus, who, after making their offering, ran -from the shrine of the god (Lupercal), on the Palatine, through -the streets of Rome, their only clothing being an apron cut from -the skin of the slaughtered animal. They struck all whom they -met with thongs, also cut from the same blood-stained skin. -Barren women placed themselves in the way of the Luperci, -believing that by means of the strokes the reproach of barrenness -would be taken away from them. As a day of atonement, this -day was termed <em>dies februatus</em> (from <em>februare</em>, to purify), whence -the name of the month.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The feminine counterpart of Faunus, though not his wife, was -Fauna, a propitious, kindly goddess of the plains. She is also -called Maia, or Bona Dea. The women made an offering to her -every year at night, on which occasion males were strictly -excluded.</p> - -<p class='c020'>In art Faunus bears exactly the same appearance as Pan, with -whom, indeed, he was often identified.</p> - -<p class='c006'><span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span><b>8. Priapus.</b>—The worship of Priapus, the god of fields and -gardens, appears to have been long of a purely local character, -confined principally to the districts on the Hellespont, since he -is not even mentioned by earlier writers. He was the son of -Dionysus and Aphrodite, and presided over the exuberant -fertility of nature. He was supposed to exercise influence over -the fruitfulness of flocks and herds, whilst fishing and the -rearing of bees were also placed under his protection. His -special sphere, however, was the protection of gardens and -vineyards. Asses were sacrificed to him, a fact which gave rise -to all sorts of comical stories relating to the hostility of Priapus -to this animal. Besides this, he received the first fruits of the -garden and field and drink-offerings of milk and honey. The -worship of Priapus was introduced into Italy at the same time -as that of Aphrodite, and he was identified with the native -Mutunus.</p> - -<p class='c020'>This deity was scarcely noticed in higher art. In the gardens of -Italy, however, rough-hewn pillars of wood, similar to those of -Hermes, were erected in his honour. He is usually distinguished by -a pruning-knife and club.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>9. Saturnus and Ops.</b>—Before passing to Demeter, or -Ceres, the great goddess of civilisation, to whom by Greeks and -Romans alike the blessings of the harvest were ascribed, and -who forms the best link between the gods of the upper and -lower worlds, we must pause to consider some gods of agriculture -and cattle-rearing peculiar to the Romans. Among -them are Saturn and Ops, who belong to the most ancient -national deities of Italy. To Saturn was ascribed the introduction -of agriculture, together with the cultivation of the vine -and other fruits. He was, therefore, venerated as the great -benefactor of mankind, who not only promoted the physical -welfare of men, but who also introduced a higher standard of -civilisation. After the Romans had become acquainted with the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>mythology of the Greeks, they identified him with Cronus. In -consequence of this, the story arose that, after his dethronement -by Jupiter, Saturn fled to Italy, where he was hospitably -received by Janus. There he is said to have brought together -the inhabitants, who had hitherto wandered about without any -fixed homes, and to have united them in regular political communities, -over which he himself ruled. This was the golden -age. In remembrance of the happy age when men were not yet -troubled by sorrow or need, the Saturnalia were celebrated -during three days, beginning from the 17th of December. This -festival, which with changed meaning still continues in the -Carnival of the present day, was celebrated in Rome with -particularly great splendour. Unbounded festivity reigned -throughout the whole town, and vented itself in every description -of joke and prank. The distinctions of class were -suspended, the courts and schools kept holiday, and the shops -were closed. The chief day was the 19th of December, which -was especially a festive day for the slaves, for on this day there -were practically no slaves in Rome. No services were required -of them, and they were allowed to don the clothes of their -masters and to eat and drink as much as they liked, whilst their -masters waited on them at table. And this custom allowed a -class, otherwise subject to so many afflictions, to forget their -sorrows for at least one day in a year. Wealthy Romans generally -kept open house on this day, and vied with each other in the -splendour of their hospitalities; and of course a solemn sacrifice -was made to Saturn. The woollen bandages which, during the -greater part of the year, enveloped the feet of his statue in order -that he might not depart without vouchsafing a blessing, were -on this day unloosed, and throughout the night the temple was -illuminated with wax tapers. This festival, which was extremely -popular among the Romans, was also celebrated with games in -the circus.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>The chief temple of Saturn, which was begun by Tarquinius -Superbus and finished in the first years of the Republic, was -situated on the ascent to the Capitol from the Forum. Beneath -it was a vault containing the state treasury, or <em>ærarium</em>, the -guardianship of the state treasures being committed to this god -as the dispenser of every blessing.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Regarded as the wife of Saturn, and therefore identified with -Rhea, Ops was the goddess of the seed-time and harvest. On -this account her worship was closely connected with that of -Saturn, and she had a place in his temple on the Capitoline. -A festival was celebrated in honour of her on the 25th of -August, when the newly-gathered corn was threshed.</p> - -<p class='c007'>When taken together, Saturn and Ops were regarded as deities -who presided over marriage and the education of children, it -being an easy step from the deity of the sprouting, ripening seed, -to that of the budding, thriving season of human life.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Saturn is always represented as an old man, and is generally distinguished -by a pruning-knife or sickle.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>10. Vertumnus and Pomona.</b>—Vertumnus and Pomona -much resemble Saturn and Ops, the only difference being that -the former exert their influence solely on the growth and welfare -of the fruits of the garden and orchard. Vertumnus properly -signifies the self-changing one; referring, probably, to the manifold -changes which the fruit undergoes from the time of its first -appearance in blossom to that of its maturity. For the same -reason the god was said to possess the faculty of assuming any -shape he liked. The first of the flowers and fruits were offered -to him. Pomona, as her name signifies, was the goddess of the -fruit harvest, and called by the poets the wife of Vertumnus. -Each deity had a special priest (flamen), though the latter -naturally held only an inferior position.</p> - -<p class='c020'>In art Vertumnus generally appears as a beautiful youth, his head -<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>crowned with a garland of ears of corn or laurel, with a horn of -plenty, as a symbol of the blessings he bestows, in his right hand. -He is sometimes distinguished by a dish filled with fruit, or a -pruning-knife. Pomona is generally represented as the season of -Autumn, a beautiful maiden with boughs of fruit-trees in her hand.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>11. Flora.</b>—Among the inferior deities of the plain was -Flora, the goddess of blossoms and flowers, who was held in -great honour by the Sabines, and everywhere in the interior of -Italy. Her worship is said to have been introduced into Rome -by Numa, who assigned the goddess a priest of her own. She -attained a higher significance by becoming a goddess of maternity, -whom women invoked before their confinement. Her -festival was celebrated with great rejoicings from the 28th of -April to the 1st of May (Floralia). The doors of the houses -were adorned with flowers, and wreaths were worn in the hair. -After the first Punic war, the festival, which was remarkable -throughout for its merry and tumultuous character, was also -celebrated with games, hares and deer being hunted in the circus.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Artists appear to have represented Flora as the season of Spring, in -the guise of a beautiful girl crowned with flowers. There is a fine -marble statue of this kind, larger than life, in the museum at Naples, -called the Farnese Flora.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>12. Pales.</b>—Pales was the ancient pastoral goddess of the -Italian tribes, from whom the name Palatine, which originally -meant nothing but a pastoral colony, was derived. She was -especially venerated by the shepherds, who besought her to send -fruitfulness and health to their flocks. A festival in her honour -was celebrated on the 21st of April, the anniversary of the -foundation of the city (Palilia), at which very ancient rustic -customs were observed. The most remarkable of these was the -kindling of a large straw fire, through which the shepherds -rushed with their flocks, thinking thus to purify themselves -from their sins. Milk and baked millet-cakes were offered to -the goddess. There is no statue of her now in existence.</p> - -<p class='c006'><span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span><b>13. Terminus.</b>—Terminus, although he had nothing to do -either with the welfare of the crops or the fruitfulness of the -flocks, may yet be reckoned among the field deities, as the god -who specially presided over boundaries. All landmarks were -held sacred to him, and their erection was attended with -religious ceremonies. In order that his people might fully -appreciate the sanctity of boundaries, King Numa instituted a -special festival in honour of the god, called the Terminalia, and -annually celebrated on the 23rd of February. The proprietors -of lands bordering on each other were wont on this occasion to -crown the boundary stone with garlands, and to make an -offering of a flat cake to the god.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In his wider signification Terminus was regarded as the god -under whose protection the boundaries of the state reposed, and -in this character he had a chapel in the temple of Minerva on -the Capitol. A statue of the god also stood in the midst of the -temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, which is explained by the following -story:—After Tarquinius had conceived the plan of -building the great temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, the limited -space necessitated the removal of several existing shrines, which -could only occur with the consent of the deities themselves. They -all expressed by means of auguries their readiness to make way -for the highest god of heaven, except Terminus, who refused, and -whose shrine had therefore to be included in the temple of Jupiter.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Statues of Terminus are exactly like the Hermæ of the Greeks, and -have no importance in art.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>14. Demeter (Ceres).</b>—Demeter was a daughter of Cronus -and Rhea. Her name signifies Mother Earth, and she is, therefore, -an expression of the ancient conception of the earth-goddess, -with a special reference to nature and human civilisation. She -was also named Deo, and by comparison of these two words, -her name has been interpreted as Dawn-Mother, from the same -root as Zeus, the sky. The thriving of the crops was ascribed to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>her influence; she was further regarded as the patroness of all -those arts which are more or less intimately connected with -agriculture, and which men first learned from her. Demeter -thus rises to the rank of a goddess of civilisation. She rescued -men by means of agriculture from the lower grades of hunters -and shepherds, and brought their former rude and barbarous -manners into subjection to law and morality. She thus becomes -that “bountiful daughter of Heaven,” who, as Schiller sings in -his <cite>Lay of the Bell</cite>,</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c021'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line in28'>“of old</div> - <div class='line'>Called the wild man from waste and wold,</div> - <div class='line'>And, in his hut thy presence stealing,</div> - <div class='line'>Roused each familiar household feeling;</div> - <div class='line in2'>And, best of all the happy ties,</div> - <div class='line'>The centre of the social band,—</div> - <div class='line'>The instinct of the Fatherland.”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>Regarded in this light, she comes into contact with Dionysus, -whose beneficial influence on human civilisation and manners -we have already described. This accounts for the intimate connection -of these two deities in the Eleusinian mysteries, where -Dionysus-Iacchus even appears as the son of Demeter and the -husband of Cora-Persephone. Owing to the important part she -played in the institution of law and order among mankind, she -was venerated as the goddess of marriage, marriage being the -necessary foundation of civil society. She was also regarded as -the tutelary goddess of national assemblies.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Of the numerous legends which are linked with the name of -this goddess, none perhaps is more celebrated, or more pregnant -with meaning in regard to her worship, than the rape of her -daughter Persephone, or Cora. The latter was once playing -with the daughters of Oceanus in a flowery meadow, where -they were picking flowers and making garlands. Persephone -happened to quit her companions for a moment to pluck a -narcissus she had perceived, when suddenly the ground opened -<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>at her feet, and Pluto, or Hades, the god of the infernal regions, -appeared in a chariot drawn by snorting horses. Swift as the -wind he seized and carried off the terrified maiden in spite of -her struggles, and vanished again into the regions of darkness -before her companions were aware of the catastrophe. All this -occurred, however, with the knowledge of Zeus, who had, unknown -to Demeter, promised her daughter to Pluto. When -Demeter missed her darling child, and none could tell her where -she had gone, she kindled torches, and during many days and -nights wandered in anxiety through all the countries of the -earth, not even resting for food or sleep. At length Helios, -who sees and hears everything, told Demeter what had happened, -not disguising, however, that it had occurred with the -consent of Zeus. Full of wrath and grief, the goddess now -withdrew from the society of the other gods into the deepest -solitude. Meanwhile all the fruits of the earth ceased, and a -general famine threatened to extinguish the human race. In -vain Zeus sent one messenger after another, beseeching the angry -goddess to return to Olympus. Demeter swore that she would -neither return nor allow the fruits of the earth to grow until her -daughter was restored to her. At length Zeus was fain to consent, -and despatched Hermes to the lower world to bring Persephone -back. Persephone joyfully prepared to obey this command, but -as she was about to depart Hades gave her a pomegranate-seed -to eat, whereupon she found herself bound to him and unable to -return. By means of Zeus, however, a compact was made by -which Persephone was to spend two-thirds of the year in the -upper world with her mother, and the remaining portion with -her husband. And thus every year at springtide she ascends -from her subterraneous kingdom to enjoy herself in her mother’s -company, but returns again late in autumn to the regions of -darkness and death.</p> - -<p class='c007'>It is not difficult to discover the meaning of this myth. It is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>simply an allegorical representation of the spectacle that is -annually renewed before our eyes—the dying away and coming -to life again of the vegetable world. Whilst Cora is dwelling -during the winter months in the realms of Hades, Nature -appears to wear a garb of mourning for her lost daughter. -In the Eleusinian mysteries this inevitable decease and resurrection -of the vegetable world was conceived as a symbol -of higher meaning, setting forth the immortality of the -soul. Every living being shares the fate of Cora; every life -becomes the prey of cold, inexorable death, only to arise -from the darkness of the grave more beautiful and glorious -than before.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Closely connected with this beautiful and expressive myth -is another which refers to the institution of the Eleusinian -mysteries. When Demeter, after the loss of her daughter, was -wandering over the earth in the guise of a poor old woman, she -came to Eleusis. The daughters of Celeüs, the king of the city, -found her sitting on a stone by the Maidens’ Well as they came -thither to draw water, and offered the old woman service in -their father’s house as nurse to their youngest brother Demophon. -The goddess consented, and was kindly received in the -house of Celeüs, where she was at once installed as nurse to the -young prince. She became so fond of the child that she -resolved to make him immortal by anointing him with ambrosia, -and then laying him at night in the glow of the fire. She was -discovered at her work, however, by the mother of the child, -whose cries disturbed her, and thus prevented her from fulfilling -her benevolent intention. She now revealed herself to Celeüs, -and commanded him to build her a temple in Eleusis. When -it had been hastily completed, with the help of the goddess, she -initiated Celeüs and some other princes of Eleusis—Triptolemus, -Eumolpus, and Diocles—in the solemn rites of her service. On -Triptolemus, who is called the son of Celeüs, she imposed the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>task of disseminating a knowledge of agriculture and of her own -worship throughout the earth, and for this purpose lent him her -own chariot and dragons. On this he travelled through the -countries of the earth, making known everywhere the blessings -of agriculture, and uniting men in regular political communities. -He was not well received in all places, and the goddess had -sometimes to step in and punish those who contemned her -benefits. Such was the case with the Scythian king Lynceus -and the Thessalian prince Erysichthon; but at length her cause -triumphed, and the worship of the bountiful goddess spread -itself over the whole world.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The chief seat of her worship was the city of Eleusis, which -was beautifully situated on the bay of Salamis. It retained this -honour even after it had lost its independence and come into -the possession of the Athenians. The Eleusinian mysteries were -celebrated both here and at Athens, in honour of Demeter and -the deities associated with her. They probably contained a -symbolical history of Cora.</p> - -<p class='c007'>There was a distinction between the greater and lesser -mysteries. The latter were celebrated at Athens in the month -of Anthesterion (February), and were a kind of preparation for -the greater mysteries, which took place in September, and were -celebrated during nine days, partly at Athens and partly at -Eleusis. In these secret rites only those could take part who -had been initiated. The chief feature of the festival was a -great and solemn procession on the sixth day from Athens to -Eleusis, a distance of about twelve miles. All those who took -part in it—often as many as 30,000—were crowned with myrtle, -and bore torches in their hands, as the procession started from -Athens at the earliest dawn.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The festival of the Thesmophoria, which was celebrated at -the beginning of November, in honour of Demeter in her -character of lawgiver and goddess of marriage, was less important than the Eleusinia. It lasted for five days, and only -married women were allowed to take part in it.</p> - -<div id='f_44' class='figcenter id001'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span> -<img src='images/f_44.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 44.—Demeter Enthroned. Painting from Pompeii. Naples.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>The Ceres of the Romans, though undoubtedly an ancient -Italian goddess, was the very counterpart of the Greek Demeter, -with whom, after the successful introduction of her worship -during the first years of the Republic, she was entirely -identified.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The chief festival of Ceres and her associate deities, Liber -and Libera, fell on the 19th of April, which, as the proper -spring month, was especially dedicated by the inhabitants of -Italy to deities presiding over agriculture. The Cerealia were -opened by a grand procession, in which every one was clothed -in white. It was further celebrated with solemn sacrifices and -games in the circus, the management of which lay with the -plebeian ædiles.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The usual sacrifice, both among Greeks and Romans, was the -sow (the symbol of fruitfulness), but, besides this, cows and the -first fruits of the trees and hives were offered to her.</p> - -<p class='c020'>In the representations of the goddess an expression of lofty dignity -is blended with condescending benevolence and gentleness. Her -principal attributes are a torch, a sheaf of corn, a garland of ears of -corn interwoven in her hair, and a basket filled with flowers at her -side. Among the few antique statues, a large marble figure in the -Capitoline Museum at Rome deserves especial mention. The engraving -(Fig. 44), which is after a Pompeian painting, depicts Demeter as the -bountiful goddess of agriculture. She is seated on a throne, and holds -a torch consisting of two calices in her right hand, and a bunch of -corn in her left.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>15. Persephone (Proserpina).</b>—In Persephone, the goddess -of the lower world, whom the Athenians preferred to call -by her mystic name of Cora, two distinct conceptions are -embodied. On the one hand she appears as the wife of the -dark god of the lower world—like him, a gloomy, awe-inspiring -deity, who pitilessly drags down all that lives into the hidden -depths of the earth; whence the grave is called the chamber of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>Persephone. Such is the view of her taken by Homer and later -epic poets. These represent her as sitting enthroned at the side -of her grim lord, the joyless queen of the infernal regions, to -dwell in which were worse than to be a slave on earth. On the -other hand she appears as Cora, the lovely daughter of the all-bountiful -Mother Earth; a personification, in fact, of that -never-dying force of nature which, year by year, causes the most -luxuriant vegetation to spring up before our eyes, only, however, -to die away again in the autumn. In a somewhat narrower -sense Persephone may be regarded as a type of the grain, which -long remains in the ground where it has been sown as though -dead, but afterwards breaks forth into new life. It was only -natural to associate with this last conception ideas of the immortality -of the soul, of which, in the secret doctrines of the -mysteries, Persephone was a symbol. Though we know but -little concerning the details of the mysteries, we are yet aware -that their chief object was to disseminate better and purer ideas -of a future life than the popular faith of the Greeks afforded. -It was commonly believed that the souls of men after death -led a dull, miserable existence in the world of shadows. Those -initiated in the mysteries, however, were taught that death was -only a resurrection of the soul to a brighter and better life, on -the condition, of course, that a man had fully pleased the gods -and rendered himself worthy of such a happy lot.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Persephone, or Proserpina, as she is called in Latin, was a -deity originally entirely strange to the Romans, who borrowed -all their ideas of the lower world from the Greeks. Nevertheless, -they identified her with Libera, an ancient rustic -goddess of fertility, the feminine counterpart of Liber, under -which name she signifies the same as the Greek Cora. -Black, barren cows were sacrificed to Persephone as an infernal -goddess, but she does not appear to have had any temples of -her own.</p> - -<div id='f_45' class='figcenter id001'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span> -<img src='images/f_45.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 45.—Persephone Enthroned. Painting from Pompeii. Naples.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>Persephone is of no great importance in art, and statues of her are -rare. She is represented either as the fair daughter of Demeter, or as -the grave, severe queen of the world of shadows. In the latter -character she may generally be recognised by her sceptre and diadem. -Her other attributes are ears of corn, a poppy, and a torch, as a -symbol of her connection with the Eleusinian mysteries, besides the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>pomegranate and narcissus. The engraving (Fig. 45), after a painting -in the Naples Museum, represents her as the Stygian queen.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>16. Hades (Pluto).</b>—The same twofold nature which we -meet with in Persephone may be observed also in her husband, -Hades, or Aïdoneus (the invisible), as he is called by the epic -poets, on account of the mysterious gloom in which his kingdom -as well as his person was enveloped. He first appears as the -unrelenting, inexorable foe of human life, on whom one cannot -even think without fear and trembling. For this reason, says -Homer, “he is of all the gods the most detested among mortals.” -This conception, however, was subsequently supplanted by one -of a less dismal nature, in which the other side of his character -is brought into prominence. From this point of view he is -represented not only as sending nourishment to plants from the -deep bosom of the earth, but also as offering unbounded riches -to mankind in the shape of the precious metals which lie in his -subterraneous passages and chambers. In this sense he was also -called Pluto, or Pluteus—that is, the god of riches.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Hades belonged to the earliest deities of Greece, being, like -Poseidon, a brother of Zeus. When the three brothers partitioned -the universe among themselves, Hades received the dark regions -of the earth as his exclusive kingdom, the portals of which he -was said to keep closed, in order that no soul might return to -the upper world without his consent. He was also termed -Polydectes (the receiver of many), from the fact of his seizing on -all men, without distinction, at their appointed time, and conveying -them to his dismal realms. The ideas which men first -entertained, as to the mode in which Hades exercised his power -over mortals, exactly corresponded with their grim conception of -the god. He was looked on as a powerful and dreaded robber, -who, as in the case of Persephone, seizes on his prey and carries -it off with his swift horses. Later, a milder conception of the -god was introduced. The task of carrying the souls of the dead -<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>to the lower world was delegated to Hermes, who thus became a -servant of Pluto, the Zeus of the infernal regions, just as he was -otherwise a servant of the Zeus of heaven. But though the -original dismal conception of this deity as the inexorable god of -death was much diminished in course of time, yet Hades, -nevertheless, always conveyed an idea of something grim and -mysterious to the Greek mind; which is perhaps the reason -why so few myths, beyond that of the rape of Proserpina, were -circulated concerning him. He can, in fact, scarcely be said to -have had a place in the public worship of the Greeks.</p> - -<div id='f_46' class='figright id004'> -<img src='images/f_46.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 46.—Head of Hades. Palazzo Chigi. Rome.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>The Roman conception of this deity differed little from that of -the Greeks, having been, in fact, borrowed entirely from a Greek -source. By them he was called Pluto, or Pater Dis. He had -no temple in Rome, but had, in -common with Proserpina, a subterranean -altar in the Campus -Martius, which was uncovered -and used once a-year. Only black -animals were sacrificed to him.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Artists naturally hesitated to -portray a being whose very name -they feared to pronounce, and consequently -antique statues of Hades -are very rare. His characteristic -features—a grim expression of -countenance, tightly-closed lips, -and long tangled hair—are embodied -in a marble head, in the -possession of Prince Chigi at Rome, -of which we give an engraving -(Fig. 46). His principal attributes -are a sceptre, a votive bowl, and -sometimes a two-pronged fork, or -a key.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>17. The Lower World.</b>—To our consideration of Hades -we must add some remarks on the ideas which the ancient -<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>Greeks and Romans had of the other life and of the abodes of -the dead. It may be well to remark, at the outset, that the -Romans do not originally appear to have believed in a kingdom -of the dead in the interior of the earth, and that all their ideas -on this subject were borrowed from the writings of the Greeks. -Neither do their ideas on this subject, nor even those of the -Greeks, appear to have been invariably the same at all times. -Even in the poetry of Homer we come across two very different -views as to the situation of the realms of the dead. According -to that which we find in the <cite>Iliad</cite>, it was situated beneath the -disc-shaped earth, only a thin layer separating it from the upper -world. This is made evident on the occasion of the great battle -of the gods in the 20th book, where we read—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c021'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“Pluto, the infernal monarch, heard alarmed,</div> - <div class='line'>And, springing from his throne, cried out in fear,</div> - <div class='line'>Lest Neptune, breaking through the solid earth,</div> - <div class='line'>To mortals and immortals should lay bare</div> - <div class='line'>His dark and drear abode of gods abhorred.”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c022'>According to another view which prevails in the <cite>Odyssey</cite>, the -world of shadows was not situated beneath the earth, but lay far -to the westward, on the other side of Oceanus, or on an island -in the same; so indefinite and vague were men’s ideas as to the -locality of the kingdom of death in the time of Homer, and so -undeveloped were their conceptions as to the lives of departed -souls. The lower world appears as a desolate, dismal region, -where departed spirits lead a shadowy, dreamy existence, to -reach which is no happiness. There is no difference in their lots; -for we as yet hear nothing of the judgment of the dead. The -Elysian fields, to which the special favourites of the gods were -transferred, form no part of the lower world in Homer, but were -supposed to lie in an entirely distinct region in the far West -(the isles of the blest). Later on, the outlines of the lower -<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>world become more clearly defined. It was now supposed to be -a region in the centre of the earth, with several passages to and -from the upper world. Through it flowed several rivers—Cocytus, -Pyriphlegethon, Acheron, and Styx. The last of these -encompassed the lower world several times, and could only be -crossed by the aid of Charon, the ferryman, who was depicted -as a sullen old man with a bristling beard. The Greeks therefore -used to place an obolus (small copper coin) in the mouths -of their dead, in order that the soul might not be turned back -by Charon for lack of money. On the farther side of the river -the portals were watched by the dreadful hell-hound Cerberus, -a three-headed monster, who refused no one entrance, but -allowed none to leave the house of Pluto. All souls, on reaching -the lower world, had to appear before the tribunal of Minos, -Rhadamanthus, and Æacus. Those whose lives had been upright -were then permitted to enter Elysium, where they led a life of uninterrupted -bliss; whilst those who on earth had been criminal and -wicked were consigned to Tartarus, where they were tormented -by the Furies and other evil spirits. Those whose lives had not -been distinctly good or bad remained in the asphodel meadow, -where as dim shadows they passed a dull, joyless existence.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The punishments of great criminals in the infernal regions were -a fruitful theme for the imagination of the poets. The most -celebrated criminals were Tityus, Tantalus, Sisyphus, Ixion, and -the Danaids. We have said that the idea of the judgment of the -dead is not found in the earliest legends. Hence we must -expect to find, in some cases, that the crimes supposed to have -drawn down the wrath of the gods were either later inventions, -or had very little connection with the punishment inflicted. -Thus to take the case of Tantalus, the original idea appears to -have been the burning sun looking upon sweet fruits and -streams of water, and drying them up instead of being able to -enjoy them. It is possible that another part of the legend, the -offering of his children for the gods of heaven to eat, may have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>a similar origin. So the story of Sisyphus seems to point to -the sun daily toiling up the steep hill of heaven, yet ever -obliged to recommence his weary task. So the name Ixion -seems to be derived from a word meaning wheel, and to be yet -another allusion to the orb of day. As men began to forget the -reality underlying these words, and to think that some real -person suffered these woes, it was only natural that they should -try to find a reason. Generally, perhaps always, some point in -the story could be twisted into a crime deserving of punishment -(compare the legend of Œdipus). The punishment of Tityus, -who had offered violence to Leto, consisted in being chained to -the earth, whilst two vultures continually gnawed at his ever-growing -liver. Tantalus, the ancestor of the Atridæ, Agamemnon -and Menelaus, had been deemed worthy to hold intercourse -with the gods, until he thought fit to put their omniscience to -the test by setting before them the flesh of his son Pelops. -This crime he was condemned to expiate by the torments of continual -hunger and thirst. Above his head were suspended the -most beautiful fruits; but when he attempted to snatch them, a -gust of wind blew them beyond his reach. At his feet flowed -a stream of the purest water; but when he tried to quench his -thirst, it suddenly vanished into the ground. Sisyphus, formerly -king of Corinth, had provoked the wrath of the gods by his -numerous crimes, and was condemned, in consequence, to roll a -block of stone up a high mountain, which, on reaching the top, -always rolled down again to the plain. Ixion, a not less insolent -offender, was bound hand and foot to an ever-revolving wheel. -Lastly, the Danaids, or daughters of Danaus, who, at their -father’s command, had slain their husbands on the wedding -night, were condemned to pour water continually into a cask -full of holes, which could never be filled.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>18. The Erinyes (Furiæ).</b>—The Erinyes, or Furies, were -denizens of the lower world, who executed the commands of -Hades and Persephone. They were ultimately three in number, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>and their names were Tisiphone, Alecto, and Megæra; and this -number, like that of the Graces, the Fates, and others, is due to -the fact that the Greeks expressed any undefined number by the -sacred numeral three. In their original signification they appear -as the avengers of every violation, either on the part of gods or -men, of the moral laws of the universe. When, at a later period, -the idea of an avenging Nemesis had become more and more -developed, the significance of the Erinyes diminished, and their -avenging duties were confined to the family.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As the inexorable pursuers of every injury done to the sacred -ties of blood—especially the murder of kindred—they received -a much greater degree of attention at the hands of the Greek -tragic poets, by whom they were frequently brought on the -stage. The pictures thus drawn of the relentless activity of the -Erinyes are both powerful and striking. Nothing can equal -the keen scent with which they trace the crime, or the -untiring speed with which they pursue the criminal. As a -symbol of this latter quality, the poets have endowed them with -brazen feet. Their appearance is wan and Gorgon-like; wild -lust for blood is written in their features, and the serpents which -twine round their heads in the place of hair deal out destruction -and death on their unhappy victims. Flight avails them nought, -for there is no region whither the avenging Furies cannot follow, -no distance that they cannot compass. With torch swung on -high they dog the steps of the unhappy wretch, like swift huntresses -following in the track of their hard-pressed game, and -never rest until they have driven him to madness and death.</p> - -<p class='c007'>What, then, was the origin of the belief in these dreadful -beings? Two explanations have been given, and in each case -we shall see in them the powers of nature. Whether we are to -look upon them as the storm-clouds darting lightnings upon the -criminal, or as the bright dawn rising over the earth and pointing -out his hiding-place, we must recognise the idea of the punishment -of sin, inflicted by the powers of heaven. If, as seems -most probable (<em>cf.</em> the genealogy given them by Æschylus and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>Sophocles), we are to take the latter explanation, we shall have -some reason for the names of “kindly” and “venerable,” -applied to them by the Greeks, partly, no doubt, owing to the -ancient custom of avoiding words of ill-omen. Yet poetical -mythology treated this as a transformation of their nature, and -associated it with a special event, namely, the institution of the -Areopagus at Athens, and the purification of the matricide -Orestes effected by this venerable court. The story relates that -Orestes, after having slain his mother Clytæmnestra and her -infamous paramour Ægisthus, in revenge for the murder of his -father Agamemnon, wandered for a long time about the earth -in a state bordering on madness, owing to the persecution of the -Erinyes. At length, however, he was befriended by Apollo and -Athene, the kindly deities of the luminous Æther. Apollo first -purified him before his own altar at Delphi, and then defended -him before the court of the Areopagus, which had been founded -by Athene. Orestes was here acquitted, for Athene, when the -votes for and against him were equal, declared that then and -in all future time the criminal should have the benefit of the -doubt. The Furies, indeed, were at first very wroth, and -threatened the land with barrenness both of women and soil; -but Athene succeeded in pacifying them, by promising that a -shrine should be erected to them on the hill of the Areopagus. -After they had taken possession of this sanctuary, they were -thenceforth venerated by the Athenians, under the names of -Semnæ (venerable), or Eumenides (benevolent), as propitious -deities who, though they still continued to punish crimes, were -ever ready to grant mercy to the repentant sinner, and to give -succour to all good men.</p> - -<p class='c007'>There were different traditions concerning the origin of the -Erinyes. According to Hesiod, they owed their existence to the -first execrable crime committed since the beginning of the -world, for they were the daughters of Earth, and sprang from -the drops of blood that fell from the mangled body of Uranus. -They here appear, therefore, as an embodiment of the curses -<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>which the angry father invoked on the head of his unnatural -son. Sophocles, on the other hand, calls them the daughters of -Gæa and Scotos (darkness of night). Æschylus simply terms -them the daughters of the Night. Besides the shrine in Athens -already mentioned, they had another near the city, a sacred -grove in Colonus, which was celebrated as the last refuge of the -unfortunate Œdipus. In Athens they had an annual festival, -at which libations of milk and honey were made to them.</p> - -<p class='c020'>In art the Erinyes are represented as swift huntresses, armed with -spear, bow, and quiver. Torches, scourges, or snakes were also put in -their hands. They were, moreover, provided with wings on their -shoulders or head as a token of their swiftness.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>19. Hecate.</b>—Among the mystic deities of the lower world -we must not omit to mention Hecate. By the Romans, indeed, -she was never publicly venerated, though she was not exactly -unknown to them. Common tradition made her a daughter of -the Titan Perseus and Asteria. She ruled principally over the -secret forces of Nature, which perhaps explains the spectral and -awe-inspiring form which this goddess assumed. She was -supposed to preside over all nocturnal horrors, and not only to -haunt the tombs and cross-roads herself in company with the -spirits of the dead, but also to send nightly phantoms from the -lower world, such as the man-eating spectre Empusa, and other -fabulous goblins.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As her name seems to signify, Hecate (far-striking) was -originally a moon-goddess, not like either Artemis or Selene, but -representing the new moon in its invisible phase. The ancients -not being able to account for the different phases of the moon, -naturally came to the conclusion that, when invisible, it was -tarrying in the lower world. The public worship of the goddess -was not very extensive, but her importance in connection with -the mysteries was all the greater. Men were wont to affix small -pictures of her to houses and city gates, which were supposed to -prevent any bad spells from affecting the town or house. On -the last day of every month her image on the house doors was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>crowned with garlands, and viands were set before it in her -honour, which were afterwards eaten by the poor, and termed -the meals of Hecate. Wooden images of the goddess with three -faces were generally set up where three roads met, and here dogs -were sacrificed to her as sin-offerings for the dead. This usually -took place on the thirtieth day after death. As in the case of other -infernal deities, black lambs were sacrificed to her, besides -libations of milk and honey.</p> - -<div id='f_47' class='figleft id004'> -<img src='images/f_47.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 47.—Three-formed Hecate. Capitoline Museum.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>Hecate was generally represented as three-formed (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">triformis</span></i>), -which probably has some connection with the appearance of the -full, half, and new moon. In -order to explain more clearly the -nature of such a representation, -we give an engraving (Fig. 47) -after a bronze statuette in the -Capitoline Museum at Rome. -The figure facing us holds in -her hands a key and a rope, -which point her out as the portress -of the lower world; over -her brow is a disc, representing, -probably, the dark surface of -the new moon. The figure on -the right holds in either hand -a torch, in virtue of her character -as a mystic goddess, whilst on -her brow is a half-moon and a -lotus-flower. Lastly, the third -figure bears, as a symbol of the -full moon, a Phrygian cap with -a radiant diadem fastened on it, -which gives forth seven rays; in -her right hand is a knife, in her -left the tail of a serpent, of which -no satisfactory interpretation has -hitherto been discovered.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>20. Sleep and Death.</b>—Sleep and Death were conceived by -the ancients as twin brothers. According to Hesiod, they were -children of Night alone. They dwelt in the lower world, whence -they visited the earth to steal over mortals; the former a kindly -benevolent spirit, the latter grim and cruel. Apart from this -<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>conception, which was especially developed by later poets and -artists, Death was sometimes depicted as quite distinct from -Sleep, and in a still less amiable guise. The different forms of -violent death were personified as female deities of formidable -aspect, called the Ceres; or Apollo and Artemis among the -inhabitants of heaven, and Pluto and Persephone among those -of the lower world, were represented, as the deities of death. -The Romans had a personal god of death, whom they called -Orcus; he was represented as an armed warrior dealing out -mortal wounds among mankind. But none of these special gods -of death had any great importance, either in religion or art. -Artists, indeed, laboured sedulously to diminish the dreadful -appearance of Thanatus (death), and to render him more and -more like his brother Hypnus (sleep).</p> - -<p class='c020'>Thanatus and Hypnus often appear in company, either sleeping -or standing; the former usually bears a reversed torch, the latter -a poppy-stalk or a horn, out of which he is pouring some liquid. -They are both generally represented in the bloom of youth. In Fig. -34, which is after a drawing of Asmus Carstens, they appear as the -children of Night, and are here brought into immediate connection -with the other powers, Nemesis and the Parcæ, who control the -destinies of man.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Besides Sleep and Death, Hesiod also mentions Dreams as the -children of Night. Other writers, however, call them the sons -of Sleep, who dwell in the far West, close to the realms of -Hades. This house of dreams has, in Homer’s well-known description, -two gates—one of ivory, through which pass flattering, -deceptive dreams, and one of horn, whence the true dreams -proceed. Morpheus was made the special god of dreams by the -poets, and termed the son of Hypnus.</p> - -<h3 class='c019'>IV.—ROMAN DEITIES OF THE HOUSE AND FAMILY.</h3> - -<p class='c017'>Before passing to the heroic legends, some remarks are necessary -concerning the inferior deities, who played such an important -part in the domestic worship of the Romans. We have already -<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>incidentally remarked that the people of Italy generally passed -by the greater gods of the heaven and earth in anxious awe. -Their invocation and adoration was left to public worship, -whilst, in their less important domestic concerns, men had -recourse to certain inferior deities, whom they thought nearer to -them; just as in the present day, in Italy, the common people -prefer to communicate their prayers and wishes to their patron -saints rather than to the Almighty himself.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>1. The Penates.</b>—The Penates were the kindly domestic -deities of the Romans—the guardians of the household, who -especially provided for its daily wants. Of their name, number, -and sex nothing is known—not because the facts have been -lost to us, but because the Romans themselves were content -with this indefinite conception. Similar good spirits, exerting -an active influence in the household, were recognised by popular -German superstition, without experiencing any necessity of -having distinct names for them. The shrine of the Penates consisted -of the hearth, the central point of the house, which not -only served for the preparation of meals, but was also especially -dedicated to religious purposes. It stood in the “atrium,” the -only large room in the Roman house, where the family met for -meals and received visitors. On the hearth, a fire was continually -kept burning in honour of Vesta and the Penates. -Around it, after the introduction of images of the gods, were -placed the statues of the Penates. These were generally small -and puppet-like, and, among the poorer classes, were only -roughly cut out of wood. There was no domestic occurrence, -either of joy or mourning, in which the Penates did not take -part. Like the Lares, of whom we shall speak presently, they -participated in the daily meal, portions being set on certain -plates for that purpose before the images. There were also -State Penates, the ancients regarding the state as nothing but an -extended family. The temple of Vesta was to the state what -the hearth was to the household. Here was the seat of their -<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>worship, and here it was that the Roman Pontifex Maximus -brought those offerings which, in private households, were the -part of the head of the family. In the innermost sanctuary of -the temple of Vesta there were statues of these Penates, of great -sanctity, since Æneas was reported to have brought them with -him from Troy. We have no trustworthy information as to -their number or appearance, for, with the exception of the -Pontifex and the Vestal Virgins, none ever entered the holy -place. It is scarcely necessary to add that they were believed to -exercise an especial influence on the welfare and prosperity of -the state and people of Rome.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>2. The Lares.</b>—The Lares, like the Penates, were the -tutelary deities of the house and family, and on that account -often confounded with them. They were commonly supposed -to be the glorified spirits of ancestors, who, as guardian deities, -strove to promote the welfare of the family. The seat of their -worship was also the family hearth in the atrium, where their -images of wood or wax were generally preserved in a separate -shrine of their own (Lararium). The Lares received an especial -degree of veneration on the first day of every month; but, like -the Penates, they took part in all the domestic occurrences, -whether of joy or sorrow. Like the Penates, they also received -their share at every meal on particular dishes, and were crowned -with garlands on the occasion of every family rejoicing. When -a son assumed the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga virilis</span></i> (came of age), he dedicated his -<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">bulla</span></i><a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c018'><sup>[5]</sup></a> to the Lares, amid prayers and libations and burning of -incense. When the father of the house started on a journey or -returned in safety, the Lares were again addressed, and their -statues crowned with wreaths, flowers and garlands being their -favourite offerings.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f5'> -<p class='c007'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. A gold or silver ornament, like a medal, which was worn round the -neck during childhood.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>The same conception which pervades the domestic Lares may -be perceived in a more extensive form in the Lares of the Gens, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>city, and the state itself. The Lares do not appear, in fact, to -have differed in many respects from the heroes worshipped by -the Greeks. At all events, Romulus and Remus, the mythical -founders of the city, were regarded as its Lares, and, in the time of -Augustus, the genius of the emperor was associated with them.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>3. Larvæ, Lemures, and Manes.</b>—Just as the Lares -were regarded as the good and happy spirits of ancestors, the -souls of others were supposed to wander about in the guise of -evil demons and spectres, giving rise to weird terrors, and -casting bad spells on the senses of those whom they met. Such -was especially believed to be the fate of those who had not -received burial, or in whose case the prescribed ceremonies had -been neglected, and who being, in consequence, unable to find -rest, were doomed to flit about the earth. Such spirits were -called Larvæ, or Lemures. The propitiatory festival of the -Lemuria, or Lemuralia, which was said to have been instituted -in memory of the murdered Remus, was celebrated annually in -their honour on the 9th, 11th, and 13th of May. Every paterfamilias -was supposed during these days to perform certain -midnight ceremonies, and to repeat certain forms, which had the -effect of banishing any evil spirits.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In contrast to the Lares and Larvæ, the souls of the dead -were also commonly venerated as Manes, or good spirits. -These were believed after burial to have been converted into -beings of a higher order, who dwelt, indeed, in the interior of -the earth, but exercised, notwithstanding, a considerable influence -on the affairs of the upper world. It was possible to -summon them from the lower world by means of sacrifices. A -general festival of the dead took place in February, when the -Manes were propitiated with offerings and libations. These -offerings were placed on the tombs of the deceased, and, of -course, varied extremely, according to the means of the donors.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span> -<img src='images/i_161.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>PART III.—THE HEROES.</h2> -</div> - -<h3 class='c016'>I.—INTRODUCTORY.</h3> - -<div class='c017'> - <img class='drop-capi' src='images/di_161.jpg' width='100' alt='' /> -</div><p class='drop-capi_8'> -On passing to heroic mythology, a world still more rich in -marvels than that with which we have already become acquainted -presents itself to our view. The greater extent of this -department of mythic lore is easily comprehensible, if we take -into consideration the multitude of separate existences into -which Greek life was split up, even from the earliest times. -Each of the numberless countries, islands, cities, and towns -endeavoured to trace back its peculiar institutions to mythical -founders and ancestors; and as these were always described -either as the sons or as the favourites of the gods, there accordingly -sprang up, in course of time, a vast number of local -heroic legends. These fabulous founders of states, however, -were not the only heroes of Greek mythology. The attempt to -pierce the clouds of obscurity which enveloped the early history -of mankind, and the desire of a more enlightened age to bridge -over the intervening gulf, and fill it with beings who should -form a connecting link between the sublime forms of the great -inhabitants of Olympus and the puny race of mortals, naturally -gave rise to a whole series of heroic legends. These were partly -the property of entire nationalities, or even of the whole Hellenic -<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>race, and partly of a local or provincial character. Moreover, -as the gods collectively were divided into gods proper and -<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">dæmones</span>—that is to say, spirits resembling the gods, but inferior -to them in wisdom and power, whose workings men saw in air -and earth and sea—even so the race of mortals was divided into -heroes and men, between whom a similar difference subsisted. -The latter are, in their nature, not different from the former—both -are alike mortal, and must at length fall a prey to inexorable -death. But the heroes are endowed with a degree of -physical strength and dexterity, courage and endurance under -difficulties, such as never fall to the lot of ordinary men. It -was not, however, by any means all who lived in this early -mythical period who were accounted heroes; but, just as in -Genesis vi. 2 a distinction is made between the “sons of God” -and the “daughters of men,” so in the present instance the -heroes were the mighty ones—the ruling spirits of the age—those -whose marvellous exploits contributed to remove the -obstacles to civilisation and culture, who delivered countries -from cruel robbers and savage beasts, who drained marshes, -made roads through untrodden forests, and regulated the course -of rivers. By their actions they proved themselves men of no -ordinary powers, endowed with divine strength, and, therefore, -apparently of divine origin. It appeared, at least, that such -beings must have had an origin different from that of ordinary -men, who were made out of clay, or sprang from trees or stones. -Some of these heroes may perhaps have had a real existence, -having probably been the ancestors of the later dominant races, -to whom a dim tradition reached. Others were undoubtedly a -product of the imagination. To these may be added a third -class, and this is by far the most numerous, including those who -were originally personifications of various natural phenomena, -and, as such, deified and venerated in local forms of worship, but -who were later, in consequence of the birth of new political communities, -expelled from their place in public worship, and only -continued to exist in the popular faith in the inferior character -<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>of heroes. Many such heroes were afterwards again promoted to -the rank of gods, though with an altered meaning (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">e.g.</span></i>, Heracles).</p> - -<p class='c007'>Any real veneration of heroes by prayers and sacrifices can -scarcely be said to have existed before the migration of the -Heraclidæ—at least there is no mention of it in Homer. Even -later, except in the case of those heroes who were raised to the -rank of gods for their great deeds, and who were, therefore, -worshipped in temples of their own, the worship of heroes is -scarcely to be distinguished from that of the dead. Homer -makes no distinction between the fate of heroes after death and -that of ordinary mortals, all being doomed alike to the gloomy -realms of Hades. As we have already observed, it was only -certain special favourites, or sons of Zeus, who were excepted -from this gloomy lot, and were transported in their bodily shape -to the Isles of the Blest. Hesiod, on the other hand, says that -all heroes—whom he, in the first instance, terms demigods—were -transported to the Isles of the Blest, where Cronus ruled -over them. Here, for the first time, the idea of a just retribution -in the other world takes a definite shape; for Hesiod obviously -conceives a residence in Elysium to be the reward of meritorious -actions performed in the upper world. This idea was subsequently -more fully developed, especially in the mysteries, and -men were gradually elevated to a belief in the immortality of -the soul. The spirits of the dead were believed, even after they -were in their graves, to exert continually a mysterious influence; -on which account men strove to gain their favour by means of -offerings, thereby removing every real distinction between the -worship of heroes and that of the dead.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Amid the multitude of legends of this kind, we shall only -dwell upon those which occupy a prominent position either in -poetry or in art. We shall begin with those which relate to -the creation and early civilisation of mankind, after which we -shall pass to the most celebrated provincial legends, and conclude -with those that refer to the more important of the common -undertakings of the later heroic age.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span> - <h3 class='c019'>II.—THE CREATION AND PRIMITIVE CONDITION OF MANKIND.</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c017'>The legends concerning the origin of the human race differ -very widely. The most ancient are undoubtedly those which -describe men as springing from the trees or rocks. Another -tradition asserts that the human race was of later growth, having -been first called into existence by Zeus and the gods of Olympus. -A third account makes the Titan Prometheus, the son of Iapetus, -the creator of mankind, but leaves it uncertain whether this -took place before or after the flood of Deucalion. Prometheus, -according to this account, made men of clay and water, after -which Athene breathed a soul into them. There were likewise -various accounts concerning the primeval condition of mankind. -According to one, the human race raised itself, with the assistance -of the gods, from a state of helpless barbarism: this progress -was the subject of numerous legends. Another account represents -men as living originally in a holy and happy communion -with the gods (the golden age), and asserts that they first became -savage after having lost this good fortune by their presumption.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Of the myths that relate to the introduction of the first -elements of civilisation among mankind by divine aid, there is -none, except those already mentioned concerning Dionysus and -Demeter, more celebrated than the story of Prometheus. The -Titan Iapetus had, by Clymene, the daughter of Oceanus, four -sons—the stout-hearted Atlas, the presumptuous Menœtius, the -crafty Prometheus, and the foolish Epimetheus. With the name -of Prometheus is linked the idea of the first commencement of -civilisation among mankind by the introduction of fire. Prometheus -is said to have stolen fire from heaven, and to have -taught its use to man. By being employed for all the common -purposes of daily life, however, this pure celestial element -became polluted; whereupon Zeus visited the author of this -sacrilege with a fearful punishment. He ordered Prometheus to -be chained to a rock, where, during the day-time, an eagle -<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>devoured his liver (the seat of all evil desires), which always -grew again during the night.</p> - -<p class='c007'>It is very difficult to see the origin of this series of legends, -but the foundation seems to be the discovery of fire by man. -At any rate, one word, closely resembling the name Prometheus, -appears in India as the name of the stick used to produce fire by -friction. If this be the case, we shall see in parts of the Greek -legend instances of the ever-recurring principle, that when the -real derivation of a word is lost, men try to give it an explanation -by attaching it to the nearest word in the existing language -(<em>cf.</em> the derivation of Pan mentioned p. <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>). When the notion -of “forethought” had once been attached to his name, it would -be natural to invent a complementary legend about his brother -Epimetheus (afterthought).</p> - -<p class='c007'>The legend of Prometheus appears in its grandest form in -Æschylus’ play, “Prometheus Bound.”</p> - -<p class='c007'>The idea that, together with the introduction of civilisation, -many evils which were before unknown to man came into -existence, is expressed in the myth of Pandora. Zeus determined -to leave mankind in possession of Prometheus’ gift; but -he ordered Hephæstus to make an image of a beautiful woman, -which the gods then endowed with life and adorned with all -kinds of gifts, whence she was called Pandora. Aphrodite -bestowed on her the seductive charms that kindle love, Athene -instructed her in every art, Hermes endued her with a smooth -tongue and a crafty disposition, whilst the Seasons and Graces -adorned her with flowers and fine dresses. Zeus then sent -her, under the guidance of Hermes, to the foolish Epimetheus, -who, in spite of the warning of his brother not to accept any -present from Zeus, received Pandora and made her his wife. -There was in the house of Epimetheus a closed jar, which he had -been forbidden to open, and which contained all kinds of -diseases and ills. Pandora removed the cover and these escaped, -and men who had before been free from disease and care have -ever since been tormented. Pandora closed the jar in time to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>keep in Hope. Thus both Greek legend and Biblical tradition -alike represent woman as the first cause of evil and death.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The legend of the five ages of mankind transports us to quite -another region of tradition. According to this, the gods first -created a golden race of men, who lived free from care and -sorrow, while the earth, of its own accord, furnished them with -all that was necessary to support life. Subject neither to the -infirmities of age nor to the pangs of sickness and disease, men -at last sank peacefully, as into a sweet sleep, to death. In what -manner the golden age disappeared is not related; we are only -told that this race, notwithstanding its disappearance, still continues -to exist in the upper world, in the shape of good spirits, -who guard and protect mortals. After this, the gods created a -second (silver) race of men, who were, however, far inferior to -their predecessors, both in mind and body. They passed their -time in idle and effeminate pursuits, and refused to pay the gods -due honours. Zeus, in his wrath, thereupon blotted them out -from the face of the earth, and created the third (brazen) race of -mankind out of ash wood. This race proved headstrong and -violent. They were of giant stature and great strength, and -took pleasure in nothing but battle and strife. Their weapons, -houses, and utensils were of bronze, iron not yet being known. -Zeus was not compelled to destroy this evil race, since they -destroyed themselves in their bloodthirsty strife. According to -another account, they were destroyed by the flood of Deucalion.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Deucalion appears to have been a son of Prometheus, while -his wife Pyrrha was the daughter of Epimetheus and Pandora. -Zeus having determined to destroy the corrupt race of the third -or bronze age by a flood, Prometheus warned his son, who built -himself an ark, into which he retired with his wife when the -waters began to rise. Nine days and nights he was tossed on the -waters; at length his vessel rested on Mount Parnassus in Bœotia. -He disembarked, and immediately offered a sacrifice of thanksgiving -to Zeus the preserver. Pleased at his gratitude, Zeus -granted his prayer for the restoration of the human race; and Deucalion -<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>and Pyrrha were commanded by Hermes to cast stones behind -them, from which sprang a new race of men. Such is the -legend in its most ancient form; later writers engrafted on it still -farther incidents of Biblical tradition, until at last the Greek Noah -was represented as having taken living animals with him into the -ark, and as having let loose a dove after his landing on Parnassus.</p> - -<h3 class='c019'>III.—PROVINCIAL HEROIC LEGENDS.</h3> - -<p class='c006'><b>1. The Lapithæ and the Centaurs.</b>—We shall commence -with the Thessalian legend of the Lapithæ and Centaurs, -on account of its great antiquity and its importance in sculpture. -We read in the Homeric poems how the hoary Nestor on one -occasion boasts of having, in his younger days, taken part with -his friends Pirithoüs and Cæneus, and the other princes of the -Lapithæ, in their contest with the savage Centaurs. In Homer’s -account the Centaurs are merely depicted as an old Thessalian -mountain tribe of giant strength and savage ferocity, utterly -unable to control their rude, sensual nature. Nor do we find -here any mention of their being half horses and half men; they -are merely said to have inhabited the mountain districts of Œta -and Pelion, in Thessaly, and to have been driven thence by the -Lapithæ into the higher mountain-lands of Pindus.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Their contest with the Lapithæ is sometimes conceived as a -symbol of the struggle of Greek civilisation with the still existing -barbarism of the early Pelasgian period. This may be the reason -why Greek art, when in its bloom, devoted itself so especially to -this subject. The origin of this contest is referred to the marriage -feast of Pirithoüs and Hippodamia, to which the principal -Centaurs had been invited. On this occasion the Centaur -Eurytion, heated with wine, attempted to carry off the bride; this -gave rise to a contest which, after dreadful losses on both sides, -ended in the complete defeat of the Centaurs. The Centaurs, -however, since they were thus able to sit with the Lapithæ at -meat, must have been endowed with purely human forms.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>Theseus and Nestor, the friends of Pirithoüs, both took part in -the battle. Another prominent warrior was the gigantic Cæneus -(Slayer), who had been rendered invulnerable by Poseidon, but -whom the Centaurs slew on this occasion by burying him -beneath a mass of trees and rocks.</p> - -<p class='c007'>There is, however, also a natural explanation of the tales of -these strange beings. The father of the Centaurs is Ixion, who, -as we have already seen, may be interpreted to be the sun. The -crime said to have been the cause of his punishment was his love -for Hera (the goddess of the atmosphere). If we take these -points, together with the legend that Ixion begat the Centaurs of -Nephele, the cloud, we may be prepared to see in the horse-formed -Centaurs a parallel to the cows of the sun, the bright clouds which -pass over the sky. There is the more ground for this, as similar -beings appear in Indian mythology, and their name has, with much -probability, been identified with that of the Centaurs.</p> - -<div id='f_48' class='figleft id005'> -<img src='images/f_48.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 48.—Metope of the Parthenon.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>As we have already mentioned, the Centaurs play an important -part in art. The custom of depicting them half horse and half -man came into -vogue after the -time of Pindar, and -was quickly adopted -in sculpture. In -the representations -of earlier art the -face of a man is -joined to the body -and hind legs of a -horse. But in its -higher stage of development, -after the -time of Phidias, this -was replaced by a -more elegant conception, -and the -body of a man from -the navel upwards -was joined to the -complete body of a horse, so that the Centaurs of this period have the -four feet of a horse and the hands and arms of a man. Such is their -appearance on numerous extant art monuments, of which we shall -mention the most important.</p> - -<p class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>In the first place, there are the reliefs from the frieze of the -Theseum at Athens. This temple, which is still in a good state of -preservation, was converted during the middle ages into a chapel of -St. George. It is supposed to have been built at the instance of -Cimon, after he had brought back the bones of the Attic hero from -Scyros. Besides other important pieces, which we shall mention -hereafter, the temple has, on its western or hinder frieze, a representation -of the contests of the Centaurs and Lapithæ at the wedding -of Pirithoüs, done in Parian marble. It is executed in such a manner -that it is impossible to discover which party will get the upper hand; -and this has enabled the artist, whose name has not come down to us, -to introduce a lively variety into the different scenes of the combat.</p> - -<div id='f_49' class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/f_49.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 49.—From the Frieze of the Temple at Bassæ.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>We have another series of most splendid representations from the -battle of the Centaurs, full of life and spirit, on some dilapidated -metopes<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c018'><sup>[6]</sup></a> of the Parthenon at Athens. This splendid specimen of -Doric architecture is 227 feet in length and 101 feet in breadth. It -was ruined in 1687, during the war between the Venetians and -Turks, by a shell which broke through the midst of the marble roof. -A large part of the ninety-two metopes of the outer frieze contain a -number of the most beautiful and life-like scenes from the battle -of the Giants and that of the Centaurs. Of these metopes, thirty-nine -still remain on the temple, though they are all in a terribly -mutilated condition; seventeen are in the British Museum, and one -in the Louvre at Paris. Those from the south side are comparatively -in the best state of preservation; these are seventeen in number, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>whole number on the south side having been thirty-two. They -represent, exclusively, scenes from the battle of the Centaurs. Here -a bearded Centaur is carrying off a woman, whom he holds in his -powerful grasp; there, another is galloping away over the body of his -fallen enemy; another is engaged in a fierce contest with a human -foe; whilst a fourth lies slain on the field. The engraving we append -may give a faint idea of the beauty and bold design of this splendid -creation (Fig. 48). To these grand monuments of Greek art we must -add the frieze of the temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassæ, near -Phigalia in Arcadia, which was discovered in 1812, and is now in the -British Museum. It represents, likewise, a series of the most vivid -scenes from the battle of the Lapithæ and Centaurs. In the individual -groups and scenes of the battle, which is here completed -before our eyes, there is the same variety and animation, so that we -must ascribe it to some great artist (Fig. 49).</p> - -<div class='footnote c023' id='f6'> -<p class='c007'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. The squares between the triglyphs of the frieze which are intended to -support the gable, every one of which is generally adorned with a separate -sculpture in relief.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>Besides these sculptures in relief, some splendid single statues of -Centaurs have come down to us from antiquity. Among these, the -first place must be assigned to the two Centaurs in the Capitoline -Museum. They are executed in black marble, and were found in -the villa of Hadrian at Tivoli, where so many ancient art treasures -have been brought to light.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Among the Centaurs, Chiron, who was famous alike for his -wisdom and his knowledge of medicine, deserves mention as the -preceptor of many of the heroes of antiquity. So far superior -was he to his savage kindred, both in education and manners, -that he was commonly reported to have had a different origin, -and was therefore described as a son of Cronus and Philyra, -or Phyllira, one of the Oceanids. Homer, who knew nothing -of the equine shape of the Centaurs, represents him as the most -upright of the Centaurs, and makes him the friend of Peleus and -the preceptor of the youthful Achilles, whom he instructed in -the art of healing and gymnastic exercises. He was, moreover, -related to both these heroes, his daughter Endeïs having been -the mother of Peleus. Subsequently, other mythical heroes -were added to the number of his pupils, such as Castor and -Polydeuces, Theseus, Nestor, Meleager, and Diomedes. Music, -too, was now represented as a subject of his instruction, though -this is perhaps due to a misinterpretation of the name of his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>mother. He inhabited a cave on Mount Pelion; later mythology, -however, transferred his residence, after the Centaurs -had been driven from Pelion by the Lapithæ, to the promontory -of Malea. Here, by an unlucky accident, he was wounded -with a poisoned arrow by his friend Heracles, and, the wound -being incurable, he voluntarily chose to die in the place of -Prometheus.</p> - -<div id='f_50' class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/f_50.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 50.—Centaur teaching a Boy to play upon the Pipe. Relief by Kundmann.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>The idea of the connection of the Centaurs with the arts and -sciences originated in the story of Chiron and Achilles, and has since -furnished modern art with the subjects for some of its most valuable -works. Fig. 50 represents a Centaur teaching a boy to play on -the flute, and is after an <em>alto-relievo</em> of the Viennese sculptor -Kundmann.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>2. Theban Legend.</b>—<em>1. Cadmus.</em>—Among Theban legends, -none is more celebrated than the founding of Thebes by Cadmus. -Cadmus was a son of the Phœnician king Agenor. After -Zeus carried off his sister Europa to Crete (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> the <cite>Cretan -Legends</cite>), he was despatched by his father in search of her. -Accompanied by his mother Telephassa, he came to Thrace -and thence to Delphi, where he was commanded by the oracle to -relinquish his quest. It further ordered him to follow a young -heifer with the mark of a crescent on either side, and to build a -town on the place where the heifer should lie down. Cadmus -obeyed, and, finding the heifer in Phocis, he followed her. She -led him into Bœotia, and at length lay down on a rising ground. -On this spot Cadmus founded a town, which he called Cadmea, -after himself, though he had first to experience a perilous -adventure. Before sacrificing the heifer, he sent some of his -companions to fetch water from a neighbouring spring, where -they were slain by a dragon belonging to Ares which guarded -the spring. Cadmus then went himself, and slew the dragon, -the teeth of which he sowed in the ground by the advice of -Pallas. Hereupon armed men sprang from the ground; they -immediately turned their arms against each other, and were all -slain except five. Cadmus built his new town with the assistance -of these men, who thus became the ancestors of the noble -families of Thebes. In expiation of the dragon’s death, Cadmus -was obliged to do service to Ares for eight years. At the end -<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>of this period Ares pardoned Cadmus and gave him Harmonia—his -daughter by Aphrodite—to wife. Harmonia became the -mother of four daughters—Autonoë, Ino, Semele, and Agave. -After reigning for a long time at Thebes, Cadmus was compelled -in his old age to retire to the Enchelians in Illyria; but -whether he was driven out by Amphion and Zethus (who -appear in Homer as the founders of Thebes) or withdrew from -some other cause is not manifest. He and his wife were afterwards -changed into serpents, and transferred, by the command -of Zeus, to the Elysian fields.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In this story we see another form of the combat of the hero -with the monster, and can probably give it the same explanation. -The dragon guards the waters, and the hero, by killing it, frees -them. Do we not see in this the combat of the sun with the -cloud; and in the armed men who turn their weapons against -one another, the clouds that seem to fight with one another in the -thunderstorm? Yet even admitting this interpretation, it may -be that we have in the name of Cadmus an allusion to the -civilisation and the arts received by the Greeks from the East. -So, too, with the alphabet, the invention of which Hellenic -tradition ascribed to him.</p> - -<div id='f_51' class='figright id004'> -<img src='images/f_51.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 51.—Actæon Group. British Museum.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c007'><em>2. Actæon.</em>—We have already incidentally mentioned the -fortunes of three of the daughters of Cadmus—Ino, Semele, and -Agave. The eldest, Autonoë, married Aristæus, the son of -Apollo, and became by him the mother of Actæon. Actæon -was handed over to Chiron to be reared as a stout hunter and -warrior; but he had scarcely reached the prime of youth when -he was overtaken by a lamentable fate. Whilst hunting one -day on Mount Cithæron, he was changed by Artemis into a -stag, and was torn in pieces by his own dogs. The cause of her -anger was either that Actæon had boasted that he was a more -skilful hunter than Artemis, or that he had surprised the virgin -goddess bathing. The latter tradition ultimately prevailed, and, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>in later times, even the rock whence -he beheld Artemis was pointed out on -the road between Megara and Platæa. -He received heroic honours in Bœotia, -and his protection was invoked against -the deadly power of the sun in the -dog-days. The story of Actæon is -probably nothing but a representation -of the decay of verdant nature beneath -an oppressive summer heat.</p> - -<p class='c020'>The story of -Actæon’s transformation -and death -was a favourite -subject for sculpture. -A small -marble group, representing -Actæon -beating off two -dogs which are attacking -him, was -found in 1774, and -is now preserved -in the British -Museum (Fig. 51).</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>3. Amphion -and Zethus.</em>—Besides -the royal -family of Cadmus, -which was continued in Thebes after his departure by his -son Polydorus, we come across the scions of another ruling -family of Thebes which came from Hyria, or Hysia, in Bœotia, -in the persons of Amphion and Zethus. Nycteus, king of -Thebes, had a wonderfully beautiful daughter called Antiope, -whose favours Zeus enjoyed on approaching her in the form of a -Satyr. On becoming pregnant, she fled from the resentment of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>her father to Sicyon, where the king, Epopeus, received her and -made her his wife. This enraged Nycteus, who made war on -Epopeus in order to compel him to deliver up his daughter -Antiope. He was obliged to retire without accomplishing his -purpose, but, on his death, he entrusted the execution of his -vengeance to his brother Lycus, who succeeded him. Lycus -defeated and slew Epopeus, destroyed Sicyon, and took Antiope -back with him as prisoner. On the way, at Eleutheræ on -Cithæron, she gave birth to the twins Amphion and Zethus. -These were immediately exposed, but were subsequently discovered -and brought up by a compassionate shepherd. Antiope -was not only kept prisoner in the house of Lycus, but had also -to submit to the most harsh and humiliating treatment at the -hands of his wife Dirce. At length she managed to escape, and -by a wonderful chance discovered her two sons, who had grown, -on lonely Cithæron, into sturdy youths. The story of her -wrongs so enraged them that they resolved to wreak a cruel -vengeance on Dirce. After having taken Thebes and slain -Lycus, they bound Dirce to the horns of a wild bull, which -dragged her about till she perished. According to another -story, Dirce came to Cithæron to celebrate the festival of -Bacchus. Here she found her runaway slave, whom she was -about to punish by having her bound to the horns of a bull. -Happily, however, Amphion and Zethus recognised their mother, -and inflicted on the cruel Dirce the punishment she had destined -for another. Her mangled remains they cast into the spring -near Thebes which bears her name.</p> - -<div id='f_52' class='figcenter id001'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span> -<img src='images/f_52.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 52.—Farnese Bull. Naples.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>The punishment of Dirce forms the subject of numerous pieces of -sculpture. The most important among them is the Farnese Bull -(<em>Toro Farnese</em>) in the museum at Naples (Fig. 52). This world-renowned -marble group is supposed, with the exception of certain -parts which have been restored in modern times, to have been the -work of the brothers Apollonius and Tauriscus, of Tralles in Caria, -Apollonius and Tauriscus belonged to the Rhodian school, which -flourished in the third century <span class='fss'>B.C.</span> This colossal group—undoubtedly -the largest which has descended to us from antiquity—was -first erected in Rhodes, but came, during the reign of Augustus, into -the possession of Asinius Pollio, the great art-patron. It was discovered -in 1547 in the Thermæ of Caracalla at Rome, and was set up -in the Palazzo Farnese. It was thence transferred to Naples in 1786, -as a portion of the Farnese inheritance. The following is a brief -<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>explanation of the group, though, of course, the most complete -account could give but an imperfect idea of its beauty. The scene -is laid on the rocky heights of Cithæron. The position of the handsome -youths on a rocky crag is as picturesque as it is dangerous, and -serves not only to lend the group a pyramidal aspect pleasing to the -eye, but also to set before us their marvellous strength. There are -several tokens that the occurrence took place during a Bacchic festival: -the wicker <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cista mystica</span></i> in use at the festivals of Dionysus—the -fawn skin which Dirce wears—the ivy garland that has fallen at her -feet—the broken thyrsus, and, lastly, the Bacchic insignia which -distinguish the shepherd boy, who is sitting on the right watching -the proceedings with painful interest—all point to this fact. The -lyre which rests against the tree behind Amphion is a token of his -well-known love of music. The female figure in the background is -Antiope.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The story goes on to relate that the two brothers, after the -expulsion and death of Lyons, acquired the sovereignty of -Thebes, though Amphion always figures as the real king. The -two brothers were widely different in disposition and character. -Zethus appears to have been rude and harsh, and passionately -fond of the chase. Amphion, on the other hand, is represented -as a friend of the Muses, and devoted to music and poetry. He -soon had an opportunity of proving his wondrous skill when -they began to enclose Thebes, which had been before unprotected, -with walls and towers; for whilst Zethus removed -great blocks and piled them one on another by means of his -vast strength, Amphion had but to touch the strings of his lyre -and break forth into some sweet melody, and the mighty stones -moved of their own accord and obediently fitted themselves -together. This is why Amphion is always represented in sculpture -with a lyre and Zethus with a club. We can scarcely -doubt that these Theban Dioscuri, like the Castor and Polydeuces -of Sparta, who are well known to be only symbols of the -morning and evening star, were originally personifications of some -natural phenomenon; though we are no longer in a position to -say what it was.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>Amphion is further celebrated on account of the melancholy -fate of his sons and daughters. He married Niobe, the daughter -of the Phrygian king Tantalus, and sister of Pelops. Great was -the happiness of this marriage; the gods seemed to shower down -their blessings on the royal pair. Many blooming and lovely -children grew up in their palace, the pride and delight of their -happy parents. From this paradise of purest joy and happiness -they were soon to pass into a night of the deepest mourning and -most cruel affliction through the presumption of Niobe—the -same presumption which had led her father Tantalus to trifle -with the gods and consummate his own ruin. The heart of -Niobe was lifted up with pride at the number of her children,<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c018'><sup>[7]</sup></a> -and she ventured to prefer herself to Latona, who had only two; -nay, she even went so far as to forbid the Thebans to offer sacrifice -to Latona and her children, and to claim these honours -herself. The vengeance of the offended deities, however, now -overtook her, and all her children were laid low in one day before -the unerring arrows of Apollo and his sister. The parents did not -survive this deep affliction. Amphion slew himself, and Niobe, -already paralysed with grief, was turned into stone by the pity -of the gods, and transferred to her old Phrygian home on -Mount Sipylus, though even the stone has not ceased to weep.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f7'> -<p class='c007'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. The number of Niobe’s children varies materially. Homer (<cite>Il.</cite> xxiv., -602) gives her six sons and as many daughters. According to Hesiod and -Pindar, she had ten sons and ten daughters; but the most common account, -and that followed by the tragic poets, allows her fourteen children. -Everywhere the number of sons and daughters appears to be equal. The -story of Niobe was frequently treated of by the tragic poets, both Æschylus -and Sophocles having written tragedies bearing her name.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>Such is the substance of this beautiful legend, though its -details vary considerably in the accounts of the poets and -mythologists. The most circumstantial and richly-coloured account -of it is contained in the <cite>Metamorphoses</cite> of Ovid. The poets -<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>have continually striven to impose a purely ethical interpretation -on the story, by representing the destruction of the children of -Niobe as the consequence of the great sin of their mother; but -it is more probably a physical meaning which lies at the root -of the legend. It is, in fact, a picture of the melting of -the snow before the hot scorching rays of the sun. This -incident the fertile imagination of the Greeks portrayed in -the most beautiful metaphors. But just as a subject so purely -tragic as the history of Niobe found its first true development -in tragic poetry, so likewise it only attained its proper -place in sculpture after art had laid aside its earlier and more -simple epic character, and set itself to depict, in their full force, -the inward passions of the soul. This tendency towards pathos -and effect is characteristic of the age of Praxiteles and Scopas, -and the later Attic school.</p> - -<p class='c020'>To this age (4th century <span class='fss'>B.C.</span>) belonged the group of Niobe, which -was so highly celebrated even among the ancients, and which was -seen by Pliny in the temple of Apollo Sosianus at Rome, although -people even then hesitated whether to ascribe it to Praxiteles or -Scopas. None but one of these great masters could have been the -author of this tragedy hewn in stone. Although the original figures -of this magnificent group have disappeared, yet copies of most -of them are still in existence. With regard to the celebrated -Florentine Niobe group, the dissimilarity of its treatment and the -various kinds of marble employed serve to show that it is not a -Greek original, but a Roman imitation. It was found at Rome in -1583, near the Lateran Church, and was purchased by Cardinal -Medici to adorn his villa on the Monte Pincio. In 1775 it was -brought to Florence, where it has remained since 1794 in the gallery -of the Uffizi.</p> - -<p class='c020'>There has never been but one opinion as to the beauty of this -group. First among the figures—not only in size, but also in artistic -perfection—is that of Niobe herself. The unhappy queen displays -in her whole hearing so majestic and noble a demeanour, that, even -if none of the other splendid results of Greek sculpture had come -down to us, this alone would bear ample testimony to the high perfection -and creative power of Greek art. The following description -of the arrangement of the group is taken from Lübke’s <cite>History of -Plastic Art</cite>:—</p> - -<div id='f_54' class='figleft id004'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span> -<img src='images/f_54.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 54.—Niobe. Florence.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>“Apollo and Artemis are to be supposed outside the group; -they have accomplished their work of vengeance and destruction -from an invisible position in the heavens. This is denoted by -each movement of the flying figures, who either gaze upwards in -affright towards the heavens, or seek to cover themselves with their -garments. One of the sons is already stretched dead on the earth; -another leans in mortal agony against a rock, fixing his eyes, already -glazed in death, on the spot whence destruction has overtaken him. -A third brother is striving in vain to protect with his robe his sister, -who has fallen wounded at his feet, and to catch her in his arms; -another has sunk on his knees, and clutches in agony at the wound -in his back; whilst his preceptor is endeavouring to shield the -youngest boy. All the others are fleeing instinctively to their -mother, thinking, doubtless, that she who had so often afforded protection -could save -them also from the -avenging arrows of -the gods. Thus from -either side the waves -of this dreadful flight -rush towards the centre, -to break on the -sublime figure of Niobe -as upon a rock. She -alone stands unshaken -in all her sorrow, -mother and queen to -the last. Clasping her -youngest daughter, -whose tender years -have not preserved -her, in her arms, and -bending over as though -to shield the child, she -turns her own proud -head upwards, and, -before her left hand -can cover her sorrow-stricken -face with her -robe, she casts towards -the avenging goddess -a look in which bitter -grief is blended with -sublime dignity of soul -(Fig. 54). In this look -there is neither defiance -<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>nor prayer for mercy, but a sorrowful and yet withal lofty -expression of heroic resignation to inexorable fate that is worthy of a -Niobe. This admirable figure, then, is pre-eminently the central -point of the composition, since it expresses an atonement which, in a -scene of horror and annihilation, stirs the heart to the deepest sympathy.”</p> - -<p class='c007'>Zethus was not more fortunate than Amphion in his domestic -affairs. He married Aëdon (nightingale), the daughter of Pandareos. -Pandareos was the friend and companion of Tantalus, -for whom he stole a living dog made of brass from the temple -of Zeus in Crete, and was on that account turned into stone.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Aëdon was jealous of the good-fortune of Niobe in having so -many beautiful children; she herself having only one son, -Itylus. She resolved, one night, to slay the eldest son of Niobe, -but she killed, in mistake, her own child instead. Zeus took -compassion on her, and changed her into a nightingale. In this -guise she still continues to bewail her loss in long-drawn mournful -notes. Tradition says nothing as to the death of Zethus, -although the common grave of the Theban Dioscuri was pointed -out in Thebes. After his death, Laius, the son of Labdacus -and grandson of Polydorus, restored in his person the race of -Cadmus to the throne of Thebes. (See the legend of the Labdacidæ -later on.)</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>3. Corinthian Legend.</b>—<em>1. Sisyphus.</em>—Corinth, or Ephyra, -as it was formerly called, was said to have been founded by -Sisyphus, the son of Æolus. Its inhabitants, on account of the -position of their city between two seas, were naturally inclined -to deify that element, and it is not improbable that Sisyphus was -merely an ancient symbol of the restless, ever-rolling waves of -the sea. This interpretation, however, is by no means certain; -and the idea of Sisyphus in the lower world ever rolling a huge -stone to the top of a mountain might equally well refer to the -sun, which, after attaining its highest point in the heavens at -the time of the summer solstice, glides back again, only to begin -<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>its career anew on the shortest day. In any case, the rolling of -the stone does not appear to have been originally a punishment. -It was only later—after people had become familiar with the idea -of retribution in the lower world—that it assumed this character. -In order to account for it, a special crime had to be found for -Sisyphus. According to some, he was punished at the instance -of Zeus, because he had revealed to the river-god Asopus the -hiding-place of his daughter Ægina, whom Zeus had secretly -carried off from Phlius. According to another tradition, he used -to attack travellers, and put them to death by crushing them -with great stones. The Corinthians being crafty men of business, -it was natural that they should accredit their mythical -founder with a refined cunning. Of the numerous legends which -existed concerning him, none was more celebrated than that of -the cunning mode in which he succeeded in binding Death, -whom Ares had to be despatched to release.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>2. Glaucus.</em>—Tradition describes Glaucus as a son of Sisyphus -by Merope. He also appears to have had a symbolic meaning, -and was once identical with Poseidon, though he was afterwards -degraded from the rank of a god to that of a hero. He is -remarkable for his unfortunate end. On the occasion of some -funeral games, celebrated in Iolcus in honour of Pelias, he took -part in the chariot race, and was torn in pieces by his own -horses, which had taken fright.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>3. Bellerophon and the Legend of the Amazons.</em>—The third -national hero of Corinth was Bellerophon, or Bellerophontes. -Here the reference to the sun is so obvious, that the signification -of the myth is unmistakeable. He was termed the son of Poseidon -or Glaucus, and none could appreciate this genealogy better -than the Corinthians, who daily saw the sun rise from the sea. -We must first, however, narrate the substance of the story. -Bellerophon was born and brought up at Corinth, but was -obliged from some cause or other to leave his country. That he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>killed Bellerus, a noble of Corinth, is nothing but a fable arising -from an unfortunate misinterpretation of his name. He was -hospitably received by Prœtus, king of Tiryns, whose wife at -once fell in love with the handsome, stately youth. Finding, -however, that Bellerophon slighted her passion, she slandered -him to her husband, and Prœtus forthwith sent him to his -father-in-law, Iobates, king of Lycia, with a tablet, mysterious -signs on which bade Iobates put the bearer to death. At this -juncture the heroic career of Bellerophon begins. Iobates -sought to fulfil the command of Prœtus by involving his guest -in all kinds of desperate adventures. He first sent him to destroy -the Chimæra, a dangerous monster that devastated the land. -The fore part of its body was that of a lion, the centre that of -a goat, and the hinder part that of a dragon. According to -Hesiod, it had three heads—that of a lion, a goat, and a dragon. -According to the same poet, the Chimæra was a fire-breathing -monster of great swiftness and strength, the daughter of Typhon -and Echidna. Bellerophon destroyed the monster by raising -himself in the air on his winged horse Pegasus, and shooting it -with his arrows. Pegasus was the offspring of Poseidon and -Medusa, from whose trunk it sprung after Perseus had struck -off her head. Bellerophon captured this wonderful animal as -it descended at the Acro-Corinthus to drink of the spring of -Pirene. In this he was assisted by the goddess Athene, who -also taught him how to tame and use it. Here, then, he appears -to have already possessed the horse at Corinth; though another -tradition relates that Pegasus was first sent to him when he set -out to conquer the Chimæra. The origin of the story is ascribed -to a fiery mountain in Lycia; but, as all dragons and suchlike -monsters of antiquity are represented as breathing forth fire and -flames, we are perhaps scarcely justified in having recourse to a -volcano. This characteristic is, in fact, merely a common symbol -of the furious and dangerous character of these monsters. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>The contest of Bellerophon is far more likely to be a picture of -the drying up, by means of the sun’s rays, of the furious mountain -torrents which flood the corn-fields. Others, again, have -thought that the Chimæra represents the storms of winter conquered -by the sun.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The next adventure in which Iobates engaged Bellerophon -was an expedition against the Solymi, a neighbouring but -hostile mountain tribe. After he had been successful in subduing -them, Iobates sent him against the warlike Amazons, -hoping that among them he would be certain to meet his death. -We here, for the first time, come across this remarkable nation -of women, with whom other Greek heroes, such as Heracles and -Theseus, are said to have fought; and it will not, therefore, be -foreign to our object to dwell here on their most important -features.</p> - -<div id='f_55' class='figright id004'> -<img src='images/f_55.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 55—Amazon. Berlin.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>The Amazons appear in legend as early as Homer, though he -only mentions them incidentally. They were said to be a -nation of women, who suffered no men among them, except so -far as it was necessary to keep up the race. The women, on the -other hand, were trained from their earliest years in all warlike -exercises; so that they were not only sufficiently powerful to -defend their own land against foreign invaders, but also to make -plundering incursions into other countries. Their dominions, -the situation of which was at first indefinitely described as in -the far north or far west, were afterwards reduced to more -distinct limits, and placed in Cappadocia, on the river Thermodon, -their capital being Themiscyra in Scythia, on the -borders of Lake Mæotis, where their intercourse with the -Scythians is said to have given rise to the Sarmatian tribes. -Later writers also speak of the Amazons in Western Libya. -Of the numerous stories rife concerning them, none is more -tasteless than that of their cutting off or burning out the -right breast, in order not to incommode themselves in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>use of the bow. From -the Thermodon they are -said to have made great -expeditions as far as the -Ægean sea; they are even -reported to have invaded -Attica, and made war on -Theseus. They also play -a prominent part in the -story of Heracles, by whom -they were defeated; and -in the Trojan war, when, -under their queen Penthesilea, -they came to the -assistance of Priam against -the Greeks.</p> - -<p class='c020'>The Amazons were frequently -represented in Greek -art. They are here depicted -as fine, powerful women, -resembling Artemis and her -nymphs, though with stouter -legs and arms. They generally -appear armed, their -weapons being a long double-edged -battle-axe (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">bipennis</span></i>) -and a semicircular shield. -An anecdote related by Pliny -proves what a favourite subject -the Amazons were with -Greek artists. He says that -the celebrated sculptors, -Phidias, Polycletus, Phradmon, -and Cresilas, made a -wager as to who should -create the most beautiful -Amazon. Polycletus received -the prize, so that -we may conclude that he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>brought this statue—the ideal Amazon of the Greeks—to its -highest perfection. Unfortunately, we know nothing of it, except -that it was of bronze, and stood with the statues of the other artists -in the temple of the Ephesian Artemis. The Amazon of Phidias, we -are told, was represented as leaning on a spear; Cresilas, on the other -hand, endeavoured to portray a wounded Amazon. Besides these -statues, we hear a great deal of the Amazon of Strongylion, celebrated -for the beauty of her legs, which was in the possession of Nero.</p> - -<p class='c020'>We still possess a considerable number of Amazon statues, some of -which are supposed to be imitations in marble of the renowned -statue at Ephesus. There are, moreover, several statues of wounded -Amazons, some of which are believed to be copies of the work of -Cresilas. There is also another marble statue, considerably larger -than life, which takes a still higher rank. It was originally set up -in the Villa Mattei, but since the time of Clement XIV. it has been -in the Vatican collection. It is apparently a representation of an -Amazon resting after battle; she is in the act of laying aside her -bow, as she has already done her shield, battle-axe, and helmet. In -doing so she raises herself slightly on her left foot, an attitude which -is as charming as it is natural.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Lastly, we must not omit to mention a statue that has newly come -into the possession of the Berlin Museum, which is supposed to be -after a work of Polycletus (Fig. 55).</p> - -<p class='c007'>We must now return to the history of Bellerophon. After -returning in triumph from his expedition against the Amazons, -the life of the young hero was once more attempted by Iobates, -who caused him to be surprised by an ambuscade. Bellerophon, -however, again escaped, slaying all his assailants. Iobates now -ceased from further persecution, and gave him his daughter in -marriage, and a share in the kingdom of Lycia. Bellerophon, -in full possession of power and riches, and surrounded by -blooming children, seemed to have reached the summit of -earthly prosperity, when he was overtaken by a grievous change -of fortune. He was seized with madness, and wandered about -alone, fleeing the society of men, until he at length perished -miserably. Pindar says that he incurred the enmity of the gods -by attempting to fly to heaven on his winged horse Pegasus; -whereupon Zeus sent a gadfly to sting the horse. Pegasus cast -<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>off Bellerophon, and flew of his own accord to the stables of -Zeus, whose thunder-chariot he has ever since drawn. The sad -fate of Bellerophon was the subject of a touching tragedy of -Euripides, some parts of which are still in existence. Heroic -honours were paid to Bellerophon in Corinth, and he also had -a shrine in the celebrated cypress-grove of Poseidon.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>4. Argive Legend.</b>—<em>1. Io.</em>—The first personage who meets -us on the very threshold of the mythic age of Argos is Inachus, -the god of the Argive river of that name. Inachus was venerated -by the inhabitants as the first founder of Argive civilisation -after the flood of Deucalion. By his union with Melia, the -daughter of Oceanus, he became the father of Io, famed for her -beauty, whose history, which is of great antiquity, has been so -greatly embellished by the poets and legendary writers. The -following is the substance of the story:—</p> - -<p class='c007'>Io was the priestess of Hera. Her great beauty attracted the -notice of Zeus. On remarking this, Hera, in her jealousy, -changed Io into a white heifer, and set the hundred-eyed Argus -Panoptes (the all-seeing) to watch her. Zeus, however, sent -Hermes to take away the heifer. Hermes first lulled the -guardian to sleep with his wand and then slew him, whence he -is called Argiphontes (slayer of Argus). Hera avenged herself -by sending a gadfly to torment Io, who, in her madness, wandered -through Europe and Asia, until she at length found rest -in Egypt, where, touched by the hand of Zeus, she recovered -her original form, and gave birth to a son. This son, who was -called Epaphus, afterwards became king of Egypt, and built -Memphis. The myth, as we have already remarked, has received -many embellishments, for the wanderings of Io grew -more and more extensive with the growth of geographical knowledge. -The true interpretation of the myth is due to F. W. -Welcker, whose meritorious researches in Greek mythology have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>proved of such great value. Io (the wanderer) is the moon, -whose apparently irregular course and temporary disappearance -was considered a most curious phenomenon by the ancients. The -moon-goddess of antiquity was very frequently represented under -the figure of a heifer; and Isis herself, the Egyptian goddess of -the moon, was always depicted with horns. The guardian of -the heifer, the hundred-eyed Argus, is a symbol of the starry -heaven. Whether we see in Hermes the dawn or the morning -breeze, in either case the slaying of Argus will simply mean -that the stars become invisible at sunrise. There is nothing -extraordinary in representing the apparent irregularity of the -moon’s course, inexplicable as it was to the ancients, under the -guise of mental disorder. Similar representations occur in the -stories of the solar heroes, Bellerophon and Heracles. In the -south-east—the direction in which Egypt lay from Greece—Io -again appears as full moon, in her original shape.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>2. Danaüs and the Danaïds.</em>—According to the legend, -Danaüs was a descendant of Io. Epaphus, the son of Io, had a -daughter Libya, who bore to Poseidon two sons, Agenor and -Belus. The former reigned over Phœnicia, the latter over -Egypt. Belus, by his union with Anchinoë, or Achiroë, the -daughter of the Nile, became the father of Ægyptus and -Danaüs. Between these two brothers—the former of whom had -fifty sons and the latter fifty daughters—a deadly enmity arose; -this induced Danaüs to migrate from Egypt and seek the old -home of his ancestress Io. He embarked with his fifty daughters -in a ship—the first that was ever built—and thus came to -Argos, where Gelanor, the reigning descendant of Inachus, -resigned the crown in his favour. As king of Argos, Danaüs is -said to have brought the land, which suffered from want of -water, to a higher state of cultivation by watering it with wells -and canals. He is also said to have introduced the worship of -Apollo and Demeter. The story proceeds to relate that the -fifty sons of Ægyptus followed their uncle to Argos, and compelled -<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>him to give them his fifty daughters in marriage. -Danaüs, in revenge, gave each of his daughters on the wedding -day a dagger, and commanded them to slay their husbands in -the night. All obeyed his command except Hypermnestra, who -spared her husband Lynceus, and afterwards even succeeded, -with the assistance of Aphrodite, in effecting his reconciliation -with her father. Lynceus succeeded Danaüs in the kingdom, -and became, by his son Abas, the ancestor of both the great -Argive heroes, Perseus and Heracles. At a later period, the -fable sprang up that the Danaïds were punished for their -crimes in the lower world by having continually to pour water -into a cask full of holes. It has been frequently remarked that -this punishment has no conceivable connection with the crime. -Neither must we forget that the idea of retribution in the lower -world was of a comparatively late date. Originally, too, the -idea prevailed that the pursuits of the upper world were continued -after death in the realms of Hades. And herein lies the -key to the interpretation of the myth, which is evidently connected -with the irrigation of Argos ascribed to Danaüs.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>3. Prœtus and his Daughters.</em>—Acrisius and Prœtus were -twin sons of Abas, the son of Lynceus and Hypermnestra. -Between these two brothers an implacable hostility existed, -which was said by the poets to have commenced even in their -mother’s womb. Prœtus received, as his share of the patrimony, -the kingdom of Tiryns; but he was subsequently -expelled by his brother, and took refuge at the court of Iobates, -king of Lycia. Iobates gave him his daughter Antea, or -Sthenebœa, in marriage, and afterwards restored him to his -kingdom of Tiryns. Prœtus, with the aid of the Lycian workmen -whom he had brought with him (Cyclopes), built a strong -fortress, which enabled him not only to maintain peaceable possession -of Tiryns, but also to extend his dominion as far as -Corinth. The legend then passes to the history of his three -<span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>daughters, the Prœtides, whose pride was so excited by their -father’s greatness and their own beauty that they began to -think themselves superior to the gods. Their arrogance, however, -was soon punished, for they were visited with a foul -disease and driven mad. They now fled the society of mankind, -and wandered about among the mountains and woods of Argos -and Arcadia. At length Prœtus succeeded in procuring the -services of the celebrated soothsayer and purifier Melampus, -who undertook the purification and cure of his daughters. It -was reported of Melampus that serpents had licked his ears -whilst asleep, and that he acquired, in consequence, a knowledge -of the language of birds. He successfully accomplished the -cure of the Prœtides, and received, as a reward, the hand of -the princess Iphianassa, in addition to which both he and his -brother Bias received a share in the sovereignty of Tiryns. -Thus it was that the race of the Amythaonidæ, who all inherited -the gift of seeing into futurity, and from whom the celebrated -soothsayer Amphiaraüs himself was descended, came to Argos.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>4. Perseus.</em>—Acrisius, the brother of Prœtus, had a daughter -called Danaë, whose fortune it was to gain the love of the great -ruler of Olympus. Her father, Acrisius, was induced by an -oracle, which foretold that he should be killed by his own -grandson, to immure Danaë in a subterraneous chamber. Zeus, -however, in his love for her, changed himself into a shower of -golden rain, and thus introduced himself through the roof of her -prison. Thus was the god-like hero Perseus born. There can -be no doubt that this myth, too, is founded on the idea of the -bridal union of heaven and earth; this is one of the pictures of -nature which the mind most readily forms. Danaë represents -the country of Argos; her prison is the heaven, enveloped, -during the gloomy months of winter, with thick clouds. Her -offspring by Zeus represents the light of the sun, which returns -in the spring-time and begins, like a veritable hero, its contest -<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>with the powers of death and darkness. The Gorgon Medusa -has the same significance in the history of Perseus that the -hideous Python has in that of Apollo.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The legend then proceeds to relate that Acrisius, having heard -of the birth of his grandson, to avert the fate threatened by the -oracle, ordered mother and child to be confined in a chest and cast -into the sea. But human wisdom avails nought against the inevitable -decrees of heaven. The chest was cast by the waves on the -rocky island of Seriphus, where it was found by the fisherman -Dictys; and Danaë and her child were hospitably received and -cared for by Dictys and his brother Polydectes, the ruler of the -island. The latter, however, subsequently wished to marry Danaë, -and on her rejecting his advances made her a slave. Fearing -the vengeance of Perseus, he despatched him, as soon as he was -grown up, on a most perilous adventure. This was no other -than to bring him the head of the Gorgon Medusa—a terrible -winged woman, who dwelt with her two sisters, the daughters -of Phorcys and Ceto, on the farthest western shore of the -earth, on the border of Oceanus. Perseus set out, though he -was in the greatest perplexity how to accomplish so perilous a -task. Hermes, however, at this juncture came to his aid; and -Athene, the special patroness of heroes, inspired him with -courage. These deities first showed him how to procure the -necessary means for accomplishing his undertaking, which consisted -of an invisible helmet, a magic wallet, and a pair of -winged sandals. All these were in the hands of the Nymphs, -by whom probably the water-nymphs are meant. The way to -their abode he could only learn from the Grææ. These creatures, -who were likewise the daughters of Phorcys and Ceto, were -reported to have come into the world as old women; their very -appearance was appalling, and they had but one eye and one -tooth between them, of which they made use in turn. They, -too, dwelt on the outskirts of the gloomy region inhabited by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>the Gorgons, whence they are called by Æschylus their sentinels. -Under the guidance of Apollo and Athene, Perseus came to the -Grææ. He then robbed them of their one eye and one tooth, -and thus forced them to tell him the way to the habitations of -the Nymphs. From the latter he at once obtained the objects -he sought; and having donned his winged sandals, he hastened -to the abode of the Gorgons, whom he fortunately discovered -asleep. Athene then pointed out to him Medusa—the other two -sisters, Stheno and Euryale, being immortal—and enjoined him -to approach them carefully backwards, as the sight of their faces -would infallibly turn any mortal into stone. With the help of -her mirror-like shield and the sickle of Hermes, Perseus succeeded -in cutting off the head of Medusa without looking round; -and having placed the head in his wallet, he hastened away. -His helmet, which rendered him invisible, enabled him to escape -the pursuit of the other Gorgons, who had meanwhile awaked. -From the trunk of Medusa sprang the winged horse Pegasus, -and Chrysaor, the father of Geryones. On his return to -Seriphus, Perseus turned the unrighteous Polydectes into stone -by means of the Gorgon’s head, which he then presented to -Athene; and after making his benefactor, Dictys, king of the -island, he turned his steps towards his native place, Argos. -Such are the essential features of the myth—concerning which, -in spite of its antiquity, we have no earlier sources of information—such -is the original framework on which was afterwards -built up the history of the further adventures of the hero. The -most celebrated of these was the rescue of Andromeda, which -formed the subject of a drama of Euripides, and was also highly -popular among artists and poets. The following is a brief -account of this exploit:—Cassiopea, the wife of Cepheus, king -of Æthiopia, ventured to extol her own beauty above that of the -Nereids, who thereupon besought Poseidon to avenge them. -He granted their request, and not only overwhelmed the land -<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>with disastrous floods, but sent also a terrible sea-monster, which -devoured both man and beast. The oracle of Ammon declared -that the land could only be saved by the sacrifice of the king’s -daughter, Andromeda, to the monster. Cepheus, after some -time, yielded to the entreaties of his people, and Andromeda -was chained to a rock close to the sea. In this situation she -was found by Perseus, on his return from his adventure with -the Gorgons. He forthwith attacked and slew the sea-monster, -and released the trembling maiden, who soon after married her -preserver. Later writers, not satisfied with this adventure, -added that Perseus was also obliged to vanquish a rival in -Phineus, the king’s brother, to whom Andromeda had been -already promised. Phineus, together with his warriors, was -changed into stone by means of the Gorgon’s head.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The legend concludes with the return of the hero to Argos, -where he was reconciled to his grandfather Acrisius, who had at -first fled in terror to Larissa. On the occasion, however, of some -games which the people of Larissa had instituted in his honour, -Perseus was unfortunate enough to kill Acrisius with his discus, -thus involuntarily fulfilling the prophecy of the oracle. In this -feature of the story we recognise an unmistakeable reference to -the symbolic meaning of Perseus; for the discus here represents, -as in the story of the death of Hyacinthus, the face of the sun. -Perseus, unwilling to enter on the inheritance of the grandfather -he had slain, exchanged the kingdom of Argos for that of -Tiryns, which was handed over to him by its king, Megapenthes, -the son of Prœtus. He here founded the cities of Midea and -Mycenæ, and became, through his children by Andromeda, the -ancestor of many heroes, and, among others, of Heracles. His -son Electryon became the father of Alcmene, whilst Amphitryon -was descended from another of his sons. According to Pausanias, -heroic honours were paid to Perseus, not only throughout Argos, -but also in Athens and the island of Seriphus.</p> - -<p class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>Perseus occupies a prominent position in Greek art. His common -attributes are the winged sandals, the sickle which he made use of to -slay Medusa, and the helmet of Hades. In bodily form, as well as in -costume, he appears very like Hermes.</p> - -<div id='f_56' class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/f_56.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 56.—Perseus and Andromeda. Marble Relief in the Museum at Naples.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>Among the art monuments which relate to his adventures is a -marble relief from the Villa Pamfili, now in the Capitoline Museum -at Rome, depicting the rescue of Andromeda. The sea-monster lies -dead at the feet of Perseus, who is assisting the joyful Andromeda to -descend from the rock. The attitude and expression of both figures -are very striking: on the one side, maidenly modesty; on the other, -proud self-reliance. It is worth remarking that Perseus, in addition -to his winged shoes, has also wings on his head. The same conception -<span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>is perceptible, with a few minor points of difference, in -several Pompeian paintings, and on a marble relief of the Naples -Museum (Fig. 56). Representations of Medusa are mostly confined -to masks, which are often found on coats of mail, shields, leaves of -folding doors, and instruments of all kinds. There are two types, -representing an earlier and a later conception of Medusa. Earlier art -set itself to depict the horrible only in the head of Medusa; and -artists, therefore, strove to impart to the face as strong an expression -of rage and ferocity as was possible, representing her with tongue -lolling forth, and boar-like tusks. It is worthy of remark that, in the -earlier examples of these masks—which are frequently met with on -coins, gems, and pottery—the hair generally falls stiff and straight -over the forehead, serving to render the horrible breadth of the -face still more striking, while the snakes appear to be fastened round -the neck like a necklace. Very different is the conception adopted -by the later and more sensuous school. This laboured principally to -give expression to the gradual ebbing away of life in the countenance -of the dying Gorgon, an effect which was rendered still more striking -by transforming the hideous Gorgon face of earlier times into an ideal -of the most perfect beauty. The most splendid example of this later -conception, which had been creeping in since the age of Praxiteles, is -to be found in the Medusa Rondanini of the Munich collection—a -marble mask of most beautiful workmanship, which was brought -from the Rondanini Palace at Rome (Fig. 57). This Medusa, like -many others of the later type, has wings on the head.</p> - -<div id='f_57' class='figcenter id006'> -<img src='images/f_57.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 57.—Rondanini Medusa. Munich.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c006'><span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span><b>5. The Dioscuri.</b>—On passing to Laconia and Messenia, -the southern districts of the Peloponnesus, we come in contact -with the legend of the Dioscuri. Tyndareüs and his brother -Icarius were said to have founded the most ancient sovereignty -in Lacedæmon. They were driven thence, however, by their -half-brother Hippocoön, and were kindly received by Thestius, -the ruler of the ancient city of Pleuron in Ætolia, who gave -Tyndareüs his daughter Leda in marriage. Icarius received the -hand of Polycaste, who bore him Penelope—afterwards the wife -of Odysseus; while Leda was the mother of the Dioscuri, Castor -and Polydeuces (Pollux). Tyndareüs was afterwards reinstated -in his Lacedæmonian kingdom at Amyclæ by Heracles. Besides -these two sons, Leda had also two daughters, Clytæmnestra and -Helene (Helen), who are celebrated in connection with the -Trojan war. An ancient legend also existed to the effect that -Leda had been beloved by Zeus, who had approached her under -the guise of a swan. The greatest incongruity prevails as to -which of the children could claim a divine origin. In Homer, -Helen alone is represented as the daughter of Zeus; while -Clytæmnestra, together with Castor and Polydeuces, appear as -the children of Tyndareüs. At a subsequent period, the name -of “Dioscuri” (sons of Zeus) and a belief in their divine origin -arose simultaneously. Later still, Castor was represented as a -mortal, and the son of Tyndareüs; and Polydeuces as immortal, -and the son of Zeus. After Castor, however, had fallen in the -contest with the sons of Aphareus, his brother Polydeuces, unwilling -to part from him, prevailed on Zeus to allow them to -remain together, on condition of their spending one day in -Olympus and the next in Hades. They thus led a life divided -between mortality and immortality. The following is an account -of their heroic deeds:—On attaining manhood, Castor distinguished -<span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>himself by his skill in the management of horses; -whilst Polydeuces became renowned as a skilful boxer, though -he too had skill in riding. They first made war on Theseus, -who had carried off their sister Helen, then ten years old, -and set her free by the conquest of Aphidnæ. They next took -part in the expedition of the Argonauts, in which Polydeuces -gained still further renown by his victory with the cestus over -the celebrated boxer Amycus. They were also present at the -Calydonian boar hunt. Their last undertaking was the rape of -the daughters of Leucippus, king of Messenia. This was the -cause of their combat with their cousins Idas and Lynceus, the -sons of Aphareus, to whom the damsels had been betrothed. -According to others, however, it sprang from a quarrel as to -the division of some booty that they had carried off together. -Castor was slain by Idas, whereupon Polydeuces in his wrath -slew Lynceus, while Idas himself was overwhelmed by a thunderbolt -from Zeus.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The interpretation of this myth is by no means void of -difficulty. It is commonly supposed that they were ancient -Peloponnesian divinities of light, who, after the Dorian invasion, -were degraded to the rank of heroes. They are often interpreted -as personifications of the morning and evening star, or of the -twilight (dawn and dusk). This view died out after the second -deification that they underwent. They were venerated, not only -in their native Sparta, but throughout the whole of Greece, as -kindly, beneficent deities, whose aid might be invoked either in -battle or in the dangers of shipwreck. In this latter character they -are lauded by an Homeric hymn, in which they are represented -as darting through the air on their golden wings, in order to -calm the storm at the prayer of the terror-stricken mariner. It -has often been remarked, and with a great appearance of truth, -that these Dioscuri flitting about on their golden wings are -probably nothing more than what is commonly called St. Elmo’s -<span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>fire—an electric flame which, is often seen playing round the -tops of the masts during a storm, and which is regarded by the -sailors as a sign of its speedy abatement; indeed the name Elmo -has been supposed a corruption of Helene. In Sparta, the -Dioscuri were regarded as the tutelary deities of the state, as -well as an example of warlike valour for the youth of the -country. Their shrines here were very numerous. Their -ancient symbol, which the Spartans always took with them on a -campaign, consisted of two parallel beams joined by cross-bars. -They had other festivals and temples besides those of Sparta; -in Mantinea, for instance, where an eternal fire was kept -burning in their honour; also in Athens, where they were -venerated under the appellation of Anaces. Their festival was -here celebrated with horse-racing. The Olympic games also -stood under their special protection, and their images were set -up in all the palæstra. They were, in fact, everywhere regarded -as extremely benevolent and sociable deities, who foster all that -is noble and beautiful among men.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Dioscuri were believed to have assisted the Romans -against the Latins at the Lake Regillus; and the dictator, A. -Postumius, vowed a temple to them, which was erected in the -Forum, opposite the temple of Vesta. In commemoration of this -aid, the Equites made a solemn procession from the temple of -Honos, past the temple of the Dioscuri, to the Capitol every -year on the Ides of July.</p> - -<p class='c020'>In art the Dioscuri are represented as heroic youths of noble mien -and slim but powerful forms. Their characteristic marks are conical -caps, the points of which are adorned with a star. They generally -appear nude, or clothed only with a light chlamys, and nearly -always in connection with their horses, either riding, standing by -and holding them, or leading them by the bridle. The most celebrated -representation of the Dioscuri that has come down to us from -antiquity consists of the marble statues called the Colossi of Monte -Cavallo, in Rome. These are eighteen feet in height, and the proportions -of the figures, together with those of the horses, are exquisite. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>They are set up on the Quirinal, which has received from them the -name of Monte Cavallo. They are not, indeed, original works, but -are probably imitations of bronzes of the most flourishing period of -Greek art, executed in the time of Augustus.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>6. Heracles (Hercules).</b>—Of all the myths of the countries -originally inhabited by the Æolians the myth of Heracles is the -most glorious. This hero, though his fame was chiefly disseminated -by means of the Dorians, was yet by birth the common -property of the Æolian race—their national hero, in fact, just as -he afterwards became the national hero of the whole of Greece. -No other Greek myth has received so many subsequent additions—not -only from native, but also from foreign sources—as this; -which is, in consequence, the most extensive and complicated of -all Greek myths. We shall, therefore, have to confine ourselves -to the consideration of its most characteristic features, and those -which are the most important in the history of art.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In Homer, who is here again our most ancient authority, the -leading features of the myth are traced—the enmity of Hera -towards the hero; his period of subjection to Eurystheus, and -the labours by which he emancipated himself (though special -mention is made only of his seizure of Cerberus); his expeditions -against Pylus, Ephyra, Œchalia, and Troy. The -verses in the <cite>Odyssey</cite> (xi. 602–4), which refer to his deification -and subsequent marriage with Hebe, are probably a later insertion. -In the <cite>Iliad</cite>, Heracles is spoken of as a great hero of -olden time, “whom the Fates and the grievous wrath of Hera -subdued.” In Homer, too, he appears as a purely Grecian hero, -his warlike undertakings having never yet led him beyond Troy, -and his armour differing in no respect from that of other -heroes. The description of him in Hesiod’s <cite>Theogony</cite> and in the -<cite>Shield of Heracles</cite> is somewhat more minute, but is otherwise -essentially the same. From what source the deification of -Heracles sprang—whether it was due to Phœnician influences -<span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span>or not—has hitherto remained an undetermined question; we -only know that it appears as an accomplished fact about -700 <span class='fss'>B.C.</span></p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>I. The Birth and Youth of Heracles.</span>—This portion -of the legend found its chief development in Bœotia. -Amphitryon, a son of Alcæus and grandson of Perseus, -was compelled to flee from Tiryns with his betrothed -Alcmene—likewise a descendant of Perseus by her father -Electryon—on account of a murder, and found an asylum -at the court of Creon, king of Thebes. From this place -he undertook an expedition against the robber tribes of -the Teleboæ (Taphians), in consequence of a promise made to -Alcmene, whose brother they had slain. After the successful -termination of this expedition, the marriage was to have been -celebrated at Thebes. But, in the meanwhile, the great ruler of -Olympus himself had been smitten with the charms of Alcmene, -and, taking the form of the absent Amphitryon, had left her -pregnant with Heracles, to whom she afterwards gave birth at -the same time with Iphicles, the son of Amphitryon. The -sovereignty over all the descendants of Perseus, which Zeus had -destined for Heracles, was snatched from him by the crafty -jealousy of Hera, who prolonged the pains of Alcmene and -hastened the delivery of the wife of Sthenelus, the uncle of -Amphitryon, by two months. Not content with having subjected -the hero to the will of the weak and cowardly Eurystheus, -Hera, according to a subsequent account of the poets, sent two -serpents to kill the child when he was about eight months old. -Heracles, however, gave the first proof of his divine origin by -strangling the serpents with his hands. An account of this -scene has descended to us in a beautiful poem of Pindar. In -Thebes, the boy grew up and was put under the care of the best -preceptors. But, though he excelled in every feat of strength -and valour, he made no progress in musical arts, and even slew his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>master Linus on account of a somewhat harsh reproof which his -inaptitude entailed on him. As a punishment, Amphitryon sent -him to Mount Cithæron to mind the flocks, a mode of life which -Heracles continued until he had completed his eighteenth year. -It was to this period that the sophist Prodicus, a contemporary -of Socrates, referred his beautiful allegory of the <cite>Choice of -Heracles</cite>. After attaining his full growth (according to Apollodorus -he was four cubits in height) and strength, the young -hero performed his first great feat by killing the lion of -Cithæron. Whether it was this skin or that of the Nemean -lion which he afterwards used as a garment is not certain. His -next act was to free the Thebans from the ignominious tribute -which they were compelled to pay to Erginus, king of Orchomenus, -by a successful expedition, in which Amphitryon, -however, lost his life. Creon, the king of Thebes, in gratitude -gave the hero his daughter Megara in marriage, while Iphicles -married her sister.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>II. Heracles in the Service of Eurystheus—The -Twelve Labours.</span>—We now come to the second epoch in the -life of the hero, in which he performed various labours at the -bidding of Eurystheus, king of Mycenæ or Tiryns. The number -of these was first fixed at twelve in the Alexandrian age, when -Heracles was identified with the Phœnician sun-god, Baal; -probably from the analogy afforded in the course of the sun -through the twelve signs of the Zodiac. The subjection of -Heracles to his unmanly cousin Eurystheus is generally represented -as a consequence of the stratagem by which Hera -obtained for the latter the sovereignty over all the descendants -of Perseus. At a later period Heracles was said to have become -insane, in consequence of the summons of Eurystheus to do his -bidding. The following is an account of the labours of -Heracles:—</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>1. The Fight with the Nemean Lion.</em>—The district of Nemea -<span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span>and Cleonæ was inhabited by a monstrous lion, the offspring of -Typhon and Echidna, whose skin bade defiance to every weapon. -Heracles, after using his arrows and club against the animal in -vain, at last drove it into a cave, and there strangled it with his -hands. He afterwards used the head of the lion as a helmet, -and the impenetrable skin as a defence.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>2. The Lernæan Hydra.</em>—This was a great water-serpent, -likewise the offspring of Typhon and Echidna. The number of -its heads varies in the accounts of poets, though ancient gems -usually represent it with seven. It ravaged the country of -Lerna in Argolis, destroying both men and beasts. In this -adventure Heracles was accompanied by Iolaüs, the son of his -brother Iphicles, who, on this as on other occasions, appears as -his faithful companion. After driving the monster from its -lair by means of his arrows, he advanced fearlessly, and, seizing -it in his hands, began to strike off its heads with his sword. To -his amazement, in the place of each head he struck off two -sprang up. He then ordered Iolaüs to set on fire a neighbouring -wood, and with the firebrands seared the throats of the serpent, -until he at length succeeded in slaying it. He then dipped his -arrows in its gall, thus rendering the wounds inflicted by them -incurable.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>3. The Erymanthian Boar.</em>—This animal inhabited the mountain -district of Erymanthus in Arcadia, from which place it -wasted the corn-fields of Psophis. Heracles drove the boar up -to the snow-covered summit of the mountain, and then caught -it alive, as Eurystheus had commanded him. When he arrived -at Mycenæ with the terrible beast on his back, Eurystheus was -so terrified that he hid himself in a vessel. This comic scene is -frequently depicted on vases. It was on this occasion that -Heracles destroyed the Centaurs. On the road the hero, hungry -and thirsty, was hospitably received by the friendly Centaur -Pholus, who holds the same place among the Arcadian Centaurs -<span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span>as Chiron does among those of Thessaly. Pholus broached, in -honour of his guest, a cask of wine lying in his cave, which was -the common property of all the Centaurs. The fragrance of the -wine attracted the other Centaurs living on Mount Pholoë, and -they immediately attacked the tippling hero with pieces of rock -and trunks of trees. Heracles, however, drove them back with -arrows and firebrands, and completely vanquished them after a -terrible fight. On returning to the cave of Pholus, he found his -friend dead. He had drawn an arrow out of a dead body to -examine it, but accidentally let it fall on his foot, from the -wound of which he died.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>4. The Hind of Cerynea.</em>—This animal, which was sacred to -the Arcadian Artemis, had golden horns and brazen hoofs, the -latter being a symbol of its untiring fleetness. Heracles was -commanded to bring it alive to Mycenæ, and for a whole year -he continued to pursue it over hill and dale with untiring -energy. At length it returned to Arcadia, where he succeeded -in capturing it on the banks of the Ladon, and bore it in -triumph to Mycenæ.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>5. The Stymphalian Birds.</em>—These voracious birds, which -fed on human flesh, had brazen claws, wings, and beaks, and -were able to shoot out their feathers like arrows. They -inhabited the district round Lake Stymphalis in Arcadia. -Heracles slew some, and so terrified the rest by means of his -brazen rattle that they never returned. This latter circumstance -is apparently an addition of later times, to explain their reappearance -in the history of the Argonauts.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>6. Cleansing of the Stables of Augeas.</em>—The sixth task of -Heracles was to cleanse in one day the stables of Augeas, king -of Elis, whose wealth in cattle had become proverbial. Heracles -repaired to Elis, where he offered to cleanse the stables, in which -were three thousand oxen, if the king would consent to give -him a tenth part of the cattle. Augeas agreed to do so; Heracles -<span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span>then turned the course of the Peneus or the Alpheus, or, according -to some, of both rivers, through the stalls, and thus -carried off the filth. Augeas, however, on learning that Heracles -had undertaken the labour at the command of Eurystheus, -refused to give him the stipulated reward, a breach of faith for -which Heracles, later, took terrible vengeance on the king.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>7. The Cretan Bull.</em>—In the history of Minos, king of Crete, -we find that Poseidon once sent up a bull out of the sea for -Minos to sacrifice, but that Minos was induced by the beauty of -the animal to place it among his own herds, and sacrificed -another in its stead; whereupon Poseidon drove the bull mad. -The seventh labour of Heracles consisted in capturing this bull -and bringing it to Mycenæ. It was afterwards set free by -Eurystheus, and appears later, in the story of Theseus, as the -bull of Marathon.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>8. The Mares of Diomedes.</em>—Diomedes was king of the -Bistones, a warlike tribe of Thrace. He inhumanly caused all -strangers cast upon his coasts to be given to his wild mares, who -fed on human flesh. To bind these horses and bring them alive -to Mycenæ was the next task of Heracles. This, too, he successfully -accomplished, after inflicting on Diomedes the same -fate to which he had condemned so many others.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>9. The Girdle of Hippolyte.</em>—Admete, the daughter of -Eurystheus, was anxious to obtain the girdle which the queen -of the Amazons had received from Ares; and Heracles was -accordingly despatched to fetch it. After various adventures -he landed in Themiscyra, and was at first kindly received by -Hippolyte, who was willing to give him the girdle. But Hera, -in the guise of an Amazon, spread a report that Heracles was -about to carry off the queen, upon which the Amazons attacked -Heracles and his followers. In the battle which ensued Hippolyte -was killed, and the hero, after securing the girdle, departed. -On his journey homewards occurred his celebrated adventure -<span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span>with Hesione, the daughter of Laomedon, king of Troy. This -king had refused Poseidon and Apollo the rewards he had -promised them for their assistance in building the walls of Troy. -In consequence of his perfidy, Apollo visited the country with -a pestilence, and Poseidon sent a sea-monster, which devastated -the land far and wide. By the advice of the oracle, Hesione, -the king’s daughter, was exposed to be devoured by the animal. -Heracles offered to destroy the monster, if Laomedon would give -him the horses which his father Tros had received as a compensation -for the loss of Ganymedes. Laomedon agreed, and -Heracles then slew the monster. Laomedon, however, again -proved false to his word, and Heracles, with a threat of future -vengeance, departed.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>10. The Oxen of Geryones.</em>—The next task of Heracles was to -fetch the cattle of the three-headed winged giant Geryones, or -Geryoneus (Geryon). This monster was the offspring of Chrysaor -(red slayer) and Callirrhoë (fair-flowing), an Oceanid, and inhabited -the island of Erythia, in the far West, in the region of -the setting sun, where he had a herd of the finest and fattest -cattle. It was only natural that Heracles, in the course of his -long journey to Erythia and back, should meet with numerous -adventures; and this expedition has, accordingly, been more -richly embellished than any other by the imagination of the -poets. He is generally supposed to have passed through Libya, -and to have sailed thence to Erythia in a golden boat, which he -forced Helios (the sun) to lend him by shooting at him with his -arrows. Having arrived in Erythia, he first slew the herdsman -who was minding the oxen, together with his dog. He was -then proceeding to drive off the cattle, when he was overtaken -by Geryon. A violent contest ensued, in which the three-headed -monster was at length vanquished by the arrows of the -mighty hero. Heracles is then supposed to have recrossed the -ocean in the boat of the sun, and, starting from Tartessus, to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span>have journeyed on foot through Iberia, Gaul, and Italy. We -pass over his contests with the Celts and Ligurians, and only -notice briefly his victory over the giant Cacus, mentioned by -Livy, which took place in the district where Rome was afterwards -built, because Roman legend connected with this the -introduction of the worship of Hercules into Italy. At length, -after many adventures, he arrived at Mycenæ, where Eurystheus -sacrificed the oxen to the Argive goddess Hera.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Heracles has now completed ten of his labours, but Eurystheus, -as Apollodorus relates, refused to admit the destruction of -the Lernæan Hydra, because on that occasion Heracles had -availed himself of the help of Iolaüs, or the cleansing of the -stables of Augeas, because of the reward for which he had stipulated; -so that the hero was compelled to undertake two more. -This account does not, however, harmonise with the tradition of -the response of the oracle, in deference to which Heracles surrendered -himself to servitude, and which offered the prospect of -twelve labours from the first.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>11. The Apples of the Hesperides.</em>—This adventure has been -even more embellished with later and foreign additions than the -last. The golden apples, which were under the guardianship of -the Hesperides, or nymphs of the west, constituted the marriage -present which Hera had received from Gæa on the occasion of -her marriage with Zeus. They were closely guarded by the terrible -dragon Ladon, who, like all monsters, was the offspring of -Typhon and Echidna. This, however, was far less embarrassing -to the hero than his total ignorance of the site of the garden of -the Hesperides, which led him to make several fruitless efforts -before he succeeded in reaching the desired spot.</p> - -<p class='c007'>His first object was to gain information as to the situation of -the garden, and for this purpose he journeyed through Illyria to -the Eridanus (Po), in order to inquire the way of the nymphs -who dwelt on this river. By them he was referred to the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>treacherous sage Nereus, whom he managed to seize whilst -asleep, and refused to release until he had obtained the -desired information. Heracles then proceeded by way of -Tartessus to Libya, where he was challenged to a wrestling -match by the giant Antæus, a powerful son of Earth, who was, -according to Libyan tradition, of a monstrous height (some say -sixty cubits). He was attacked by Heracles, but, as he received -new strength from his mother Earth as often as he touched the -ground, the hero lifted him up in the air and squeezed him to -death in his arms.</p> - -<p class='c007'>From Libya Heracles passed into Egypt, where the cruel -king Busiris was in the habit of seizing all strangers who -entered the country and sacrificing them to Zeus. Heracles -would have suffered a similar fate, had he not broken the chains -laid upon him, and slain the king and his son. His indulgence -at the richly-furnished table of the king was a feature in the -story which afforded no small amusement to the comic writers, -who were especially fond of jesting on the subject of the healthy -and heroic appetite of Heracles. From Egypt the hero made -his way into Æthiopia, where he slew Emathion, the son of -Tithonus and Eos, for his cruelty to strangers. He next crossed -the sea to India, and thence came to the Caucasus, where he set -Prometheus free and destroyed the vulture that preyed on his -liver. After Prometheus had described to him the long road to -the Hesperides, he passed through Scythia, and came at length -to the land of the Hyperboreans, where Atlas bore the pillars of -heaven on his shoulders. This was the end of his journey, for -Atlas, at his request, fetched the apples, whilst Heracles supported -the heavens. Here again the comic poets introduced an -amusing scene. Atlas, having once tasted the delights of -freedom, betrayed no anxiety to relieve his substitute, but -offered, instead, to bear the apples himself to Eurystheus. -Heracles, however, proved even more cunning than he, for, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>apparently agreeing to the proposition, he asked Atlas just to -relieve him until he had arranged more comfortably a cushion -for his back. When Atlas good-humouredly consented, Heracles -of course left him in his former position, and made off with the -apples. Another account states that he descended himself into -the garden and slew the hundred-headed dragon who kept guard -over the trees.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>12. Cerberus.</em>—The most daring of all the feats of Heracles, -and that which bears the palm from all the others, and is in consequence, -always put at the end of his labours, was the bringing -of Cerberus from the lower world. In this undertaking, which -is mentioned even by Homer, he was accompanied by Hermes -and Athene, though he had hitherto been able to dispense with -divine aid. He is commonly reported to have made his descent -into the lower world at Cape Tænarum in Laconia. Close to -the gates of Hades he found the adventurous heroes Theseus and -Pirithoüs, who had gone down to carry off Persephone, fastened -to a rock. He succeeded in setting Theseus free, but Pirithoüs -he was obliged to leave behind him, because of the violent -earthquake which occurred when he attempted to touch him. -After several further adventures, he entered the presence of the -lord of the lower world. Hades consented to his taking Cerberus, -on condition that he should master him without using any -weapons. Heracles seized the furious beast, and, having chained -him, he brought him to Eurystheus, and afterwards carried him -back to his place in the lower world. The completion of this -task released Heracles from his servitude to Eurystheus.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>III. Deeds of Heracles after his Service.</span>—<em>1. The Murder -of Iphitus and Contest with Apollo.</em>—The hero, after his release -from servitude, returned to Thebes, where he gave his wife -Megara in marriage to Iolaüs. He then proceeded to the court -of Eurytus, king of Œchalia, who had promised his beautiful -daughter Iole in marriage to the man who should vanquish himself -<span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span>and his sons in shooting with the bow. The situation of -Œchalia is variously given; sometimes it is placed in Thessaly, -sometimes in the Peloponnesus, on the borders of Arcadia and -Messenia, and sometimes in the island of Eubœa, close to Eretria. -Heracles gained a most complete victory; but Eurytus, nevertheless, -refused to give him his daughter, reproaching him with the -murder of his children by Megara, and with his ignominious -bondage to Eurystheus. Heracles, with many threats of future -vengeance, withdrew, and when, not long afterwards, Iphitus, -the son of Eurytus, fell into his hands, he cast him from the -highest tower of his citadel in Tiryns. This somewhat treacherous -action being at variance with the general character of the -hero, the story subsequently arose that Iphitus was a friend -of Heracles, and had advocated his cause with Eurytus, and that -Heracles only treated him thus in a fit of insanity. The bloody -deed was fraught with the gravest consequences. After seeking -purification and absolution in vain among men, Heracles came -to Delphi, in order to seek the aid and consolation of the oracle. -But Apollo, with whom the royal family of Œchalia stood in -high favour, rejected him; whereupon Heracles forced his way -into the temple, and was already in the act of bearing away the -holy tripod, in order to erect an oracle of his own, when he was -confronted by the angry deity. A fearful combat would doubtless -have ensued, if the father of gods and men himself had not -interfered to prevent this unnatural strife between his favourite -sons by separating the combatants with his lightning. Heracles -was now commanded by the Pythian priestess to allow himself -to be sold by Hermes into slavery for three years, to expiate the -murder of Iphitus.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>2. Heracles in the Service of Omphale.</em>—This portion of the -story is of Lydian origin, but was cleverly interwoven with the -Greek legend. The Lydians, in fact, honoured a sun-hero called -Sandon, who resembled Heracles in many respects, as the ancestor -<span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>of their kings. The oriental character of the Lydian -Heracles at once manifests itself in the fact that he here appears -as entirely devoted to sensual pleasures, becoming effeminate in -the society of women, and allowing himself to be clothed in -female attire, whilst his mistress Omphale donned his lion-skin -and club, and flaunted up and down before him. He did not -always linger in such inactivity, however; sometimes the old -desire for action urged him forth to gallant deeds. Thus he -vanquished and chastised the Cercopes, a race of goblins who -used to trick and waylay travellers. He also slew Syleus, who -compelled all passing travellers to dig in his vineyard; which -formed the subject of a satyric drama of Euripides.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>3. His Expedition against Troy.</em>—After performing several -other feats in the service of Omphale, Heracles again became -free. He now appears to have undertaken an expedition against -the faithless Laomedon, king of Troy, in company with other -Greek heroes, such as Peleus, Telamon, and Oïcles, whose number -increased as time went on. The city was taken by storm: -Oïcles, indeed, was slain, but, on the other hand, Laomedon and -all his sons except Podarces fell before the arrows of Heracles. -Hesione, the daughter of the king, was given by Heracles to his -friend Telamon, and became by him the mother of Teucer. She -received permission from Heracles to release one of the prisoners, -and chose her brother Podarces, who afterwards bore the name -of Priamus (the redeemed), and continued the race of Dardanus -in Ilium.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>4. The Peloponnesian Expeditions of Heracles.</em>—The legend -relates that the hero now undertook his long-deferred expedition -against Augeas, which was the means of kindling a Messenian -and Lacedæmonian war. After assembling an army in Arcadia, -which was joined by many gallant Greek heroes, he advanced -against Elis. Heracles, however, fell sick; and in his absence -his army was attacked and driven back with great loss by the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>brave Actoridæ or Molionidæ, the nephews of Augeas. It was -only after Heracles had slain these heroes in an ambuscade at -Cleonæ, as they were on their way to the Isthmian games, that -he succeeded in penetrating into Elis. He then slew Augeas, -and gave the kingdom to his son Phyleus, with whom he was on -friendly terms. It was on this occasion that he instituted the -Olympic games. He then marched against Pylus, either because -its king, Neleus, had given assistance to the Molionidæ, or else -because Neleus had refused to purify him from the murder of -Iphitus. This expedition against Pylus was subsequently greatly -embellished by the poets, who made it into a great battle of the -gods, one part of whom fought for Neleus, and the other part -for Heracles. The chief feature was the combat between Heracles -and Periclymenus, the bravest of the sons of Neleus, who -had received from Poseidon, the tutelary deity of the Pylians, -the power of transforming himself into any kind of animal. -The result of the combat was of course a complete victory for -Heracles. Neleus, with his eleven gallant sons, was slain, and -only the youngest, Nestor, remained to perpetuate the celebrated -race. The Lacedæmonian expedition of Heracles, which follows -close on that against Pylus, was undertaken against Hippocoön, -the half-brother of Tyndareüs, whom he had expelled. Hippocoön -was defeated and slain by Heracles, who gave his kingdom -to Tyndareüs. On this occasion Heracles was assisted by -Cepheus, king of Tegea, with his twenty sons, a circumstance -which is only mentioned on account of a remarkable legend connected -with his stay in Tegea. Heracles is here said to have -left Auge, the beautiful sister of Cepheus, and priestess of -Athene, pregnant with Telephus, whose wondrous adventures -have occupied artists and poets alike. Auge concealed her child -in the grove of Athene, whereupon the angry goddess visited the -land with a famine. Aleüs, the father of Auge, on discovering -the fact, caused the child to be exposed, and sold the mother -<span class='pageno' id='Page_210'>210</span>beyond the sea. Auge thus came into Mysia, where the king -Teuthras made her his wife. Telephus was suckled by a hind. -He grew up, and ultimately, after some wonderful adventures, -succeeded in finding his mother. He succeeded Teuthras, and, -later, became embroiled with the Greeks when they landed on -their expedition against Troy, on which occasion he was wounded -by Achilles. Telephus, among all the sons of Heracles, is said -to have borne the greatest resemblance to his father.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>5. Acheloüs, Nessus, Cycnus.</em>—The next episode in the history -of the hero is his wooing of Deïanira, the daughter of Œneus, -king of Ætolia. Œneus is celebrated as the first cultivator of -the vine in that country, and as the father of the Ætolian heroes, -Meleager and Tydeus. The river-god Acheloüs was also a suitor -for the hand of Deïanira, and as neither he nor Heracles would -relinquish their claim, it was decided by the combat between the -rivals<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c018'><sup>[8]</sup></a> so often described by the poets. The power of assuming -various forms was of little use to Acheloüs, for, having finally -transformed himself into a bull, he was deprived of a horn by -Heracles, and compelled to declare himself vanquished. Heracles -restored him his horn, and received in exchange that of the -goat Amalthea. After his marriage with Deïanira, Heracles -lived for some time happily at the court of his father-in-law, -where his son Hyllus was born. In consequence of an accidental -murder, he was obliged to leave Ætolia and retire to the -court of his friend Ceÿx, king of Trachis, at the foot of Mount -Œta. On the road occurred his celebrated adventure with the -Centaur Nessus. On coming to the river Evenus, Heracles entrusted -Deïanira to Nessus to carry across, whilst he himself -waded through the swollen stream. The Centaur, induced by -the beauty of his burden, attempted to carry off Deïanira, but -<span class='pageno' id='Page_211'>211</span>was pierced by an arrow of Heracles, and expiated his attempt -with his life. He avenged himself by giving Deïanira some of -his blood to make a magic salve, with which he assured her she -could always secure the love of her husband.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f8'> -<p class='c007'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. The most beautiful description exists in a chorus in the <cite>Trachiniæ</cite> of -Sophocles, and in Ovid’s <cite>Metamorphoses</cite>.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>On reaching Trachis they were hospitably received by Ceÿx. -Heracles first defeated the Dryopes, and assisted the Dorian king -Ægimius in his contest with the Lapithæ. He next engaged in -his celebrated combat with Cycnus, the son of Ares, which took -place at Iton, in the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Pagasæ. -Heracles not only slew his opponent, but even wounded the god -of war himself, who had come to the assistance of his son. This -contest is the subject of the celebrated poem called the <cite>Shield -of Hercules</cite>, which goes under the name of Hesiod.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>IV. Death and Apotheosis.</span>—The death of Heracles, of -which we learn most from the masterly description of Sophocles -in the <cite>Trachiniæ</cite>, is generally supposed to have been connected -with his expedition against Eurytus. The hero, who could not -forget the ignominious treatment he had received at the hands -of Eurytus, now marched with an army from Trachis against -Œchalia. The town and citadel were taken by storm, and -Eurytus and his sons slain; whilst the beautiful Iole, who -was still unmarried, fell into the hands of the conqueror. -Heracles now withdrew with great booty, but halted on the -promontory of Cenæum, opposite the Locrian coast, to raise an -altar and offer a solemn sacrifice of thanksgiving to his father -Zeus. Deïanira, who was tormented with jealous misgivings -concerning Iole, thought it was now high time to make use of -the charm of Nessus. She accordingly sent her husband a -white sacrificial garment, which she anointed with the ointment -prepared from the blood of the Centaur. Heracles donned the -garment without suspicion, but scarcely had the flames from -the altar heated the poison than it penetrated the body of the -unhappy hero. In the most fearful agony he strove to tear off -<span class='pageno' id='Page_212'>212</span>the garment, but in vain, for it stuck like a plaster to his skin; -and where he succeeded in rending it away by force, it tore out -great pieces of his flesh at the same time. In his frenzy he -seized the herald Lichas, the bearer of the unfortunate present, -and violently dashed him in pieces against a rock of the sea. -In this state Heracles was brought to Trachis, where he found -that Deïanira, full of sorrow and despair on learning the consequences -of her act, had put an end to her own life. Convinced -that cure was hopeless, the dying hero proceeded from Trachis -to Œta, and there erected a funeral pile on which to end his -torments. None of those around him, however, would consent -to set the pile on fire, until Pœas, the father of Philoctetes, -happened to pass by, and rendered him the service, in return for -which Heracles presented him with his bow and arrows. As -the flames rose high, a cloud descended from heaven, and, amid -furious peals of thunder, a chariot with four horses, driven by -Athene, appeared and bore the illustrious hero to Olympus, -where he was joyfully received by the gods. He here became -reconciled to Hera, who gave him the hand of her beauteous -daughter Hebe in marriage.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>V. Heracles as God.</span>—We have already laid before our -readers the most characteristic features of the myth. To interpret -it and trace it back in all its details to the original sources would -be, amid the mass of provincial and foreign legends with which -it is amalgamated, almost impossible. Thus much is certain, -however, that, apart from the conceptions which were engrafted -on the story from Tyrian and Egyptian sources, even in the case -of the Greek Heracles, myths based on natural phenomena are -mixed up with historical and allegorical myths. The historic -element, for instance, is apparent in the wars of Heracles against -the Dryopes—against Augeas, Neleus, and Hippocoön. Here -the exploits of the whole Dorian race are personified in the -actions of the hero. On the other hand, in most of his single -<span class='pageno' id='Page_213'>213</span>combats a symbolic meaning, derived from natural phenomena, -is unmistakeable. Heracles, in fact, appears to have been, -originally, a symbol of the power of the sun triumphing over -the dark powers in nature. Driven from Argos by the worship -of the Argive Hera, he first sank to the level of a hero, but was, -subsequently, again raised to the dignity of a god. This occurred -at a time when the gods of Greece had altogether cast aside -their physical meaning; so that he was now regarded principally -from an ethical point of view. He appears as a symbol of that -lofty force of character which triumphs over all difficulties and -obstacles. Poets and philosophers alike vied with each other in -presenting him to the youth of their country in this character, -pointing to his career as a brilliant example of what a man -might accomplish, in spite of a thousand obstacles, by mere -determination and force of will. The well-known allegory of -the sophist Prodicus,<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c018'><sup>[9]</sup></a> called “The Choice of Hercules,” is an -instance of the mode in which the history of the hero was used -to inculcate moral precepts.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f9'> -<p class='c007'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. Prodicus, a native of the island of Ceos, was an elder contemporary of -Socrates. Like the latter, he taught in Athens, and met with a similar -fate, having been condemned to death as an enemy of the popular religion -and a corruptor of the Athenian youth.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>In the religious system of the Greeks, Heracles was specially -honoured as the patron of the gymnasia; the gymnasium of -Cynosarges in Athens being solely dedicated to him. After his -deification, Heracles was also regarded in the character of a -saviour and benefactor of his nation; as one who had not only -merited the lasting gratitude of mankind by his deeds throughout -an active and laborious life—in having rid the world of -giants and noxious beasts, in having extinguished destructive -forces of nature, and abolished human sacrifices and other -barbarous institutions of antiquity—but also as a kindly and -beneficent deity, ever ready to afford help and protection to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_214'>214</span>mankind in the hour of need. In this character he was known -by the names of Soter (Saviour) and Alexicacus (averter of -evil). He had temples and festivals in various parts of Greece. -In Marathon, which boasted of being the first seat of his worship, -games were celebrated in his honour every four years, at which -silver cups were given as prizes. The fourth day of every month -was held sacred to him, this day being regarded as his birthday.</p> - -<p class='c007'>We have already mentioned the legendary introduction of his -worship into Rome.<a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c018'><sup>[10]</sup></a> Hercules, as he was called in Italy, was -identified with the Italian hero Recaranus. He had an altar in the -<em>Forum Boarium</em>, established, according to tradition, by Evander. -The Roman poets, of course, devoted especial attention to the -stories of his journey through Italy, and his fight with Cacus.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f10'> -<p class='c007'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. There seems ground for thinking that the Italian Hercules was -properly a rural deity confounded with Heracles on account of the similarity -of their names; while Recaranus properly corresponded with the -great Heracles in meaning.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>In Heracles ancient art sought to portray the conception of gigantic -bodily strength. He is, therefore, generally represented as a full-grown -man—rarely as a child or youth. We may observe the manner -in which the prominent idea of physical force is expressed by -regarding the formation of the neck and throat in the statue of -Heracles. Nothing can express better a bull-like strength than the -short neck and the prominent muscles, especially if associated with a -broad, deep chest. We shall be able to appreciate this distinctive -character still more clearly if we compare the form of Heracles with -that of the ideal god Apollo, whose neck is especially long and -slender. The figure of Heracles is, moreover, characterised by a head -small in comparison with the giant body; by curly hair, bushy eyebrows, -and muscular arms and legs. This conception was principally -developed by Myron and Lysippus. A statue of Heracles by the -former artist played a part in connection with the art robberies of -Verres in Sicily. Lysippus erected several celebrated statues of -Heracles, the most remarkable of which was the bronze colossus in -Tarentum, which the Romans, after the capture of that town, transferred -to the Capitol. Thence it was brought, by order of Constantine, -to his new capital of Constantinople, where it remained -until the Latin crusade of 1202, when it was melted down. Lysippus -portrayed in this statue a mourning Heracles, which no one had ever -attempted before him. The hero appeared in a sitting posture, -without his weapons, his left elbow resting on his left leg, while his -head, full of thought and sorrow, rests on the open hand. The same -artist, in a still greater work, depicted the twelve labours of Heracles. -These formed a group which was originally executed for Alyzia, a -seaport town of Acarnania, but which was, subsequently, likewise -transferred to Rome.</p> - -<div id='f_58' class='figcenter id003'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_215'>215</span> -<img src='images/f_58.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 58.—Farnese Hercules.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_216'>216</span>First among existing statues is the Farnese Hercules (Fig. 58). -This celebrated colossal statue, now in the Naples Museum, was discovered -in 1540, on the site of the Thermæ of Caracalla. The hero -is standing upright, resting his left shoulder on his club, from which -hangs his lion’s skin. This attitude, as well as the head drooping -towards the breast, and the gloomy gravity of his countenance, clearly -show that the hero feels bowed down by the burden of his laborious -life. Even the thought that he is soon to be released from his ignominious -servitude (he holds behind him, in his right hand, the three -apples of the Hesperides, the fruit of his last labour) is unable to -cheer him, and his thoughts seem to revert only to the past. On -account of the conception of the piece, and the existence of another -copy bearing the name of Lysippus, the Farnese Hercules is supposed -to be a copy of a work of Lysippus, of which nothing further is -known.</p> - -<p class='c020'>Still more important as a work of art, though it has reached us in -a terribly mutilated condition—minus head, arms, and legs—is the -celebrated Torso of Hercules, in the Vatican. This was found in -Rome during the reign of Pope Julius II., on a spot where the -theatre of Pompey, of which it was probably an ornament, once -stood.</p> - -<p class='c020'><em>Groups.</em>—Heracles in action was a still more favourite subject with -artists, who delighted to portray the different scenes of his versatile -life. Numberless representations of such scenes occur, not only in -the form of statues and works in relief, but more especially on -ancient vases. We mention here, in the chronological order of the -events, some of the most important.</p> - -<p class='c020'><em>1. Heracles and the Serpents.</em>—This scene was early depicted by the -celebrated painter Zeuxis, who represented Heracles as strangling the -serpents, whilst Alcmene and Amphitryon stood by in amazement. -There are also several statues representing this feat, among which -that at Florence takes the first rank. There is also a painting from -Herculaneum in the Naples Museum.</p> - -<p class='c020'><em>2. The Twelve Labours.</em>—These have naturally been treated of -times out of number. We have already mentioned the groups of -Lysippus, which he executed for the town of Alyzia. A still existing -bronze statue in the Capitoline Museum, representing Heracles -battling with the Hydra, appears to belong to this series. Among -interesting remains are the metope reliefs on the Theseum at Athens. -Ten on the east side of the temple represent scenes from the life of -Heracles. Nine of them belong to the twelve labours, viz., the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_217'>217</span>Nemean lion, the Hydra, the Arcadian hind, the Erymanthian boar, -the horses of Diomedes, Cerberus, the girdle of Hippolyte, Geryon, -and the Hesperides; whilst the tenth tablet represents his contest -with Cycnus. The remains of the splendid temple of Zeus at -Olympia, which was completed about 435 <span class='fss'>B.C.</span>, are less important. -The metopes of the front and back of the temple contained six of the -labours of Heracles. Those representing the contest with the Cretan -bull, the dying lion, a portion from the fight with Geryon, and some -other fragments, were found in 1829, and conveyed to the museum of -the Louvre at Paris. The only one which is perfect, however, is the -spirited and life-like representation of the struggle with the Cretan -bull.</p> - -<p class='c020'><em>3. Parerga</em> (<em>Subordinate Deeds</em>).—First among these come the scenes -from his contest with the Centaurs, which were frequently treated of -in art. Groups of these exist in the museum at Florence; there -are also various representations to be found on vases. His adventure -with Nessus is represented separately on a Pompeian painting in the -Naples Museum; Nessus crouches in a humble posture before Heracles, -who has the little Hyllus in his arms, and he appears to be -asking permission to carry Deïanira across the stream. There is also -an interesting representation of the release of Prometheus on the -Sarcophagus of the Capitol, from the Villa Pamfili, which is, in other -respects, also worthy of mention. The seizure of the tripod at Delphi -is also frequently portrayed in art.</p> - -<p class='c020'><em>4. Heracles and Omphale.</em>—Of the monuments referring to Heracles’ -connection with Omphale, the most important is the beautiful Farnese -group in marble in the Naples Museum. Omphale has thrown the -lion’s skin round her beautiful limbs, and holds in her right hand -the hero’s club. Thus equipped, she smiles triumphantly at Heracles, -who is clothed in female attire, with a distaff in his hand.</p> - -<p class='c020'><em>5. Heracles and Telephus.</em>—The romantic history of Telephus was -also frequently treated of in art. The Naples Museum possesses a -fine painting, representing the discovery of the child after it has been -suckled by the hind, on which occasion, strange to say, Heracles -himself is present. In the Vatican Museum there is a fine marble -group, representing Heracles with the child Telephus in his arms.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>7. Attic Legend.</b>—<em>1. Cecrops.</em>—Cecrops, the first founder -of civilisation in Attica, plays a similar part here to that which -Cadmus does in Thebes. Like Cadmus, he was afterwards -called an immigrant; indeed he was said to have come from Sais -in Lower Egypt. In his case, however, we are able to trace the -rise of the erroneous tradition with far greater distinctness. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_218'>218</span>Pure Attic tradition recognises him only as an autochthon—that -is, an original inhabitant born of the earth; and further -adds, that, like the giants, he was half man and half -serpent. As the mythical founder of the state, he was also -regarded as the builder of the citadel (Cecropia); and marriage, -as well as other political and social institutions, were -ascribed to him. Perhaps he is only a local personification -of Hermes. The probability of this view is greatly enhanced -by the fact that his three daughters, Herse, Aglaurus, and -Pandrosus, received divine honours. It was under Cecrops -that the celebrated contest occurred between Poseidon and -Athene for the possession of Attica, and was by his means -decided in favour of the goddess. We have already given -an account of it, and need only here remark that the -story is purely the result of the observation of natural -phenomena. In Attica, in fact, there are only two seasons—a -cold, wet, and rainy winter (Poseidon), and a warm, dry, genial -summer (Pallas). These seem to be continually striving for -the supremacy of the land. Cecrops was succeeded in the -government by Cranaüs, who is represented by some as his son. -The common mythological account places the flood of Deucalion -in his reign. After the expulsion of Cranaüs, Amphictyon, one -of the sons of Deucalion, succeeded to the sovereignty of Attica, -of whom nothing more is known than that he was deprived of -the government by Erechtheus.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>2. Erechtheus, or Erichthonius.</em>—Erechtheus, or Erichthonius, -is really only a second Cecrops—the mythical founder of the -state after the flood, as Cecrops was before it. Being also earthborn, -he is, like Cecrops, endowed with a serpent’s form. There -was another very sacred legend concerning him, which stated -that Gæa (Ge), immediately after his birth, gave him to the -goddess Pallas to nurse. The latter first entrusted him to the -daughters of Cecrops, her attendants and priestesses, enclosed in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_219'>219</span>a chest. The latter, however, prompted by curiosity, opened -the chest, contrary to the commands of the goddess, and were -punished in consequence with madness. Erichthonius was now -reared by the goddess herself in her sanctuary on the citadel, -and was subsequently made king of Athens. The same stories -are then related of him as of Cecrops—that he regulated the -state, introduced the worship of the gods, and settled the dispute -between Poseidon and Athene.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The tomb of Erechtheus was shown in the Erechtheum, the -ancient temple dedicated to Athene Polias, where the never-dying -olive tree created by the goddess was also preserved.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Two among the daughters of Erechtheus are celebrated in -legend. The first is Orithyia, who was carried off by Boreas, -and became the mother of Calaïs and Zetes, whom we come -across again in the story of the Argonauts; the other is Procris, -the wife of the handsome hunter Cephalus, who was said to be -a son of Hermes by Herse, the daughter of Cecrops. Cephalus -was carried off by Eos, who was unable to shake his fidelity to -his wife. It served, however, to excite the jealousy of the -latter, which ultimately proved fatal to her. Procris had hidden -herself among the bushes, in order to watch her husband, when -Cephalus, taking her for a wild animal, unwittingly killed her. -After the death of Erechtheus, the tragic poets relate that Ion, -the mythical ancestor of the Ionians, ruled in Athens. This -means nothing more than that the primitive Pelasgian age in -Attica had now come to an end, and the dominion of the Ionians -commenced.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>3. Theseus.</em>—Theseus is the national hero of the Ionians, just -as Heracles is of the Æolians. He has not unjustly been called -the second Heracles; and he has, indeed, many features in common -with the Æolian hero, since the national jealousy of the -Ionians led them to adopt every possible means of making their -own hero rival that of their neighbours. They therefore strove -<span class='pageno' id='Page_220'>220</span>to represent him, likewise, as a hero tried in numberless contests—generous, -unselfish, and devoted to the interests of mankind—and -of course ascribed to him a multitude of adventurous exploits. -There is no great undertaking of antiquity in which -Theseus is not supposed to have taken part, and he was even -sent on an expedition to hell, in imitation of Heracles.</p> - -<p class='c007'>He was the son of the Athenian king Ægeus, whom mythological -tradition made a great-grandson of Erechtheus. After -his father Pandion had been driven out by his relations, the -sons of Metion, Ægeus betook himself to Megara, where he was -hospitably received by the ruler, Pylas. From Megara, Ægeus, -Pallas, Nisus, and Lycus, the sons of Pandion, undertook an -expedition against Athens, which ended in the expulsion of the -Metionidæ, and the restoration of the former royal family in the -person of Ægeus. Such, at least, is the tradition; although it -is more probable that Athens never had a king of this name, and -that Ægeus (wave-man) is only a surname of Poseidon, the -chief deity of the seafaring Ionians. Ægeus, though twice -married, had no heir, and now undertook a journey to Delphi -to seek the advice of the oracle. On his way back he stopped -at the court of Pittheus, king of Trœzen, and became, by his -daughter Æthra, the father of Theseus. Before his departure, -he placed his sword and sandals beneath a heavy stone, and -commanded Æthra to send his son to Athens as soon as he was -able to move the stone and take his father’s sword. Theseus -was carefully trained in music and gymnastics by the sagacious -Pittheus, and soon developed into a stately youth. He is also -supposed to have been educated by the Centaur Chiron, whose -instruction had now become a necessary item in the education -of a real hero.</p> - -<p class='c007'>When Theseus was sixteen, his mother took him to the stone -beneath which lay his father’s sword and sandals. With a -slight effort he raised the stone, and thus entered on his heroic -<span class='pageno' id='Page_221'>221</span>career. His earlier adventures consisted in overcoming a series -of obstacles that beset him in his journey from Trœzen to -Athens. They are generally supposed to have been six in -number.</p> - -<p class='c007'>1. Between Trœzen and Epidaurus he slew Periphetes, the -son of Hephæstus—who was lame, like his father—because he was -in the habit of murdering travellers with his iron club; whence -he is called Corynetes, or club-bearer.</p> - -<p class='c007'>2. He next delivered the Isthmus from another powerful -robber called Sinis. He used to fasten travellers who fell into -his hands to the top of a pine tree, which he bent to the earth, -and then allowed to recoil; after which, on their reaching the -ground, he would kill them outright; whence he is called Pityocamptes, -or pine-bender. Theseus inflicted the same fate on -him.</p> - -<p class='c007'>3. In the woody district of Crommyon he destroyed a dangerous -wild sow that laid waste the country.</p> - -<p class='c007'>4. Not far from this, on the rock of Sciron, on the borders of -Megara, dwelt another monster, called Sciron, who compelled -travellers to wash his feet, and then kicked them into the sea. -Theseus served him in a similar fashion.</p> - -<p class='c007'>5. In the neighbourhood of Eleusis he vanquished the giant -Cercyon, who compelled all who fell into his hands to wrestle -with him.</p> - -<p class='c007'>6. His last combat awaited him on the confines of Eleusis, -where dwelt the inhuman Damastes. This monster used to lay -his victims in a bed: if this was too short, he would hack off -their projecting limbs; if too long, he would beat out and pull -asunder their limbs, whence he is called Procrustes. He was -also slain by Theseus.</p> - -<p class='c007'>On reaching Athens, he found his father Ægeus in the toils of -the dangerous sorceress Medea, who had fled from Corinth to -Athens. She was on the point of making away with the newcomer -<span class='pageno' id='Page_222'>222</span>by poison, when Ægeus, fortunately, recognised him by -the sword he bore, and preserved him from his impending -fate.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Medea was compelled to flee; but a new danger awaited the -hero from the fifty sons of Pallas, who had reckoned on succeeding -their childless uncle Ægeus. Theseus, however, slew -some in battle and expelled the rest.</p> - -<p class='c007'>He now undertook his greatest and most adventurous feat, in -order to free his country from its shameful tribute to Minos, -king of Crete, whose son, the youthful hero Androgeos, had -been treacherously murdered by the Athenians and Megareans. -Another account says that he was sent by Ægeus against the -bull of Marathon, and thus slain. At any rate, Minos undertook -a war of revenge. He first marched against Megara, of which -Nisus, the brother of Ægeus, was king. Minos conquered him -by means of his own daughter Scylla, who became enamoured of -Minos, and cut off from her father’s head the purple lock on -which his life depended. After having taken Megara and slain -Nisus, Minos marched against Athens. Here he was equally -successful, and compelled the vanquished Athenians to expiate -the blood of his son by sending, every eight or (according to -the Greek method of reckoning) every nine years, seven youths -and seven maidens to be devoured by the Minotaur. This was -a monster, half man and half bull. Twice already had the -bloody tribute been sent, and the third fell just after Theseus’ -arrival in Athens; he at once bravely offered to go among the allotted -victims. He was resolved to do battle with the Minotaur, and -to stake his life on the liberation of his country from the shameful -tribute. Under the guidance of Aphrodite he passed over -to Crete, and soon discovered the efficacy of her protection. The -goddess kindled a passionate love for the hero in the breast of -Ariadne, the daughter of Minos. Ariadne rendered him every -possible assistance in his undertaking, and especially presented -<span class='pageno' id='Page_223'>223</span>him with a clew of thread, by means of which Theseus, after -having slain the Minotaur, was enabled to find his way out of -the Labyrinth. We have already narrated how Ariadne was -deserted by Theseus on the isle of Naxos, only to become the -bride of Dionysus, the divine son of Semele. Theseus also -landed at Delos, where he instituted the festival of the Delia -in honour of the divine children of Leto. On reaching Athens, -he showed his gratitude to his divine protectress by the institution -of the worship of Aphrodite Pandemus. In honour of -Dionysus and Ariadne, he instituted the Oschophoria, in which -festival Athene also had a share. Lastly, in honour of Apollo, -he instituted the Pyanepsia, a festival which was celebrated on -the seventh day of the month Pyanepsion (end of October).</p> - -<p class='c007'>The happy return of Theseus from his Cretan expedition, -however, proved the death of his aged father. Ægeus, as he -stood on the coast looking for his son’s return, perceived that -the ships had black sails instead of white, which were to have -been hoisted in the event of his son’s success; and believing that -all was lost, he cast himself headlong into the sea. This story -was perhaps only invented to account for the name of the -Ægean Sea.</p> - -<p class='c007'>With regard to the other exploits of Theseus, there exists the -greatest variety of accounts as to the order in which they took -place. As king, he is said to have been the first to unite the -separate districts of Attica into one political community, with -one state Prytaneum, and to have instituted the festival of the -Panathenæa in commemoration of this event. The following, -among his later exploits, are worthy of mention:—</p> - -<p class='c007'>1. He captured the bull of Marathon (said to have been the -same which Heracles brought alive from Crete), and sacrificed it -in Athens to Apollo Delphinius.</p> - -<p class='c007'>2. He assisted his friend Pirithoüs, the prince of the Lapithæ, -in his contest with the Centaurs.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_224'>224</span>3. He undertook with Pirithoüs an expedition to Lacedæmon, -in which they carried off Helen, the sister of the Dioscuri.</p> - -<p class='c007'>4. At the request of Pirithoüs, he accompanied him to the -lower world to carry off Persephone; but Hades, enraged at -their audacity, caused them both to be bound in chains and -fastened to a rock. Theseus was rescued from this plight by -Heracles, but during his absence the Dioscuri had released their -sister from Aphidnæ, where she was confined.</p> - -<p class='c007'>5. He next joined Heracles in his expedition against the -Amazons, and received, as the reward of victory, their queen -Antiope, or Hippolyte. Another tradition asserts that Antiope -followed him of her own free will to Athens, where she was -married to him, and became the mother of Hippolytus, famed -for his unhappy fate. His great beauty caused his step-mother -Phædra, a later wife of Theseus, and a sister of Ariadne, to fall -in love with him. As he withdrew himself from her dishonourable -proposals by flight, she accused him to his father of attempts -on her virtue. Theseus, in his wrath, besought Poseidon to -punish his faithless son; and the god, who had sworn to grant -any request of Theseus, sent a wild bull (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, a breaker) out of -the sea as Hippolytus was driving in his chariot along the sea-shore. -This so terrified his horses that Hippolytus was thrown -from his chariot, and dragged along the ground till he was -dead. This story—the scene of which was afterwards transferred -to Trœzen, whither Theseus was supposed to have fled on account -of a murder—was dealt with in a touching manner by the tragic -poets. The <cite>Hippolytus</cite> of Euripides is still extant.</p> - -<p class='c007'>6. As a result of the carrying off of Antiope, a second contest -with the Amazons was subsequently invented, in which Theseus -was engaged alone, and which took place in the immediate -neighbourhood of Athens. The Amazons are supposed to have -invaded Attica, in order to release their queen. Antiope, however, -was so enamoured of Theseus that she refused to return, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_225'>225</span>and fought at her husband’s side, against her kindred, until she -was slain.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Lastly, Theseus is said to have taken part in the Calydonian -boar hunt, and also in the expedition of the Argonauts, of which -we shall have more to say hereafter.</p> - -<div id='f_59' class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/f_59.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 59.—Elgin Theseus. British Museum.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>The death of Theseus is commonly agreed to have taken place -in the following manner:—He had been deprived of the -sovereignty of Athens by Menestheus, who was aided by the -Dioscuri; and then withdrew to the island of Scyros. Here he -was at first hospitably received, but subsequently murdered in a -treacherous manner by Lycomedes, the ruler of the island. -Demophoön, the son of Theseus, is said to have afterwards -recovered his father’s kingdom. At a still later period the bones -of the hero were brought to Athens by Cimon, at the command -of the Delphic oracle. Cimon is also supposed to have caused -the erection of the temple of Theseus, which still exists in -Athens, and serves as an art museum. The eighth day of -every month was held sacred to Theseus, besides which he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_226'>226</span>had a special -festival, called -the Thesea, on -the eighth of -Pyanepsion.</p> - -<div id='f_60' class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/f_60.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 60.—Theseus Lifting the Rock. Relief in the Villa Albani.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>Art has followed -the example of -the poets and mythologists -in depicting -Theseus as -a second Heracles. -Here, however, -the characteristic -differences that -existed between -the Doric and -Ionic races become -apparent. -Just as the latter -race surpassed the -former in elasticity, -both of mind -and body, so their -national hero -gives token not -only of a higher -intellectual being, -but also of a body -more lithe, and -capable of greater -swiftness and dexterity, -than that -of the Doric hero. -The slighter and -more elegant form -of Theseus lacks, -perhaps, the sheer -brute strength of -Heracles, but is compensated by the possession of a far greater -degree of activity and adroitness. The expression of face is -more amiable and the hair less bristling than that of Heracles, -while there is generally no beard. Such is Theseus as depicted by -Greek art at the epoch of its full development; later art strove -<span class='pageno' id='Page_227'>227</span>to render the form of the body still more lithe and graceful. The -costume of Theseus consists, like that of his prototype Heracles, -of a lion’s skin and club; sometimes also of the chlamys and petasus -of the Attic youth. Existing art monuments are far less numerous -in his case than in that of Heracles. If the explanation is correct, -the British Museum possesses a Theseus of priceless value. Among -the statues of the Parthenon which have been preserved, there is one -of a figure negligently reclining on a lion’s skin, which, with the -exception of the nose, hands, and feet, is in a tolerably good state of -preservation (Fig. 59). It belonged to the great group of the east -gable, which represented the first appearance of the new-born Athene -to the astonished gods. It is the figure of a youth in his prime, -somewhat larger than life, and altogether a perfect ideal of manly -beauty.</p> - -<p class='c020'>A representation of the conflict of Theseus with the invading army -of the Amazons still exists on a large piece of frieze-work, which, -together with the representations of the battle of the Lapithæ and -Centaurs (which have been already mentioned), formerly decorated -the walls of the shrine of Apollo’s temple in Phigalia, and is now the -property of the British Museum. Among the Greek warriors -Theseus may be easily recognised by his lion’s skin and the club, -which he is in the act of swinging against a mounted Amazon, probably -the leader of the hostile army. We give an engraving of the -scene where Theseus obtained the sword and sandals of his father -from beneath the rock, after a relief in the Villa Albani (Fig. 60).</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>8. Cretan Legend.</b>—<em>1. Minos and the Minotaur.</em>—Cretan -myths are both obscure and difficult of interpretation, because -Phœnician and Phrygian influences made themselves felt at a -very early period, and native sources fail us. Minos is commonly -supposed to have been the first king of the country. He -was the son of Zeus and Europa, who is called in Homer a -daughter of Phœnix. This Phœnix was subsequently made into -Agenor, a Phœnician, king of Sidon; and the story then arose -that Zeus, in the form of a white bull, had carried off Europa, -and arrived with his lovely prey in Crete. Europa is there -said to have given birth to Minos, Rhadamanthys (Rhadamanthus), -and some say Sarpedon. She afterwards married -Asterion, who brought up the sons of Zeus as his own children, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_228'>228</span>and, at his death, left the kingdom to Minos. He, after -expelling his brothers Sarpedon and Rhadamanthus, became -sole king of Crete. Of his brothers, Sarpedon went to Lycia, -whilst the pious Rhadamanthus found a refuge in Bœotia. -Minos next married Pasiphaë, a daughter of Helios and Perseïs, -by whom he became the father of Catreus, who succeeded him, -Deucalion, Glaucus, and Androgeos, besides several daughters, -of whom the most celebrated are Ariadne and Phædra. Minos -gave wise laws to his people, and became supreme at sea among -the isles of the Ægean Sea, and even as far as Attica. In his -name we find the same root (meaning “to think”) which we have -seen in Minerva, and which appears in the name of the Indian -lawgiver Manu.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In order to vindicate his right to the crown, Minos besought -Poseidon to send him a bull out of the sea, which he was then -to sacrifice to the god. Poseidon granted his prayer, but Minos -was induced by the beauty of the animal to place it among his -own herds. As a punishment of his perfidy, Poseidon kindled -in the breast of Pasiphaë an unnatural love for the bull, and the -fruit of their connection was the Minotaur. This was a monster, -half man and half bull, which Minos shut up in the labyrinth -that had been made by the skill of Dædalus. The food of the -monster consisted of human beings, who were partly criminals -and partly youths and maidens, sent as tribute from the subjugated -countries. This lasted until Theseus came to Crete, and, -with the aid of Ariadne and Dædalus, destroyed the Minotaur. -Such is the substance of this perplexing mythical tradition, of -which the simplest interpretation is that the Minotaur was -originally an ancient idol of the Phœnician sun-god Baal, which -had the form of a bull, and to which human sacrifices were -offered. The destruction of the Minotaur by Theseus is a -symbol of the triumph of the higher Greek civilisation over -<span class='pageno' id='Page_229'>229</span>Phœnician barbarism, and the consequent abolition of human -sacrifices.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Closely connected with the royal family of Crete we find -Dædalus, the most celebrated artist of the legendary period. -He is said to have been a son of Metion, and a descendant of -Erechtheus, and to have fled from Athens to Crete after -murdering his nephew Talus in a fit of professional jealousy. -During his residence in Crete he constructed the Labyrinth, an -underground building with an endless maze of passages, as a -dwelling-place for the Minotaur; besides many other wonderful -works of art. For having aided Theseus in his combat with -the Minotaur, Dædalus and his son Icarus were both imprisoned -in the Labyrinth of Minos. The story of his flight, which he -accomplished by means of the artificial wings that he made for -himself and his son, is well known from the <cite>Metamorphoses</cite> of -Ovid. Icarus fell into the sea that is named after him, and was -drowned, but Dædalus reached Cumæ in safety. From this -place he passed over to Sicily, where he was hospitably received -by Cocalus. When Minos, however, pursued the fugitive and -demanded his surrender, not only was his request refused, but -he was even put to death by the contrivance of the king’s -daughters.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Of the other sons of Minos, Deucalion is celebrated as having -taken part in the Calydonian boar hunt, and also as the father -of the hero Idomeneus, who fought against Troy. Glaucus was -killed, while yet a boy, by falling into a cask of honey as he -was pursuing a mouse. He is reported, however, to have been -restored to life by the Corinthian augur Polyidus, or, according -to others, by Asclepius himself.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>2. Talos.</em>—The legend of Talos, the brazen man, betrays likewise -a Phœnician origin, and refers to the cruel practice of -offering human sacrifices. This Talos was made of brass, and -was invulnerable. Hephæstus, or, as others say, Zeus gave him -<span class='pageno' id='Page_230'>230</span>to Minos as guardian of the island of Crete, round which he -travelled thrice a-day. If he perceived any strangers approach -he would spring into the fire, and, after becoming red-hot, he -would clasp them to his breast, until they expired beneath the -sardonic chuckle of the demon. He attempted to drive off the -Argonauts with stones, but was destroyed by the skill of Medea. -Talos had a single vein, which ran from his head to his feet, and -was closed at the top with a nail. This nail Medea cleverly -succeeded in extracting, in consequence of which Talos bled to -death.</p> - -<h3 class='c019'>IV.—COMBINED UNDERTAKINGS OF THE LATER HEROIC AGE.</h3> - -<p class='c006'><b>1. The Calydonian Hunt.</b>—The story of Meleager and the -Calydonian boar hunt was undoubtedly, in its origin, nothing -more than a provincial myth based on natural phenomena, like -other myths that we have already explained. In this case the -physical significance involved in the myth soon disappeared, -owing to the treatment it received at the hands of the epic and -dramatic poets. The poets, in fact, succeeded in introducing -some striking ethical conceptions, which absorbed all higher -interest.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Œneus, king of Calydon in Ætolia, on the occasion of -a great festival which was celebrated after a successful vintage, -had accidentally or purposely omitted to sacrifice to Artemis. -To punish this neglect she sent a huge wild boar, which devastated -the fields of Calydon, and seemed invincible by any -ordinary means on account of its vast size. Meleager, the brave -and heroic son of Œneus, therefore assembled men and hounds -in great number to slay it. The boar was slain; but Artemis -stirred up strife over the head and hide between the Ætolians -<span class='pageno' id='Page_231'>231</span>and the Curetes of Pleuron. At first the former were victorious; -but when Meleager withdrew in wrath from the battle because -his mother had cursed him for the death of her brother, they were -no longer able to keep the field, and soon saw their city closely -invested by their enemies. In vain did the elders and priests -of Calydon beseech Meleager; in vain did his father, sisters, and -even mother beseech him to aid his hard-pressed countrymen. -Like Achilles in the Trojan war, when he was wroth with -Agamemnon on account of the loss of Briseis, Meleager long -refused to stir. At last his wife—the beautiful Cleopatra—succeeded -in moving him. He donned his armour, and put -himself at the head of his countrymen for a sally against the -besiegers. Brilliant, indeed, was the victory of the men of -Calydon; but the hero Meleager did not return from the battle, -for the cruel Erinyes, who had heard his mother’s curse, destroyed -him with the arrows of Apollo.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Such is the earliest form of the legend, as it exists in the -<cite>Iliad</cite>. In time, however, Meleager was said to have called -together against the boar all the renowned heroes of Greece. -Among others there came the Dioscuri, Castor and Pollux; -Theseus and his friend Pirithoüs; Idas and Lynceus, the sons -of Aphareus; Admetus of Pheræ; Jason, from Iolcus; Iphicles -and Iolaüs, from Thebes; Peleus, the father of Achilles; Telamon, -from Salamis; Ancæus and the beautiful huntress Atalante -(Atalanta), from Arcadia; besides the soothsayer Amphiaraüs, -from Argos. After Œneus had entertained his guests royally -for nine days, the hunt began, and the huge beast, which was -as large as an ox, was surrounded and driven from its lair. -Atalante, the swift huntress, was the first to inflict a wound. -Ancæus then advanced with his battle-axe, but the enraged -beast, with one stroke of his dreadful tusks, tore open his body -and killed him on the spot. At length the monster received a -mortal wound from a spear hurled by the powerful arm of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_232'>232</span>Meleager, and was soon despatched by the rest. Meleager -received as his due the head and hide of the slaughtered animal, -but resigned the prize to Atalante, of whom he was enamoured, -on the ground that she was the first to wound the boar. This -act excited the bitter jealousy of Plexippus and Toxeus, the sons -of Thestius, king of Pleuron, and brothers of Althæa, the mother -of Meleager. They accordingly lay in wait for Atalante, and -robbed her of the present. Enraged at this, Meleager slew them -both. But Meleager’s death, though caused by the wrath of his -mother, was worked out differently in the time of the tragic -poets. The Fates had appeared to Althæa, soon after the birth -of Meleager, and informed her that her son would only live until -a certain brand, which was then burning on the fire, was consumed. -Althæa immediately snatched the brand from the -flames and carefully treasured it up. After Meleager had slain -her brothers, in the first outburst of grief and indignation -against her son, she placed the brand again in the fire, and thus -cut off the noble hero in the prime of his youth and beauty. -Althæa, on learning the unhappy fate of her son, full of sorrow -for her hasty deed, put an end to her own life.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>2. The Argonauts.</b>—The story of the Argonauts experienced -a similar fate to that of the Calydonian hunt. It was originally -nothing but a myth based on natural phenomena; but in the -hands of the poets it swelled to a mass of legends common to all -the tribes of Greece, the nucleus of which was the history of the -golden fleece. Athamas, the son of Æolus, was king of the Minyæ. -He put away his first wife, Nephele (cloud), in order to marry -Ino, the daughter of Cadmus; though he still kept Phrixus -(rain-shower) and Helle (ray of light), his children by Nephele, -with him. By Ino he had two other children, Learchus and -Melicertes, whom their mother naturally preferred to her stepchildren, -and for whose sake she endeavoured to drive the latter -<span class='pageno' id='Page_233'>233</span>from their father’s house. Soon afterwards, either at the command -of Nephele, whom some represent as a goddess, or in -consequence of her prayers for the punishment of Athamas, the -land was visited with a long drought, and Ino persuaded her -husband to sacrifice Phrixus as a sin-offering to Zeus, in order to -put an end to the calamity. Whether Helle was to have shared -her brother’s fate we cannot tell, for, before Ino could accomplish -her purpose, Nephele came to the assistance of her children, and -gave them a winged ram with a golden fleece, which Hermes -had presented to her for that purpose. Seated on this ram they -fled over the sea to Colchis. On the way Helle fell into that -part of the sea which bears her name, and was drowned, but -Phrixus arrived safely in Colchis (Æa), where he sacrificed the -ram to Zeus, who had preserved him in his flight. The fleece -he hung up in the grove of Ares as a sacred treasure, setting -over it a terrible, ever-watchful dragon as its guardian. To -fetch this treasure from a foreign land, and thereby to release -the country and people of the Minyæ from the calamity with -which they were oppressed, was the task of the heroes of the -race of Æolus. Athamas was so grieved at the evil he had -brought on his country that he became insane, and sought to -slay Ino and her children. He did, indeed, kill Learchus by -dashing him against a rock, but Ino succeeded in saving herself -and her younger child Melicertes by leaping into the sea (<em>cf.</em> Ino -Leucothea). Athamas then fled to Epirus, and the kingdom -devolved on his brother Cretheus. Cretheus married Tyro, the -daughter of his younger brother Salmoneus, king of Elis. Tyro -bore him three sons, the eldest of whom, Æson, succeeded his -father in the kingdom, but was soon after expelled by his step-brother -Pelias, who is described as a son of Tyro and Poseidon. -Æson with difficulty managed to rescue his little son Jason from -the hands of Pelias, and brought him to the Centaur Chiron to -be educated. In Chiron’s cave the young hero grew up, a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_234'>234</span>favourite with gods and men. After completing his twentieth -year, he betook himself to Iolcus to demand of his uncle his -rightful inheritance. Pelias, not daring to use violence to the -sturdy youth, endeavoured to get rid of his unwelcome guest by -involving him in a most dangerous adventure. He declared that -he would gladly resign the crown if Jason would recover the -golden fleece from Colchis. Jason, like a true hero, at once -accepted the perilous adventure. In the harbour of Iolcus he -caused a large ship with fifty oars to be constructed, which he -called the “Argo,” after its builder, Argus. He then called -together the heroes, who had consented at his invitation to take -part in the expedition. In the original version of the story, the -expedition was stated to have been undertaken only by the -heroes of the race of the Minyæ—such as Acastus, Admetus, -and Periclymenus. At a later period, however—when the date -of the expedition had been fixed at one generation before the -Trojan war—no hero of any note was allowed to be absent from -the undertaking. In this manner were added the Dioscuri, the -sons of Boreas, Calaïs and Zetes, Telamon, Peleus, Meleager, -Tydeus, Iphitus, Theseus, Orpheus, Amphiaraüs, and even -Heracles. In the last case, the incongruity of allowing the -hero to play only a subordinate part was soon felt, and his -name was withdrawn. He was said to have been left behind in -Mysia, where he had landed in order to search for his favourite -Hylas, who had been carried off by the Naiads. The number -of the Argonauts was finally computed at fifty, tallying with the -number of oars.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The expedition proceeded from Iolcus to Lemnos, and thence -through the Hellespont to Cyzicus, where they were kindly -received by the Doliones. From Cyzicus they proceeded to -Bithynia, where they were opposed by the Bebryces, whose -king, Amycus, was slain by Pollux in a boxing match. Their -greatest difficulty lay in the passage of the Bosporus, there -<span class='pageno' id='Page_235'>235</span>being at the entrance of the Pontus (Black Sea) two terrible -rocks, which were in constant motion—now retreating to the -shore on either side, now hastily dashing together again; whence -they were called the Symplegades. This occurred so rapidly -that even the swiftest vessel had not time enough to get through. -The Argonauts were in great perplexity. At length the blind -seer Phineus, who dwelt in Thracian Salmydessus, and whose -gratitude they won by delivering him from the Harpies who -had tormented him, assisted them with his advice. By means -of a stratagem he recommended they were enabled to bring the -Argo through without any considerable damage, after which the -Symplegades remained stationary. After this they stood along -the south coast towards their destination, which, in the original -legend, appears to have been the utterly fabulous Æa, subsequently -converted into Colchis. This was the residence of the -mighty king Æetes, a son of the sun-god. To rob him, either -by craft or by violence, of the golden fleece was the task of -Jason, the leader of the Argonauts.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The second prominent character in the story, Medea, the -daughter of Æetes, now makes her appearance. It was, in fact, -only through her love that Jason was enabled to surmount the -vast obstacles which stood between him and the possession of -the golden fleece. When the hero demanded the fleece of -Æetes, the latter declared that he would deliver it up to him -after he had accomplished two tasks. The first was to harness -two brazen-footed, fire-breathing bulls, which Æetes had received -from Hephæstus, to a plough, and with them to till an uncultivated -field. The second was to sow in the furrows the dragon’s -teeth that Æetes would give him, and to destroy the armed men -which would then spring up. Jason’s heart failed him on -hearing these conditions, but Medea, who was an enchantress -and priestess of Hecate, was equal to the occasion. She gave -the hero a magic salve to protect him against the fiery breath of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_236'>236</span>the bulls and to endow him with invincible strength, which -enabled him to accomplish his first task successfully. In the -case of the armed men who sprang from the dragon’s teeth, by -the advice of Medea he followed the example of Cadmus, and -cast among them a heavy stone, whereupon in blind fury they -turned their arms against each other, and were all destroyed.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The conditions imposed upon him by Æetes were thus accomplished; -but the king, who perceived that Jason had only -succeeded through the aid of his daughter, made this a pretext -for refusing to surrender the fleece. Jason then removed it by -night from the grove of Ares, after Medea had, by means of her -enchantments, lulled the watchful dragon to sleep. That same -night the Argonauts embarked on board their ship and put to -sea, Medea accompanying them as the future wife of Jason. -The wrathful Æetes attempted to overtake the fugitives, but -Medea succeeded in staying the pursuit by slaying her younger -brother Apsyrtus, whom she had brought with her, and scattering -his limbs in the sea.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The most diverse accounts exist as to the road taken by the -Argonauts on their homeward journey. Some say that they -sailed up the Phasis to the Eastern Sea, and then, passing -through the Red Sea and Libyan desert, over which they had to -carry the Argo twelve days’ journey, came to Lake Tritonis, and -thence to the Mediterranean. According to another account, -they sought to pass through the Ister (Danube) and Eridanus -(Po) to the Western Ocean; but the object of this account was -manifestly to subject them to the same vicissitudes and adventures -as Odysseus and his companions.</p> - -<p class='c007'>At length Jason landed happily in Iolcus, and delivered the -golden fleece into the hands of his uncle. Pelias, however, still -refused to surrender the kingdom to Jason, and Medea therefore -determined to make away with him by craft. Having persuaded -the daughters of Pelias that she possessed a means of making -<span class='pageno' id='Page_237'>237</span>the old man young again, she directed them to slay their father, -cut him in pieces, and boil the limbs in a cauldron filled with all -manner of herbs; this they did in the vain expectation of seeing -him restored to youth. Jason now took possession of his -father’s kingdom, but was soon afterwards expelled by Acastus, -the son of Pelias, and took refuge in Corinth. His subsequent -misfortunes are well known. Thinking to better his condition, -he was about to marry Creüsa, the daughter of the king of -Corinth, when he was arrested by the fearful vengeance of his -first wife. Medea sent the bride a poisoned garment, which -caused her to die an agonising death, and then slew her own -children by Jason; after which she fled in her chariot drawn by -winged dragons to Athens, where she long found protection at -the court of Ægeus. Jason either put an end to his own life, or -was killed by the fall of a rotten beam of the Argo.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In the history of the golden fleece we have one of the most -widely spread myths of all, namely, that of the loss and recovery -of a treasure. In Teutonic tradition we have the treasure of the -Nibelungs, in which the very name is almost identical; and if -we include the stories of women carried off and rescued, the -list becomes endless. And the treasure of all those stories has -been interpreted to be the golden clouds. The Dragon which -guards the treasure again appears in the story of the apples of -the Hesperides, and is closely allied to the Sphinx.</p> - -<p class='c006'><b>3. The Theban Cycle.</b>—The highly tragic history of the -Theban house of the Labdacidæ, teeming as it does with important -characters and events, has at all times furnished subjects -for Greek art and poetry, and has given birth to a whole series -of epic and dramatic works. The former, which would have -conduced far more to an exact acquaintance with the legend, -have, unfortunately, perished, with the exception of a few unimportant -fragments; although many important works of the -great tragic poets, Æschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, relating -to the subject, still remain. The common account runs thus:—Laius, -a great-grandson of Cadmus, was warned by the oracle to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_238'>238</span>beget no children, as he was doomed to perish by the hands of -his son, who would then marry his mother. When his wife -Iocaste gave birth to a son, Laius accordingly exposed the child, -with its feet pierced, on Mount Cithæron. The child, called -Œdipus from the swelling of its feet, did not die, but was found -by some Corinthian shepherds, who brought it to Polybus, king -of Corinth. Polybus, having no children of his own, adopted -Œdipus, who grew up in the belief that Polybus and Merope -were his real parents, until one day a taunt of his companions -as to his mysterious origin raised doubts in his mind. In order -to solve his misgivings, he went to consult the oracle of Delphi, -but he here received only the obscure direction not to return to -his country, since, if he did, he would kill his father and marry -his mother. Fearing on this account to return to Corinth, he -took the road to Thebes, and thus, by his presumptuous prudence, -brought about the very consequences he was so anxious -to avoid. On the road he was met by Laius, who was on his -way to the oracle to ask its advice concerning the Sphinx. A -quarrel arose, in a narrow defile, between Laius and Œdipus; -and Œdipus slew his father without knowing who he was. On -arriving at Thebes he succeeded in delivering the country from -the Sphinx. This monster, which had the combined form of a -woman and a lion, had been sent by Hera, whom Laius had in -some way offended, from Ethiopia to devastate the land of -Thebes. Seated on a rock close to the town, she put to every -one that passed by a riddle, and whoever was unable to -solve it, she cast from the rock into a deep abyss. This -calamity induced Creon, on the death of his brother-in-law -Laius, to proclaim that whoever solved the riddle should obtain -the crown and the hand of Iocaste. Œdipus succeeded in -solving it, and thus delivered the country from the monster, -who cast herself into the abyss.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Sphinx belongs to the same family as many of the -monsters we have spoken of already; she is called by Hesiod -the child of Orthros and Chimæra, whom we have seen to be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_239'>239</span>the daughter of Typhon and Echidna. It would seem, therefore, -probable that the contest between her and her opponent may -be interpreted in the same way as that of Bellerophon and the -Chimæra, or of Zeus and Typhon. In support of this, the -following considerations may be adduced. Since we know -that thunder was supposed to be a warning or encouragement -to men, it is easy to see in it the mysterious voice of the cloud, -only intelligible to the wisest of men. Hence the conqueror of -the cloud was called the man who understood her language. -(It would not a little help this idea, that Œdipus might seem -derived from a word meaning “to know.”) Then the death of -the Sphinx will be the cloud falling upon the earth in the shape -of rain. Œdipus, on the other hand, will be the same antagonist -as we have before seen victorious over the cloud dragons; the sun, -born helpless, rising to take the kingdom after the slaughter of -his enemies, yet at last sinking blinded into an unknown grave. -This, however, does not cover the crimes laid to his charge. -But they have been explained in this way: that when people -lost consciousness of the real meaning of the misfortunes of -Œdipus, they cast about for some adequate cause, and found one -in the two great crimes of incest and parricide. We have seen -something similar to this in the case of Ixion. Further, the -names of the wives assigned by various writers to Œdipus are -connected with the light, and the name Laius has been interpreted -as “enemy” of the light. Sphinx itself signifies “throttler.”</p> - -<p class='c020'>In art, the Sphinx had the form of a lion, generally in a recumbent -position, with the breast and upper part of a beautiful woman. -When the Greeks saw similar figures in Egypt, they naturally gave -them the name of Sphinx. But name, family, and meaning of the -Sphinx are alike Greek, although the Egyptian statues have taken -too firm possession of the name ever to lose it. Ancient Egyptian -art revelled in the creation of colossal Sphinxes, which were carved -out of granite. A notable example of this kind exists in the giant -Sphinx near the Pyramids of Gizeh, which is eighty-nine feet long. -From such monstrous figures as these, Greek art held aloof.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Œdipus was rewarded with the sovereignty of Thebes and the -hand of Iocaste; and for several years he enjoyed uninterrupted -<span class='pageno' id='Page_240'>240</span>happiness, surrounded by four blooming children, the fruit of his -incestuous marriage. By the secret agency of the goddess, the -dreadful truth was at length discovered. Iocaste hanged herself, -and Œdipus, in despair, put out his own eyes. Not content with -this voluntary penance, the hard-hearted Thebans compelled him -besides to leave their city and country, while his sons Eteocles and -Polynices, who were now grown up, refused to stir a foot in their -father’s behalf. Œdipus, after invoking bitter curses on their -heads, withdrew, and, guided by his faithful daughter Antigone, -at last found an asylum in the grove of the Eumenides at Colonus, -near Athens. His grave there was regarded, in consequence of -an ancient response of the oracle, as a national treasure.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The curse of their father took effect on his unnatural sons. -The elder, Eteocles, drove out his brother Polynices, who then -sought the assistance of Adrastus, king of Argos. Adrastus was -a grandson of Bias, of the race of the Amythaonidæ, and by his -marriage with the daughter of the wealthy Polybus acquired the -sovereignty of Sicyon. He not only hospitably received the -fugitive Polynices, but gave him his daughter in marriage, and -promised to assist him in recovering the crown of Thebes. In -this expedition Adrastus sought to gain the aid of the other -Argive heroes. They all declared their readiness to accompany -him, with the exception of Amphiaraüs, his brother-in-law, who -was equally renowned for his wisdom and courage. Amphiaraüs -was a great-grandson of the celebrated seer Melampus, and -inherited from him the gift of prophecy. He was thus enabled -to perceive the disastrous termination of the war, and strove to -hinder it. But Polynices and the fiery Tydeus—likewise a son-in-law -of Adrastus—were so unceasing in their entreaties, that -he at length sought to escape their importunity by flight. -Polynices, however, bribed his wife Eriphyle, by the present of a -magnificent necklace, which had formerly been given to Harmonia -on the occasion of her marriage with Cadmus, to betray his place -of concealment. Hereupon Amphiaraüs was obliged unwillingly -to join the expedition, which ended as he had prophesied. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_241'>241</span>attack on Thebes was not only repulsed, but all the Argive -leaders, with the exception of Adrastus, who was saved by the -fleetness of his horse, were slain. Polynices and Eteocles fell in -single combat with each other. The flight of Adrastus to Attica, -where he procured the assistance of Theseus in compelling the -Thebans to grant the fallen heroes a solemn burial, is a feature -unknown to the original legend, and may be ascribed to the -patriotic impulses of the Athenian dramatists. The celebrated -tragedy of Sophocles, called <cite>Antigone</cite>, is based on the assumption -that Creon, the new king of Thebes, allowed the burial of the -other heroes, but left Polynices to lie unburied on the field like -a dog, and condemned Antigone to death because she ventured -to bury her brother in despite of his command. Creon was -destined to meet with a dreadful retribution, for his own son, -who was betrothed to Antigone, killed himself in grief at her fate.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Ten years later, the sons of the fallen heroes are said to have -combined with Ægialeus, the son of Adrastus, to avenge their -fathers’ defeat. This expedition has therefore been called the -war of the Epigoni (descendants), and not being undertaken, -like that of their fathers, in manifest opposition to the will of -the gods, proved successful. Laodamas, the savage son of -Eteocles, who was now king of Thebes, was defeated in a -decisive battle near Thebes, and, after Ægialeus had fallen by -his hands, was himself slain by Alcmæon, the son of Amphiaraüs. -The Thebans were unable any longer to hold their city, -and, following the advice of the blind seer Tiresias, they withdrew -under the cover of darkness and mist. The aged Tiresias -expired on the road, at the fountain of Tilphusa; of the rest, -some took refuge in Thessalia, and some sought other lands. -The victorious Argives, after plundering and partly destroying -the city, dedicated a great portion of the booty—among which -was Manto, the daughter of Tiresias—to the oracle of Delphi. -They then made Thersander, the son of Polynices, king of Thebes; -upon which many of the fugitive inhabitants returned. Thersander -subsequently took part in the Trojan war, and there perished.</p> - -<p class='c006'><span class='pageno' id='Page_242'>242</span><b>4. The Trojan Cycle.</b>—We now come to the Trojan war, -the fourth and most celebrated of the common undertakings of -the later heroic age. Here the sources of our information are -far more plentiful than in any former period of mythic history, -because both the grand national epics, the <cite>Iliad</cite> and the <cite>Odyssey</cite>, -which are commonly ascribed to Homer, relate to the Trojan war. -As the contents of these immortal poems are probably well known -to our readers, we shall only dwell on the most essential features -of the story.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>I. The Heroic Races of the Trojan War.</span>—<em>1. The Dardanidæ, -or race of Dardanus.</em>—The royal family of Troy were -descended from Dardanus, a son of Zeus by Electra, a daughter -of Atlas. Dardanus is said to have emigrated from Samothrace, -or, according to others, from Italy to Arcadia, to the north-west -portion of Asia Minor, between the range of Ida and the Hellespont, -where he received from king Teucer some land to form a -settlement. By a daughter of the river-god Simoïs, or, as others -say, of Scamander, Dardanus had a son called Tros, from whom -the Trojans derived their name. Tros had three sons—Assaracus, -Ilus, and Ganymedes. The last, who, like all the scions of the -race of Dardanus, was possessed of wonderful beauty, was raised -by Zeus to the dignity of cupbearer to the gods, and thus became -immortal. Ilus and Assaracus became the founders of two -different branches of the Dardanian race. The latter remained -in his native settlement of Dardania, where he became the father -of Capys and the grandfather of Anchises, the father of Æneas. -Ilus, on the other hand, emigrated to the plains of the Scamander, -where he founded the city of Ilium, or Troy. After completing -the town, he begged Zeus to bestow on him a sign of his favour. -The next morning he found in front of his tent the celebrated -Palladium—an image of Pallas Athene, carved in wood. On -the possession of this depended the fortune and welfare of the -city. After the death of Ilus, his son Laomedon became king -of Troy. At his request, Poseidon and Apollo built the citadel -of Pergamum. We have already related how this king, by his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_243'>243</span>faithless conduct provoked the wrath of Heracles, and the first -capture of the city. Of his sons only Priam remained; in him the -race of Dardanus flourished afresh, for by his wife Hecuba and -by his concubines he had a great number of sons and daughters.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>2. The Pelopidæ, or race of Pelops.</em>—The Pelopidæ, who were -chiefly instrumental in the destruction of Troy, were descended -from the Phrygian king Tantalus, who was renowned alike for his -unexampled good fortune and his subsequent unhappy fate. He -was the son of Zeus and Pluto (rich plenty), and inhabited a citadel -on Mount Sipylus, whence his rich pasture-lands and fruitful -corn-fields extended twelve days’ journey, as far as Ida and the -Propontis. The very gods honoured him with their friendship, -and lived on such intimate terms that they invited him to eat at -their table. This unheard-of good fortune, however, begot in the -puny mortal such presumption, that he began to indulge in the -grossest outrages on gods and men. At length he went so far as -to cut his son Pelops in pieces to boil them, and set them before -the gods in order to test their omniscience. The cup of his iniquity -now seemed full, and the gods brought down a heavy retribution -on the head of the criminal by his well-known punishment in -the lower world, where, though surrounded by the most delicious -fruits, and standing up to his neck in water, he was nevertheless -condemned to suffer the pangs of continual hunger and thirst. -Another tradition relates that he was kept in constant anxiety by -a huge rock which was suspended over his head. (See pp. <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.)</p> - -<p class='c007'>The children of Tantalus were Pelops and Niobe. The unhappy -fate of the latter has already been described in the mythic -history of Thebes. Pelops was restored to life by the art of -Hermes; and a portion of his shoulder, which had been consumed -by Demeter, was replaced by the gods with a piece of -ivory. Pelops is said to have grown up in Olympus, amongst -the blessed gods. On being restored to earth, he proceeded to -Elis, where he became a suitor for the hand of Hippodamia, the -beautiful daughter of the king Œnomaüs. The latter had -promised his daughter to the man who should vanquish him in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_244'>244</span>a chariot race: whoever failed was obliged to expiate his temerity -with his life, as Œnomaüs transfixed him with his unerring -lance as he passed. Thirteen noble youths had already suffered -this fate, when Pelops appeared to undergo the dangerous ordeal. -By means of the untiring winged horses which had been given -him by Poseidon, and also by bribing Myrtilus, the King’s -charioteer—who, before starting, withdrew the linch-pins from -his master’s chariot or replaced them with wax—he came off -victorious. Œnomaüs either was killed by the breaking down -of his chariot, or put an end to his own life on seeing himself -vanquished. Pelops now obtained both Hippodamia and the -kingdom of Elis; but he ill rewarded Myrtilus, who had rendered -him such valuable service, by casting him into the sea, in order -to release himself from his obligations. Hermes, whose son he -is reputed to have been, set him amongst the stars as charioteer.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The sons of Pelops by Hippodamia were Atreus and Thyestes, -whose history, which is full of the most revolting crimes, formed a -favourite subject with the tragic poets. First, Atreus and Thyestes -murdered their step-brother Chrysippus, and were compelled to -leave their country in company with their mother. They were -hospitably received at Mycenæ by their brother-in-law Sthenelus, -the son of Perseus, or by his son Eurystheus. On Eurystheus’ -death, they inherited the sovereignty of the Persidæ in Argos, -and Atreus now took up his residence in the proud capital of -Mycenæ, whence, strange to say, the most ancient specimen of -Greek sculpture has come down to us in the so-called Gate of -Lions. Soon an implacable enmity arose between the two -brothers, and Thyestes, in consequence, was banished from -Argos. He took with him, in revenge, Pleisthenes, the young -son of Atreus, brought him up as his own son, and despatched -him, later, to Mycenæ to kill Atreus. His design was discovered, -and he expiated his intended crime with his life. When Atreus -learned that it was his own son whom he had condemned to -death, he determined on a dreadful revenge. Pretending to be -reconciled, he recalled Thyestes and his children to Mycenæ; and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_245'>245</span>Thyestes, trusting to his brother’s word, returned. Atreus then -privately seized the two young sons of Thyestes, slew them, and -set this horrible food before their father. Horror-struck at this -inhuman cruelty, the sun turned his chariot and went back in -his course. Thyestes, uttering fearful curses against his brother -and the whole race of the Pelopidæ, again escaped, and took -refuge with Thesprotus, king of Epirus. Later, he succeeded, -with the help of his only remaining son Ægisthus, in avenging -himself on his brother. Atreus was slain by Ægisthus whilst -offering up a sacrifice on the sea-shore, and Thyestes now acquired -the sovereignty of Mycenæ. The sons of Atreus, Agamemnon -and Menelaüs, fled from their barbarous uncle to -Sparta, where Tyndareüs, the king, received them kindly, and -gave them his daughters, Clytæmnestra and Helen, in marriage. -With his aid Agamemnon recovered his father’s kingdom, slew -Thyestes, and drove out Ægisthus. Menelaüs remained in -Sparta—where he succeeded Tyndareüs—until the carrying off -of his wife Helen by Paris gave rise to the Trojan war.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>3. The Æacidæ, or race of Æacus.</em>—After the sons of Atreus, -the Æacidæ play the most important part in the Trojan war; -in fact, we are almost justified in saying that the war was an -exploit of these two races of heroes and their peoples, the -Achæans of Argos and the Hellenes of Phthia. The ancestor of -the Æacidæ was Æacus, who was renowned alike for his wisdom -and justice, and on this account subsequently made a judge in -the lower world. Æacus was a son of Zeus by Ægina, a -daughter of the river-god Asopus. He ruled over the island of -Ægina, and married Endeïs, the daughter of the wise Centaur -Chiron. She bore him two sons, Peleus and Telamon. On -reaching manhood they were compelled to leave their country, -because, like the sons of Pelops, they had murdered, in a fit of -jealousy, a step-brother who was a favourite with their father. -Peleus betook himself to Phthia, where he was kindly received -<span class='pageno' id='Page_246'>246</span>by Eurytion, who bestowed on him the hand of his daughter and -a third part of his kingdom. Peleus afterwards took part in the -boar hunt of Calydon, on which occasion he had the misfortune -to kill his father-in-law. In consequence of this, he left Phthia -and proceeded to Iolcus, where he took part in the funeral -games which Acastus was celebrating in honour of his father -Pelias, who had perished by the treachery of Medea. Here he -experienced a similar fate to that of Bellerophon at the court of -Prœtus. Astydameia, the wife of Acastus, finding herself unable -to seduce him, slandered him to her husband, who thereupon -sought to take his life. After hunting on Pelion one day, Peleus -fell asleep, and was left thus unprotected by Acastus, who hoped -by this means to get rid of him. He would, indeed, have been -murdered by the Centaurs, if the gods had not taken pity on -him, and sent him by Hermes a sword of wonderful power, with -which he was enabled to repel the assaults of the wild inhabitants -of the forest. Peleus, with the help of the Dioscuri, -subsequently took Iolcus, and put the treacherous Acastus and -his wife to death. As a reward for his chastity, the gods gave -him the goddess Thetis—a beautiful daughter of Nereus—to wife. -She bore him one son, Achilleus (Achilles), the greatest and -bravest hero of the Trojan war. A later tradition asserts that -Thetis left her husband soon after the birth of Achilles, because -he had disturbed her when she was about to render her child -immortal in the fire, just as Demeter intended to do to the child -of Celeüs; but this story is unknown to Homer. According to -a still later legend, she plunged her son into the Styx, and -thereby rendered him invulnerable in every part except the heel -by which she held him. Like all noble heroes, Achilles was -instructed by Chiron, under whom he acquired such wonderful -skill in all feats of strength and agility that he soon surpassed -all his contemporaries. In addition to Chiron, Homer names -Phœnix, the son of Amyntor, as the instructor of the youthful -<span class='pageno' id='Page_247'>247</span>hero. Achilles proceeded to the Trojan war with cheerful determination, -although he knew beforehand that he was not fated to -return alive. The story that his mother Thetis, in order to avert -his fate, sent him, disguised in women’s clothes, to the court of -Lycomedes, king of Scyros, where he was discovered by the -craft of Odysseus, is a post-Homeric invention.</p> - -<p class='c007'>From Telamon, the second son of Æacus, was descended Aias -or Ajax, a hero of but little less importance. Telamon, after -his flight from Ægina, found a new home in Salamis, where he -married the daughter of the king Cychreus. On the decease of -Cychreus, he succeeded to the crown. After the death of his -first wife, he married Peribœa, a daughter of Alcathoüs, king of -Megara, who bore him Ajax. Tradition tells us much of the -intimate friendship of Heracles and Telamon, who took part in -the Trojan expedition of his mighty friend. Heracles, in return, -gave him Hesione, the daughter of Laomedon, by whom he -became the father of a second son, Teucer. Like every celebrated -hero of antiquity, he is said to have taken part in the -Calydonian hunt and the expedition of the Argonauts. Nothing -inferior to this brave and doughty father was his son Ajax, on -whom the mighty hero Heracles had invoked the blessing of his -father Zeus, when as a child he held him in his arms. He was -of greater size and strength than any of the other heroes; though -he appears somewhat uncouth and clumsy when contrasted with -the swift and agile form of Achilles. His mighty shield was -as characteristic of him as the ponderous deadly spear was of -Achilles. Beside him, his brother Teucer ranks as the best -archer among the Greeks.</p> - -<p class='c007'><em>4. Nestor, the Locrian Ajax, Diomedes, and Odysseus.</em>—Associated -with the heroes of the race of Pelops and Æacus -were some other renowned chieftains. First among them was -the aged Nestor, of Pylus, whose wise counsels were as indispensable -to the Greeks before Troy as the dauntless courage of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_248'>248</span>an Achilles or an Ajax. Nestor was the youngest of the twelve -sons of Neleus, who was himself a son of Poseidon and Tyro, -and twin-brother of Pelias. Neleus, having been driven out by -Pelias, took refuge in Messenia, where he became the founder -of a new kingdom. Later, however, both his sovereignty and -the glory of his house were well-nigh extinguished by the -hostility of Heracles, who slew all the sons of Neleus except -Nestor. When quite young, Nestor defeated the neighbouring -tribes of the Epei and Arcadians, and restored the dominions of -his father to their former extent. He likewise took part in the -contest between the Lapithæ and the Centaurs, in the Calydonian -boar hunt, and in the expedition of the Argonauts. -Though so far advanced in years—having ruled over three -generations of men—he could not withstand the desire to take -part in the Trojan war.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Locrian Ajax—also called the Lesser Ajax, to distinguish -him from his mighty namesake—was a son of the Locrian king -Oïleus, of whom nothing more is known than that he took part -in the expedition of the Argonauts. Ajax was renowned among -the Greeks for his skill in hurling the spear and for his great -fleetness, in which he was surpassed only by Achilles. He -always appears in a linen corslet, and his followers, the Opuntian -Locrians, are also light-armed troops.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Diomedes was a member of the oft-mentioned race of the -Æolian Amythaonidæ. His father was the hot-headed Tydeus, -who was killed in the war of the Seven against Thebes. Diomedes, -who inherited no small portion of his father’s wild, -untameable disposition, of course took part in the war of the -Epigoni, and subsequently succeeded his grandfather Adrastus -in his Argive sovereignty at Sicyon. He also restored his -paternal grandfather, the aged Ætolian king Œneus, who had -been dethroned by the sons of his brother Agrius, to his kingdom. -In the <cite>Iliad</cite> he appears as a special favourite of Pallas -<span class='pageno' id='Page_249'>249</span>Athene, and Homer makes him play an important part in the -contests of the Greeks before the walls of Troy. In post-Homeric -story he is represented as having carried off the Trojan -Palladium.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Finally, Odysseus (Ulysses), the most popular of the Greek -heroes of the Trojan war, was a son of Laërtes, king of Ithaca, -by Anticlea, the daughter of Autolycus. Autolycus inhabited a -district on Mount Parnassus, and was renowned for his cunning. -His grandson seems to have inherited no small part of his grandfather’s -disposition. Through his noble and virtuous wife -Penelope, Odysseus was closely related to the Atridæ; Penelope -being the daughter of Icarius, who was a brother of the Spartan -king Tyndareüs. He was therefore obliged—though much -against his will—to comply with the request of Menelaüs, and -join the expedition against Troy. On account of his wisdom -and eloquence, his dexterity in all feats of strength, and his -dauntless valour in the midst of danger, he also was a special -favourite of Pallas.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>II. The War.</span>—The <cite>Iliad</cite> of Homer, the most important -source of our information with regard to the Trojan war, does -not deal with the events of the first nine years; and of those of -the tenth and last year it only gives such episodes as relate to -the quarrel of Achilles and Agamemnon. Of the origin of the -war, and the events of the first nine years, it speaks only incidentally, -for the sake of explanation. The gap has to be filled -up from the works of those writers who had access to other epic -poems of the Trojan cycle, which are now no longer extant.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Eris, the goddess of discord, not having been invited to the -marriage festivities of Peleus and Thetis, avenged herself by -casting into the assembly a golden apple, with the inscription—“To -the fairest.” The three rival goddesses—Hera, Athene, and -Aphrodite—each claimed the apple for herself, but were referred -by Zeus to the decision of Paris. Paris was a son of Priam, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_250'>250</span>Trojan king. Immediately after birth, he was exposed on Mount -Ida, in consequence of an ill-omened dream which his mother -Hecuba had during her pregnancy. He was found, however, -and brought up by some shepherds. He decided in favour of -Aphrodite, who had promised him the most beautiful woman -on earth as his wife. Soon afterwards, at some games given by -the king, the youth, who was equally distinguished for his -handsome person and his bodily dexterity, after having wrested -the prize from all his brethren, was recognised by the prophetess -Cassandra, and received into his father’s favour. He next -undertook a journey across the sea to Greece, and, among other -places, visited the court of Menelaüs, king of Sparta, by whom -he was hospitably received and entertained. Aphrodite kindled -in the breast of the young wife of Menelaüs a fatal love for their -handsome guest, who dazzled her as much by the beauty of his -person as by the oriental splendour of his appearance. While -Menelaüs was absent in Crete, and her brothers, the Dioscuri, -were engaged in their strife with the sons of Aphareus, Helen -fled with her seducer to Troy. On the refusal of the king of -Troy to surrender Helen, Menelaüs succeeded in rousing the -whole of Greece to a war of revenge. This task was the more -easy, as most of the Grecian chieftains had been suitors of Helen, -and had bound themselves by an oath to Tyndareüs to unite in -support of the husband whom Helen should choose, in the event -of his ever being injured or attacked. The well-manned ships -of the Greeks assembled in the Bœotian port of Aulis. Their -number amounted to eleven hundred and eighty-six, according -to Homer; of which Agamemnon, who had been chosen leader -of the expedition, alone furnished over one hundred. Agamemnon, -however, having offended Artemis by killing a hind -sacred to the goddess, the departure of the expedition was -delayed by continuous calms, until at length, at the command of -the priest Calchas, Agamemnon determined to appease the wrath -<span class='pageno' id='Page_251'>251</span>of the goddess by sacrificing his daughter Iphigenia on her altar. -At the fatal moment Artemis rescued the victim, and, after -substituting a hind in her stead, conveyed Iphigenia to Tauris, -where she became a priestess in the temple of the goddess. -The fleet now sailed with a fair wind. The expedition first -stopped at Tenedos, opposite the coast of Troy. Here, on the -occasion of a banquet, Philoctetes, who possessed the bow and -arrows of Heracles on which the conquest of Troy depended, -was bitten in the foot by a serpent, and on account of his cries -and the offensive smell of the wound was carried to Lemnos, -and there left to his fate. The Greeks next effected a landing -on the coast of Troy, in spite of the opposition of Hector and -Æneas; for Protesilaüs devoted himself to death for the Greeks, -and sprang first on the Trojan shore. Even Cycnus, the mighty -son of Poseidon, who was king of Colonæ in Troas, and came to -the assistance of the Trojans, was unable to stem the advance of -the Greeks; and his body being invulnerable, he was strangled -by Achilles by means of a thong twisted round his neck.</p> - -<p class='c007'>After the Greeks had made a station for their ships, the war -began in earnest. Several of their attacks on the town having -been successfully repelled by the Trojans, the Greeks now confined -themselves to making inroads and plundering excursions -into the surrounding country, in which Achilles was always the -most prominent actor. The first nine years of the war were by -no means fruitful in important events, and the wearisome -monotony of the siege was broken only by the single combat -between Achilles and Troïlus, the youngest son of Priam, in -which Troïlus was slain, and by the fall of Palamedes of Eubœa, -the head of the Greek peace-party, which was brought about by -the treachery of Odysseus. At length, in the tenth year of the -war, a quarrel broke out between Achilles and Agamemnon -respecting a female slave who had been taken captive, and gave -for the time quite another aspect to affairs. It is at this point -<span class='pageno' id='Page_252'>252</span>that the <cite>Iliad</cite> commences. Achilles, in his wrath, retired to his -tent, and refused to take any further part in the war; whilst the -Trojans, who feared him more than all the other Greeks, became -bolder, and no longer kept to the protection of their walls. -Zeus, at the request of Thetis, gave them the victory in their -first engagement with the Greeks. Hector drove the latter back -to their ships, and was already about to set them on fire, when -Achilles consented to allow his friend Patroclus to don his -armour and lead his Myrmidons to the assistance of the Greeks. -The Trojans were now driven back, but Patroclus, in the ardour -of pursuit, was slain by Hector, and deprived of his armour, and -Menelaüs, with the help of the greater Ajax and other heroes, only -succeeded in rescuing his corpse after a bloody and obstinate -struggle. The wrath of Achilles was now entirely diverted by -the desire of avenging on Hector the death of his much-loved -friend Patroclus. He was scarcely willing even to wait for the -new armour which his goddess-mother procured him from the -workshop of Hephæstus. No sooner was he in possession of it -than he again appeared on the field, and Hector—the bulwark -of Troy—soon succumbed to his furious onslaught. Achilles, -however, was generous enough to surrender his corpse to the -entreaties of Priam. The <cite>Iliad</cite> concludes with the solemn -funeral of Hector.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The succeeding events, up to the death of Achilles and -the contest for his arms, were narrated in the <cite>Æthiopis</cite> of -Arctinus of Miletus, with the contents of which we have -some slight acquaintance, although the work itself is lost. -All kinds of brilliant exploits are reported to have been -performed by Achilles before the walls of Troy, which were -manifestly unknown to the earlier story. In the first place, -immediately after Hector’s death, Penthesilea, the queen of the -Amazons, came to the assistance of the Trojans, and fought so -bravely at the head of her army that the Greeks were hard -<span class='pageno' id='Page_253'>253</span>pressed. Achilles at length overcame the heroic daughter of -Ares. After her fall, a new ally of the Trojans appeared in -Memnon, king of Æthiopia, who is called a son of Eos, because -the Æthiopians were supposed to dwell in the far East. Among -those who fell by the hand of this handsome and courageous -hero was Antilochus, the valiant son of Nestor. When Memnon, -however, ventured to meet the invincible Achilles, he also -was vanquished, after a brave struggle. The fresh morning dew, -which springs from the tears of Eos, proves that she has never -ceased to lament her heroic son. But death was soon to overtake -him before whom so many heroes had bitten the dust. In an -assault on the Scæan gate, Achilles was killed, at the head of his -Myrmidons, by an arrow of Paris, which was directed by Apollo. -According to later writers, whose accounts were followed by the -tragic poets, he was treacherously murdered here on the occasion -of his betrothal to Polyxena, the beautiful daughter of Priam. -A furious contest, lasting the whole day, took place for the -possession of his corpse and armour: at length Odysseus and -Ajax succeeded in conveying it to a place of safety. Mourning -and confusion reigned among the Greeks at his death. During -seventeen days and nights Thetis, with the whole band of -Nereids, bewailed his untimely fate in mourning melodies, so -sad and touching that neither gods nor men could refrain from -tears.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c021'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“See, tears are shed by every god and goddess, to survey</div> - <div class='line'>How soon the Beautiful is past, the Perfect dies away!”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>The death of the bravest of the Greeks was followed by an -unhappy quarrel between Ajax and Odysseus respecting his -arms. Ajax, on account of his near relationship to the deceased -hero, and the great services he had rendered to the cause of the -Greeks, seemed to have the best claim; but Agamemnon, by the -advice of Athene, adjudged them to Odysseus. Ajax was so -<span class='pageno' id='Page_254'>254</span>mortified at this decision that he became insane, and put an end -to his own life. An entire tragedy of Sophocles, treating of -the mournful fate of the son of Telamon, has come down to -us.</p> - -<p class='c007'>After Ajax had quitted the scene, Odysseus became decidedly -the chief personage among the Greeks. It was he who captured -the Trojan seer Helenus, and extorted from him the secret that -Ilium could not be taken without the arrows of Heracles. Hereupon -Philoctetes, who was still lying sick at Lemnos, was -fetched, and his wound healed by Machaon. Paris soon afterwards -fell by his hand. It was Odysseus, moreover, who, in -company with Diomedes, undertook the perilous task of entering -Troy in disguise and stealing the Palladium, on which the safety -of the city depended. It was he who fetched Neoptolemus, the -young son of Achilles, from Scyros to the Trojan camp, it having -been decreed that his presence was necessary to the success of -the Greeks. Lastly—and this was his greatest service—it was -Odysseus who devised the celebrated wooden horse, and the -stratagem which led to the final capture of the city. In the -belly of the horse, which was built by Epeüs, one hundred -chosen warriors of the Greeks concealed themselves. The rest -of the Greeks set fire to their camp, and sailed away to Tenedos; -whereupon the Trojans, deceived by the assurances of Sinon, -dragged the fatal horse, amid cries of joy, into the city. In -vain did the Trojan priest of Apollo, Laocoön, seek to divert -them from their folly. None would give heed to his warnings; -and when, soon afterwards, both he and his sons, whilst sacrificing -to Poseidon on the sea-shore, were strangled by two serpents that -came up out of the sea, the Trojans regarded this as a punishment -sent by the gods for his evil counsel, and were the more -confirmed in their purpose.</p> - -<p class='c020'>The death of Laocoön and his sons forms the subject of one of the -most splendid of the creations of Greek art that have come down to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_255'>255</span>us from antiquity. The group was found, in the year 1506, by a -Roman citizen in his vineyard, close to the former Thermæ of Titus, -and was made over by him, for a considerable annuity, to Pope Julius -II., who then placed it in the Vatican collection. The right arm of -Laocoön, which was wanting, has, unfortunately, been incorrectly -restored. This is attested by a copy of the group which was subsequently -discovered in Naples. We give an engraving of the group -in its original form (Fig. 61).</p> - -<div id='f_61' class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/f_61.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 61.—Laocoön. Group.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>It treats really of three distinct incidents, which have been skilfully -incorporated, by the artists to whom we owe the work (the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_256'>256</span>Rhodians Agesander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus), into one harmonious -group. The eldest son is as yet unhurt, and appears to be -so loosely held by the coils of the serpent that he might easily escape -his impending fate, if he were not more effectually restrained by his -loving sympathy with his noble father, on whom he gazes with -piteous looks. Laocoön himself, who naturally forms the centre of -the group, is depicted at the moment in which, mortally wounded by -the serpent, he sinks on the altar, to rise from which he vainly -exerts his last remaining strength. With his left arm he still -mechanically seeks to repel the serpents. His hitherto energetic -resistance has begun to fail, and his noble head is raised in mournful -resignation to heaven, as though to ask the gods why they had condemned -him to so terrible a fate. The dignified and resolute aspect -of his countenance forms a beautiful contrast to that of his body, -which is manifestly quivering in the keenest agony. The younger -son on his right is already in the last agonies of death, and though -his left hand grasps instinctively the head of the snake, he is -evidently incapable of further resistance. He is drooping like a -plucked flower, and in one more moment will have breathed his -last.</p> - -<p class='c007'>On the night succeeding Laocoön’s horrible end, and the rejoicings -of the Trojans at the apparent departure of the Greeks, -the Greek fleet returned in silence at a signal given by Sinon. -The heroes who were hidden in the wooden horse then descended -and opened the gates to the Greek host, who rushed into the -doomed city. A terrible scene of plunder and carnage ensued, -the Trojans, in their dismay and confusion, offering no resistance. -The fate of the sacred city was fulfilled; Priam perished before -the altar of Zeus by the hand of Neoptolemus, and with him -the glory of Troy was laid in the dust. The men were put to -death, the women and children, together with the rich booty, -were carried off, the former being destined to the hard lot of -slavery. Among them was the aged queen Hecuba, with all her -daughters and daughters-in-law. Helen—the cause of all this -misfortune—was found in the house of Deïphobus, whom she -had married after the death of his brother Paris.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The city was burnt to the ground, and, long after, other cities -rose on its site. Still the tradition of the siege remained among -<span class='pageno' id='Page_257'>257</span>the inhabitants, though, even in Roman times, learned men had -begun to declare that Old Troy must have had another site. -And now when the last Ilium had been no more for many centuries, -and the very existence of Homer’s Troy had been declared -a fable, the palace and the traces of the conflagration have been -found. Dr. Schliemann has excavated the legendary site, and -we know now that Athene was worshipped in the city, and that -it perished by fire. We can hardly tell at present the full -importance of these discoveries, nor of those at Mycenæ, where -the traditional tombs of the Grecian leaders have been examined, -and their long-buried wealth brought to light.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Yet this, too, the greatest of all the Grecian legend series, -dissolves into the phenomena of nature. That there was a -Trojan war, and that we have some historical facts about it, we can -hardly doubt; but so many myths have crystallised round it, -that to us it must be merely legend. The very names of -Achilles, and Paris, and Helen, upon whom the whole story -turns, have been recognised in Indian legend. Point after point -in their history is found in the legend history of every nation -of the Aryan family. The only conclusion that we can draw -is, that such stories must have come into being before the -separation of the Aryan family, and cannot therefore contain -the later history of any one branch.</p> - -<p class='c007'><span class='sc'>III. The Return.</span>—The Greeks, after sacrificing Polyxena on -the grave of Achilles at Sigeum, prepared to return to their -country. Few, however, were destined to reach their homes -without some misfortune, or, even when arrived there, to -experience a kindly welcome. Of the two sons of Atreus, -Agamemnon, after escaping a storm on the coast of Eubœa, -landed safely on his native shores, but was soon after murdered -by his wife and Ægisthus, who had, during his absence, returned -to Argos and married Clytæmnestra. Cassandra, the Trojan -prophetess, who, in the division of the spoils, had fallen to Agamemnon, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_258'>258</span>shared his fate. She had continually predicted the -unfortunate end of the war and the ultimate fate of the city, but -had always been laughed to scorn by her incredulous countrymen. -The fate of the commander of the Greeks, with its -eventful consequences, was a favourite subject with the tragic -poets. His murder did not go unavenged. Orestes, the only -son of Agamemnon and Clytæmnestra, had been hastily removed -from the scene by his sister Electra, and sent to his -uncle, Strophius, king of Phocis. Strophius had him carefully -educated with his own son Pylades, who was about the same -age. A most intimate friendship soon sprang up between the -two youths, which, from its faithfulness and constancy, has -become proverbial. On reaching manhood, the sole thought of -Orestes was to avenge his noble father’s treacherous death at the -hands of the crafty Ægisthus and his mother Clytæmnestra. -Accompanied by his friend Pylades, he returned, in the eighth -year of his exile, to Mycenæ, and there slew both Ægisthus and -Clytæmnestra. Although in so doing he had only fulfilled a -duty, he yet incurred the deepest guilt by the murder of her -who gave him birth, and at once found himself pursued by the -avenging Furies. They dogged his steps, and ceased not to -pursue him through all the countries of the earth, until he was -at length directed by the oracle at Delphi to convey the statue -of Artemis from Tauris to Attica. After he had, with the help -of his newly-found sister, successfully achieved this task, he was -purified by Apollo (see page <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>). Of the numerous dramas that -were written on the subject of the fortunes of the Pelopidæ, which -we have here briefly touched on, the <cite>Agamemnon</cite>, <cite>Choëphoræ</cite>, -and <cite>Eumenides</cite> of Æschylus, the <cite>Electra</cite> of Sophocles, and the -<cite>Electra</cite> and <cite>Iphigenia in Tauris</cite> of Euripides, are still extant.</p> - -<p class='c007'>We must now turn to the fortunes of the other Greek leaders. -Agamemnon’s brother Menelaus was overtaken, off Cape Malea, -by a fearful storm, which carried him to Crete and Egypt, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_259'>259</span>whence, after seven years of wandering, he returned to Sparta -with Helen and his share of the spoils of Troy.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Locrian Ajax experienced a still more unhappy fate. On -the night of the destruction of Troy he had penetrated into the -temple of Pallas, and had not only torn away the priestess -Cassandra, who was clinging for safety to the altar and statue of -the goddess, but had also overturned the statue of Pallas herself. -As a punishment for this offence, his ship was wrecked on Cape -Caphareus, He would still have been able to escape with his -life—having succeeded in getting hold of a rock—if he had not -given such offence to Poseidon by his impious boast that he -needed not the help of the gods, that the god split the rock -with his trident, whereupon Ajax fell into the sea and was -drowned.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Diomedes, Philoctetes, and Idomeneus reached their homes in -safety, but were all soon afterwards driven out, after which they -all three emigrated to Italy. Here Diomedes founded many -towns, and was long worshipped with heroic honours.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Teucer also succeeded in reaching Salamis in safety, but his -father Telamon was so wroth because he had not better protected -his brother Ajax, or at least avenged his death, that he refused -to receive him. He was, therefore, likewise obliged to leave his -country, and subsequently settled on the island of Cyprus.</p> - -<p class='c007'>But of all the Greek heroes Odysseus experienced the most -reverses, while at home his faithful wife Penelope and his son -Telemachus were hard pressed by the suitors. It was only in -the tenth year after the fall of Troy, and after numerous -wanderings and vicissitudes, that he was permitted to return to -his native Ithaca and punish the shameless suitors who had -wasted his substance and goods. The story of his adventures is -so well known that we need not dwell on it here, further than to -mention that, according to post-Homeric accounts, Odysseus was -killed by the hand of Telegonus, his own son by Circe.</p> - -<p class='c020'><span class='pageno' id='Page_260'>260</span>The events of the Trojan cycle have supplied not only the poet, -but also the artist and the sculptor, with a large number of their most -acceptable subjects. Single scenes, such as the judgment of Paris, -have been continually selected, ever since the time of Raphael, as -favourite subjects of representation. Of modern masters, Carstens, -Thorwaldsen the great Danish sculptor, Cornelius, Genelli, and -Preller (Landscapes of the <cite>Odyssey</cite>) have illustrated the story of Troy -in a series of splendid compositions. We give an engraving of a -relief by Thorwaldsen, representing Priam before Achilles (Fig. 62).</p> - -<div id='f_62' class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/f_62.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 62.—Priam before Achilles. Relief by Thorwaldsen.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>Of the more important extant works of antiquity, we may mention -the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, depicted on the Français vase in -the Naples Museum; the abduction of Helen, depicted on a marble -relief in the former Campana collection, now in the Louvre (Fig. -63); the marble group in Rome, known by the name of “Pasquino,” -which represents Menelaüs raising the corpse of Patroclus; and, -lastly, the celebrated Ægina marbles in Munich. These last are the -remains of a marble group from the gable of a temple of Pallas at -Ægina, representing a battle between the Greeks and Trojans. They -were discovered at Ægina in the year 1811; King Ludwig I. of -Bavaria, who was a great patron of art, bought the Ægina marbles, -and, after having them restored by Thorwaldsen, placed them in the -Munich collection. The Laocoön, the most important of all the -works relating to the Trojan cycle, has already been discussed.</p> - -<div id='f_63' class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_261'>261</span> -<img src='images/f_63.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 63.—Rape of Helen. Campana Collection. Paris.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_262'>262</span> - <h3 class='c019'>V.—MYTHIC SEERS AND BARDS.</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c017'>We have already incidentally mentioned most of the seers of -antiquity—Melampus, the son of Amythaon, who figures in -Argive legend; likewise Amphiaraüs, Tiresias, and Calchas. -Concerning Tiresias, we may remark that the ancients ascribed -to him a fabulous age, extending over seven or even nine -generations; so that he was thus a witness of all that happened -to Thebes, from the foundation of the city to its destruction by -the Epigoni. Like all celebrated soothsayers, he was acquainted -with the language of birds, and could penetrate the most hidden -secrets of nature; on which account he enjoyed up to his death -an ever-increasing reputation among the Thebans. We have -already related how, in extreme old age, when his native city -could no longer withstand the assaults of the Epigoni, he experienced -the bitter lot of having to take refuge in flight, and -at length succumbed beneath the hardships of the journey. -In the second century <span class='sc'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">A.D.</span></span> his grave was still shown in the -neighbourhood of Haliartus.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Among the fugitive Thebans who fell into the hands of the -Argives is said to have been Manto, the daughter of Tiresias, -who was likewise renowned as a prophetess. She was dedicated, -together with a large portion of the spoils, to the oracle at -Delphi. By the command of the god she was sent into Asia -Minor, where she founded the oracle of Claros, near Colophon. -She here married the Cretan Rhacius, and became by him the -mother of Mopsus, who afterwards founded the oracle of Mallos -in Cilicia.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Among the names of the mythic bards that have been handed -down to us are undoubtedly to be found some recollections of -those who first cultivated the art of poetry; partly, however, -they are nothing more than personifications of certain tendencies -<span class='pageno' id='Page_263'>263</span>and modes of poetry. Such is probably the case with the -mythic bard Linus, who was celebrated in Argos, Thebes, and -Eubœa. Nothing is more common than for an unsophisticated -people to burst forth in lamentation over the decay and final -extinction of the blooming life of nature. This, as we see in -the myth of Hyacinthus, was often portrayed under the metaphor -of a beautiful boy slain by a quoit or by savage dogs—both -symbols of the scorching heat of the sun. The dirges which -from time immemorial were sung over the beautiful boy Linus, -at the season of vintage, probably gave rise to the myth which -makes Linus himself the singer.</p> - -<div id='f_64' class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/f_64.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Fig. 64.—Orpheus and Eurydice. Marble Relief In the Villa Albani.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_264'>264</span>Similar doleful memories are linked with the name of -Orpheus, who is often termed a brother of Linus, though he -was really not an Æolian, but a Thracian of Pieria. That -which is best known of him is the story of his love for the -beautiful nymph Eurydice. She was bitten in the foot by a -snake, and thus snatched away from him by death. Orpheus -then filled mountain and valley with songs of lamentation so -piteous, that the wild beasts of the forest were enchanted at -the sound, and followed him like lambs; and the very rocks and -trees moved from their places. His yearning towards his beloved -Eurydice induced him to descend to the lower world, to -beg her release from the grim king of shadows. Here his piteous -lay caused even the Erinyes to shed tears of compassion, and -moved the hard heart of the Stygian king. He released Eurydice -on condition that Orpheus should not look back on her till -he reached the upper world. Orpheus, however, violated this -condition, and Eurydice was once more lost to him. He himself, -not long afterwards, whilst wandering in his despair over the -Thracian mountains, was torn in pieces by some women in the -mad excitement of their nightly Bacchanalian orgies.</p> - -<p class='c020'>A splendid representation of the second parting of the lovers by -Hermes, the guide of souls, has come down to us on a marble relief, -which is preserved in the Villa Albani (Fig. 64).</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_266.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_265'>265</span> -<img src='images/i_267.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>INDEX.</h2> -</div> - -<ul class='index c003'> - <li class='c024'>Ăbas, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăcastus, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăchĕlōus, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăchĕrōn, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăchilles (Ăchilleus), <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Āchĭrŏē, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăcrĭsĭus, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Actæon, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Actŏrĭdæ, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Admētē, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Admētus, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a></li> - <li class='c024'>Ădōnis, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Adrastus, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Æăcus, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăēdōn, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Æētēs, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ægeus, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ægĭăleus, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ægĭmĭus, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ægīna, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ægis, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ægisthus, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ægyptus, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ænēas, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Æŏlus, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Æscŭlāpĭus (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> Asclepius).</li> - <li class='c024'>Æsōn, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Æthra, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ætna, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăgămemnōn, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăgăthŏdæmōn, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăgāvē, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăgēnōr, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Aglăĭa, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Aglaurus, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Agrĭus, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăĭdōneus, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a> (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> Hades).</li> - <li class='c024'>Ājax, Telamonian, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ājax, Locrian, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Alcæus, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Alcăthŏus, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Alcmæon, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Alcmēnē, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ālectō, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ălēus, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ălōīdæ, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Althæa, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ămalthēa, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_266'>266</span>Ămāzons, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ămor, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Amphĭărāus, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Amphicty̆ōn, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Amphīōn, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Amphitrītē, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Amphitry̆ōn, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ămy̆cus, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ămyntor, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ămy̆thāŏnĭdæ, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ănăcĕs, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ancæus, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Anchĭnŏē, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Anchīsēs, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Andrŏgĕōs, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Andrŏmĕda, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Anna Pĕrenna, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Antæus, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Antēa, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Antĕros, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Anthestērĭa, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Anticlēa, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Antĭgŏnē, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Antĭlŏchus, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Antĭŏpē, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăphăreus, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăphărīdæ, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăphidnæ, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Aphrŏdītē, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăpollo, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Apsyrtus, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăquĭlo, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Arcas, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Arctus, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Areopagus, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ărēs, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Argēs, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Argīphontēs, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Argonauts, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Argō, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Argŏs, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Argus, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ărĭadnē, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăristæus, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Artĕmis, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Asclēpĭus, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăsōpus, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Assărăcus, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Astĕrĭa, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Astĕrĭōn, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Astræus, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Asty̆dămīa, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ătălantē, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăthămas, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăthēnē, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ăthēnē Pŏlĭas, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Atlas, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Atreus, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Atrŏpos, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Attica, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Attis (Ātys), <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Augē, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Augēas, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Aurōra, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Autŏly̆cus, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Autŏnŏē, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Bacchus, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Bellĕrŏphōn (Belīĕrŏphontēs), <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_267'>267</span>Bellōna, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Bēlus, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Benthĕsĭcȳmē, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Bĕrŏē, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Bĭas, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Bŏnă Dĕă, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Bŏnus Ēventus, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Bŏrĕădæ, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Bŏrĕas, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Brĭăreus, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Brontēs, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Būsīris, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Căbīrī, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cācus, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cadmus, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cæneus, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Călăĭs, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Calchas, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Callĭŏpē, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Callĭrhŏē, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Callistō, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Calydonian Hunt, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Călypsō, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cămēnæ, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Căpys, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Carna (Cardĕa), <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Carpō, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cassandra, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cassĭŏpēa, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Castōr, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Catreus, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cecrops, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cēlĕus, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Centaurs, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Centaurs, fight with, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Centimanes, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cĕphălus, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cēpheus (Æthiopia), <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cēpheus (Tegea), <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cēphīsus, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cerbĕrus, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cercōpes, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cercy̆ōn, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cĕres, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cēres (Fates), <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cētō, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cēÿx, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Chăŏs, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Chărĭtĕs, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Chărōn, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Chĭmæra, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Chīrōn, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Chrȳsăor, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Chrȳsippus, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Circē, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Clărus, oracle of, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Clīō, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Clŏācīna, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Clōthō, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cly̆mĕnē, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cly̆tæmnestra, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cōcălus, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cœus, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cŏlossus of Rhodes, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cŏra, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cŏry̆bantes, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cŏry̆nētēs, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cottus, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Crănăus, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Crĕōn, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Crētheus, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_268'>268</span>Crĕūsa, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Crīus, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Crŏnus, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cŭpīdo, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cūrētes, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cy̆bĕlē, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cychreus, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cyclōpes, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cycnus, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Cyllēnē, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Dædălus, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dæmons, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dămastēs, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dănăē, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Danaids, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dănăus, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dardănus, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Death, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dēĭănīra, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dēĭphŏbus, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Delphian Oracle, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dēmētēr, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dēmŏphōn, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dēmus, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dēō, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Deucălĭōn, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dĭāna, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a> (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> Artemis).</li> - <li class='c024'>Dĭcē, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dictys, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Didymæan Oracle, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dĭoclēs, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dĭŏmēdēs, Argive, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dĭŏmēdēs, Thracian, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dĭōnē, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dĭŏnȳsĭa, Greater, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dĭŏnȳsĭa, Lesser, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dĭō̆nȳsus, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dĭoscūri, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dircē, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dis, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dōdōna, Oracle of, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dōris, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dryads, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dry̆ŏpes, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Dry̆ops, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Ĕchidna, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ēchō, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ēgĕrĭa, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ēlectra (daughter of Agamemnon), <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ēlectra (daughter of Atlas), <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ēlectra (daughter of Oceanus), <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ēlectry̆ōn, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĕleusīnĭa, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĕleusis, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ēly̆sĭum, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ēmăthĭōn, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Endēĭs, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Endy̆mĭōn, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĕnȳō, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ē̆ōs, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĕpăphus, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĕpēus, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĕpĭgŏni, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĕpĭmētheus, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĕpōpeus, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĕrătō, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĕrechtheus, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_269'>269</span>Ergīnus, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĕrichthŏnĭus (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> Erechtheus).</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĕrīnȳes, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĕriphȳlē, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĕris, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĕros, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĕry̆sichthōn, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĕtĕoclēs, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Eumĕnĭdes, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Eumolpus, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Eunŏmĭa, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Euphrŏsy̆nē, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Eurōpē (Europa), <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Eurus, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Eury̆ălē, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Eury̆bĭa, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Eury̆dĭcē, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Eury̆nŏmē, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Eurystheus, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Eury̆tĭōn, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Eury̆tus, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Euterpē, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Fates (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> Mœræ).</li> - <li class='c024'>Fauna, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Faunālĭa, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Faunus, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Făvōnĭus, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Fēlīcĭtas, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Flōra, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Fontus, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Fortūna, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Fūrĭæ (Furies) (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> Erinyes).</li> - <li class='c003'>Gæa, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Găny̆mēdēs, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Gē, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a> (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> Gæa).</li> - <li class='c024'>Gĕlānōr, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Gĕnĭi, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Gēry̆ŏnēs (Geryon), <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Gĭgantes (Giants), <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Glaucus Pontius, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Glaucus (son of Minos), <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Glaucus (son of Sisyphus), <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Gorgŏnēum (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> Ægis).</li> - <li class='c024'>Gorgons, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Graces, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Grā̆dīvus, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Grææ, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Grātĭæ (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> Graces).</li> - <li class='c024'>Gy̆ēs, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Hādēs, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hamadryads, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Harmŏnĭa, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Harpies, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hēbē, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hĕcăbē (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> Hecuba).</li> - <li class='c024'>Hĕcătē, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hector, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hĕcŭba, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hĕlĕnē (Helen), <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hĕlĕnus, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hēlĭos, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hellē, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hēphæstus, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hēra, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hēraclēs, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_270'>270</span>Hēræum, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hercŭles, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a> (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> Heracles).</li> - <li class='c024'>Hermēs, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Heroes, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hersē, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hēsĭŏne, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hespĕrĭdes, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hespĕrus, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hestĭa, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hīmĕrus, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hippŏcŏōn, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hippŏdămīa, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hippŏly̆tē, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hippŏly̆tus, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Homer, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hŏnos, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hōræ, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hy̆ăcinthus, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hy̆ădes, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hydra, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hy̆gĭēa, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hy̆las, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hyllus, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hy̆mēn, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hy̆mĕnæus, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hy̆pĕrīōn, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hy̆permnestra, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Hypnus, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Īăpĕtus, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Īcărĭus, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Īcărŭs, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ichthyocentaurs, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Īdas, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Īdŏmĕneus, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Iliad, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Īlīthyia, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Īlus, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Īnăchus, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Īnō, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĭnŭus, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Īō, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Īŏbătēs, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĭŏcastē, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĭŏlāus, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĭŏlē, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĭōn, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Īphĭănassa, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Īphiclēs, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Īphĭgĕnīa, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Īphĭtus, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Īrēnē, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Īrĭs, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Īsis, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ismenian Oracle, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Isthmian Games, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ĭty̆lus, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ixīōn, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Jānus, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Jāsōn, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Jūno, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Jūpĭter, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Jŭventas, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Labdăcĭdæ, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Labdăcus, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lăchĕsis, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lādōn, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lāërtēs, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lāĭus, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lampus, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_271'>271</span>Lāŏcŏōn, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lāŏdămas, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lāŏmĕdōn, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lăpĭthæ, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lărēs, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Larvæ, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lātōna (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> Leto).</li> - <li class='c024'>Lĕarchus, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lēda, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lĕmŭrālĭa, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lĕmŭrēs, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lĕnæa, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lētō, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Leucippus, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Leucŏthĕa (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> Ino).</li> - <li class='c024'>Līber, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lībĕrālĭa, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lĭbĭtīna, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lĭby̆a, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lĭchas, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lĭnus, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lower World, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lūna, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lŭpercālĭa, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lŭpercus, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ly̆æus, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ly̆cŏmēdēs, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ly̆cus (Thebes), <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ly̆cus (Megara), <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lynceus (Scythian), <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lynceus (son of Aphareus), <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Lynceus (son of Danaus), <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Măchāōn, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Maia, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mānēs, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mantō, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mars, or Māvors, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Marsy̆as, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Māter Magna Īdæa, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Māter Mātūta, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a> (note).</li> - <li class='c024'>Matrōnālia, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mēdēa, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mĕdūsa, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mĕgăpenthēs, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mĕgæra, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mĕgăra, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mĕlampūs, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mĕlĕāger, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mĕlĭa, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mĕlīcertēs, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Melpŏmĕnē, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Memnōn, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mĕnĕlāus, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mĕnestheus, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mĕnœtĭus, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mercŭrĭus, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mĕrŏpē, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mētĭōn, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mētĭŏnĭdæ, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mētis, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mĕtus, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mĭdas, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mĭnerva, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mīnōs, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Minotaur, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mnēmŏsy̆nē, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mœræ, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mŏlĭŏnĭdæ, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mopsus, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Morpheus, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mŏsychlus, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mulcĭber, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_272'>272</span>Murcĭa, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Muses, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Mūtūnus, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Myrtĭlus, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Naiads, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Năpææ, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Narcissus, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Nēleus, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Nĕmĕsis, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Nĕoptŏlĕmus, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Nĕphĕlē, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Neptune (Neptūnus), <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Nereids, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Nēreus, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Nerio, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Nessus, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Nestor, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Nīcē, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Night, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Nīlus, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Nĭŏbē, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Nīsus, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Nŏtus, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Nycteus, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Nymphs, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Oceanids, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ōcĕănus, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ŏdysseus, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Œdĭpūs, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Œneus, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Œnŏmăus, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ŏïclēs, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ŏīleus, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Olympian Games, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Omphălē, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ops, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Orcus, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Oreads, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ŏrestēs, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ōrīōn, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ōrīthyia, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Orpheus, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Oschŏphŏrĭa, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Pāgānāalĭa, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pălæmōn, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pălămēdēs, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Păles, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pallădĭum, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pallas, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pallas Athēnē (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> Athene).</li> - <li class='c024'>Pallor, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pān, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pănăthĕnæa, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pandărĕōs, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pandīōn, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pandōra, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pandrŏsus, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pānes, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Parcæ, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Păris, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Parthĕnōn, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pāsĭphăē, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Patroclus, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pēgăsus, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pēleus, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pĕlĭas, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pĕlŏpĭdæ, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pĕlops, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pĕnātēs, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_273'>273</span>Pēnĕlŏpē, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pēnĕlŏpē (Nymph), <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Penthĕsĭlēa, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pentheus, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pĕrĭbœa, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pĕricly̆mĕnus, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pĕrĭphētēs, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Persē, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Persēïs, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Persĕphŏnē, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Perseus, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Phædra, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Phăĕthōn (son of Helios), <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Phăĕthōn (horse of Eos), <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Phĭloctētēs, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Phĭly̆ra, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Phīneus, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Phŏbus, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Phœbē, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Phœnix, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Phŏlus, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Phorcys, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Phosphŏrus, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Phrixus, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Phȳleus, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pīrĭthŏus, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pittheus, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pĭty̆ŏcamptēs, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pleiădes, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Plexippus, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Plūteus, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Plūtō, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Plūtō (fem.), <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pŏdarcēs, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pœas, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pŏly̆bus, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pŏly̆castē, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pŏly̆clētus, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pŏly̆dectēs, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pŏly̆deucēs (Pollux), <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pŏly̆dōrus, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pŏly̆hymnĭa, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pŏly̆ĭdus, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pŏly̆nīcēs, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pŏly̆phēmus, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pŏlyxĕna, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pōmōna, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pontus, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pŏseidōn, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pŏthus, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Prĭămus (Priam), <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Prĭāpus, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Procris, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Procrustēs, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Prœtĭdes, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Prœtus, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Prŏmētheus, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Prōserpĭna (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> Persephone).</li> - <li class='c024'>Prōtĕsĭlāus, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Prōteus, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Psȳchē, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Py̆ănepsĭa, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Py̆lădēs, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pyrrha, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Pȳthĭa (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> Delphian Oracle).</li> - <li class='c024'>Pȳthōn, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Quinquatrūs Mājōrēs, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Quĭrīnus, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'><span class='pageno' id='Page_274'>274</span>Recarānus, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Rhădămanthys (Rhadamanthus), <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Rhēa, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Rhēa Cy̆bĕlē, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Rhŏdē, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Sălăcĭa, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Salmōneus, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sălus, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sandōn, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sarpēdōn, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sāturnālia, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sāturnus, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Satyrs, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Scīrōn, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Scŏtŏs, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Scylla, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sĕlēnē, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sĕmĕlē, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Semnæ, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sibyls, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sīlēni, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sīlēnus, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Silvānus, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sĭmŏīs, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sĭnis, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sĭnōn, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sirens, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sīrĭus, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sīsy̆phus, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sleep, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sol, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sŏly̆mi, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sphinx, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Stars, the, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Stĕrŏpēs, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sthĕnĕbœa, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sthĕnĕlus, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sthēnō, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Strēnĭa, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Strĭges, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Strŏphĭus, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Stymphālĭdes, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Styx, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sȳleus, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Symplēgădes, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Sȳrinx, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Tălōs, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tantălus, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tartărus, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tĕlămōn, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tēlĕbŏæ, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tēlĕgŏnus, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tēlĕmăchus, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tēlĕphassa, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tēlĕphus, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tellus, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Termĭnus, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Terpsĭchŏrē, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tēthys, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Teucer, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Teuthras, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Thălīa, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Thallō, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Thănătus, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Thaumas, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Thēa (Thīa), <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Thĕmis, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Thersander, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Thēseus, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_275'>275</span>Thesmŏphŏrĭa, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Thesprōtus, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Thestĭus, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Thĕtis, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Thŏōsa, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Thy̆estēs, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tĭbĕrīnus, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tīrĕsĭas, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tīsĭphŏnē, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Titans, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tīthōnus, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tĭty̆us, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Toxeus, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Triptŏlĕmus, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Trītōn, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Trōĭlus, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Trōs, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ty̆chē, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tȳdeus, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tyndărĕus, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ty̆phōeus, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tȳphōn, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Tȳrō, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Ŭlysses (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> Odysseus).</li> - <li class='c024'>Ūrănĭa, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Ūrănus, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Vĕnus, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Vertumnus, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Vesta, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Victōrĭa, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Vulcan (Volcānus), <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Winds, the, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - <li class='c003'>Zĕphy̆rus, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Zētēs, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Zēthus, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li> - <li class='c024'>Zeus, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_276'>276</span> -<img src='images/i_290.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> -<p> </p> - <hr class='pb c004' /> -<p> </p> -</div> -<div class='tnotes'> - -<div class='section ph2'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c001'> - <div>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - - <ol class='ol_1 c003'> - <li>Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling. - - </li> - <li>Archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained as printed. - </li> - </ol> - -</div> - -<p> </p> -<p> </p> -<hr class="pgx" /> -<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MYTHOLOGY OF GREECE AND ROME***</p> -<p>******* This file should be named 61901-h.htm or 61901-h.zip *******</p> -<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> -<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/6/1/9/0/61901">http://www.gutenberg.org/6/1/9/0/61901</a></p> -<p> -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed.</p> - -<p>Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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