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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: The Educational Writings of Richard Mulcaster - -Author: Richard Mulcaster - -Editor: James Orin Oliphant - -Release Date: April 23, 2020 [EBook #61900] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EDUCATIONAL WRITINGS *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - - - -<div class="transnote"> -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p class="customcover">The cover image was created by the transcriber -and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been -corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within -the text and consultation of external sources.</p> - -<p>No other changes have been made to the text.</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p class="p6" /> - -<h1>THE EDUCATIONAL WRITINGS OF<br /> -RICHARD MULCASTER</h1> - - -<p class="p6" /> -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p class="p6" /> - - -<p class="pfs60">PUBLISHED BY</p> - -<p class="pfs80">JAMES MACLEHOSE AND SONS, GLASGOW,</p> - -<p class="pfs80 antiqua lsp1">Publishers to the University.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="pfs70">MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD., LONDON.</p> - - -<div class="fs70 pad20pc"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>New York</em>,</td><td class="tdl"><em>The Macmillan Co.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>London</em>,</td><td class="tdl"><em>Simpkin, Hamilton and Co.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Cambridge</em>,</td><td class="tdl"><em>Macmillan and Bowes</em>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Edinburgh</em>,</td><td class="tdl"><em>Douglas and Foulis</em>.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="pfs70">MCMIII.</p> - - -<p class="p6" /> -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p class="p4" /> - - -<p class="pfs135">THE</p> -<p class="p1 pfs150">EDUCATIONAL WRITINGS</p> -<p class="p1 pfs90">OF</p> -<p class="p1 pfs150">RICHARD MULCASTER</p> -<p class="p1 pfs120">(1532–1611)</p> - -<p class="p4 pfs70"><em>ABRIDGED AND ARRANGED, WITH A CRITICAL ESTIMATE</em></p> -<p class="p2 pfs70">BY</p> -<p class="pfs120">JAMES OLIPHANT, M.A., F.R.S.E.</p> -<p class="pfs60">AUTHOR OF “VICTORIAN NOVELISTS,” ETC.</p> - -<p class="p6 pfs80 lsp1">GLASGOW</p> -<p class="pfs80 lsp1">JAMES MACLEHOSE AND SONS</p> -<p class="pfs80 antiqua">Publishers to the University</p> -<p class="pfs90">1903</p> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p class="p10" /> - -<p class="pfs60">GLASGOW: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BY<br /> -ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO.</p> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p class="p6" /> - -<p class="pfs80">TO MY SISTER</p> - -<p class="pfs90">AMY M. SMITH</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<p class="p6" /> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> -<p class="p6" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk">PREFACE.</h2> - - -<p class="noindent">Some apology is needed for the presentation of an -Elizabethan writer to English readers in any form but -that of the original text. The justification of the -present volume must lie in the fact that in the three -centuries and more that have elapsed since the educational -writings of Richard Mulcaster were given to the -world, they have entirely failed to gain acceptance as -literature. This neglect of one of our most interesting -and important educationists is no doubt chiefly to be -regarded as part of the general indifference which until -recently the British public has consistently shown to all -discussion of educational problems, but when we consider -the reputation of Mulcaster’s contemporary, Roger -Ascham, who had far less to say, but knew how to say -it with lucidity and grace, we are constrained to admit -that Mulcaster has lost his opportunity of catching the -world’s ear, and that if his writings are to be known and -appreciated as they deserve by this generation, it must -be rather for their substance than for their literary style. -It is true that the serious student may now be trusted to -investigate for himself the thoughts of earlier authors -in spite of difficulties of form and expression, but the -general reader will expect more help than, in the case -of Mulcaster at least, is at present available. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span> -earlier of his two chief works, the <cite>Positions</cite>, published -in 1581, was out of print for 300 years, until the issue -in 1888 of an almost facsimile edition by the late Mr. -Quick, to whom the credit of discovering this author is -mainly due, while the second work, the <cite>Elementarie</cite>, -has never been reprinted at all. It is safe to assume -that not many readers will care to possess themselves -of the somewhat expensive reprint of the former work, -or to institute a search for one of the rare copies of the -original and only edition of the latter. And if these -books were to be made more accessible, it seemed -worth while at the same time to present them in such -a form that they should be readily intelligible to the -ordinary reader. In the case of an acknowledged -literary classic it may be inadmissible to tamper even -with the type and spelling, far more with the phraseology -and arrangement of sentences, but such scruples -would be out of place with the author now in question. -An attempt has been made to remove all gratuitous -hindrances to a full understanding of the author’s -meaning, while omitting nothing that is at once characteristic -and significant. It is hoped that in the process -of adaptation as little as possible has been lost of the -quaint flavour of the original, and of the gifts of expression -that Mulcaster undoubtedly possessed, however -much these were obscured by the euphuistic tendency -and the somewhat laboured construction that marked -the prose of his time.</p> - -<p class="right">J. O.</p> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p> -<p class="p6" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> - -<div class="fs90 smcap lsp"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr fs70">PAGE</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">The method of treatment,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">The purpose of writing,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Reasons for writing in English,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">First principles,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">The use of authority,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">The ideal and the possible,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">When school education should begin,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Risk of overpressure,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mens Sana in corpore sano,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Physical exercise needs regulation,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Physical and mental training should go together,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Exercise specially necessary for students,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">The best kinds of exercise,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Football as a form of exercise,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Is education to be offered to both sexes?</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">All cannot receive a learned education,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Choice of scholars both from rich and poor,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">The number of scholars limited by circumstances,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum fvnormal"><a id="Page_x">[x]</a></span> - The number of scholars kept down by law,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Talent not peculiar either to rich or poor,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Choice of those fit for learning,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">How the choice of scholars, should be determined,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Grounds for promotion,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Co-operation of parents,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Admission into colleges,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Preferment to degrees,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Natural capacity in children,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Encouragement better than severity,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Moral training falls chiefly on parents,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Elementary instruction—reading,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">The vernacular first,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Material of reading,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Writing,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Elementary period a time of probation,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Drawing,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Music,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Four elementary subjects,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Study of languages,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Follow nature,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Education of girls,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Aim of education for girls,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">When their education should begin,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">All should have elementary education,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Higher studies for some,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum fvnormal"><a id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span> - What higher studies are suitable,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Who should be their teachers,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">The education of young gentlemen,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Private and public education,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">What should a gentleman learn?</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">What makes a gentleman?</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Learning useful to noblemen,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Course of study for a gentleman,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Foreign travel,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Gentlemen should take up the professions,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">The training of a prince,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Boarding-schools,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">School buildings,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Best hours for study,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Elementary teacher most important,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">The grammar school teacher,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">The training of teachers,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">University reform,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">A college for languages,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">A college for mathematics,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">A college for philosophy,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Professional colleges,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">General study for professional men,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">A training college for teachers,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Use of the seven colleges,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Uniting of colleges,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum fvnormal"><a id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span> - University readers,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Evils of overpressure,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Limit of elementary course,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Difficulties in teaching,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Uniformity of method,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Choice of school books,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">School regulations,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Punishments,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Condition of teachers,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Consultation about children,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Systematic direction,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">The standard of English spelling,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr> -<tr><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">The Peroration,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr> -<tr><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl pad3">Critical Estimate,</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span></p> -<p class="p6" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a id="BIOGRAPHICAL_SKETCH"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.</a></h2> - - -<p class="noindent">Richard Mulcaster came of a border family that -could trace its descent back to the eleventh century. -On his wife’s tomb he describes himself as “by ancient -parentage and lineal descent, an esquire born,” and -there is evidence that some of his ancestors held positions -of importance, both administrative and academic. -In the fourteenth century we hear of a Richard de -Molcastre, who, as the second son, inherited from his -father, Sir William, the estates of Brakenhill and Solport, -and the family retained its consideration up to our -own time. But in the reign of Elizabeth the ancestral -lands were no longer in the possession of the branch to -which our author belonged. He was probably born in -the border district, and the date of his birth must have -been about 1532. He was sent to Eton, then under -Nicholas Udall, who as a headmaster was known alike -for his learning and his severity, and who as the writer -of the first regular English comedy, may have given -Mulcaster his taste for the drama. In 1548 he went -to Cambridge as a King’s Scholar, but in 1555 we hear -of his election as a Student of Christchurch, Oxford. -In the following year he was “licensed to proceed in -Arts.” He had a reputation for a knowledge of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span> -Hebrew as well as of Latin and Greek, and seems -shortly afterwards to have chosen the profession of a -schoolmaster, making his way to London about 1558 -or 1559.</p> - -<p>In 1560 the Guild of Merchant Taylors decided to -establish the well-known day Grammar School for boys -which still bears their name, and in the following year -Mulcaster was appointed the first headmaster, having -charge of two hundred and fifty scholars, with the -assistance of three undermasters. The school hours -were from 7 to 11 a.m. and from 1 to 5 p.m., with one -half holiday in the week, besides the ordinary church -festival days, and for this the headmaster received the -salary of £10 (equivalent to £80 or £100 now), besides -a dwelling in the school and a small sum from entrance -fees. He was granted twenty days’ leave of absence in -the year, but was not allowed to hold any other office, -though his appointment was only held from year to -year.</p> - -<p>The reputation Mulcaster had already gained as a -teacher before his appointment is shown in the fact -that the post was offered to him without his application, -and that he accepted it only after some hesitation, -when he was promised an additional £10 of salary, -on the private and personal guarantee of one of the -Governors. He held the position for twenty-five -years, and his successful conduct of the school is fully -attested by the verdict of eminent scholars who acted -as examiners, by the expressions of satisfaction in -the minutes of the Council, and by the testimony of -the pupils themselves, many of whom attained distinction -in after-life.</p> - -<p>Of Mulcaster’s scholars at Merchant Taylors’ School -the most famous was Edmund Spenser, but in the absence<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span> -of any reference to his teacher by the poet, we have to be -content with the direct evidence of Lancelot Andrews, -Bishop of Winchester, and Sir James Whitelock, -Justice of the King’s Bench. Of the former it is -recorded that he “ever loved and honoured” his former -headmaster, befriending him and his son after him, and -keeping his portrait over the door of his study. The -latter tells us that Mulcaster besides instructing him -well in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, was careful to -increase his skill in music, and chose him to act with -other scholars in the plays he presented at Court, by -which means the boys were taught good manners and -self-confidence. The account of him in Fuller’s <cite>Worthies</cite> -may perhaps represent the impressions of less gifted -scholars—“Atropos might be persuaded to pity, as soon -as he to pardon, where he found just fault. The prayers -of cockering mothers prevailed with him as much as -the requests of indulgent fathers, rather increasing than -mitigating his severity on their offending child.... -Others have taught as much learning with fewer lashes, -yet his sharpness was the better endured, because -impartial, and many excellent scholars were bred under -him.”</p> - -<p>But while Mulcaster was building up securely the -reputation of the school, his own position was not -always comfortable, and in the end the friction -between himself and the governing body became so -great that he felt constrained to resign the headmastership. -This was no doubt partly due to his own -somewhat hasty and masterful temper, for on one -occasion at least it is recorded in the minutes of the -Council that he had made open apology for things -said and done in anger, but there were more lasting -causes of dispute. After the first eight years the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span> -promised supplement to his official income was no -longer forthcoming, apparently owing to the declining -circumstances of the member of the Council who had -contributed it, and Mulcaster having on the strength of -this extra sum increased the salary of his first -assistant, conceived that he was entitled to its continuance -from the Company. There were besides -disputes between the Council and the authorities of -St. John’s College, Oxford, where its founder, a -member of the Guild, had reserved certain free places -for orphans coming from the school, and in these -Mulcaster was involved. While the Council seems to -have acted throughout within its rights, and in the -end showed a desire to deal even generously with -its headmaster, it is easy to understand the difficulties -of the situation, especially to a man like -Mulcaster, whose natural impatience of control would -not be diminished by his evident sense that in -birth as well as in learning he was above his official -superiors. So necessary did he feel it to regain his -freedom that in 1586 he tendered his resignation, -without apparently having any definite prospect of -other work.</p> - -<p>During the next ten years scarcely anything is -known of Mulcaster’s life, except that he was in -straitened circumstances. By 1588 his claim on the -Merchant Taylors’ Guild had been adjusted by a compromise, -and friendly relations must have been -restored, for we find him acting as examiner to the -School in that year. For part of this time at least he -was out of London, for he seems to have been for a -year vicar of Cranbrook in Kent, and he was afterwards -granted by the Queen the prebend of Yatesbury, -in the diocese of Salisbury.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xvii">[xvii]</a></span></p> - -<p>In 1596 came a return of prosperity in a settled -position. The headmaster of St. Paul’s School, which -had been founded at the beginning of the century by -John Colet, and bequeathed by him to the management -of the Silk Mercers’ Guild, had resigned his post, as a -result of similar differences with the governing body to -those which occurred in the Merchant Taylors’ School, -and Mulcaster, whatever misgivings he may have had, -had learned enough from his recent experience not to -decline the vacant office when it was offered to him. -He was already in his sixty-fourth year when he -received the appointment, and he continued to hold it -till he was seventy-six. The conditions were much the -same as those under which he had formerly worked, the -statutes of St. Paul’s School having indeed served as a -model to the later foundation, but the number of -scholars was limited to 153, and the salary of the -headmaster was £36 (equal to about £300 now), in -addition to a residence in the school. In 1602 the -salaries of all the teachers were doubled, in recompense -for certain restrictions imposed by a new set of regulations, -and when Mulcaster resigned his position in 1608, -presumably on account of failing strength, he received -a yearly pension of £66 3s. 4d. until his death three -years later. There is little to record of his labours -during his twelve years’ service at St. Paul’s School, the -only outstanding event being in connection with the -accession of James I. in 1603. It was the privilege of -his scholars to welcome the Sovereign to the capital, -and we read that on this occasion a Latin speech, -prepared by the headmaster, was delivered by one of -the scholars at the door of the School.</p> - -<p>It is painful to learn that the closing years of -Mulcaster’s life were clouded by distressing poverty.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</a></span> -Nor is this easy to understand, for besides his -pension, he was not without resources. He had -some time before been granted by Queen Elizabeth -the living of Stanford Rivers in Essex, but -had been precluded from entering on it while he -remained at St. Paul’s School. On his retirement from -the headmastership he took up the duties of his -country charge, notwithstanding his advanced age, -though without striking success, according to Fuller’s -account: “I have heard from those who have heard -him preach that his sermons were not excellent, which -to me seems no wonder, partly because there is a -different discipline in teaching children and men, partly -because such who make divinity not the choice of their -youth but the refuge of their age seldom attain to -eminency therein.” In spite of these two sources of -income we find Mulcaster in 1609 making a pitiful but -unsuccessful appeal to his old patrons, the Merchant -Taylors, and when he died two years later he left his -son burdened with debts, from which he was only -relieved by the aid of some of his father’s former -scholars, and of the two Guilds under which he had -served. His wife had died two years before him, after -fifty years of wedded life, and her virtues are recorded -in a commemorative tablet.</p> - -<p>Mulcaster’s educational writings were produced -towards the close of the period spent at Merchant -Taylors’ School, the <cite>Positions</cite> appearing in 1581, and -the <cite>First Part of the Elementarie</cite> in 1582. The completion -of the latter, and the further works promised on -higher education, were never accomplished. He also -wrote numerous Latin verses, including an address to -Queen Elizabeth at the Kenilworth pageant of 1575, -and a catechism, also in Latin, for the use of his pupils<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xix">[xix]</a></span> -at St. Paul’s School, while he is mentioned as the author -of a work entitled <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cato Christianus</cite>, which has not come -down to us.</p> - -<p>All the sources of information regarding Mulcaster’s -life and writings have been collected and compared with -exhaustive industry by Dr. Theodor Klähr in a -pamphlet entitled <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Leben und Werke Richard Mulcaster’s</cite> -(Dresden, 1893).</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> -<p class="p6" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a id="THE_EDUCATIONAL_WRITINGS_OF"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">THE EDUCATIONAL WRITINGS OF<br /> -RICHARD MULCASTER</a></h2> - - -<h3>The Method of Treatment.</h3> - -<p>Whosoever shall consider carefully the manner of -bringing up children which is in general favour within -this realm, cannot but agree with me in wishing that -it were improved. I do not think it well, however, -in this place to lay bare its special defects, because -I am in hope of seeing them healed without so strong -a measure. If I should seek to expose all the inconveniences -which are experienced between parents and -schoolmasters, and between teachers and learners; if -I should refer to all the difficulties through which the -education and upbringing of children is seriously -impaired, I might revive causes of annoyance, and -thereby make the evils worse. And even though I -were to remedy them, the patient might bear in mind -how churlishly he was cured, and though he should pay -well for the healing, he might be ill-satisfied with the -treatment. Wherefore in mending things that are -amiss, I take that to be the most advisable way which -saveth the man without making the means unpleasant. -If without entering into controversies I set down what<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> -seems to me on reasonable grounds to be the right -course as being not only the best, but most within -compass, the wrong course will forthwith show itself -by comparison, and will thus receive a check without -any need for fault-finding.</p> - - -<h3>The Purpose of Writing.</h3> - -<p>I have taught in public now without interruption for -two-and-twenty years, and have always had a very -great charge committed to my hands, my fulfilment -of which I leave to an impartial judgment. During -this time, both through what I have seen in teaching -so long, and what I have tried in training up so many, -I well perceive that, with the disadvantages which -myself and other teachers have been subject to, none -of us have been able to do as much as we might. I -believe I have not only learned what these disadvantages -are, but have discerned how they may be removed, -so that I and all others may be able to do much more -good than heretofore. And as I write for the common -good I appeal to the reader’s courtesy to give me -credit for good intentions, though my hopes should not -be realised. For I am only doing what is open to all, -namely, to give public utterance to my personal convictions, -and to claim indulgence for what is intended -for the general good. As I am myself ready to give -favourable consideration to others who do the same, -I expect any who make use of my work to their own -profit to give me credit for it, and those who get no -benefit from it at least to sympathise with me in -meeting so little success for my good intentions. I -may be told—You are alone in raising this matter; -you do but trouble yourself; you cannot turn aside -the course, which is old and well-established, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> -therefore very strong for you to strive against. This -thing which you recommend is not every man’s -wares; it will not be compassed. Do you let it alone; -if you must needs write, turn your pen to other matters -which the State will like better, which this age will -readily approve of, which you may urge with credit if -they be new and suitable, or confirm with praise if they -be old and need repeating.</p> - -<p>If such objections were not invariably raised to all -attempts to turn either from bad to good, or from good -to better, I would answer them carefully, but now I need -not, for in order to gain any advantage he who wishes -to have it must be prepared to wrestle for it, both in -speech and in writing, against the corruption of his age, -against the loneliness of attempt, against party prejudice, -against the difficulties of performance. Nor must he -be discouraged by any ordinary thwarting, which is a -thing well known to experienced students, and of least -account where it is best known, however fearful a thing -it may seem to timid fancies to stem corruption and -strive against the stream. For the stream will turn -when a stronger tide returns, and even if there be no -tide, yet an untiring effort will make way against it -till it prevails. And surely it were more honourable -for some one, or some few, to hazard their own credit -and estimation for the time in favour of a thing which -they know to be deserving of support, though it may -not be held of much account, than through too timorous -a concession to public opinion, which, in spite of its -influence, is not always the soundest, to leave excellent -causes without defence if they be opposed. For may -it not fall out that such a thing as this will be called -for hereafter, though at present it may be out of favour, -because something else is in fashion? I had rather,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> -therefore, that it were ready then to be of use when -it is wished, than that posterity should be defrauded of -a thing so passing good, for fear of its being disliked at -the first setting forth.</p> - - -<h3>Reasons for Writing in English.</h3> - -<p>I write in my natural English tongue, because though -I appeal to the learned, who understand Latin, I wish -to reach also the unlearned, who understand only -English, and whose interests are to be the more considered -that they have fewer chances of information. -The parents and friends with whom I have to deal are -for the most part no Latinists, and even if they were, -yet we understand that tongue best to which we are -first born, and our first impression is always in English -before we render it into Latin. And in recommending -a new method of attaining an admitted benefit, should -we not make use of all the helps we can to make -ourselves understood? He that understands no Latin -can understand English, and he that understands -Latin very well can understand English far better, if he -will confess the truth, however proud he may be of his -Latinity. When my subject requires Latin I will not -then spare it, as far as my knowledge allows, but till it -do, I will serve my country in the way that I think -will be most intelligible to her.</p> - - -<h3>First Principles.</h3> - -<p>My purpose is to help the whole business of teaching, -even from the very first foundation, that is to say, not -only what is given in the Grammar School, and what -follows afterwards, but also the elementary training -which is given to infants from their first entrance, until -they are thought fit to pass on to the Grammar School.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> -In my manner of proceeding I propose to follow the -precedent of those learned authors who have treated -with most credit of this and similar subjects, in first -laying down certain principles to which all readers will -agree. By this means it is possible to pass on to the -end without challenge, or if any difficulty should arise, -it can always be resolved by a reference to these -principles. In mathematics, which offers the best model -of method to all the other sciences, before any problem -or theorem is presented, there are set down certain -definitions, postulates, axioms, to which general assent -is asked at the outset, and on which the whole structure -is built up. I am the more inclined to adopt this -method, because I am to deal with a subject that must -at the first be very carefully handled, till proof gives -my treatment credit, whatever countenance hope may -seem to lend it in the meanwhile.</p> - -<p>I mean specially to deal with two stages in learning, -first the Elementary, which extends from the time that -the child is set to do anything, till he is removed to -the higher school, and then the Grammar School -course, where the child doth continue in the study of -the learned tongues till at the time of due ripeness he -is removed to some university. The importance of the -Elementary part lieth in this, that a thorough grounding -here helps the whole course of after study, whereas -insufficient preparation in the early stages makes a very -weak sequel. For just as a proper amount of time -spent here, without too much haste to push onwards, -brings on the rest of the school stages at their due -season, and in the end sendeth abroad sufficient men -for the service of their country, so too headlong a -desire to hurry on swiftly, in perpetual infirmity of -matter, causeth too much childishness in later years,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> -when judgment and skill and ripeness are more in -keeping with grey hairs. The Grammar School course, -while it is a suitable subject for me to deal with, as I -am myself a teacher, is also very profitable for the -country to hear of, as in the present great variety of -teaching, some uniform method seems to be called for. -To have the youth of the country well directed in the -tongues, which are the paths to wisdom, the treasuries of -learning, the storehouses of humanity, the vehicles of -divinity, the sources of knowledge and wisdom—can -this be a small matter, if it be well performed? If -fitting occasion by the way should cause me to attempt -anything further than these two divisions of the subject, -though I should seem to be going beyond my school -experience, I trust I shall not be thought to travel -beyond my capacity. In seeking for the approval of -men I may indeed find some who are satisfied with -things as they are, who think their penny good silver, -and decline my offer, being unwilling to receive teaching -from such humble hands as mine. There may be -others who grant that there is something amiss, but -think my remedy not well fitted to amend it, and look -disdainfully on my credentials. I admit my lack of -authority, but till some one better takes the matter up, -why should I not do what I can? If the wares I bring -prove marketable, why should I not offer them for -sale? As I am likely to encounter such objections, I -propose at the outset to meet all I can on grounds of -reason, with full courtesy to those who make them.</p> - -<p>Inasmuch as I must apply my principles to some -one ground, I have chosen the Elementary, rather than -the Grammar School course, because it is the very -lowest, and the first to be dealt with, and because the -considerations that apply to it may easily be transferred<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> -afterwards to the Grammar School or any other studies. -The points I propose to deal with are such as the -following: At what age a child should be sent to -school, and what he should learn there; whether all -children should be sent to school; whether physical -exercise is a necessary part of upbringing; whether -young maidens ought to be set to learning; how young -gentlemen should be brought up; how uniformity can -be introduced into teaching. I shall also speak of -courtesy and correction, of public and private education, -of the choice of promising scholars, of places and times -for learning, of teachers and school regulations, and of -the need for restricting the numbers of the learned -class. In my views on these and kindred matters I -shall seek to win the approval of my countrymen, -before I proceed to deal with particular precepts and -the details of the upbringing of children. In my discussion -of all these matters, while in method I shall -follow the example of the best writers, I will, in the -substance of my argument, make appeal only to nature -and reason, to custom and experience, where there is a -clear prospect of advantage to my country, avoiding -any appearance or suspicion of fanciful and impracticable -notions. I may hope that the desire to see things -improved will not be accounted fanciful, unless by those -who think themselves in health when they are sick -unto death, and while feeling no pain because of -extreme weakness, hold their friends foolish in wishing -them to alter their mode of life.</p> - - -<h3>The Use of Authority.</h3> - -<p>Some well-meaning people, when they wish to persuade -their fellow-countrymen either by pen or by -speech, to adopt a certain course, if they can claim the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> -authority of any good writers favouring their opinions, -straightway assume that their own arguments are -sufficiently supported to ensure their proposal being -carried out. This assurance, however, is checked sometimes -by reflection, sometimes by experience. Wise -reflection may foresee that the special circumstances of -the country will not admit of the proposed change, or -after some trial the unsuitability may be shown by -experience. So that in cases where authorities persuade, -and circumstances control, those who would use -earlier writers to maintain their credit must always keep -in view the application to particular conditions. I see -many people of good intelligence, considerable reading, -and facility of expression, both abroad and at home, -fall into great error by neglecting special circumstances, -and overstraining the force of authority. In dealing -with education, must I entreat my country to be content -with this because such a one commends it, or force -her to that because such a State approves of it? The -show of right deceives us, and the likeness of unlike -things doth lead us where it listeth. For the better -understanding with what wariness authority is to be used, -let it be considered that there are two sorts of authors -that we deal with in our studies. Of the one kind are -writers on the mathematical sciences, who proceed by -the necessity of a demonstrable subject, and enforce the -conclusions by inevitable argument. Of the other kind -are writers on the moral and political sciences, who, -dealing with human affairs, must have regard to the -circumstances of every particular case. With the -former the truth of the subject-matter maintains itself, -without the need for any personal authority, and is -beyond debate; it is with the latter that controversy -arises, the writer’s credit often authorising the thing, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> -in this case great injustice may be done by quoting -without discrimination as to difference of circumstance. -It is no proof that because Plato praiseth something, -because Aristotle approveth it, because Cicero commends -it, because Quintilian or anyone else is acquainted -with it, therefore it is for us to use. What if our -country honour it in them, and yet for all that may not -use it herself, because the circumstances forbid? Nay, -what if the writers’ authority be cited without considering -in what circumstances the opinion was originally -expressed? Is not a great wrong done by him who -wresteth the meaning of the author he quotes? He -that will deal with writers so as to turn their conclusions -to the use of his country must be very well advised, -and diligently mark that their meaning and his application -are consistent, and must consider how much of -their opinion his country will admit. Whether I shall -myself be able to carry out what I demand from others, -I dare not warrant, but I will do my best to use my -author well, and to take circumstances into account, -never, if I can help it, to offer anything that has not all -the foundations that I promised before, namely, <em>nature</em> -to lead it, <em>reason</em> to back it, <em>custom</em> to commend it, -<em>experience</em> to approve it, and <em>profit</em> to prefer it.</p> - -<p>I think a student ought rather to invest himself in -the habit of his writer than to stand much upon his -title and authority in proof or disproof, as it is well -understood that all our studies are indebted to the -original devisers and the most eloquent writers. Therefore, -to avoid undue length, I will neither give authorities -nor examples, as it is not a question of a man’s -name, but of the real value of the argument. I shall -not busy myself with citing authors, either to show what -I have read or how far I am in agreement with others.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> -It is not needful to heap up witnesses where nothing is -doubtful; the natural use of testimony is to prove where -there is doubt, not to cloy where all is clear. In such -cases, for want of sound judgment, a catalogue of names -and a multitude of sentences, which only say what no -one denies, are forced on to the stage to seem to arm -the quoter, who is fighting without a foe, and flying -when there is no cause for fear.</p> - -<p>In points of learning which are beyond controversy, -I appeal to the judgment of those who have gone over -the same ground, and can test the truth of what I say -without being told the name of the author, whom they -will admit to have been well cited when they find me -saying as he saith, whether it be through recollection of -what I have read or from coincidence of judgment -where I have not read. I do honour good writers, but -without superstition, being in no way addicted to titles. -But seeing that Reason doth honour them, they must -be content to remain outside themselves, and use every -means to bring her forward, as their lady and mistress, -whose authority and credit procure them admission -when they come from her. It is not so because a writer -said so, but because the truth is so, and he said the -truth. Indeed, the truth is often weakened in the -hearer’s opinion, though not in itself, by naming the -writer. If truth did depend upon the person, she would -often be brought into a miserable plight, being constrained -to serve fancy and alter at will, whereas she -should bend to no one, however opinionative people -may persuade themselves. This is known to the learned -and wise, whose courtesy I crave. As for the unlearned, -I must entreat them, for their sakes if not for mine, not -to debate with me on points where they cannot judge. -In matters that are intelligible to both, I must pray<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> -them to weigh my words well, and ever to give me -credit for good intentions.</p> - - -<h3>The Ideal and the Possible.</h3> - -<p>Those ancient writers, who have depicted ideal commonwealths, -and have imagined the upbringing of such -paragons as should be fitted for a place in them, before -asking when their youth should begin to learn, have -commonly laid down the conditions of their training -from a very early stage. They begin by considering -how to deal with the infant while he is still under his -nurse, discussing whether he should be nursed by a -stranger or by his mother, what playfellows should be -chosen for him while he is still in the nursery, and -what exquisite public or private training can be devised -for him afterwards. These and other considerations -they fall into, which do well beseem the bringing up of -such an one as may indeed be wished, though scarcely -hoped for, but can by no means be applied to our -youth and our education, wherein we wish for no more -than we can hope to have. Nay, these writers go -further, as mere wishers may, and appoint the parents -of this so perfect a child, to be so wise and learned that -they may indeed fit into an ideal scheme, but too -far surpass the model that I can have in view. Wherefore -leaving on one side these ideal measures and -people, I mean to proceed from such principles as our -parents do actually build on, and as our children do rise -by to that mediocrity which furnisheth out this world, -and not to that excellence which is fashioned for -another. And yet there is a value in these fine pictures, -which by pointing out the ideal let us behold -wherein the best consisteth, what colours it is known -by, what state it keepeth, and by what means we may<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -best approach it. It may perhaps be said that despair -of obtaining the very best is apt to discourage all hope, -for by missing any one of these rare conditions—and -our frailty will fail either in all or in most—we mar the -whole mould. Howbeit we are much bound to the -excellent wits of those divine writers who, by their -singular knowledge approaching near to the truest and -best, could most truly and best discern what constitution -they were of, and being anxious to serve their race -thought it their part to communicate what they had -seen, if only for this, that while we might despair of -hitting the highest, yet by seeing where it lodged we -might with great praise draw near unto it.</p> - -<p>But to return from this question of ideals to our -ordinary education, I persuaded myself that all my -countrymen wish themselves as wise and learned as -these imaginary parents are surmised to be, though -they may be content with so much, or rather with so -little, of wisdom and learning as God doth allot them, -and that they will have their children nursed as well as -they can, wherever or by whomsoever it may be, so -that the beings whom they love so well as bequeathed -to them by nature, may be well brought up by nurture; -and that till the infant can govern himself, they will -seek to save it from all such perils as may seem to -harm it in any kind of way, either from the people or -the circumstances that surround it, and that this will be -done with such forethought as ordinary circumspection -can suggest to considerate and careful parents; and -finally, that for his proper schooling, all who can will -provide it, even if it be at some cost.</p> - - -<h3>When School Education should begin.</h3> - -<p>One of the first questions is at what age children<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> -should be sent to school, for they should neither be -delayed too long, so that time is lost, nor hastened on -too soon, at the risk of their health. The rule therefore -must be given according to the strength of their bodies -and the quickness of their wits jointly. If the parents -be not wanting in means, and there is a convenient -place near, wherein to have the child taught, and a -teacher with sufficient knowledge, and with discretion -to train him up well by correction and teaching him -good manners, and fit companions, such as so good a -master may be able to choose; and if the child also himself -have a good understanding and a body able to bear -the strain of learning, methinks it were then best that -he began to be doing something as soon as he can use -his intelligence, without overtaxing his powers either of -mind or body, as the wise handling of his teacher will -direct. What the age should be I cannot say, for ripeness -in children does not always come at the same -time, any more than all corn is ripe for one reaping, -though it is pretty nearly at the same time. Some are -quick, some are slow; some are willing when their -parents are, and others only when they are inclined -themselves, according as a wise upbringing has disposed -them to do well, or foolish coddling has made -them prefer their play.</p> - - -<h3>Risk of Overpressure.</h3> - -<p>Anyone who deserves to be a parent should be prepared -to judge for himself as to his young son’s ripeness -for school life, and surely no one is so destitute of -friends that he has not some one to consult if necessary. -Those who fix upon a definite age for beginning have -an eye to that knowledge which they think may be -easily gained in these early years, and which it would<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> -be a pity to lose. I agree with them that it would be -a pity to lose anything needlessly that could be gained -without much effort and without injuring the child. -But it would be a greater pity for so small a gain to -risk a more important one, to win an hour in the morning, -and lose the whole day after. If the child has a -weak body, however bright his understanding may be, -let him grow on the longer till his strength equals his -intelligence. For experience has taught me that a -young child with a quick mind pushed on for people to -wonder at the sharpness of its edge has thus most commonly -been hastened to its grave, through weakness of -body, to the grief of the child’s friends and the reproach -of their judgment; and even if such a child lives, he -will never go deep, but will always float on the surface -without much ballast, though perhaps continuing for a -time to excite wonder. Sooner or later, however, his -intelligence will fail, the wonder will cease, while his -body will prove feeble and perish. Wherefore I could -wish the brighter child to be less upon the spur, and -either the longer kept from learning altogether, lest he -suffer as the edge of an oversharp knife is turned, or at -least be given very little, for fear of his eagerness leading -to a surfeit.</p> - - -<h3>Mens Sana in Corpore Sano.</h3> - -<p>As in setting a child to school we consider the -strength of his body no less than the quickness of his -mind, it would seem that our training ought to be two-fold, -both body and mind being kept at their best, so -that each may be able to support the other in what -they have to do together. A great deal has been -written about the training of the mind, but for the -bettering of the body is there no means to maintain it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -in health, and chiefly in the student, whose occupation -treads it down? Yea, surely, a very natural and -healthful means in exercise, whereby the body is made -fit for all its best functions. And therefore parents and -teachers ought to take care from the very beginning -that in regard to diet the child’s body is not stuffed so -that the intelligence is dulled, and that its garments -neither burden the body with their weight nor weaken -it with too much warmth. The exercise of the body -should always accompany and assist the exercise of the -mind, to make a dry, strong, hard, and therefore a long-lasting, -body, and by this means to have an active, -sharp, wise, and well-learned soul.</p> - - -<h3>Physical Exercise needs Regulation.</h3> - -<p>It is not enough to say that children are always -stirring of their own accord, and therefore need no -special attention in regard to bodily exercise. If it -were not that we make them keep absolutely still when -they are learning in school, and thus restrain their -natural stirring, then we might leave it to their own -inclinations to serve their turn without more ado. -But a more than ordinary stillness requires more than -ordinary exercise, and the one must be regulated as -much as the other. And as sitting quiet helps ill-humours -to breed and burden the body, relief must be -sought in exercise under the direction of parents and -teachers.</p> - - -<h3>Physical and Mental Training should go together.</h3> - -<p>The soul and the body, being co-partners in good -and ill, in sweet and sour, in mirth and mourning, and -having generally a common sympathy and mutual -feeling, how can they be, or rather why should they be,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -severed in education? I assign both the framing of -the mind and the training of the body to one man’s -charge. For how can that man judge well of the soul, -whose work has to do with the body alone? And how -shall he perceive what is best for the body, who having -the soul only committed to his care, hands over the -body to some other man’s treatment? Where there is -too much distraction and separation of functions, each -specialist tends to make the most of his own subject, to -the sacrifice of others that may be more important. -Wherefore in order to have the care which is due to -each part equally distributed, I would appoint, I say, -only one teacher to deal with both. For I see no great -difficulty either in regard to the necessary knowledge, or -to the amount of work. Moreover, as the disposition -of the soul will resemble that of the body, if the soul -be influenced for good, it will affect the body also.</p> - - -<h3>Exercise Specially Necessary for Students.</h3> - -<p>For though the soul as the fountain of life, and the -stimulus of the body, may and will bear it out for a -while, by force of courage, yet weakness cannot always -be dissembled, but will in the end betray itself, perhaps -just when it is the greatest pity. Many people of high -spirit, notable for their learning and skill in the highest -professions, have failed, owing to want of attention to -bodily health, just when their country had most hope -of benefiting by their services. It is needful, therefore, -to help the body by some methodical training, especially -for those who use their brains, such as students, who are -apt to consider too little how they may continue to do -that for long which they do well. They should eat very -moderately, and their exercise should also be moderate, -and not vary too much, and their clothing should be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -thin, even from the first swaddling, that the flesh may -become hard and firm.</p> - - -<h3>The Best Kinds of Exercise.</h3> - -<p>[Mulcaster gives a list of the forms of exercise which -he thinks most suitable, both for indoors, and for out of -doors. In the former class are—speaking and reading -aloud, singing, laughing, weeping, holding the breath, -dancing, wrestling, fencing, and whipping the top; in -the latter are—walking, running, leaping, swimming, -riding, hunting, shooting, and playing at ball. These of -course are not all considered suitable for children, but a -selection could be made from them to be practised in -school under the regulation of the master. He then -enters upon a detailed and curious examination of the -value of each of these forms of exercise, considered -mainly in regard to their physiological effects. In all this -it has been pointed out by Schmidt (<cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Geschichte der Erziehung</cite>, -Vol. III., Pt. I, pp. 374-6) that Mulcaster followed -closely, though without special acknowledgment, the -<cite lang="it" xml:lang="it">De Arte Gymnastica</cite> of Girolamo Mercuriale, a contemporary -Italian physician. As the science is mostly of -the traditional and somewhat fantastic character then -prevalent, the discussion is not particularly profitable -from a modern standpoint. It will be interesting, however, -as an illustration of his treatment, to see how he -deals with a game that seems to have had much the same -features in his day as in ours.]</p> - - -<h3>Football as a Form of Exercise.</h3> - -<p>Football could not possibly have held its present -prominence, nor have been so much in vogue as it is -everywhere, if it had not been very beneficial to health -and strength. To me the abuse of it is a sufficient<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> -argument that it has a right use, though as it is now -commonly practised, with thronging of a rude multitude, -with bursting of shins and breaking of legs, it is neither -civilised, nor worthy the name of any healthy training. -And here one can easily see the use of the training -master, for if there is some one standing by, who can -judge of the play, and is put in control over the players, -all these objections can be easily removed. By such -regulation, the players being put into smaller numbers, -sorted into sides and given their special positions, so -that they do not meet with their bodies so boisterously -to try their strength, nor shoulder and shove one another -so barbarously, football may strengthen the muscles of -the whole body. By provoking superfluities downwards -it relieves the head and the upper parts, it is good for -the bowels, and it drives down the stone and gravel from -the bladder and the kidneys. The motion also helps -weak hams and slender shanks by making the flesh -firmer, yet rash running and too much violence often -break some internal conduit and cause ruptures.</p> - - -<h3>Is Education to be offered to both Sexes?</h3> - -<p>We are next to consider who are those to whom -education should be given, which I take to be children -of both sorts, male and female. But young maidens -must give me leave to speak of boys first, because -naturally the male is more worthy and more important -in the body politic; therefore that side may claim -learning as first framed for their use and most properly -belonging to them, though out of courtesy and kindness -they may be content to lend some advantages of their -education in the time of youth to the female sex on -whom they afterwards bestow themselves, and the fruit -of their whole training.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>All cannot receive a Learned Education.</h3> - -<p>As for boys, it has been set beyond doubt long ago, -that they should be sent to school, to learn how to be -religious and loving, how to govern and obey, how to -forecast and prevent, how to defend and assail, and in -short, how to perform excellently by labour the duties -for which nature has fitted them only imperfectly. But -in the matter of this so desirable a training, two important -questions arise; first, whether all children -should be put to school without any restraint upon the -number, and secondly, if any restriction is needful, how -it is to be imposed. In the body politic a certain proportion -of parts must be preserved just as in the -natural body, or disturbances will arise, and I consider -that it is a burden to a commonwealth on the one -hand to have too many learned, just as it is a loss on -the other hand to have too few, and that it is important -to have knowledge and intelligence well adapted to the -station in life, as, if these are misplaced it may lead to -disquiet and sedition.</p> - -<p>There is always danger to a State in excess of -numbers beyond the opportunities of useful employment, -and this is specially true in the case of scholars. -For they profess learning, that is to say, the <em>soul</em> of the -State, and it is too perilous to have the soul of the -State troubled with <em>their</em> souls, that is, necessary -learning with unnecessary learners. Scholars, by -reason of their conceit which learning inflames, cannot -rest satisfied with little, and by their kind of life they -prove too disdainful of labour, unless necessity makes -them trot. If that wit fall to preach which were fitter -for the plough, and he to climb a pulpit who was made -to scale a wall, is not a good carter ill lost, and a good -soldier ill placed?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p> - -<p>All children cannot get a full training at school, even -though their private circumstances admit of it, yet as -regards writing and reading, if that were all, what if -everyone had them, for the sake of religion and their -necessary affairs? In the long period of their whole -youth, if they minded no more, these two would be -easily learned in their leisure times by special opportunities, -if no ordinary means were available and no -school nigh. Every parish has a minister, who can -give help in regard to writing and reading, if there is -no one else.</p> - - -<h3>Choice of Scholars both from Rich and Poor.</h3> - -<p>Some doubt may rise between the rich and poor, -whether all rich and none poor, or some in both, may -and should be sent to learning. If some rich are sent, -provided for out of private resources, some poor will be -commended by promising parts to public provision for the -general advantage, and if neither private nor public provision -is mismanaged, the matter will decide itself by the -capacity of the learners and their disposition to prove -virtuous. The safe condition is that the rich should -not have too much, nor the poor too little. In the -former case, the overplus breeds a loose and dissolute -brain; in the latter, the insufficiency causes a base and -servile temper. For he who is never in need, owing to -the supplies of his friends, never exercises his wits to be -a friend to himself, but commonly proves reckless till -the black ox treads upon his toes, and necessity makes -him try what mettle he is made of. And he who is -always in need, for want of friends, is apt to find his -heaven in whatever rids him of his difficulties, and to -worship that saint who serves his turn best. Now if -wealthy parents out of their private fortune, and public<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> -patrons out of their surplus wealth would try to avoid -these two extremes, then neither would over-abundance -make the one too wanton, nor want make the other too -servile. Neither would be tempted to hasten on too -fast, the one lest he should lose some time, and the -other lest he should miss some chance of a livelihood. -The middle sort of parents, who neither welter in too -much wealth, nor wrestle with too much want, seem -most promising of all, if their children’s capacity is in -keeping with their parents’ circumstances and position, -which must be the level for the fattest to fall down to, -and the leanest to leap up to, to bring forth the student -who will serve his country best.</p> - - -<h3>The Number of Scholars limited by Circumstances.</h3> - -<p>All cannot pass on to learning that throng thitherward, -because of the inconveniences that may ensue, -by want of preferment for such a multitude, and by -depriving other trades of their necessary workers. -Everyone desires to have his child learned, yet for all -that every parent must bear in mind that he is more -bound to his country than to his child. If the parent -will not yield to reason some kind of restraint must be -used. Fortunately the question is often determined by -necessity. You would have your child learned, but -your purse will not stretch; you must be patient, and -devise some other course within your means. You are -not able to spare him from your elbow for your own -needs, whereas learning must have leisure, and the -scholar’s book be his only business free from outside -interference. You have no school near you, and you -cannot pay for teaching further off; then let your own -trade content you, and keep your child at home. Or -your child is of weak constitution; then let schooling<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> -alone, make play his physician, and health his object. -Whichever way necessity drives you, perforce that way -must ye trot. If the restrained child cannot get the -skill to write and read, I lament that lack, for these -two points concern every man nearly, and are useful -in every kind of business. I dare not venture to allow -so many the Latin tongue, nor any other language, -unless it be in cases where those tongues are found -necessary in their trades. For otherwise the fear is lest, -having such benefits of school, they will not be content -with their own station in life, but because they have -some little smack of book learning they will think even -the highest positions low enough for them, not considering -that in well-governed States Latin is allowed both to -country clowns and town artificers; yet these remain in -their own calling, without pride or ambition, on account -of that small knowledge by which they are better able -to furnish out their own trades.</p> - - -<h3>The Number of Scholars kept down by Law.</h3> - -<p>It is no objection to allege against such a lawful -restraint, that if such a measure had been in force -we might have lost men of high intelligence and great -learning who have been of much service to the State. -Some degree of foresight and orderly restraint are more -likely to secure that necessary functions will be well -served than if all is left to chance and individual will. -Nor is it reasonable to object that it were a pity, by the -severity of an unkind law, to hinder that excellence -which God commonly gives to the poorer sort.</p> - - -<h3>Talent not peculiar either to Rich or Poor.</h3> - -<p>As for pitying the poor, ye need not wish a beggar -to become a prince, though ye allow him a penny<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -and pity his necessities. If he is poor provide for him, -that he may live by trade, but let him not idle. Has -he talent? Well, are artificers fools? And do not all -trades require ability? But is he very likely to -distinguish himself in learning? I do not reject him; -he has his chance of being provided a public help in -common patronage. But he does not well to oppose -his own particular will against the public good; let his -country think enough of him, but let him beware of -thinking too much of himself. Because God has often -shown himself bountiful in conferring talent on the -poorer sort, that does not prove that he has not -bestowed as great gifts on some of the upper class, -though they may have failed to use them. The -commonwealth, it is urged, must be prepared to give -scope for ability, in whatever class it may be found.</p> - - -<h3>Choice of those fit for Learning.</h3> - -<p>The choice of learners is a matter requiring careful -thought at all times and in all places, but especially in -our own day and country. For it is more important -to whom you commit learning when you have found -what to learn than to find what to learn before you -commit it, because the best instrument should always -be handled by the fittest person, and not by every one -that has a fancy to handle it. When the choice follows -private liking rather than public advantage, more mischief -is caused than is easily discovered, though the -smart is generally felt. There is indeed little use in -discussing the question of fitness, if no choice is to be -made when the question is decided. And as the -bestowal of learning must have its beginning in the -young child, ought not good choice to go before if the -due effect is to follow?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>How the Choice of Scholars should be Determined.</h3> - -<p>I will now consider what kinds of talent and disposition -are, even from infancy, to be thought most -fitting to serve the State in the matter of learning. -Often those who give least promise at first turn out -most suitable in the end; wherefore the absolute rejection -of any, before maturity is reached, not only does -an injury to those who are rejected, but would be an -evidence of rashness in those who reject. For the -variety is very great, though where certainty is impossible -preference must be given to the most likely. In -the qualities that give promise of good service when -learning has been gained, there are commonly reckoned -an honourable disposition, zeal for moral virtue, and the -desire to benefit society without thought of personal -profit. There must also be taken into account the -shrewdness of intelligence which will not be easily -deceived nor diverted from a right opinion, either by -the influence of feeling in themselves or the strength -of persuasion in others. And generally whatever virtue -gives proof of a good man and a good citizen must be -held of value, so that the learner should show capability -and discretion in matters of learning, and towardness -and constancy in matters of living. All this refers to -free men who can secure independently the opportunities -of learning, yet provision is to be made for -those of good natural intelligence who need some help. -There are three kinds of government—Monarchy, -Oligarchy, and Democracy, each of which demands a -different type of citizen and scholar. That child is -likely in later years to prove the fittest subject for learning -in a <em>Monarchy</em> who at a tender age shows himself -obedient to the rules of the School, and, if he should -offend, takes his punishment gently, without complaining<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -or taking affront. In behaviour towards his companions -he is gentle and courteous, without wrangling -or complaining. He will lend a helping hand, and use -every persuasion rather than have either his teacher -disquieted or his school-fellows punished. And, -therefore, either he receives similar courtesy from his -school-fellows, or whoever shows him any discourtesy -must be prepared for challenge and combat with all the -rest. If he has any natural capacity in which he excels -his companions, it will be so well regulated and show -itself with such modesty that it shall appear in no way -upsetting or over-ambitious. At home he will be so -deferential to his parents, so courteous among servants, -so dutiful toward all with whom he has to deal, that -there will be contention who can praise him most -behind his back, and who can cherish him most before -his face. These qualities will not be easily discerned -till the child is either in the Grammar School by regular -but not premature advancement, or at least upon his -passage from the completed course of the Elementary -School, because his age by that time, and his progress -under regulation, will make it possible in some degree -to perceive his inclination. Before that time we pardon -many things, and use encouragement and motives of -ambition to inflame the little one onward, which are -discontinued afterwards. When of their own accord, -without any motive of fear or other incitement, they -begin to make some show of their learning in some -special direction, then conjecture is on foot as to what -their career ought to be.</p> - - -<h3>Grounds for Promotion.</h3> - -<p>When the possession of means bids the school door -open, the admission and right of continuance is granted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> -to all, till after some proof the master, who is the first -chooser of the finest, begins to discern where there is -ability to go forward, and where natural weakness -suggests prompt removal. When the master has discovered -strength or infirmity of nature, as may appear -in the ease or difficulty of acquiring and retaining that -are seen in boys of different aptitude, his desire will -naturally be to have the promising scholars continued, -to procure the removal of the duller ones by diverting -their energy into some other course more in keeping -with their natural bent than learning, in which they are -likely to make little progress, however long they remain -at school. Care must be taken, however, not to decide -prematurely, for it may prove that those wits that at -first were found to be very hard and blunt may soften -and prove sharp in time, and show a finer edge, though -this is not to be applied to dullards generally. For -natural dulness will show itself in everything that concerns -memory and understanding, while that kind of -dulness that may some day change into sharpness will -show itself only at intervals, like a cloudy day that will -turn out fine in the end. Wherefore, injustice may be -done by a hasty judgment, and, on the other hand, the -boy who is not yet strong enough for manual work may -remain a little longer at school, where, even if he do -little good, he is sure to take little harm. Moreover, if -the parents can afford it, and wish to keep their children -on at school, even though their progress is small, the -master must have patience, and measure his pains by -the parent’s purse, where he knows there is plenty, and -not by the child’s profit, which he sees will be small. -Only he must keep the parent constantly informed how -matters stand, both as a matter of duty and to prevent -disappointment. But the case is different with a poor<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -child, who should be sent to a trade at once, if he is -not promising in learning.</p> - - -<h3>Co-operation of Parents.</h3> - -<p>Seeing that the schoolmaster, to whose judgment I -commend the choice, is no absolute potentate in our -commonwealth, to dispose of people’s children as he -pleases, but only a counsellor to act along with the -parent, if the latter is willing to take advice, I should -wish, that in order to have this duly accomplished, -parents and teachers should be not only acquainted, but -on friendly terms with each other. And though some -parents need no counsel, and some teachers can give -but little, yet the wise parent is always willing to listen -before he decides, and the opinion of a skilful teacher -deserves to be heard. If this co-operation cannot be -established, the poor child will suffer in the present, -and the parents will lose much satisfaction in the end. -This kind of control will continue as long as the child -is either under a master in school, or under a tutor in -college, and in this period a great number may be very -wisely arranged for, unlearned trades being sufficiently -supplied, and a life of learning reserved for those only -who by their intelligence and judgment are fitted for it. -By such means the proportion will be properly adjusted -in every branch of the public service, and the -risk avoided of having too large a total number. This -period under the master’s charge is the only period -when the youth can be controlled by outside direction; -for afterwards at a more dangerous age they come to -choose for themselves, and their defects of nature and -manners, if not corrected, may bring sorrow to them -and to their friends. And though the schoolmaster -may not always have his counsel followed in such a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> -case, yet if he let the parent know his opinion his duty -will be discharged. For if the parent shows himself -unwilling to follow the teacher’s opinion, supported by -good reasons, but under the influence of blind affection -overestimates his child’s aptitude for learning, then -though the master should for his own gain keep on an -unpromising pupil, the fault lies with the parent who -would not see even after fair warning. So that it -always proves true that parents and teachers should be -familiarly linked together in amity and continual conference -for their common charge, and that each should -trust in the judgment and personal goodwill of the -other. This will come to pass only when the teacher is -carefully chosen and kept on terms of friendly conference—not -merely because “my neighbour’s children -go to school with you, so you shall have mine too,”—a -common reason in the case of children who are -continually being sent posting about to try all sorts of -schools, and never stay long in any, thus reaping as -much learning as the rolling stone gathers moss.</p> - - -<h3>Admission into Colleges.</h3> - -<p>The other means whereby some selection may be -made is by admission into colleges, preferments to -degrees, advancement to livings. In regard to these -the commonwealth may receive all the greater harm -that they come nearer the public service, so that plain -dealing is the more praiseworthy, in order to prevent -mischief. As concerns colleges I do not consider that -the scholarships in them are intended only for poor -students, for whose needs that small help could never -suffice, (though some advantage may be given to them -in consideration of special promise which has no other -chance of being recognised) but rather that they are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> -simply preferments for learning and advancements for -virtue, alike to the wealthy as a reward of well-doing, -and to the poorer students as a necessary support. -Therefore, as in admission I would give freedom to -choose from both sorts, so I would restrict the choice to -those who give genuine promise of usefulness. For if -elections are swayed by favour, shown on grounds not -of merit but of private friendship, though perhaps with -some colour of regard for learning, those who are -responsible for the injustice will repent when it is too -late, finding themselves served in their own coin; for -those who get in by such means, owing their own -advancement to private influence, will act in the same -way towards others, without regard to the common -welfare. When favour is shown on any other ground than -that of merit, founders are discouraged, public provision -is misused, and learning gives place to idling. But if -elections were made on grounds of fitness alone, the unfit -would be diverted in time into some other channel, the -best would be chosen, the intentions of founders would -be fulfilled, some perjury for the non-performance of -statutes would be avoided, new patrons would be procured, -religion advanced, and good students encouraged.</p> - - -<h3>Preferment to Degrees.</h3> - -<p>Preferment to degrees may be, and indeed ought to -be, a more powerful check on insufficiency, because by -this means the whole country is made either a lamentable -spoil to bold ignorance, or a favourable soil for -sober knowledge. When a scholar is allowed by -authority of the University to profess capacity in a -certain specialty for which he bears the title, and is sent -into the world by the help of people who have acted -under unworthy influences in disregard of merit, what<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> -must our country think when she hears the boast of -the University title sound in her ears, and fails to find -the benefit of University learning to serve her in her -need? She will not blame the ignorant graduate, who -is only naturally trying to do the best for himself, but -she will very greatly blame the Universities for having -deceived her and betrayed her trust. For in granting -a degree the University is virtually saying, “Before God -and my country, I know this man, not by perfunctory -knowledge, but by thorough examination, to be well -able to perform in the Commonwealth the duties of the -profession to which his degree belongs, and the country -may rest upon my credit in security for his sufficiency.” -What if the University knew beforehand that he neither -was such an one, nor was ever likely to prove such? Let -the earnest professors of true religion in the universities -at this day consult their consciences and remedy the -defect for their own credit and the good of their -country. A teacher may be pardoned, for seeking thus -earnestly to have true worth recognised, considering -that thereby would come not only satisfaction to himself, -but advantage to his pupils and to the country at -large. Can he be anything but grieved to see the -results for which he has laboured with infinite care and -pains set at naught by bad management at a later stage? -It seems to be reasonable for anyone who is given the -charge of numbers to concern himself not only with what -comes under his own immediate regulation, but with the -means of securing public protection and encouragement -for his pupils after they pass out of his care.</p> - - -<h3>Natural Capacity in Children.</h3> - -<p>I will now consider what children ought to learn -when they are first sent to school. There are in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> -human soul certain natural capacities which by the -wisdom of parents and the discernment of teachers, -who may perceive them in the child’s infancy and do -their best to cultivate them, may eventually be made -very profitable both to their possessor, and to the commonwealth. -If these natural capacities are not perceived, -those who are responsible must be charged -either with ignorance or with negligence, and if they -are perceived but are either not improved or wrongly -directed, the teachers and trainers, whether they are -parents or schoolmasters, must be much lacking in -sound skill, or else they are guided by stupid fancies. -Without making any complete analysis of the mental -powers, I would point out some natural inclinations in -the soul, which seem to crave the help of education and -nurture, and by means of these may be cultivated to -advantage. In the little young souls we find first a -capacity to perceive what is taught to them, and to -imitate those around them. That faculty of learning -and following should be well employed by choosing the -proper matter to be set before them, by carefully proceeding -step by step in a reasonable order, by handling -them warily so as to draw them on with encouragement. -We find also in them a power of retention; therefore -their memories should at once be furnished with the -very best, seeing that it is a treasury, and never suffered -to be idle, as it loses its power so soon. For in default -of the better, the worse will take possession, and bid -itself welcome. We find in them further an ability to -discern what is good and what is evil, so that they -should forthwith be acquainted with what is best, by -learning to obey authority, and dissuaded from the -worse by the fear of disapproval. These three things, -perception, memory, and judgment, ye will find peering<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> -out of the little young souls at a time when ye can see -what is in them, but they cannot yet see it themselves. -Now these natural capacities being once discerned, must -as they arise be followed with diligence, increased by -good method, and encouraged by sympathy, till they -come to their fruition.</p> - - -<h3>Encouragement better than Severity.</h3> - -<p>The best way to secure good progress, so that the -intelligence may conceive clearly, memory may hold -fast, and judgment may choose and discern the best, is -so to ply them that all may proceed voluntarily, and -not with violence, so that the will may be ready to do -well, and loth to do ill, and all fear of correction may -be entirely absent. Surely to beat for not learning a -child that is willing enough to learn, but whose intelligence -is defective, is worse than madness.</p> - - -<h3>Moral Training falls chiefly on Parents.</h3> - -<p>The duty of leading children to cleave to the good -and forsake the bad, in matters of ordinary conduct, is -shared by all who come in contact with them; it -belongs to the parents by nature, to schoolmasters by -the charge committed to them, to neighbours as a -matter of courtesy, and to people in general on the -ground of a common humanity. Teachers, it is true, -have special opportunities of influencing the morals and -manners of children, by means of the authority they -naturally exercise, in teaching them what is best, and -inducing them to practise it, even by force at first, till -they come to appreciate it for themselves. But this -control of good manners is not for teachers alone, for as -I have said, they must co-operate with the parents, to -whom that duty naturally appertains most nearly, as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> -they have the fullest authority over the children. -Wherefore, reserving for the teacher only so much as -strictly belongs to him, in instructing the child what is -best in good manners, and in framing good regulations -and seeing that they are properly carried out, I refer -the rest to those who are the appointed guardians of -morals, to secure either by private discipline at home, -or by public control outside, that young people are well -brought up to distinguish the good from the bad, the -seemly from the unseemly, that they may know God, -serve their country, be a comfort to their friends, and -help one another, as good fellow-citizens are bound to -do. But the task of training their intelligence and -memory belongs wholly to the teacher, and I will now -proceed to deal with it.</p> - - -<h3>Elementary Instruction—Reading.</h3> - -<p>I might very well be thought wanting in discretion -if I were to press any far-fetched proposals into this -discussion of general principles, and I shall therefore -deal only with methods that are in harmony with the -customs of this country, and with the circumstances of -the time. Among the subjects of instruction that have -universally been recognised and practised, <em>Reading</em> -certainly holds the first place, alike for the training of -the mind in the process of acquiring it, and for its usefulness -after it is acquired. For the printed page is the -first and simplest material for impressions in the art of -teaching, and nothing comes before it. When by gradual -practice in combining letters and in spelling out words -under direction, the child has acquired the faculty of -reading easily, what a cluster of benefits thus come within -reach! Whatever anyone has published to the world -by pen or print, for any end of profit or pleasure,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -whether of free will or under constraint, by reading it -is all made to serve us—in religion, to promote the love -and fear of God, in law, to aid us in rendering obedience -and service to our fellow-men, and in life generally to -enable us to expel ignorance and acquire skill to do -everything well. Wherefore I make Reading the first -foundation on which everything else must rest, and -being a thing of such moment, it should be thoroughly -learned when it is once begun, as facility will save much -trouble both to master and scholar at a later stage. The -child should have his reading perfect both in the English -and in the Latin tongue long before he dreams of -studying grammar.</p> - - -<h3>The Vernacular First.</h3> - -<p>As for the question whether English or Latin should -be first learned, hitherto there may seem to have been -some reasonable doubt, although the nature of the two -tongues ought to decide the matter clearly enough; for -while our religion was expressed only in Latin, the -single rule of learning was to learn to read that language, -as tending to the knowledge valued by the Church. But -now that we have returned to our English tongue as -being proper to the soil and to our faith, this restraint is -removed, and liberty is restored, so that we can follow -the direction of reason and nature, in learning to read -first that which we speak first, to take most care over -that which we use most, and in beginning our studies -where we have the best chance of good progress, owing -to our natural familiarity with our ordinary language, as -spoken by those around us in the affairs of every-day -life. This is the better order also in respect that English -presents certain difficulties that are absent in Latin, and -that children can master more easily when their memories<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -are still unstored, and considerations of reason do not -affect them. While Latin has been purified to a definite -form in which it has been fixed and preserved, English, -though it is progressing very fairly, is still wanting in -refinement, the spelling being harder, and the pronunciation -harsher, than in Latin.</p> - - -<h3>Material of Reading.</h3> - -<p>In this a special and continual regard should be had -to these four points in the child—his <em>memory</em>, his <em>delight</em>, -his <em>capacity</em>, and his <em>advancement</em>.</p> - -<p>As to his <em>memory</em>, I would provide that as he must -practise it even from the first, so he may also practise it -upon the best, both for pleasure in the course of learning, -and for profit afterwards.</p> - -<p>As to his <em>delight</em>, which is no mean allurement to his -learning well, I would be equally careful that the matter -which he shall read, may be so fit for his years, and so -plain to his intelligence, that when he is at school, he -may desire to go forward in so interesting a study, and -when he comes home, he may take great pleasure in -telling his parents what pretty little things he finds in -his book, and that the parents also may have no less -pleasure in hearing their little one speak, so that each of -them shall rather seek to anticipate the other, the child -to be telling something, and the parent to be asking.</p> - -<p>As to his <em>capacity</em>, I would so provide, that the matter -which he shall learn may be so easy to understand, and -the terms which I will use, so simple to follow, that -both one and the other shall bring nothing but encouragement.</p> - -<p>As to his <em>advancement</em>, I would be very particular that -there may be such consideration and choice in syllables, -words, and sentences, and in all the incidental notes,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -that there shall be nothing wanting which may seem -worth the wishing, to help fully either in spelling correctly, -or reading easily; so that the child who can read -these well, may read anything else well, if the reading -master will keep that order in his teaching which I -intend to give him in my precept, and not do the infant -harm by hurrying him on too fast, and measuring his -forwardness not by his own knowledge but by the -notions of his friends.</p> - - -<h3>Writing.</h3> - -<p>Next to reading followeth <em>Writing</em>, at some reasonable -distance after, because it requireth some strength -in the hand, which is not so steady and firm for writing -as the tongue is stirring and ready for reading. But -though in education writing should succeed reading, in -its origin it must have been earlier. For the pen or -some such instrument did carve, first roughly and then -completely, the letter or letter-like device, and thereby -did the eye behold in outward form what the voice -delivered to the ear in sound, so that writing was used -as the interpreter of the mind, and reading became the -expounder of the pen. From its rude beginnings writing -has advanced so much that it now proves the prop of -remembrance, the executor of most affairs, the deliverer -of secrets, the messenger of meanings, the inheritance of -posterity, whereby they receive whatever is bequeathed -to them, in law to live by, in letters to learn and enjoy. -For the proper study of this valuable art the master -must himself acquire, and must teach his scholar, a neat -handwriting, fast and easy to read, and the matter of -the headline, from which example is taken, should be -pithy, and suitable for enriching the memory with a -profitable provision. Practice should not be left off till<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -it hath brought great skill and readiness, for writing -once perfectly acquired is a wonderful help in the rest -of our learning.</p> - - -<h3>Elementary Period a Time of Probation.</h3> - -<p>During the time of learning to read and to write the -child’s intelligence will manifest itself so as to decide -whether it may venture further upon greater learning, or -were best, owing to some natural defect, to take to something -requiring less skill. But if the child is set to any -higher work while he is still of tender years, his master -pushing him on beyond what he is ready for, there may -be loss of temper, which often breaks out into beating, -to the dulling of the child, the discouraging of the -master, and the reproach of school-life, which should not -only yield satisfaction in the end, when learning has -become a sure possession, but should pass on very -pleasantly by the way. Whatever children learn, they -should learn perfectly, for if opportunity to go on -further should fail them, through loss of friends or other -misfortune, it were good that they know thoroughly -what they had practised, whereas if it is known only -imperfectly it will stand them in very small stead, or -none at all. To write and read well is a pretty good -stock for a poor boy to begin the world with.</p> - - -<h3>Drawing.</h3> - -<p>After careful consideration of the matter no one will -hold it open to controversy that <em>Drawing</em> with pen or -pencil should be taught along with writing, to which it -is very closely related. For a pen and penknife, ink -and paper, a pair of compasses and a ruler, a desk, and -a sandbox, will set them both up, and in these early -years, while the fingers are flexible, and the hand easily<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> -brought under control, good progress can be made. -And generally those that have a natural aptitude for -writing will have a knack of drawing too, and show -some evident talent in that direction. And the place -that judgment holds in the mind as the measure of -what is just and seemly, is filled in the world of sense -by drawing, which judges of the proportion and aspect -of all that appeals to the eyes.</p> - -<p>Because Drawing uses both number and figure to -work with, I would cull out as much numbering from -Arithmetic, the mistress of numbers, and so much -figuring out of Geometry, the lady of figures, as shall -serve for a foundation to the child’s drawing, without -either difficulty to frighten him, or tediousness to tire -him. Whatever shall belong to colouring, shading, and -such other technical points, since they are more the -concern of the painter than of the beginner in drawing, -I would reserve them for a later stage, and leave them -to the student’s choice, when he is to specialise and -betake himself to some particular trade in life. At -which time, if he chance to choose the pen and pencil -to live by, this introduction will then prove his great -friend, as he himself shall find, when he puts it to the -proof. Last of all, inasmuch as drawing is a thing that -is thoroughly useful to many good workmen who live -honestly by its means, and attain a good degree of -estimation and wealth, such as architects, embroiderers, -engravers, statuaries, modellers, designers, and many -others like them, besides the learned use of it for -Astronomy, Geometry, Geography, Topography, and -such other studies, I would therefore pick out some -special figures, appropriate to many of the foresaid purposes -which it seems fittest to teach a child to draw, -and I would also show how these are to be dealt with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -from their very beginning to their last perfection, seeing -it is beyond all controversy that if drawing be thought -needful it should be dealt with while the fingers are -supple, and the writing is still in progress, so that both -the pen and the pencil, both the rule and the compass, -may go forward together.</p> - - -<h3>Music.</h3> - -<p>Music completes the list of elementary subjects, and -is divided into two parts—the cultivation of the voice, -and the practice of an instrument, the former resembling -reading, as it produces to the ear what is seen by -the eye, the latter resembling writing, as it imitates the -voice. Both should be begun early, while the voice -and the muscles are still pliable to training. Singing -has the advantage of being less costly than the study -of an instrument in regard to the necessary provision. -As to the value of Music, there can be no room for -doubt; indeed, it seems to have been sent as a solace -from heaven for the sorrows of earth. Some men -think it is over sweet, and should be either dispensed -with altogether, or at least not much practised. For -my own part I cannot forbear to place it among the -most valuable means in the upbringing of the young, -and in this opinion I have the support of all the best -authorities of antiquity. There are so many arguments -in favour of the art; it is so ancient, so honourable, so -universal, so highly valued in all times and places, -alike in Church services and otherwise; it is such a -calmer of passion, such a powerful influence on the -mind, that I must stay my hand in writing about it, -lest being fairly embarked I should be unable to stop. -It will be enough for me to say of Music that it is in -accordance with national custom, that it is very comforting<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> -to the wearied mind, that it is a means of -persuasion which all must appreciate who delight in -the proportions of number, that it is best and most -easily learned in childhood, when it can do least harm, -that its harmonies could not have such power to stir -emotion if they had not some close natural affinity to -the constitution of the body and soul of man, and that -we see and read the wonderful effects it has had in the -cure of desperate diseases. And yet with all its claims -it arouses distrust in some quarters, even in honest and -well-disposed natures that are too much inclined to -sternness. They, however, will probably alter their -opinion, if they will consider more deeply what Music -is in its true nature, or if they come to discuss the -matter with those who take a sounder view, or more -certainly still if the art in its best form has a favourable -chance of appealing to their listening ears. The science -itself hath naturally great power to probe and sway -the inclination of the mind to this or that emotion, -through the properties of number in which it consists. -It also gives great delight through its harmonies, to -which the moods of the hearers respond. It is for -this that some disapprove of it, holding that it provokes -too much to vain pleasures, and lays the mind -open to the entry of light thoughts. And to some -also it seems harmful on religious grounds, because it -carrieth away the ear with the sweetness of the melody, -and bewitcheth the mind with a siren’s sound, seducing -it from those pleasures wherein it ought to dwell, into -fantasies of harmony, and withdrawing it from virtuous -thoughts to strange and wandering devices. A sufficient -answer to all this is that in respect of a thing that -may be, and was meant to be, properly used, it is no -just ground against it that it may also be abused.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> -Music will not harm thee if thy behaviour be good, -and thy intention honest; it will not betray thee if thy -ears can take it in and interpret it aright. Receive it -in a proper spirit, and it will serve thee to good -purpose. If thy manners be bad, or thy judgment -corrupt, it is not music alone which thou dost abuse, -nor canst thou clear thyself of the blame that belongs -to thy character by casting it on Music. It is thou -that hast abused her, and not she thee. And why -should those who can use it rightly forego their own -good because of a few peevish people who can never be -pleased?</p> - -<p>The training in Music, as in all other faculties, -has a special eye to these three points:—the child -himself, who is to learn; the matter itself, which he -is to learn; and the instrument itself, on which he -is to learn. I will so deal with the first and the last -heads, that is, in regard to the child and the instrument, -that neither of them shall lack whatever is -needful, either for framing the child’s voice, or exercising -his fingers, or choosing his lessons, or tuning his -instrument. For in the voice there is a proper pitch, -where it is neither over nor under-strained, but delicately -brought to its best condition, to last out well, -and rise or fall within due compass, and so that it may -become tunable and pleasant to hear. And in the -training of the fingers also, there is regard to be had, -both that the child strike the notes clearly, so as not to -spoil the sound, and that his fingers run with certainty -and lightness, so as to avoid indistinct execution. Of -these the first commonly falls out through too much -haste in the young learner, who is ever longing to press -forward; the second fault comes of the master himself, -who does not consider the natural dexterity and order<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> -of development in the joints, for if this is rightly -attended to, the fingers easily become flexible and -master difficulties of execution without pain. As for -the matter of music, which the child is to learn, I -would set down by what means and degrees, and by -what lessons, a boy who is to be brought up to sing -may and ought to proceed regularly from the first term -of art, and the first note in sound, until he shall be -able without any frequent or serious failure to sing his -part in prick-song, either by himself at first while he is -inexperienced, or with others for good practice afterwards. -For I take so much to be enough for an -Elementary institution, which can only introduce the -subject, though it must follow the right principle, and I -postpone the study of composition and harmony till -further knowledge and maturity are attained, when the -whole body of music will demand attention. And yet -since the child must always be advancing in that -direction, I would set him down to rules of composition -and harmony, which will make him better able to judge -of singing, just as in language he who is accustomed to -write can best judge of a writer. Concerning the -virginals and the lute, which two instruments I have -chosen because of the full music uttered by them and -the variety of execution they require, I would also -set down as many chosen lessons for both as shall -bring the young learner to play reasonably well on -them, though not at first sight, whether by the ear -or by the book, always provided that prick-song go -before playing.</p> - - -<h3>Four Elementary Subjects.</h3> - -<p>Children, therefore, are to be trained up in the Elementary -School, for helping forward the abilities of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> -mind, in these four things, as recommended to us both -by reason and custom: <em>Reading</em>, to enable us to receive -what has been bequeathed to us by others, and to store -our memories with what is best for us; <em>Writing</em>, to -enable us to do for others what was done for us, by -handing on the fruits of our own experience, and -besides to serve our own purposes; <em>Drawing</em>, to be a -guide to the senses, and to afford us pleasure in the -objects of sight; and <em>Music</em>, both with the voice and -with an instrument, for the reasons above stated.</p> - -<p>By reading we receive what antiquity has left us; by -writing we hand on what posterity craves of us; by -both we get great advantage in all the circumstances of -our daily life. By delineating with the pencil, what -object is there open to the eye, either brought forth by -nature, or set forth by art, the knowledge and use of -which we cannot attain to? By the study of music, -besides the acquirement of a noble science, so definitely -formed by arithmetical precept, so necessary a step to -further knowledge, such a glass in which to behold both -the beauty of concord and the blots of dissension, even -in a body politic, how much help and pleasure our -natural weakness receives for consolation, for hope, for -courage! I do not touch here on the skilful handling -of the untrained voice, nor the fine exercising of the -unskilled fingers, though these things are not to be -neglected where they can be obtained, and are naturally -required when imperfection is to be removed by them. -Again, does not all our learning, apprehended by the -eye and uttered by the tongue, confess the great benefit -it receives by reading? Does not all our expression, -brought forth by the mind and set down by the pen, -acknowledge obligation to the study of writing? Do -not all our descriptions, which picture to the sense what<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> -is fashioned in thought, both preach and praise the -pencil which makes them visible? Does not all our -delight in times of leisure,—and we labour only for the -sake of gaining rest and freedom from care,—protest in -plain terms that it is wonderfully indebted to the music -of both voice and instrument? This is the natural -sweetener of our bitter life, in the judgment of every -man who is not too much soured. Now, what quality -of learning is there, deserving of any praise, that does -not fall within this elementary course, or is not -furthered by it, whether it be connected with the -higher professions, or occupations of lower rank, or the -necessary trades of common life?</p> - - -<h3>Study of Languages.</h3> - -<p>Inasmuch as Grammar is used partly as a help to -foreign languages, it furthers us very much in that way, -because all our learning being got from foreign -countries, as registered in their tongues, if we lack -the knowledge of the one, we lack the hope of the -other.</p> - -<p>When learning and knowledge came first to light, -those men who were the authors of them uttered their -minds in the same speech that they used when they -bred the things. And as they needed no foreign -tongue for matter that was bred at home, so they had -no use of any Grammar but that by which they -endeavoured to refine their natural speech at home. -But when their devices, first set out in their own -tongues, were afterwards sought for by foreign students -to increase their learning and to enrich their country -with foreign wares, the foreign students were then -driven to seek the assistance of Grammar of the second -kind, because they could not understand the things<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -which were written in a foreign tongue, without the -knowledge of the tongue itself.</p> - -<p>In the primitive Grammar children being trained as -I now require, went straightway from the elementary to -the substance of learning, and to the mathematical -sciences, which are so termed, because indeed the -whole scholars’ learning consisted in them, as in the -first degree of right study. For whatever goes before -them in right order is nothing but mere elementary -study, and whatever goes before them in wrong order, -as it is distorted in nature, it works no great wonder. -But in the second use of Grammar, we are forced of -necessity, after the elementary subjects, however hurried -and simple they may be, to deal with the tongues ere -we pass to the substance of learning; and this help -from the tongues, though it is most necessary, as our -study is now arranged, yet hinders us in time, which is -a thing of great price,—nay, it hinders us in knowledge, -a thing of greater price. For in lingering over language -we are removed and kept back one degree further -from sound knowledge, and this hindrance comes in our -best learning time, while we are under masters and -readers, of whom we may learn far better than of ourselves, -if as much regard be had to their choice, as I -have elsewhere recommended.</p> - - -<h3>Follow Nature.</h3> - -<p>The proof of a good Elementary Course is, that it -should follow nature in the multitude of its gifts, and -that it should proceed in teaching as she does in developing. -For as she is unfriendly wherever she is forced, -so she is the best guide that anyone can have, wherever -she shows herself favourable. Wherefore, if nature -makes a child most fit to excel in many aptitudes,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> -provided these are furthered by early training, is not -that education much to be blamed that fails to do its -part, allowing the child to be deprived by negligence of -the excellence that nature intended for it? Again, -seeing that there are no natural gifts that cannot be -helped forward by training, is not that manner of study -to be most highly approved which takes most pains -where nature is most lavish? The hand, the ear, the -eye, are the chief means of receiving and handing on -our learning. And does not this course of study -instruct the hand how to write, to draw, to play; the -eye to read by letters, to distinguish form by lines, to -judge by means of both; the ear to call for the sound -of voice and instrument for its own pleasure and cultivation? -And, in general, whatever gift nature has -bestowed upon the body, to be brought out or improved -by training, for any profitable use in life, does -not this elementary course find it out and make the -most of it? As for the capacities of the mind, whether -they concern virtuous living or skill in learning, whatever -be the art, science, or profession to which they -belong, do they not all evidently depend upon reading -and writing as their natural foundations? The study -of language must be the basis of grammar, rhetoric, -logic, and their derivatives, among which may be -counted all the parts of philosophy, both moral and -natural, as well as the three professions of divinity, law, -and medicine, using as they do in all their branches -the instrument of speech. If mathematics be in question, -or any kindred subjects that have a bearing on mechanical -science, though their secondary use is to whet the -mental powers, yet they must rest on a study of the -properties of number, figure, motion, and sound. And -as for our pleasure in the beauties of art, that is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> -obtained by the provision of drawing for the eye and -music for the ear. So that, in my opinion, the fathers -and founders of this elementary course (which I am -only attempting to reintroduce, though with as much -goodwill as so good a thing deserves) have shown great -foresight in laying such sure foundations as to secure -that all natural capacities shall not only be carefully -fostered at their first sprouting, but brought to the fullest -perfection when they are ripe for the harvest. When I -use the term <em>nature</em> I mean that power which God has -implanted in his creatures, both to preserve the race and -to fulfil the end of their being. The continuance of -their kind is the proof of their being, but the fulfilment -of their end is the fruit of their being. This latter is -the point to which education has a special eye (though -it does not despise the other), so that the young fry -may be brought up to prove good in the end, and serve -their country well in whatever position they may be -placed. For the performance of this end I take it that -this elementary course is most sufficient, being the best -means of perfecting all those powers with which nature -endows our race, by using those studies which art and -reflection appoint, and those methods which nature herself -suggests. For the end of education and training -is to help nature to her perfection in the complete -development of all the various powers.</p> - -<p>This is what I mean by following nature, not counterfeiting -her in her own proper work by foolish imitation, -or perverse attempt to produce her effects, like an -Apelles in portraiture or an Archimedes in the laws -of motion, but after considering and marking with -good judgment what are the natural tendencies and -inclinations, to frame a scheme of education in -consonance with these, and bring to perfection by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> -art all those powers which nature bestows in frank -abundance.</p> - -<p>For the physical life of man, in order to maintain -and develop both the individual and the species, nature -has provided organs that receive, prepare and distribute -nourishment for the body, and has, besides, given us for -self-preservation the power of perceiving all sensible -things by means of feeling, hearing, seeing, smelling, -and tasting. These qualities of the outward world, -being apprehended by the understanding and examined -by the judgment, are handed over to the memory, and -afterwards prove our chief—nay, our only—means of -obtaining further knowledge. Moreover, we have also -a power of movement, either under the influence of -emotion or by the enticement of desire, either for the -direct purposes of life, as in the action of the pulse and -in breathing, or for outward action, such as walking, -running, or leaping. To serve the end both of sense-perception -and of motion, nature has planted in the -body a brain, the prince of all our organs, which by -spreading its channels through every part of our frame -produces all the effects through which sense passes into -motion.</p> - -<p>Further, our soul has in it a desire to obtain what it -holds to be good, and to avoid what it thinks evil. -This desire is stirred either by quiet allurement or by -violent incitement, and when once it is inflamed it -strives to compass its end. To satisfy this desire -nature has given us a heart to kindle heat, and as the -sense is moved by the qualities of the object, and -motion is effected by means of sinews, so appetite, -being stirred by the object of desire or repulsion, is -supplied with the means of satisfying itself.</p> - -<p>Last of all, our soul has in it an imperial prerogative<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -of understanding beyond sense, of judging by reason, of -directing action for duty towards God and our fellowmen, -for conquest in affection and attainment in -knowledge, and for such other things as minister to the -varied uses of our mortal life, and prove its title to -continue beyond the sphere of this roaming pilgrimage. -To serve this honourable purpose of understanding and -reasoning, nature, though she has no place in this -earthly body of ours worthy to receive such great and -stately guests with their whole retinue, yet does what -she can, and, herself acting as harbinger, assigns them -for lodging her principal chamber, the very closet of the -brain, where she bestows every one of reason’s understanding -friends, according to their various ranks and -special dignities. All those capacities in their first -natural condition concern only the existence of an -uncultivated man; but when they are fashioned to their -best by good education, they form the life of a perfect -and excellent man. For to exist merely, to feed, to -multiply, to use the senses, to desire, to have natural -and unimproved reason—what great thing is it, though -it is something more than brute beasts have, if the other -divine qualities that build upon these are not diligently -followed? These higher powers not only rise out of -the lower at the first, but honour them in the end, just -as the best fruit honours its first blossom, or as the most -skilful work graces the first ground on which it is -wrought. Besides that they prove themselves to be the -most excellent ends which nature meant from the first, -though she herself made but a weak show, however -pliable for man’s industry to work on for his own -advantage. He who does not live at all cannot live -well; he who does not feed at all cannot feed -moderately; he who does not reproduce cannot exercise<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> -continence; he who has no sense cannot use it -soberly; he who does not desire cannot desire considerately; -he who uses no reason cannot use it -advisedly. But he who exercises all these functions -has in them all the capacities that nature can afford -him to use them all well, and he will so use them if -judgment rule as much in having them well as necessity -in having them at all. For reason, as it is our difference -in comparison with beasts, is our excellence in -comparison with men, if we use it aright.</p> - -<p>Those powers of reasoning and understanding in -man, therefore, being handled in a workmanlike fashion -and applied to their best uses by such devices and -means as are thought fittest, direct the natural appetites -so as to secure the health of the parts appointed for -them, and of the whole body, which is compounded of -those parts. They develop the senses and their organs -to their best perfection and longest endurance. They -restrain desire to the rule of reason and the advice of -foresight. They enrich the mind and the soul itself by -laying up in the treasury of remembrance all arts and -imaginations, all knowledge, wisdom, and understanding, -by which either God is to be honoured or the world is -to be honestly and faithfully served; and this heavenly -benefit is begun by education, and confirmed and perfected -by continuous exercise, which crowns the whole -work.</p> - - -<h3>Education of Girls.</h3> - -<p>In naming the persons who were to receive the -benefit of education I did not exclude young maidens, -and, therefore, seeing I made them one branch of -my division, I must now say something more about -them. Some may think that the matter might well<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> -enough have been passed over in silence, as not -belonging to my purpose, seeing that my professional -concern is with the education of boys. But seeing -that I begin as low as the first elementary training, in -which young maidens ordinarily share, how could I -seem to take no notice of them? And to prove that -they ought to receive education I find four special -reasons, any one of which—therefore surely all together—may -persuade their greatest adversary, much more -then myself, who am for them tooth and nail. The -first is the custom of the country, which allows them to -learn. The second is the duty we owe to them, -charging us in conscience not to leave them deficient. -The third is their own aptness to learn, which God -would never have bestowed on them to remain idle -or to be used to small purpose. The fourth is the -excellent results shown in them when they have had the -advantage of good upbringing.</p> - -<p>I do not advocate sending young maidens to public -Grammar Schools, or to the Universities, as this has -never been the custom in this country. I would allow -them learning within certain limits, having regard to -the difference in their vocation, and in the ends which -they should seek in study. We see young maidens are -taught to read and write, and can learn to do well in -both; we hear them both sing and play passing well; -we know that they learn the best and finest of our -learned languages to the admiration of all men. As to -the living modern languages of highest reputation in -our time, if any one is inclined to deny that in these -they can compare with the best of our sex, they will -claim no other tests than to talk with such a one in -whichever of these tongues he may choose. These -things our country doth stand to; these accomplishments<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -their parents procure for them according to their -means and opportunities, in so far as their daughters’ -aptitude doth offer hope of their gaining an advantage -through them, by being preferred in marriage or some -other career. Nay, do we not see in our country some -of that sex so excellently well trained, and so rarely -qualified in regard both to the tongues themselves and -to the subject-matter contained in them, that they may -be placed along with, or even above, the most vaunted -paragons of Greece or Rome, or the German and French -gentlewomen so much praised by recent writers, or the -Italian ladies who dare even to write themselves, and -deserve fame for so doing?</p> - -<p>And what be young maidens in relation to our sex? -Do we not, according to nature, choose from among -them those who are to be our nearest and most -necessary friends, the mothers of our children? Are -they not the very creatures that were made for our -comfort, the only remedy for our solitude, our closest -companions in weal or woe, sharers in all our fortunes -until death? And can we in conscience do otherwise -than give careful thought to the welfare of those that -are linked to us in so many ways? Is it a small thing -to have our children’s mothers well strengthened in -mind as in body? And is there any better means of -strengthening their minds than to teach them that -knowledge of God and religion, of civil and domestic -duties, which we ourselves gain by education, and ought -not to deny to them—that education which is to be -found in books, and can be so well acquired in youth?</p> - -<p>If Nature has given to young maidens abilities to -prove excellent in their kind, and yet thereby in no -way to fail in their most laudable duties in marriage, -but rather to beautify themselves with admirable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> -ornaments, are we not to be charged with extreme -unnaturalness if we do not guide by discipline what -is given to them by Nature?</p> - -<p>The excellent effects in those women who have been -well trained show clearly that they deserve the best -training. What better example can be found to assure -the world than our most dear sovereign lady and -princess, who is so familiarly acquainted with the -nine Muses that they strive which may love her best -for being the most learned, and for whose excellent -knowledge we who taste of the fruit have most cause -to rejoice?</p> - - -<h3>Aim of Education for Girls.</h3> - -<p>But now having granted them the benefit and society -of our education, we must determine the end which this -training is to serve, so that it may be better applied. -Our training is without restriction either as regards -subject-matter or method, because our employment is -so general; their functions are limited, and so must -their education be also. If a young maiden is to be -brought up with a view to marriage, obedience to -authority and similar qualities must form the best kind -of training; if from necessity she has to learn how to -earn her own living, some technical training must -prepare her for a definite calling; if she is to adorn -some high position she must acquire suitable accomplishments; -if she is destined for government, which -may be offered to her by men, and is not denied -her by God, the greatness of the position calls for -general excellence, and a variety of gifts. Wherefore, -having these different ends always in view, we may -appoint them different kinds of training in accordance -with circumstances.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p> - -<p>But some churlish carper will say: “What should -women do with learning?” Such a one will never -pick out the best, but be always ready to blame the -worst. If all men always made a good use of their -learning we might have something to allege against -women, but seeing that misuse is common to both -sexes why should we blame them, when we are not free -from the same infirmity ourselves? Some women may -make a bad use of their writing, others of their -reading; some may turn all that they learn to bad -account. And I pray you what do we? I do not -excuse ill, but I bar those from accusing who are as bad -themselves. As we share both virtues and vices with -women, let us exchange forbearance, and, hoping for the -best, give them free opportunity.</p> - - -<h3>When their Education should begin.</h3> - -<p>This is my opinion as to which ought to be educated -and when they should begin. The same liberty, in -respect of circumstances, being allowed to parents in -regard to their daughters as has been granted to them -with their sons, the same consideration being had for -their fitness of mind and body, and the same care being -taken for suitable physical exercise to further their -health and strength, I consider the same time of -beginning proper for both—a time not to be wholly -determined by years, but rather by their development -as shown by their ability to use their intelligence without -tiring, and to work without wearying their bodies. -For though girls seem generally to have a quicker -ripening of intelligence than boys, in spite of appearances -this is not the case. Through natural weakness -they cannot contain long what they possess, and so -give it out very soon; yet there are prating boys just<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> -as there are prattling wenches. Besides, their brains -are not so much laden as those of boys, either as -regards amount or variety, and therefore like empty -casks they make the greater noise. In the same way -those men who seem to be very quickwitted by some -sudden pretty answer or some sharp repartee, are not -always most burdened with learning, but merely offer -the best out of a small store, taking after their mothers. -Though they must of course possess this sharpness of -wit since it manifests itself, yet it might dwell within -them a great while without manifesting itself, if study -kept them quiet, or they were preoccupied with great -deeds. It is small affairs, urging to speedy expression, -that beget that kind of readiness. Boys have it always -but often hide it because they can afford to wait; girls -have it always and always show it, because they are in -a greater hurry. And seeing it is to be found in both, -it deserves care in both, so that they should neither be -pushed on too much nor allowed to be idle too long. -Maidens are naturally weaker in body, therefore more -attention must be paid to them in this regard than is -necessary for boys. They are to be the principal pillars -in the upholding of households, and so they are likely -to prove if their training be wise. They will be the -dearest comfort a man can have if they incline to good, -the greatest curse, if they tread awry. Therefore they -are to be warily tended, as they bear a jewel of such -worth in a vessel of such weakness.</p> - - -<h3>All should have Elementary Education.</h3> - -<p>The rare excellences in some women cannot be taken -as a precedent for all to follow, as they only show us -the special success that a few parents have attained in -their daughters’ upbringing. These shining examples,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> -however, though they cannot be used to form general -precepts, are at least proofs that women can learn if -they will, and may learn what they please, if they lend -their minds to it. To learn to read is very common -where it is convenient, and writing is not refused, where -opportunity serves. Reading, even if it were of no -other use, is very needful for religion, to enable them to -know what they ought to perform, if they have none -whom they can listen to, or if their memories are not -steadfast, to refresh them. Here I may not omit many -great pleasures which those women that have time and -skill to read, without hindering their housewifery, do -continually receive by reading comforting and wise discourses, -penned either in the form of history or directions -to live by. As for writing, though it may be abused, it is -often very convenient, especially in matters of business.</p> - -<p>Music is very desirable for maidens where it is to be -had, though chiefly for the satisfaction of the parents when -the daughters are young, as is generally shown when -the young wenches become young wives, and in learning -to be mothers, lightly forget their music, thus proving -that they studied it more to please their parents than -themselves. But if having been once learned, it can be -kept up, as is quite possible with proper management, -it is a pity to let it go, as it was acquired only with -great pains and at considerable cost. Learning to sing -and play from the notes is easy enough, if it be -attended to from the first, and this can be kept up too, -though it suffers from discontinuance. Seeing it is but -little that girls can learn, the time being so short, -because they are always in haste to get husbands, it is -expedient that what they do should be done perfectly, -so that with the loss of their penny they do not lose -their pennyworth also.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p> - -<p>As for skill in needlework and housewifery, it is a -great recommendation in a woman to be able to govern -and direct her household, to look to her home and -family, to provide and take care of necessaries, although -the good-man pay, to know the resources of her kitchen -in regard to all over whom she has charge, in sickness -and in health. But I meddle not with this as I am -only dealing with things that are incident to learning. -I have now spoken of all the subjects that should -universally be taught to girls.</p> - - -<h3>Higher Studies for Some.</h3> - -<p>The question as to how far any maiden may proceed -in learning beyond the subjects already spoken of -requires more consideration and more careful handling -as it is a matter of some moment concerning those in -high position. And yet there are some of low degree -that seek to resemble those above them, and are satisfied -even with an appearance of imitation, but in so -doing they are passing the bounds of what is beseeming -to their birth. It is mere folly when a parent of humble -station traineth up his daughter in these high accomplishments, -of which I shall presently speak, if she -marries in her own lowly rank. For in such a case -these gifts will seem so out of place that she will not -gain the respect that is paid to one who has been -wisely brought up, but will rather be accused of vain -presumption. Each rank has a certain preparation -becoming to it, which is best secured when there is no -attempt to overstretch one’s powers. If some unusual -capacity attain success beyond expectation, it is generally -a marked exception, and whoever shoots at the -same mark, in the hope of hitting, may sooner miss, for -there are many chances of missing to one of hitting,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -and wonders that are seen only once are no examples -to imitate. Every maid may not hope to speed as she -would wish, because one hath sped better than she -could have wished.</p> - -<p>When the question is <em>how much</em> a woman ought to -learn, the answer may be, “as much as shall be needful,” -and if this is doubtful also, the reply may be, -either as much as befits what her parents hope to -obtain for her, if their position be humble, or as much -as is in keeping with the prospects naturally belonging -to their rank, if that rank be high. If the parents be -of good standing, and the daughters have special -aptitudes, these may be successfully cultivated, so that -the young maidens are very soon commended to right -honourable matches in which their accomplishments -will be seemly and serviceable, benefitting perhaps the -commonwealth as well as their own families. If the -parents be of humble rank, and the maidens in their -education show from the very first some special gifts -that offer good promise, even with natural progress, -there is ground for hope that their unusual qualities -may bring them to some great match. Doubtless this -hope may fail, for great personages have not always -the good judgment, nor young maidens the good fortune, -that would lead to such a result, yet in any case -the maidens would remain the gainers, for they at least -have their gifts to comfort their mediocre station, and -those great personages lose from the lack of judgment -to set forth their nobility.</p> - - -<h3>What Higher Studies are Suitable.</h3> - -<p>Carrying the education further may consist either in -perfecting the four studies already mentioned, reading -well, writing neatly, singing sweetly, and playing finely,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> -to such an unusual degree, that though the things are -but ordinary, special excellence in them may bring -more than ordinary admiration, or else in acquiring -skill in languages in addition to the above, so that the -abundance of gifts may cause yet more wonder.</p> - -<p>I fear women would have little turn for geometry or -the sister sciences, nor would I make them mathematicians, -except in so far as they study music, nor -lawyers to plead at the bar, nor physicians, though skill -in herbs has been much commended in women, nor -would I have them profess divinity, to preach in pulpits, -though they must practice it as virtuous livers. Philosophy -would help them in general discourse, if they -had leisure to study it, but the knowledge of some -tongues, either as the vehicle of deeper learning, or for -their immediate uses, may well be wished for them, and -all those powers also that belong to the furniture of -speech. If I should allow them the pencil to draw, as -well as the pen to write, and thereby entitle them to all -my elementary studies, I might have good reasons to -give. For young maidens are ready enough to take to -it, and it would help to beautify their needlework.</p> - -<p>And is not a young gentlewoman, think you, -thoroughly well equipped who can read distinctly, -write neatly and swiftly, sing sweetly, and play and -draw well, understand and speak the learned languages, -as well as the modern tongues approved by her time -and country, and who has some knowledge of logic and -rhetoric, besides the information acquired in her study -of foreign languages? If in addition to all this she be -an honest woman and a good housewife, would she not -be worth wishing for and worth enshrining? And is -it likely that her children will be one whit the worse -brought up?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>Who should be their Teachers.</h3> - -<p>The only other question in regard to young maidens -is where, and under whom, they should learn, and this -depends on how long their studies can extend, which -is generally till they are about thirteen or fourteen -years old.</p> - -<p>Those who are able to continue longer have their -time and place suitably appointed, according to the -circumstances of their parents. As for their teachers, -their own sex were fittest in some respects, but ours -frame them best, and with good regard to some circumstances, -will bring them up excellently well, especially -if the parents co-operate by exercising a wise control -over them. The greater-born ladies and gentlemen, as -they are to enjoy the benefit of this education most, so -they have the best means of prosecuting it, being able -to secure the best teachers, and not being limited in -time. And so I take my leave of young maidens and -gentlewomen, to whom I wish as well as I have said -well of them.</p> - - -<h3>The Education of Young Gentlemen.</h3> - -<p>Under my last heading I set forth at large how -young maidens were to be advanced in learning according -to their rank, which methought was very incident -to my purpose, because they are counterbranches to us -as mortal and reasonable creatures, and also because -they are always our mates, and may sometimes, -according to law and birth, be our mistresses. Now, -considering that they are always closely connected with -us, and sometimes exceed us in dignity of position, as -they share with us all qualities, and all honours even up -to the sceptre, why should they not also share in our -training and education, so that they may perform well<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> -the part which they have to play, whether it be in a -position of equality with us, or sovereignity above us? -Here now ensueth another question of great importance -in regard to the kind of people who are to be dealt -with, the question of a class whose position is always in -the superlative, and of whom great things are expected, -though sometimes by their own fault they forfeit their -chances, and hand them over to others whom nature -ennobles through their inborn virtues—I mean young -gentlemen of all ranks up to the crown itself. It is the -custom among those of good birth to prefer to have -their sons educated privately at home rather than at -school. This is reasonable enough for maidens because -of their sex, but young gentlemen should be educated -publicly, that they may have the benefit of mixing with -others, as has been the custom in all the best ordered -commonwealths, and has been recommended by all the -most learned writers, even in the case of princes.</p> - - -<h3>Private and Public Education.</h3> - -<p>What is the import of these two words ‘private education’? -<em>Private</em> is that which hath respect in all -circumstances to some particular case; <em>public</em> in all -circumstances regardeth every one alike. <em>Education</em> is -the bringing up of one, not to live alone, but amongst -others, because company is our natural medium; whereby -he shall be best able to perform all those functions -in life which his position shall require, whether public -or private, in the interest of his country in which he was -born, and to which he owes his whole service. All -these functions are in reality public, and concern everyone, -even when they seem most private, because -individual ends must be adjusted to wider social ends; -and yet people give the preference to private education<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> -where all the circumstances are peculiar to one learner; -as if he who was brought up alone were always to live -alone, or as if one should say, ‘I will have you to deal -with all, but never to see all; your end shall be public, -but your means shall be private.’ How can education -be private? It is an abuse of the name as well as of -the thing. This isolation, for a pretended advantage -in education, of those who must afterwards pass on -together, is very mischievous, as it allows every parent -to follow out his own whims, relying on the privacy of -his own house to be free from criticism, on the subserviency -of the teacher whom he may choose to suit his -own purposes, and on the submission of his child who is -bound to obey him on pain of meeting his displeasure. -In public schools such swerving from what is generally -approved is impossible. The master is always in the -public eye, what he teaches is known to all; the child -is not alone, and he learns only what has been submitted -to the judgment of the community. Whatever -inconveniences may be inseparable from schools, still -greater arise in private education. It puffs up the -recluse with pride; it is an enemy to sympathy between -those who have unequal opportunities; it fosters self-conceit -in the absence of comparison with others; it -encourages contempt in the superior, and envy in the -inferior. This kind of education which soweth the seed -of dissension by discovering differences, where the -fruits of a common upbringing should be seen in the -firm knitting of social bonds, should be discouraged -owing to its effect in instilling the poison of spite. -Certainly the thing doth naturally tend this way, -though its influence may be often interrupted in time -by the pressure of public opinion. But if the child -turn out better then I have forecast, and show himself<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> -courteous, it will be due to his natural goodness, or to -his experience outside, not to the kind of education -which brings no such courtesy, though the child may -see it in his parents, and read of it in his books. -Sometimes it maketh him too sheepishly bashful when -he comes to the light, owing to his being unaccustomed -to company. More commonly, however, he is too -childishly bold through noting nothing except what he -breeds in his own mind in his solitary training, where -he thinks only of himself, and has none to control him, -not even his master, whatever show there may be of -obedience to authority in this private cloistering. -Surely it is reasonable for one in his childhood to -become acquainted with other children, seeing he has to -live with them as men in his manhood. Is it good for -the ordinary man to be brought up on a well-regulated -public system, and not good for the man of higher position? -By ‘private’ I do not mean what is done at -home for public uses—in that case almost everything -might be called private—but what is kept at home by -preference, in order to serve the better the interest of a -particular individual. It would seem to be generally a -question not of the matter or the method of education, -but of the select privacy of the place where it is given. -I must beg leave to say that the results are in favour of -public training, which from the midst of mediocrity -brings up scholars of such excellence that they take a -worthy place in all ranks, even next to the highest, -whereas private education with all its advantages of -wealth, doth rarely show anything in learning and judgment -above bare mediocrity. There is no comparison -between the two kinds, if prejudice be set aside. If -the privately-taught pupil chance to come to speak, it -mostly falleth out dreamingly, because seclusion in education<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> -is a punishment to the tongue; and in teaching a -language to exclude companions to speak to, is like -seeking to quench thirst, yet closing the mouth so that -no moisture can get in. If such a pupil come to write, -it is lean, and nothing but skin, betraying the great -pains the master hath had to take, in default of any -helping circumstances through the pupil’s intercourse -with companions. The boy can but repeat what he -hears, and he hears only one person who, though he -knew everything, cannot say much, for he hath no -sufficient audience to provoke him to utterance. If the -master made an effort to deliver himself of anything -weighty, methinks an unobserved listener would hear a -strange discourse, and would find the boy asleep; or, -if he had a companion, playing with his hands or feet -under the table, with one eye on his talking master and -the other on his playmate.</p> - -<p>But why is private education so much in vogue? -There may be some excuse for those of very high -position, especially for the prince himself, who standing -alone, cannot well mix with his subjects, and must do -what he can to surpass them without this advantage. -Yet if even the greatest could have his education so -arranged that he might have the company of a good -choice number, wherein to see all the differences of -capacity and learn to judge of all, as he hath afterwards -to deal with all, would it be any sacrilege? But -why do the gentry in this respect rather ape their -superiors in rank, than follow the class below, who are -really liker to them, and who form the chief supporters -of the State? To have the child learn better manners -and have more virtuous surroundings! As bad at -home as outside; evil manners are brought into school, -not bred there. To avoid the distraction of large<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> -numbers? The child shall notice the more, and so -prove the wiser, the multitude of examples offering the -means of sound judgment. Nay, in a number, though -he find some undesirable, whom he should avoid, he -shall find many apt and industrious, whom to follow. -In school, moreover, he shall perceive that vice is -punished, and virtue praised, as needs must where all is -done in the public view. Is it to keep the child in -health by making him bide at home, for fear of infection -outside? Death is within doors also, and dainties -at home have destroyed more children than dangers -outside. Is it from affection, because ye cannot bear -to let the child out of your presence? That is too -foolish. Emulation is a great inspirer of virtue. If -your child do well at home alone, how much better -would he do with company? It quickens the spirits, -and enlivens the whole nature, to have to compete with -others—to have perhaps one companion ahead of him -to follow and learn from, another below him to teach -and vaunt over, and a third of his own standing with -whom to strive for praise of forwardness.</p> - -<p>To sum up this question, I do take public education -to be better than private, as being more upon the stage, -where faults are more readily seen and so are sooner -amended, and as being the best means of acquiring both -virtue and learning, which flourish according to their -first planting. What virtue is private? Wisdom, to -foresee what is good for a desert? Courage, to defend -where there is no assailant? Temperance, to be modest -where there is none to challenge? Justice, to do right -when there is none to demand it?</p> - - -<h3>What should a Gentleman learn?</h3> - -<p>As for the education of gentlemen, at what age shall<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> -I suggest that they should begin to learn? Their -minds are the same as those of the common people, -and their bodies are often worse. The same considerations -in regard to time must apply to all ranks. What -should they learn? I know of nothing else, nor can I -suggest anything better, than what I have already -suggested for all. Only young gentlemen must have -some special studies that will help them to govern -under their prince in positions of trust. They should -have always before them the virtues that belong to the -government of others, and to the wise direction of their -own conduct. However, the general matter of duty -being taught to all, each one may apply it to his own -particular case, without the need for any special reference -outside the ordinary school course, especially -seeing that the duties of government just as often fall -into the hands of those of lower rank whose virtue and -capacity win them promotion. What exercises shall -young gentlemen have? The very same as other -children. What masters? The same. What difference -of arrangements? All one and the same, except -where private education is preferred, though, as I have -said, they are none the better for the want of good -fellowship. And if they are as well taught and as well -exercised as should follow from the general plan laid -down for all young children, they shall have no cause -to complain of public education. For it is no mean stuff -which is provided even for the meanest to be stored with.</p> - -<p>The children of gentlemen have great advantages, -which they may thank God for; they can carry on -their education to the end, whereas those of the -humbler class have to give it up sooner, and they have -many opportunities which are denied to ordinary -learners. If they fail to use these advantages aright<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> -they are all the more to blame, just as the greater -credit is due to those who in spite of hindrances make -such advancement that they win the preferments forfeited -by the negligence of those to whom they -naturally belong.</p> - -<p>As for rich men, who not being of gentle birth, but -growing to wealth by some means or other, imitate -gentlemen in the education of their children, as if -money made equality, and the purse were the ground -of preferment, without any other consideration, who -contemn the lower ranks from which they sprang, and -cloister up their children as a support to their position, -they are in the same case as regards freedom of choice, -but far behind in true gentility. As they were of lower -condition themselves, they might with more acceptance -continue their children in the same kind of training -which brought up the parents and made them so -wealthy, and not try to push themselves into a rank too -far beyond their humble origin. For of all the means -to make a gentleman, money is the most vile. All -other means have some sign of virtue, but this is too -bad to mate either with high birth, or with great worth. -For to become a gentleman is to bear the cognisance of -virtue, to which honour is companion; the vilest devices -are the readiest means to become most wealthy and -ought not to look honour in the face. It may be -pretended that intelligence and capacity have enabled -them to make their way, but it is not denied that these -qualities may be turned to the worst uses, may only -once in a thousand times make a gentleman. It is not -intelligence that deserves praise, but the matter to -which it has been directed, and the manner in which it -has been employed. When it is bestowed wisely on -the good of the community, it deserveth all praise; if<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> -devoted wholly to filling a private purse, without regard -to the means, so long as nothing evil is disclosed, then -it deserveth no praise for the result, but rather suspicion -as to the method of bringing it about. These people -in their business will not scruple to bring poverty to -thousands, and for giving a penny to one of these -thousands they will be accounted charitable. They -will give a scholar some pretty exhibition, in order to -seem religious, and under a slender veil of counterfeit -liberality will hide the spoil of ransacked poverty. And -though they do not profess to be impoverishing people -of set purpose, yet their kind of dealing doth pierce as -it passeth.</p> - -<p>But of these kind of folks I intend not to speak. -My purpose is to employ my pains upon such as are -gentlemen indeed. Yet it is worth that gives name -and note to nobility; it is virtue that must endow it, -or vice will undo it. As I wish well to this class, so I -wish their education to be good, and if it were possible, -even better than that of ordinary people. But that -cannot be, for the common training, if it be well -appointed, is the best and fittest for them, especially as -they may have it in full, while those of meaner rank -have to be content with it incomplete.</p> - - -<h3>What makes a Gentleman.</h3> - -<p>Before I enter upon the training of gentlemen and -show what is specially suitable for them, I will examine -those points which are best got by good education, and -being once got do adorn them most, which two considerations -are not foreign to my purpose. I must first -ask what it is to be a gentleman or a nobleman, and -what qualities these terms assume to be present in the -persons of those to whom they are applied, and afterwards,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> -what are the causes and uses of gentility, and the -reasons why it is so highly thought of.</p> - -<p>But ere I begin to deal with any of these points, -once for all I must recommend to those of gentle birth -exercise of the body, and chiefly such kinds as besides -benefiting their health shall best serve their calling and -place in their country. Just as those qualities which I -have set forth for the general training, being most easily -compassed in their perfection by them, may very well -beseem a gentlemanly mind, so may the physical exercises -without exception be found useful, either to make -a healthy body, seeing that our constitution is all the -same, or to prepare them for such occupations as belong -to their position. Is it not for a gentleman to follow -the chase and to hunt? Doth their place reprove them -if they have skill to dance? Is skill in sitting a horse -no honour at home, no help abroad? Is the use of a -weapon suitable to their calling any blemish to them? -Indeed those great exercises are most proper to such -persons and are not for those of meaner rank.</p> - -<p>What is it then to be a nobleman or a gentleman? -The people of this country are either gentlemen or of -the commonalty. The latter is divided into those who -are engaged in trade, and those who work with their -hands. Their distinction is by wealth, for some of them, -who have enough and more, are called rich men, some -who have no more than enough, poor men, and some -who have less than enough, beggars. There are also -three ranks in gentility, the gentlemen, who are the -cream of the common people, the noblemen, who are -the flower of gentility, and the prince, who is the primate -and pearl of nobility. Their difference is in authority, -the prince having most, the nobleman coming next, and -the gentlemen under both. To be virtuous or vicious, to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> -be rich or poor, are no peculiar badge of either kind; a -gentleman or a common man may alike be virtuous or -vicious, rich or poor, with land or without it. But as -the gentleman in any position must have the power of -exercising his lawful authority there are some virtues -that seem to belong to him specially, such as wisdom in -policy, valour in execution, justice in forming decisions, -modesty in demeanour. Whether gentility come by -descent or desert makes no difference; he that giveth -fame to his family first, or he that deserveth such honour, -or he that adds to his heritage by noble means, is the -man whom I mean. He that continueth what he received -through descent from his ancestry, by desert in his own -person, hath much to thank God for, and doth well -deserve double honour among men, as bearing the true -coat of arms of the best nobility, when desert for virtue -is quartered with descent in blood, seeing that ancient -lineage and inheritance of nobility are in such credit -among us, and always have been. As gentility argueth -a courteous, civil, well-disposed, sociable constitution of -mind in a superior degree, so doth nobility imply all -these and much more, in a higher rank with greater -authority. And do not these distinctive qualities deserve -help by good and virtuous education?</p> - - -<h3>Learning useful to Noblemen.</h3> - -<p>Excellent wisdom, which is the means of advancing -grave and politic counsellors, is but a single cause of -preferment; likewise valour, which is the means of -making a noble and gallant captain, is but a single cause -of advancement; but where these two qualities, wisdom -and courage, are combined in the same man, the merit -is doubled. The means of preferment which depend -upon learning are either martial, for war and defence in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> -relation to foreign countries, or political, for peace and -tranquillity at home. The warrior seems to depend -most on his personal courage and experience, which -without any learning or reading at all, have often brought -forth excellent leaders, but with those helps in addition -produce most rare and famous generals. Those who use -the pen most in taking part in the direction of public -government, or in filling the necessary offices in the administrative -or judicial service of the State, for the -common peace and quietness, without profession of further -learning, though they have their chief instrument -of credit from books, are not debtors to book-knowledge -only, because industry, experience, and discretion have -much to do with their success. It is those who depend -wholly upon learning that I am most concerned with, -when I ask how gentlemen should be trained to have -them learned.</p> - -<p>The highest position to which learned valour doth -give advancement, is that of a wise counsellor, the fruit -of whose learning is policy, not in the limited sense -where it is opposed to straightforwardness, but in the -philosophical sense, as meaning the general skill to judge -things rightly, to see them in their due proportions, to -adapt them to any given circumstances, with as little -disturbance as possible to existing arrangements, whether -it be in matters religious or secular, public or private, -professional or industrial. Such a man is, in the sphere -of religion, a <em>divine</em> who is able to judge soundly of the -general principles and applications of divinity; in the -sphere of government, a <em>lawyer</em> who makes the laws in -the first instance, and knows best how to have them -kept; in short he is the man, whether he be concerned -with ecclesiastical or temporal affairs, and whatever his -rank or his profession may be, who is most sound and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> -able, and sufficient in all points. And though the -specialist may know more than he in any particular -matter which he has not leisure to get up thoroughly -himself, yet he will be able to make such skilful and -methodical enquiries of the special student that he will -probe his knowledge to the bottom, and then handle the -material he gains to better purpose than the other could -with all his scholarship. Of all those that depend upon -learning I hold this kind of man worthiest to be -preferred, in divinity a chief among divines, though he -do not preach, in law, the first of lawyers, though he do -not plead, and similarly in all the other departments of -public direction. But wherefore is all this? To show -how necessary a thing it is to have young gentlemen -well brought up. For if these causes do make the man -of mean birth noble, what will they do in him whose -honour is augmented with perpetual increase, if he add -personal worth to his nobility in blood? Wherefore -the necessity of the training being evidently so great, -I will handle that as well as I can, by way of general -precept, with reference to those whose wisdom is their -weight, learning their line, justice their balance, honour -their armour, and all the different virtues their greatest -ornaments in the eyes of all men.</p> - - -<h3>Course of Study for a Gentleman.</h3> - -<p>As I have already said, I know no better training for -the gentleman than that which is provided under -proper conditions for the ordinary man; but while the -latter learns first for necessity, and afterwards for -advancement, the greater personage ought to study for -his credit and honour as well. For which be gentlemanly -accomplishments, if these be not—to read, to -write, to draw, to sing, to play, to have language and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> -learning, health and activity, nay, even to profess -Divinity, Law, Medicine, or any other worthy occupation? -These things a gentleman hath most leisure to -acquire, and not being too much under the spur of -necessity he can practise them with uprightness. These -so-called “liberal” professions are too commonly now -in the hands of meaner men, who make a trade of their -high calling, and only seek to enrich themselves. Doth -Divinity teach to scrape, or Law to scratch, or any -other kind of learning to which the epithet “liberal” is -applied? The practice of these callings crieth for help -to ransom it from the pressure of selfish needs to which -it hath fallen a prey, owing to the indifference of the -nobility, who think anything far more seemly to bestow -their time and wealth upon than the learned professions. -But if young gentlemen of parts would be pleased to -be so well affected toward their country as to shoulder -out mercenary professional men by themselves taking -their places, how fortunate it would be for the country, -and for the young gentlemen as well! Enough might -be spared for such employment without unduly lessening -the numbers that fill the court and carry on -military and judicial functions only too abundantly. If -the warlike gentlemen betook themselves to arms and -paid more attention to exercise, and if the more peacefully-inclined -took their books and fell to learning, -recalling by diligence those faculties which they have -for so long allowed to run waste, should not the change -be welcomed? This were better than vain foppery -and travelling about.</p> - - -<h3>Foreign Travel.</h3> - -<p>What is this travelling? I do not ask in regard to -merchants, whom necessity obliges to travel and to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> -tarry long from home for the sake of their own trade -and often of our benefit, nor in regard to soldiers, who -when there is peace at home must go abroad to learn -in foreign wars how to defend their country when it is -necessary. Nor do I refer to such travellers as Solon, -or Pythagoras, or Plato, who sought knowledge where -it was, in order to bring it where it was not. We have -no need to travel in search of learning as they did. We -have at this day, thanks to printing, as much of that as -any country needs to have,—nay, as much as the -ancient world ever possessed, if we would use it aright. -And young gentlemen, if they made the best use of -their wealth, might procure and maintain such excellent -masters and companions and libraries, that they might -acquire all the best learning far better by studying -quietly at home than by stirring about, if the desire for -knowledge were the cause of their travelling. And -this excuse is made even by people of meaner rank, -who love to look abroad for instruction that they -could get quite well at home from competent persons -who never crossed the seas. If there be defects in our -own country, they can be remedied out of our own -resources by giving good heed to the matter, without -the need of borrowing from other lands. What, then, -is travel, interrupting education as it does, and raising -the question whether young gentlemen in choosing it -are benefiting their country and themselves? To -travel is to see countries abroad, to mark their singularities, -to learn their languages, and to return thence -with an equipment of wisdom that will serve the needs -of one’s own country.</p> - -<p>There may be some who gain all these advantages -from travel; but for one whose natural excellence and -virtue will turn such a hazardous experience to profit,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> -there are many to whom it will prove pernicious, owing -to their impetuous temper and their command of -money beyond the discretion of their years. And -while these are engaged in travel, what might they -have been acquiring at home? Sounder learning, the -same study of language, and, above all, the love of -their native land, which groweth by familiarity, but is -mightily impaired by absence and an acquired fancy for -foreign customs.</p> - -<p>What is the natural end of being born in a particular -country? To serve one’s fatherland. With foreign -fashions? They will not fit. For every country has -its own appropriate laws and arrangements, and its -special circumstances can be understood only by those -who study its constitution carefully on the spot. What -is quite suitable and excellent for other nations may -not bear transplanting here; it may not fit in with the -habits of our people, or at least the change might -require so much effort that it would not be worth the -cost. I do not deny that travel is good, if it hits on -the right person; though I think the same labour, with -equally good intentions, could be spent with better -results at home. He that roameth abroad hath no -such line to lead him as he that tarrieth at home, -unless his understanding, years and experience offer -better security than is the case with those of whom I -am now speaking. Foreign things fit us not; or, if -they fit our backs, at least they do not fit our brains, -unless there be something amiss there. If we wish to -learn from other countries, it is better to summon a -foreign master to us than to go abroad as foreign -scholars ourselves.</p> - -<p>Our ladies at home can acquire all the accomplishments -of these travelled gentlemen without stirring<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -abroad, for it is not what one has seen that is of value, -but the languages and learning that are brought back, -and these are to be found at home. Our lady mistress, -whom I must needs remember when excellence is being -spoken of, a woman, a gentlewoman, a lady, a princess, -in the midst of many other affairs of business, in spite of -her sex and sundry impediments to a free mind such as -learning requireth, can do all these things to the wonder -of all hearers, which I say young gentlemen can learn -better at home, as Her Majesty did. It may be said -that Her Majesty is not to be used as a precedent, -seeing she is of a princely courage that would not be -overthrown by any difficulty in learning what might -advance her person beyond all praise, and help her -position beyond expectation. But yet it may be said, -why may not young gentlemen, who can allege no -obstacle, obtain with more liberty what Her Highness -got with so little? It is having as much money as -they like that eggs them on to wander. If they went -abroad as ambassadors to acquire experience through -dealing with great affairs, or if they were well known as -learned men to whom important information would -everywhere naturally be offered, or if they even went in -the train of the former, or under the tuition of the -latter, so that authority might secure benefits for -them and preserve them from harm, I would not -disapprove of it, as they might then learn to follow -in the footsteps of their leaders. But this is a very -different matter from the pursuit of those special -ends that could be better attained at home. For -good, simple, well-meaning young gentlemen, strong -in purse and weak in years, to travel at a venture in -places where there is danger to health, to life, to -conduct, far from the chances of succour and rescue—the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> -thought is so repugnant to me that I know not -what to say.</p> - - -<h3>Gentlemen should take up the Professions.</h3> - -<p>I do wish then that well-disposed young gentlemen -would be pleased to betake themselves betimes to some -kind of learning that is indeed liberal, seeing that their -circumstances protect them from interested motives, -and enable them to serve their country honourably. -Instead of all becoming lawyers or court officials, why -do not some of them choose to be divines, or physicians, -or to take up some other learned profession? Any -gentleman in our country who is now so qualified is -esteemed and honoured above all others of his calling, -and indeed gets some honour even if he is not -particularly well qualified. Are not these professions -to be reverenced for their subject-matter and for their -influence? And are they not therefore proper for the -nobility? I do not hold the conduct of barbarous -invasions to be the true field of activity for the nobility; -they should be for the most part peaceful, and warlike -only for defence if the country be assailed, or for attack -if previous wrongs are to be avenged. Nor do I take -wealth to be any worthy cause of honour to the owner, -unless it be both got by laudable means and employed -in commendable ways, nor any quality or gift that -adorns the body, unless it serves a good purpose, nor -any endowment of the mind which is not exercised in -conformity with reason and wisdom. Such gifts are -demanded in the callings I have named as worthy of -the nobility. Who dare think lightly of divinity in -itself? There is more hesitation now about adopting -it as a profession than formerly, when the emoluments -were greater, and the dignity more generally recognised,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> -but the position grows better again, and a good gentleman -may find in it the honour which he seeks. As for -medicine, if gentlemen will not study and practise it, -they must pay the penalty of ignorance, as they will -suffer in their own bodies as well as in their pockets by -leaving the profession to those of meaner rank, whose -attendance is often rather flattering and fawning than -intelligent services. This caution, however, young -gentlemen must bear in mind, that it were a great deal -better they had no learning at all and knew their own -ignorance, than a mere smattering, incomplete of its -kind, and insecurely held in their minds. For their -acknowledged ignorance harms only themselves, as -others more skilful may supply their places, but unripe -learning puffeth them up, and their rank encourages -them to be superficial, either in not digesting what they -have read, or in not reading sufficiently, or in doing -desultory work, or presuming on their station to defend -ill-considered notions. To conclude, I wish young -gentlemen to be better than ordinary men in the best -kind of learning, as they have ampler opportunities of -acquiring it and turning it to good account for the -benefit of their country and their own honour.</p> - - -<h3>The Training of a Prince.</h3> - -<p>As a child, the greatest prince may be, like other -children, in soul either fine or gross, in body either -strong or weak, in form either well-developed or ill, so -that in regard to the time for beginning to learn and -the proper course of study, he is no less subject to the -general laws already laid down than his subjects are. -We must take him as God sends him, for we cannot -choose as we would wish, just as he must make the best -of his people, though his people be not the best. When<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> -the young prince’s elementary education is past, and -there is more scope for reading, care must be taken to -choose such matter as may recommend humility as well -as afford adequate knowledge, so that competence in -affairs may be supported by the gift of courteous -persuasion. Intercourse with foreign ambassadors, and -conference with his own counsellors, require both a -knowledge of tongues and a knowledge of the matters -that come under discussion. And as he governeth his -State by means of his two arms, the ecclesiastical, which -preserves and purifies religion, the main support of -voluntary obedience, and the political, which by maintaining -the civil government doth keep order and -diffuse well-being, if he lack knowledge to use his arms -aright, is he not more than lame? And is not his best -help to be found in learning? Martial skill is needful, -but only for defence, because a stirring prince, always -ready to make aggression, is a plague to his people and -a punishment to himself, and even when he seems to -gain most, is only getting what he or his descendants -must some day lose again with perhaps something in -addition. But religious knowledge is far more important, -being specially necessary for a prince, inasmuch -as he hath none but God to fear. Almighty God be -thanked who hath at this day lent us a Princess who -indeed feareth Him, and who therefore, deserving to be -loved, desires not to be feared by us. I pray God long -to preserve her whose good education doth teach us -what education can do, and I have good cause to -rejoice that this work of mine concerning education is -given forth in her time.</p> - - -<h3>Boarding Schools.</h3> - -<p>I turn to the question whether it is better for a child<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> -to board with his master or elsewhere, or to come from -home daily to school. If the place where the parents -dwell be near the school, or only so far off that the very -walk may be for the boy’s health, and if the parent himself -be careful and wise to be as good a furtherer in the -training of his own child as he is a father to its being, -then certainly the parent’s home is much better, if for -nothing else, yet because the parent can more easily at -all times look after the interests of his own, having only -one or a few, than the schoolmaster can after his -ordinary duties are over, especially as he will have to -divide his attention among many. Further, all the -considerations which persuade people rather to have -their children taught at home than along with others -outside, especially with regard to their manners and -behaviour, form arguments for their at least <em>boarding</em> -at home, if the parents will take their position seriously, -because the parent can both see to the upbringing of -the child outside school and interest himself in the work -done by the child <em>in</em> school. For undoubtedly the -masters are wearied with working all day, so that -the individual help they can give in their homes in the -evening can be but little, without at once tiring the -master unduly and dulling the child, if he is always -poring over his books. There must be times for -recreation if anything is to be well done continuously. -Can anyone help thinking that it is a great deal more -than enough for the master to teach, and the scholar to -learn, daily from 6 in the morning till 11, and from 1 -in the afternoon till wellnigh 6 at night, if the time is -to be really well applied—nay, even if the hours were a -great deal fewer? And may not the rest of the day be -reasonably spent in some recreation that offers a pleasant -variety to both parties? In the master’s home I grant<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> -children may keep school hours better, and be less -liable to idleness and truancy; the master also may -keep them better under his eye in his general teaching -when they are wholly under his care in place of his own -children, may arrange their hours better according to -the subjects they are studying, and may sooner be able -to discover their special talents and inclinations. There -are also certain private considerations that have weight -with parents in sending their children to board away -from home, which I leave to their private thoughts, as -I reserve some to my own. If the master have charge -only of the scholars who board with him, and can himself -do all that is necessary for the best education, and -the numbers be moderate enough to allow of considerable -progress, then I know of no more favourable -circumstances, if the size, situation, and convenience of -his house, and other necessary conditions are all suitable. -But while he is thinking only of his boarders’ advancement, -some slow-paying parents will be sure to keep -him lean, if he look not well to it, and his fortunes will -not flourish, or at least the risks will cause him continual -anxiety. Parents have a different eye to their children’s -comfort when they are at a boarding-school, and are -ready to complain of many things that are made of no -account at home. And if sickness or death should -come, the worst construction is put upon it, as if death -did not know where the parent dwells. And though -the master should have done not only what he was -formally bound to do, but even more than he could -have done for his own child, yet all that is nothing. -Wherefore, as parents must think of the objection on -their side to sending out their children to board, so -masters on their part must beware of admitting them to -their own injury. Indeed, my own opinion is that it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> -is quite enough for a master to undertake the education -alone. If parents do not live near enough to the school, -they should board their children elsewhere than with -the master. They are distinct offices, to be a parent -and a teacher, and the difficulties of upbringing are too -serious for all the responsibilities to be thrown into the -hands of one alone.</p> - - -<h3>School Buildings.</h3> - -<p>Of the places of elementary education there is not -much to say, as the masters supply rooms as large as -they can, considering the fees that the parents are willing -to pay, and the little people who attend these schools -are not as yet capable of any great exercise. The -Grammar Schools require more attention, because the -years that are, or at least ought to be, spent there are the -most important both for developing the body and for -framing the mind and character. Here the pupils are -most subject to the master’s direction, and provision is -made for them not only out of the parents’ resources, but -also from public endowment, so far as the buildings are -concerned. As the elementary schools must be near the -parents’ homes on account of the youth of the scholars, -they must often be in the middle of cities and towns, -but I could wish that the Grammar Schools were -planted in the outskirts and suburbs, near to the fields, -where partly by enclosing some private ground for -regular exercises both in the open and under cover, and -partly by utilising the open fields for rambles of wider -range, there might be little or no feeling of restriction -in the matter of space. There should be a good airy -schoolroom above for the languages, and another below -for others studies and for continuing and completing -the elementary training, which will not be well enough<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> -kept up if it is left to private practice at home. There -must also be suitable accommodation for the master and -his family, even if they be pretty numerous, and there -should be a convenient play-ground adjoining the school, -walled round and having at least a quarter of the space -covered over like a cloister, for the children’s exercise -in rainy weather. All this will require no mean purse, -but surely there is wealth enough in private possession, -if there were will enough to endow public education. -Yet we have no great cause to complain in regard to -the number of schools and founders, for already during -the time of Her Majesty’s most fortunate reign there -have been more schools erected than existed before her -time in the whole kingdom. I would rather have fewer -and have them better appointed for the master’s accommodation -and for general convenience. A small amount -of help will make most of our rooms serve, and enable -our teachers to give instruction and carry on the exercises -under satisfactory conditions. The places for -study and for exercise ought to adjoin each other, and -be capable of holding considerable numbers, to be -determined by the needs of the surrounding district. -The schools that I know are mostly well placed already, -or if they are in the heart of towns, they could be easily -exchanged for some country situation, far from disturbances -yet near enough to all necessary conveniences. -It would be a very useful part of a great and good -foundation if it provided for the removal of rooms to -more suitable places, either by exchange or by new -purchase, and I think licence would more readily be -granted for this purpose than to build new schools. I -am all the more impelled to recommend a country -situation on account of the inconveniences that I have -myself experienced, both in regard to my own health<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> -and that of my scholars, and the lack of facilities for -the exercises on which I lay so much store. Yet I am -by no means the worst off in this respect, owing to the -zeal and generosity shown in the provision made by the -Worshipful Company of Merchant Taylors in London, -in whose school I have now served for twenty years, the -first and only headmaster since its foundation. If ye -consider what is to be done in these rooms which I -desire, ye shall better judge what rooms will serve. -Two rooms will be sufficient for the language study -and the continuation of the elementary course, an upper -room with proper arrangements for ventilation and the -prevention of too much noise, and another similarly -fitted up underneath to serve for what else is to be -done. I could wish that we had fewer schools and -that they were more efficient; it would be well if on -careful consideration of the most convenient centres -throughout the country, many of the existing schools -could be put together to make a few good ones. To -conclude this matter, I wish the rooms to be commodious, -for though such studies as reading require small -elbow-room, writing and drawing must not be straitened, -nor music either, and physical exercises especially must -have ample scope. And such rooms, if the numbers -are not too large, if the distance is not too great for the -young children, will with some distinction and separation -of places serve conveniently both for the elementary -school and the grammar school, which is so much -the better.</p> - - -<h3>Best Hours for Study.</h3> - -<p>I think it is not good to begin study immediately -after rising, or just after meals, or to continue right up -to the time of going to bed. From 7 to 10 in the forenoon,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> -and from 2 till almost 5 in the afternoon are the -most fitting hours, and quite enough for children to -be learning. The morning hours will serve best for -memory work and what requires mental effort; the -afternoon for going over again the material that has -been already acquired. The other times before meals -are for exercise. The hours after meals and before -study is resumed, are to be given to resting the body -and refreshing the mind, without too much movement. -To conclude, we must make the best of those places -and hours that are at present appointed, and yet be -prepared to adopt better arrangements, as soon as it -shall please God to send them. And by persuasion -some teachers may be able to bring wise parents to try -changes in the direction I have pointed out. In the -meantime some excellent man, having the advantage of -a well-situated house, and being independent of outside -help and able to control his own arrangements, may be -prepared to make useful experiments.</p> - - -<h3>Elementary Teacher most Important.</h3> - -<p>The Elementary school is left to the lowest and the -worst class of teacher, because good scholars will not -abase themselves to it. The first grounding should be -undertaken by the best teacher, and his reward should -be the greatest, because his work demands most energy -and most judgment, and competent men could easily be -induced to enter these lower ranks if they found that -sufficient reward were offered. It is natural enough for -ignorant people to make little of the early training, -when they see how little consideration is paid to it, but -men of judgment know how important the foundation -is, not only as regards the matter that is taught, but the -manner of handling the child’s intelligence, which is of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> -great moment. But to say something concerning the -teacher’s reward, which is the encouragement to good -teaching, what is the sense in increasing the salary as -the child grows in learning? Is it to cause the master -to take greater pains, and bring his pupil better forward -in view of the promise of what is to come? Nay, -surely that cannot be. Present payment would be a -greater inducement to bring pupils forward than the -hope in promise, for in view of the variety and inconstancy -of parents’ minds, what assurance is there that -the child will continue with the same master? That -he who took great pains for little gain should receive -more for less trouble? Besides, if the reward were -good he would hasten to gain more through the supply -of new scholars, who would be attracted by the report -of his diligent and successful work. As things are, the -master who gets the pupils later reaps the benefit of the -elementary teacher’s labour, because the child makes -more show with him. Why should this be so? It -is the foundation well and soundly laid that makes all -the upper building secure and lasting. I can only give -counsel, but if the decision lay with me the first pains -well taken should in truth be most liberally recompensed, -and the emolument should diminish, as less -pains are needed in going up through the school course. -By this method no master would have reason to -complain that the pupils who come to him have not -been sufficiently grounded in the elementary subjects, -which is a constant source of trouble at present both to -teachers and scholars. Indeed too often we Grammar -School masters can hardly make any progress, can -scarcely even tell how to place the raw boys in any -particular form with any hope of steady advance, so -rotten is the groundwork of their preparation. If the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> -higher master has to repair this weakness, after the boy -comes under his charge, he certainly deserves triple -salary, both for his own making and for mending what -the elementary teacher either marred through ignorance, -or failed to make through undue haste, which, in my -opinion, is the commonest and worst kind of marring. -As for the salaries of the masters that succeed the -elementary, I hold that the increasing numbers that -they can undertake will make up for the larger amount -to be given to the elementary teacher, however much -that may be. For the first master can deal only with -a few, the next with more, and so on, ascending as the -scholars grow in reason and discretion. To deal with -the unequal advancement of children, it were good that -they were promoted in numbers together, and that they -were admitted into the schools only at four periods in -the year, so that they might be properly classified, and -not hurled hand over head into one form without -discrimination, as is now too often the case. There -should be a definite plan of promotion agreed upon -among the teachers, so that one can say, “This child -I have taught, and such and such can he do,” and the -other knoweth what the child should have been taught, -and what he may be supposed to know. The elementary -teacher, then, should be competent for his task, and -when he is, he should be sufficiently well provided for -by the parents. Adequate reward would make very -able men incline to take it up, and though the supply -may as yet be insufficient, enough could soon be trained -if inducement were offered.</p> - - -<h3>The Grammar School Teacher.</h3> - -<p>My chief concern must be with the master of the -Grammar School, who cannot be too carefully selected,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> -for he has to deal with those years which determine the -success of all the future course, as during this period -both body and mind are most restless and most in need -of regulation. He has to complete the learning gained -in the elementary studies, and he offers hope or despair -of perfection to the University tutor in the case of their -proceeding further.</p> - -<p>For this class of teacher also I must ask for sufficient -maintenance in consideration of their competence and -faithful work. For it is a great discouragement to -an able man to take diligent pains when he finds his -whole day’s work insufficient to furnish him with the -necessary provision. Experience hath taught me that -where the master’s salary is made to rise and fall with -the numbers of his pupils, he will exert himself most, -and the children will profit most, provided he have -no more than he can manage himself without hazarding -his own credit and the pupils’ welfare by trusting to -independent assistants. The proper use of assistants -is not as we now see it in schools, where ushers are -their own masters, but to help the headmaster in the -easier part of his duties. If the master’s salary is fixed -by agreement at a definite sum, then he should not be -given too large numbers to deal with, nor should he be -obliged to eke out his income in other ways outside his -profession. It is unreasonable to demand a man’s -whole time, and yet make such scant payment that he -has to look elsewhere, outside the school, to add to it. -Among many causes that make our schools inefficient, -I know none so serious as the weakness of the profession -owing to the bareness of the reward. The good that -cometh by schools is infinite; the qualities required in -the teacher are many and great; the charges which his -friends have been at in his bringing up are heavy; yet<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> -he has but little to hope for in the way of preferment. -Our calling creeps low, and has pain for a companion, -always thrust to the wall, though always formally -admitted to be worthy. Our comfort must be in the -general conclusion that those are good things which want -no praising, though they go a-cold for lack of cherishing.</p> - -<p>But ye will perhaps say—what shall this man be -able to perform whom you are so anxious to have -suitably maintained, and to whose charge the youth of -our country is to be committed? Surely that charge -is great, and if he is to discharge it well, he must be -well qualified for it, and ought to be very well requited -for doing it so well. Besides his manner and behaviour, -which must be beyond cavil, and his skill in exercising -the body, he must be able to teach the three learned -tongues, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, if these are required. -And in these a mediocrity of knowledge is -not enough, for he who means to plant even a little -well, must himself far exceed mediocrity. He must be -able to understand his author, to correct misprints, the -mistakes of unskilful dictionaries, and the foolish comments -of superficial writers on the matter he is teaching, -and he must be so well furnished before he begins to -teach that he can express himself readily, and not have -to be learning as he goes along, distracting his scholars -by his hesitations. Time and experience will do much -to polish the manner of teaching, but there must be -knowledge of the matter from the first. He must be -acquainted with all the best grammars, so that he can -always add notes by the way, though not of course to -the burdening of the children’s memory. Besides these -and other points of learning, he must have determination -to take pains, perseverance to continue in his work -without shrinking, discretion to judge of circumstances,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> -cheerfulness to delight in the success of his labour, -sympathy to encourage a promising youth, hopefulness -to think every child an Alexander, and courteous lowliness -in his opinion of himself. For even the smallest -thing in learning will be well done only by him who -knows most, and by reason of his store of knowledge -is able to perform his task with pleasure and ease. -These qualities deserve much, and are not often found -in our schools, because the rewards of labour are so insufficient, -but they would soon be had if the maintenance -were adequate.</p> - - -<h3>The Training of Teachers.</h3> - -<p>If the rewards of the teaching profession were sufficient -to attract good students, the way to make them -well fitted to deserve these rewards would be to arrange -for their being trained at the Universities. I touch -upon this matter with some hesitation, for it would -involve some changes that might not be easily compassed, -but if the very name of change is to be avoided, -no improvements could ever take place, and though my -proposals may raise objections at first, I believe that -the more they are considered the more they will commend -themselves, as well to the University authorities -as to all others concerned. By the means I am about -to suggest, not only schoolmasters, but all other members -of the learned professions, would be better fitted -on leaving the University to perform what is expected -of them in the service of the commonwealth. I would -have it understood that I have no great fault to find -with the present constitution of the Universities, but -granting that things are well done there already, there -is no discourtesy in wishing that they might be managed -a good deal better.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>University Reform.</h3> - -<p>My idea rests on four points;</p> - -<div class="blockquot pad2"> - -<p>1st. What if the Colleges were divided into faculties -according to the professions for which -they prepare?</p> - -<p>2nd. What if students of similar age, who were -studying for the same profession, were all -bestowed in one house?</p> - -<p>3d. What if the College livings were made more -valuable by combination, and the Colleges -strengthened by being lessened in number?</p> - -<p>4th. What if in every house there were valuable -fellowships for learned scholars who would -remain their whole lives in the position?</p></div> - -<p>Would not the country benefit by these measures? -And hath not the State authority to carry them out, -seeing that it hath already given its sanction to the -making of foundations, with a reservation of the right -to alter them if sufficient cause should be shown? Is -it not as admissible to discuss the improvement of the -Universities by planting sound learning, as to decide -upon taking away lands from colleges, and boarding -out the students, because they cannot agree among -themselves about the use of the endowments? Would -there be any better means of giving a new and fairer -aspect to the work of the Universities, and of bringing -them into greater favour with the public? In the first -erection of schools and colleges, private zeal inflamed -good founders; in altering these for the better, the -State, for considerations of public interest, may increase -the advantage, without departing from the intention of -the founders, who would have gladly welcomed any -improvement. It is for each age under the spur of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> -necessity to point out what is best for its own circumstances, -and the State must exercise its wisdom and -policy in bringing this about. I will now take up more -fully the four points I have named, in the hope of -offering reasons that may prove convincing.</p> - - -<h3>A College for Languages.</h3> - -<p>Would it not be convenient and profitable if there -were one college where nothing was professed but -languages, to be thoroughly acquired as a means to -further study within the university, and to public -service outside? That being the professed end, and -nothing else being dealt with there, would not a high -standard of sufficiency be the better reached through -general agreement? And would not daily conference -and continuous application in the same subject be likely -to secure efficiency? As it is now, when everyone deals -confessedly with everything, no one can say with certainty, -“Thus much can such a one do in this particular -thing,” but he either speaks by conjecture that may -often deceive even the speaker, or else out of courtesy -which as often beguiles those who hear and believe. -For where all exercises, conferences, and conversations, -both public and private, are on the same subject, because -the soil bringeth forth no other stuff, there must -needs follow great perfection. When the tongues are -thus separated from other learning, it will soon appear -what a difference there is between him who can only -speak and him who can do more. No subject can be -more necessary than languages in university training. -For the tongues being the receptacles of matter, without -a perfect understanding of them what hope is there -of understanding matter? And seeing words are the -names of things, applied and given according to their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> -properties, how can things be properly understood by -us, who make use of words to know them by, unless -the force of speech is thoroughly understood? I do -see in writers and hear in speakers great defects in the -mistaking of meanings, and evident errors through insufficiency -in the study of language. Such study should -be well advanced by the Grammar School, but it needs -to be brought to greater perfection than it can be there. -And it may be that some, wishing only a general -culture, will be content to rest in this literary faculty, -taking delight in the writings of the poets and historians, -and not passing on to any professional study.</p> - - -<h3>A College for Mathematics.</h3> - -<p>I would have another college devoted to the Mathematical -Sciences, though I shall be opposed by some of -good intelligence, who not knowing the force of these -faculties because they considered them unworthy of -study, as not leading to preferment, are accustomed to -mock at mathematical heads. Such studies require -concentration, and demand a type of mind that does -not seek to make public display until after mature -contemplation in solitude. It is this silent meditation -on the part of the true students, or the appearance of -it in those that are but counterfeits, that layeth them -open to the mockery of some, who should rather forbear -if they will remember in what high esteem those -sciences were held by Socrates, and by Plato, who -forbad anyone to enter his Academy that was ignorant -of Geometry. For the men who profess these sciences -and bring them into disrepute are either quite ignorant -and maintain their credit by the use of certain terms -and technical expressions without ever getting at the -kernel, or they are such as having some knowledge<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> -occupy themselves with the trivial and sophistical and -illusive parts of the subject, rather than with its true -uses in the advancement of the arts. But in spite of -the contempt which is thus often brought on the Mathematical -Sciences, I will venture to give my opinion in -defence of their value. In time all learning may be -brought into one tongue, and that naturally understood -by all, so that schooling for tongues may prove needless, -just as once they were not needed; but it can never fall -out that arts and sciences in their essential nature shall -be anything but most necessary for every commonwealth -that is not utterly barbarous. We attribute too -much to tongues, in paying more heed to them than -we do to matter, and esteem it more honourable to -speak finely than to reason wisely. After all, words are -praised only for the time, but wisdom wins in the end.</p> - -<p>The Mathematical Sciences show themselves in many -professions and trades which do not bear the titles of -learning, whereby it is well seen that they are really -profitable; they do not make much outward show, but -our daily life benefits greatly by them. It is no just -objection to ask, “What should merchants, carpenters, -masons, shipmasters, mariners, surveyors, architects, and -other such do with learning? Do they not serve the -country’s needs well enough without it?” Though -they may do well without it, might they not do better -with it? The speaking of Latin is no necessary proof -of deeper learning, but Mathematics are the first rudiments -for young children, and the sure means of -direction for all skilled workmen, who without such -knowledge can only go by rote, but with it might reach -genuine skill. The sciences that we term ‘mathematical’ -from their very nature always achieve something -good, intelligible even to the unlearned, by number,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> -figure, sound, or motion. In the manner of their teaching -also they plant in the mind of the learner a habit -of resisting the influence of bare probabilities, of refusing -to believe in light conjectures, of being moved only by -infallible demonstrations. Mathematics had its place -before the tongues were taught, which though they are -now necessary helps, because we use foreign languages -for the conveyance of knowledge, yet push us one -degree further off from knowledge.</p> - - -<h3>A College for Philosophy.</h3> - -<p>The third college should be devoted to Philosophy -in all its three kinds, each of which forms a preparation -for a particular profession—Natural Philosophy for -Medicine, Political Philosophy for Law, and Moral -Philosophy for Divinity. But in this distribution some -will ask, “Where do Logic and Rhetoric come in?” -I would ask in reply, “What is the place of Grammar?” -It is the preparative to language. In the same way, -Logic on the side of demonstration takes the part of -Grammar for the Mathematical Sciences and Natural -Philosophy, and in its consideration of probabilities -fills the same place for Moral and Political Philosophy. -Rhetoric helps the writer to attain purity of style without -emotion, and the speaker to use persuasion with an -appeal to the feelings, though sometimes, indeed, the -latter deals only in argument, while the former may wax -hot over his writing. As to the proper order of these -studies, we are accustomed to set young students to -Moral and Political Philosophy first, but we should -rather follow Aristotle in placing Natural Philosophy -next to the Mathematical Sciences, because it is more -intelligible for young heads on account of its deductive -reasoning, whereas Moral and Political Philosophy,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> -being subject to particular circumstances in life, should -be reserved for riper years.</p> - - -<h3>Professional Colleges.</h3> - -<p>The three professions above mentioned—Medicine, -Law, and Divinity—should each be endowed with its -particular College and livings, instead of having its -students scattered. To have the physician thus learned -is not too much to ask, considering that his proficiency -depends on his knowledge, and with him ignorance is -simply butchery. As for Law, if the whole study were -reduced into one body, would our country have any -cause to complain? Would she not rather have great -reason to be very glad? We have now three several -professions in Law, as if we were a three-headed State, -one English and French, another Roman Imperial, and -the third Roman Ecclesiastical, whereas English alone -were simply best. The distraction of temporal, civil, -and canon law is in many ways very injurious to our -country. There can be no question that it is good for -the divine to have time to study the sciences that are -the handmaids to his profession.</p> - - -<h3>General Study for Professional Men.</h3> - -<p>But is it advisable that those wishing to enter the -professions should have to go through all the colleges -that offer a general preparatory training,—the colleges -for Languages, Mathematics, and Philosophy? No one -could doubt this, except such as are ready to think -themselves ripe, while they are still raw in the opinion -of other men. He that will be perfect in his profession -ought at least to have a contemplative knowledge of all -that goes before. It will be for the gain of the community -that while the student’s youth is wedded to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> -honest and learned meditation, the heat of that stirring -age is cooled, which might set all on fire to the public -harm; ripe judgment is gained, and all ambitious -passions are made subject to self-control. Till young -men who are coming forward to the professions are -made to tarry longer and study more soundly, learning -shall have no credit, and our country cannot but suffer. -It may be asked: “What hath a divine to do with -Mathematics?” Well, was not Moses trained in all -the learning of the Egyptians? How can the divine -presume to judge and condemn sciences of which he -knows nothing but the name? And has not the lawyer -to deal with many questions that require a knowledge -of the sciences? The physician more than all should -see that his professional skill is supported by a wide -general study.</p> - - -<h3>A Training College for Teachers.</h3> - -<p>There will be some difficulty in winning a college for -those who will afterwards pass to teach in schools. -There is no specialising for any profession till the -student leaves the College of Philosophy, from which he -will go to Medicine, Law, or Divinity. This is the -time also when the intending schoolmaster should begin -his special training. In him there is as much learning -necessary as, with all deference to their subjects, is -required by any of the other three professions, especially -if it be considered how much the teacher hath to -do in preparing scholars for all other careers. Why -should not these men have this competence in learning, -to be chosen for the common service? Are children -and schools so small an element in our commonwealth? -Is the framing of young minds and the training of their -bodies a matter of so little skill? Are schoolmasters in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> -this realm so few that they need not be taken account -of? Whoever will not allow of this careful provision -for such a seminary of teachers is most unworthy either -to have had a good master himself, or to have a good -one hereafter for his children. Why should not teachers -be well provided for, so that they can continue their -whole life in the school, as divines, lawyers, and -physicians do in their several professions? If this -were the case, judgment, knowledge, and discretion -would grow in them as they get older, whereas now the -school, being used but for a shift, from which they will -afterwards pass to some other profession, though it may -send out competent men to other careers, remains itself -far too bare of talent, considering the importance of the -work. I consider therefore that in our universities -there should be a special college for the training of -teachers, inasmuch as they are the instruments to make -or mar the growing generation of the country, and -because the material of their studies is comparable to -that of the greatest professions, in respect of language, -judgment, skill in teaching, variety of learning, wherein -the forming of the mind and the exercising of the body -require the most careful consideration, to say nothing of -the dignity of character which should be expected from -them.</p> - - -<h3>Use of the Seven Colleges.</h3> - -<p>Surely there is nothing unreasonable in proposing -that these seven colleges should be set up, and should -have the names of the things they profess—Languages, -Mathematics, Philosophy, Education, Medicine, Law, -and Divinity. If it had been so arranged from the -beginning, public opinion would now have commended -the policy and wisdom of those that originated it. And<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> -can we not bring about still what, if it had been done -at first, would have met with such honour, and will -deserve everlasting memory, at whatever time it may be -done? Greater changes have been both desired and -accomplished in our time. All that is needful for doing -it well is ready to our hand: the material is there; the -lands have neither to be begged nor purchased; they -have already been acquired and given, and can easily be -brought into order, especially as this is a time of reform. -As for putting students of similar age and studies into -the same house, it is desirable on many grounds, but -particularly because it encourages emulation among -those who are best fitted to compete with each other.</p> - - -<h3>Uniting of Colleges.</h3> - -<p>In saying that colleges should be combined, so as to -permit the bettering of students’ livings, I shall have -the support at least of those who are now willing to -change their college for a fatter living, or even to abandon -the university altogether for their own advantage. -At present college livings are certainly too lean, and -force good wits to fly before they are well feathered. -A better maintenance would give more time and opportunity -for study, and thus secure a higher standard of -learning, greater ripeness of judgment, and more solidity -of character. Students would be made more independent, -and would not have to come under obligations by -accepting support from other quarters. The restriction -in the number of livings would be no objection, as it -would shut out those less qualified to profit by them, -and thus raise the level of attainment. It were better -for the country to have a few well trained and sufficiently -provided for, than an unlearned multitude. -Moreover, it is not consonant with the liberal nature<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> -of learning either that it should be unnecessarily -dependent on charity, or that it should in this way -come under the control of those who may act -rather from personal considerations than regard to -the common welfare. Where learning grows up by -props it loses its true character; it is best when -the stem can itself bear up the branches. The outward -conditions for the furtherance of learning are -the selection of scholars on grounds of ability and -promise, and sufficient time and maintenance for their -due preparation; the qualities required for the student -himself are diligence and discretion to profit fully by -his opportunities.</p> - - -<h3>University Readers.</h3> - -<p>The last reform which I am ready to contend for is -that there should be University readers appointed, of -mature years, accredited learning and secure position, -who should direct and control the studies of the -students. Private study alone can never be compared -with the opportunity of working under one who has -read and digested all the best books in the subject, -whose judgment has been formed by his wide reading, -and whose experience and intercourse with many intellects -has given him skill and address. The student -who has not this advantage will gain less with greater -pains, since he could in one lecture have the benefit of -his reader’s universal study, put in such a form that he -can use it at once. Such readers would save their cost -in books alone, which would not then be so needful to -the student. They could be appointed with little or -no cost to the universities, and if they carried on -their work in convenient houses of their own, they -would undoubtedly draw as many students to their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> -private establishments as there are now in the public -colleges.</p> - - -<h3>Evils of Overpressure.</h3> - -<p>Hasty pressing onward is the greatest enemy that -anything can have, whose best is to ripen at leisure. I -have appointed in my elementary teaching—Reading, -Writing, Drawing, Singing, Playing. Now if these are -imperfectly acquired when the child is sent to the -Grammar School, what an error is committed! How -many small infants have we sent to Grammar who can -scarcely read, and how many to learn Latin who never -wrote a letter! Even though some youngster could do -much better than all his companions, it were no harm -for him to be captain a good while in his elementary -school, rather than to be a common soldier in a school -where all are captains. Many and serious are the evils -that are caused by such hasting, and if deploring them -could amend them, I would lament that they are so -numerous and so hard to remedy. How common is the -lack of proper grounding in children, and how great is -the foolishness of their friends in regard to it! This is -the chief cause that at once makes children loth to learn, -and schoolmasters seem harsh in their teaching. For as -the master hastens on to the natural aim of his profession, -and the scholar draws back, being unable to bear -the burden, there rises in the master an irritation which -can only be controlled by the wisdom and patience that -are the fruits of experience. And as in the teacher irritation -breeds heat, so in the scholar weakness breeds -fear, and so much the more if he finds his master somewhat -too impatient, wherefore neither the one nor the -other can do much good at all. Whereas if the boy had -nothing to fear, how eager he would be, and what a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> -pleasure the teacher would take in his aptness to learn! -But even if the child’s weakness is felt both by himself -and by his teacher, it is difficult to get the parent to -believe in it, owing to the blindness of his affection, and -he will prefer to seek out some other teacher who will -adopt his views, and undertake the task. Thus change -feeds his humour for the time, though he will afterwards -repent his folly, when the defect proves incurable, and -the first master is at last admitted to have been a true -prophet. So necessary a thing is it to prevent ills in -time, and when warning is given not to laugh it to scorn -nor blame the watchman.</p> - -<p>If the imperfections which come more from haste -than from ignorance did not go beyond the elementary -school, the harm done might be redressed, but as one -billow driveth on another, so haste, beginning there, -makes the other successions in learning move on at too -headlong a pace. Is it only to the Grammar School -that children are sent too early? Are there none sent -to the University who, when they come out of it years -afterwards, might with advantage return to the Grammar -School again? Do not some of good intelligence find -in the course of their study the evil effects of too great -haste at the beginning, and wish too late that they had -been better advised? And even if they make up what -they have missed, do they not find it true that a process -which may be pleasant enough to young boys is full of -pain for older people? The Universities can best judge -of the weaknesses of our Grammar Schools when they -find the defects of those youths whom they receive from -us, though they were not sent by us. We see these -defects ourselves, but we cannot remedy them, for the -partiality of parents over-rules all reason, and when the -pupil is removed all conference with the teacher is cut<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> -off. In some places the multitude of schools mars the -whole market, giving too great opportunity for change, -generally for the worse, so that by degrees the elementary -scholar enfeebles the Grammar School boy, and he -in turn transporteth his weakness from his schoolmaster -to his university tutor. So important is it to avoid haste -at the first, lest it cause injury to the last.</p> - -<p>Are not youths often sent into the world, who may -receive consideration on account of their degrees, but -deserve none for their learning? If men did not judge -sensibly that young shoots must be green, however good -an appearance they may make, youth might deceive -them with its titles, as it deceives itself with conceit. -The causes of haste are—impatience, which can abide -no tarrying when a restless conceit is overladen; the -desire of liberty, to live as he pleases, because he pleases -not to live as he should; arrogance, making him wish -to appear a person of importance; hope of preferment, -urging him to desire dignities before the ability -to support them. In the meanwhile the common welfare -is sacrificed to personal advantage, and even that -advantage is in appearance and not in reality. The -canker that consumeth all, and causeth all this evil, is -haste, an ill-advised, rash, and headstrong counsellor, -that is most pernicious when there is either some -appearance of ripeness in the child, or some unwise -encouragement from a teacher who is without true discernment. -It is time that perfecteth all; it is the mother -of truth, the touchstone of ripeness, the enemy of error, -the true support and help of man.</p> - - -<h3>Limit of Elementary Course.</h3> - -<p>When the child can read so readily and confidently -that the length of his lesson gives him no trouble; when<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> -he can write so neatly and so fast that he finds no kind -of exercise tedious; when his pen or pencil gives him -only pleasure; when his music, both vocal and instrumental, -is so far forward that a little voluntary practice -may keep it up and even improve it; then the elementary -course has lasted long enough. The child’s ordinary -exercises in the Grammar School will continue his -reading and writing and he will always be drawing of -his own accord, because it delighteth his eye, and -busieth not his brain. His music, however, must be -encouraged by the pleasure taken in it by the teacher -and his parents, for in those early years children are -musical rather for others’ benefit than for their own. It -is certain that in tarrying long enough to bring all -these things to perfection there is no real loss of time, -especially seeing that these attainments, even if they go -no further, make a pretty adornment to a household if -they be thoroughly acquired.</p> - - -<h3>Difficulties in Teaching.</h3> - -<p>A great and learned man of our day, Philip Melancthon, -thought so much of the troublesome and toilsome -life which we teachers lead that he wrote an interesting -book on the miseries of schoolmasters. We have to -thank him for his good-will; but as there is no kind of -life, be it high or low, that has not its own share of -troubles, we need not be overwhelmed by a sense of -our special difficulties. Our profession is certainly more -arduous than most; but, on the other hand, not many -have such opportunities of doing good service. There -is little profit, however, in such comparisons. To what -purpose should I show why the teacher blames one -thing, the parent another, the child nothing but the rod -which he is so prone to deserve? So apt are we to repine<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> -at the pain we suffer, without weighing the offence -which deserved it. I will rather proceed to deal with -the remedies for what he calls “miseries,” but I would -prefer to term <em>inconveniences</em>, with which the teaching -profession has to contend in our own time. The -counsel I offer, though referring specially to the -youngest scholars, may well be carried further and -applied to the oldest and most advanced in any course -of learning. The remedies I take to be two—uniformity -of method, which would secure economy both -of time and expense, and the establishment of public -school regulations, made clearly known to all concerned, -which would prevent misunderstandings between teachers -and parents or scholars.</p> - - -<h3>Uniformity of Method.</h3> - -<p>No one who has either taught, or has been taught -himself, can fail to recognise that there is too much -variety in teaching, and therefore too much bad -teaching, for in the midst of many by-paths there is but -one right way. This is proved by the differences of -opinion that men show, due to better or worse training -in youth, to greater or less application to study, to -longer or shorter continuance at their books, to their -liking or disliking some particular kind of learning, and -many other similar causes, which may lead ignorance to -vaunt itself with all the authority that belongs to sound -knowledge. The diversity of groundwork which lies at -the root of so much confusion of judgment is a great -hindrance to youth and a discredit to schools, and -causes serious inequalities in the universities. It may -happen that a weak teacher by some accident brings up -a strong scholar, and that an abler man owing to some -ordinary hindrance makes little show for his labour.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> -But if variety had given place to uniformity, even the -weakest teacher might have done very well, if he had -the intelligence to follow the directions put before him.</p> - -<p>This defect has often been deplored by our best -teachers, who have nevertheless shrunk from the task of -supplying the remedy. If a uniform system could be -agreed upon, all the youth of this whole realm will -seem to have been brought up in one school, and under -one master, both in regard to the matter and to the -manner of their teaching, while differing in their own -invention, which is individual by nature, though it may -be trained by general rules of art. Such a measure -must needs bring profit to the learner by saving him -from the chances of going astray, ease to the teacher -by lightening his labour, honour to the country by -providing a store of good material, and immortal -renown to the enlightened sovereign who should confer -so great a benefit. Though agreement in a uniform -method must be enforced by authority, it must be based -on some likeness of ability in teachers in regard to -their own specialty, though they may differ much in -the manner of applying it and in other qualities. Now -the only way to procure this equal standard of efficiency, -where natural differences are so great, is to lay -down in some definite scheme what seems best, both as -to what and as to how to teach, with all the particular -circumstances that may apply to the best-ordered -schools not beyond the reach of the indifferent teacher, -yet such as to satisfy the more skilful. Thus diligence -on the part of the less able may even effect more than -the greater learning of the other, who may become -negligent or insolent from over-confidence. If I am -not mistaken, there are good reasons for holding that it -is better for the commonwealth to provide some direction<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> -for the ordinary teacher who will continue in his -profession the greater part of his life and have many -chances of doing good, than to leave it at random to -the liberty of the more learned, who commonly make -use of teaching only to shift with for a time, and are -but pilgrims in the profession, always thinking of -removing to some easier or more profitable kind of life. -Scholars cannot profit much when their teachers act -like strangers, who, intending some day to return to -their own country, cannot have that zealous care which -the native showeth, and though conscience may sometimes -cause an honest man to work well and do his -duty in this temporary position, such cases can be only -exceptional, and general provision must be for the -leading of the weaker, who will always need it.</p> - -<p>If when this scheme for settling the matter and the -manner of teaching is set down, those who have to -carry it out prove negligent, and delay or even defeat -the good effects, by their ill-advised handling of what -was well meant, the overseers and patrons of schools -must bring pressure to bear on such teachers, of their -own motion if they can, and if they cannot, then by the -assistance of learned men who are competent to act, -and who out of courtesy will help to further the end in -view. Our precepts are general; the application must -be made according to the circumstances of particular -cases. I have only roughly indicated the purpose of -uniformity in teaching, and the disjointing of skill by -misordered variety, yet who is so blind as not to discern -that the one removes the evils caused by the other, -and thereby relieves the schools of many hindrances? -Rapid progress in learning would at once follow, -through the choice of the best and fittest authors from -the first, the use of exercises adapted to the advancement<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> -of the child, and the teacher’s orderly procedure -in general. By this means the scholar would not learn -anything he ought to forget, or leave anything needful -unlearned, through the ill-advised counsel of his teacher, -and the teacher on his part would be saved from hurrying -on too fast, or dwelling too long on one thing. -The best course being hit upon at the first, as may be -generally appointed, one thing helpeth another forward -naturally, without forcing; what is first taught maketh -way for what must follow next, and continual use will -let nothing be forgotten which is once well got, and the -gradual advance in learning will succeed in proportion, -without loss of time or unnecessary labour either -through lingering too long or hurrying on too fast. -This result cannot possibly be brought about at present, -while things are left to the discretion of teachers, of -whom the most are not specially enlightened, and even -the very best cannot always hit upon the most fruitful -methods, and while the customary education is held as -a sanction, alteration even for the better considered a -heresy, and approval determined by personal prejudice. -I do not touch upon any hindrances that cannot easily -be removed, if the matter be taken in hand by authority; -difficulties that belong to special circumstances -must be dealt with at another time.</p> - -<p>The lack of uniformity is clearly shown when children -change both schools and teachers; either the new -master thinks it some discredit to himself to begin -where the old one left off, or disapproves of the choice -that the previous teacher had made, or seeks to exalt -himself by finding fault with the other, or else the -arrangement of his school does not admit of a regular -progression, every school having a plan of its own. -Sometimes the boy not being properly grounded, either<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> -through the ignorance of his teachers or his own negligence, -cannot easily be influenced for the better, or led -to give up his own conceit of himself, and this generally -happens when the parents are unreasonable and think -their child disgraced if he is “put back,” as the phrase -is, whereas in reality he is bid only to <em>look</em> back, to see -that which he never saw and ought to have seen very -thoroughly. This cause of disorder, proceeding from -the parents, affecteth us all, causing great weakness and -much failure of classification in the forms of our schools, -whereas if there were a uniform order fixed by authority, -however often the child may change, his advancement -is easily tested, and the parents will have no -pretext for discontent, when they see that the matter is -fixed by public provision, and that there is no room -for private partiality. At present the only thing that -is uniform in our schools is the common grammar set -forth by authority, the use of which confirms the opinion -I have expressed, as regards both the policy of adopting -it from the beginning, and the advantage of having -something definitely decided to which we are all bound -to agree. Whether the book now in use may be -retained with some amendment, or should give place to -one with a better method, is a matter for consideration, -for all such books, serving for direction, must be -fashioned to the matter which they seem to direct by -rule and precept, existing as they do, not for their own -sake, but as a means to an end. The experience of -having a common grammar proves the value of uniformity, -but it remains a matter of controversy whether it -is itself the best possible grammar.</p> - -<p>The second advantage of uniformity is the saving of -expense. While it is left to the teacher’s liberty to -make his own choice, both as to what book he shall use<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> -and what method he shall adopt, what with the variety -of judgment and inequality of learning in teachers, -which may be unified by authority, but will never be -by consent, the parents’ purses are heavily taxed and -poor men are sorely pinched. This is brought about -both by the change of books, the master often reversing -his former choice, and also by their number, every book -being commended to the buyer which either maketh a -fair show to be profitable, or is otherwise solicited to -the sale owing to the need for disposing of an over-supply. -Whatever is needful to be used in schools -may be very well comprised in a small compass; one -small volume may be compounded of the marrow -of many, and the change need not be great. Nor yet -hereby is any injury done to good writers, whose books -may very well tarry for the ripeness of the reader, and -the place that is due to them in the ordinary ascent -of learning and study, according to their value and -degree, so that they may win praise for their authors -from those who are able to judge, and may bring -profit to the student when he is able to understand and -remember them.</p> - - -<h3>Choice of School Books.</h3> - -<p>In our Grammar Schools we profess to teach the -tongues, or rather to make a beginning with teaching -them. Every subject that is treated in any tongue -supplies the student with the terms that belong to it, -which are most easily got up in connection with the -matter. If, then, the scholar of the Grammar School be -taught to write, speak, and understand readily in some -well-chosen subject, the school has performed its duty in -doing even so much, though the boy may not know all, -or even most, of the words in the language, which is a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> -matter for further study. Those that assign their tasks -to Grammar School teachers recommend historians and -poets, though they make some distinction of writers -according to the tendency of their matter and the purity -of their style. But what time is there in our schools to -run over all these, or even to deal with a few of -them thoroughly? Would it not be more creditable to -our profession, and more convenient for the parents, -to have a selection carefully made and printed by -itself? And should not the most important books be -left over to be taken in connection with the particular -callings to which they refer? Let those who are gifted -with imagination make a special study of the poets, and -those who take most interest in the records of memorable -deeds devote themselves to history. If men of greater -learning have leisure and desire to read, they may use -histories for pleasure as an after-dinner study, neither -trying the brain nor proving tedious, since they cannot -generally be accepted as a basis of judgment, because -ignorance of the circumstances causes a difficulty in -applying conclusions. They may also run through the -poets when they are disposed to laugh, and to behold -what bravery enthusiasm inspireth. For when poets -write soberly and plainly, without attempting any -illusion, they can scarcely be called poets, though they -write in verse, but only when they cover a truth with a -veil of fancy, and transfigure the reality. We should -therefore cull out some of the best and most suitable -for our introductory course, and leave all the rest for -special students, and that not in the poets and histories -alone, but also in all other books that are now admitted -into our schools. Some very excellent passages, most -eloquently and forcibly penned for the polishing of -good manners and inducement to virtue, may be picked<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> -out of some of the poets, and from none more than -Horace. But heed must be taken that we do not -plant any poetic <em>fury</em> in the child’s disposition. For -that impetuous imagination, where it already exists, is -in itself too wayward, though it be not helped forward, -and where it is not present it should in no case be -forced. As for other writers, regard must be paid to -the number and choice of their words, the smoothness -and propriety of their composition, and the solid worth -of their matter. Quintilian’s rule is the best, and should -always be observed in choosing writers for children -to learn, to pick out such as will feed the intelligence -with the best material, and refine the tongue with the -most polished style, so that we avoid alike trivial and -unsuitable matter, however eloquently set forth, and -what is rudely expressed, however weighty and wise it -may be, reserving only those passages where the good -tendency and intelligibility of the subject are clothed -and honoured with refined and fitting language.</p> - -<p>I intend myself, by the grace of God, to bestow some -pains on this task, if I see any hope of my labour being -encouraged. If any one else will take the matter up -I am ready to stand aside and rejoice in his success; if -none other will, then I trust my country will bear with -me when I offer my dutiful service in so necessary a -case. If any one of higher position should be inclined -to resent my action, I must appeal to the public -judgment, yet if such a one does not step forth and -prove his own skill, he cannot complain if another -speaks while he is silent. I crave the gentle and friendly -construction of such as be learned, or love learning, and -if I should have the misfortune to dissatisfy any in my -work, I will do my best to improve it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>School Regulations.</h3> - -<p>The second remedy for the difficulties of teachers is -to set forth the school regulations in a public place, -where they may be easily seen and read, and to leave as -little as possible uncertain which the parent ought to -know, and out of which dissatisfaction may arise. For -if at the first entry the parent agree to those arrangements -which he sees set forth, so that he cannot -afterwards plead either ignorance or disapproval, he -cannot take offence if his child be forced to keep them -in the form to which he consented. Yet when all is -done there may be doubt about the interpretation of the -rules. Wherefore the manner of teaching, the method -of promotion, the times of admission, the division of -numbers, the text-books, and all those matters into -which uniformity can be introduced, being already -known to be fixed by authority, as I trust they will be, -or at least the arrangements being set down which the -schoolmaster on his own judgment intends to keep, -it will further remove the chance of contention between -the teacher and the parents if it be also stated what are -the regular hours of work, exceptions being made in -special cases, and what will be the intervals for play, -which indeed is very necessary, and not as yet -sufficiently taken into account.</p> - - -<h3>Punishments.</h3> - -<p>But the teacher must above all make clear what -punishments he will use, and how much, for every kind -of fault that shall seem punishable by the rod. For the -rod can no more be spared in schools than the sword -in the hand of the Prince. By the rod I mean some -form of correction, to inspire fear. If that instrument -be thought too severe for boys, which was not devised<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> -by our time, but received from antiquity, I will not -strive with any man in its defence, if he will leave us -some means for compelling obedience where numbers -have to be taught together. Even in private upbringing, -if the birch is wholly banished from the home, -parents cannot have their will, whatever they may say. -And if in men serious faults deserve and receive severe -punishment, surely children cannot escape punishments -which bring proportional unhappiness. And if parents -were as careful to enquire into the reasons why their -child has been beaten as they are ready to be unreasonably -aggrieved, they might gain a great deal more for -the child’s advantage, and the child himself would lose -nothing by the parent’s assurance. But commonly in -such cases rashness has its recompense, the error being -seen when the mischief is incurable, and repentance is -useless. Beating, however, must only be for ill-behaviour, -not for failure in learning, and it were more -than foolish to hide all faults and offences under the -name of “not learning.” What would that child be -without beating, who even with it can hardly be -reclaimed, whose capacity is sufficient, the only hindrance -lying in his evil disposition? The aim of our schools -is learning; if it fails through negligence, punish the -negligence, if by any other wilful fault, punish that -fault. Let the teacher make it clear what the punishment -is for, and leave as little as possible to the report -of the child, who will always make the best of his own -case, and will be sooner believed than even the best -master, especially if his mother be his counsellor, or if -his father be inconstant and without judgment.</p> - -<p>The schoolmaster must therefore have a list made -out of school faults, beginning with moral offences, such -as swearing, disobedience, lying, stealing, and bearing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> -false witness, and including also minor breaches of -discipline, such as truancy and unpunctuality. To -each of these should be apportioned a certain number -of stripes, not many but unchangeable. The master -should also try to secure that the fault should be confessed, -if possible, without compulsion, and the boy -clearly convicted by the verdict of his schoolfellows. -For otherwise children will dispute the matter -vigorously, relying on credulity and partiality at home. -If any of their companions be appointed monitors—and -such help must be had where the master cannot -always be present himself—and take them napping, -they will allege spite or some private grudge. And if -the master use correction, to support the authority of -his lieutenants, the culprit will complain at home that -he hath been beaten without cause. If the master -postpone punishment, the delay will serve them to -devise some way of escape, in which they can count -upon home support.</p> - -<p>To tell tales out of school, which in olden times was -held to be high treason, is now commonly practised in -an unworthy way. There are so many petty stratagems -and devices that boys will use to save themselves that -the master must be very circumspect, and leave no -appearance of impunity where a penalty is really -deserved. It were indeed some loss of time for learning -to spend any in beating if it did not seem to make -for the improvement of manners and conduct. It is -passing hard to reclaim a boy in whom long impunity -hath grafted a careless security, or rather a sturdy -insolence; and yet friends will urge that the boy should -not be beaten for fear of discouraging him, though they -will have cause to regret this afterwards. It is also not -good after any correction to let children dwell too long<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> -on the pain they have suffered, lest it cause too much -resentment, unless the parents are wise and steadfast; -and indeed that child is happy who has such parents, -and who lights as well on a skilful and discreet master -who acts in harmony with them. “But certainly it is -most true, whatever plausible arguments may be used in -a contrary sense, that the determined master who can use -the rod discreetly, though he may displease some who -think all punishment indiscreet when it falls on their -own children, doth perform his duty best, and will -always bring up the best scholars. No master of any -force of character can do other than well, where the -parents follow the same treatment at home which the -teacher does at school, and if they disapprove of anything, -will rather make a complaint to the master -privately than condole with their child openly, and in so -doing bring about more mischief in one direction than -they can do good in any other. The same faults must -be faults at home which are faults at school, and must -be followed by the same consequences in both places, -so that the child’s good may be considered continuously -as well in correction as in commendation.”</p> - -<p>Those who write most strongly in favour of gentleness -in education reserve a place for the rod, and we -who frankly face the need for severity on occasion, -recommend teachers to use courtesy towards their -pupils whenever it is possible. The difference is that -they seem to make much of courtesy, but are forced by -the position to confess the need for the rod, while we, -though accepting the necessity openly, are yet more -inclined to gentleness than those who make greater professions -in their desire to curry favour. I would rather -hazard the reproach of being a severe master in making -a boy learn what may afterwards be of service to him,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> -even though he be negligent and unwilling at the time, -than that he should lack any advantage when he is -older, because I failed to make him learn, owing to my -vain desire to be considered a courteous teacher. A -schoolmaster, if he be really wise, will either prevent his -pupils from committing faults, or when they are -committed, will turn the matter to the best account, but -in any case he must have full discretion given to him -to use severity or gentleness as he thinks best, without -any appeal. But I do think gentleness and courtesy -towards children more needful than beating. I have -myself had thousands of pupils passing through my -hands whom I never beat, because they needed it not; -but if the rod had not been in sight to assure them of -punishment if they acted amiss, they might have -deserved it. Yet in regard to those who came next to -the best, I found that I would have done better if I had -used more correction and less gentleness, after carelessness -had got head in them. Wherefore, I must needs -say that where numbers have to be dealt with, the rod -ought to rule, and even where there are few, it ought to -be seen, however hard this may sound. But the master -must always have a fatherly affection even for the most -unsatisfactory boy, and must look upon the school as a -place of amendment, where failures are bound to occur.</p> - - -<h3>Condition of Teachers.</h3> - -<p>Where the salary is sufficient, it is well for a schoolmaster -to be married, for affection towards his own -children will give him a more fatherly feeling towards -others, and smallness of salary will make a single man -remove sooner, as he has less to carry with him. An -older teacher should be more fit to govern, being more -constant and free from the levity of youth, and owing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -to the discretion and learning which years should bring -with them.</p> - -<p>When all is done, the poor teacher must be subject -to as much as the sun is, in having to shine upon all, -and see much more than he can amend. His life is -arduous, and therefore he should be pitied; it is clearly -useful, and therefore he should be cherished; it wrestles -with unthankfulness above all measure, and therefore he -should be comforted with all encouragement. One displeased -parent will do more harm in taking offence at -some trifle, than a thousand of the most grateful will -ever do good, though it be never so well deserved. -Such small recompense is given for the greater pains, -the very acquaintance dying out when the child leaves -the school, though with confessed credit and manifest -profit. But what calling is there which has not to -combat with discourtesies? Patience must comfort -when difficulty discourageth, and a resolute mind is a -bulwark to itself.</p> - - -<h3>Consultation about Children.</h3> - -<p>Of all the means devised by policy and reflection to -further the upbringing of children, as regards either -learning or good habits, I see none comparable to these -two—conference among all those who are interested in -seeing children well brought up, and systematic constancy -in carrying out what is so planned by general -agreement, so that there shall be no changes except -where circumstances demand it.</p> - -<p>The conference of those interested in the upbringing -of children may be of four kinds—between parents and -neighbours, between teachers and neighbours, between -parents and teachers, and between teachers and teachers. -Under the term “neighbours” I include all strangers<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> -who are moved either by duty or courtesy to help in -the training of children. Now if parents are willing to -take counsel with such, they may learn by the experience -of others how to deal with their own families. If -neighbours are willing to give advice to parents when -they notice anything amiss in their children, is it not -honourable in them to act so honestly? And does it -not show wisdom in parents to take it in a friendly -spirit? And are not these children fortunate who have -such solicitous helpers among their friends, and such -considerate listeners at home.</p> - -<p>This consultation may be between the neighbour and -the teacher. In this the teacher must act very warily, -for he has to consider what credit he may give to the -informer, how far the scholar is capable of amendment, -and how the parents will look at the matter. When -the parent is dealing with his own child, either from his -own knowledge or from accepted report, his judgment -is life or death, without appeal, but when the teacher -takes this office on him many objections may be made. -‘Why did you believe? Why did he meddle? Why -did you act in this way?’ But if such consultation be -wisely handled by all concerned, it will be a great -advantage to the child to be made to feel that, wherever -he is and whatever he does, if anyone sees him, his -parent or his master, or both together, will also see him -through the eyes of others.</p> - -<p>As for consultation between parents and teachers, I -have already said much on this head, but it is such an -important matter that I can never say too much about -it, because their friendly and faithful co-operation brings -about perpetual obedience in the child, scorn of evil, -and desire to do well. Nothing hinders this so much -as credulity and partiality in the parents, when they<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> -are unable to withstand their children’s tears and pleading -against some deserved punishment. Though the -parents may at the time gain their point, they will find -in the end that they cannot have their own will as they -would like. Such consultation is of special value when -the child is leaving school to proceed onward to further -learning, and when there is a question of changing -masters owing to some fancied grievance. In the -former case, the parent by seeking the teacher’s advice -can be surer of his ground. In the latter case, it may -prevent loss to the child through misunderstanding. -You are offended with the master, but have you conferred -with him, and explained to him openly the cause -of your dissatisfaction? Have you made quite sure that -the fault is not in your son, or in yourself? If the -master be wise, and if he hath been advisedly chosen, -though he should chance to have erred, he will know -how to make amends; if he be not wise, then the consultation -will help to show him up, and make it certain -how much trust can be put in him. I must needs say -once for all that there is no public or private means -that makes so much for the good upbringing of children -as this conference between parents and teachers.</p> - -<p>The last kind of consultation that I recommend -is that among the members of the teaching profession, -which has a good influence on education generally. -Can any single person, or even a few, however skilful -they may be, see the truth as clearly as a number can, -in common consultation? Even in matters not concerned -with learning such conference is found profitable, -and where it is practised among teachers for the common -good, it may have the advantage of giving forth a -unanimous opinion to the public. In places where -there are a number of schools within a small compass,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> -this kind of conference can be easily secured and is very -desirable.</p> - - -<h3>Systematic Direction.</h3> - -<p>The next condition of good upbringing is the best -offspring of wise conferences, namely, certainty of -direction, indicating what to do and what to learn, how -to do and how to learn, when and where to do that -which refines the behaviour, and to learn that which -advanceth knowledge. For children, being themselves -ignorant, must have system to direct them, and trainers -must not devise something new every day, but should -at once make definitely known what they will require -from the children, and what the children may look for -at their hands. This systematic regularity must be laid -down and maintained in schools for learning, in the -home for behaviour, and in churches for religion, -because these three places are the chief resorts that -children have.</p> - -<p>In schooling it assureth the parents as to what is -promised there, and how far it is likely to be performed, -by informing them of the method and orders -that are set down; it directeth the children as by a -well-trodden path, how to come to where their journey -lieth; it relieveth the master’s mind by putting his -meaning and wishes into writing, and giving the results -of experience in a form that can be followed as by -habit without constant renewal.</p> - -<p>As for regularity at home, I have already urged it, in -wishing that parents would act so in the home that -there may be conformity between their management and -that of the school. By this means neither would -schools have cause to complain of infection from private -corruption, nor would they easily send any misdemeanour<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> -home, since the child would be sure to be sharply -checked by its parents for any ill-doing. There should -be the utmost regularity for children in the home, -deciding for them when to rise and when to go to bed, -when and how to say their morning and evening -prayers, when and how to greet their parents night and -morning, on leaving and on entering the house, at meat -and on other occasions. Obedience to the prince and -to the laws is securely grounded when private houses -are so well ordered; there is little need for preaching -when private training is so carefully carried out.</p> - -<p>Regularity and order are equally needful for children -when they attend the churches on holidays and festivals. -All the young ones of the parish should be placed in a -particular part of the church, where they can be -properly supervised, none being suffered to range -through the streets on any pretence, and all being in -the eye of the parents and parishioners. They must -further be attentive to the divine service and learn -betimes to reverence the rule they will afterwards have -to live by. Regularity brings present pleasure and -much advantage later on, and he that is acquainted -with discipline in his youth will think himself in exile -if he find it not in old age. Whoever perceives and -deplores the present variety in schooling, the disorder in -families, and the dissoluteness in the church, will think -I have not said amiss.</p> - -<p>Yet this systematic regularity is not to be so rigid -that it will not yield to discretion where a change in the -circumstances demands it. As now our teaching -consisteth in tongues, if some other thing at a future -time seems fitter for the State, it must be adopted and -given its proper place. But in making changes it is -well to alter by degrees, and not overturn everything all<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> -at once. Unfortunately human nature is readier to -receive a number of corrupting influences than to take -pains to lessen a single evil by degrees.</p> - -<p>Thus bold have I been with you, my good and -courteous fellow-countrymen, in taking up your time -with a multitude of words, whose force I know not, but -whose purpose hath been to show how, in my opinion, -the present great variety in teaching may be reduced to -some uniformity. I have given free expression to my -opinions, not because I am greatly dissatisfied with -what we have, but because I often wish for what we -have not, as something much better, and the rather to -be wished because it might be so easily attained. I -might have set forth my principles in aphoristic form, -leaving commentary and recommendation to experience -and time, but in the first place I do not deserve so -much credit that my bare word should stand for a -warrant, and in the second place I was unwilling to -alienate by precise brevity those whom I might win -over by argument. Wherefore I have written on all -the various points enough, I think, for any reader who -will be content with reason,—too much, I fear, for so -evident a matter, as I believe these principles cannot be -substantially contradicted. For I have grounded them -upon reading, and some reasonable experience, and -have applied them to the circumstances of this country, -without attempting to enforce any foreign or strange -device. Moreover I have tried to leaven them with -common-sense, in which long teaching hath left me not -entirely deficient. I do not take upon me, dictator-like, -to pronounce peremptorily, but in the way of -counsel to say what I have learned by long teaching, by -reading somewhat, and observing more; and I must -pray my fellow-countrymen so to understand me, for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> -having been urged these many years by some of my -friends to publish something, and never hitherto having -ventured into print, I might seem to have let the reins -of modesty run loose, if at my first attempt I should -seem like a Caesar to offer to make laws. Howbeit, -my years beginning to decline, and certain of my -observations seeming to some folks to crave utterance, I -thought it worth the hazard of gaining some men’s -favour. My wishes perhaps may seem sometimes to be -novelties. Novelties perhaps they are, as all amendments -to the thing that needeth redress must be, but at -least they are not fantastic, having their seat in the -clouds. I am not the only one who has ever wished -for change. If my wish were impossible of fulfilment, -though it seemed desirable, it would deserve to be -denied, but where the thing is both profitable and possible, -why should it not be brought about, if wishing -may procure it? I wish convenient accommodation for -learning and exercise. This does not now exist in -every part of the country,—indeed it scarcely exists -anywhere as yet. I would not have wished it if there -had been any real difficulty in accomplishing it, and it -will not come about before the wish is expressed. -There is no heresy nor harm in my wishes, which are -all for the good and happiness of my country.</p> - - -<h3>The Standard of English Spelling.</h3> - -<p>Because I take upon me to direct those who teach -children to read and write English, and because the -reading must needs be such as writing leads to, therefore -I will thoroughly examine the whole certainty of -our English writing, as far as I am able, because it is a -thing both proper to my subject and profitable to my -country. For our natural tongue being as beneficial to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> -us for our needful expression as any other is to the -people who use it, and having as pretty and fair phrases -in it, and being as ready to yield to any rule of art as -any other, why should I not take some pains to find -out the correct writing of ours, as men have done in -other countries with theirs? And so much the rather -because it is asserted that the writing of it is exceedingly -uncertain, and can scarcely be rescued from extreme -confusion without some extreme measure. I mean, -therefore, to deal with it in such a way that I may wipe -away the opinion that it is either uncertain and confused -or incapable of direction, so that both native -English people may have some secure place to rest in, -and strangers who desire it may have some certain -means of learning the language. For the performance -of this task, and for my own better guidance, I will first -examine the means by which other tongues of most -sacred antiquity have been brought to artistic form and -discipline for their correct writing, to the end that by -following their way I may hit upon their method, and -at the least by their example may devise some means -corresponding to theirs, where the custom of our tongue -and the nature of our speech will not admit of the same -course being exactly followed. That being done, I will -try all the variety of our present writing, and reduce -the uncertain force of all our letters to as much certainty -as any writing can attain.</p> - -<p>I begin at the subject of correct writing, because -reading, which is the first elementary study, must be -directed both in precept and practice according to the -way that the thing which is to be read is written or -printed. And considering that the correct writing of -our tongue is still in question, some, who are too far in -advance, esteeming it quite unfit, some, who are too far<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> -behind, thinking it perfect enough, some, who have the -soundest opinion, judging it to be on the whole well -appointed, though in certain particulars requiring to be -improved, is it not a very necessary labour to fix the -writing, so that the reading may be sure? Now, in -examining the correct method of our writing, I begin -at that which the learned tongues used, to find out -what was right for themselves, when they were in the -same position in which ours now is. For all tongues -keep one and the same rule for their main development, -though each has its special features. In this way I -shall be able to answer all those objections which charge -our writing with either insufficiency or confusion, and -also to examine, as by a sure touchstone, all the other -supplements which have been devised heretofore to help -our writing, by either altering the old characters, or -devising some new, or increasing their number. For if -the other tongues that have been so highly esteemed, -when they were subject to, and charged with, these -same supposed wants with which our writing is now -burdened, delivered themselves by other means than -either altering, or superseding, or increasing their characters, -and made use of their own material, why should -we seek means that are strange and not in keeping -with our language when we have such a pattern to -perfect our writing by so well-warranted a precedent? -That the finest tongue was once quite rude is proved -by the very course of nature, which proceeds from weakness -to strength, from imperfection to perfection, from -a low degree to a high dignity. What means, then, -did those languages use, which have won the opinion of -being correctly written, to come by the method that -produced that opinion? There are two considerations -in regard to speech concerning the way that has been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> -followed in its refining. For if we look into the first -degree of refining, before which no tongue at all had -any beauty in the pen, we have to consider how the -very first language proceeded from her first rudeness to -her fullest perfection. Again, we have to consider how -other secondary languages have improved and purified -themselves by following the same method as that used -by the primitive tongue.</p> - -<p>But I desire to be warranted by them both, that is, -to follow the first refiners and also the second improvers -in this course, which, as far as I know, no man has yet -kept in this subject, though several have written orthographies. -And my opinion is, that it best beseems a -scholar to proceed by art to any recovery from the claws -of ignorance. Therefore, I will examine, even from the -very root, how and by what degrees the very first tongue -seems to have come by her perfection in writing, and -what means were taken to continue that perfection, -ever since the time that any tongue was perfected. -Consideration, however, must always be had to the -special peculiarities of any particular tongue, as these -cannot be comprised under a general precept along -with any other tongue, but must be treated as exceptions -to the common rule. And yet even these particular -features are not omitted in the general method of -the first refining, and thus it is commended to us by -means of translations, which come in the third degree, -and refine after the first, by following the intervening -process. Now, in this long passage from the first condition -of extreme rudeness to the last neatness of -finished skill, I will name three stages, each naturally -succeeding the other, where the reader’s understanding -may alight and go on foot, if it be wearied with riding. -The first stage is while the sound alone bore sway in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> -writing. The second is while consent in use removed -authority from sound alone to the joint rule of reason, -custom, and sound. The third, which is now in progress, -is while reason and custom secure their own joint -government with sound by means of art. For as sound, -like a restrained but not banished Tarquinius, desiring -to be restored to his first sole monarchy, and finding -supporters only in the province of sound, sought to -make a tumult among the writers, ever after that reason -and custom were joined with him in commission. I -will, therefore, first deal with the government in writing -which was under sound, when everything was written -according to the sound, though that stage came to an -end long ago.</p> - -<p>I should begin too far back in seeking out the -ground of correct writing, if I should enquire either -who devised letters first, or who wrote first,—a thing as -uncertain to be known as it would be fruitless if it were -known. For what certainty can there be of so old -a thing, or what profit can arise from knowing one -man’s name, even if one were the founder, which can -scarcely be? For though he be honoured for the fruit -of his invention, yet his authority would do small good, -seeing that the matter in question is to be confirmed -not by the credit of the inventor, who dwells we know -not where, but by the user’s profit, which everyone -feels. And therefore as they who devised the thing -first (for it was the invention of no one man, nor of -any one age), did a marvellously good turn to all their -posterity, so we, as their posterity, must think well of -the inventors, and must judge that pure necessity was -the foundress of letters, and of all writing, as it has -been the only general breeder of all things that better -our life, need and want forcing men’s wits to seek for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> -such helps. For as the tongue conveyed speech no -further than to those that were within hearing, and the -necessity of communication often arose between persons -who were further off, a device was made to serve the -eye afar off by the means of letters, as nature satisfied -the ear close at hand by the use of speech. For the -handing down of learning by the pen to posterity was -not the first cause of finding out letters, but an -excellent use perceived to be in them to serve for perpetuity -a great while after they had been found by -necessity. The letters being thus found out in order to -serve a needful turn, took the force of expressing every -distinct sound in the voice, not by themselves or any -virtue in their form (for what likeness or affinity has -the form of any letter in its own nature to the force or -sound in a man’s voice?) but only by consent of the -men who first invented them, and the happy use of -them perceived by those who first received them.</p> - -<p>Hereupon in the first writing the sound alone led the -pen, and every word was written with the letters that -the sound commanded, because the letters were invented -to express sounds. Then for the correct -manner of writing, who was sovereign and judge but -sound alone? Who gave sentence of pen, ink, and -paper, but sound alone? Then everyone, however -unskilful, was partaker in the authority of that government -by sound. And there was good reason why -sound should rule alone, and all those have a share in -the government of sound, who were able even to make -a sound. In those days, all the arguments that cleave -so firmly to the prerogative of sound, and plead so -greatly for his interest, in the setting down of letters, -were esteemed most highly, as being most agreeable to -the time, and most serviceable to the State. But afterwards<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> -when sound upon sufficient cause was deposed -from his monarchy, as being no fit person to rule the -pen alone, and had others joined with him in the same -commission, who were of as good countenance as he, -though not meant to act without him, then their credit -was not at all so absolute, though reasonably good still. -This any well-advised supporters of sound may well -perceive, and be well content with, if they will but mark -the restriction in the authority of sound, and its causes. -For as great inconveniences followed, and the writing -itself proved more false than true, when the pen set -down the form that the ear suggested to answer a -particular sound, and as the sound itself was too -imperious, without mercy or forgiveness whatever justification -the contrary side had, men of good understanding, -who perceived and disliked this imperiousness of -sound, which was maintained with great uncertainty,—nay -rather with confusion than assurance of right,—assembled -themselves together to confer upon a matter -of such general interest, and in the end, after resolute -and ripe deliberation, presented themselves before -sound, using the following arguments to modify his -humour, but seeking rather to persuade than compel:</p> - -<p>That it would please him to take their speech in -good part, considering that it concerned not their -private good, but the general interest of the whole -province of writing: That he would call to his remembrance -the reasons which moved them at the first to -give him alone the authority over the pen, as one whom -they then thought most fit for such a government, and -indeed most fit to govern alone: That they now perceived, -not any fault in him, for using like a prince -what was his peculiar right, granted by their own -commission, but an oversight in themselves in unadvisedly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> -overcharging him with an estate which he -could not rule alone without a sacrifice of his honour, -whereof they were as tender as of their own souls: -That their request therefore unto him was not to think -more of his own private honour than of the good of the -whole province: That they might with his good leave -amend their own error, which however it concerned his -person yet should not affect his credit, the fault being -theirs in their first choice.</p> - -<p>They paused a little while, before they uttered the -main cause of their motion, for they noticed that sound -began to change colour, and was half ready to swoon. -For the fellow is passionate, tyrannous in authority but -timorous.</p> - -<p>Howbeit, seeing that the common good urged them -to speech, they went on, and told him in plain terms -that he must be content to refer himself to order, and -so much the rather because their meaning was not to -seek either his deprivation or his resignation, but to -urge him to qualify his government, and make use of a -further council which they meant to join with him, as a -thing likely to bear great fruit, and of good example in -many such cases, since even great potentates and -princes, for the general weal of their states, were very -well content, upon humble suit made to them, to admit -such a council, and use it in affairs: That the reasons -which moved them to make this suit, and might also -move him to admit the same, were of great importance: -That because letters were first found only to express -him, therefore they had given him alone the whole -government therein, and were well contented with it, -until they had espied, not his misgovernment, but their -own mischoice: That the bare and primitive inventions, -being but rude, and being ruled accordingly, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> -experience at the time affording no more growth in -refinement, why should they not now yield to refinement, -upon better cause, what they yielded to rudeness -from mere necessity? That no man having any sense -of the correctness in writing that is commended by -experience would yield the direction to sound alone, -which is always altering, and differs according as either -the pronouncer is ignorant or learned, or the parts that -pronounce are of clear or stop delivery, or as the ear -itself has judgment to discern: That considering these -defects, which crave reform, and the letter itself, which -desires some assurance of her own use, it might stand -with his good pleasure to admit to his council two -grave and great personages, whom they had long -thought of, and through whose assistance he might the -better govern the province of the pen.</p> - -<p>Since they praised the parties so much, he desired -their names. They answered—Reason, to consider -what will be most agreeable upon sufficient cause, and -Custom, to confirm by experience and proof what -Reason would like best, and yet not to do anything -without conference with sound.</p> - -<p>The personages pleased him for their own worthiness, -but the very thing that recommended them to him for -their own value made him dislike them for the danger -to himself. For is not either reason or custom, if it -please them to aspire, more likely to rule the pen than -sound? said he to himself. Howbeit, after they had -charged his conscience with all those reasons in one -throng, which they had used individually before, urging -that it were no dishonour to yield a little to those who -had given him his whole rule: That they might have -leave to amend their own error in overcharging him: -That though they seemed to lower his rank, yet they<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> -did not seek to defraud him of his own: That the -wrongs done to writing, which they indicated to him -were matters worthy of redress: That the councillors -whom they appointed were honourable and honest: -That the common benefit of the whole province of -writing earnestly sued for it, and they were very well -assured that so good a father as he was to that poor -estate would never be unwilling, but rather voluntarily -condescend without any request, that he might not be -half dishonoured in delaying the request from not -knowing the grievances. After they had pressed him -so closely, though he was very loth, after being once a -sole monarch, to become almost a private person by -admitting controllers, as it seemed to him, rather than -councillors, as they meant, yet perceiving that their -power was such that they might force him to grant -what they begged of him if he should try to make -terms with them, he was content to yield, though with -some show of discontent in his very countenance, and -to admit Reason and Custom as his fellow-governors in -the correct method of writing.</p> - -<p>For in very deed wise and learned people, whatever -they may lend ignorance to play with for a time, -reserve to themselves judgment and authority to exercise -control, when they see unskilfulness play the fool -too much, as in this same quarrel for the alteration of -sounds according to a presumptuous rule they had very -great reason to do. For as in faces, though every man -by nature has two eyes, two ears, one nose, one mouth, -and so forth, yet there is always such diversity in -countenances that any two men may easily be distinguished, -even if they are as like as the two brothers, -the Lacedaemonian princes, of whom Cicero speaks; so -likewise in the voice, though in everyone it passes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> -through by one mouth, one throat, one tongue, one -barrier of teeth, and so forth, yet it is as different in -everyone, as regards the sound, by reason of some -diversity in the vocal organs, as the faces are different -in form, through some evident distinction in the -natural cast of features. And this diversity, though it -hinders not the expression of everyone’s mind, is yet -too uncertain to rule every man’s pen in setting down -letters.</p> - -<p>And again, what reason had it to follow every man’s -ear, as a master scrivener, and to leave every man’s pen -to its own sound, where there were such differences, -that they could not agree where the right was, everyone -laying claim to it? Again, why should ignorance in -any matter be taken for a guide in a case demanding -knowledge? Because of the clamour of numbers? -That were to make it an affair of popular opinion, -whereas the subject is one of special difficulty, requiring -wisdom. And therefore if any number, though never so -few, deserve to be followed, it were only they who could -both speak best, and give the best reason why. But -that kind of people were too few at the first to find any -place against a popular government, where the ear led -the ear, and it was asked why sound should give over -his interest, seeing letters were devised to express -sound in every one of us, and not merely the fancy of a -few wise fellows. And yet when corn was once introduced, -acorns grew out of use though a fit enough meat -in a hoggish world. For naturally the first serves the -turn till the finer and better comes forward. And as -something worthily took the place of nothing, so must -that something again give place to its better; as sound -did something to expel rudeness, though it may not set -itself to keep out progress in refinement.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135">[135]</a></span></p> - -<p>Wise men would stand no longer to that diversity in -writing, which necessarily followed, when everyone spelt -as his vocal organs fashioned the sound, or as his skill -served him, or as his ear could discern. All these -means are full of variety, and never in agreement, as -appears by the example of whole nations, which cannot -sound some letters that others can.</p> - -<p>Owing to these discontentments, and by consent of -those who could judge and pronounce best, they arrived -at a certain and reasonable custom—or rather, truth to -say, to a customary reason—which they held for a law, -not inadvertently hit on through error and time, but -advisedly resolved on by judgment and skill. Nor yet -did they, contrary to their promise, deprive sound of all -his royalty, which was like that of a dictator before, but -they joined reason with him, and custom too, so as to -begin then in acknowledged right, and not in corruption -after, as a Caesar and a Pompey, to be his colleagues -in a triumvirate. From that time forward sound could -do much, but not at all so much as before, being many -times very justly overruled by his well-advised companions -in office. Thus ended the monarchy of sound -alone.</p> - -<p>We are now come to that government in writing -which was under sound, reason and custom jointly, and -which proceeded in this way. Reason, as he is naturally -the principal director of all the best doings, and -not of writing alone, began to play the master, but yet -wisely and with great modesty. For considering the -disposition of his two companions, first of sound, which -the letters were to express in duty, being devised for -that purpose, and then of custom, which was to confirm -and pave the way to general approval, he established -this for a general law in the province of writing—that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> -as the first founders and devisers of the letters used -their own liberty, in assigning by voluntary choice a -particular character for the eye, to a particular sound in -the voice, so it should be lawful for the said founders -and their posterity, according as the necessity of their -use and the dispatch in their pen did seem to require -it, either to increase the number of letters, if the supply -seemed not to satisfy the variety in sound, or to apply -one and the same letter to diverse uses, if it could be -done with some nice distinction, in order to avoid a -multitude of characters, as we apply words, which are -limited in number, to things which are without limit; -and generally, like absolute lords in a tenancy at mere -will, to make their own need the test of all letters, of -all writing, of all speaking, to chop, to change, to alter, -to transfer, to enlarge, to lessen, to make, to mar, to -begin, to end, to give authority to this, to take it from -that, as they themselves should think good. This -decree being penned by reason, both sound and custom -at once approved—sound, because there was no remedy, -though his heart longed still for his former monarchy, -which was now eclipsed; custom, because that served -his turn best. For if necessary use and dispatch in the -pen could have authority, which was given them in -law, by consent of the men who were successors to -those that first founded the letter (which were men of -the most learned and wisest sort), then were custom -indeed, having reason for a friend, and sound no foe, a -very great prince in the whole province in both writing -and speaking. And good reason why. For custom is -not that which men do or speak commonly or most, -upon whatsoever occasion, but only that which is -grounded at the first upon the best and fittest reason, -and is therefore to be used because it is the fittest.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> -If this take place according to the first appointment, -then is custom in his right; if not, then abuse in fact -seems to usurp upon custom in name. So that I take -custom to build upon the cause, and not to make the -cause.</p> - -<p>After reason had brought both sound to this order, -and custom to this authority, then was there nothing -admitted in writing but that only, which was signed by -all their three hands. If the sound alone served, yet -reason and custom must needs confirm sound; if -reason must have place, both sound and custom must -needs approve reason; if custom would be credited, he -could not pass unless both sound supported him and -reason ratified him.</p> - -<p>During the combined government of these three, the -matter of all our precepts that concern writing first grew -to strength; then rules were established and exceptions -laid down, when reason and custom perceived sufficient -cause. But none of all these were as yet commended -to art and set down in writing; they were only held -in the memory and observation of writers, having -sufficient matter to furnish the body of an art, but -lacking in method, which came next in place, and joined -itself with the other three for this purpose.</p> - -<p>All this time, while reason and custom governed the -pen as well as sound, the discontented friends of sound -never rested, but always sought means to supplant the -other two, ever buzzing into ignorant ears the authority -of sound and his right to his own expression; and the -same errors that troubled the pen while sound alone was -the judge, began to creep in again, and cause a new -trouble, inasmuch as all of the more ignorant sort were -clearly of opinion that the very sternness of sound was -simply to be accepted without all exception, though<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> -those of learning and wisdom, who had first set up -reason and custom as companions to sound, and still -continued of the same mind, could very well distinguish -usurpation from inheritance, and right from wrong.</p> - -<p>Reason therefore, finding by the creeping in of this -error both that he himself was being injured by senseless -time, and his good custom sorely assailed by -counterfeit corruption, perceived the fault to lie in the -want of a good notary, and a strong obligation, by which -to set in everlasting authority, by right rule and true -writing, what he and custom both, by the consent of -sound, had continued in use, though not put down in -writing. This would ever be in danger of continual -revolt from the best to the worst, by the uncertainty of -time and the elvishness of error, unless it were set down -in writing, and the conditions subscribed by all their -consents, for a perpetual evidence against the repiner. -For this is the difference between a reasonable custom -and an artificial method, that the first does the thing for -the second to confirm, and the second confirms by -observing the first.</p> - -<p>While nothing was set down in writing, sound and -his accomplices were in hopes of some recovery, but -this hope was cut off when the writings were made, and -the conditions settled. The notary who was to cut off -all these controversies and breed a perpetual quiet in -the matter of writing, was Art, which gathering into -one body all those random rules that Custom had beaten -out, disposed them so in writing, that everyone knew his -own limits, Reason his, Custom his, Sound his. Now -when Reason, Custom, and Sound were brought into -order, and driven to certainty by the means of art and -method, then began the third, the last, and the best -assurance in writing.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p> - -<p>Art, being herself in place, perceived the direction -of the whole tongue to be an infinitely hard task—nay -to be scarcely possible in general, considering the diverse -properties of the three rulers, reason, custom, and sound, -which alter always with time. For what people can be -sure of their own tongue any long while? Does not -speech alter sometimes for the better, if the State where -it is used itself continue and grow to better countenance, -either for great learning, or for any other matter, which -may help to refine a language? And does it not sometimes -change to the more corrupt, if the State where it -is used chance to be overthrown, and a master-tongue -coming in as conqueror, command both the people, and -the people’s speech also? In consideration of this uncertainty, -Art betook herself to some one period in the -tongue, when it was of most account, and therefore fittest -to be made a pattern for others to follow, and -pleasantest for herself to work and toil in. Upon this -period she bestowed all those notes, which she perceived -by observation (the secretary to reason) to be in the -common use of speech and pen, either clear in sound, -or suitable to reason, or liked by custom, but always -supported by them all.</p> - -<p>Such a period in the Greek tongue was the time -when Demosthenes lived, and that learned race of the -father-philosophers: such a period in the Latin -tongue was the time when Cicero lived, and those of -that age: such a period in the English tongue I take -this to be in our own day, both for the pen and for -speech.</p> - -<p>Art choosing such a period in the primitive tongue, -and having all the material gathered into notes, wherewith -to set up her whole frame and building of method, -distributed them in such a way that there was not any<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> -one thing necessary for correct writing, but she had it -in writing, saving some particulars which will be always -impatient of rule, and make fresh matter for another -period in speech; though that which is now made so -sure by means of art can never be in danger of any -alteration, but will always be held for a precedent to -others, being most perfect in itself. For a tongue once -enrolled by the benefit of art, and grown to good -credit, is established in such assurance that its right -cannot be denied, and opposition would be soon -espied, however it should wrangle; then it is made -a common example for the refining of other languages, -which have material for such a method, and desire to -be so refined.</p> - -<p>This course was kept by the first tongue that ever -was refined, from the first invention of any letters, -until corruption which had slily crept in, but had been -wisely perceived, made a reform necessary. This -reform grew again to corruption, in the nature of a -relapse, because, though it was soundly made, yet it -was not armed with sufficient security against the -festering evil of error and corruption. Therefore, -when it felt the want of such an assurance, it begged -aid from art, which, like a beaten lawyer, handled the -matter with such forethought in the penning of his -books, that each of those who were in any way -interested was taught to know what was his own. -Other tongues besides the first to be refined, on marking -this current of events, applied the same to their -own writing, and were very glad to use the benefit of -those men’s labour, who wrestled with the difficulties of -sound, error, corruption, and the residue of that ill-humoured -tribe.</p> - -<p>This original precedent in the first, and transferred<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> -pattern in the rest, I mean to follow in finding out our -correct English writing, and whether it will prove to be -fashioned accordingly and framed like the pattern, shall -appear when the thing itself shall come forth in her -own natural hue, though in artificial habit.</p> - -<p>Before I deal further with this matter, I must -examine two principal points in our tongue, of which -one is, whether it has material in it for art to build on, -because I said that art dealt where she found sufficient -matter for her labour. The other is, whether our -writing is justly challenged for those infirmities with -which it is charged in our time, because I said that this -period of our own time seems to be the most perfect -period in our English tongue, and that our custom has -already beaten out its own rules, ready for the method -and framework of art. These two points are necessarily -to be considered. For if there be either no material -for art owing to the extreme confusion, or if our -custom be not yet ripe enough to be reduced to rule, then -that perfect period in our tongue is not yet come, and -I have entered upon this subject while it is yet too -green. However, I hope it will not prove premature, -and therefore I will first show that there is in our -tongue great and sufficient stuff for art to work upon; -then that there is no such infirmity in our writing as is -pretended, but that our custom has become fit to -receive this framing by art by the method which I -have laid down, without any outside help, and by those -rules only which may be gathered out of our own -ordinary writing.</p> - -<p>It must needs be that our English tongue has matter -enough in her own writing to direct her own practice, -if it be reduced to definite precepts and rules of art. -The causes why this has not as yet been thoroughly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> -perceived are the hope and despair of those who have -either thought upon it and not dealt with it, or have -dealt with it but not rightly thought upon it.</p> - -<p>For some, considering the great difficulty which they -found to be in the writing of our language, almost every -letter being deputed to many and various—even well-nigh -contrary—sounds and uses, and almost every word -either wanting letters for its necessary sound, or having -more than necessity demands, began to despair in -the midst of such a confusion of ever finding out any -sure direction on which art might be firmly grounded. -Perhaps either they did not seek, or did not know how -to seek, the right form of method for art to adopt. -But whether difficulty in the search, or infirmity in the -searchers, gave cause for this, the parties themselves -gave over the thing, as in a desperate case, and by not -meddling through despair they fail to help the right.</p> - -<p>Again some others, bearing a good affection to their -natural tongue, and being resolved to burst through the -midst of all these difficulties, which offered such resistance, -devised a new means, in which they placed their -hope of bringing the thing about. Whereupon some of -them who were of great place and good learning, set forth -in print particular treatises with these newly conceived -means, showing how we ought to write, and so to write -correctly. But their good hope, by reason of their -strange means, had the same result that the despair -of the others had, either from their misconceiving the -things at first, or from their diffidence at the last.</p> - -<p>The causes why their plans did not take effect, and -thus in part hindered the thing, by making many think -the case more desperate than it really was, were these. -The despair of those who thought that the tongue was -incapable of any direction, came of a wrong cause, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> -fault arising indeed not from the thing which they condemned -as altogether rude and incapable of rule, but -from the parties themselves, who mistook their way. -For the thing itself will soon be put into order, though -it requires some diligence and careful consideration in -him that must find it out. But when a writer takes a -wrong principle quite contrary to common practice, -where trial must be the touchstone, and practice must -confirm the means which he conceives, is it any marvel -if the use of a tongue resist such a means, which is not -in conformity with it? From this proceeded the -despair of hitting aright, because they missed their -intention, whereas in reality they should have changed -their intention, in order to hit upon the right, which -is in the thing and will soon be found out, if it be -rightly sought for.</p> - -<p>Again, the hope of the others deceived them too quite -as much. For they did not consider that whereas common -reason and common custom have been long -engaged in seeking out their own course, they themselves -will be councillors, and will never yield to any -private conception, which shall seem evidently either to -force them or cross them, in acting as they themselves -do, never giving any precept how to write correctly, till -they have railed at custom as a most pernicious enemy -to truth and right, even in the things where custom has -most right, if it has right in any. Therefore when they -proceeded in an argument of custom, with the enmity -of him who is Lord of the soil, was it any wonder if -they failed of their purpose, and hindered the finding -out of our correct writing, which must needs be compassed -by the consent of custom and the friendship of -reason? So in the meantime, while despair deceives -the one, and hope beguiles the other, the one missing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> -his way, the other making a foe, and both going astray, -they both lose their labour, and hinder the finding out -of the best mode of writing, because the true method of -finding out such a thing has another course, as I have -shown before.</p> - -<p>Yet notwithstanding all this, it is very manifest, that -the tongue itself has matter in it to furnish out an art, -and that the same means which has been used in reducing -other tongues to their best form, will serve this -of ours, both for generality of precept and for certainty -of foundation, as may be easily proved on those four -grounds—the antiquity of our tongue, the people’s intelligence, -their learning, and their experience. For -how can it be but that a tongue which has continued -for many hundreds of years not only a tongue, but one -of good account, both in speech and pen, should have -grown in all that time to some refinement and assurance -of itself, by so long and so general a use, the -people that have used it being none of the dullest, and -labouring continually in all exercises that concern learning, -and in all practices that procure experience, either -in peace or in war, either in public or private, either at -home or abroad?</p> - -<p>As for the antiquity of our speech, whether it be -measured by the ancient Teutonic, whence it originally -comes, or even but by the latest terms which it borrows -daily from foreign tongues, either out of pure necessity -in new matters, or out of mere bravery to garnish itself -with, it cannot be young—unless the German himself -be young, who claims a prerogative for the age of his -speech, of an infinite prescription; unless the Latin -and Greek be young, whose words we enfranchise to -our own use, though not always immediately from -themselves, but mostly through the Italian, French, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> -Spanish; unless other tongues, which are neither Greek -nor Latin, nor any of the forenamed, from which we -have something, as they have from ours, will for company’s -sake be content to be young, that ours may not -be old. But I am well assured that every one of these -will strive for antiquity, and rather grant it to us than -forgo it themselves. So that if the very newest words -we use savour of great antiquity, and the ground of our -speech is most ancient, it must needs then follow that -our whole tongue was weaned long ago, as having all -her teeth.</p> - -<p>As for the importance of our tongue, both in pen -and speech, no man will have any doubt who is able to -judge what those things are that make any tongue to -be of account, which things I take to be three—the -authority of the people who speak it, the subject-matter -with which the speech deals, and the manifold uses -which it serves. For all these three our tongue need -not give place to any of her peers.</p> - -<p>First, to say something of the people that use the -tongue, the English nation has always been of good -credit and great estimation, ever since credit and estimation -in the course of history came over to this side -of the Alps, which appears to be true—even by foreign -chronicles (not to use our own in a case that affects -ourselves), which would never have said so much of the -people if it had been obscure, and unworthy of a perpetual -history.</p> - -<p>Next, as to the matter with which it deals, whether -private or public, it may compare with some others -that think very well of themselves. For not to touch -upon ordinary affairs of common life, will matters of -learning in any kind of argument make a tongue of -account? Our nation then, I think, will hardly be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> -proved to have been unlearned at any time, in any kind -of learning, not to use any stronger terms. Therefore, -having learning by confession of all men, and uttering -that learning in their own tongue for their own use, -they could not but enrich the tongue, and bring it -consideration.</p> - -<p>Will matters of war, whether civil or foreign, make a -tongue of account? Neighbouring nations will not -deny our people to be very warlike, and our own country -will confess it, though loth to feel it, both on account -of remembering the suffering, and of fearing to gall our -friends by vaunting ourselves. Now, in offering material -for speech, war is such a breeder that, though it is -opposed to learning because it is an enemy to the -Muses, yet it dares compare with any department of -learning for the multitude of its discourses, though -these are not commonly so certain or useful as learned -subjects. For war (besides the many grave and serious -considerations about it) as sometimes it sends us true -reports, either privately in the form of projects and -devices that are intended, or publicly in events which -are blazed abroad because they have occurred, so -mostly it gives out—I dare not say lies, but—very incredible -news, because it can hatch these at will, being -in no danger of control, and commonly free from -witnesses. Every man, moreover, seeks both to praise -himself and to harm his enemy, besides procuring some -courteous entertainment by telling what is not true -to those that love to hear it. All these tales about -stratagems and engines of war and many other such -things, give matter for speech and occasion for new -words, and by making the language so ready, make it -of renown.</p> - -<p>Will all kinds of trade, and all sorts of traffic, make<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> -a tongue of account? If the spreading sea and the -spacious land could use any speech, they would both -show you where and in how many strange places they -have seen our people, and also let you know that they -deal in as much, and in as great a variety of matters, as -any other people, whether at home or abroad. This -is the reason why our tongue serves so many uses, -because it is conversant with so many people, and so -well acquainted with so many matters, in such various -kinds of dealing. Now all this variety of matter and -diversity of trade, both make material for our speech, -and afford the means of enlarging it. For he who is -so practised will utter what he practises in his natural -tongue, and if the strangeness of the matter requires it, -he who is to utter, will rather than stick in his utterance, -use the foreign term, explaining that the people -of the country call it so, and by that means make a -foreign word an English denizen.</p> - -<p>All these reasons concerning the tongue and its importance -being put together, not only prove the nation’s -exercise in learning, and their practice in other dealings, -but seem to infer—to say the least—no base-witted -people, because it is not the part of fools to be so -learned, so warlike, and so well-practised in affairs. I -shall not need to prove any of these positions, either -from foreign or home history, as my readers who are -strangers will not urge me for them, and those of my -own nation will not, I think, gainsay me in them, since -they know them to be true, and may use them for their -honour.</p> - -<p>Therefore I may well conclude my first position, that -if use and custom, having the advantage of such length -of time to refine our tongue, of so great learning and -experience to furnish material for the refining, and of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> -so good intelligence and judgment to direct it, have -attained nothing which they refuse to let go in the -correct manner of our writing, then our tongue has no -certainty to trust to, but writes all at random. But the -antecedent is, in my opinion, altogether impossible; -therefore the consequent is a great deal more than -probable, which is that our tongue has in her own -possession very good evidence to prove her own correct -writing; and though no man as yet, to judge by any -public writing of his, seems to have seen this, yet the -tongue itself is ready to show it to anyone who is able -to read it, and to judge what evidence is trustworthy in -regard to the standard of writing. Therefore, seeing I -have proved sufficiently in my own opinion that there -is great cause why our tongue should have some good -standard in her own writing, and consider myself to -have had the sight of that evidence by which such a -standard appears most capable of justification, and am -not altogether ignorant of how to give a decision upon -it, I will do my best, according to the course which I -said was kept in the first general refining of any speech, -and has also been transferred to every secondary and -particular tongue, to set forth some standard for -English writing. This I will base upon those notes -which I have observed in the tongue itself, the best -and finest therein, which by comparison with themselves -offer the means of correcting the worse, without either -introducing any innovation, as those do who set forth -new devices, or mistaking my way, as those do who -despair that our tongue can be brought to any certainty -without some marvellous foreign help. Thus much for -the material fit for art in our tongue; now for the -objections which charge it with infirmities.</p> - -<p>Those who see imperfections in our tongue either<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> -blame certain errors which they allege to be in our -writing, or else they will seem to seek its reformation. -In pointing out errors they rail at custom as a vile -corrupter, and complain of our letters as miserably -deficient. In their desire for redress they appeal to -sound as the only sovereign and surest leader in the -government of writing, and fly to innovation, as the -only means of reforming all errors in our writing.</p> - -<p>In their quarrel with custom they seek to bring it -into general hatred, as a common corrupter of all good -things, declaring it to be no marvel if it abuse speech, -which in passing through every man’s mouth, and being -imitated by every man’s pen, must needs gather much -corruption by the way, because the ill are many just as -the good are few, and common corruption, which they -term custom, is an ill director to find out a right. -Hereupon they conclude that, as it seems most probable, -so it is most true that the chief errors which have crept -into our pen take their beginning from the sole infection -of an evil custom, which ought not so much as once to -be named, for direction to what is right, in either pen -or speech, being so manifestly false, notwithstanding -whatever any writers, old or new, can pretend to the -contrary. Then they descend to particularities, -proving that we sometimes burden our words with too -many letters, sometimes pinch them with too few, -sometimes misshape them with wrong sounding, sometimes -misorder them with wrong placing. And are not -these marvellously great causes of discontent with -custom, which is the breeder of them? And yet if -good writers seem to favour custom, then the case is -not so clear as you take it to be, that it is nothing but -a hell of most vile corruptions; that it alone infects all -good things; that it alone corrupts correct writing.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> -For if it were indeed only this, they would not warrant -it, and give it such great credit, as I remember they do. -Is there not, then, some error in the name, and may not -custom be misconstrued? For certainly these writers, -when they speak of custom, mean that rule in conduct -and virtuous life in which good men agree, and their -consent is what these men term custom, as they call -that rule in speaking and writing the custom wherein -the most skilful and learned agree. And is it likely -that either the honest in act will mislead virtue in -living, or the learned will disapprove of correctness in -writing? And, again, those honest men who approve -of custom in matters of life complain very much of -corruption in manners and evil behaviour; and the -learned men, who approve of custom in matters of -speech and pen, complain very much of error in writing -and corruption in speech; and both accuse the -majority of people as the leaders to error, and set down -the common abuse at the door of the multitude. And -therefore it cannot be otherwise but that the double -name is what deceives. For those who accuse custom -mean false error which counterfeits custom, and is a -great captain among the impudent for evil and the -ignorant for rashness, and yet has the chief part in -directing all. And those who praise custom mean -plain truth, which cannot dissemble, which is the -companion of the honest in virtue, and of the learned -in knowledge, and directs all best. Now will ye see? -This mistermed “custom” in the pen is that counterfeit -abuse which was the only cause why the monarchy -of sound, of which I spoke before, was dissolved, and -itself condemned by those wise people who joined -reason with sound; and the right custom which writers -commend so is that companion of reason which succeeded<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> -in its place when the counterfeit was cast out. -Now you see the error. So neither do writers approve -of such a corruption, nor is custom your opponent, but -both writers and custom, as well as you and I will -scratch out the eyes of common error, for misusing -good things and belying custom. If good things are -abused it is by bad people, whose misnamed custom is -rightly named error. If words are overcharged with -letters, that comes either by the covetousness of those -who sell them by lines, or the ignorance of those who, -besides pestering them with too many, both weaken -them with too few, and wrong them with the change of -force and position.</p> - -<p>When they have dealt thus with custom, and with -their opponents (as they consider those who are really -their friends) without marking what their reasons are, -or by whose authority custom is established, which they -so impugn by suggestion of a counterfeit, then they -begin to complain sorely of the insufficiency and poverty -of our letters. While these are as many as in other -tongues, yet they do not suffice, it is alleged, for the -full and right expression of our sounds, though they -express them after a sort, but force us to use a number -of them, like the Delphic sword of which Aristotle -speaks, for many sounds and services contrary to the -nature of such an instrument, each letter being intended -at first for one sound. Thus it comes to pass that we -both write improperly, not answering the sound of what -we say, and are never like ourselves in any of our -writing, but always vary according to the writer’s -humour, without any certain direction. Therefore, -foreigners and strangers wonder at us, both for the -uncertainty in our writing and the inconstancy in our -letters. And is it not a great shame that so able a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> -nation as the English, who have been of very good note -for so many years, either should not notice, or would -not amend, in all this time the poverty of their pen, -and the confusion in their letters, but both let their -writing thus always run riot, and themselves be mocked -by foreign people?</p> - -<p>If foreigners do marvel at us, we may requite them -with as much, and return their wonder home, considering -that they themselves are subject to the very same -difficulties which they wonder at in us, and have no -more letters than we have, and yet both write and are -understood in spite of all these insufficiencies, just as -we also write and are understood in this our insufficiency -even by their own confession. But the common use of -writing among those strangers, which agrees so with -ours in our uncertainty, makes me think that this complaint -of insufficiency is not general either with them -or with us, but in both cases belongs to a few, who -objecting to what they know nothing of, and not -observing what they cannot, therefore blame what they -should not. For if their blaming upon good cause, -and marking upon wise judgment concurred with their -number, though not so great, I should be afraid lest -they should have the better, because they were the -fewer; but being both the fewer and the weaker, they -carry no great weight in condemnation. Other folks -also, who see something as well as they, do not quite -disapprove of all their disapproval, but desire some -redress, where there is good cause, though they may -not agree as to the means of bringing about the redress, -nor yet admit that the error is as great as these -objectors pretend. For we confess that this multiplicity -and manifold use in the force and service of our -letters requires some distinctions to be known by, if<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> -general acquaintance with our own writing do not help -us to perceive in use what we put down by use; but -still we defend and maintain the multiplicity itself, -as a thing much used even in the best tongues, and -therefore not unlawful, even though there were no -distinctions.</p> - -<p>And again, we do not think that every custom is an -evident corruption, where the general usage of those -who cannot be suspected of writing with other than -good judgment, lays the groundwork for precept, as -leading to the exercise of art, and assurance to the pen. -And we rest content with the number of our letters. -Some people in studying to increase this number, only -cumber our tongue, both with strange characters and -with needless diphthongs, forcing us away from what the -general rule has won and is content with. And why -not these letters only? Or why may they not be put -to many uses? This paucity and poverty of letters -has contented the best and bravest tongues that either -are, have been, shall be, or can be, and has expressed -by them, both in speech and pen, as great variety and -as much difficulty in all subjects as possibly can be -expressed or understood by the English tongue or be -devised by any English intelligence. The people that -now use them, and those that have used them, have -naturally the same organs of voice, and the same -delivery in sound, for all their speaking, that we -English have, because they are men, just as we English -folk are; and they handed down the use of the pen to -us, and not we to them. And finding in their own use -this necessity which you note, they fled to that help -which you think naught, and were bold with their -letters, to make them serve diverse turns, sometimes -with change, sometimes with some ingenious mark of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> -distinction. That this kind of distinction is enough, is -known to all who are acquainted with the foreign -letters, and with those writers who treat of them. Nor -is there any difficulty which they are not subject to, -either in the same or in very similar things, just as we -are. And will strangers wonder at us? Or do not -those of our own people who are learned perceive these -things? For in the ignorant I require no such discretion. -I certainly think that all people, as they have -the same natural organs to speak by, though from habit -some may harp more on one sound than on others, and -some—even whole nations—may lean more upon one -organ, such as the throat or the teeth, than others do, -yet naturally all are made able to sound all kinds of -speech and all letters, if they are accustomed to them -at the most fitting age and by the best means. I hold -also that it is only education and custom that make the -difference, and therefore rule all, or at least most, in -speech, wherein if there be any reason, it is not natural -and simple, as in things, but artificial and compound, -based upon such and such a cause in custom and -consent. And though the Hebrew grammarians alone -divide their letters according to the vocal organs on -which they lean most, such as the throat, the roof of -the mouth, the tongue, the lips, or the teeth, yet not -the Hebrews alone have that distinction in nature, but -every people which has throat, teeth, palate, tongue, -lips, and with those organs use the utterance of sounds. -This is an argument to me, both that use is the -mistress, and that he who sounds on any one method -by the usage of his country, may be smoothed to some -other by the contrary use, and that therefore the same -letters will serve all people, if they choose to frame -themselves accordingly. For, otherwise, why do we<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> -persuade our people to sound Latin in one way, Greek -in another, Hebrew in another, Italian in another, if it -is not a thing that we can become acquainted with -through customary usage? And this being so in all -nations, what need have we for more letters to utter -our minds, seeing that the organs of utterance are all -one, and that nothing can be uttered either more -diverse or difficult than those have uttered from whom -we have the letters we possess? Nor is it any discredit -to our people to rest content with those letters, and -with that number, which antiquity has approved and -held for sufficient. Is nature, therefore, which was -fruitful in them, now so barren that we may not invent, -and add something to theirs? No, forsooth. All -mankind is one, without any respect of this or that age, -both to nature herself, and to the God and Lord of -nature, and therefore what is given to one man, or -delivered in one age of common service, is meant for -all men and all ages, and always for their benefit; nor -is either God himself, or nature his minister, tied to any -time for the delivery of their gifts, but whenever man’s -necessity compels him to seek, then they help him to -find. We understand, therefore, that as no one age -brings forth everything, so no one age can but confess -that it has some one or other particular invention, -though not the self-same, because it is enough to have -received it once to use ever after. So is it in this use -of letters, which being once perfected is never to be -shaken, unless a better means be found of uttering our -speech, which I shall not see, nor can foresee by any -secret prophecy. In these inventions, though the first -receiver have the prerogative in taking, yet the whole -posterity has the benefit in using, and generally with -greater perfection, because time and continuance increase<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> -and prune, and when it is at the full, it is a -mistake to seek further, which I take to be the case in -the matter of penning. Nor is the restraint from -innovating, altering, or adding to things already perfected -any discourtesy in reason, or any discountenance -in nature, but the simple delivery of a perfect thing to -our elder brethren to be conveyed unto us; as we in -like case must be the transporters to our posterity of -such things as it pleases God to continue by our -means, whether received from our elders or devised by -ourselves.</p> - -<p>But why may we not use all our four-and-twenty -letters, even for four-and-twenty uses each, if occasion -serve, seeing that the characters being known are more -familiar and easier to be discerned than any new device—yea, -even though the old resembled each other more, -and there were but one new? It has been sufficiently -declared already, that those men who first devised -letters, reserved the authorities over them and their use -to themselves for life, and to their successors for ever, -to modify and use them as it should please them best -by consent among themselves, as necessity arose. And -why not so, where the invention is their own, and the -right use of it? This general reservation is enrolled -already in all reason and antiquity, and the particular -consent for the writing of our language is given already -by our general use, and will be registered also in a very -good record, I hope, and that shortly. And will you -make that sovereign which is but subaltern? Or will -you take that to be immovable like a steady rock, -which roams by nature, to serve the finder? There is -no such assurance in sound for the establishing of a -right as you conceive, nor any such necessity in letters -to be constant in one use as you seek to enforce.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p> - -<p>The philosopher says that nature makes one thing -for one use, and that every use has its particular instrument -naturally, but that our own inventions—nay, that -even the most natural means—may through our -application, serve for sundry ends and uses. And will -letters stand so upon their reputation as not to seem to -admit of our applying them to their own purposes, -seeing that they are both our creatures, and by creation -our bondmen, both to sound as we shall think good, -and in as many ways as we may wish them to serve? -No, surely, they do not think so, but they are most -ready to serve as we appoint, both by creation and by -covenant. The letters yield readily, but some letters -seek to delay their dutiful obedience, holding that their -substance is adamant, and that they were not born to -yield so.</p> - -<p>With the same pen we make letters and mar them; -with the same we direct and destroy them; which are -contrary uses, though meant to compass the same right -end. And will letters seem to serve but for one use, -being nothing but elves of the pen’s breeding? They -will not, but prove their own dutifulness to the pen, -their parent, by following his direction in very many -points, as they yield to reason and reasonable custom -in many of their powers, whereby they seem to argue -against contention, they themselves being satisfied.</p> - -<p>The number of things which we write and speak -about is infinite, yet the words with which we write and -speak are definite and of limited number. Therefore -we are driven to use one and the same word in very -many—nay sometimes in very contrary senses—and -that is the case in all the best languages, as well as in -English, where a number of our words are of very -various powers, as in the sentence: “A bird flies light,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> -wherever she may light,” and many others that need -not now be mentioned. And will letters stand aloof, -so as to sound always in but one way, and to serve -always but one use, where their great-grandfathers, even -the words themselves, are forced to be manifold—nay, -are very well content so to be, because of their founder’s -command to be pliable, and at the voluntary disposal -of wisdom and learning? Letters must not stand -aloof, but approve of the service allotted to them, be it -never so manifold, seeing that without confusion, customary -acquaintance will make the distinctions clear; -as a disputer will sift out the difference of manifold -words, so that the variety in their senses may cause no -quarrel in the argument.</p> - -<p>If through want of skill and mere ignorance, we do -not write always in the same way, then knowledge is -the helper, and he that will follow the right usage must -have the desire to learn aright.</p> - -<p>If distinctions are wanted then accent must be the -means of avoiding confusion, or some such device which -may serve the purpose without pestering the writing by -anything too strange. For it is most certain that we -may use our letters like all other things whose end is -the convenience of man. Nor is it any abuse when -those who use can give a reason that is sufficient to the -wise, and not contrary to good custom. And though -some may not be persuaded, yet when an act is passed -by division of the house, it is law by parliament. Then -the objectors must relent and follow, though they may -not favour it. They must make the best of what they -thought worst, when lawful authority restrains their will. -A thing originally free, being once controlled by order, -has lost its freedom, and must then keep the current -appointed for it, being itself subject to man for his uses.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159">[159]</a></span></p> - -<p>Our letters are limited in number, but their usage is -certain even in their greatest uncertainty, and therefore -I take it that we may rest content both with their number -and with their use. So much concerning the -complaint of our poverty in letters, and the confusion -in their powers, which I do not wonder at, because I -see it so in all things; and I see no cause why we -cannot overcome the difficulty by our own inventions -and devices, where we are to take account of nothing -but our own consent, guided by the judgment of the -wisest men, and imitation of uncorrupted nature.</p> - -<p>If there be need, the increase in the number of our -letters is not refused to us any more than to other -people, but the need is denied, because we entered upon -other people’s most perfect inventions, and though this -came later in time, yet it was so much the surer, -because all things necessary were devised to our hands, -and because our need can be no new need. Whatever -we need to write we are able to write, and when we -have written it we are able to read it. If there be any -fault, the remedy must be, not to seek what we have -not, but to mark what we have, seeing that we have -sufficient.</p> - -<p>The credit of sound being well established in their -opinion, as the natural lord and leader of all our letters, -and custom being condemned as a traitor, intruding -against all right upon the territory of sound, then they -turn to the cure of this diseased corruption, and pray -Hippocrates to be judge. To amend that which is -amiss in the writing of our tongue, their ground-work -being laid in the shaken monarchy of deposed sound, -they proceed in a full course of general innovation, -though some more and some less. First, they increase -the number of our letters and diphthongs, as if it were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> -not possible either heretofore to have written, or at this -day to write, any word correctly, for want of some -increase in the number of our letters. For as the overcharging -of our words with too many letters comes by -using too much those which we have already, so the -difficulty through using them so diversely proceeds from -the mere want of material to answer each particular -purpose.</p> - -<p>Then they change the form of our letters and bring -us in new faces with very strange lineaments, how well-favoured -to behold, I am sure I know, and how unready -for a penman to run on with, methinks I foresee,—yet -such readiness in the character to follow the hand -roundly is a special service belonging to the pen. Nor -do I myself in these observations so much regard what -the print will stamp well,—for it will express anything -well whose form can be imitated,—as what the pen will -write well and that with good dispatch, because printing -is but a peculiar benefit for the few, while writing is -general and in every man’s fingers. A form that is fair -to the eye in print and cumbersome to the hand in -penning, will not pass in writing. To conclude, this, -they say, is the only help to amend all misses: for -defect, to enlarge; for what is old and corrupt, to bring -in what is new and correct; need enforces redress, and -duty requires these changes.</p> - -<p>Must we then alter all our writings anew? Or from -what day is this reform to take full place? It is a -strange point of physic when the remedy itself is more -dangerous than the disease. Besides, I take the alteration -in this sort to be neither necessary, as there is no -such insufficiency, nor yet expedient, seeing that such -inconveniences follow. For speech being an instrument -and means of uttering what the mind conceives, if by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> -the delivery of the mouth the mind be understood, the -speech is sufficient in fully answering so needful a -purpose. If writing, in which I include both the print -and the pen, so fully express the pith of the voice that -the reader may understand the writer’s meaning in full, -I cannot persuade him that the letters which he reads -are not sufficient to express the writer’s meaning, as he -is ready to confute this by the proof that he understands -it most completely.</p> - -<p>But these objectors will say that this understanding -comes, not through the writing, but by the intelligent -reader, who understands correctly by means of the so -usual, though so corrupt, writing, which is imperfectly -and improperly written, and that propriety in using the -pen is wrongly refused, when it may be had easily with -very small effort.</p> - -<p>I like the reason well, as I admit some imperfection. -But neither is the imperfection so great as they conceive, -nor is their reason so near to redress as they think. As -for the imperfection, how it comes and how to help it, -my whole labour will prove that in the sequel. As for -their reason, I cannot see that it would be a small -effort, because they alter entirely, or at least they quite -change the superficial appearance, which in this case, -where propriety in writing is the possession of custom, -would be too great a strain. For custom, being so -secure, will not be content to be overruled in his own -province, or to admit the claim of any reform where he -is proprietor, however private men’s notions, upon never -so probable appearances, may offer support to the -contrary side.</p> - -<p>The use and custom of our country has already -chosen a kind of penning, in which she has set down -her religion, her laws, her private and public dealings;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> -every private man has, with the approval of his country, -so drawn his private writings, his evidence, his letters, -that the thing seems impossible to be removed by so -strong an alteration, though it be most willing to -receive some reasonable pruning, so that the substance -may remain, and the change take place in such points -only as may please without novelty, and profit without -forcing. For were it not in good sooth too violent a -step to offer to overthrow a custom so generally -received, so definitely settled—nay, grounded so -securely as shall shortly appear—by altering either -all or most of our letters? Were it not a sign of a -very simple orator to think that by so strange an -innovation he could persuade custom to divorce himself -from so long and so lawful a match? Nay, were it not -wonderful even but to wish that all our English -scripture and divinity, all our laws and policy, all our -evidence and writings were penned anew, because we -have not that set down in writing which our forefathers -meant, but either more or less, owing to the insufficiency -of our writing, which is not able to set faithfully and -fully down what the mind conceives? They will say -that they do not mean so radical a change. But they -must needs mean it, because it must either follow at -once upon the admitting of this new alteration, which is -too great in sense, or, after a term of years, which is too -great in thought. For with a new writing coming in, -and the old character growing out of knowledge, all -records of whatever kind must needs either come over -to the new fashion, or remain worm-eaten like an old -relic, to be read as the Roman religion written down -under Numa Pompilius was read by those of Cicero’s -time, when every word was as uncouth and strange as if -it had come from some other world. But am I not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> -undertaking a needless task in disapproving what I need -not fear, because there is no danger in it, the very usage -of our country refusing it already? I grant I am. -But yet I must say something that I may not seem to -contemn, since if I say nothing my opponents may then -seem to have said something. But certainly I hold the -thing to be much too cumbersome and inconvenient, -even though it were likely to be profitable, but where -no likelihood of any profit at all is in sight, and the -change itself seems neither necessary nor easy, I cannot -approve the means, though I bear no grudge to its -proposers, who deserve great thanks for their good -intentions. For their labour is very profitable to help -forward some redress, though they themselves have not -hit on it. For while different men attempt to solve the -problem, some one or other will hit it at last, whereas -the case would be desperate if it were never dealt with. -But this amendment of theirs is too far-fetched, and -without its help we understand our print and pen, our -evidence, and other writing. And though we grant -some imperfection, as in a tongue not yet fully -developed, yet we do not admit that it is to be perfected -either by altering the form or by increasing the number -of our familiar letters, but only by observing where the -tongue by her ordinary custom yields to the refining -process, as the old, and therefore the best, method leads -us. For it is no argument, when faults are found, to -say this is the help, and only this, because no other -is in sight. But whenever the right is found by orderly -seeking, then the argument is true, that it was not -thoroughly sought, when it was denied to exist. And -to speak impartially between the letter and sound on -the one side, and custom and the letter on the other -side, letters can express sounds with all their joints and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> -properties no more fully than the pencil can the form -and lineaments of the face, whose merit is not life but -likeness; for the letters, though they yield not always -what sound exactly requires, give always the nearest, -and custom is content with this. And therefore if -a letter do not sound just as you wish, yet hold it -as the next best, lest if you change you come not so -near. And though one letter be used in diverse, or -even contrary sounds, you cannot avoid it by any -change, seeing that no other has been liked hitherto but -this which we use. Certainly, so far as I have -observed, we are as well appointed for our necessity in -that way, and as much bound to our general custom for -the artificial tones of our natural tongue as any other -nation is to any other language, whether ancient in -books or modern in speech. And whatever insufficiency -seems to be in its writing, it will excuse itself, and lay -the whole blame upon the insufficient observer for not -seeking the solution in the right way. This will be -found true, when it shall be seen that by sufficient care -it may be made clear and pure without any foreign -help, and without either altering the form or increasing -the number of our ordinary letters, but only by notes of -its own breeding, which, being already in use, desire -nothing else but some direction from art. This I am -in good hopes of performing, according to the plan -of the best refiners in the most refined tongues, with -such consideration as either breeds general rules, or -else must bear with particular exceptions. I will mark -what our customary writing will yield us in the way of -notes, without dreaming of change, which cannot stem -so fatal a current as custom runs with. I will therefore -do my best to confirm our custom in his own right, -which will be easily obtained, where men are acquainted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> -with the matter already, and would be very glad to -see wherein the correct manner of their writing stands, -and a great deal more glad to find it so near when -they thought it to be further off. Thus have I run -through these alleged infirmities in our tongue, whose -physicking I like not this way, and therefore I will -join close with my own observation to see if that will -help.</p> - -<p>Those men who will give any certain direction for -the writing of any tongue, or for anything else that -concerns a tongue, must take some period in its history, -or else their rules will prove inapplicable. For every -tongue has a certain ascent from the lowest to the -highest point, and a descent again from the highest to -the lowest; and as in the ascent it has not reached a -secure position, because it is not thoroughly reduced to -art, so in the descent it comes to be not worth noting, -because it gets rude again, and in a manner withered. -Hence it comes that the age of Demosthenes is the -prince of Greece, as that of Cicero is the flower of -Rome, and if the languages of these countries had not -been committed to the security of books, they would -have been of little worth; nay, they would have been -forgotten altogether, long before our day, as the spoken -tongues of those nations, changing continually since the -periods named, are now quite altered, or at least are -nothing like what they were in their prime, though still -blooming in another form. So that books give life where -bodies bring only death. Consider the Greek and -Latin writers before the ages of those men, and by -comparing them with these, you will see the difference -that I spoke of, the earlier being too rude to be -brought under rule, and the later departing from established -rules and yielding to change. This period of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> -full development, with the ascent to it and the decline -leading to decay, shows us that everything belonging -to man is subject to change, the language changing -also, but never dying out. It must needs be therefore -that there is something of the nature of a soul in every -spoken tongue that feeds this change even with perceptible -means. For if any tongue be fixed, and free -from movement, it is enshrined in books, not subject to -ordinary use, but made immortal by the register of -memory.</p> - -<p>This secret mystery, or rather quickening spirit, that -dwells in every spoken tongue, and therefore in our -own, I call “prerogative,” because when sound has done -his best, when reason has said his best, and when -custom has carried into effect what is best in both, -this prerogative will resist any of them, and take -exception to all their rules, however general and -certain. It thus makes way for a new change, which -will follow at some stage of the language, if the writer’s -period be chosen at the best. I cannot compare this -customary prerogative in speech to anything better -than to those who devise new garments, and are left -by law to liberty of device. Hence it comes in the -matter of apparel, that we do not remain like ourselves -for any length of time, though what is most -seemly, like a rule of art, pleases the wisest people -best. From this same liberty of speech to carve out a -way for itself, come the exceptions to our general -rules. Hence it comes that <em>enough</em>, <em>bough</em>, <em>tough</em>, and -such other primitives are so strangely written, and -more strangely sounded. In this way prerogative -seems to be like quicksilver, ever stirring and never -settled, though the general custom always offers itself -to be ordered by rule, as a close friend to reason. This<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> -stirring quintessence, leading to change in a thing that -is naturally changeable and not blameworthy for -changing, some not very well-advised people consider -as an error, and a private misuse, contrary to custom, -because it seems to be a very imperious controller, but -in this they are deceived. For indeed, though this -prerogative, by opposition in particular cases, checks -general conclusions, yet that opposition came not from -individual men; it is a private thing itself, and the -very life-blood which preserves tongues in their best -natural form, from the first time that they grew to be -of any account till they come to decay, and begin a -new period, different from the old, though excellent in -its kind, which in its turn must give way to another -when the time is ripe.</p> - -<p>I take this present period of our English tongue to -be its very height, because I find it as excellently refined, -both in its general substance and in its customary -writing, as either foreign workmanship can give it -gloss, or home-wrought handling can give it grace. -When the period of our nation which now uses the -tongue so well is dead and departed, another will -succeed, and with the people the tongue will alter. A -later period may in its full harvest prove comparable -to the present, but surely this which we now have seems -to be at its best and bravest, and whatever may become -of the English State, the English tongue cannot prove -fairer than it is at this date, if it may please our -learned class to think so of it, and to bestow their -labour on a subject so capable of adornment, and so -fitting to themselves. The force of prerogative is such -that it cannot be disobeyed, though it seems to derange -some well-ordered rule, and make people wonder who -do not weigh the cause.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p> - -<p>For this reason, when any case arises quite contrary -to the common precept, though not to the common -custom, then we must needs think of the power of -prerogative, a great princess in influence, and a parent -to corruption, but intending to raise another Phœnix -from the former ashes. He who refuses to grant such -a prerogative to any tongue, denies it life, unless he -means, by registering some period in it of most excellent -note, to restrain prerogative, and preserve the -tongue, which he secures by writing from being profaned -by the people; it becomes then a learned -tongue and exempt from corruption, as our book-languages -are, whose rules are so secure that they -dream of no change. This prerogative and liberty -which the nation has, to use both speech and pen at -will, is the cause why English writers are finer now -than they were some hundred years ago, though some -antiquary may consider the old writing finer. But the -question is wherein fineness consists. So was Sallust -deceived among the Romans, living with Cicero, and -writing like ancient Cato.</p> - -<p>In this prerogative of writing, the very pen itself is -a great influence and has marvellous authority, for being -the secretary who carries out what is expressed by the -intelligence, it presumes upon this to venture, as far as -any counsellor may, though never against reason, whose -instrument it is to satisfy the eye as the tongue satisfies -the ear. Custom, whose charge prerogative is, as the -pen is his conveyer, favours the pen very greatly and -will not hesitate to maintain that a dash with a pen may -hold for a warrant, when both speed and grace bid the -pen be bold. Hence it comes that in our language so -many z’s are heard, and so few seen, owing to the regard -for dexterity and speed in the fluency of writing; and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> -as the pen can do this, I take it as a matter of prerogative, -for the sake of smoothness, that our tongue uses -<em>z</em> so much for <em>s</em>.</p> - -<p>But it may be said that all our exceptions, due to -most reasonable prerogative, may well be reduced to a -general form, which I do not at all deny, though I see -some difficulty in altering what our custom has thus -grasped, and it were almost too much to require any -wise and learned man so to arrest exceptions, particularly -where no standard can be fixed. He who wishes this -seems to conceive of such a thing, but even if it were -attempted, the stream of custom would break out again -immediately in some other way, and cause an even -greater gap, for no banks can keep it in so narrowly but -those that are content to be sometimes overflowed, and -no strength can withstand such a current but those stays -which in the fury of water will bend like a bulrush.</p> - -<p>If any pen, either through ignorance or pretension, -offend against reason, and intrude upon prerogative, -that is no good quill, and it will not be upheld by me; -nor is that current to be called <em>custom</em> which holds -by usurpation; nor is that cause to be accounted -<em>reason</em> which has any other beginning than genuine -knowledge, or any other ending than the nature of -the thing will seem to admit. Certainly, when I consider -the matter deeply—and my thoughts on it have -not been slight or superficial—I cannot see why, when -the imperfections are removed that always accompany -perfection, and can easily be removed, to the satisfaction -of the wise who are not blinded with their own -habits, the tongue as well as the pen may not quite -well have its prerogative, since our custom has become -so well-ordered that it may be ruled without chopping -or changing a single letter, or otherwise begging more<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> -aid from foreign invention than I have already sufficiently -set down.</p> - -<p>These are my suggestions for the regulation of our -tongue and the fixing of a standard in its writing. If -I have in any way hit the mark, I shall be warranted -by the right, though it may not seem so to some, and -in this I must be comforted, even if I cannot content -all.</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p> -<p class="p6" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a id="THE_PERORATION"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">THE PERORATION.</a></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><em>To my gentle readers and fellow-countrymen, wherein -many things are handled concerning learning in -general, and the nature of the English and foreign -tongues, besides some particular remarks about the -writing of books in English.</em></p></div> - - -<p class="noindent">My fellow-countrymen and gentle readers, my first -purpose in taking up this subject, and venturing into -print, of which till lately I have stood in awe, was to -do some good in the profession in which I have for -many years been engaged, and by giving my experience -in the teaching of the learned tongues, to lighten the -labour of other men, because I had discovered some -defects that required a remedy. But the consideration -of these led me a great deal further than I dreamed of -at first. Intending to deal only with the teaching of -languages in the Grammar School, I was enforced by -the sway of meditation to think of the whole course of -learning, and to consider how every particular thing -arose in a definite order. For without that consideration -how could I have discerned where to begin and where -to end, in any one thing that depends on a sequel and -proceeds from a principle? For the subject I am -dealing with is a matter of ascent, where every particular -that goes before has continual reference to what<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> -comes after, if the whole scheme is scientifically -arranged. In this course of mine, the elementary -principles may be compared to the first groundwork, the -teaching of tongues to the second storey and the after-learning -to the upper buildings. Now as in architecture -and building he were no good workman who did not -plan his framework so that each of the ascents should -harmonise with the others, so in the stages of learning -it were no masterly part not to show a similar care, and -that cannot be done till the whole is thought of and -thoroughly shaped in the mind of him who undertakes -the work.</p> - -<p>After I had formed an opinion both as to where lay -the blemishes which disfigured learning and as to how -they might be redressed, as well for my own practice as -by way of advice to others, I came down to particulars -and began to examine even from the very first what -went before the tongues in the orderly upbringing of -children. This was the first task that claimed me -before I fell to further thoughts and the last too, even -when I had considered all that followed, but it was -then undertaken more advisedly. I entered upon an -investigation into the whole early training all the more -readily because I perceived great backwardness in the -learning of tongues through infirmities in the elementary -groundwork. What a toil it is to a grammar master -when the young child who is brought to him to teach, -has no foundation laid on which anything can be built! -I undertook, therefore, to enquire into all those things -that concern the elementary training, as a stage in -teaching preceding the study of grammar, hoping by my -own labour to be of use to a multitude of masters. -Moreover, as this matter concerns learners who have not -yet entered upon Latin, and teachers who may have<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> -only mediocre learning, I thought it best to publish in -the tongue that is common to us all, both before and -after we learn Latin.</p> - -<p>But here there are three questions that may perhaps -be asked: First, what those blemishes are which I -observed in the main body of learning, a subject so -closely investigated in our day by such a variety and -excellence of learned wits that every branch of it is -thought to have recovered the consideration it had at -its highest point; secondly, why in regard to methods -of teaching I do not content myself with following the -precedent of other writers, who in great numbers have -written learned treatises with the same end in view, but -rather toil myself with a private labour, the issue of -which is uncertain, whereas the previous writers on the -subject, being themselves learned, and having achieved -success, may be followed with assurance; thirdly, if it -is my endeavour to handle a learned subject in the -English tongue, why I take so much pains and such a -special care in handling it, that the weaker sort, whose -benefit I profess to consider—nay, often others also of -reasonable study—can with difficulty understand the -couching of my sentence and the depth of my meaning.</p> - -<p>While I answer these questions, I must pray your -patience, my good masters, because the things may not -be lightly passed over, and in satisfying your demands -I shall pave the way for the suit I have to make to -you.</p> - -<p>First, as for my general care for the whole course of -learning, I have thus much to say. The end of every -individual man’s doings for his own advantage, and the -end of the whole commonweal for the good of us all, -are so much alike in aspect, and so entirely the same -in nature, that when the one is seen the other needs<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> -little seeking. Each individual man labours in this -world in order to win rest after toil, to have ease after -work; he does not wish to be always engaged in labour, -which would be exceedingly irksome if it were endless. -The soldier fights in his own intention perhaps to gain -ease through wealth, which he may win by spoil; in -outward appearance he labours for the advantage of -his country by way of defence and security. The merchant -traffics in his own intention to procure personal -ease through private wealth; to the public he seems to -labour for the common benefit, by supplying wants in -necessary wares for general use. Indeed, all men, -whatever be their occupation, while seeking private -ends in their actions, at the same time concur in -serving general ends. Thus it appears that ease after -labour is the common aim of both private and public -efforts, because everyone in the natural course of his -whole conduct has regard to the general prosperity and -quiet, which maintain his own personal well-being. -Then the means both of coming by this end, and when -it is come by, of maintaining it in state, must needs lie -in such directions as make for the peace and quietness -of a State, for the keeping of concord and agreement -without any main public breach, both in private houses -and generally throughout the whole government. These -peaceable directions I call, and not I alone, by the -simple name of <em>general learning</em>, comprising under it -all the arts of peace and the ministry of tranquillity—a -matter of great moment, being the only right means -to so blessed a thing as fortunate peace, imparting the -benefit of public quietness to every household, as a -central fountain serves every man’s cistern by private -pipes, and if it be not sound, conveying the blemish -like the infected water of a fountain, or the corrupt<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> -blood that escaping from the liver poisons the whole -body. Even war itself, a professed enemy to learning, -because it is in feud with peace, may by just handling -be shown to work for peace at home by uniting the -minds of all against a common foe. By the employment -of learning in every department all princes govern -their States; the general control is exercised through -grave and learned counsellors and wise and faithful -justiciaries, and the particular control, in religion by -divines, in the health of the body by physicians, in the -maintenance of right by lawyers, and so on in every -particular profession, from the greatest to the meanest, -throughout the whole government—a most blessed -means to a most blessed end, a learned maintenance of -a heavenly happiness in an earthly State of a heavenly -constitution. Therefore, any error in this means is an -injury indeed, and deserves to be thought of as a -hindrance to peace, and a pernicious destroyer of the -best public end, beginning perhaps as a small spark, -but always gathering strength by the confluence of -similar infection in some other parts, till at last it sets -all on fire, and bursts out in a confusion, the more to -be feared that it festers before it breaks into flame, and -shrouding itself under a show of peace, consumes without -suspicion, and escapes being brought to terms as a -professed enemy. I may say that in my reflection on -this subject of the ascent of learning from the elementary -stage, I thought I found these four imperfections -in the whole body of learning—in some places an -excess, in others a defect, in others too great a variety, -in others too much disagreement. These are four great -enormities in a peaceable means, breeding great diseases, -and bidding defiance to quiet, both within the State -in the governing direction, and outside it by evident<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> -inflammation, and they are therefore to be thought of -not only for complaint in particular cases, but by -magistrates in regard to their amendment.</p> - -<p>As for <em>excess</em> I conceive that as in every natural body -the number of sinews, veins, and arteries to give it life -and motion, is definite and certain, so in a body politic -the distributive use of learning, which I compare to -those parts, is everywhere certain. And whatever is -more than nature requires in either of them, as in the -one it breeds disease, so in the other it causes destruction -by breach of proportion, and so consequently of -peace. In natural bodies excess appears when one or -more parts encroach on the others and enfeeble them. -In communities this excess in learning is to be discerned -when the private professions swell too much and -so weaken the whole body, either by the multitude of -professional men, who bite deeply where many must be -fed and there is little to feed on, or by unnecessary -professions, which choke off the more useful, and fill the -world with trifles, or by an infinitude of books, which -cloy up students, and weaken them by an intolerable -diffuseness of treatment, fattening the carcass but lowering -the strength of pithy matter. Do not all these surfeits -exist at this day in our own State? Are they -not enemies to the common good, being grown out -of proportion? Are they not worth consideration and -redress?</p> - -<p>I pass now to the question of defect. In a natural -body there is too little, when either something necessary -is wanting, or what is there is too weak to serve its -purpose. And does not learning show the same -defects, disquieting to a State, when the necessary professional -men are wanting either in number or in -worthiness; where show takes the place of sound stuff;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> -where in place of real learning only superficial knowledge -is sought, enough to make a shift with; when -necessary professions are despised and trampled under -foot, because the cursory student has to post away in -haste; when there is a lack of needful books to further -learning, and those we have are of little use owing to -insufficiency of treatment? This corruption in learning -any man may see who desires to seek out either the -malady or its cure; it is a breach of proportion, and -therefore of peace, in a commonwealth, a pining evil -which consumes by starving.</p> - -<p>As for diversity in matters of learning, I think that -as it proceeds from differences in ability, in upbringing, -in intelligence, in judgment, because these are much -finer in some than in others, it does a great deal of -harm to the peace of any State, especially where its -leaders, though they may not fall out, but merely -express their opinions, yet divide studies according to -their favourites, considering the importance of the subjects -less than the attraction of the authors. If this -diversity breaks out in earnest, as it has frequently done -in our time, while printing itself, which in its natural -and best uses is the instrument of necessity and the -exponent of learning, becomes very often too easy an -outlet for vaunting ambition, for malicious envy and -revenge, for all passions to all purposes, what a sore -blow is given to the public quiet, when the means to -welfare is made an instrument of distemper! For will -not he fight in his fury who brawls in his books? Do -not those minds seem armed for open conflict—nay, -do they not arm others too by pressing enmity forward—which -in private studies enter into combats on paper; -which by too much eagerness make a great ado in -matters better quenched than stirred to life; which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> -whet their wits beforehand to be wranglers ever after, -and as far as lies in them disturb the general welfare? -What I disapprove of is needless combats in learning; -those that are fruitful may go on, yet with no more -passion than common civility and Christian charity will -allow. Excess overburdens, defect weakens, diversity -distracts, but dissension destroys. You know yourselves, -my learned readers, what a wonderful stir there -is daily in your schools, through diverging opinions in -logic, in philosophy, in mathematics, in physics. The -lawyer generally abstains from controversal writing, -because he does not gain by it what he seeks; pleading -in the Common Courts offers a better pasture for a lean -purse than a busy pen. The dissension in divinity is -specially fierce, the more so because it often falls out -that the adversaries intermingle their own passions with -the matters they treat of. For while our religious -doctrines sometimes require defence, disputes might -often be compounded, if men’s feelings were as readily -cooled as they are inflamed. But in the meanwhile -how greatly is the general peace disturbed by dissensions -that turn aside a worthy means, to maintain a -wrong and become a slave to some inordinate passion! -I cannot enter fully upon this subject, but touch upon -it merely that my good readers may understand how -much my desire for the furtherance of learning was -increased after I had noticed these inconveniences, -though at first I meant only to help the teaching of the -learned tongues. Agreement among the learned is the -mother of general contentment; by carping and contradicting -they trouble the world and taint themselves, -bearing all the while the name of Christians—a title -which enjoins us to avoid contention, even by the submission -of those who are wronged, and charges us to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> -defend our religion, not with passionate minds, but with -the armour of patience and truth. These were the -blemishes which I saw by the way, and lamented in the -body of learning. The amendment which I desire -rests upon two great pillars—the professors of learning, -who must give intelligence of the error, and the principal -magistrates—nay, even the sovereign prince—who -being God’s great instruments to procure quietness for -our souls and bodies, our goods and actions, must bring -about redress in so important a matter as the course of -learning.</p> - -<p>The prince may cut off what is in excess, make up -what is deficient, reconcile diversities, expel dissensions, -by his lawful authority for the general good; and -everyone will submit, because everyone is benefited. -This, indeed, confirms Plato’s saying that kings should -be philosophers; that is, that all magistrates should -be learned. It is a great corrosive to the whole body -of learning, which is the procurer of peace, when those -who have to direct gain their wisdom only through -experience. That is much, but experience and learning -together make the better equipment. It is an honourable -conception, besides that it tends to the general -good, for a learned and virtuous prince, assisted by -wise counsel, to reduce the number of those that follow -learning, by some principle of selection in every department, -to decide what kinds of learning are most useful -to the State, and to appoint a reasonable number of -such books as have the best methods of treatment. -The final authority in regard to every profession has -always lain with the prince. Action has been taken -before in all the directions I have spoken of, both by -consent of the learned and by command of good -princes. As our country is small, the thing could be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> -the more easily done; as our livings are limited, it is -the more needful; as the evil is great, we are the less -able to bear it; as our sovereign is learned, we shall be -the readier to give ear; as our people are of good -understanding, they are the better able to inform her. -But as the physician does not thrive by the prevention -of disease, nor the lawyer grow rich by arresting contentions, -nor a divine prosper so much in a heaven -where all is good as on earth where all is evil, and as -private profit will be followed, though it bring confusion -to the State, redress will not stir, because it judges the -world to be in some fault which it is loth to confess. -However, to secure some redress and help in this -matter at the hand of the ruler, is the duty of all -who make a profession of learning, if they will but -consider the reputation of learning in our day, whether -from the contempt in which some professions are held, -or from a deficiency in those who enter them.</p> - -<p>In the professors of learning, to whose solicitation -this point is recommended, two things are chiefly -required. First, that with minds given to peace they -should study soundly themselves, and that the matter -be worthy and taken in due order. For sound learning -will not so soon be shaken at every eager point of -controversy as that which is shallow. Orderly progress -gives security, and a pacific temper furthers the end -that is desired both privately and publicly. The consent -of the learned and their quiet inclination are a -great blessing to any Commonwealth, but especially to -ours in this contentious time, when overwhetted minds -do very little good to some worthy professions. The -distracting division of minds into sects and sorts of -philosophy did much injury in the countries where it -befel, and those nations among which religious dissensions<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> -arose have never been quiet since. The -second point required in a student is not to seek his -own advancement so much as that of the things he -professes, and indeed the possession of these things is -the best means to advance himself, for, where ignorance -is blamed, knowledge is approved, even though the -approver may not be learned. He who studies soundly -recommends letters by his own example; he who -solicits the help of those in authority advances learning -still further; he who uses his pen to strengthen the -best current of opinion proves the genuineness of his -desire by his own practice. In this last form my own -labour seeks to recommend uniformity, to strip off -what is needless, to supply some defects, to help everyone -to as quiet a course as I can temper my style to.</p> - -<p>The second question which I said might be demanded -of me, why I do not follow the precedent of those -learned writers who have handled the subject with -great admiration may be very soon answered. I admit -that the number of those who have written upon the -upbringing of children might be considered sufficient, -and I grant the excellence of many of them, such as -Bembus, Sturmius, and Erasmus. But the situation is -different. A free city and a country under a monarchy -are not in the same position, though they agree in -some general respects, in which indeed these writers do -not dissent from me. Nor do I fail to follow good -writers, taking example from those authors who taught -all the later ones to write so well. I am the servant of -my country; for her sake I labour, her circumstances I -must consider, and whatsoever I shall pen I shall -myself see it carried out, by the grace of God, in order -the better to persuade others by offering the proof of -trial.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></p> - -<p>The third question, as to my writing in English, and -my being so careful—I will not say fastidious—in -expression, concerns me more nearly, for it has some -importance. It is the opinion of some that we should -not treat any philosophical subject, or any ordinary -subject in a philosophical manner, in the English -tongue, because the unlearned find it too difficult to -understand in any case, and the learned, holding it in -little esteem, get no pleasure from it. In regard both -to writing in English generally, and my own writing in -particular, I have this to say: No one language is finer -than any other naturally, but each becomes cultivated -by the efforts of the speaker who, using such opportunities -as are afforded by the kind of government -under which he lives, endeavours to garnish it with -eloquence, and enrich it with learning. Such a tongue, -elegant in form and learned in matter, while it keeps -within its natural soil, not only serves its immediate -purpose with just admiration, but in foreigners who -become acquainted with it, it kindles a great desire to -have their own language resemble it. Thus it came to -pass that the people of Athens beautified their speech -in the practice of pleading, and enriched it with all -kinds of knowledge, bred both within Greece and -outside of it. Thus it came to pass that the people of -Rome, having formed their practice in imitation of the -Athenian, became enamoured with the eloquence of -those from whom they were borrowing, and translated -their learning also. However, there was not nearly the -same amount of learning in the Latin tongue during -the time of the Romans as there is at this day by the -industry of students throughout the whole of Europe, -who use Latin as a common means of expression, both -in original works and in translations. Roman authority<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> -first planted Latin among us here, by force of their -conquest, and its use in matters of learning causes it to -continue. Therefore the so-called Latin tongues have -their own peoples to thank, both for their own cultivation -at home and for the favour they enjoy abroad. -So it falls out that, as we are profited by means of -these tongues, we should pay them honour, and yet not -without cherishing our own, in regard both to cases -where the usage is best and to those where it is open to -improvement. For did not these tongues use even the -same means to cultivate themselves before they proved -so beautiful? Did the people shrink from putting into -their own language the ideas they borrowed from -foreign sources? If they had done so, we should never -have had the works we so greatly admire.</p> - -<p>There are two chief reasons which keep Latin, and to -some extent other learned tongues, in high consideration -among us,—the knowledge which is registered in them, -and their use as a means of communication, in both -speaking and writing, by the learned class throughout -Europe. While these two benefits are retained, if there -is anything else that can be done with our own tongue, -either in beautifying it, or in turning it to practical -account, we cannot but take advantage of it, even -though Latin should thus be displaced, as it displaced -others, bequeathing its learning to us. For is it not -indeed a marvellous bondage, to become servants to one -tongue for the sake of learning, during the greater part -of our time, when we can have the very same treasure -in our own language, which forms the joyful title to our -liberty, as the Latin reminds us of our thraldom? I -love Rome, but I love London better; I favour Italy, -but I favour England more; I honour the Latin tongue, -but I worship the English. I wish everything were in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> -our tongue which the learned tongues gained from -others, nor do I wrong them in treating them as they -did their predecessors, teaching us by their example -how boldly we may venture, notwithstanding the opinion -of some among us, who desire rather to please themselves -with a foreign language that they know, than to -profit their country in their own language, which they -ought to know. It is no argument to say: Will you -dishonour those tongues which have honoured you, and -without which you could never have enjoyed the learning -of which you propose to rob them? For I honour them -still, as much as any one, even in wishing my own -tongue to be a partaker of their honour. For if I did -not hold them in great admiration, because I know -their value, I would not think it any honour for my own -language to imitate their grace. I wish we had the -stores with which they furnished themselves from foreign -sources. For the tongues that we study were not the -first getters, though by learned labour they prove to be -good keepers, and they are ready to discharge their -trust, in handing on to others what was committed to -them for a term, and not in perpetuity. There can be no -disgrace in their delivering to others what they received -on that understanding. The dishonour will lie rather -with the tongue that refuses to receive the inheritance -intended for it and duly offered to it, and from this dishonour -I would our language were free. I admit the -good fortune of those tongues that had so great a start -over others that they are most welcome wherever they -set foot, and are always admired for their rare excellence, -disposing all men to think little of any form of -speech that does not resemble them, and to rank even -the best of these as marvellously behind them. The -diligent labour of the learned men of ancient times so<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> -enriched their tongues that they proved very pliable, as -I am assured our own will prove, if our learned fellow-countrymen -will bestow their labour on it. And why, -I pray you, should such labour not be bestowed on -English, as well as on Latin or any other language? -Will you say it is needless? Certainly that will not -hold. If loss of time over tongues, while you are -pilgrims to learning, is no injury, or lack of sound skill, -while language distracts the mind from the sense, especially -with the foolish and inexperienced, then there might -be some ground for holding it needless. But since there -was no need for the present loss of time in study -through labouring with tongues, and since our understanding -is more perfect in our natural speech, however -well we may know the foreign language, methinks -necessity itself calls for English, by which all that -bravery may be had at home that makes us gaze so -much at the fine stranger. But you will say it is -uncouth; so it is, through being unused. So was it -with Latin, and so it is with every language. Cicero -himself, the paragon of Rome while he was alive, and -our best pattern now though he is dead, had great -wrestling with such wranglers, and their disdain of their -natural speech, before he won from the public of his -time the opinion in which he was held by the best of -his friends then, and is held by us now. Are not all -his prefaces to his philosophical writings full of such -conflicts with these cavillers? English wits are very -well able, thank God, if the good will were present, to -make that uncouth and unknown learning very familiar -to our people in our own tongue, even by the example -of those very writers we esteem so highly, who having -done for other languages what I wish for ours in the -like case, must needs approve of us, unless they assert<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> -that the merit of conveying knowledge from a foreign -tongue died with them, not to revive among us. But -whatever they may say to continue their own credit, our -fellow-countrymen cannot but think that it is our praise -to obtain by purchase and transplanting into our own -tongue what they were so desirous to place in theirs, -and are now so loth to forgo again; it is indeed the -fairest flower of their whole garland, for these tongues -would wither soon, or decay altogether, but for the great -knowledge contained therein. If our people were not -readier to wonder at their workmanship than to take -trouble with their own tongue, they might have the -same advantage. Our English is our own, and must -be used by those to whom it belongs, as were those -others that were ranked with the best.</p> - -<p>But it may be replied that our English tongue is not -worthy of such cultivation, because it has so little -extent, stretching no further than this island of ours, -and not even over the whole of that. What though -this be true? Still it reigns here and serves our purpose; -it should be brushed clean in order to be worn. -Are not English folk, I pray you, as particular as -foreigners? And is not as much taste needed for our -tongue in speaking, and our pen in writing, as for -apparel and diet? But, it will be said, our State is no -empire, hoping to enlarge itself by ruling other -countries. What then? Though it be neither large in -possession, nor in present hope of great increase, yet -where it rules it can make good laws to suit its position, -as well as the largest country can, and often -better, since in the greatest governments there is often -confusion.</p> - -<p>But again, it will be urged, we have no rare knowledge -belonging to our soil to make foreigners study<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> -our tongue as a treasure of such store. What of that? -We are able by its means to apply to our use all the -great treasure both of foreign soil and of foreign language. -And why may not English wits, if they will -bend their wills to seek matter and method, be as much -sought after by foreign students for the increase of their -knowledge as our soil is already sought after by foreign -merchants for the increase of their wealth? As the -soil is fertile because it is cultivated, so the wits are not -barren, if they choose to bring forth.</p> - -<p>Yet though all this be true, we are in despair of ever -seeing our own language so refined as were those where -public orations were held in ordinary course, and the -very tongue itself made a chariot to honour. Our -State is a monarchy, which controls language, and -teaches it to please; our religion is Christian, and -prefers the naked truth to refinement of terms. What -then? If for want of that exercise which the Athenian -and the Roman enjoyed in their spacious courts, no -Englishman should prove to be a Cicero or a Demosthenes, -yet in truth he may prove comparable to them -in his own commonwealth and in the eloquence that -befits it. And why not indeed comparable to them in -all points that concern his natural tongue? Our brain -can bring forth; our ideas will bear life; our tongues -are not tied, and our labour is our own. And eloquence -itself is limited neither to one language nor to one soil; -the whole world is its measure, and the wise ear is its -judge, having regard not to greatness of state, but to -the capacity of the people. And even though we should -despair of altogether rivalling the excellence of foreign -tongues, must our own therefore be unbeautified? It -should certainly strive to reach its best if I could help. -We may aspire to come to a certain height, even though<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> -we can pass no further. The nature of our government -will admit true speaking and writing, and eloquence -will be approved if it gives pleasure and is worthy of -praise, so long as it preaches peace, and tends to -preserve the State. Our religion does not condemn -any ornament of language which serves the truth and -does not presume overmuch. Nay, may not eloquence -be a great blessing from God, and the trumpet of his -honour, as Chrysostom calls that of St. Paul, if it be -religiously bent? Those who have read the story of -the early church find that eloquence in the primitive -Christians overthrew great forces bent against our -faith, and persuaded numbers to embrace the cause, -when the power of truth was joined to force in the -word. We should seek eloquence to serve God, but -shun it to serve ourselves, unless we have God’s -warrant.</p> - -<p>But will you thus break off communication with -learned foreigners by banishing Latin, and putting her -learning into your own tongue? Communication will not -cease while people have cause to interchange dealings, -and it may easily be continued without Latin. -Already in some countries, whose languages are akin to -the Latin, the learned class are weaning their tongues -and pens from the use of Latin, both in written discourse -and spoken disputation, to their own natural -speech. It is a question not of disgracing Latin, but -of gracing our own language. Why should we honour -a stranger more than our own, if the purpose be served? -And although, on account of the limitations of our language, -no foreigner would seek to borrow from us as -we do from other tongues, because we devise nothing -new, though we receive the old, yet we ourselves gain -very much in study by being set from the first in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> -privy chambers of knowledge, through the familiarity of -our native speech. Justinian the emperor said to the -students of law, when he gave imperial force to his -Institutes, that they were most happy in the advantage -of hearing the Emperor’s voice at first hand, while those -of earlier times were delayed for four whole years. -And does not our study of foreign languages take us -fully four years? If this were the only hindrance -indeed, and if we gained otherwise, we could bear the -loss. But it is not only time that is lost in studying -foreign tongues, though we must use them till we learn -to do without them. Who can deny that we understand -best in our natural speech, seeing that all our -foreign learning is applied through the medium of our -own language, and learning is of value only in so far as -it is applied to particular uses?</p> - -<p>But why not everything in English, a tongue in -itself both deep in meaning and frank in utterance? I -do not think that any language whatsoever is better -able to express all subjects with pith and plainness, if -he who uses it is as skilful and well-instructed as the -foreigner. Methinks I myself could prove this in -regard to the most varied subjects, though I am no -great scholar, but only an earnest well-wisher to my -own country. And though in dealing with certain -subjects we must use many foreign terms, we are only -doing what is done in the most renowned languages, -that boast of their skill and knowledge. It is a necessity -between one country and another to interchange -words to express strange matter, and rules are appointed -for adapting them to the use of the borrowers. It is -an accident which keeps our tongue from natural -growth out of its own resources, and not the real -nature of the language, which could strain with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> -strongest and stretch to the furthest, either for the -purposes of government, if we were conquerors, or for -learning if we were its treasurers, no whit behind the -subtle Greek for couching close, or the stately Latin for -spreading fair. Our tongue is capable of all, if our -people would bestow pains upon it. The very soil of -Greece, it is noted by some, had a refining influence on -Philelphus, who was born in Italy. Italy, says Erasmus, -would have had the same effect on our Sir Thomas -More, if he had been trained there. And cannot labour -and practice work as great wonders in English wits at -home as the air can do abroad? Is a change of soil -the best or the only means of furthering growth? Nay, -surely wits are equally sharp everywhere, though where -there is less intercourse and a heavier climate, the -labour must be greater to make up for what is wanting -in nature. If such pains be taken we may boldly arm -ourselves with that two-worded and thrice worthy question—Why -not? But grant that it were an heresy, -seeing that we are trained in foreign tongues, even to -wish everything to be in English. Certainly there is -no fault in handling in English what is proper to -England, though the same subject well handled in -Latin would be likely to please Latinists. But an -English benefit must not be measured by the pleasure of -a Latinist. It is a matter not for scholars to play with, -but for students to practise, where everyone can judge. -Besides, how many shallow things are often uttered in -Latin and other foreign tongues, which under the bare -veil of a strange form seem to be something, but if they -were expressed in English, and the mask pulled off so -that everyone could see them, would make but a sorry -show, and soon be disclaimed even by those who -uttered them, with some thought of the old saying—“Had<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> -I known, I would not!” And were it not better -to gain judgment throughout in our own English than -either to lose it or hinder it in Latin or any other -foreign tongue? Such considerations make me thankful -for what we have gained from foreign sources, but -at the same time desirous of furthering the interest of -my own natural tongue, and therefore in treating of -the first rudiments of learning I am very well content -to make use of English, without renouncing my right -to use Latin or any other learned tongue, when I come -to speak of matters where it may be suitable.</p> - -<p>But while my writing in English may seem not -amiss for the service of my country, my manner of -writing may offend some in seeming fastidious and -obscure, and I may be brought to task as failing in -what I professed, by dealing with matters too hard for -the ignorant to understand, or using too close a style -and too rare terms for plain folks to follow. All these -difficulties are very great foes to the perception of the -ordinary man, who can understand only so far as he -has been trained, and they are no good friends to my -purpose, as I write for the benefit of the many, who are -untrained and unskilful. But although these objections -make a very plausible show, yet I must beg leave to -plead my own cause in regard to matter, style, and the -use of terms. Indeed half my answer is given when I -say that I mean well to my country, for in attempting -difficulties one may claim pardon for defects, and what -I do is in the interest of our tongue, which I desire to -see enriched in every way and honoured with every -ornament of eloquence, so that it can vie with any -foreign language.</p> - -<p>But first to examine the charge of hardness in the -subject-matter, which the reader is said to have difficulty<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> -in understanding. In what, I pray you, consists this -hardness that is said to lie in the matter? Or rather -does not all hardness belong to the person, and not to -the thing, in this case as everywhere else? If the -person who undertakes to teach does not know his -subject well enough to make it properly understood, is -the thing therefore hard that is not thoroughly grasped? -Or if the learner either fails to understand owing to -deficient knowledge, or will not make the needful effort -owing to some evil disposition, is the thing therefore -hard which is so crossed by personal infirmity? Surely -not. There is no hardness in anything which is -expressed by a learned pen, however far removed from -common use, (though to shield negligence the charge is -often made), if the teacher knows it sufficiently, and the -learner be willing and not wayward. For what are the -things which we handle in learning? Are they not of -our own choice? Are they not our own inventions? -Are they not meant to supply our own needs? And -was not the first inventor very well able to open up the -thing he invented before he commended it to others? -Or did those who received it do so before they were -instructed as to its use? Or could blunt ignorance -have won such credit in a doubtful case, though professing -to bring advantage, that it was believed before -it had persuaded those who had any foresight, by plain -evidence that the thing was profitable, as well for the -present as for the time to come? If the first inventor -could both find and persuade, his follower must do likewise, -or be at fault himself; he must deliver the matter -from the suspicion of hardness, which arises from his -own defect in exposition. If he who reads fails to -grasp the meaning through ignorance, he is to be pardoned -for his infirmity; if having some capacity he fails<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> -from lack of will, he is punished enough by being left -in ignorance; and if while able to follow with the best -he keeps with the worst, blinded understanding is the -greatest darkness, and punishes the evil humour with -the depraving of reason. If an expounder, such as I -am now, be himself weak, he is ill-advised if he either -writes before he knows, or does not mend when he has -written amiss, provided he knows where and how. Yet -the reader’s courtesy is some protection against error to -him who writes, as the writer’s pardon is a protection -to him who reads, if simple ignorance is the only fault, -without defect in goodwill.</p> - -<p>It will be admitted that hardness must arise either -from the thing itself or from the handling. If the thing -itself is hard it must be because it is strange to the -reader, because it is outside of his ordinary interests and -occupations, or because he does not give full study -and attention to it. To illustrate the former difficulty, -what affinity is there, in respect of occupation, between -a simple ploughman, a wary merchant, and a subtle -lawyer, or between manual trades and metaphysical -discourses, whether in mathematics, physics, or -divinity? Again, even to students who profess some -alliance with what they study, can anything be easy -if they have not laboured sufficiently in it? I need -say no more than this, that where there is no -acquaintance in profession there is no help to understanding, -where there is no familiarity there is no -facility, where there is no conference there is no -knowledge. If the man delves the earth, and the -matter dwells in heaven, there is no means of uniting -them over so great a distance. But when the understanding, -though in affinity, is clearly insufficient, there -is far more hardness than where there is a difference<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> -of occupation, because a vain conceit brings much -more error than weak knowledge. Some good may -come out of an ignorant fellow if he begin to take -hold, but the lukewarm learned mars his way by -prejudiced opinion. But in all this, if there be any -difficulty about the matter, its cause lies in the man, -and not in the nature of the thing. I am quick in -teaching, and hard of understanding, but towards whom -and why? Towards him, forsooth, who is not sufficiently -acquainted with the matter in hand. Well, -then, if want of familiarity is the cause of the difficulty, -acquaintance once made and continued will remedy -that complaint, if the matter seem worth the man’s -acquaintance in his natural tongue, for that is a question -in a vision blinded by foreign glamours, or if the -learner is really desirous to be rid of his ignorance, -for that is another question where a vain opinion over-values -itself. For in the case of a book written in the -English tongue there are so many Englishmen well able -to satisfy fully the ignorant reader, that it were too -great a discourtesy not to lighten a man’s labour with -a short question, and an equally short answer. But -where the matter, being no pleasant tale nor amorous -device, but a serious and worthy argument concerning -sober learning, not familiar to all readers, or even to all -writers, professes no ease without some effort, then if -such effort be not made an unnatural idleness is -betrayed, which desires less to find ease than to find -fault. For why should one labour to help all, and none -be willing to help that one? Nay, why should none be -willing to help themselves out of the danger and -bondage of blind ignorance? If the book were all -in Latin, and the reader were not acquainted with a -single word, then the case would be desperate, but as it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> -is, any man may compass it with very little inquiry -from his skilful neighbour. Therefore if anything seems -hard to an ignorant man who desires to know, and fails -owing to the unfamiliarity of the subject, he must -handle the thing often, so that it may become easy, and -when a doubt arises he must confer with those who -have more knowledge. For all strange things seem -great novelties, and are hard to grasp at their first -arrival, but after some acquaintance they become quite -familiar, and are easily dealt with. And words likewise -which express strange matters, or are strangers themselves, -are not wild beasts, nor is a term a tiger to -prove wholly untractable. Familiarity and acquaintance -will bring facility both in matter and in words.</p> - -<p>If the handling seems to cause the difficulty, and if -that proceeds from him who presents the argument, not -only in the opinion of the unpractised reader, but truly -in the view of those who are able to judge, then such a -writer is worthy of blame, in seeking to expound without -sufficient study; but if the defective handling is -due not to the writer, but to plain misunderstanding, -then there is small praise to the reader who misconstrues -without regard to courtesy or reverence for -truth.</p> - -<p>As for my style in treatment, if it be charged with -difficulty, that also proceeds from choice, being intended -to show that I come from the forge, being always -familiar with strong steel and pithy stuff in the reading -of good writers, and therefore bound to resemble that -metal in my style. To argue closely and with sequence, -to trace causes and effects, to seek sinews and sound -strength rather than waste flesh, is seemly for a student, -especially when he writes for perpetuity, where the -reader may keep the book by him to study at his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> -leisure, not being forced either to take it all at once or -forgo it altogether, as is the case in speech. Discourses -that are entirely popular, or are written in haste for the -moment, may well be slight in manner, for their life is -short; and where what is said is at once to be put to -present use, the plainer the style the more plausible it -will be, and therefore most excellent in its kind, since -the expression must be adapted to the immediate end -in view, leaving nothing to muse on, as there is no time -for musing. But where the matter is no courier to post -away in haste, and there must be musing on it, another -course must be taken, and yet the manner of delivery -must not be thought hard, nor compared with others of -a different kind, considering that it is meant to teach, -and can use such plainness only as the subject admits -of. Does any man of judgment in learning and in -the Latin tongue think that Cicero’s orations and his -discourses in philosophy were equally well known and -of equal plainness to the people of Rome, though both -in their own way are plain enough to us, who know the -Latin tongue better than our own, because we pore -over it, and pay no attention to our own? Certainly -not, as appears from many passages in Cicero himself, -where he notes the difference, and confesses that the -newness of the subjects which he transported from -Greece was the cause of some darkness to the ordinary -reader, and of some contempt to the learned because -they fancied the Greek more. Yet neither ignorance -nor contempt could discourage his pen from seeking -the advantage of his own language, by translating into -it the learning which others wished to remain in the -Greek; he kept on his course, and in the end the tide -turned in his favour, bringing him the credit which he -enjoys to this day. And he himself bears witness that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> -the resistance he met with was due not only to the -matter of which he treated, but also to his manner of -expression, and even to the very words he used, which -being strange and newly-coined were not understood -by the ordinary reader. “I could write of these -things,” he says, meaning philosophical subjects, “like -Amasanius” (an obscure writer of apophthegms) “but -in that case not like myself; as plainly as he, but not -then so as to satisfy myself, or do justice to the subject -as I should handle it. I must define, divide, distinguish, -exercise judgment, and use the terms of art. I must -have regard as well to those from whom my learning -is borrowed, that they may say they meant it so, as to -those for whom it is borrowed, that they may say they -understand it.”</p> - -<p>The writer who does otherwise may be thought plain -by those who seek nothing far, but if those who call -for plainness are always to be pleased, and dealt with -so daintily that they are put to no pains to learn and -enquire, when they find themselves in a difficulty -through their own ignorance; if they must be made a -lure for learning to descend to, rather degenerating herself -than teaching them to look up, what is the use of -skill? He who made the earth made hills and dales, -heights and plains, smooth places and rough, and yet -all good of their own kind. Plainness is good for a -pleasant course, and a popular style is in place in -ordinary argument, where no art is needed because the -reader knows none, and the matter can be simply -expressed, being indeed in her best colours when -she is dressed for common purposes. Likewise this -alleged hardness, though it belong to the matter, has -its special use in whetting people’s wits, and making -a deep impression, where what seems dark contains<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> -something that must be considered thrice before it is -mastered.</p> - -<p>Labour is the coin which is current in heaven, for -which and by which Almighty God sells His best wares, -though in His great goodness He sometimes does more -for some in giving them quickness and intelligence, -even without great labour, than any labour can do for -others, in order to let us know that His mercy is the -mistress when our labour learns best. But in our ordinary -life, if carpeting be knighting, where is necessary -defence? If easy understanding be the readiest learning, -then wake not my lady; she learns as she lies. If -all things are hard which everyone thinks to be so, -where is the privilege and benefit of study? What is -the use of study, if what we get by labour is condemned -as too hard for those that do not study. I will not -allege that the learned men of old made use of obscure -expressions in matters of religion in order to win reverence -towards a subject that belonged to another world -and could not be fully dealt with in ordinary speech, -nor that the old wisdom was expressed in riddles, proverbs, -fables, oracles, and mystic verses, in order to -draw men on to study, and fix in the memory what was -carefully considered before it was uttered. Are any of -our oldest and best writers whom we now study, and -who have been thought the greatest, each in his -kind, ever since they first wrote, understood at once -after a single reading, even though those who are -studying them know their tongue as well as we know -English—nay, even better, because it is more intricate? -Or is their manner of writing to be disapproved of as -dark, because the ignorant reader or fastidious student -cannot straightway rush into it? That they fell into -that compressed kind of writing owing to their very<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> -pith in saying much where they speak least, is clearly -shown by the comments of those who expand at great -length what was set down in one short sentence—nay, -even in a single phrase of a sentence. Are not all the -chief paragons and principal leaders in every profession -of this same character, inaccessible to ordinary people, -even though using the same language, and giving of -their store only to those who will study?</p> - -<p>But may not this obscurity lie in him who finds it -rather than in the matter, which is simple in itself, and -simply expressed, though it may not seem so to him? -Our daintiness deceives us, our want of goodwill blinds -us—nay, our lack of skill is the very witch which -bereaves us of sense, though we profess to have knowledge -and favour towards learning. For everyone who -bids a book good-morrow is not necessarily a scholar, -or a judge of the subject dealt with in the book. He -may have studied up to a certain point, but perhaps -neither hard nor long, or he may be very little acquainted -with the subject he is seeking to judge of. Perhaps the -desire of preferment has cut short his study when it -was most promising, or there is some other of the many -causes of weakness, although pretension may impose -upon the world with a show of learning. Any man -may judge well of a matter which he has sufficiently -studied, and thoroughly practised (if it be a study that -requires practice), and has regarded in its various -relations. A pretty skill in some particular direction -will sometimes glance beyond, and show a smattering -of further knowledge, but no further than a glance, no -more than a smattering. Therefore, in my judgment -of another man’s writings, so much only is just as I -should be able to prove soundly, if I were seriously -challenged by those who can judge, not so much as I<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> -may venture uncontrolled, in seeking merely to please -myself or those as ignorant as myself. Apelles could -admit the opinion of the cobbler, so far as his knowledge -of cobbling justified him, but not an inch further.</p> - -<p>As for my manner of writing, if I do not meet expectation, -I have always some warrant, for I write rather -with regard to the essence of the matter in hand than to -superficial effect. For however it may be in speech, -and in that kind of writing which resembles speech, -being adapted to ordinary subjects with an immediate -practical end, certainly where the matter has to stand a -more lasting test, and be tried by the hammer of -learned criticism, there should be precision, orderly -method, and carefully chosen expression, every word -having its due force, and every sentence being well and -deliberately weighed. Such writing, though it may be -without esteem in our age through the triviality of the -time, may yet win it in another, when its value is -appreciated. Some hundreds of years may pass before -saints are enshrined, or books gain their full authority.</p> - -<p>As for the general writing in the English tongue, I -must needs say that for some points of handling there -is no language more excellent than ours. For teaching -memory work pleasantly, as in the old leonine verses, -which run in rhyme, it admits more dalliance with -words than any other tongue I know. In firmness of -speech and strong ending it is very forcible, because of -the monosyllabic words of which it so largely consists. -For fine translation in pithy terms I find it as quick as -any foreign tongue, or quicker, as it is wonderfully -pliable and ready to express a pointed thought in very -few words. For apt expression of a good deal of -matter in not many words it will do as much in original -utterance as in any translation. This compact expression<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> -may sometimes seem hard, but only where ignorance -is harboured, or where indolence is an idol, which will -not be persuaded to crack the nut, though it covet the -kernel. I need give no example of these, as my own -writing will serve as a general pattern. No one can -judge so well of these points in our tongue as those -who find matter flowing from their pen which refuses -to be expressed in any other form. For our tongue -has a special character as well as every other, and cannot -be surpassed for grace and pith.</p> - -<p>In regard to the force of words, which was the third -note of alleged obscurity, there are to be considered -<em>familiarity</em> for the general reader, <em>beauty</em> for the learned, -<em>effectiveness</em> to give pleasure, and <em>borrowing</em> to extend -our resources and admit of ready expression. Therefore, -if any reader find fault with a word which does -not suit his ear, let him mark the one he knows, and -learn to value the other, which is worth his knowing. -Do we not learn from words? No marvel if it is so, for -a word is a metaphor, a learned translation, something -carried over from its original sense to serve in some -place where it is even more properly used, and where it -may be most significant, if it is properly understood. -Take pains to learn from it; you have there a means -of gaining knowledge. It is not commonly used as I -am using it, but I trust I am not abusing it, and it may -be filling a more stately place than any you have ever -seen it in. Then mark that the place honours the -parson, and think well of good words, for though they -may be handled by ordinary, or even by foul lips, yet -in a fairer mouth, or under a finer pen, they may come -to honour. It may be a stranger, and yet no Turk, -and though it were the word of an enemy, yet a good -thing is worth getting, even from a foe, as well by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> -language of writers as by the spoil of soldiers. And -when the foreign word has yielded itself and been -received into favour, it is no longer foreign, though of -foreign race, the property in it having been altered. -But he who will speak of words need not lack them. -However, in this place there is no further need of words, -to say either which are familiar, or beautiful, or effective, -or which are borrowed; nor is there need to say that -in regard to any ornament in words we give place to no -other tongue.</p> - -<p>As for my own words and the terms that I use, they -are generally English, and if any be an incorporated -stranger, or translated, or freshly-coined, I have shaped -it to fit the place where I use it, as far as my skill will -permit. The example and precept of the best judges -warrant us in enfranchising foreign words, or translating -our own without too manifest insolence or wanton -affectation, or else inventing new ones where they are -clearly serviceable, the context explaining them -sufficiently till frequent usage has made them well -known. Therefore, to say what I mean in plain -terms, he who is soundly learned will straightway -recognise a scholar; he who is well acquainted with a -strong pen, whether in reading authors or in actual use, -will soon master a compact style; he who has skill in -language, whether old and scholarly or newly received -into favour, will not wonder at words whose origin -he knows, nor be surprised at a thought tersely -expressed, in a way familiar to him in other languages. -Therefore, as I fear not the judgment of the skilful, -because courtesy goes with knowledge, so I value their -friendship, because their support gives me credit.</p> - -<p>As for those who lack the skill to judge rightly, -though they may be sharp censors and ready to talk<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> -loudly, I must crave their pardon if I do not bow to -their censure, which I cannot accept as a true judgment. -Yet I am content to bear with such fellows, and pardon -them their errors in regard to myself, as I trust that -those who can judge will in their courtesy pardon me -my own errors. Those who cannot judge rightly for -want of knowledge, but will not betray their weakness -by judging wrongly, if they desire to learn in any case -of doubt, have the learned to give them counsel. The -profit is theirs, if they are willing to take it, but if not, -they shall not deter me from writing, and I shall hope -at length by deserving well to win their favour, or at -least their silence. In conclusion as to the manner of -writing and use of words in English, this is my opinion, -that he who will justify himself may find many arguments, -some closely related to the particular subject -that may be in question, others more general but likely -to be serviceable, and if in his practice he hath due -regard to clear and appropriate expression, then even -though one or two things should seem strange to those -who judge, the writer is free from blame. As for -invention in matter and eloquence in style, the learned -know well in what writers they are to be found, and -those who are not scholars must learn to think of such -things before they presume to judge, lest by failing to -measure the writer’s level, they should have no just -standard to apply. As for the matter itself which is to -be treated by any learned method, as I have already -said, familiarity will make it easy, though it seem hard, -just as it will make the manner of expression easy, -though it seem strange, if the thing really deserves to -be studied, which will not appear until some progress is -made. And a little hardness, even in the most obscure -philosophical discussions, will never seem tedious to an<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> -enquiring mind, such as he must have who either seeks -to learn himself, or desires to see his native tongue -enriched and made the instrument of all his knowledge, -as well as of his ordinary needs.</p> - -<p>But I have been too tedious, my good readers, yet -perhaps not so, since no haste is enjoined, and you may -read at leisure. I have now to request you, as I -mentioned at first, to grant me your friendly construction, -and the favour due to a fellow-countryman. The -reverence towards learning which leads the good -student to embrace her in his youth, and advances him -to honour by her preference in later years, will plead for -me with the learned in general, in my endeavour to -assert the rights of her by whose authority alone they -are themselves of any account. Among my fellow-teachers -I may hope that community of interest will -help me more with the courteous and learned than a -foolish feeling of rivalry will harm me with ignorant -and spiteful detractors. Regard for my own profession, -and this hope of support from learned teachers, move -me to lay stress upon one special point, which in duty -must affect them no less than me, namely, the need for -careful thought in improving our schools. I say -nothing here of the conscientious and religious motives -that influence us, nor of the need for personal maintenance -that demands our labour. But I would acknowledge -the special munificence of our princes and -parliaments towards our whole order in our country’s -behalf, partly in suffering us to enjoy old immunities, -partly in granting us divers other exemptions from personal -services and ordinary payments to which our -fellow-subjects are liable. These favours deserve at our -hands an honourable remembrance, and bind us further -to discharge the trust committed to us. I doubt not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> -that this feeling which moves me strongly, moves also -many of my profession, whose friendship I crave for -favourable construction, and whose conference I desire -for help in experience, as I shall be glad in the common -cause either to persuade or be persuaded. Of those that -are not learned I beg friendship also, and chiefly as a -matter of right, because I labour for them, and my -goodwill deserves no unthankfulness. God bless us all -to the advancement of His glory, the honour of our -country, the furtherance of good learning, and the well-being -of all ranks, prince and people alike!</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206">[206]</a></span><br /> - <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p> -<p class="p10" /> - -<p class="pfs120">CRITICAL ESTIMATE.</p> -<p class="p10" /> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208">[208]</a></span><br /> - <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209">[209]</a></span></p> -<p class="p6" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a id="CRITICAL_ESTIMATE"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CRITICAL ESTIMATE.</a></h2> - - -<p class="noindent">If the saying of Plato may be applied to another -sphere, not very far removed from civil government, -we may believe that education will never be rightly -practised until either teachers become philosophers, or -philosophers become teachers. It is certainly remarkable -how seldom in the history of educational progress there -has arisen any writer whose authority was based alike -on the power of the abstract thinker to rise above the -conditions of the immediate present into the atmosphere -of pure reason, and on the instinct of the professional -worker, whose conceptions of what is possible have been -chastened by direct experience of the actual. Of the -five classical English writers who have made any noteworthy -contribution to educational thought, all but one -have failed to gain a lasting influence, through the -limitation in their outlook caused by deficient practical -knowledge. Ascham’s experience was too exclusively -academic and courtly to suggest much to him beyond -questions of method in the advanced teaching of Latin -and Greek. Milton’s vision, restricted by his short -and partial attempt at instructing a few selected boys, -narrowed itself to one school period of one rank of -society of one sex, and his genius could not save him -from wild extravagance in his ideas of the acquirements<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> -possible for the average scholar. The suggestions -of Locke, while in one aspect they were more comprehensive, -are yet essentially those of a theorist, who had -never faced the difficulty that the upbringing of a child -by a private tutor is possible only to the merest fraction -of any population. Herbert Spencer, as the heir of -previous centuries, has naturally been able to command -a wider view, but even those who have gained most from -his book, must have felt that owing to his highly generalised -mode of treatment he has at many points failed -to grapple with the problems that chiefly beset the -professional teacher. A little experience, like a little -knowledge, is a dangerous thing, and it may be that -those writers, all of whom claim to have made trial of -the actual work of education, would have been more convincing -if they had written from an avowedly detached -standpoint. Richard Mulcaster alone holds the vantage-ground -of being at once a thinker and a practical expert -in matters of education. Nor does this mean only that -his right to speak with authority will for that reason be -more readily admitted; the evidence of his fuller equipment -for the task may be seen through the whole texture -of his writings. He had not Ascham’s ease in expression -and charm of manner, nor Milton’s commanding intellect -and power of utterance, nor the fearlessness and philosophic -grasp of Locke, nor the encyclopædic knowledge -and acumen of Herbert Spencer, but he had beyond -them all two essential gifts that will in the end give him -a unique place in the history of our educational development—a -clear insight into the realities of human nature, -and an enlightened perception of the conditions that -determine the culture of mind and soul.</p> - -<p>To those who know little or nothing of Mulcaster -such a claim will seem extravagant, and it will naturally<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> -be doubted whether any writer who deserves to be put -upon so high a pedestal, could possibly have remained -so long in neglect. It may be rejoined that in a subject -like education many factors have a part in the making -of reputations. It is no mere coincidence that the -authors named above, whose views on education are so -much more widely-known than those of Mulcaster, all -gained their chief fame in some other sphere of thought; -we read what they have to say on this subject because -it comes from writers who have caught the world’s ear -in some field of more general interest. This advantage -is naturally to be associated with gifts of expression -such as Mulcaster unfortunately possessed only in a very -limited degree, though his deficiency is due much more -to the rudimentary condition of English prose in general -in the sixteenth century, than to any lack of clear -thinking on his own part. It is true, indeed, that no -fine sense of harmony in sound can be credited to a -writer who perpetrates such a sentence as—“I say no -more, where it is too much to say even so much in a -sore of too much.” But even if Mulcaster had spoken -with the tongue of an angel, he would probably have -remained a voice crying in the wilderness, for the time -was not yet come. The ultimate value of Rousseau’s -message to the world in the realm of education was -far less, but his unique powers of persuasive eloquence, -the fame he had achieved in other ways, and the -ripeness of the time, combined to give the later -writer an extraordinary influence. When Mulcaster’s -judgments and suggestions are studied from the -vantage-ground of the present, and in a form that -divests them of adventitious difficulties of understanding, -they will be recognised as giving him a -place of high importance, not only in the chain of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> -historical succession, but in the final hierarchy of educational -reformers.</p> - -<p>It is necessary to take into account the state of -opinion on matters of learning and on the general -conduct of life, in the England of Queen Elizabeth’s -day, before we can appreciate the significance of our -author’s thought. We must place ourselves in the -atmosphere of the Renascence and the Reformation, for -although these great movements, which represented the -intellectual and moral aspects in the awakening of -modern Europe, had been some time in progress, and -had even given place to reaction in the countries of -their birth, their full influence did not reach our shores -till towards the close of the sixteenth century. The -phase of English national life represented by Mulcaster -is that immediately preceding the great expansion of -conscious mental activity to which voice was so -memorably given by Spenser, Shakespeare, Bacon, and -their contemporaries. The prestige of Elizabeth, depending -as it did so largely on the secure establishment -of the Protestant faith, had not yet reached the height -it attained through the final repulse of Spanish -aggression, but yet the power of the crown retained -much of the absolute sway over individual freedom -that had been built up and impressed on the popular -imagination by the earlier Tudors. It was not a time -either of revolt or of reaction. The more galling forms -of political and intellectual despotism had already disappeared -in the general overthrow of the medieval -<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">régime</i>, and it was a more pressing question how to -maintain existing charters of liberty than how to extend -them. This conservative temper is to be discerned in -all the purely English writers of the period, though in -the northern part of Britain Knox and his companions<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> -were troubling the waters of controversy in a more -strenuous fashion.</p> - -<p>Apart from the influence of an atmosphere of general -conformity to established authority and prevailing -sentiment, Mulcaster was constitutionally cautious. He -was no zealot, defiant of opposition, and careless of the -esteem in which he might be held. His respect for -tradition, and, it must be added, his sympathetic -instincts, disposed him always to seek grounds of -agreement rather than of difference, to support his -suggestions by the weight of authority and precedent, -to carry his readers with him by winning their consent -unawares rather than by startling them into reluctant -acquiescence through the use of paradox and exaggeration. -Yet there was no timidity or half-heartedness -in his temperament. He was profoundly convinced -of the justice of his criticisms and the value of his -proposals, and he was not backward in urging his -views, in season at least if not out of season, on all who -shared the responsibility of rejecting them or giving -them effect. He has been accused, indeed, of overweening -self-conceit, and it is to be feared that this is -the only persistent impression of the man that remains -with a number of those who know little of him beyond -his name. He has been cited as a classical example of -the folly into which a misplaced vanity can lead one -who enters with a light heart into the region of -prophecy, that “most gratuitous form of error,” on the -ground that he believed the highest possible perfection -of English prose to be represented by the style of his -own writings. This conception, however, is due to a -misunderstanding which it will be worth while to -remove. The remark that is quoted against him -occurs in the Peroration of the <cite>Elementary</cite>, “I need<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> -no example in any of these, whereof mine own penning -is a general pattern.” Taken apart from the context, -as it usually is, such a sentence sounds fatuous enough, -being naturally understood to mean that Mulcaster -thought he had nothing to learn from any other writers, -and had himself devised a perfect model of English -composition. But anyone who will take the trouble to -read the whole passage (<a href="#Page_201">p. 201</a>) will see at once that the -statement really means, “I need give no example of -any of these [idiosyncrasies of our language, especially -compactness of expression], as they are sufficiently -illustrated in my own writing.” This is a very different -matter, and though Mulcaster had little sense of style, -and was curiously mistaken in his idea that English -prose had no greater heights to reach than the standard -of his own time, the error was due to defects of literary -taste and judgment, not of character or temper. When -his writings are taken as a whole, they offer ample -evidence that he was singularly modest in his pretensions, -losing all self-consciousness in his enthusiasm -for the causes he had at heart.</p> - -<p>This attitude may account for the disposition in -some quarters to deny Mulcaster any special originality -in regard to his leading principles. But in a subject -like education, which concerns so many departments of -life and character, what is the precise meaning of -originality? As the essential traits of human nature -have remained unaltered in the last two or three -thousand years, except for a slow development along -lines in continuity with the past, it is vain to expect -that the broader truths which underlie the arts of social -improvement will be subject to any radical change. In -such matters we must build on the wisdom of the -ancients, and the only possible originality consists in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> -discerning the new applications that are suited to the -present time and place. It is safe to say that there is -hardly a single educational doctrine that has ever won -acceptance, the germs of which are not to be found in -the writings of Plato and Aristotle. Yet every age and -every country must work out its own salvation by -choosing, combining, and applying to its needs the -general principles that have been laid down by those -that came before. Such eclecticism, if it cannot strictly -be called originality, is at least the highest wisdom, and -he who first proclaims the doctrine as true for his own -time and place deserves the credit of the pioneer. The -discoveries of the Greek philosophers in social politics, -if discoveries they could be called, had to be made over -again for the modern world, and it may even be said -that they had to be made independently for each -separate country. In the sixteenth century there was -less uniformity in political and social conditions, and -less mutual influence among the different States of -Europe than there is now. Although the English -nation under Elizabeth could not remain wholly unaffected -by the more drastic changes of opinion and -sentiment that marked the course of the reforming -spirit in Germany and in Scotland, it certainly -demanded a rare sagacity and independence of mind, if -not absolute originality, to discern how far the new -outlook could be shared by those whose experience had -been less revolutionary. To understand the value of -Mulcaster’s work it is of less moment to ask what may -have been his indebtedness to Plato or Quintilian, or -even to Luther and Knox, than to consider whether he -had been directly anticipated by any of his own -countrymen, and whether he himself anticipated, if he -did not influence, later English writers on education.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216">[216]</a></span></p> - -<p>A right estimate of Mulcaster’s temperament, and of -his relation to the surrounding conditions of thought -and feeling, is due not only as a matter of personal -justice, but as affording a key to a proper estimate of -his writings. For these have a significance beyond that -of most works of the kind, in forming a somewhat -unique record of historical facts for a bygone period. -The attempt to trace the lines of progress by comparing -one phase of culture with another, has hitherto had -imperfect success in the sphere of education, for, like -the arts of music and acting, it works in a perishable -medium, and makes a direct impression only on a single -generation. Even indirect testimony has until recently -been almost entirely wanting. To hardly any writer of -earlier times has it occurred to make any report of the -actual conduct of teaching as it existed around him, for -the benefit of future ages. Those who were interested -in the subject have been more concerned to offer -speculative suggestions of reform that have apparently -little organic relation to the conditions of their own -community. It is not so much to the formal treatises -of Plato and Aristotle that we must look for such -knowledge as we can obtain of Athenian education in -the fourth century before Christ, as to the incidental -references of writers who had no thought of conveying -any definite or detailed information on the matter. We -find the same dearth of evidence when we try to -ascertain the actual working of educational methods -and organisation in the most advanced countries of -Europe during the two or three centuries that succeeded -the Renascence. The contemporary writers on -the subject are for the most part idealists; and while -we gladly acknowledge their services in that capacity, -we must regret that to the visionary outlook of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> -reformer they did not add the careful observation of -the historian. If Mulcaster is a noteworthy exception -to this rule, it is not because of set purpose he undertook -the task of record and criticism. It was no part -of his plan to offer any narrative or statistical report; -indeed he expressly refrains from commenting on the -current practice of teaching, and alludes to it only -incidentally. His intention, as with the great majority -of educational writers, was to suggest improvements, to -propose an ideal; but his responsible position as a -headmaster gave him an ever-present sense of what was -practicable, and enabled him to base his efforts on the -firm ground of accomplished fact. His proposals are -so evidently related to the existing state of affairs that -they may almost be taken as affording an historical -record of contemporary practice. The common-sense -criticisms of a shrewd observer like Montaigne, and the -dreams of an idealist such as Rabelais, have their own -value; but we shall listen even more readily to the -words of one who speaks out of the fulness of immediate -knowledge, yet with equal power to rouse our aspiration -and energy.</p> - -<p>Before considering Mulcaster’s contributions to the -theory and art of education strictly so-called, it will be -well to glance at his influence in the more general -aspects of learning and literature. He must be credited -with an important share in the movement towards the -dethronement of Latin in favour of the vernacular -tongues, as the medium of communication in subjects -hitherto held to belong exclusively to the domain of -the learned class. The initiative in this matter goes -back, of course, to the time of Dante, but even with -the examples of Italy, France, and Spain to suggest -the change, it was a distinct and difficult task to work<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> -it out for our own language. Mulcaster was not the -first Englishman to write a book in his native tongue -which everyone would have expected to be written in -Latin. Sir Thomas More, in some of his historical and -controversial works, Roger Ascham, and a few other -writers of lesser note, had anticipated him in practice, -and had been more successful in attaining a lucid and -graceful style, but it may fairly be claimed that -Mulcaster was the first to give a reasoned justification -of the course he followed and recommended, and to -further the end in view by taking definite steps to -elaborate the means. Nor is it only for his service in -helping to establish a canon of literary English, and -show the way to others by using it himself to the best -of his ability, that acknowledgment is due. It was a -still more conspicuous merit to see clearly, and to -enforce by these means, the truth that the increase of -learning, and the methods by which it may be furthered, -are subjects of interest not to any limited class alone, -but to every member of the community. There may -be comparatively little present value in his judgments -as to the proper content of the English vocabulary, and -the forms of spelling which he thought should be made -authoritative, but at least it is noteworthy that, at a -time when linguistic science was at a rudimentary -stage, he had reached a singularly just conception of -the essential nature of a language, and the conditions -of its growth and decay. The interesting allegory -where he traces the process by which speech came to -be represented by written symbols, proves him to have -grasped the idea, only in later times fully understood, -that language, as a product of human activity, -shares in all the features characteristic of organic -development.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219">[219]</a></span></p> - -<p>It is not only the more formal aspects of language, -moreover, that he treats with discrimination. On the -still subtler question of its relation to thought and -knowledge he speaks with a discernment far beyond -his time. The usurping tyranny of <em>words</em> over the -minds of men, in place of the lawful domination of the -realities they symbolised, had in the movement of the -Renascence changed its form without relaxing its -severity. If they were no longer so frequently used as -mere counters in vain disputations, they were yet apt to -be regarded with unreasoning idolatry, as the sacred -embodiment of the thoughts and feelings of settled -forms of civilisation in the past, exempt from any -enquiry as to the conceptions they expressed. Mulcaster -does not share this illusion. In his view language is -primarily a means of communication, and though the -acquirement of foreign tongues may be a necessity for -the time, yet they “push us one degree further off from -knowledge.” He may not have fully realised the -degree in which language is to be reckoned with as a -form of artistic expression and as an instrument of -thought, though his appreciation of the possibilities of -the English tongue shows that he did not forget these -invaluable uses; but in any case he saw clearly, and he -was one of the first to see, that the crying need of his -time was to be set free from the despotism of words, -which made them rather a hindrance than a help to -real knowledge. “We attribute too much to tongues, -in paying more heed to them than we do to matter.” -The bearing of this opinion on educational theory will -be considered presently, but it deserves to be noted at -the outset in evidence of the advanced philosophical -standpoint of a writer who belonged to the generation -preceding Francis Bacon.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220">[220]</a></span></p> - -<p>Mulcaster’s independence of conventional practice is -further set beyond doubt by his conception of the place -of authority in argument. Anticipating Locke in -deprecating the constant use of great names in support -of a writer’s thesis, he is of course laying down a principle -now so universally accepted that it seems unnecessary -to refer to it, but those who are acquainted with -the Renascence writers of any country know how widely -a slavish regard for the opinions of the classical authors -took the place of a direct appeal to the rational judgment -of the reader. It was no needless service to -assign limits to this controversial habit, to discriminate -between superstitious servility and justifiable deference -to previous thinkers, to call for a fearless statement of -the truth as it appeared to each new enquiring spirit, -and claim that it should be tested wholly by its -conformity to reason and nature and experience. -Especially valuable for his time was his insistence on -the difference of circumstance between the ancient and -the modern worlds, and between the characters of the -various nations. He may seem to us to carry these -distinctions to an excess when in considering ideal -types of human nature he takes account of the form of -government under which each individual has to live, -holding certain qualities appropriate to a monarchy and -others to a republic, but at least he laid a useful -emphasis on the relativity of progress, and on the need -for harmony in the component institutions of a particular -form of society.</p> - -<p>Another proof of Mulcaster’s general enlightenment -may be found in the fact that he was the first of his -countrymen to affirm seriously that education was the -birthright of every child born into the community. It -is not intended to suggest by this that he anticipated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> -the full assumption by the State of the duty of providing -and enforcing universal education, but rather that -he desired to foster a public sentiment and social -conditions which would be favourable to the idea that -the rudiments of learning should by one means or -another be distributed throughout the whole body of the -nation. Efforts in this direction had been made in -other countries under the levelling influence of the -reforming spirit in religion, but in England, where the -change of faith had been less associated with a democratic -impulse, nothing had as yet been done to -popularise education in the proper sense of the term, -and public opinion had still to be prepared for the -movement. It is true that the sharp distinctions of -rank which the sixteenth century inherited from the -Middle Ages were never so absolutely marked in the -sphere of learning as in other departments of life. -Though the child of lowly birth could never become a -gentleman, he could become a scholar. The helping -hand extended by the Church to the promising boy of -low degree did not, however, imply any relaxation of -caste feeling so far as the general supply of educational -facilities was concerned. The humble scholar was -raised out of his own class, and was always regarded as -an exception. Taken in the mass, the gentry and the -commonalty were clearly separated, and no kind of -training was thought in any way due to the latter except -such as might make them directly serviceable to their -betters. For the first notable attack on this fundamental -article of medieval faith, apart from the indirect -and interested claims of the Reformation leaders to the -means of influencing the young, credit is generally given -to Comenius. But it must be remembered that half a -century before his time, and in a country where the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> -<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">régime</i> of social status has always held a firm position, -a strong protest against educational exclusiveness was -raised by Richard Mulcaster, who maintained that the -elements of knowledge and training should be recognised -as the privilege of all, irrespective of rank or sex, and -without regard to their future economic functions. “As -for the education of gentlemen,” he writes, “at what -age shall I suggest that they should begin to learn? -Their minds are the same as those of the common -people, and their bodies are often worse. The same -considerations in regard to time must apply to all -ranks. What should they learn? I know of nothing -else, nor can I suggest anything better, than what I -have already suggested for all.” And his unwillingness -to recognise any kind of disability in matters of education, -except what was proved by the test of experience -to be natural, is further shown in his insistence that, as -far as may be possible, girls should have the same -advantages as boys. Though, as he says, in deference -to the general feeling of his time and country he will -not go so far as to propose that girls should be admitted -to the grammar schools and universities, he not only -wishes them to share in all the opportunities of elementary -education, but he wholly approves of the ideal of -higher culture for women, which was represented in the -attainments of Queen Elizabeth herself.</p> - -<p>We may now turn to matters that are less the concern -of the philosophic thinker and social observer than -of the expert in educational practice. Let us first -examine Mulcaster’s conception of the content of a -liberal education, from the two points of view, as to how -far it should embrace a culture of the whole nature, -and as to the proper range of distinctively mental -studies. It is a matter of history that in both these<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> -respects the Renascence ideal had fallen away from the -example of the Greeks. Intellectual culture had to a -large extent been dissociated from physical and moral -training. The life of the scholar was a thing apart from -the conception of chivalry, which encouraged the physical -prowess and regard to a code of honour that were -developed by the military class. The formal profession -of a religious end in learning took the place of a genuine -cultivation of character, and while this restricted path -was open to the more gifted of the poorer classes, the -alternative ideal was reserved for the upper social ranks. -It is true that in our own country in the Elizabethan -era there was some reconciliation of these diverse aims -in the persons of such men as Walter Raleigh and -Philip Sidney, but the type they represented was quite -exceptional, and had no apparent influence on general -educational methods. There was great need for -Mulcaster’s plea that in the upbringing of children -we should return to the ideal expressed in Juvenal’s -familiar phrase, “mens sana in corpore sano.” No -stress need be laid on the particular forms of physical -exercise which he recommended. His suggestions here -were not original, and the present time has little to -learn from the physiological conceptions of the sixteenth -century. But what was really instructive in his own -day, and is scarcely less so in ours, is the intimate -relation he conceived to exist between the body and -the mind—a relation that demanded a harmonious training -of the whole nature. “The soul and the body being -co-partners in good will, in sweet and sour, in mirth and -mourning, and having generally a common sympathy -and mutual feeling, how can they be, or rather why -should they be, severed in education?... As the -disposition of the soul will resemble that of the body,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> -if the soul be influenced for good, it will affect the body -also.” His use of the term <em>soul</em>, moreover, is significant -of the conviction which underlies all his writing, that -the end of all physical intellectual training is the -development of the feelings that prompt to right conduct. -He was not carried away by the current craze -for book-learning into accepting as a legitimate end of -education the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake; -in his view the teacher must always have regard to the -unfolding of the whole character that would bear fruit -in the discharge of the duties of citizenship and other -activities of a complete life. Not that he wished the -school to assume any preponderating control over the -child, either in the direction of opinion or in moral -ascendency. He had too clear an insight into the -springs of conduct to ignore the potency of the earliest -influences of the home, and so far from seeking to usurp -the authority of parents in determining their children’s -lives, he urges the closest co-operation and good feeling -among all who have the pupil’s welfare at heart. Some -further insight will be gained into his comprehensive -ideal of upbringing when we come to consider his -appreciation of home influence more closely, but it -may first be asked what his conception was of the -mental cultivation that should be aimed at in a liberal -curriculum. In regard to the secondary or grammar -school period of education, with which he was most -intimately acquainted, though he has many acute -criticisms and luminous suggestions to offer, his expressed -intention of supplying a systematic treatment -was unfortunately left unfulfilled; and of his ideas as -to university teaching we have little more than a sketch -of proposed reforms. On these points something may -presently be said, but we may turn first to his contributions<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> -towards the establishment of a sound elementary -system, which he held to be the most important stage -of all, because it was the only form of education that -could be brought within the reach of every child, and -was the foundation of all further progress in learning. -Even this part of the task that he imposed on himself -remains incomplete, but there is material enough for a -judgment of his point of view. It would seem that in -England, up to the Elizabethan era at least, no provision -had ever been made for rudimentary instruction -for any except those who were destined to proceed to -the higher stages of learning, and that the elementary -training given to these select few was limited to the -barest preparation for the traditional study of the -classics. The reading and writing of the vernacular -must have been acquired up to a certain point before -the Latin grammar could be attacked, but it is clear -that no adequate justice was done even to these preliminary -subjects, and that no attempt was made to -include a deliberate training of the senses and activities -of the child. Mulcaster’s proposals as to an elementary -course certainly do not sound revolutionary. His -subjects coincide pretty nearly with our familiar “three -R’s,” and he is himself careful to show that he is merely -“reviving” what is commended by the precepts of the -wise men of old, and by the practice of the greatest -States. But it was no small merit to be the first to -perceive that such a revival was possible and desirable -in his own time and country, and when his proposals -are examined it will be found that in the spirit in which -he conceived them they were far in advance alike of -contemporary, and of much later, thought and practice. -It is a well-known criticism of his contemporary, -Montaigne, that teachers were apt to think too much<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> -of the matter that was to be taught, and too little of -the nature of the learner. That this remark was just -in relation to these times we can well believe when we -consider how recently the traditional bearing of the -schoolmaster has been associated rather with the harsh -enforcement of uncongenial tasks under the threat of -penalties than with the sympathetic encouragement of -willing and interested labours. Ascham had protested -against the short-sighted severity of teachers, but failed -to see that its root lay in the fact that the studies presented -were generally ill-adapted to the capacities and -inclinations of the scholars. Mulcaster, on the other -hand, recognised that the remedy must be sought in -the discovery of a more reasonable method, towards -which he had definite constructive proposals to offer. -He may even be said to have anticipated by a couple -of centuries the doctrine of Rousseau, afterwards utilised -by Pestalozzi and Froebel, that the paramount aim of -the teacher is not to communicate knowledge, but to -stimulate and guide the natural activity of the child. -It is to be noted that every one of the five subjects he -proposed to teach in the elementary school is of the -nature of an art, calling for independent action on the -part of the learner, and giving pleasurable exercise to -the senses and bodily organs as well as to the intelligence. -It was more than a happy intuition that led -him to give so honourable a place to drawing and -music; it was a consistent application of his doctrine -that the minds of young children must be fed through -the channels of sense perception, and that faculty is to -be developed by placing the outlets of energy in immediate -contact with the powers of acquisition. Drawing -was intended to give a direct and practical knowledge -of space relations and of the forms of natural objects,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> -by combining the activities of eye and hand, while at -the same time it favoured the cultivation of artistic -expression. Music, being based on varied arrangements -of number in pitch and time, was counted on to supply -the ground-work of arithmetic, while in accordance with -the persuasion of the Greeks it was held to exercise a -definite æsthetic and moral influence on character. -That Mulcaster had not only thought out his theories -on the matter, but had verified them by individual -child-study, is clear from the terms of his recommendations. -“We must seek for natural inclinations in the -soul, which seem to crave the help of education and -nurture, and by means of these may be cultivated to -advantage.... The best way to secure good progress, -so that the intelligence may conceive clearly, -memory may hold fast, and judgment may choose and -discern the best, is so to ply them all that they may -proceed voluntarily and not with violence.”</p> - -<p>The same insight into the heart of the educational -process appears in his treatment of the grammar-school -curriculum. When we remember the absorbing pre-occupation -with classical learning that was the distinctive -mark of the Renascence scholars, and the prominence -given in consequence to linguistic study in education, -we should not wonder if Mulcaster were found acquiescing -in some degree in the narrow ideal that exalted -knowledge at the expense of faculty, and laid more -stress on the interpretation of words than of things. -What will rather excite our surprise and admiration is -the extent to which he was able to rise above the -contemporary estimate of the value of Latin and Greek -as instruments of culture. It is from the pen of one -whose reputation in his own day was based on his -mastery of ancient languages and his success as a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> -teacher of the classics, that we have the clearest statement -of the contrast between the indirect, incidental -value of linguistic training, and the direct, formative -influences of scientific study. “In time all learning -may be brought into one tongue, and that naturally -understood by all, so that schooling for tongues may -prove needless, just as once they were not needed; but -it can never fall out that arts and sciences in their -essential nature shall be anything but most necessary -for every commonwealth that is not utterly barbarous.... -The sciences that we term ‘mathematical’ from -their very nature always achieve something good, intelligible -even to the unlearned, by number, figure, sound, -or motion. In the manner of their teaching also they -plant in the mind of the learners a habit of resisting -the influence of bare probabilities, of refusing to believe -in light conjectures, of being moved only by infallible -demonstrations.”</p> - -<p>It has been stated above that Mulcaster had reached -a conception distinctly in advance of his time in regard -to the true significance of words, as the signs of realities -in the outer world and of the impressions these realities -make upon the mind. We may here notice the influence -of this conception on his treatment of linguistic -study as a means of education. While fully admitting -the necessity for acquiring the classical languages as -long as these continued to be the only vehicles of -learning, he never fails to regret the loss of time absorbed -in studying them, and he anticipates with satisfaction -the time when modern tongues, and especially his own, -will be sufficiently developed and refined to replace -Latin and Greek, believing as he does that “all that -bravery may be had at home that makes us gaze so -much at the fine stranger.” Not that he ever forgets<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> -that words are something more than mere symbols, that -indeed they come to have a certain objective reality of -their own, which must be apprehended as directly as -that of any other natural phenomenon. “Do we not -learn from words?” he asks. “No marvel if it is so, -for a word is a metaphor, a learned translation, something -carried over from its original sense to serve in -some place where it is even more properly used, and -where it may be most significant, if it is properly understood. -Take pains to learn from it; you have there a -means of gaining knowledge.” But this appreciation of -the inner significance of language does not blind him to -the fact, apparently unperceived by all his contemporaries, -that the unfortunate need for devoting so much -time and energy to linguistic study was a very serious -hindrance to the natural unfolding of the mental faculties -through a reasonable education. In his own words, -“we were forced ... to deal with the tongues, ere we -pass to the substance of learning; and this help from -the tongues, though it is most necessary, as our study is -now arranged, yet hinders us in time, which is a thing -of great price—nay, it hinders us in knowledge, a thing -of greater price. For in lingering over language, we -are removed and kept back one degree further from -sound knowledge, and this hindrance comes in our best -learning time.” And in another passage he bewails the -“loss of time over tongues, while you are pilgrims to -learning,” and the “lack of sound skill, while language -distracts the mind from the sense.” Where could we -find a stronger indictment of the Public School tradition -that banishes every form of nature study during the “best -learning time,” the years when the powers of observation -are in their first freshness, for the sake of a premature -initiation into the subtleties of Latin Grammar?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230">[230]</a></span></p> - -<p>We may pass to another important question with -which Mulcaster deals in a spirit in harmony with his -enlightened conception of general instruction. His -assumption that the day-school is the normal arrangement, -and that either an entirely private or a boarding-school -education requires to be justified by special -circumstances, gives him a far wider outlook and a safer -standpoint than can be claimed for theorists, whose -ideal, like that of Locke, regards only the upbringing of -a gentleman’s son at home under a tutor, or, like that -of Milton, involves the collection of large numbers in -boarding establishments of a conventual nature. This -is a matter that is naturally related to the extension of -educational opportunities throughout all classes of the -community. As long as only a select few were thought -fit for learning, residence in the monastery was almost -an affair of necessary convenience, but when teaching -came to be more widely offered, the day-school became -a recognised institution, and such other arrangements as -implied greater expenditure were retained only by the -rich, as instruments of social exclusiveness. It is in -countries where distinctions of rank are comparatively -little marked that the day-school system has flourished -most, and the partiality shown in Mulcaster’s day for -the services of a private tutor, and in subsequent times -for the boarding-school, is certainly to be taken in great -measure as an assertion of class superiority. Mulcaster -was no democrat, but he saw that the rich had more to -lose than to gain by arrangements that unduly restricted -their experience. Moreover he clearly discerned the -importance of the family as the true social unit, the -nursery of the virtues that should be developed in the -school, and find exercise in the public, as well as the -private, conduct of life. It is not his fault that his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> -countrymen have become bound hand and foot to a -system under which the vast majority of well-to-do -parents hand over their children, body and soul, from the -tenderest years to the care of professional upbringers, -divesting themselves with a light heart of the most -precious responsibilities that nature has conferred on -them. “How can education be private?” he asks, “It -is an abuse of the name as well as of the thing.” But -on the other hand he urges—“All the considerations -which persuade people rather to have their children -taught at home than along with others outside, especially -with regard to their manners and behaviour, form arguments -for their boarding at least at home, if the parents -will take their position seriously.... They are distinct -offices, to be a parent, and a teacher, and the difficulties -of upbringing are too serious for all the responsibilities -to be thrown into the hands of one alone.”</p> - -<p>On the question of the position and standing of the -teacher Mulcaster’s contentions were scarcely more -timely and just for his own generation than they are -for the present time. Though certain ranks of the -teaching profession have never been without social consideration, -it remains true that teachers as a whole were -long regarded as an inferior order of the clergy, who did -not reach the goal of their ambition until they had succeeded -in leaving their first calling, to take the more -tranquil and dignified position of a cure of souls. As -he puts it—“The school being used but for a shift, from -which they will afterwards pass to some other profession, -though it may send out competent men to other careers, -remains itself far too bare of talent, considering the -importance of the work.” It was only natural that the -profession should suffer from this want of independence, -in the general esteem, and therefore in its substantial<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> -rewards, but the claim which our author puts forward -for greater public consideration, is obviously based, not -on any petty resentment on behalf of himself or his -fellows, but on broad general grounds of social advantage. -He had a high sense of the importance of the teacher’s -task for the national welfare, and he was anxious on all -grounds that those most fitted to fulfil it with success, -should in the first place be induced to enter the profession -by the prospect of adequate recognition, and in the -second place have sufficient opportunity of training to -enable them to do justice to it. “I consider that in our -universities there should be a special college for the -training of teachers, inasmuch as they are the instruments -to make or mar the growing generation of the -country ... and because the material of their studies -is comparable to that of the greatest profession, in respect -of language, judgment, skill in teaching, variety in -learning, wherein the forming of the mind and exercising -of the body require the most careful consideration, to -say nothing of the dignity of character which should be -expected from them.” Mulcaster, it will here be seen, -has good grounds to offer for magnifying his office, and -striving to win a place of honour for it in the social -economy. Subsequent experience has tended to suggest -that his effort to gain greater consideration for his -profession was more utopian than could perhaps have -appeared to his contemporaries. There are certain -general reasons why in a country like ours the teaching -profession cannot be expected to reach the solidarity -that belongs, for example, to the profession of medicine -or of law. The wide economic differences in our civilisation -inevitably perpetuate distinctions of rank, which are -nowhere more clearly shown than in the choice of schools. -It is natural and right that parents should be no less<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> -concerned about the companionship they provide for -their children than about the quality of the teaching, -and since a free and compulsory education has brought -into the national schools not only the poorest but the -lowest class, those who can afford it must be excused, -and even commended, if they take advantage of other -opportunities, where some principle of selection is -applied. And as there are different classes of children, -representing on the whole different kinds of home-upbringing, -so there will be different ranks of teachers, -varying widely in their status and emoluments. The -question of numbers will always among day-schools give -the town teacher an advantage over his country brother; -the question of fees, in so far as these are not counter-balanced -by endowments or State support, will draw the -most highly-qualified teachers to the schools that serve -the rich; and the secondary teacher will, on the whole, -rank above the elementary teacher, partly because greater -attainments are required from him, and partly because -the higher teaching, requiring a prolonged school course, -is demanded chiefly by the well-to-do classes. That this -economic differentiation would become so marked could -scarcely have been foreseen three centuries ago, and even -though it already existed, Mulcaster was doing good -service in protesting against its extremer forms. His -claim that the elementary teacher is the most important -of all, that he should have the smallest classes to deal -with, and that he should be the most highly paid, must -of course be taken as a counsel of perfection, but if -there is no present prospect of its being fully admitted -in practice, there is certainly a growing acceptance -of the principle underlying it, that the most critical -period of education is in the early years, when the first -impressions are being received, and that no influence<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> -deserves to be so well considered as that which is to -call forth an individual response from the awakening -intelligence.</p> - -<p>Difficult as the attainment of Mulcaster’s ideal of the -position of teachers may have been, he was undoubtedly -on the right path to seek it, when he advocated that -their training should be entrusted to the universities. -The demand for adequate preparation is the only -reasonable means of securing at once a fitting status, -and a reward sufficient to attract the best talent, and -the recognition of the work of education as deserving to -rank with the other learned professions for which a -special academic training is required, is the natural -expression of a healthy public sentiment on the matter. -The higher the requirements are pitched, the safer will -be the guarantee that aspirants will be drawn to the -work by a genuine belief in it as their true vocation, for -the sake of which it is worth while to make some -sacrifice. The atmosphere of a university, moreover, -offers the fullest opportunity to the teacher of acquiring -the breadth of general culture, and the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">savoir vivre</i>, in -which he is so apt to be deficient.</p> - -<p>Mulcaster’s proposals for university reform in general -will be found in several important respects to have -anticipated the course of subsequent legislation. He -wished the State to have a free hand in controlling the -uses of private endowments according to the special -needs of each generation, as long as the confidence of -the original founders was not betrayed, and he was not -slow to point out directions where he considered that -changes were urgently needed. We know that in his -time the condition of the Universities of Oxford and -Cambridge was far from satisfactory, partly because -definite abuses had crept in, and partly because their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> -constitution naturally offered a passive resistance to -regulative organisation. Mulcaster’s suggestions all -tend to greater concentration of aim and facility of -classification. He may have carried his desire for -uniformity too far when he advocated the specialisation -of every college to a particular study, and even to a -particular stage in that study. So far as residence is -concerned there is surely no need to forgo the benefits -of a varied social intercourse among students of -different standing and pursuits, but it cannot be -doubted that every effort should be made to counteract -the loss this may entail by providing full opportunities -throughout the whole university for the emulation of -those who are in the same academic position. In -Elizabethan days there was not the same freedom of -interchange in lectures among the various colleges that -now obtains, and Mulcaster was doing good service in -deprecating the isolation and dispersion of interest that -interfered with progress. We must also commend the -discernment he showed in presenting the claims of a -definite and comprehensive curriculum in general -learning to the attention of those who wished to engage -in professional studies, as well as his zeal for the more -careful selection of candidates for scholarships, fellowships, -and degrees. Nor is it to be forgotten that he -was probably the first to suggest the appointment of -“readers” in the universities,—an arrangement that was -not adopted till almost our own time.</p> - -<p>The significance of Mulcaster’s theories may best be -appreciated by comparing them with those of the great -educational reformer who came next in order of time. -The services rendered to the world by Comenius are -too well accredited, and too widely acknowledged, to -suffer any serious loss of prestige by such a comparison.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> -It has been already urged that true originality in -social affairs means an enlightened judgment as to what -is possible and desirable for one’s own time and -country, and the reform of education had to be worked -out and proclaimed for continental Europe on independent -lines. It is not likely that Mulcaster’s writings -had any direct influence on Comenius, though they -could hardly fail to make some contribution to the -general stock of ideas that is successively inherited by -each generation, and spreads almost imperceptibly over -an ever widening area. Even apart from any claim to -priority in doctrine, the forcible personality of the -Moravian writer, expressing itself in a singularly -exhaustive treatment of educational problems and their -practical application, will always assure to him an -unquestioned authority, while his assertion of the -weighty principle that words and things must be taught -together, spoken and written signs being constantly -associated with the objects, qualities, or actions they -represent, is in itself enough to secure him a lasting -reputation. But from the national point of view, which -in tracing such historical successions it is not unreasonable -to assume, we may justly note that there are a -considerable number of educational doctrines, now -generally accepted among us in theory if not in practice, -the earliest formulation of which, though generally -ascribed to Comenius, is really to be found in the -writings of Richard Mulcaster. More than this, it may -be maintained that on several important points a more -penetrating insight was shown by our own countryman, -in spite of his disadvantage in time. In regard both to -the end and the scope of education, for example, a more -humanistic conception seems to have been held by Mulcaster. -Unlike Comenius, who lays chief stress on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> -preparation for eternity, he sets forth as the main -purpose of youthful training the more proximate aims -of self-realisation and useful service to one’s fellowmen. -“The end of education and training is to help nature to -her perfection in the complete development of all the -various powers ... whereby each shall be best able -to perform all those functions in life which his position -shall require, whether public or private, in the interest of -his country in which he was born, and to which he owes -his whole service.” And while both writers insist that -the rudiments of learning should be taught to children -of every social class and of both sexes, the Englishman -alone expresses sympathy with the ideal of a higher -education for girls where circumstances permit. It -would seem also that Mulcaster took the more reasonable -view of the relation of a teacher to his class, for -his claim that the elementary master should have the -smallest number to deal with, at least shows a fuller -sense of the importance of individual treatment than is -conveyed in the later writer’s dictum that it does not -matter how large a class is if the teacher has monitors -to help him.</p> - -<p>Among the doctrines of Comenius to which his -expositors have attached special importance may be -numbered the following: that the earliest teaching -should be given in the vernacular; that the first -subjects taught should be such as give scope to the -child’s activity; that knowledge should be communicated -through the senses and put to immediate use; -that examples should be taught before rules; that the -arts should be taught practically; that in language-study -grammar should accompany reading and speaking; -that learning should be spontaneous and pleasant -without undue pressure; that children should not be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> -beaten for failure in study, but only for moral offences; -and that education should follow in general the -guidance of nature. These principles now rank among -the commonplaces of educational method, and in so far -as their acceptance has been furthered by the persuasive -advocacy of Comenius the gratitude of the world is due -to him; but why should Englishmen forget that they -had all been proclaimed with unmistakable clearness in -this country half a century earlier? Readers of the -foregoing pages must be already convinced that the -doctrines in question form an essential part of Mulcaster’s -theory of education; but it may be worth while -to recall in a connected form a few of the more striking -passages in which they are expressed. On the use of -the vernacular in the early years: “As for the question -whether English or Latin should be first learned, -hitherto there may seem to have been some reasonable -doubt, although the nature of the two tongues ought to -decide the matter clearly enough, ... but now ... we -can follow the direction of reason and nature in learning -to read first that which we speak first, to take most care -over that which we use most, and in beginning our -studies where we have the best chance of good -progress, owing to our natural familiarity with our -ordinary language, as spoken by those around us in -the affairs of everyday life.” No particular quotation is -needed to illustrate Mulcaster’s dependence for his -elementary training on studies that called forth -individual effort from the child, for the course he -planned includes no other kind of occupation, but the -following sentences may stand for a proof that he -recognised the natural channels through which knowledge -is acquired and utilised in the guidance of action: -“Nature has ... given us for self-preservation the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> -power of perceiving all sensible things by means of -feeling, hearing, seeing, smelling, and tasting. These -qualities of the outward world, being apprehended by -the understanding and examined by the judgment, are -handed over to the memory, and afterwards prove our -chief—nay, our only—means of obtaining further -knowledge.... To serve the end both of sense-perception -and of motion, nature has planted in the -body a brain, the prince of all our organs, which by -spreading its channels through every part of our frame, -produces all the effects through which sense passes into -motion.” On the point of subordinating rules to the -imitation of examples, and learning the arts by practically -engaging in them, Mulcaster writes: “Children -know not what they do, much less why they do it, till -reason grow into some ripeness in them, and therefore -in their training they profit more by practice than by -knowing why, till they feel the use of reason, which -teaches them to consider causes.... When the end of -any art is wholly in doing, the initiation should be -short, so as not to hinder that end by keeping the -learners too long musing upon rules.... We must -keep carefully that rule of Aristotle which teaches that -the best way to learn anything well which has to be -done after it is learned, is always to be a-doing while -we are a-learning.” To the question of the best method -in linguistic study, Mulcaster was ready to apply this -principle of learning directly through practice, and his -sense of the proper place of grammatical knowledge is -shown in the following passage: “Grammar in itself is -but the bare rule, and a very naked thing.... In -grammar, which is the introduction to speech, there -should be no such length as is customary, because its -end is to write and to speak, and in doing this as much<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> -as possible we learn our grammar best, when it is -applied to matter and not clogged with rules. As for -understanding writers, that comes with years and -ripeness of intelligence, not by means of the rules of -grammar.” It has already been seen that Mulcaster -shared fully in the humaner views upon the treatment -of children that were beginning to assert themselves in -his day; but it is interesting to notice that he based his -conviction not only on the general claims of sympathy, -but also on grounds of purely educational expediency. -“These three things—perception, memory, and judgment—ye -will find peering out of the little young souls. -Now these natural capacities being once discovered -must as they arise be followed with diligence, increased -by good method and encouraged by sympathy, till they -come to their fruition. The best way to secure good -progress, so that the intelligence may conceive clearly, -memory may hold fast, and judgment may choose and -discern the best, is so to ply them that all may proceed -voluntarily, and not with violence, so that the will may -be ready to do well and loth to do ill, and all fear of -correction may be entirely absent. Surely to beat for -not learning a child that is willing enough to learn, but -whose intelligence is defective, is worse than madness.... -Beating must only be for ill-behaviour, not for -failure in learning.” Finally we must admit that the -principle urged by Comenius, and afterwards pushed to -an extreme by Rousseau and Froebel, of following the -guidance of nature in planning the procedure of -instruction was explicitly stated by Mulcaster. “The -third proof of a good elementary course was that it -should follow nature in the multitude of its gifts, and -that it should proceed in teaching as she does in -developing. For as she is unfriendly wherever she is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> -forced, so she is the best guide that anyone can have, -wherever she shows herself favourable.”</p> - -<p>It not infrequently happens that the doctrines of a -notable reformer, while they are full of light and leading -for his contemporaries, have no more than a historical -interest for succeeding generations. The rapidity of -their absorption in the general current of established -theory must be largely determined by the strength of -the influence with which they were first asserted, so that -in one aspect it may be said that the more potent the -impress of the original mind, the sooner will its individual -effects become imperceptible. But it would be -as rash to make this rule the measure of an estimate of -relative greatness, without taking account of other contributing -conditions, as it would be unreasonable to be -misled into the opposite error of undervaluing proposals -which had only a temporary fitness and are of no -present significance. In truth it is a good deal a -matter of accident whether the words of wisdom which -fall from men of genius and insight bear fruit early or -late, and while distance in time offers a vantage-ground -for the just assignment of the tributes of admiration and -gratitude, the question of immediate applicability must -not bulk too largely among the elements on which our -judgment of a reputation is based. As has been already -suggested, Mulcaster lost his opportunity of speedy -acceptance for his ideals through his inability to commend -them with persuasive eloquence, though such an -impediment to appreciation is happily not irremovable. -The more searching investigation of our time into the -history of educational thought might or might not have -discovered a high present value in the aspirations to -which he gave somewhat inadequate expression, without -his title to fame being materially affected. But it will<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> -undoubtedly give to his writings a great additional -interest if it should appear that they set forth lessons -which the three intervening centuries have failed to -learn, and which are still clamouring for acceptance in -our own day.</p> - -<p>It would not be difficult to show that many of the -reforms which he urged and anticipated, while they -have been formally admitted as necessary or expedient, -have as yet made little way in leavening the whole mass -of educational practice. There is good reason to maintain, -for example, that the impartial diffusion of the -opportunities of learning throughout all classes of the -community, which was a fundamental part of Mulcaster’s -gospel, has been much less completely realised among -us than is generally supposed. We are apt to rest -satisfied with the idea of universal education without -over-careful a scrutiny into the nature of what is offered -in its name. In so far as elementary instruction was -concerned Mulcaster drew no distinction between rich -and poor, between those of gentle and of lowly birth; -all were to have the same treatment, irrespective of the -uses to which their knowledge might afterwards be -turned. Our State system of education may profess to -carry out this aim, but the justice of the claim must be -denied so long as the nature and quality of what is -forcibly imposed upon the mass of the people is -seriously at fault. Our system of public elementary -education in this country, however efficiently it may be -organised, fails entirely to provide a sound general -training owing to its adoption of a curriculum that is -unduly utilitarian in aim. It is undeniable that this is -largely due to an implicit caste feeling which prescribes -that the education of the masses shall fit them directly -for the performance of certain industrial tasks in a state<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> -of economic subjection. The well-to-do citizen wishes -his own child, even from the first, to be taught differently -from the child of poorer parents, whose schooling he -helps to pay for and has some share in regulating. The -course of study he chooses may be no better,—in some -respects it is undoubtedly worse; but at least it is -different, and conforms to the conventional standard of -a liberal training for life as a whole. The codes drawn -up for our national system are not framed for any such -purpose. Partly from ingrained class prejudice, partly -to get tangible results to show for the public money -expended, and partly from a benevolent but short-sighted -regard for supposed utilities, we have overburdened -the curriculum with the more mechanical -parts of learning. We put too much of the drudgery -into the years when we can make sure of the children, -so that a minimum of interest is taken in the work for -its own sake, with the result that when the compulsory -term is reached, the great majority of them use their -liberty to throw aside their books for ever. While this -reproach remains just, can we say that the ideal of a -true universal elementary education has yet been -reached?</p> - -<p>It is perhaps idle to expect any equalisation of -opportunities by postponing every kind of specialism -to a period beyond the elementary stage, until there -is a more general agreement as to what constitutes a -liberal education. If we apply the touchstone of -Mulcaster’s conception, how much of the traditional -lumber which is now obstructing our progress would -have to be cleared away! We are the bond-slaves -of two tyrants—the spirit of an outworn classicism and -the spirit of a utilitarianism falsely so-called. Under -the domination of the former we distort the curriculum<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> -of our higher-class schools, preparatory as well as -secondary, by projecting into the elementary period -and practically imposing on every scholar linguistic -studies that should form a specialism only for a very -few during the later years of school life. Misguided by -the latter we debase our public primary education by -filling up the time with subjects of mere information -that neither arouse the interests of the learner nor -afford a genuine mental discipline. It would indeed -astound the Elizabethan schoolmaster who tolerated -pre-occupation with the learned tongues only until his -native English should reach a high enough point of -cultivation to become a worthy receptacle of learning, -and who lamented the temporary need for a medium -which kept the student “one degree further off from -knowledge” to find that after more than 300 years the -shackles had not yet been cast aside. Nor would he be -less dismayed to discover that the sole alternative -offered to those who were excluded from what professed -to be a liberal culture, consisted only to a very -small extent of that direct knowledge of the facts -and laws of Nature which he conceived to be the -proper food during “our best learning time,” but -mainly of the dry bones of second-hand experience. -Mulcaster’s ideal will not be attained until we have -devised a course of study up to the age of at least -14 or 15 years, which shall form a preparation for life -that is applicable to all pupils alike—to boys and girls, -to rich and poor, to those who can pursue their -systematic education further, and to those who must -discontinue it then to enter into the world of affairs.</p> - -<p>Enough perhaps has been already said, though -it would be an easy task to continue the catalogue -of reforms suggested by Mulcaster, which have been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> -approved by the consensus of judgment among thinkers -on education, but have not yet been fully carried out -in this country. When we remember the over-pressure -and cramming that have resulted from the abuse of -examinations in the treatment of learning as a -marketable commodity subject to the severest struggles -of competition; or the widespread neglect of the -arts and sciences as instruments of general training; -or the unholy separation of parents and children during -the most critical years of mutual influence, through the -acceptance of the boarding-school system as a normal -institution; or the anomalous position of teachers, left -as they are without recognition as members of an -acknowledged profession, and having to depend for -their training on the voluntary provision made by -religious sects,—when we reflect that on these and on -many kindred matters of high urgency the wisest -guidance was offered to us more than three centuries -ago, we shall have little hesitation in admitting the -claim of Richard Mulcaster to be considered the Father -of English Pedagogy.</p> - -<p class="p4" /> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p class="p6" /> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/end_piece.jpg" width="200" alt="(Publisher’s colophon.)" /></div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Educational Writings of Richard -Mulcaster, by Richard Mulcaster - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EDUCATIONAL WRITINGS *** - -***** This file should be named 61900-h.htm or 61900-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/1/9/0/61900/ - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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