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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #61880 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/61880)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Construction of the Small House, by 
-Harold Vandervoort Walsh
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The Construction of the Small House
-       A Simple and Useful Source of Information of the Methods
-       of Building Small American Homes, for Anyone Planning to
-       Build
-
-Author: Harold Vandervoort Walsh
-
-Release Date: April 20, 2020 [EBook #61880]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CONSTRUCTION OF THE SMALL HOUSE ***
-
-
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-
-Produced by ellinora, Paul Marshall and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
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-Transcriber’s Notes:
-
-  Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_
-    in the original text.
-  Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals.
-  Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs.
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-
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-
-
-                  THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SMALL HOUSE
-
-               A SIMPLE AND USEFUL SOURCE OF INFORMATION
-           ON THE METHODS OF BUILDING SMALL AMERICAN HOMES,
-                     FOR ANYONE PLANNING TO BUILD
-
-                                  BY
-                         H. VANDERVOORT WALSH
-
-                     INSTRUCTOR OF CONSTRUCTION IN
-                      THE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE,
-                          COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
-
-                         WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY
-                              THE AUTHOR
-
-                               NEW YORK
-                        CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
-                                 1923
-
-                          COPYRIGHT, 1923, BY
-                        CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
-
-                Printed in the United States of America
-
-                       Published February, 1923
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS
-
-
-   CHAPTER                                                      PAGE
-       I. PRESENT-DAY ECONOMIC TROUBLES                           1
-      II. GENERAL TYPES AND COSTS                                 7
-     III. ESSENTIAL STANDARDS OF QUALITY IN BUILDING MATERIALS   20
-      IV. TYPES OF WOODEN-FRAME CONSTRUCTION                     38
-       V. CONSTRUCTION OF THE MASONRY AND WOOD DWELLING          49
-      VI. SAFEGUARDS AGAINST FIRE IN DWELLINGS                   69
-     VII. POOR METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION EMPLOYED BY
-              UNSCRUPULOUS BUILDERS                              81
-    VIII. ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF GOOD PLUMBING                    94
-      IX. METHODS OF HEATING                                    109
-       X. LIGHTING AND ELECTRIC WORK                            121
-      XI. CONSTRUCTION OF THE TRIM                              130
-     XII. LESSONS TAUGHT BY DEPRECIATION                        141
-    XIII. SELECTING MATERIALS FROM ADVERTISEMENTS               150
-     XIV. ROOFING MATERIALS                                     158
-      XV. PAINTING AND VARNISHING THE HOUSE                     177
-     XVI. LABOR-SAVING DEVICES FOR THE HOME                     185
-    XVII. CONCRETE WORK AROUND THE HOUSE                        197
-   XVIII. CLASSIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARCHITECTURAL
-              MOTIFS USED IN SMALL-HOUSE DESIGNING              208
-     XIX. TRADITIONS OF BUILDING FROM WHICH OUR MODERN
-              METHODS ARE DERIVED                               219
-      XX. TRADITIONS OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF DOORS AND
-              WINDOWS                                           236
-     XXI. BUILDING THE SETTING FOR THE HOUSE                    245
-    XXII. FINANCING THE CONSTRUCTION WORK                       258
-
-
-
-
-CONSTRUCTION OF THE SMALL HOUSE
-
-
-
-
-I PRESENT-DAY ECONOMIC TROUBLES
-
-
-Immediately after the war the housing shortage made itself very
-evident, because the landlords discovered that it existed, and realized
-that they had it within their power to exact extortionate rents.
-Statisticians got busy and put their heads together and informed the
-public that within the next five years there would have to be built
-some 3,300,000 new homes to properly house the people. The building
-magazines likewise were predicting great things in construction, and
-all in the building industry were looking for fat years of prosperity,
-for here was the need and there was the pressure of the high rents.
-Why should not the thousands of families that had waited build
-now, when they saw their money going to waste in high rents? All
-kinds of advertisements were sent out to urge the public to build,
-and own-your-own-home shows sprang up in every large city, and one
-could find plenty of builders who would say that one should build
-immediately, before prices went higher.
-
-And seeing the poor, unprotected home-builder, the greed of human
-nature seized all in the building industry as it had entangled all
-other business lines, and the price of materials leaped into the air,
-and the cost of labor became swollen, and all had that bloated and
-enlarged look which comes over the face of him who is sure of his meal.
-
-[Illustration: Before the war he planned for this]
-
-At the end of 1918 the average cost of all building materials was up to
-175 per cent over that of 1913, but by the first quarter of 1920 they
-had gotten up to 300 per cent increase over 1913 prices. Lumber had
-gone up 373 per cent. Labor had also risen to 200 per cent.
-
-Mr. Average Citizen found that the home he had been saving his money
-to build had flown from his hand, like a bird. The sketches and plans
-he had prepared for a nice little $10,000 home now represented an
-investment of $20,000 or more. In fact, if he expected to build at all,
-he had to be reconciled to a small house of six or seven rooms, which
-would cost him not less than $10,000 or more, or as much as the large
-house which he had planned originally to build.
-
-Then what happened? Mr. Average Citizen did not build. The confidently
-predicted building boom which the building material manufacturers had
-looked for did not materialize. Prices were too high, and the public
-could not be made to believe that they would not come down, and the
-public was right.
-
-[Illustration: Now his plans have shrunk to this]
-
-The light began to break as well as the prices, and we find the cost
-of building materials dropping suddenly. By the end of 1920 they had
-reached the 200 mark. By March, 1922, they had reached the 155 level,
-and are still going down with slight fluctuation.
-
-But during all of this time we heard all kinds of theories as to how
-the problem should be met. Some architects went so far as to predict
-that people could no longer build individual houses for themselves;
-that the day of the small house was over. They claimed that the only
-solution was in the construction of group houses. Such groups would
-eliminate much of the expensive street paving as ordinarily required,
-and cut to a minimum the water supply-lines and sewage systems.
-Semi-detached houses in groups were capable of saving the cost on one
-outside wall, one chimney, one set of plumbing pipes for each house in
-the group. The heating could also be reduced to a community basis, and
-the land so distributed that the best air and light could be had with
-the minimum waste.
-
-Many architects conscientiously tried to reduce the cost of
-construction of the small house by inventing cheaper ways and methods
-of building. However, the estimates came in just as high, because
-the average small contractor who builds the small house was afraid
-of innovations, since there was too great an element of risk, and he
-was conservative. To meet this difficulty some architects attached
-to their office organization construction departments by means of
-which they were able to build according to their economical plans and
-secure the advantage of the saving in cost. This was held by many
-to be unprofessional. Other architects secured lower bids by having
-a written agreement with the various contractors who were competing
-that, if they received the contract, the owner would be responsible for
-and pay for any increase in labor or material prices which might take
-place during the period of erection. Likewise the contractor agreed to
-give the owner the benefit of any reduction in prices which might take
-place during the time of erection. This simple understanding seemed to
-relieve the contractor of nervousness, and his bids were often lower.
-Still other architects claimed that the cost of construction could only
-be reduced by standardizing all of the parts. Certain mills had secured
-high-class talent to design stock doors, cornices, windows, columns,
-and the like, and the results were very satisfactory, both artistically
-and economically.
-
-This problem of the cost of the small house was very acute, and,
-although it has been relieved somewhat by the decreasing prices at this
-time, yet it will always be an integral part of the problem of building
-the small house.
-
-In fact, to properly design the small house and build it economically
-requires the greatest care for detail. Many well-established architects
-will not bother with this architectural problem, for the time required
-to consider all these small details is greater than they can afford to
-give in proportion to the fee they receive. For this reason most of
-this work is done by the young architect or by the speculative builder,
-who generally shows very bad taste in selecting his design, while the
-young architect is apt to be somewhat inexperienced in his knowledge of
-construction.
-
-The very first thing that must be considered in the problem of the
-building of the small house is the question of money, because this
-determines what kind of a lot can be purchased, how large the house
-can be, and of what type of construction it can be built. Experts on
-financing say that the cost of the house should be such that it can be
-paid off in full within fifteen years. This means that the cost of the
-proposed home must be arranged to come within definite limits. Methods
-of approximately determining the cost of a house in its preliminary
-sketch stages will be considered later, but it is sufficient to say
-here, that once this first problem is solved carefully, other matters
-are much easier to take care of. If one knows the cost, the question
-of borrowing money is made easier, and one is not misled into wild
-fancies of larger houses than possibly the pocketbook could afford. The
-worst mistake that a young architect can make is to lead his client
-to believe that he can have a certain design for less money than will
-actually be the case. It is always best to overestimate the cost in the
-beginning than to underestimate it.
-
-“But,” says the client, “I can buy a house and lot at ‘Heavenly Rest
-Real Estate Park’ for that price, and on the instalment plan, too. I
-don’t see why the cost of a house built from your plans should be so
-much greater than this.”
-
-And that is a big question to answer, one which this volume will
-attempt to make clear, one to which only a knowledge of construction
-can give a real and satisfactory answer. It is the old story, that a
-well-built article is bound to cost more than a poorly built one; but
-how to know the well-built article!
-
-
-
-
-II GENERAL TYPES AND COSTS
-
-_Types of House Construction_
-
-
-TYPE I
-
-[Illustration: Type I Wooden Frame]
-
-All small houses may be classified into four types, according to their
-construction. The first type is the commonest and is the wooden frame
-structure. This has exterior walls and interior partitions built of
-light wooden studs, and the floors and ceilings framed with wooden
-joists. The exterior walls may be covered with clapboard, shingles,
-stucco, brick veneer, or stone veneer. The roof is generally covered
-with wooden shingles, although slate, tile, asbestos, and asphalt
-shingles are often used. These houses are the most numerous, because
-the cost of wood in the past has been so much less than other materials
-that they appealed to the average builder’s financial sense. However,
-the cost of such dwellings to the country as a whole has been very
-high, for they are extremely dangerous when attacked by fire. More
-than twenty-two millions of dollars are wasted by fire each year in
-these houses. They also cost us a great deal in up-keep. It would be
-interesting to see what was the total cost per year to repaint them
-and keep the roofs in order. It certainly would run into the millions.
-Although wood increased from about $30.00 per thousand board feet to
-about $85.00 in the Eastern markets from pre-war days, and is now
-dropping below $55.00, yet the wooden house is still listed as the
-cheapest, for the cost of other materials has also increased, as brick
-from $10.00 per thousand to $23.00 until very recently, and cement from
-$2.00 to $3.25 per barrel. In any comparison of cost the wooden frame
-building is taken as the base or cheapest type of construction,
-although it is the most expensive in up-keep and fire-hazard of
-all. Until the price of wood increases in excessive proportion to
-other materials, there is no doubt that this type of house will be
-the commonest. However, there is much that can be done to make them
-more fire-resisting, and, although we cannot look to the speculative
-builders to use such methods, since they increase the costs slightly,
-yet the architect should not overlook them.
-
-
-TYPE II
-
-[Illustration: Type II Masonry and Wood]
-
-The second type of dwelling which is next in vogue has exterior walls
-of stone, brick, concrete, or terra-cotta, and interior floors,
-partitions, and roof of wooden frame construction. These are very
-slightly more fireproof than the wooden frame structure, and as a
-class they are more costly in the beginning, but require less expense
-in up-keep. They resist attack from external fires better than the
-wooden frame building, but if the fire starts within, they will burn
-just as readily. Although the fire loss per year of this class is not
-nearly as great as for the first type, yet it must be appreciated that
-there are not so many of them. The chief advantage of the masonry house
-of this second type lies in the lowered cost of up-keep, longer life,
-and saving of heating-fuel in the winter. A great deal of literature
-has been circulated by brick, cement, and hollow terra-cotta tile
-manufacturers by which the public has been educated to believe that
-this type of structure is much more fire-resisting than it is. Of
-course this campaign of education was intended to stimulate interest in
-their product, and it had no unselfish motive back of it. The result of
-this propaganda is evident in the public belief that such houses are
-fireproof houses, while as a matter of fact they are not.
-
-[Illustration: Type II · Masonry walls · Interior·Wood]
-
-
-TYPE III
-
-The third class of dwelling is quite rare, and very few small houses
-are built that could be classified under it. Some builders call them
-fireproof houses, although this is erroneous. These buildings have
-walls, roofs, floors, and partitions built of incombustible materials,
-but the finished floors, the trim, windows, and doors are of wood. The
-exterior walls are of masonry construction, and the construction of
-the floors and roofs consists of steel beams with terra-cotta arches
-or concrete floor slabs, spanning in between them, and the partitions
-are of terra-cotta, gypsum, metal lath and plaster, or other similar
-materials. They may also be built of reinforced concrete throughout,
-or any other combination of these materials. There have been very few
-examples of this kind of construction used in the small house. It is an
-unfortunate condition that it is more adaptable to the costly mansion
-than to the average house of the middle-class citizen, for the high
-cost of construction of this character, in most cases, permits it to
-be used only by the wealthy man. Examples where such houses have been
-built generally show an investment of $30,000 or more, or, if they
-were built to-day, $50,000 or more. Those attempts to use this form
-of construction in the small house have been made by large building
-corporations, and have been chiefly represented by concrete houses of
-very ugly design.
-
-[Illustration: Type III. Walls, floors, partitions fireproof, but
-windows, doors and trim of wood.]
-
-
-TYPE IV
-
-The fourth and last type of dwelling is the ideal fireproof house, but
-it is so costly that very few examples exist. This type can be termed
-fireproof with accuracy, for all structural parts, including doors,
-windows, and trim, are of incombustible materials. Metal trim is used
-or wood that has been treated to make it fire-resisting. This latter
-class of construction is so out of the reach of the average
-home-builder, on account of its cost, that its value cannot be
-thoroughly appreciated. Practically the only examples in existence are
-large mansions, built by wealthy clients.
-
-_Cost Does Not Indicate Fire-Resistance._—In this classification of
-buildings it would almost seem that the cost of a building indicated
-its fireproof qualities. This is not true, however. There are many
-expensive dwellings which are just as great fire-traps as the less
-expensive ones. In both cases the fire hazards are the same, if they
-are built of the same type of construction. In fact, we could build a
-$60,000 dwelling according to Type II, and also a $10,000 one according
-to Type II, and make the latter more fire-resisting than the former by
-using certain precautions of construction in which the spread of fire
-is retarded.
-
-Except in unusual cases, the construction of the ordinary dwelling
-will be either according to the first or second type, and any fire
-precautions that are desirable must be applicable to them. Most
-comparisons of relative costs are made between the dwellings included
-under these two types, and the difference will be mostly a difference
-in the kind of exterior walls used in the construction. In fact, if any
-comparisons are made between different kinds of buildings, as to their
-relative costs, it is essential that only one feature be made variable
-and that all others be kept the same.
-
-
-_The Question of Costs_
-
-Ever since the closing of the war the problem of knowing the cost of
-the construction of the small house has been a very intricate one, and
-no sure estimates could be made, until the plans were completed and let
-out for bids. Previous to the war, when costs were somewhat stabilized,
-it was possible to predict with a reasonable amount of accuracy the
-cost of the dwelling when the plans were still only roughed in.
-
-In order to show the fluctuation in prices, an example of a seven-room
-frame house of Type I can be mentioned. This house was practically 30
-by 34 feet, and had a cubical contents of about 29,100 cubic feet and
-an area of 2,640 square feet. In 1914 this house cost $5,529.00, but
-at the peak of prices in 1920 this house cost $12,815.00, which was an
-increase of 131 per cent. In the spring of 1922 this same house cost
-$9,502.00 to build, which was about 71 per cent over that of pre-war
-prices.
-
-With a heavy pressure of needed construction in dwellings, the cost
-of materials seems to be settling down to a very gradual decrease in
-cost, so that the present rates show a more stable curve of decline
-than those of the latter part of 1920 and during 1921. The unfortunate
-factor which is noticeable is that certain building interests believe
-that a building boom is inevitable, and therefore that it is the time
-to hold up prices again. Wherever this has happened a building boom has
-been headed off.
-
-
-_Cubic-Foot System of Estimating_
-
-The average client, in spite of the difficulties above mentioned,
-insists upon securing from the architect an approximate idea of how
-much of a house he can have for $12,000.00, etc., or whatever sum he
-has been able to save for his small home. In order to approximate this
-figure, the architect must use the cubic-foot system of estimating. Now
-under changing conditions of prices this system is rather inaccurate,
-so that it should be used with great care. Any figures which are given
-here are bound to be only approximations, due to the fact that they
-are more or less of a local nature and must be given at this time of
-writing. _The only satisfactory way of using the cubic-foot system of
-estimating is to secure prices from one’s own locality on work recently
-finished._
-
-[Illustration: Front Elevation Type II]
-
-If the approximate cost of a house of Type I is desired, observe some
-recently erected house of that same character, secure its dimension,
-and calculate its cubical contents and then its cost per cubic foot. In
-order to be consistent, the method of computing the cubage must be the
-same in all cases. The following is recommended as a uniform basis:
-
-      1. Determine total area of the building on the ground
-         floor, including all projections.
-
-      2. Determine the average height of the building from
-         the cellar floor to the average height of the roof.
-
-      3. Multiply the above together for the cubical
-         contents.
-
-      4. Open porches may be added at one-quarter their
-         cubical contents, and closed ones at their full
-         value.
-
-[Illustration: Side Elevation. Type II]
-
-
-_Prices per Cubic Feet Near New York for Two-Story Dwellings,
-June, 1922_
-
-    Type I       32 to 38 cents per cubic foot
-    Type II      38 to 42 cents per cubic foot
-
-
-_Factors Influencing the Selection of Materials_
-
-From what has been previously stated, it will be noticed that, as a
-rule, the architect in selecting the kind of material with which he
-will build his house is limited on account of expense to the first
-two types of construction—namely, the frame dwelling and the masonry
-house with wood interior. The latter two fire-resisting types are
-better fitted to the larger mansions, where expense is not so important
-an item. Undoubtedly the comparative costs between the various kinds
-of exterior walls will have much to do with the selection; but more
-often the local conditions will outweigh these considerations. In some
-places a house built of stone will be the best and most economical;
-in others, where there is an abundance of good sand, the cement house
-will be suitable, while those located near brick centres will find this
-material adaptable.
-
-The ideal method, of selecting a material of construction purely from
-an æsthetic point of view, is not always possible. But, after all, is
-not the most abundant local material the most harmonious to use for any
-one locality? Nature adapts her creations to the soil and the scenery
-into which she places them. All her animals are marked with colors
-which harmonize with the woods or fields in which they live. In fact
-this harmony is their protection, and in the war we imitated it in
-our camouflage painting. It is astonishingly evident, in the New York
-Museum of Natural History, how far more beautiful are animal tableaux
-which are set in painted scenery, representing accurately their natural
-habitat, than those which are exhibited alone in the cases, without
-a suggestion of their surroundings. Their marks and colorings seem
-ridiculous when they are separated from their natural surroundings.
-The same principle holds true in selecting the material for the small
-house. A stone house, built of native stone, in a stony, rugged region,
-is the most harmonious of all. A cement house in a flat, sandy country
-always seems in accord with the scene. A brick house in hills of clay
-most certainly appears the best, and a wooden house, near the great
-outskirts of the timber-land, is a part of the inspiring picture. Why
-are so many of the old colonial houses so charming? One of the reasons
-is the careful use of local materials.
-
-
-_Some Principles of Economical Design_
-
-In the first architectural studies of the house, since this problem
-of cost is ever with us, it is well to be familiar with some of those
-broad and general principles of economical design.
-
-The lower we keep our house to the ground, the less will be the expense
-of labor, for, when work must be done above the reach of a man’s hands,
-it means the construction of scaffolds and the lifting by special
-hoists of the materials. This is not so important a consideration
-with the light wooden frame building as it is with the masonry house.
-Wherever we have brick, stone, or concrete exterior walls, for the sake
-of economy they should be built low. Mr. Ernest Flagg has found this
-to be so very true that, in houses which he is constructing at Dongan
-Hills on Staten Island, he has carefully limited the height of all
-walls to one story, and starts the construction of his roof from this
-level. Of course, at the gable end of the house, it is necessary to
-carry them up much higher. Now, the starting of the roof from the top
-of the first floor makes all the second floor come within the roof, and
-this heretofore has been impracticable, on account of the great heat
-generated under the roof and the inability of dormer-windows to
-ventilate the rooms properly. Mr. Flagg has solved this problem by
-inventing a simple roof ventilator which is located on the ridge of
-the roof, and serves the purpose of both lighting and ventilating.
-So successful has this been, that the space which in most houses is
-called the attic, and is wasted, has been made available and livable.
-What he has accomplished by these ventilators is the ability to
-start the roof at the top of the first floor, and thus lower the
-exterior walls and set the attic in the place of the second floor and
-make it very livable. Not only does this principle of design save
-considerable money, but it follows one of those great laws of beauty,
-so prevalent in nature. It makes the house low and nestling in the
-landscape, thereby harmonizing it with the surroundings. The house of
-the uncultured speculator stares blatantly at you and is proud of its
-complete isolation and difference from the landscape; but the house
-of those who have taste is modestly in harmony with the surroundings.
-The ugly house thrusts into the air without close connection with the
-ground, while the comely one cuddles in nature’s lap. Is it not strange
-that this principle of economy is a law of beauty?
-
-There are other features of economy in design which should be observed.
-The simpler and more straightforward the design, the cheaper it is and
-the more beautiful it can be made in the hands of the good artist.
-Simplicity is the highest art, as it is also the most economical thing.
-Likewise the cost of a house can be reduced by shaping as nearly to a
-square as possible, and reducing the outside walls to the minimum. The
-semi-detached house in the group plan accomplishes this in the best
-manner, and gives to the whole structure that low, long skyline that is
-so very pleasing. This also makes one soil-line and one chimney do for
-both houses, a great point in economy. Some architects believe these
-group houses are the only economical solution of the problem of the
-small house.
-
-
-
-
-III ESSENTIAL STANDARDS OF QUALITY IN BUILDING MATERIALS
-
-_Materials Used_
-
-
-It will be remembered that the commonest types of small houses are
-the wooden frame house and the masonry-and-wood house. Now it is
-essential that certain definite qualities be required of all materials
-of construction which enter into the building of these houses, and
-although there are many facts covering the standard qualities and
-methods of manufacture, yet one cannot expect to remember all of them.
-It is sufficient if one knows those qualities which mean satisfactory
-building and durability when applied to the structure.
-
-Of the large number of materials which enter into the construction of
-a house, the following are the most important and should be maintained
-at a high standard: wood, clay products, cementing materials, metals,
-glass, and paint.
-
-
-WOODS
-
-It is possible to enter into a long discussion of the classes,
-qualities, methods of conversion, defects of wood and similar subjects,
-but these are not pertinent to the main idea, namely, the essential
-qualities of woods which are used in the construction of the small
-house. There is a prevalent impression abroad that the supply of wood
-is becoming so depleted that it will in the future be used only for
-special ornamental features. This is wrong, for we still have enough
-virgin forests left to supply the country for several generations, and
-with the growth of forestry we will maintain a certain source of supply.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Waney edges
-    Knots
-    Star and ring shakes
-
-Common timber defects]
-
-We have two classes of woods on the market which are used in different
-parts of the structure, according to their special qualities. These are
-commercially known as hard and soft woods, although this is not a very
-scientific distinction, since some of the soft woods are harder than
-some of the hard woods, and vice versa. Scientists have more accurate
-names than these, but as the above are so well established, there is no
-doubt as to what is meant.
-
-In the market, lumber is not only classified according to the above,
-but according to the species of tree it comes from, and also according
-to certain standard grades of the same kind. These grades are
-determined by the presence of certain defects. The recognized defects
-are knots, shakes, checks, splits, streaks, pitch-pockets, stain, rot,
-wane, warp, cupping, mineral streaks, pith on the face of the board,
-and worm-holes.
-
-Various large lumber associations issue rules governing standard sizes
-and classifications for woods to be used in construction. The best and
-the next best are the usual grades which are used for the interior
-and exterior trim of houses. These grades have many designations, as
-“clears” and “selects,” or “A” and “B,” or “No. 1” and “No. 2,” or
-“firsts” and “seconds.”
-
-The grades used for the rough framing, such as studs, joists, rafters,
-subfloors, and sheathing, are not so good. They are designated as “No.
-1 common” and “No. 2 common.” A poorer grade still, known as “No. 3
-common,” is sometimes used for cheap temporary structures.
-
-For the details of grading and standard sizes of lumber, one should
-possess Circular 64 of the United States Department of Agriculture on
-“How Lumber is Graded.”
-
-Next to the grading of timber, the most important factor of quality is
-the relative durability of the various woods, for upon this depends to
-a large extent the choice of them for special places. The table on page
-23 is taken from a government classification.
-
-From this table it will be noticed that the soft woods as a class are
-relatively more durable than the hard woods. This is true, because of
-the fact that the structure of soft woods is simple, while that of the
-hard woods is complex. When the former become wet and expand and then
-dry out and shrink, the structure is not stressed internally as much as
-is that of the hard woods, and they are therefore much more capable of
-withstanding the action of the weather. Also certain of the soft woods
-have natural properties of resisting dry or wet rot.
-
-Certain species of woods are, therefore, selected for particular
-parts of the house according to the needs of durability, strength,
-appearance, and local supply.
-
-Rough wooden framing requires a wood that is fairly abundant and
-strong. The soft woods are generally used, and those which are
-classified as _durable_ in the table are the most used.
-
-
-RELATIVE DURABILITY OF THE COMMON WOODS
-
-    +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
-    |                      _The Soft Woods_                           |
-    +--------------+----------------+---------------------+-----------+
-    | VERY DURABLE |   DURABLE      |     INTERMEDIATE    |NON-DURABLE|
-    +--------------+----------------+---------------------+-----------+
-    |Northern white|Douglas fir.    | Eastern hemlock.    | True firs.|
-    |      cedar.  |Tamarack.       | Western hemlock.    | Spruces.  |
-    |Western red   |Western larch.  | Loblolly-pine.      |           |
-    |      cedar.  |Long-leaf yellow| Norway pine.        |           |
-    |Cypress.      |       pine.    | Short-leaf yellow   |           |
-    |Redwood.      |Eastern white   |     pine.           |           |
-    |              |       pine.    | Sugar-pine.         |           |
-    |              |                | Western white pine. |           |
-    |              |                | Western yellow pine.|           |
-    +--------------+----------------+---------------------+-----------+
-    |                      _The Hard Woods_                           |
-    +--------------+----------------+---------------------+-----------+
-    | Chestnut.    | Black cherry.  | White ash.          |Basswood.  |
-    | Black walnut.| White oak.     | Butternut.          |Beech.     |
-    | Black locust.|                | Red gum.            |Birch.     |
-    |              |                | Yellow poplar.      |Buckeye.   |
-    |              |                | Red oak.            |Cottonwood.|
-    |              |                |                     |White elm. |
-    |              |                |                     |Hard maple.|
-    |              |                |                     |Soft maple.|
-    |              |                |                     |Sycamore.  |
-    |              |                |                     |Cotton gum.|
-    +--------------+----------------+---------------------+-----------+
-
-For rough underflooring and sheathing the cheapest and most abundant
-local wood is used. Durability is not essential.
-
-For shingles the most durable woods must be used, such as cypress,
-cedar, and redwood.
-
-Lath are generally cut from waste slabs, and should be of some soft
-wood like spruce or of one of the softer hard woods. Siding should be
-made from one of the soft woods, especially those which are classed as
-durable in the table.
-
-Porch columns and the like require very durable woods. They should be
-hollow except for very small ones. Built-up columns of interlocking
-type are usually specified, but the lumber used should be thoroughly
-kiln-dried so that the joints will not open.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Edge grain
-    Flat grain
-
-Difference in the cut of flooring boards.
-
-The flat grain in the softer woods is not durable.]
-
-Flooring should be capable of resisting wear and should not splinter.
-The hard woods as a class are more adaptable than the soft woods,
-although yellow pine and Douglas fir are used a great deal on account
-of their cheapness. These latter are divided into two grades: “flat
-grain,” in which the annual rings are almost parallel to the surface,
-and “edge grain,” in which the annual rings run almost perpendicular
-to the surface. The latter is more desirable, since it wears better.
-The flat grain splinters off, due to the layers of soft spring wood and
-hard summer wood. Oak flooring comes plain and quarter sawn, which is
-practically the same as the cut of yellow pine, but since oak is strong
-either way, the wearing qualities are not very different. Maple is also
-an excellent wood for flooring, since it is hard and smooth.
-
-Door and window frames may be made from many kinds of wood, although
-the soft and more durable woods are generally accepted as the best.
-Specially hard and durable woods should be used for the thresholds.
-
-Doors which are to be used on the exterior should be of a soft and
-durable wood. The choice of wood for interior doors is limited only
-by the taste of the designer. The doors which stand best the warping
-effect of steam-heat in the winter are constructed of white pine cores
-with a veneer on the exterior made from some hard wood.
-
-Sash and blinds require a soft and durable wood. Sash are subject to
-the drying of steam-heat on the interior and cold and dampness on the
-exterior. Sash built of yellow pine sapwood have rotted in a few years,
-and while soft maple, birch, and basswood have been used, they are not
-durable, although easily worked. White pine is considered to be the
-best for sash and blinds.
-
-The selection of woods for interior trim depends only upon the
-designer’s taste, since neither relative durability nor strength
-is a requirement. The harder woods in the past have been used more
-extensively for interior trim than the soft, because of their
-supposedly better and richer appearance, but this is not so true
-to-day, for new methods of treating such woods as cypress and yellow
-pine have shown them to be fitted for the best artistic places. Of
-course hard woods are not dented from knocks by furniture as easily as
-the soft woods, and in this way retain their appearance longer.
-
-
-CLAY PRODUCTS
-
-_Bricks._—In considering the essential qualities of bricks for the
-small house it must be appreciated that those bricks which are used on
-the exterior must be able to resist the effects of weather and produce
-the best artistic results, while those which are in the interior of
-walls or chimney need not be held up to such rigid standards. The
-determination of the resistance of bricks to frost and weather action
-is quite simple. A brick which struck by a hammer gives a clear ring is
-one which has been well burned and has no soft spots, cracks, or weak
-places. Such a brick can be said to be satisfactory for exterior use,
-provided that it has the proper form and color desired and is not so
-overburned as to be twisted and warped. Another requirement sometimes
-specified is that the face brick made from soft clay should not show
-a percentage of absorption in excess of 15 per cent, and for the
-stiff-moulded or dry-pressed bricks not more than 10 per cent. This,
-however, cannot be a hard-and-fast rule, due to the variation of clays.
-
-Certain red bricks, unless they are burned very hard, show, when
-built into the wall, a very ugly white surface discoloration, called
-“whitewash” or efflorescence. This is not entirely due to the brick,
-since the mortar that is used may sometimes produce it. If it is due to
-the brick it can be discovered before the brick is used in the wall, by
-placing a sample brick on edge in a pan containing one inch of either
-rain or distilled water. As the water is absorbed by the brick, the
-white discoloration will develop on the top surface after several days
-of standing if it contains the salts which will cause the whitewash.
-Those bricks which have been very hard-burned will not discolor under
-any circumstances. If after passing this test the brick wall should
-develop whitewash, it can be laid to the mortar. In order to prevent
-any such occurrence it is necessary to waterproof the joints around
-window-sills and between the foundations and the wall, so that the
-minimum amount of water will be soaked up into the wall when it rains.
-An expensive addition of 2 per cent of barium carbonate to the mortar
-will tend to fix the soluble salts which cause this efflorescence.
-
-[Illustration: Method of testing a sample brick to see whether it will
-have a tendency to whitewash]
-
-_Hollow Tiles._—Hollow terra-cotta tiles covered with stucco or brick
-veneer are being used more extensively than ever, due to the cheaper
-cost of laying them, since they are larger units, and also to the fact
-that they build a cellular wall. Wherever these tiles are used for
-bearing walls it is important that they be hard-burned, but the softer
-ones may be permitted in non-bearing partitions. Tiles for use in outer
-walls should be hard-burned, free from cracks, straight, and should not
-show a greater absorption of water than 10 per cent. As these tiles
-are intended to support loads from floor-joists, it is essential that
-they should have the correct proportion of voids to solid shells and
-webs. The maximum width of any voids should not exceed 4 inches and the
-thickness of any shells or webs should not be less than 15 per cent
-of this measurement. In tests it has been shown that tiles laid with
-webs vertical are stronger than those with webs horizontal, but this
-difference in strength is not of very great importance in the small
-house, where the loads are very light. The chief thing to avoid in the
-setting of tile, when they are vertical webbed, is the dripping of
-mortar to the bottom and the insufficient spreading of it over the ends
-of the webs and shells. This can be overcome by laying wire lath over
-each course, and then buttering the mortar on the inside and outside
-edges. The mortar is prevented from falling out of place by the lath,
-and because it is not continuous through the wall, any penetration of
-moisture through it is stopped.
-
-[Illustration: Showing the use of metal lath in the joints of
-vertically webbed hollow-tile, to prevent the dropping of the mortar
-into the voids and also allow the separation of mortar joint]
-
-
-_Cementing Materials_
-
-The most important cementing materials which enter into the
-construction of the small house are lime, cement, gypsum, and their
-various mixtures, as mortar, plaster, and concrete.
-
-The various technical requirements for good lime and cement are very
-strict and detailed, and for the small house it is customary to cover
-their qualities in the briefest manner by referring to the standard
-specifications of the American Society for Testing Materials.
-
-Slaked lime should be made from well-burned quicklime, free from ashes,
-clinker, and other foreign materials.
-
-Dry hydrated lime should be the finely divided product resulting from
-mechanically slaking pure quicklime at the place of manufacture.
-
-The specifications of the American Society for Testing Materials
-covering the quality of cement should be followed where large purchases
-are made. Where small quantities are to be used, the reliability of the
-dealer must be the basis of purchase.
-
-As mortars and concretes made from these materials are as important as
-the cements or limes, it is essential to have definite standards for
-them.
-
-_Lime mortar_ should be made of 1 part by volume of slaked lime putty
-or dry hydrated lime and not more than 4 parts by volume of sand. The
-use of hydrated lime is recommended, since the poor qualities which are
-apt to develop from careless slaking of quicklime are thus avoided. It
-also comes in smaller packages, and if the entire quantity is not used
-at once it may be stored without deterioration. It is only necessary to
-mix the hydrated lime with water until it becomes a paste, and then add
-the necessary sand. The purpose of adding sand is to increase the bulk
-and to reduce the shrinkage which pure lime paste will develop as it
-hardens. Pure lime paste, without sand, will shrink, crack, and develop
-very little strength. By introducing sand this contraction is reduced,
-but the addition of too much will decrease the strength slightly.
-However, this decrease of strength is very little. A mortar made of 1
-part lime to 6 parts sand is nearly as strong as one made from 1 part
-lime and 3 parts sand. The maximum amount of sand to be used is
-generally governed by the ease of working, and not so much by the
-strength. A lime which is too sandy will not spread easily on the
-trowel.
-
-_Cement mortar_ is, of course, a stronger material and can be used in
-damp places where lime mortar would deteriorate. The theory of mixtures
-of both cement mortar and concrete is to proportion the materials
-so that they produce the most compact substance. For instance, in
-the cement mortar the cement should just fill the voids between the
-particles of sand, and in concrete this cement mortar should just fill
-the voids in between the larger aggregate, and this larger aggregate
-should be so graded in size that it makes the most compact body. It
-used to be thought that certain definite numerical proportions, as laid
-down by theory, of the various ingredients would hold true for all
-kinds of sands and aggregates. For instance, the proportion of 1 part
-of cement, 3 parts of sand, and 6 parts of aggregate was thought to be
-the best for ordinary use under all conditions. But extensive tests
-by the government have shown that the only real way to determine the
-correct proportions of mixtures is to experiment with the particular
-sand and gravel that will be used, and to test them to see what
-ratios give the most compact mass. It has also been found that round
-aggregates, like pebbles, produce the strongest concrete, since the
-particles flow into place better than the sharper aggregates, which
-formerly were considered necessary because of the supposed idea that
-they made a better mechanical bond with one another. The proportion of
-water is also important, a quaking mixture producing the best results.
-
-It is customary in small work, however, where no experiments can be
-made on various mixtures to determine their proper proportions, to
-follow the old rules of thumb for amounts.
-
-Cement mortar should be made of cement and sand in the proportions of 1
-part of cement and not more than 3 parts of sand by volume.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Good. Very compact
-    Bad. Not compact because of poor grading of aggregate
-
-Good and bad concrete]
-
-If cement-lime mortar is to be used it should not have more than 15
-per cent by volume of the cement replaced by an equal volume of dry
-hydrated lime. The addition of hydrated lime to cement mortar improves
-its working qualities, making it slide more readily on the trowel and
-also increasing its waterproofness. Its strength is not decreased
-within the limits prescribed.
-
-In concrete work it is as important to have good sand and aggregate
-as cement. Sand should be sharp, clean, coarse quartz. The sand used
-should not, when it is rubbed in the hand, leave the palm stained.
-
-Gravel which is used as an aggregate should be free from clay or loam,
-except such as naturally adheres to the particles. If there is too much
-clay or loam, it should be washed with water. When bank gravel is used
-the best results will be obtained if it is screened from the sand and
-remixed in the proper proportions for fine and coarse aggregate. For
-ordinary mass concrete the size of aggregate should vary from ¼ inch to
-2 inches, and in reinforced work should not exceed 1¼ inches.
-
-[Illustration: STUCCO ON METAL LATH OVER WOOD STUDS]
-
-The best proportion of parts to use must vary according to the
-requirements, but for the small house good results will be obtained
-by using 1 part of cement, 2 parts of sand, and 4 parts of gravel or
-broken stone.
-
-_Stucco Work._—Stucco is really a Portland-cement plaster used on the
-exterior, and its success depends a great deal upon the quality of
-materials employed and workmanship. All stucco to a greater or less
-degree cracks, but the problem is to make the cracks as small as
-possible. The government is carrying on an extensive investigation
-of the problem of stucco through experiments on fifty-six exterior
-panels which have been under observation since 1915. Each one of these
-panels has been spread upon a different base or made with different
-proportions. So far only two panels have been found to be entirely
-free from cracks, although many are practically uninjured by the small
-cracks which have developed. It is therefore quite evident that as
-a rule it must be assumed that the stucco will crack to a certain
-extent, and in order to cover such defects a rough surface is the
-best. As to proportions of mixtures, there is a great variation of
-opinion. The commonest is 1 part of cement, 2½ parts of sand, to which
-is added about ¹/₁₀ part of hydrated lime by weight of cement. For a
-more detailed account on stucco, send for the Progress Report issued
-by the Bureau of Standards on the Durability of Stucco and Plaster
-Construction.
-
-_Plastering._—The qualities of internal plaster depend upon the
-construction of the wall, the methods of application of the plaster,
-and the quality of the plastering material.
-
-[Illustration: Scratch coat is for bonding; brown coat for plasticity;
-finished coat for appearance]
-
-The walls and ceiling to which plaster is to be applied must be so
-constructed as to be practically rigid under the loads that they will
-carry. Since plaster is not elastic, any slight change in shape of
-the surface will cause it to crack. The common backings which are
-satisfactory for plastering are wood lath, metal lath, and masonry,
-such as concrete, terra-cotta tile, brick, plaster board, etc. Wood
-lath makes the least rigid back of all, and for this reason is not
-considered the best, although it is the cheapest. Unless the wood laths
-are wet before the plaster is applied, they will absorb the moisture
-from the plaster and swell, thus cracking the wall. Metal lath for this
-reason is superior. Masonry walls should be made rough to give the
-necessary key for the plaster to cling to. In brick walls the joints
-are raked out, in concrete walls the surface is picked, and the outside
-of terra-cotta tile is marked with grooves for this purpose.
-
-The best results in plaster are secured with three coats. The first
-coat is called the scratch coat, and is intended to form a bond
-between the wall itself and the plaster. It should be pressed into
-the apertures between the lath to secure a good bonding key, and its
-surface should be scratched with a tool to give the required bond
-between it and the next coat, or brown coat. The brown coat forms the
-main body of the plaster and averages about ¾ inch to ⅞ inch thick. The
-finished coat is then added on top of this and is intended to develop
-a plane surface with the desired color. Each coat should be allowed to
-dry out and then be wet before the next one is added. If wood lath is
-used, this drying and wetting will cause the lath to shrink and swell,
-so that cracks will be developed in the scratch and brown coats. These
-should be filled in before the finished coat is added.
-
-The materials which should be used in the various coats depend upon the
-requirements which are necessary for each one. As the most important
-characteristic of the scratch coat is strength, and that of the brown
-plasticity, and the final coat appearance, the materials must be
-proportioned accordingly.
-
-                       SCRATCH-COAT PROPORTIONS
-                  Hydrated lime  133 parts by weight
-                  Sand           400  “       “
-                  Hair             1 part     “
-
-                              BROWN COAT
-                  Hydrated lime   100 parts   “
-                  Sand            400   “     “
-                  Hair              ½ part    “
-
-                             FINISHED COAT
-                            _Smooth Finish_
-                 1 part by volume of calcined gypsum.
-                 3 parts      “      lime paste.
-
-
-_Metals_
-
-The most used metal in the small house is the so-called tin-plate or
-roofing tin. It is not a true tin-plate, for it contains 75 per cent
-lead and 25 per cent tin, applied to a base of soft steel or wrought
-iron. It comes in two grades, IX and IC, the former being No. 28 gauge
-and the latter No. 30 gauge. The lighter is used for roofing and the
-heavier for valleys and gutters. The tin does not entirely protect the
-base metal, so that it is necessary to paint both sides before it is
-applied.
-
-Galvanized iron is another form of sheet metal which is extensively
-used for work on the small house. It consists of sheet iron or steel,
-covered with zinc. This coating should be free from pinholes or bare
-spots, and of a thickness to prevent cracking or peeling. If the
-coating is sufficient and well done, it is superior in lasting quality
-to the ordinary tin-plate.
-
-Copper, since the war, has come back into use again as a sheet metal
-for the small house, for its cost has dropped within reason. In
-order to meet a certain popular demand a light grade of copper sheet
-roofing has been placed on the market, although it has generally been
-considered that sheets weighing less than 16 ounces per square foot
-were not suitable for roofs.
-
-
-_Glass_
-
-There are two kinds of window-glass used, double thick and single
-thick. The former is ⅛ inch thick or less, and the latter is ¹/₁₂ inch
-thick. It is customary to use double thick in all window-panes over 24
-inches in size. The grading is AA, A, and B, according to the presence
-of defects, such as blisters, sulphur stains, smoke stains, and stringy
-marks.
-
-Plate glass is used only where the expense will permit. It is different
-from window-glass in that the latter is made from blown glass, while
-plate glass is made from grinding and polishing down sheets of rolled
-glass.
-
-There are quite a number of other minor materials which enter into the
-construction of the small house, but they are more or less identified
-with the mechanical equipment and the finishing, and will be considered
-under these headings.
-
-Sheet lead weighing 5 to 6 pounds per square foot is often used for
-counter-flashing. Leaders and leader heads of cast lead have been made
-practical by one company, which has developed a method of hardening the
-lead.
-
-Zinc, like copper, is again being urged upon the public by the
-manufacturers since the war demand is over. Zinc spouts are usually
-made from No. 11 zinc gauge, which is equal in thickness to No. 24
-steel gauge.
-
-There is hardly any need to mention the durable qualities of copper,
-zinc, or lead. Wherever the cost permits, one cannot deny that
-materials of such durable nature are the proper ones to use.
-
-
-
-
-IV TYPES OF WOODEN-FRAME CONSTRUCTION
-
-_Types Explained_
-
-
-[Illustration: BRACED-FRAME]
-
-There are no sharp distinctions between the various types of
-wooden frame construction. But in order to classify certain tendencies,
-we will arbitrarily define four types. To these we will give the names
-of braced-frame, balloon-frame, combination-frame, and platform-frame.
-
-The braced-frame is the oldest type, and originated in Colonial days
-in New England. It was developed under the influence of a tradition of
-heavy, European half-timber construction, and also nourished by the
-abundance of wood directly at hand. The fact that nails were not made,
-except by hand, urged the carpenters to use methods of fastening which
-required as few as possible. Because of these factors, then, certain
-definite characteristics of this type of wooden frame construction
-manifest themselves in the use of timbers, far larger than necessary
-for safety, and joints consisting of mortises and tenons.
-
-As the sawmill became mechanically more rapid, and as nails were being
-turned out by machines more plentifully, the Yankee who went West
-on adventuresome trips, and cared little for a permanent dwelling,
-devised a system of light-frame construction which became known as
-the balloon-frame. This was put together with the greatest speed, and
-required only nails for fastening all joints. The timbers which were
-used were standardized to one size, namely, 2 inches by 4 inches.
-
-[Illustration: CORNER CONSTRUCTION OF BRACED-FRAME
-
-MORTICE & TENON JOINTS]
-
-Now, both of these types had advantages and disadvantages which were
-bound to influence later builders. Those who had been accustomed to
-build according to the braced-frame system found that lumber was
-becoming scarcer, and that nails were cheaper than they formerly were.
-Certain features of the balloon-frame appealed to them, such as its
-greater speed of construction, its smaller timbers, and lightness.
-On the other hand, those people who had lived in houses constructed
-according to the balloon system of framing found that they were very
-flimsy, that fires quickly consumed them, that rats and vermin could
-travel freely through the walls, and that, after all, they were only
-the most temporary sort of shelter. These folks looked back at the
-old methods of building, and saw the good features of solidity and
-permanence. We had, therefore, the growing together of the two systems
-of construction into a type which we call the combination-frame
-dwelling.
-
-[Illustration: BALLOON-FRAME COMBINATION-FRAME]
-
-However, progress did not stop at this point. The houses built
-according to this newly devised system were found to settle unevenly,
-which cracked plaster ceilings and walls and made doors and windows
-into leaning parallelograms. The cause of this was found to be due to
-the natural shrinkage of wood as it dried out. Now, all wood shrinks
-mostly across the grain, and not with it, so that the amount of
-settlement of any wooden wall depends upon the amount of cross-section
-of wood which it contains. If there is more in the interior partitions
-than in the exterior, it is certain that the floor-joists will settle
-down on the inside ends more than the outside. This is exactly what
-happened. It occurred not only in the combination-frame but in the
-braced and balloon frame. Various devices were introduced to avoid this
-defect, but all were more or less incomplete. Nevertheless, it all
-led gradually to the development of the fourth type of construction,
-which is called the platform-frame, for lack of a better name. This
-frame solves the problem of uneven settlement in the wooden structure.
-It also makes the location of the windows of the second floor
-independent of those of the first floor, which is not the case with the
-balloon-frame, for in this type the studs extend in one piece from the
-sill to the plate, requiring the centring of the windows of the second
-floor over those on the first.
-
-The methods which are used in constructing the small house of to-day
-are not as simply classified as the previous description would lead one
-to believe. The old New England braced-frame has practically gone out
-of existence, yet many of its features remain. The balloon-frame is
-used only in the cheapest sort of structures, yet many of its details
-are found in the modern dwelling; The combination-frame in all its many
-varied forms can be called the advanced type.
-
-
-_Study of Detail in the Combination-Frame_
-
-The illustrations show the four types in their entirety. But in order
-to fully understand the combination-frame, it is necessary to know what
-features of the braced-frame and balloon-frame are used to-day.
-
-
-THE FEATURES OF THE BRACED-FRAME WHICH HAVE SURVIVED
-
-1. _The use of the girt_, because it permits the location of the
-second-floor windows at any point irrespective of the first floor
-windows. This cannot be done when a ribbon-board is used, for this
-requires studs which extend continuously from sill to plate, and if
-any windows are to be located on the second floor, they must be placed
-directly over those on the first floor. The ribbon-board does not
-act as a stop for either vermin or fire, as does the girt. However,
-fire-stops can be introduced in connection with the ribbon-board, if
-the extra expense is no hindrance.
-
-2. _The use of the sill_, because it serves as a firm foundation for
-the outside studs and first tier of floor-joists. The balloon-frame has
-no sill, for the floor-joists are set directly upon the top of the
-foundation-wall, and the exterior studs are built on top of them.
-
-3. _The use of the corner braces_, because they stiffen the frame.
-
-[Illustration: TYPICAL FRAMING OF “WAR HOUSES.”]
-
-
-FEATURES OF THE BALLOON-FRAME WHICH HAVE PERSISTED
-
-1. _The use of small timbers_, or the standardization of the 2 by 4 for
-all parts except the sill, because of economy. The corner-posts are
-made of three 2 by 4’s, and the plate is made of two 2 by 4’s.
-
-2. _The use of the nailed joint_, because of its cheapness and its
-greater strength. It will not rattle loose when the timber seasons, as
-does the mortise and tenon joint in the braced-frame.
-
-3. _The use of the ribbon-board_, in place of the girt, for those
-houses which are to be stuccoed, and a rigid, outside wall-frame is
-desired from sill to plate.
-
-4. _The use of diagonal sheathing-boards_, to brace the frame instead
-of the corner-pieces. The reasons for this are not very certain, since
-diagonal bracing with sheathing is not always effective, while it is
-extremely wasteful.
-
-The combination-frame includes all of the present-day methods
-which make use of selected features of both the braced-frame and
-balloon-frame, such as were noted above. There are no rules to follow.
-In certain sections of the country one type is favored more than the
-other. Where a house is to be covered with stucco, the balloon-frame is
-a better type to use than the braced-frame, since it gives a stiffer
-outside wall as a backing for the stucco.
-
-
-_Platform-Frame_
-
-[Illustration: PLATFORM FRAME]
-
-It will be noticed in the illustration how different is the amount
-of cross-section of wood in exterior and interior walls of the
-combination-frame, a thing which causes the unequal settlement
-previously alluded to. In order to reduce this to a minimum, it is
-often specified that the studs of all interior partitions be carried
-down to the top of the cap of the partition below or to the top of the
-supporting girder, thus reducing the amount of cross-section timber.
-This is not a complete cure, however, although it is a big improvement.
-
-The real solution of the difficulty lies in the use of the platform
-system of construction. In this system the first floor is built on top
-of the foundation-walls, as though it were a platform. A sill, called
-the box-sill, is constructed for the exterior support of the ends of
-the floor-joists by laying down a timber the same size as the joists
-and setting another one on the extreme edge in a vertical position. The
-angle thus formed makes a resting-box into which the floor-joist can
-be framed. The interior ends of the floor-joists should be supported
-upon a steel I-beam upon which has been placed a 2-inch-thick timber.
-The I-beam should be supported upon steel-tube columns which have been
-filled with concrete. On top of the floor-joists should be nailed
-the underflooring, laid diagonally. The first floor then appears as
-a perfectly smooth platform. Now wherever there is to be erected an
-interior or exterior partition, a 2 by 4, called the sole piece, is
-nailed directly on top of the rough flooring. This serves as a sill for
-the studs of the partition, which are now erected vertically upon them
-and capped with double 2 by 4’s on the top. Now the second floor is
-built on top of the partitions in the same manner as the first, and a
-new platform is constructed, so to speak. Upon this is then erected the
-partitions of the second floor, and on this the floor of the attic. In
-fact, this construction proceeds floor by floor, and each floor is an
-independent platform. If the drawings are examined it will be noticed
-that the amount of cross-section of wood in any one bearing partition
-is identically the same as in any other. The dwelling built in this
-way, then, cannot settle unevenly, and the cracked plaster and twisted
-doors will be eliminated.
-
-[Illustration: CLAPBOARDS OVER WOODEN STUDS]
-
-
-_Features Common to All_
-
-There are certain features which are common to all types of frames. For
-instance, the framing around all doors and windows requires the use of
-double 2 by 4’s or the use of one 4 by 4.
-
-These framing studs around the window are set 5 inches higher and 8
-inches wider than the dimensions of the finished window. Those about
-the door-openings are set 2 inches higher and 4 inches wider.
-
-[Illustration: BRICK VENEER OVER WOODEN STUDS.]
-
-All use sheathing-boards of ⅞-inch stock to cover the outside of the
-studs, and these are usually 6 inches to 8 inches wide.
-
-The usual spacing of studs is 16 inches on centres, and they are
-generally of 2 by 4’s, although where any pipes or flues are run
-through the partition they should be 2 by 6’s.
-
-Interior stud partitions should be bridged or braced once in their
-height, and partitions which run parallel to the floor-joists should
-have a capping-board, so that the proper nailing for lath can be
-secured. In fact, at all intersections of partitions care should be
-exercised that the required nailing for lath is provided.
-
-In the construction of roofs the average spacing of rafters is 20
-inches on centres. They should be doubled around all openings. The
-ridge is usually of a 1-inch by 10-inch piece. The size of the rafters
-varies with the length of span and load. They are usually 2 inches by
-6 inches for short spans and light loads, and 2 inches by 8 inches or
-2 inches by 10 inches for long spans and comparatively heavy loads.
-Valley rafters must always be deeper and heavier than the rafters and
-should be designed as a girder. The hip rafters do not carry any great
-load, but are often made deeper to fit the incline cut of the jack
-rafters.
-
-All floor-joists are spaced 16 inches on centres, and should be
-bridged. The following is the table commonly followed for good house
-construction, although lighter work is most often specified:
-
-        SPAN                 TIMBER
-
-    12' and under   2" × 10" cross-bridged once.
-
-    12' to 15'      2" × 10" doubled every other one, if good stiffness
-                    is desired, and bridged twice.
-
-    15' to 20'      3" × 12" and of long-leaf yellow pine, crowned at
-                    centre ½", and bridged three times.
-
-    20' to 25'      3" × 14" of long-leaf yellow pine, crowned at the
-                    centre 1" for the 25' spans, and bridged four times.
-
-Floor-joists should be doubled around all openings larger than 3 feet,
-and joists should be hung from the header beam by metal straps.
-
-There are many precautions which should be taken to prevent the spread
-of fire in the wooden frame house, but those will be considered as
-a special subject. Likewise the discussion of certain defects of
-construction which are commonly found in the speculative house will be
-dealt with later.
-
-
-
-
-V CONSTRUCTION OF THE MASONRY AND WOOD DWELLING
-
-
-In one of the previous chapters it was pointed out that the type of
-construction next in general use to that of the wooden frame house was
-the dwelling of masonry and wood. This was designated as Type II, and
-defined as a building with exterior walls of stone, brick, concrete,
-or terra-cotta, and interior floors and partitions of wooden frame
-construction.
-
-The difference in construction between the wooden frame structure
-and the masonry-and-wood building is mostly in the material used for
-the exterior walls. The interiors of both types are constructed in
-practically the same way, the floors being of light wooden joists and
-the partitions of wooden studs.
-
-The oldest varieties of the masonry houses in America are represented
-by the stone and brick dwellings of Colonial days. These are so
-substantially built, and often so artistic in conception, that they
-have become common models from which to draw inspiration. The concrete
-house of the monolithic or block type, and that of hollow terra-cotta
-tile, is a modern development.
-
-
-_The Stone House_
-
-The stone house is very adaptable to all those regions where this
-material can be secured from the excavation of the cellar or from some
-neighboring road improvement. Sometimes an old stone wall serves as a
-source of supply. Because of the native character of this material it
-will always be in harmony with the landscape.
-
-In building the wall of stone there are a number of things to be
-observed, where success is desired. The wall should be well bonded
-together, the lintels over the windows should be strong, the
-foundations should be adequate to prevent cracks, the method of laying
-should be artistic, and the form of jointing in harmony with it.
-
-All native stones used for rubble wall construction have certain
-characteristics of color and formation. Certain stones will split
-easily into long, flat shapes, others seem to have very little
-lamination and break into jagged, irregular patterns, while others are
-so soft that they lend themselves to easy shaping in squared blocks
-of regular size. Sometimes, even, the neighborhood may be filled with
-round field stones, which can be used to imbed into the face of the
-wall and produce a surface of round bumps. Whatever is the character of
-the native stone, it should be used in its simplest form and not forced
-into imitation of some other type. The soft brown sandstones which are
-seen in some Colonial houses are easily cut and squared; but to cut
-up a hard stone into such carefully shaped blocks, in imitation of
-this Colonial work, would not only be a waste of money but a waste of
-artistic effect.
-
-
-METHOD OF LAYING
-
-According to the way in which the stone naturally lends itself, we have
-various types of rubble walls. The commonest is the rough rubble wall
-in which the stones have neither regular shapes nor regular sizes, or
-even courses. The wall is composed of large stones and small stones
-(the latter are called spalls, and fill in the interstices between
-the larger stones). The joints of mortar between the stones may be
-plastered roughly over the surface, covering much of the face of the
-stones themselves, or they may be roughly but neatly pointed with
-white mortar, or the joints may be raked out. Where the stone has a
-natural tendency to cleave into long, flat shapes, the rough rubble may
-become more regularly coursed in appearance. All of these types are
-respectively illustrated in Figures 1, 2, 3, and 4.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 1. Rough Rubble—Plastered Joints
-
-Fig. 2. Rough Rubble—large white, roughly pointed joints]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 3. Rough Rubble—trowled joints]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 4. Rough Rubble, or ledged work Raked Joints.
-
-Fig. 5. Cobweb Rubble—tooled joints—no spalls]
-
-A softer stone, which can be dressed with the hammer, may
-be treated in two different ways: It may be shaped to fit closely,
-without using any spalls to fill up the interstices, and, thus,
-appear as a cut-out puzzle; this is called “cobweb rubble.”
-However, the more dignified treatment is the squared, uncoursed
-rubble, in which the blocks are cut to rectangular shape and the
-joints pointed with a tool. Figures 5 and 6 illustrate these.
-
-A wall built entirely of field stone depends upon the mortar
-for its strength. It appears the best when the joints of the
-surface are raked out, permitting a large part of the stones to
-project outward. Figure 7 illustrates this kind of rubble wall.
-
-When the rubble wall is built with very carefully squared stones,
-and in regular courses, it partakes more of the monumental character
-of ashlar work and draws away from the rustic value of rubble. In
-determining the amount of cutting which is to be done, the character of
-the building should be considered, remembering that the smoother and
-more finished the wall, the more monumental is its appearance.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 6. Square uncoursed Rubble tooled joints
-
-Fig. 7. Field stone Rubble raked joints]
-
-[Illustration: Bond stone every 2' in ht. and 3' in length]
-
-MORTAR, BOND, AND THICKNESS
-
-[Illustration: Thickness of rubble-stone wall]
-
-The kind of mortar which should be used for the rubble wall depends
-upon its location and desired appearance. All foundation-walls,
-and all walls which are subject to dampness, should be built with
-Portland-cement mortar. Lime mortar may be used in walls above grade,
-although cement mortar, or cement-lime mortar is superior. As the
-strength of a rubble wall depends more upon the mortar than the bond,
-it is well to use the best. However, care should be taken that the
-wall is well bonded. A wall which consists of two faces, not bonded
-together, should not be built. A bond stone which carries through from
-one face to the other should be set into the wall every 2 feet in
-height, and every 3 feet in length. This bond stone should be flat and
-about 12 inches in width and 8 inches thick. The usual thickness of
-walls for dwellings not over three stories in height is 16 inches, and
-the foundation-walls are made 8 inches thicker than the wall above or 2
-feet.
-
-The footings under a stone wall should be of concrete, not less than 12
-inches thick, and should rest upon solid ground at a depth equal to,
-or greater than, the frost-line below the surface, unless solid rock
-occurs above this point. The width of the footings should be such that
-it projects outward on both sides of the wall at least 4½ inches.
-
-
-FURRING
-
-The interior of all stone walls, and in fact all masonry walls, will
-show condensation of moisture over the interior surface, and if they
-are plastered directly on the interior the decorations will be ruined
-by the collection of so much water. The cause of this condensation is
-the same as that which forms sweat on the exterior surface of a glass
-of cold water. In order to eliminate this disagreeable feature, all
-masonry walls are furred on the interior before the lath and plaster
-is applied. The furring makes an air space between the wall and the
-plaster, and all dampness is prevented from penetrating to the interior
-surface of the plaster. To further increase the damp-proof qualities of
-a masonry wall they are sometimes built hollow, as, for example, the
-hollow brick wall, or the hollow terra-cotta tile wall. This air space
-also serves as an insulator for heat, preventing the escape of heat
-from the interior of the building in winter and the penetration of it
-into the structure in the summer.
-
-[Illustration: 10. Furring Strip]
-
-The commonest type of furring is the 1-inch by 2-inch wooden strip,
-nailed to the joints of the masonry or to wall plugs inserted in
-the joints. Metal furring strips are also extensively used, and
-occasionally hollow terra-cotta furring blocks.
-
-
-_Brick House_
-
-Like the stone house, the brick dwelling is one of the oldest types
-in this country. Examples of early brick houses show a taste for good
-brick, which later died out on account of the introduction of the first
-American machine-made bricks. These early machine-made bricks were
-extremely ugly, due to their perfection of geometric shape, smoothness
-of surface, and monotony of red color. Later improvements in the
-manufacture of brick have released this material for extensive artistic
-use. The surface was given a varied color and texture, and the form
-was not made so machine-like. To-day we have a variety of bricks which
-range in colors through reds, yellows, buffs, greens, blues, and even
-dark violets. Textures of wire-cut bricks are rich and varied, and, if
-properly handled, can produce the very finest architecture.
-
-[Illustration: 11. Running Bond and method of Bonding
-
-14. Flemish Bond]
-
-[Illustration: 12. English Bond]
-
-[Illustration: 13. Dutch Bond or English Cross Bond]
-
-
-
-
-BONDING AND CONSTRUCTION
-
-The thickness of brick walls for dwellings not higher than three
-stories ought to be 12 inches, although 8 inches is considered by many
-experts to be quite thick enough for small houses. If the foundation
-walls are of rubble-stone they should be 8 inches thicker, and if of
-brick or concrete they should be 4 inches thicker. Usually the walls
-will be faced with some variety of face brick, in which case they
-should be bonded into the wall. If a running bond is used, the face
-brick should be bonded into the backing at every sixth course by
-cutting the corners of each brick in that course of face brick and
-putting in a row of diagonal headers behind them, and also using
-suitable metal anchors in bonding courses at intervals not exceeding
-3 feet. Where Flemish bond is used, the headers of every third course
-should be a full brick and bonded into the backing. If the face brick
-is of different thickness to that of the common brick backing, the
-courses of the exterior and interior should be brought to a level bed
-at intervals of about eight courses in height of face brick, and the
-face tied into the backing by a full header course or other suitable
-method.
-
-[Illustration: FISKLOCK BRICK]
-
-
-FUNDAMENTAL BONDS IN BRICKWORK
-
-It is very easy to understand the bonds in brickwork if the fundamental
-forms are known. There are, in reality, but two real bonds: namely, the
-English and the Flemish bond. The so-called running bond is no bond
-at all; while the common bond is found only in common brick walls,
-and uses a bonding course of headers every sixth course. The Dutch
-bond is only a slightly altered arrangement of the English bond, and
-is produced by merely shifting the centring of vertical joints of the
-stretcher course. By arranging these fundamental bonds in varying
-manners a decorative pattern can be produced on the wall of brick.
-
-[Illustration: 15. Brick Joints]
-
-
-TYPES OF JOINTS
-
-Here, again, as in the stone wall, the mortar joint plays a great part
-in the final effect of the design. It can be safely set forth as a rule
-that the rougher the texture of the brick used, the rougher and wider
-should be the joint. For the smooth-faced brick the joint should be
-small and finished with a tool. For a rough-faced brick the joint
-should be large and rough in texture. The various forms of brick joints
-in common use are shown in the illustrations.
-
-[Illustration: 16. Lintel Construction]
-
-
-LINTEL CONSTRUCTION
-
-In the construction of lintels in either the wall of brick or stone,
-the introduction of either wood or steel is necessary for strength.
-Where the openings are less than 4 feet in width, timber lintels are
-used at the back of the lintel or arch, which are cut to serve as a
-centre for a rowlock or keyed arch. Any face brick may be supported by
-using a small steel angle. Where lintels are wider than 4 feet, steel
-I-beams, channels, or angles must be used. Where the span is more than
-6 feet, it is necessary to build in bearing plates for the support of
-the ends of lintels.
-
-
-_The Ideal Brick Wall_
-
-It would be well to mention here the new type of brick wall which is
-being advertised widely by the Common Brick Manufacturers Association.
-This wall is claimed to be very suited to the small house, and no doubt
-it would be, if it were possible to secure the co-operation of the
-local mason.
-
-This type of brick wall is built hollow, and arranged as shown in the
-drawings. There are no continuous mortar joints from the exterior
-to the interior through which moisture can penetrate. There are
-many features of advantage which the following table shows, but,
-unfortunately, not all mason contractors will give the owner the
-advantage of the reduction in cost which this wall permits.
-
-[Illustration: 8" IDEAL WALL 12" IDEAL WALL COMMON BRICK]
-
-For 100 square feet of wall, 8 inches thick, the following materials
-are required:
-
-           FOR SOLID BRICK WALL
-    1,233    bricks.
-        2.6  sacks of cement.
-        2.9  bags of hydrated lime.
-         .7  cubic yards of sand.
-        9    hours of a bricklayer’s time.
-       10    hours of a mason’s helper’s time.
-
-           FOR IDEAL ALL ROLOK WALL
-      904    bricks.
-        1    sack of cement.
-        1.2  sacks of hydrated lime.
-         .3  cubic yards of sand.
-         8   hours of bricklayer’s time.
-        6    hours of a mason’s helper’s time.
-
-
-_Hollow-Tile House_
-
-The past decade has seen an increasing use of hollow terra-cotta tile
-as a building material for the walls of the small house. It has many
-advantages which have made its popularity increase, such as its larger
-and lighter construction unit, reducing the labor of setting, its
-cellular wall features, and its availability. There is much information
-published by the manufacturers describing the correct construction, but
-always, of course, with an eye to advertising the material.
-
-However, there has been much conflicting testimony made concerning
-the practicability of hollow-tile construction, and some of the
-disadvantages should be noted. As a rule, they have proved to be strong
-enough to support the weight of the structure imposed upon them, but
-in the Southwest, where tornado winds are prevalent, these walls have
-been criticised because of their lack of stability and their porosity.
-Hollow-tile walls have been thrown down while those constructed of
-brick have stood, and driving rain-storms frequently make the inside of
-the walls wet.
-
-The stability can be increased by filling them with concrete, but the
-allowable strength cannot be considered to have been raised. Tests have
-shown that this filling does not increase the strength, because of the
-difference in the elasticity of the two materials.
-
-
-TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION
-
-There are two types of hollow terra-cotta blocks, one which builds with
-cells vertically and the other which builds with cells horizontally.
-This latter is generally an interlocking tile. The strongest wall for
-vertical-load resistance is built with vertical-cell tiles.
-
-[Illustration: 20. Support of floor-joists  18. 12" Hollow-tile wall
-Cells Horizontal]
-
-All hollow-tile should be laid in Portland-cement mortar, and the webs
-should be arranged so that they build over one another. The bearing of
-floor beams and girders on walls, built with blocks of vertical cells,
-should be made by covering the tile with templates of terra-cotta
-slabs, filling them with concrete or protecting them with plates of
-steel. Where chases are required for pipes they should not be cut into
-the wall, but special blocks should be used to build around them. All
-lintels under 5 feet should be constructed with tile arches, reinforced
-with concrete and steel rods inside of their webs.
-
-[Illustration: 17. Vertical cell Hollow-tile wall]
-
-
-PRECAUTIONS AGAINST DAMPNESS
-
-[Illustration: 21. Construction of lintel]
-
-[Illustration: Brick Veneered Hollow-tile wall]
-
-In order to prevent the penetration of moisture the mason should butter
-all joints on the inside and outside edges, leaving an empty space
-between, in order to insulate against the transmission of moisture
-through the joint. To prevent the collection of mortar in the cells of
-the tile, due to droppings during construction, the spreading of metal
-lath over the top of each course of tile will accomplish this and
-also make the strength of the wall greater. Although it is often
-recommended that hollow-tile be plastered directly upon the interior,
-yet this is not safe in those sections of the country where there are
-driving rain-storms. For this reason it is advisable to fur them on the
-interior. It is also recommended that a waterproofing compound be added
-to the stucco applied to the exterior. Another fact should be observed:
-namely, that all door and window frames, since they are of wood, will
-tend to shrink and thus open up the joints and permit the leakage of
-rain-water. Oakum should be stuffed behind all brick moulds to prevent
-this. Care should also be taken to make drips under all sills, so that
-no water will leak into the interior of the wall. All belt courses
-should also have steep washes. Stucco should not be carried down to the
-grade level, but a course of solid material, like brick, concrete, or
-stone, should be built at this point.
-
-
-VENEERING
-
-It is sometimes customary to veneer walls of hollow-tile with brick,
-especially those tiles which are of the interlocking type, since a
-better bond can be secured. In any case, any brick veneer should be
-bonded to the backing with a row of headers every 16 inches, or be
-attached with metal ties. This veneering should not be considered as
-part of the required thickness of wall.
-
-
-WALL THICKNESS
-
-The thickness of hollow-tile walls should be the same as for walls of
-brick. The construction of light 10-inch and 8-inch walls, while strong
-enough as a substitute for a frame dwelling, is not strong against
-weather or fire. The only justification for thin walls is the slightly
-reduced cost of materials. Hollow blocks, as a rule, are not used
-for foundations, although they are satisfactory under buildings not
-higher than 40 feet. It is better to fill such walls with concrete and
-waterproof them on the exterior.
-
-
-_Concrete House_
-
-The development of the concrete house has been stimulated by large
-corporations erecting towns of them in one locality. The erection of
-concrete houses by individual builders cannot, as a rule, follow those
-systems which are adapted to group construction. The use of large
-precast units may be satisfactory for a development of a hundred or
-more houses, but it is not economical for a single operation. The use
-of heavy steel forms for casting monolithic houses of concrete, while
-under certain favorable labor conditions may be satisfactory for a
-small job, yet as a rule is better adapted to large enterprises. Such
-steel forms are represented by the Lambie forms and the Hydraulic
-forms. Even wood forms of heavy construction, like those used in the
-Ingersoll system in work at Union and Phillipsburg, are not adapted
-to an operation involving less than fifty identical houses. Another
-system, combining both the precast and the cast-in-place work, called
-the Simpsoncraft system, is not economical for small operations. This
-uses thin precast slabs for walls and floors, and precast concrete
-beams. The precast parts are tied together by casting in place
-reinforced studs of concrete.
-
-Practically the only available systems which are useful for the small
-operation are (1) monolithic houses, built with light, portable steel
-forms or wooden forms, and (2) the concrete block house.
-
-
-BLOCK HOUSE
-
-[Illustration: 25. Typical Concrete block wall]
-
-The concrete house, especially that built of blocks, often has the
-defect of being damp on the interior, unless precautions have been
-taken to avoid this. It is always best to fur the interior of walls,
-although there have been cases where the blocks have been waterproofed
-and the interiors remained dry. Usually those blocks which are cast
-in a very dry state are porous, while those which are poured show
-considerable compactness. The great difficulty in using concrete blocks
-lies in the inexperienced and inartistic work of the large number of
-“would-be manufacturers,” whose only claim to the product consists of
-having purchased a machine which will turn out so many blocks a day
-and reap them an advertised fortune in a short period. A thoroughly
-reliable concrete block can be made, if there is used plenty of good
-cement, clean aggregate with proper proportions of fine and coarse to
-secure density, sufficient water to make a wet mixture, and then the
-product kept damp while curing. The surface should also be finished in
-some artistic manner. A good method consists in applying about an inch
-of white cement and showy aggregate to the outer facing of the block,
-and then, when the block has been set into the wall, finish it off with
-a stone-tooling machine, such as a pointer, operated by a pneumatic
-hammer. Blocks, also, should be of the hollow-wall type, so that an air
-space between can be secured for ventilation and insulation.
-
-
-MONOLITHIC HOUSE
-
-The commonest method of building monolithic walls of concrete is to
-use wooden forms. These are built in sets of panels, one for the
-exterior and the other for the interior face of each course. These are
-successively raised, one above the other, in pouring the walls. Mr.
-Ernest Flagg, architect, has developed a remarkably simple system of
-concrete-wall construction with the wooden form. Roughly broken stone
-are set against the inside of the forms, used for the exterior face of
-the wall, and the rest of the wall is filled up with concrete. By
-raising the boards which are used for the forms, as each layer hardens,
-the wall can be erected without skilled labor and yet have the
-appearance, on the exterior, of a stone wall. Of course it is necessary
-to point the joints of the stone work after the forms have been removed.
-
-[Illustration: 22. Typical monolithic wall construction
-
-24. Stone faced concrete wall developed by Ernest Flagg]
-
-Of the light steel forms, the most important on the market are the
-Metaforms and the Morrill forms. The Metaforms, originally the
-Reichert forms, are composed of individual form units. All units are
-standardized and interchangeable, and equipped with the necessary
-clamps and locking devices. These units are built of sheet steel,
-strongly reinforced, and measure 2 feet square. A single course of
-Metaforms is composed of an inner and outer shell of plates. As the
-work progresses the bottom course is taken off and placed above for
-the next, there being usually three courses of forms in operation.
-The Morrill form is also a sheet-steel form, only it uses a hinged
-“swing-up” construction, by which the lower courses of the form can be
-swung up into position for the new course as the work progresses.
-
-The Van Guilder double-wall machines have been gradually
-increasing in use throughout the country. They are not for
-sale, but the company establishes a contracting organization in
-different centres. The machine is a steel mould which is moved
-along and upward as the concrete wall is tamped in it. It builds
-a double wall in tiers. Each tier is 9 inches high and 5 feet
-long. A complete circuit of one tier is made around the wall,
-and then the next tier is begun on top.
-
-[Illustration: 23. A double monolithic wall built by the Van Guilder
-machine.]
-
-
-
-
-VI SAFEGUARDS AGAINST FIRE IN DWELLINGS
-
-
-_The Necessity for Safeguards_
-
-The majority of small houses will be built of either wood-frame
-construction or of wood-and-masonry construction for many years to
-come, in spite of the propaganda favoring fireproof dwellings, for the
-cost of materials and labor are so adjusted that houses of this better
-type cannot be built by the average citizen. In fact, 90 per cent of
-the houses erected to-day use wooden studs and floor beams.
-
-This method of building costs the fire insurance companies about
-$60,000,000 a year. The actual loss must be even greater than this, for
-not all houses are insured.
-
-We might as well face these facts frankly and accept the next best
-means of preventing this enormous annual loss of dwellings by
-establishing safeguards against this fire dragon at the most vulnerable
-parts of the building. We must place the armor of protection where
-it is needed most, and set up the safeguards against fire where the
-dangerous enemy attacks.
-
-On examination of the insurance reports upon this question, we find
-that 96 per cent of all the fires originate inside of the houses. The
-most important cause of these fires is defective chimney construction.
-Bad fireplace design, careless flue construction, and poor masonry work
-in the chimney are responsible for many a tragic fire and a total loss
-of furniture, clothes, and household goods of well-meaning citizens. It
-is true that this is a cause of fire which may be prevented by building
-good chimneys and fireplaces, but there are other causes that are not
-so easily regulated, such as explosions from kerosene, short circuits
-in the electric iron or vacuum cleaner, careless throwing around of
-burned matches and cigarettes, and many other accidents which are bound
-to occur in spite of all precautions. When such fires start, there is
-only one thing to do: extinguish them in the quickest possible manner.
-But this cannot be done easily if the walls and the floors of the house
-are so built that they act as hidden passages and flues for the flames
-to creep insidiously throughout the building, breaking out in the most
-unexpected places and entrapping the unwary in dangerous positions. The
-way that many dwellings are constructed makes it possible for a fire
-to start in the cellar over the smoke-pipe from the furnace, in the
-dead of night, creep silently through the floors and up the interior
-partitions to the attic and second floor, until suddenly, bursting
-forth in all its fury, it has the sleeping inhabitants ensnared in a
-box of fire that has cut off their escape. The terrible heat has eaten
-away the strength of the bearing partitions, the floors collapse, the
-stairs are encircled with a writhing flame, and smoke and fire issue
-from everywhere as suddenly as though they had been spontaneously
-produced. There is no time to fight such a fire as this; about all
-that can be done is to escape in safety, and then the history of such
-conflagrations tells of the tragic death of many children left behind
-in the excitement.
-
-It is this fearful danger of the secret entrapping of fire that it is
-possible to eliminate from the wooden house. At least we can make this
-demon element come out into the open, where we can see to fight him. We
-can set safeguards against his passage through floors and walls,
-up stairs, and behind wainscots. In most cases where houses are so
-protected a fire can be quickly extinguished by the fire department or
-by a chemical fire-extinguisher kept in the house.
-
-This business of setting up fire-stops when the house is being
-constructed should be known. The closing of the passage between the
-plaster, furring strips, and masonry wall, the blocking of continuous
-ways through exterior stud walls and interior bearing partitions, the
-filling in of the hollow spaces behind wainscots, the protecting of the
-under side of stairs, and many other precautions can be provided for in
-the plans and specifications without adding much to the expense.
-
-
-_Placing of the Fire-Stops_
-
-There are two general places where these fire-stops should be
-constructed: in the vertical walls to cut off concealed drafts and in
-the horizontal floors to act as barriers between one floor and the
-next. A fire which starts in the cellar can be confined for some time
-from spreading upward if the ceiling is covered with metal lath and
-plaster and all the possible vertical openings in the walls are stopped
-with concrete, mineral wool, or other effective material. On the other
-hand, a fire which starts in the attic may spread to the lower stories
-by sparks dropping down inside of the partitions, unless they are
-properly fire-stopped.
-
-It is very important, however, to have fire-stops carefully built,
-for when gas is heated to the temperature of combustion it will pass
-through very small crevices, setting fire to the materials on the other
-side. It only requires a temperature of 1000° F. to ignite wood, and if
-the air is this hot, although it may appear harmless, it will set
-fire to whatever combustible material it touches. For this reason,
-fire-stops carelessly installed are as good as none. As an example
-of this, blocks of wood are sometimes used between the studs as a
-fire-stopping material, but, as it requires time to fit this material
-in place, small cracks are often left between the blocks and the studs,
-which permit the heated gases easily to pass through them to the other
-side. This is also true when bricks are used for fire-stops. As the
-average stud is only about 3¾ inch wide, and the average brick is
-4 inches, it is impossible to fill the space between the studs with
-bricks, laid flatwise, but they must be set on edge, leaving a wide
-crevice which must be filled in with mortar. This is often poorly done
-or omitted entirely, making the brick fire-stop inadequate.
-
-In enumerating the places where fire-stops should be built, the most
-important ones are the blocking of the space between the plaster and
-furred brick wall at each floor level and the closing of the air-space
-in exterior stud walls at each floor (Figs. 1, 2, 3). The filling in
-of the hollow space at the base of every interior stud partition is
-likewise necessary (Fig. 4). A wooden cornice banks up the heat from
-any neighboring fire, and it is advisable to fire-stop the space around
-the ends of the rafters where they join with the ceiling-joists over
-the plate (Fig. 5). Where the second floor of the house projects out
-over the porch, it should be filled with fire-stopping material, not
-only for safety against fire but also to keep out the cold in the
-winter (Fig. 6). The pockets into which sliding-doors roll should
-be lined with gypsum board, not only as a fire retardant but also
-to prevent cold drafts from coming out of these pockets (Fig. 7).
-The plaster should be carried down behind all wooden wainscots as a
-fire-stop (Fig. 8). The space between the stair carriage should also
-be closed at each story (Fig. 9), and all chases and ducts should
-be filled at each floor level. Wherever exposed pipes pass through
-horizontal parts of the house they should be run through sleeves.
-Wherever hot-air flues go from one floor to the next they should be
-packed around with incombustible material (Fig. 10), and all registers
-in floors should be insulated in the same way. The space between
-floor-joists and chimneys must also be filled in with fire-stopping
-materials.
-
-[Illustration: Fire-stopping of furred off space in brick wall
-
-Fig 1
-
-Fire-stopping of furred off space in brick wall
-
-Fig 2]
-
-[Illustration: Fire stop at base of exterior stud wall
-
-Fig 3
-
-Fire stop for interior bearing partition of studs
-
-Fig 4]
-
-[Illustration: Fire stop at end of rafters
-
-Fig 5
-
-Fire stop in ceiling of porch roof where 2nd floor projects over
-
-Fig 6]
-
-[Illustration: Fire-stop of sliding door
-
-Fig 7
-
-Fire-stop of Wainscot
-
-Fig 8]
-
-[Illustration: Fig 9
-
- Fig 10]
-
-
-_Materials to be Used_
-
-It is not necessary to use expensive materials for fire-stops, but they
-should be carefully placed. Materials like mineral wool are the best,
-since they expand as the wood shrinks and fill up the space. Concrete
-which is held in position by strips of metal lath is also excellent.
-The concrete or mortar used can be made from refuse material, and need
-not have any great strength. Old bricks are satisfactory if they are
-slushed into position with mortar which fills all the crevices. Gypsum
-blocks are good except for damp location, where they absorb moisture
-easily and, holding it, induce dry rot in the surrounding timbers.
-Asbestos board, gypsum board, and metal lath and plaster are suitable
-for covering large areas, such as cellar ceilings, over the boiler.
-In fact, fire-stopping can be cheaply done with odd-and-end bits of
-material which usually go to waste around the building.
-
-The details of constructing these fire-stops are best shown in the
-illustrations, and no further descriptions will be necessary.
-
-
-_Chimney Construction_
-
-In view of what was said in the first part of this chapter, the
-construction of a chimney by approved methods is also a safeguard
-against fire. It can be considered a rule that every chimney should
-be lined with a terra-cotta flue, that every chimney should be
-an independent structure of its own, with walls thick enough for
-stability, capable of standing upon their own foundations and not hung
-from any part of the structure, that all woodwork of the building
-should be framed far enough from the chimney to make no contact with
-it, and, finally, that all the smoke-pipes which enter into the flues
-should be proof against leakage of flames and heat of such intensity as
-to cause combustion.
-
-In the past this need of lining the flues of a chimney with
-terra-cotta flue tiles was not considered important, but to-day it is
-a well recognized fact that no chimney is safe without this protective
-lining. There are many instances where chimneys are built without this
-lining and show no fire dangers, but the action of flue gases is slow
-and sure, and the mortar is attacked gradually, with the resulting
-disintegration of the brickwork, through which the flames eventually
-find their way to the surrounding wood timbers. It is found that even
-where terra-cotta flue linings are used the hot gases from the burning
-of natural gas as a fuel break down their resistance and they crumble,
-so that in such cases the flue linings should be made of fire-clays.
-From practical experience the minimum thickness allowable for any of
-these flue linings should be 1 inch, and the joints should not be made
-with collars.
-
-When setting these linings they should be laid in cement mortar, not
-in lime mortar, for this disintegrates under the action of gases from
-burning wood. The joints should be struck smooth on the inside, and the
-space between the lining and the brickwork filled in solid with mortar.
-Wherever two flue linings are run within the same chimney space, the
-joints should be staggered or offset at least 6 inches. Two linings,
-however, in one chimney space should be the maximum number permitted.
-Where more are required, each group of two should be separated by
-brick walls of at least 4 inches, which are well bonded into the
-outside walls of the chimney. This is in order to give stability to the
-chimney and also prevent any fires in one flue spreading to others. The
-thickness of outside walls of the chimney around the flues should not
-be less than 4 inches if built of brick or reinforced concrete, but
-if built of stone they should be 8 inches. Wherever there is no flue
-lining of terra-cotta, such as in the smoke-chamber, the thickness of
-the masonry from the interior to the exterior should never be less than
-8 inches.
-
-If chimneys are built of reinforced concrete, the reinforcements should
-be run in both directions to prevent cracks during the setting of the
-cement or from temperature stresses. Where concrete blocks are used,
-reinforcements should run continuously around the blocks, and the shell
-of the blocks should not be less than 4 inches thick.
-
-Wherever the walls of dwellings are of brick and 12 or more inches
-thick, they may be used to contain chimney flues. If it is necessary to
-corbel out the flues from the wall, they should not extend farther than
-4 inches from the face of the wall, and the corbelling should not be
-done with less than five courses of bricks.
-
-Next in importance to the correct lining of flues is the proper
-construction of the foundation under chimneys. There are often cases
-where it is necessary to cut off the chimneys below in part or in whole
-to supply room on the first floor. This should be avoided as much as
-possible, but if it cannot be done it should be supported by steelwork
-from the ground up.
-
-[Illustration: Fire place
-
-Fig 12]
-
-Another mistake that is continually made is to cut off the chimney
-at too low a level and cap it with only a plastering of mortar. All
-chimneys should be carried at least 3 feet above flat roofs and 2
-feet above the ridge of a peak roof and properly capped with stone,
-terra-cotta, or concrete. If they are not capped, and the bricks
-improperly tied, the mortar joints will be loosened by the action of
-the weather and the heat issuing from the chimney, and eventually
-the bricks will be moved from their position, leaving the top in a
-dilapidated condition.
-
-This extension of the chimney through the roof leaves a joint which
-must be covered with flashing to prevent leaking. The usual method of
-building a tin-covered cricket behind the chimney, and protecting the
-other sides with tin flashing counter-flashed is very satisfactory; but
-the practice of corbelling the brickwork out over the roof, in order to
-cover over the joint, is extremely bad. When a chimney built in this
-way settles, the corbelled-out parts catch on the roof, and the whole
-top of the chimney is lifted off, leaving a crack through which the hot
-gases pass to the wooden rafters. See illustrations on pages 145 and
-170.
-
-If there are any fireplaces to be built in the chimney the walls should
-never be less than 8 inches thick around them. It is best to line them
-with fire-brick of at least 2 inches in thickness. Hearths should
-extend in front of the fireplace at least 20 inches to prevent sparks
-from falling on the wooden floors. These hearths should be supported
-upon trimmer arches or be constructed of reinforced concrete. It is
-important to keep the woodwork of any mantel away from the opening at
-the top at least 12 inches and at the sides at least 8 inches.
-
-[Illustration: Fig 11]
-
-In fact, no woodwork should be permitted to come in contact with any
-part of the chimney. Wooden beams and joists should be kept at least
-2 inches from the chimney and at least 4 inches from the back of any
-fireplace. This space, as was previously stated, should be filled in
-with fire-stopping material. Where a chimney is on the line with a
-wooden stud partition, it is better to plaster directly over the
-brickwork of the chimney than to carry studs over it on which lath and
-plaster is constructed. By using metal lath over the brickwork the
-danger of cracks can be eliminated. Where a base-board must be carried
-along this wall in which such a chimney occurs, the plaster should be
-carried down behind it and then asbestos board should be placed behind
-the base-board to prevent too much heat coming in contact with it.
-
-If these precautions are taken in the construction of the chimney and
-the correct methods of fire-stopping employed, the house of wood can
-be made less of a fire-trap than it is to-day. None of these devices
-require much additional expense, and should, on this basis, have a
-broad appeal.
-
-
-
-
-VII POOR METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION EMPLOYED BY UNSCRUPULOUS BUILDERS
-
-
-It would be an endless task to list and describe all of the possible
-faults of construction which an unscrupulous builder might use in the
-erection of a small house, and, indeed, it would result largely in
-rehearsing all of the details of good construction, and then reversing
-them, showing that instead of doing the correct thing it was done
-quite the opposite way. But there are certain obvious and glaring
-faults of construction which are employed by speculative builders with
-one purpose in mind, namely, to reduce the cost but maintain a good
-appearance.
-
-An intentional and clever disguise of poor construction is, at heart,
-the dishonest thing against which this is written. The defects of
-construction which are either the result of ignorance or unskilled
-labor, while they are bad enough, are not malicious, but those defects
-which are intentionally planned are simply systems of stealing, and
-they are usually found in the so-called speculative house, which the
-unwary public buys in preference to securing an honest house, designed
-by an architect. And it is this system of dishonest construction that
-makes the speculative house seem, on the face, cheaper than the honest
-house.
-
-Indeed, it is the whole intention of such dishonest methods of building
-to make the house seem, on the face of it, substantial, good-looking,
-and honest, but to hide, beneath the glamour of its exterior,
-weaknesses of structure which will cause all kinds of failures after
-a few years of standing. So long as the house stands together until
-the builder has sold it to some unsuspecting buyer, that is all that
-interests him.
-
-In observing some of these dishonest methods of construction it is well
-to keep in mind that they will appear on the exterior well done, but
-that their faults are hidden, and intentionally planned to reduce the
-cost for the builder.
-
-In order to systematize our observations along these lines let us
-imagine a house which we will inspect in an orderly fashion. We will
-begin with the cellar and proceed upward to the roof. This house is an
-ordinary frame dwelling upon a stone foundation.
-
-[Illustration: The Fake Leader The Poorly Made Floor]
-
-Entering the cellar-door, the first thing we notice is that at the
-base of the stairs leading to this door is a puddle of water left from
-the last rain-storm. Upon inquiring concerning it we learn that in
-every rain-storm, and especially during the winter when the ground is
-frozen, the surface water flows down the steps, collects in the areaway
-in front of the cellar-door, and overflows the sill into the cellar
-itself—all because the builder had omitted a drain-pipe in the centre
-of this area to save money. Becoming interested in this matter of
-drainage, we look around at the areas under each of the cellar-windows
-and find that the drains have been omitted from these, and that a few
-broken pebbles were thrown into the bottom to give the impression that
-the water could drain off into the soil, and all this to save money and
-deceive the buyer. Inspecting the ground around the foundation-wall we
-notice that about each leader the earth has been worn down by dripping
-water, as though the leader had backed up and the gutter had overflowed.
-Inquiry shows that such is the case in every rain-storm. Apparently
-the outlet for the leader has been stopped up, so, in order to find
-out whether this is true, we need to remove the lower section of the
-leader from the terra-cotta pipe to look into it, for often it becomes
-clogged at this point with leaves and dirt. Breaking away the cement
-joint and pulling gently upon the sheet-metal leader, we suddenly find
-that it crumbles in our hands, and that the leader consists of a coat
-of paint holding a few particles of rust together. Yes, cheap, thin,
-so-called galvanized-iron leaders to save money and deceive the buyer!
-But continuing our search for the stoppage we poke our cane into the
-section of terra-cotta pipe projecting above the ground which received
-the leader, and find that it stops short. Twisting it around to remove
-the material which seems to block the pipe we find, much to our
-surprise, that the entire section of terra-cotta pipe breaks off, and
-then, looking closer, we find that this pipe does not connect with a
-cast-iron drainage-pipe leading to the plumbing system or to a dry
-well, but had merely been stuck into the ground to give this appearance
-and to save money and deceive the buyer. No wonder the leader backed up
-and the gutters overflowed in a rain-storm!
-
-By this time we have become very suspicious of the house, so that when
-we finally go down into the cellar our attention is attracted to a
-section of the cement floor near the furnace where the large ash-cans
-are standing. The top surface has cracked under the weight of the
-cans, and it appears to be in thin slivers of cement. Leaning down and
-prying under one of these cracked pieces with a knife, a thin slab
-of concrete, about a quarter of an inch thick, is lifted up from the
-floor, and beneath this slab we find about 2 or 3 inches of tamped
-ashes, and then dirt. We marvel that this floor has lasted even as long
-as it has with so much water running into the cellar in damp weather.
-Think of it, 2 inches of ashes and a quarter of an inch of cement
-mortar on the top, when the correct method of building is to lay about
-6 inches of cinders for a foundation, then 3 inches of concrete on top
-of this, and finally a top coat, 1 inch thick, of cement mortar over
-all.
-
-Looking up from the floor we are rather impressed by the clean,
-whitewashed effect of the walls of the cellar, and one would hardly
-believe that it was a damp one, but around the windows and at certain
-points in the wall the whitewash is streaked with black, as though
-water had leaked in. Going over to these places in the wall it is
-quite evident that during the winter and damp season water has soaked
-through these crevices. Poking around with a penknife we are amazed
-at the ease with which the knife penetrates the mortar between the
-joints of the stones. Working at it a little harder with the knife
-soon shows that if the cellar were a prison it would not be very hard
-to scratch one’s way out through that wall. Suddenly, without warning,
-one of the stones in the wall drops out onto the floor, and we get a
-view of the construction within. For certain it is one of those stone
-walls built up with two faces, not bonded together, except by mortar
-which seems to be made up of mud and a small trace of lime, which lime
-has disintegrated with the constant dampness to which it has been
-subjected. A piece of the mortar we find can be crumbled easily in
-the hand. This is evidence of the employment of the cheapest kind of
-labor for the masonry work and the cutting down of expense in using
-poor materials. We only have to look closely to see that there is
-developing a long diagonal crack in the wall, and we can imagine that
-if the contractor built so poor a wall above the ground, the chances
-are that there is no footing beneath it. Near at hand a large bulge
-is noticeable, and when we hit it with a hammer the whole thing has a
-rotten sound, for the inside face is bulging inward from the load upon
-it and the uneven settling of the foundations.
-
-Looking up now at the neatly whitewashed ceiling we cannot help but be
-suspicious of the plaster beneath the surface, so going over to that
-part of the ceiling above the smoke-pipe leading from the furnace to
-the chimney we jab our cane against it, and, as we expected, a big slab
-breaks off and crashes to the floor, revealing partly charred wooden
-lath beneath, which have been baking in the heat rising from the
-smoke-pipe, and which would eventually catch fire. Examining the
-plaster very closely we observe that in addition to being a very thin
-coat it has no hair in it to act as a reinforcement for the plaster key
-which held it to the lath base.
-
-But being rather inquisitive about the construction hidden behind the
-plaster, and having broken some of it down, the removal of the few
-lath is worth the look behind them. And there we see the girder which
-supports the floor-joists resting upon the chimney instead of on a
-special pier or column. This saved the contractor the cost of the pier
-or the column, but the owner would probably lose his house some day by
-fire creeping through the joints of the brickwork of the chimney to the
-ends of this wooden girder, for it was quite evident that the mortar
-used in the chimney was not much better than that used in the wall, and
-it is well known that lime mortar disintegrates under the action of hot
-gases from burning wood.
-
-Turning our attention now to other parts of the cellar, we notice that
-in the floor of the laundry a place had been broken into, and upon
-inquiry we find that this hole was dug by the plumber in repairing a
-stoppage of the system of drainage-pipes under the floor. It seems that
-the contractor had omitted placing any clean-outs in the pipes which he
-had laid under the cellar floor, and the owner’s wife, by accident, in
-pouring a pail of wash water down the water-closet in the cellar had
-allowed a rag to go down with it, which clogged up the system, so that
-the waste from the kitchen-sink began to back up into the laundry-tubs.
-As there was no way to get at the pipes, the plumber, in cleaning out
-the system, was obliged to break through the floor and cut out a hole
-in the pipe to run a wire through to the clean-out on the house-trap.
-The contractor who built the house had saved about fifteen dollars in
-omitting this clean-out, but the owner lost fifty dollars in plumbers’
-bills before he repaired this defect.
-
-[Illustration: Fresh Air Inlet Under Window]
-
-Another defect was also found by the owner in the system of
-water-supply. There had been installed only one shut-off cock for the
-entire building, so that whenever a new washer had to be placed upon a
-faucet on any fixture the entire system had to be turned off. As most
-of the faucets throughout the house were of very cheap design, this
-had to be done very often, until one day the owner had turned the main
-shut-off cock once too often for its strength, and the handle broke
-off. He was obliged to call in the plumber to turn the water on again,
-as well as install a new shut-off cock.
-
-Questioning the owner further, we learn that a disagreeable odor of
-sewage enters the dining-room windows during the summer months when all
-the sash are open, but as he admits he knows little about plumbing, he
-isn’t sure of its cause, but he thinks it comes from a pipe which opens
-directly beneath one of these windows. When we investigate we find that
-it is the fresh-air inlet of the plumbing system of the house. The
-contractor had saved money on piping by carrying this to the nearest
-outdoor point, which happened to be directly under the window of the
-dining-room, so that whenever any water-closet was flushed in the house
-a puff of foul air was blown out of this pipe in the most convenient
-place for it to enter the house if the windows were open. Instead of
-spending the extra money for piping to carry this fresh-air inlet well
-away from any windows, the contractor had put in the shortest length
-possible.
-
-After looking at this pipe we glance at the porch near by and notice
-that it is beginning to sag. So, crawling under the porch, we find that
-instead of masonry piers under the porch columns, there are wooden
-posts driven into the ground, and that not only have these begun to
-settle under the weight but also have rotted away considerably near the
-ground, where they are subject to dampness. While we are under here we
-notice that the floor-joists are small, 2 by 4 inch timbers, and have
-sagged a great deal because of their extreme scantiness for the span
-over which they are placed.
-
-In fact, as we walk up on the porch it vibrates under our weight, and
-when we enter the house we notice the same weakness, only to a slightly
-less degree. The owner says that in the beginning the floors were stiff
-enough, but that this weakness had been getting worse each year. It is
-evident that there is faulty bridging and too small timbers. Probably
-in the beginning the nails of the upper flooring helped to stiffen the
-beams, but as these became worn in their sockets the joists lost this
-additional strength. This lack of proper-size framing timbers saved the
-builder money but would cost the buyer a pretty penny some day.
-
-But we are astonished at the excellent appearance of the floors, for
-by this time the things that are good are more surprising than the
-things that are bad. Then it occurs to us that of course the floor
-would be good, for this is part of the house which is visible and
-helps to catch the buyer’s eye. But later, when we go up-stairs, we
-notice that the floors are not so fine, but are the common flat-grained
-boards which sliver off and catch in your shoe if you scuffle. The
-owner also points out the kitchen as one of the biggest fakes he has
-seen. It has an oak floor, and when he had bought the house he had
-been deeply impressed with the luxury of having an oak floor not only
-in the dining-room but also in the kitchen. But he is not so keen now,
-for with constant scrubbing the cheap varnish and filler had come off
-and the pores of the oak have been exposed, so that now the floor is
-the greatest catch-dirt ever invented, and to make matters still worse
-the oak had been poorly seasoned, the boards had shrunk, the cracks
-opened, and there is no underflooring below to prevent the dust and
-dirt from sifting through these cracks from the hollow space between
-the floor-joists. The owner says he is about to install a new floor.
-He also admits that the varnish which gave such a fine surface to the
-dining-room and living-room floors when he first saw the house was so
-poor, and scratched so badly, that he had to have the floors completely
-done over.
-
-[Illustration: THE DEFECTIVE PLASTER]
-
-Glancing around at the walls of the living-room and the dining-room we
-notice that the wall-paper has cracked in a number of places, pulled
-up, and curled away. It is extremely ugly and unkempt, and we remark
-about it to the owner. He says that he is completely discouraged about
-it, that he has tried everything to make the wall-paper stay down, but
-that as soon as the winter comes on, the steam-heated air on the inside
-and the cold air on the outside seem to draw the paper up and away,
-pulling the surface of the plaster with it. He has glued large pieces
-of paper which have curled up in this manner back into position again,
-but the plaster was so weak that as soon as the paper began to peel
-off, the top layer of plaster pulled away with the paper. In fact,
-examining one example of this, we observe that the paper which had
-sprung loose from the wall has underneath it a thin coat of plaster
-about a sixteenth of an inch thick, showing that the glue had fastened
-the paper to the plaster, but the plaster itself had given way. This
-type of plastered wall is the result of using cheap materials, and it
-is another evidence of the extremes to which contractors will go to
-save money and deceive the buyer.
-
-As we pass by one of the pockets into which the sliding-doors roll we
-feel a draft coming out of it, and we question the owner whether the
-house is cold in winter, and he admits it is worse than we suspect.
-He informs us that it is especially cold on the second floor in those
-rooms where the floors project over the porch. We ask him whether
-he has noticed any drafts coming in through the cracks around the
-base-boards and trim, and he points to these cracks, showing us bits
-of cotton which he has plugged into them. We suspect that what is the
-trouble is the omission of sheathing-boards over the studs between the
-roof of the porch and the ceiling-joists where this roof intersects
-with the house wall, and also the failure to fill with cinders the
-space between the floor-joists of the projecting part of the room which
-extends over the porch. That this is true the owner admits, for he had
-noticed it while repairing a few shingles on the roof of the porch. The
-contractor had saved a little money by this trick, and no one could
-tell that he had done it by merely looking at the exterior.
-
-[Illustration: Where The Cold Air Gets In]
-
-This same line of inquiry leads us to ask the owner about the
-heating-plant, and we find that the house cannot be properly heated.
-We therefore suspect that the radiation is too small, so we calculate
-the required size of a radiator for one room, and find that the one
-actually installed is too small. Yet, as the owner says: “When he
-bought the house, how was he to know that there was not a large enough
-heating-plant?”
-
-We inquire then whether he has any trouble with the fireplace, which we
-presume he must use to help out on cold days. He admits he cannot keep
-it from smoking badly. So we go over to it and run our hand up into the
-throat to feel around, and find that there is no smoke-chamber, and,
-what is more, the flue is only about 4 inches by 8 inches, and is not
-even lined with terra-cotta flue tile. We inform him that he will never
-have a good fireplace draft until that chimney is rebuilt, and that the
-size of the flue looks more like the vent for a gas-log than anything
-else.
-
-We then went through the house noting as many defects as we could,
-which were beginning to make their appearance. For example, we find
-that all the doors are badly sagging, showing that the blocking has
-been omitted from the back of the jambs where the butts are screwed on.
-The putty in the windows is crumbling out, as though it were clay. All
-the thresholds are of soft wood and are wearing badly. The trim in many
-places was springing and twisting, due to the use of cheap and poorly
-seasoned wood and the omission of enough nails. Some of the door-stiles
-are made of two pieces which have opened up at the joints and left ugly
-cracks. All the stairs squeak badly, indicating that they had been
-poorly built. Some of the balusters have worked loose and rattle in
-their mortises, and the hand-rail shakes when it is grasped.
-
-We notice a number of stained ceilings, and inquire about the roof.
-We are informed that it has leaked badly in the valleys, where the
-tin is not wide enough to prevent the water which runs down one slope
-from washing up under the shingles of the adjoining slope and over the
-edge of the flashing tin of the valley into the house. We learn also
-that the shingle roof of the porch, which has a very slight incline,
-continually leaks, and looking out upon it we notice that the shingles
-are set nearly 7 inches to the weather instead of less than 4 inches,
-as they should be for so small a pitch.
-
-We notice that it has leaked around the windows, and, observing the
-top of the trim on the exterior, note that there is no flashing over
-it to throw off the water flowing down from the clapboards. While we
-are examining the windows the owner volunteers to tell us about his
-experience with the windows on the second floor. After he had bought
-the house he found that only one window in each bedroom had any weights
-and sash-cords in it, and that he had to buy these for all the other
-windows when he discovered it. He says he never thought of trying each
-window before he purchased the place.
-
-Just then we happen to be looking at the lock on one of the doors, and
-we spy one of those back-handed locks which never holds the door closed
-and which always catches and keeps one from closing the door unless
-the knob is turned. It is a right-hand lock placed upon a left-hand
-door. We recognize in this the contractor’s efforts to use up all the
-second-hand odd bits of hardware which he possessed.
-
-By this time we find ourselves so disgusted with the sharp tricks of
-dishonest building that we call a halt at looking farther, but we feel
-quite convinced that there is a real difference in quality between such
-a speculative house and the honest house of an architect’s designing,
-and, what is more, we feel convinced that there is a real reason for
-the architect’s house costing more in the beginning than such a house,
-but that in the end the cheap speculative house is the most costly
-proposition which a buyer can invest his money in.
-
-
-
-
-VIII ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF GOOD PLUMBING
-
-
-_The Problem_
-
-There are three things which will affect the plumbing system of the
-small house; namely, the existence or non-existence of municipal
-plumbing codes under which the structure is erected, the existence
-or non-existence of a public sewer, and, finally, the type of
-water-supply, whether it is public or private.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If there are no plumbing codes to follow, it is sometimes possible to
-save money on the plumbing; but unless the specifications are very
-rigid, there is danger of poor work being installed. By saving money is
-not meant installing cheap material, but eliminating certain features
-which most plumbing codes require and which are not essential in
-producing the best possible type of plumbing system. For example, in
-most cities the ordinary traps which are required under each fixture to
-prevent the sewer-gas from returning into the air of the house, after
-the waste water has drained out, must be equipped with back-vent pipes
-in order to eliminate dangers of siphonage. The cheap S trap (shaped
-like an S turned on its side) without this back-venting will siphon
-out, that is, lose its water-seal by atmospheric pressure pushing the
-water out of the trap in its attempt to fill a vacuum created by the
-discharge from a water-closet on the floor above. By back-venting
-these traps, as shown on page 94, this danger of siphonage is
-reduced, and, therefore, most codes have adopted this regulation
-requiring back-venting. But to-day the market offers certain traps
-which are claimed to be anti-siphonable and which do not require
-this back-venting, with the consequent result of reducing the cost
-of the equipment. Most plumbing codes have not changed their old
-regulations, for many authorities do not yet believe in the possibility
-of an anti-siphon trap, and so require the use of the back-venting
-system. Consequently, wherever the small house is constructed within
-jurisdiction of these laws, the plumbing will cost more than where
-the anti-siphon trap can be used without the elaborate system of
-back-venting.
-
-Likewise, wherever there is a public sewer, the problem of sewage
-disposal is simple and cheap; but if the house is not located near
-any such public convenience, special methods must be employed for the
-destruction of the waste matter. The best is the septic tank (see
-illustration) with the small subsurface irrigation tile, through which
-the partially purified material from the septic tank is distributed
-under the ground for complete purification by air and bacteria. The
-other method of disposal—pouring the sewage into a cesspool—is to be
-deplored, unless there is possibility of an early construction of a
-public sewer, and no drinking-water is secured from the premises.
-
-[Illustration:—SMALL SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANT—]
-
-The third consideration which affects the plumbing system of the small
-house is whether it can draw upon a public water-supply, or whether it
-must secure its private supply from a well or a near-by stream or lake.
-A private source of supply generally means the erection of a storage
-tank. The best type of tank for this purpose is the pneumatic tank,
-which is installed in the cellar, and not in the attic, as was the
-old-fashioned tank. The water is pumped into this tank, and the air
-which is in it is trapped, so that the more water that is pumped into
-the tank, the more compressed becomes the air. This springlike cushion
-of air gives enough pressure to force the water to any fixture in the
-house.
-
-[Illustration:—PLUMBING SYSTEM USING ANTI-SYPHON TRAPS—]
-
-_Simplest Type of Drainage System_
-
-On page 97 is represented the simplest type of drainage system that can
-be installed in the small house, but since it uses anti-siphon traps
-and no back-venting, it will not be possible to make use of it in all
-cities or towns which have plumbing rules prohibiting it. The average
-small house does not have room for more than one bath, a kitchen-sink,
-a set of laundry-tubs, and a toilet for the servant, generally placed
-in the cellar. For purposes of economy it is essential to place all
-of these fixtures on the same soil-line, the main pipe which extends
-vertically from the horizontal house-drain in the cellar up through the
-roof. If the bathroom is so located that the vertical line which serves
-its fixtures cannot serve the kitchen-sink or the laundry-tubs, then
-a special waste-line or small vertical pipe draining fixtures other
-than water-closets, must be carried up and through the roof, which is
-extravagant of material. As this waste-line will be only 2 inches in
-diameter, it is necessary to increase its diameter to 4 inches before
-projecting it from the roof, since it may become clogged in the winter
-with frost. But the main soil-line is 4 inches in diameter and needs
-no increaser on it. The main house-drain is also made 4 inches in
-diameter, and is generally laid under the cellar floor with a pitch
-of ¼ inch to the foot. At the junction of the vertical soil-line with
-it, and also at any other point where there is a marked change in
-direction, the house-drain should be equipped with clean-out holes,
-covered with brass screw-caps. Just where the house-drain leaves the
-house, a house-trap is installed (see illustration), and back of this
-an inlet for fresh air to permit the circulation of air in the system.
-The foundations should be arched over the house-drain where it passes
-through them, so that any settlement of the masonry will not come upon
-the pipe and cause it to be broken.
-
-The material of which the house-drain, soil-line, and waste-line are
-made is usually cast-iron, and of a grade known as extra heavy. The
-joints are the bell-and-spigot type, which are stuffed with oakum and
-then closed tight with 12 ounces of fine, soft pig lead for each inch
-in diameter of the pipe. Branches are usually of galvanized wrought
-iron or lead, but lead should be limited in use in modern plumbing,
-although the term plumbing originated from the Latin word for lead.
-The common limitations upon the length of branches of lead pipe are:
-8 feet for 1½-inch pipe, 5 feet for 2-inch pipe, 2 feet for 3-inch
-pipe, 2 feet for 4-inch pipe. The parts of the branch pipes which are
-visible are generally made of brass nickel-plated. The joints between
-lead pipe and lead pipe, and between lead pipe and brass pipe, are made
-by the common wiped joint. Joints between lead pipe and cast-iron pipe
-are made by first wiping the lead pipe to a brass ferrule, a piece of
-pipe in shape like a bell with the top cut off, and then inserting and
-caulking this into the cast-iron pipe. The joints between wrought-iron
-pipes are made with the screw joint, and between wrought-iron and cast
-iron with the screw joint, by using connections of malleable cast-iron
-which have been threaded.
-
-The usual sizes for branch wastes from the fixtures are as follows: for
-water-closets 4 inches, for bathroom-tubs 1½ inches, for lavatories
-1½ inches, for kitchen-sinks 2 inches, for laundry-tubs 1½ inches,
-and when in sets of three 2 inches. The size of the waste from the
-bathroom-tub can be increased to 2 inches with great advantage, if the
-additional slight expense is not objectionable.
-
-The vertical soil-lines should be supported at each floor by metal
-straps placed under the hub and fastened to the floor-joists. It is
-very important to properly flash the base of the projecting portion
-of the soil-line above the roof. Wherever the branch soil-line to the
-water-closet is connected, a short TY connection may be employed in
-order to avoid the projection of the parts of the pipe beyond the plane
-of the ceiling in the floor below. However, no short TY connections
-should be made in any horizontal pipes.
-
-A very important economical consideration should be noted in laying
-out the arrangement of the bathroom fixtures in this connection. The
-horizontal branch soil-lines and waste-lines must be carried through
-the floor construction, and they should be so arranged that they can
-run parallel with the floor-joists; otherwise deep cuts will have to be
-made in them. In the case of the branch soil-line it is essential to
-place the water-closet as near to the main soil-stack as possible, for
-with a 4-inch pipe the joists must be framed around it rather than be
-cut, since so deep a gouge would weaken too much the strength of them. A
-similar consideration must be given to the framing in stud partitions
-which are bearing the loads of the floors above, for too deep cuts in
-them, to allow for the passage of pipes, will weaken them greatly. In
-this connection it ought to be noted that an ordinary 4-inch soil-pipe
-cannot be carried in a stud partition made with 2 by 4 studs, since
-the outer edges of the joints of the pipe will project beyond the face
-of the plaster, and for this reason some convenient place should be
-planned for them in closets, or 2 by 6 studs should be used in the
-partition through which they are run.
-
-
-_The More Complicated Back-Vent System_
-
-The essential parts of the plumbing system remain the same as described
-above, but each trap is considered to be siphonable, and must be
-prevented from losing its water-seal by the use of back-venting pipes.
-Whenever, then, there is an unusual amount of semi-vacuum created
-in the pipes by the discharge of some fixture above, the outside
-air-pressure can relieve it by passing through the back vents rather
-than by forcing out the water-seal in the traps. The usual type of
-trap employed is the modified S trap with the small TY connection to
-give what is known as continuous venting. Formerly the vent was taken
-off from the crown of the three-quarter-S trap, which was too near the
-surface of the water-seal, causing excessive evaporation and danger of
-clogging, but with the continuous system of venting, the waste-pipe
-is a continuation of the vent-line, and the trap enters into its side
-through a TY fitting, overcoming the disadvantage of the older system.
-
-The size of traps should conform to the size of waste-pipes, and
-usually the size of the branch vents is about the same size as the
-waste-lines. However, there are special conditions where this varies.
-For venting the water-closet trap, it should be noted that the vent is
-not taken from the trap which is contained within the fixture itself,
-but is taken from the upper side of the bend (usually of lead) where
-the fixture is joined with the piping system, and is 2 inches in
-diameter.
-
-[Illustration: PLUMBING SYSTEM USING BACK-VENTING]
-
-Where there are two fixtures, such as the lavatory and the bathtub,
-with 1½-inch branch vents coming from the traps, these may be joined
-into one main branch vent, which need not be more than 1½ inches in
-diameter. The pitch of the branch vents entering into the main vent
-should be at an angle of about 45 degrees, so that all rust scale will
-drop down into the fixture outlet and be washed away.
-
-The main vent, which runs parallel with the main soil-line, needs to
-be only 2 inches in diameter, and should be branched in at the bottom
-and the top to the main soil-line, as shown in the drawings. The
-material of which both main vent and branch vent is made should be
-galvanized-iron piping.
-
-The fresh-air inlet, the house-trap, the clean-outs, and all other
-parts of the system are the same as was shown for the simpler method of
-plumbing.
-
-
-_Rain-Water Drainage_
-
-The small house need not drain off its roof-water into the plumbing
-system, if the plumbing code does not require it. The simplest and
-easiest method to dispose of it is to collect the water in gutters,
-lead it down the waterspouts into pipes which terminate in a dry well
-in the ground. Small roofs over porches and back doors need not even
-have the leaders, but spill the roof-water out onto the ground, where a
-stone has been placed to prevent the undermining of the surface of the
-lawn by the wearing action of the water stream.
-
-In outlying city districts where the sewers have not yet been installed
-it is customary to carry the roof-water in pipes below the level of the
-sidewalk to the gutters of the street or to a leaching cesspool which
-is independent of the cesspool used for sewage disposal, and which is
-practically the same thing as a dry well, for the bottom is made with
-gravel through which the rain-water seeps off into the surrounding soil.
-
-Wherever the rain-leaders must be connected to the drainage system of
-the house, the sheet-metal leaders are inserted into cast-iron pipes
-called shoes at the base, which in turn are trapped on the inside
-of the cellar wall and connected with the house-drain. It is always
-best to try to trap a group of leaders to one trap rather than use a
-separate trap for each leader.
-
-
-_Tests and Precautions_
-
-There is nothing very complicated in the plumbing system of the small
-house. Certain sanitary precautions should be observed in arranging
-lines, however. For example, the termination of the main soil-line
-should not occur near a dormer or other window, nor should the
-termination of the fresh-air inlet be located in the cellar wall under
-a door or window. The system when completed in the roughed-in form
-should be tested for leakage by filling it with water, and when all
-the fixtures are connected and every part of the system is supposed to
-be in working order, either the peppermint or the smoke test should
-be used to detect any further possible leakage. The peppermint test
-consists in pouring hot water and 2 ounces of oil of peppermint into
-the top of the system from the roof, after all the fixture traps have
-been filled with water, and then detecting with the nose where the
-leaks are. If the smoke test is employed, a smoke machine is best. Old
-oily rags and tar paper are burned in the machine, which has its flue
-connected with the fresh-air inlet, and the smoke is pumped through
-the system until it appears escaping from the soil-line extension on
-the roof. If there are any leaks, the odor and the smoke stain will
-attract attention to them, and if the water-closet traps in the bowls
-are defective, the yellow stain of the smoke will make it very evident.
-
-
-_Refrigerator Connections_
-
-The drainage from the refrigerator should never be directly connected
-with the drainage system of the house. If the plumbing code requires
-any connection at all, the usual arrangement is to drip the ice-box
-water into a lead-lined tray which has a pipe at least 1¼ inches in
-diameter that carries the water down to the laundry-tubs in the cellar
-and spills it into them. On the other hand, if there are no plumbing
-regulations, it is best to drain this water off into a small hole in
-the ground into which has been thrown gravel, and this will permit the
-water to soak into the surrounding soil.
-
-
-_Water-Supply Pipes_
-
-If there is a city supply of water, the small house should have a
-main supply-line from the water-main in the street of at least ¾-inch
-diameter, but this does not give the service that a larger pipe, say a
-1¼-inch pipe, does, for often with the smaller pipe, if the water is
-being drawn in the kitchen, none will be secured from the faucets in
-the second-floor bathroom. The kitchen-sink should have a service pipe
-of at least ¾ inch, the tubs the same, and the lavatory ½ inch.
-
-All service-lines should be compact and as direct as possible, and long
-horizontal runs under floors should be avoided. Hot-water supply-lines
-should be kept at least 6 inches from cold-water lines. There should
-be a shut-off at the entrance of the supply-line to the house, at the
-base of all vertical risers, and under each fixture. To avoid water
-hammer, it is best to take all faucets off the sides of the termination
-of pipes, rather than from the ends, for in this way an air-cushion can
-form, relieving the pounding action of the water in the pipes.
-
-Supply-lines should never be run in the corners of buildings where they
-are in danger of freezing, and they should be kept out of the exterior
-walls of houses as much as possible for the same reasons. The packing
-of pipes where they pass through the floors will often prevent freezing
-caused by cold drafts around them.
-
-
-_Hot-Water Supply_
-
-[Illustration]
-
-It is generally accepted to-day that the most convenient method of
-securing hot water in the small house is with the instantaneous type of
-gas-heater, connected with a boiler for storage purposes, but capable
-of delivering water directly into the pipes without passage through
-the boiler, when a sudden demand is made upon it. These gas-heaters
-have a system of Bunsen-burners which heat the water as it passes
-through a series of copper coils, and generally the water is warmed to
-a temperature of 100 degrees in one passage. They are automatically
-controlled, so that when the temperature of the water goes below a
-certain fixed standard the gas-burner is lighted by a small pilot-light
-until the proper temperature is reached, when it is shut off again.
-
-Although these heaters are arranged to deliver hot water directly from
-the coils, yet if they had no boiler to store up the water, much larger
-heaters would be required than necessary. For storage purposes, then, a
-40-gallon boiler is satisfactory for a residence with one bath and one
-kitchen, and if there are two baths a 50-gallon boiler is needed. The
-usual location of the boiler and heater is in the cellar.
-
-However, where there is no gas to be used, the coal-heater must
-be employed—either the tank-heater or the water-back in the
-kitchen-range. The latter was the usual old-fashioned method of heating
-the water, and the boiler was located alongside of the kitchen-range.
-The size of the water-back was proportioned on the basis of 2 square
-inches of heating surface to each gallon storage capacity in the
-boiler. The tank-heater is a special coal-burning stove, designed to
-serve as an iron-warmer and a water-heater, being usually placed in the
-laundry in the cellar. Another method of securing hot water, which is
-not recommended, is to place heating coils in the furnace; it obstructs
-the fire-pot, chills the fire, overheats the water in cold weather and
-underheats it in warm weather, and does not operate at all during the
-summer.
-
-
-_Fixtures_
-
-The modern bathroom fixture may be made of one of three materials: true
-porcelain, earthenware, or enamelled-iron. The true porcelain fixtures
-are the heaviest, the most durable, and the most expensive. The
-material is non-absorbent and white in color, and the surface presents
-a gloss which is in reality a form of glass. When it is chipped the
-fracture shows the material below as white, and a drop of ink will not
-be absorbed by it.
-
-In imitation of the porcelain fixtures are made earthenware ones, but
-which are in no way to be compared to the true porcelain, although a
-casual glance at them would lead one to think that they were porcelain
-fixtures. However, a chip from the surface will reveal the yellow
-and porous texture of the earthenware below the glazed surface. The
-glossy white surface in time stains and becomes covered with small
-hair-cracks, unlike the porcelain fixtures, and for this reason they
-are not as sanitary nor as durable. They are cheaper than the true
-porcelain fixtures, but this material should be avoided in water-closet
-bowls, but is admissible for use in tubs and lavatories.
-
-The enamelled-iron fixtures are considered by most to be superior to
-the earthenware fixtures, since they do not craze, are lighter, and
-generally more durable. The quality of this ware can be judged by the
-absence of roughness, blisters, bubbles, and spots, and freedom from
-hair-cracks and peeling. Bathtubs of the modern type made of enamelled
-iron have the rich appearance of porcelain fixtures, since the sides
-are rolled over and covered with enamel, unlike the old-fashioned
-types, which had the interiors lined with the enamel and the exteriors
-painted with white paint.
-
-The mechanical operation of the various fixtures is so well
-standardized that not much choice is given between the catalogue of
-one firm and another. The best type of water-closets are the siphon,
-the siphon-jet, and the converging jets, the latter being a more
-modern development, which has eliminated the noise of the siphon
-action and yet which accomplishes a quick and rapid flushing action.
-The lavatories which are most commonly specified are of the pedestal
-type, although the modern tendency in sanitary bathroom design is to
-eliminate as far as possible all junction of fixtures with the floor,
-for it is here that dirt and stains develop. Such arrangements carried
-to the extreme would require a sunk bathtub, a lavatory without legs,
-and special compartment for the water-closet, but this would be absurd
-for the small house. However, the built-in bathtub is far superior to
-the old-fashioned tub which stood upon legs, and under which all manner
-of dirt could collect.
-
-We often hear the remark that no wonder the cost of living to-day
-is so much higher than it was with our ancestors, who knew nothing
-about the clean, tile-lined bathrooms with porcelain tubs, white and
-glistening lavatories with all the cold and hot water needed, while
-in the old days the wooden tub, set up in the kitchen near the range,
-was good enough for the Saturday-night bath, and the tin pan, filled
-under the hand-pump outside on the back porch, was good enough to wash
-the hands in each morning. But although the modern bathroom and the
-modern plumbing system is an economic burden to the small house, it is
-doubtful if we shall ever see the day when it is abolished in order to
-cut down on the cost.
-
-
-
-
-IX METHODS OF HEATING
-
-
-_System Adapted to the Small House_
-
-The heating problem for the small house was for our ancestors a very
-simple mechanical device, consisting, as we all know, of either the
-fireplace or the stove. The former method still has a charm which we
-are not willing to dispense with, although we do not depend upon its
-efficiency to do the actual work of warming, but install some more
-complicated system, such as a steam heating-plant, to perform the
-practical work. A fireplace has a sentimental and intellectual warmth
-that no radiator can supply.
-
-Even the stove has a certain fascination for many, recalling cold
-wintry nights when the family sat about the red-hot casting, the women
-knitting and the men burning their shoe-leather and smoking. Some
-advocates of the stove are so energetic in their arguments concerning
-the efficiency of this method of heating that one almost doubts the
-defects which lead inventors to manufacture other devices. But the
-housewife knows the labor of shovelling coal into three or four
-stoves, knows the great clouds of hot, fine ashes which rise into the
-atmosphere and settle upon the shelves, the tops of picture-frames, and
-the polished surface of the piano.
-
-[Illustration: Warm-Air Furnace with Pipes
-
-Steam Heat—One-pipe]
-
-[Illustration: Steam Heat—Two-pipes
-
-Hot Water Heating]
-
-And the inventor saw the tired, worn look of the housewife, removed the
-stove to the cellar and installed tin pipes from this central heater
-to the various rooms, and then waited for applause and purchasers. It
-seemed so simple, but it did not solve the problem entirely, for when
-the wind blew from the north into the windows, it pressed out the warm
-air from the exposed rooms, forced it down the pipes up through which
-it was supposed to come, and then rushed it up the flues on the south
-or warm side of the house, overheating this part and leaving the cold
-rooms of the house unheated. The drum of the furnace over which the air
-passed to receive its warmth from the burning coal would leak every
-time fresh fuel was added, for the odor of coal-gas became very evident
-throughout the house. Moreover, the heat was very dry and unpleasant,
-so that water-jars had to be set about to moisten the air.
-
-Then came the inventor again with a new device, a steam-boiler, pipes
-to distribute the steam, and radiators to give off the heat in the
-steam to the room. Here at last was a method of heating which would
-supply warmth in the cold parts of the house, even under the windows,
-through which the chilliest air penetrated. But the sizes of the
-radiators were calculated to heat the house to 70 degrees when it was
-zero outside, although the average winter day was much warmer than
-this. In this way the occupants of the house were cooked with an excess
-of heat during moderate weather, for there was no way to regulate the
-amount of heat given off from the radiator; it either was filled with
-steam, giving off its maximum quantity of heat, or else it was empty
-and cold.
-
-To meet this difficulty presented by the steam-heated radiator,
-the hot-water system was developed. Instead of distributing heat
-with the medium of steam which under low pressure was fixed at one
-temperature, heat was circulated by hot water from the central boiler.
-The temperature of this water could be regulated for mild weather by
-lowering the fire. However, since the hottest water was cooler than
-steam, it required larger radiators and more piping, so that the
-initial cost of a hot-water plant was more than that of a steam system.
-
-[Illustration: Simplified diagram of Vapor-vacuum system]
-
-In order to overcome the disadvantages of the inflexible
-steam-radiator, inventors finally developed the so-called
-“vapor-vacuum” system of steam-heating. In this equipment the air was
-driven from the entire length of pipes and from the radiators by the
-pressure of the rising steam from the boiler, and forced through a
-special ejector which closed when the steam came in contact with it,
-preventing the return of air into the interior. Thus when the pipes and
-radiators were filled with steam (there being no air left), no pressure
-was set up to resist the circulation of the water vapor, and when the
-hot steam condensed in a radiator to a thimbleful of water, more steam
-was drawn in to take its place, for no air could enter the pipes. In
-this way the quantity of steam delivered to the radiators could be
-regulated by a special valve with a varying number of ports, and by
-turning the valve to a certain position enough steam would be permitted
-to enter the radiator to keep it half full, or by shifting the valve
-to another point enough steam would enter to fill the radiator to
-three-quarters of its capacity. In fact, the requisite amount of steam
-could be admitted to the radiator to balance the speed of condensation
-and retain whatever level of steam in it was desirable. Thus the steam
-system became at once a flexible system of heating, and could meet the
-changing requirements of the weather.
-
-[Illustration: Hot water radiator heated by steam]
-
-A further development of the hot-water system then came about. In this
-device the radiators were made to contain water, but the heat was
-circulated through the pipes by means of steam. This steam was poured
-over the surface of the water in the radiator and transferred its heat
-to it. According to the quantity of steam poured over the water, the
-latter could be heated to various temperatures. Of course the water in
-the radiator was the medium for distributing the heat outward from the
-radiator itself.
-
-Still another improvement was made upon the hot-water system by
-introducing the principle of the closed expansion tank. In the ordinary
-system the water is allowed to expand at the top through an expansion
-tank, so that the actual pressure on the water of the system is
-atmospheric. Under this pressure the temperature of the water cannot be
-raised to more than 212 degrees Fahrenheit, for beyond this it boils
-and changes to steam. However, in the closed-tank system a so-called
-heat-generator is added on the line leading to the expansion tank,
-which, by means of a column of mercury, is capable of adding 10 pounds
-more pressure than the atmosphere to the water in the system, and thus
-raising the boiling-point to about 240 degrees. This generator is so
-designed, however, that, although it adds this greater pressure to
-the water, yet the natural expansion of the water in the system is
-permitted through it in case of emergency. By permitting the raising of
-the temperature of the water, the size of radiators can be cut down 50
-per cent, which, of course, reduces the quantity of water needed and
-permits a quicker heating of the system when the fire is started. Thus
-a saving of fuel is accomplished and the disadvantage of the ordinary
-hot-water system is eliminated; namely, the long time required to get
-hot water in the radiators after the fire is started in the morning
-from its banked condition of the previous night.
-
-[Illustration: Pipeless Furnace]
-
-However, the genius of the inventor was not at rest on the problem of
-warm-air heating, for he discovered that he could abolish the flues,
-which he once thought were essential, and use but one register and one
-flue. This is called the pipeless furnace. A register is employed
-which has an outer and inner section. The outer section permits the
-cold air from the house to pass down through it and over the drum of
-the furnace. The inner section of the register permits this hot air to
-escape upward and through the house by natural distribution. Thus the
-hot air rises from, and the cool air settles back into, the furnace
-without utilizing flues. The circulation of this system was found to
-be superior to the older method as ordinarily installed, and very much
-cheaper to install. In fact, it is the cheapest of all systems of
-heating. It is especially adapted to the small, low-cost house.
-
-[Illustration: Hot Water Heating—Boiler in Dining-Room]
-
-To reduce the cost of hot-water heating and make it also available for
-this class of small house, the manufacturers produced another type of
-water heating-plant. In this device the water-heater was installed
-in one of the rooms of the house, like a stove, but the exterior was
-designed to serve as a hot-water radiator for the room in which it was
-placed. From this heater pipes were taken off to distribute heat to
-other radiators, located in adjoining rooms. The principle remains the
-same as the former system; the only difference lies in the reduction of
-cost by eliminating the boiler from the cellar and utilizing it to heat
-the room in which it was placed.
-
-Other attempts to improve the mechanics of heating have been more along
-the line of perfecting the operation of valves or the utilization of
-other fuels than coal. Gas-radiators have been tried, but they are so
-expensive to operate in most parts of the country that they are not
-always suited to the needs of the small house. Electric heaters, too,
-are not within the pocketbook of the average person owning the small
-house. Fuel oil-burners also have been devised to take the place of the
-coal-grate. Wherever oil is cheap enough to permit their use they are
-great labor-savers, since they eliminate all the shovelling of coal and
-handling of ashes. These will be discussed later.
-
-Briefly, then, the available systems for the heating of the small house
-are:
-
-    _Hot-air.—a._ Furnace with flues.
-             _b._ Furnace without flues.
-
-    _Steam.—a._ Ordinary gravity system.
-                    One-pipe.
-                    Two-pipe.
-           _b._ Vapor-vacuum system.
-
-    _Hot-water.—a._ Ordinary open-tank system.
-                       One-pipe.
-                       Two-pipe.
-                _b._ Closed-tank system.
-                _c._ Special open-tank system with boiler used
-                        as radiator.
-                _d._ Patent system using water in radiators but
-                        steam for circulation.
-
-
-_Methods Employed in Calculating the Required Size of Heater_
-
-The basis of calculating the required size of any one of the systems
-previously mentioned is to assume that a certain temperature of heat
-is to be maintained when the weather is zero, and then by means of the
-laws of heat transmission estimate the quantity of heat lost per hour
-from the house. The amount of heat lost per hour is, of course, the
-quantity which the heating system must supply. Knowing this, a system
-is installed which is capable of supplying this heat loss.
-
-In such devices as the warm-air furnace the required size can be
-computed directly to meet the heat loss, but where radiators are used
-the required sizes of these must first be determined to offset the
-losses from the rooms in which they are installed, and then the size of
-the heater must be estimated to supply sufficient heat to the radiators
-and to make up for the losses of heat through the distributing-pipes.
-
-The usual temperature to which the small house is heated when it is
-zero outside is 70 degrees Fahrenheit. It is then assumed that a
-certain quantity of heat is lost through the walls of the house by
-radiation and convection and conduction, and another quantity lost by
-the leakage of warm air out through the window-cracks. (The quantity of
-heat is measured in British thermal units, called B. T. U.’s.)
-
-To understand the manner by which heat is lost through the exterior
-walls, it is necessary to know the meaning of radiation, convection,
-and conduction.
-
-By standing before an open fire the heat given off by radiation can be
-observed by shutting it off with a piece of paper held between the face
-and the fire. This is the transmission of the heat through the ether,
-and is similar to the transmission of light, since this heat will pass
-through glass, like light.
-
-Convection of heat is illustrated by heating air in one place and
-transferring that air to another place, where it will give up its heat
-to surrounding bodies.
-
-Conduction of heat is illustrated by heating the end of an iron rod and
-noticing that the heat will eventually be transmitted along the length
-of it to the other end.
-
-The heat within a house escapes from the interior to the colder
-atmosphere of the exterior through the walls, by radiation through the
-glass windows and the substance of the walls, by the convection action
-of the warm air of the interior giving up its heat to the interior
-face of the wall and the cold air of the exterior extracting this heat
-from the exterior face and carrying it off, and also by the action of
-conduction of the materials of which the wall is composed.
-
-The quantity of heat lost is measured by the number of B. T. U.’s lost
-through one square foot of the wall each hour. As the window-glass
-loses heat through it more quickly than the wall, it is necessary to
-calculate this separately. The process, then, for estimating the heat
-loss from a room is as follows:
-
-      1. Estimate the number of square feet of exposed wall surface
-         in the room, including windows.
-
-      2. Subtract from the above the area of the windows to find the
-         net wall area.
-
-      3. Multiply this net wall area by the number of B. T. U.’s
-         which the wall loses per square foot of surface for each hour.
-
-These factors are given in the following table:
-
-                                            Zero outside and 70 degrees
-                                          inside—Number of B. T. U.’s
-                   TYPE OF WALL           lost for each square foot of
-                                          wall surface each hour
-    Brick wall, furred and plastered:
-            8" thick                      21.0
-           12" thick                      17.5
-    Frame wall, sheathed, clapboarded,
-    and plastered                         21.7 (with building-paper use
-                                                20.3)
-
-Hollow-tile wall and concrete and stone have factors about the same as
-for the furred brick wall.
-
-[Illustration: SIDE ELEVATION]
-
-      4. Add to this the number of B. T. U.’s lost per
-         hour through the windows. This is determined by
-         multiplying the area of the windows by the heat
-         loss in B. T. U.’s per hour for each square foot of
-         window, which is 78.8 for single windows, and where
-         storm-windows are added it is 31.5 B. T. U.’s.
-
-      5. This total sum is the number of B. T. U.’s lost
-         through walls and windows for each hour.
-
-      6. To this must be added the heat lost by leakage
-         through the window-cracks. This is secured by
-         measuring the length of window-cracks on the
-         side which has the greatest length of crack and
-         multiplying this by 168, or the number of B. T. U.’s
-         lost each hour for each linear foot of window-crack.
-         For very tight windows reduce above to 84.
-
-      7. The total of all the above gives the number of
-         B. T. U.’s lost each hour from the room when the
-         outside temperature is zero and the inside is 70
-         degrees Fahrenheit.
-
-Knowing the quantity of heat lost per hour, a radiator must be
-installed which will supply this amount per hour. As the average
-steam-radiator supplies about 250 B. T. U.’s per hour from each square
-foot of its surface, the number of square feet required for a radiator
-to be installed in the room can be found by dividing 250 into the
-number of B. T. U.’s which were found to be lost from the room each
-hour.
-
-A hot-water radiator gives off about 150 B. T. U.’s per hour for
-each square foot of surface, so that the radiator is generally about
-one-third larger than the steam-radiator.
-
-Knowing the required number of feet of radiation for the radiator, the
-proper size can be selected from the manufacturer’s catalogue.
-
-By lumping the total number of square feet of radiation for all the
-radiators throughout the house together and adding 35 per cent to this
-to make up for loss through pipes and under-rating of boilers, the size
-of the boiler can be selected from the catalogue to fit this need.
-
-To estimate the size of a warm-air furnace, the total quantity of heat
-lost from all the rooms of the house should be calculated in the same
-way, and then 25 per cent added to allow for cold attics and exposure.
-This quantity should then be multiplied by 2.4 and divided by 8,000
-to find the number of pounds of coal which will be required to be
-burned per hour. By dividing this amount by 5, the grate area of the
-required furnace can be found, and the correct size selected from the
-manufacturer’s catalogue.
-
-
-
-
-X LIGHTING AND ELECTRIC WORK
-
-
-_Modern Developments_
-
-When we talk of lighting the modern home, there is generally but one
-idea that enters our minds—electric lighting. Even those dwellings
-remote from any power-house are installing small generators in
-preference to the oil or gas lighting systems.
-
-[Illustration: The modern 50-watt bulb]
-
-Then, too, when we refer to good lighting we no longer think of
-glaring bulbs of light, exposing all the harsh glow of the white, hot
-filaments, causing one’s eyes to squint and strain to find things in
-the corners of the room; but we picture a room flooded with mellow
-illumination emitted from fixtures which shield the direct rays of
-light from our vision.
-
-Another change that has come about in our conception of good
-illumination is the quantity and intensity of the light we expect from
-the incandescent bulb. It was only a few years ago that we marvelled
-at the yellow light given off by the 16-candle-power carbon-filament
-bulb. But to-day if a bulb gave off as feeble an attempt at lighting
-as did these old ones we would think it on its way to the graveyard of
-lightning-bugs. We cannot talk of 16-candle-power lamps when the glow
-of a modern Mazda light is around. We used to specify on the plans
-so many 16-candle-power lights for the dining-room or living-room
-fixtures, and it is hard to change our habits to refer to the modern 40
-or 50 watt lamps which have taken their place in the home.
-
-Thus within a period of not more than ten years our whole conception of
-illumination has been jolted out of a rut.
-
-
-_Indirect Lighting_
-
-Now we have reacted so far in the matter of protecting our eyes from
-a direct view of the source of light that some enthusiasts advocate a
-system of indirect illumination, concealing the lights so completely
-from the eyes that their location is difficult to know. This is
-carrying the problem too far beyond its rational limits. Such a system
-of indirect illumination reduces shadow to a minimum; consequently the
-forms and the beauty of objects in the room are flattened. Moreover,
-the eye unconsciously is confused at not being able to locate the
-source from which the illumination comes, and, being puzzled, the mind
-naturally resents it. For the small house, at least, the system of
-indirect illumination carried to this extreme is not at all suitable.
-
-[Illustration: Fig 1]
-
-A type of fixture which develops a partial indirect illumination, and
-yet which allows a certain quantity of light to come through direct to
-the eyes, so that the source of light is easily discernible is the most
-satisfying and most suggestive of home comfort. Such a fixture is shown
-on page 122.
-
-
-_Common-Sense Solution Needed_
-
-Moreover, the lighting of a small house must be studied with common
-sense, and no rule of the thumb can be laid down. Certain enthusiastic
-illuminating engineers offer typical plans and suggestions for the
-wiring of houses, which plans are crowded so full of outlets that they
-look like a map of the starry heavens. We have in front of us now such
-a plan in which a small living-room is marked to contain four wall
-outlets containing two lights each, two more outlets on each side of
-the fireplace, a wall plug for attaching a portable lamp or two lights,
-and a central ceiling outlet for four lights. In addition to these is
-another base plug and floor plug. The room is about 14 by 17 feet, and
-if all lights were turned on at once and all base plugs attached to
-lamps there would be a possible grand total of twenty 50-watt lamps
-in this medium-sized room. Such brilliant illumination might please
-the jaded nerves of the tired business man, but his wife would never
-consent to such a garish display of wealth-eating current.
-
-The problem of illumination for the small house can be sanely
-considered from five different angles: (1) General illumination; (2)
-local illumination; (3) ornamental illumination; (4) movable lamps; and
-(5) light control.
-
-By general illumination is meant the lighting required to flood the
-room as a whole, and not locally in any one corner. The easiest and
-commonest method of doing this is to provide a central fixture,
-containing from two to four 50-watt lamps, or their equivalent, which
-are hidden in some commercial type of semi-indirect lighting fixture.
-The type of fixture shown on page 122 is one of the finest, and with
-a silk shade around it the warm, cheerful effect of a home is greatly
-enhanced by this method of lighting. When this fixture is hung in the
-dining-room or living-room a single 200-watt Mazda lamp is employed,
-while in the other rooms a single 100-watt lamp is used. In the kitchen
-no shade is necessary. Usually in laying out the electric outlets
-upon a plan the central dining-room and living-room lights are shown
-to carry four 50-watt lamps, and those in the other rooms, in the
-hall, and on the porch are marked to have two 50-watt lamps or their
-equivalent.
-
-But it is not absolutely essential to have a central light for general
-illumination. Some architects prefer to have a certain number of wall
-lights controlled by one switch, and obtain a general glow with these
-lamps. By securing the right type of fixture which shields the raw
-filament of light from the eyes, this method of general illumination
-often produces a feeling of comfort and homelikeness unsurpassed by the
-other system.
-
-In those rooms where work is done under the central light, such as
-the kitchen and pantry, and where opaque, indirect reflectors have
-been used throughout the rest of the house, it is essential to provide
-direct lighting-fixtures, so that the light can be thrown down upon the
-working plane. Translucent reflectors or prismatic reflectors are used,
-and a frosted bulb or a porcelain-tipped bulb is most suitable with
-this reflector.
-
-Local illumination is intended to give greater intensity of light over
-certain portions of the room where work is carried on. Either a wall
-light or a special drop light, protected by a reflector, is used.
-Such lights are placed conveniently over the kitchen-sink and side
-table, over the laundry-tubs and ironing-board, over the coal-bin,
-near the boiler and over the work-bench in the cellar, by the side of
-the lavatory in the bathroom, over at the side of the dresser in the
-bedrooms, inside of closets and alongside of the serving-table in the
-dining-room. These local outlets are generally planned to carry two
-50-watt lamps or their equivalent.
-
-[Illustration: _Types of Direct Lighting Reflectors_]
-
-Other wall lights than these are usually introduced for ornamental
-purposes. The side lights for the fireplace in the living-room, or the
-panel lights on the wall, or the bracket lights for the bookcase cannot
-be considered more than ornamental features. Not more than one 50-watt
-lamp is planned for these outlets.
-
-In addition to the general, local, and ornamental illumination are
-those portable lamps which have become more and more a serviceable and
-decorative feature of the home. The reading-lamp in the living-room,
-the light for the music on the piano, the table-lamp in the bedroom,
-and the candle-lamps on the dining-room table are the most used of this
-portable type. To properly attach these bulbs, a base-board outlet must
-be installed at a convenient place in the room, so that the electric
-cord to the light will not have to be too long nor pass across any part
-of the floor where it may trip up the feet of some absent-minded member
-of the family.
-
-When the lighting of the small house has been considered from these
-angles, the control is then the essential problem. The incoming
-feeder, the meter, the house switch and service switch, and the
-distributing panel must be located conveniently in the cellar. Often
-the distributing panel with its fuses is placed on the first floor for
-convenience of replacing a burned out fuse when some line has been
-overcharged.
-
-The next matter of control is the location of switches. All central
-outlets and general illumination should be controlled by a switch at
-the entrance-door to the room. The usual type of switch used is the
-so-called three-way switch.
-
-[Illustration: _The 3-way Switch to control light at two places_]
-
-The hall light should be controlled from up-stairs and from
-down-stairs. The porch lights and the front and rear door lights should
-be switched on and off either from the inside or outside of the house.
-One light in the cellar should be governed by a switch at the top of
-the cellar stairs. And this is about all the complication of control
-necessary.
-
-Now, in addition to the lighting of a house, certain floor and
-base-board outlets must be provided for attaching various electrical
-devices that have become rather common. In every cellar there should be
-at least one special power-current outlet for any household machinery
-that might be installed. In the laundry there should be at least two
-special outlets to which a washing-machine, a mangle, electric drier,
-or an electric iron can be connected.
-
-There should be at least one special outlet in the kitchen to which
-may be attached a motor for operating the coffee-grinder, egg-beater,
-ice-cream freezer, dish-washer, etc. Sometimes an electric refrigerator
-may be installed, in which case an outlet must be provided for this
-motor.
-
-Sometimes a special outlet is installed in pantry for a dish-warmer or
-water-heater.
-
-In the dining-room a floor outlet should be provided for operating on
-the table such things as a toaster, chafing-dish, coffee-percolator,
-egg-boiler, etc.
-
-In the living-room a floor outlet will be found useful for such
-electric apparatus as would be carried on a tea-table or for running a
-home stereopticon.
-
-In the bathroom and in the master’s bedroom a special outlet is useful
-to connect up such devices as vibrators, hair-driers, curling-irons,
-shaving-mugs, electric heaters, etc.
-
-Base-board outlets of the ordinary type should be distributed
-throughout the house to provide convenient connections for vacuum
-cleaners and fans.
-
-Most of these electric devices require not more than 600 watts.
-Electric irons, toasters, chafing-dishes, coffee-percolators, and other
-heating mechanisms use up to this maximum of watts, but motor-operated
-machines, like fans and ice-cream freezers, require about 100 watts.
-
-As to the kind of wiring which the architect should specify, he has
-a limited choice. The knob-and-tube system is the cheapest, but not
-the safest. The flexible cable (BX) is better, although slightly more
-expensive. Rigid conduits or flexible steel conduits are not suited
-to the economic needs of the small house and are not used, except in
-special places. For example, an overhead feed wire may be brought in
-from the street at the level of the cornice, and then carried down to
-the cellar in a rigid conduit on the outside of the house.
-
-[Illustration: Cleat]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Knob
-    Tube]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Flexible Conduit (BX)
-    Rigid Conduit]
-
-In addition to the wiring for lighting there must be an independent
-system for bell service. The current for such a system must be supplied
-by dry batteries when the local power company gives a service of direct
-current, but when it supplies an alternating current a transformer can
-be used and the bells operated upon this energy. In the kitchen there
-should be a magnet-operated annunciator, connected with the front and
-rear doors and the dining-room push-button.
-
-In laying out the lighting plans for a small house the standard symbols
-shown here are used, but a key should always be given to their meaning
-upon some part of the sheet, for it must be appreciated that the
-contractor can easily forget.
-
-As an aid to laying out the lighting system on the plans, the following
-checking list is suggested, since it is simple.
-
-[Illustration: _SMALL HOUSE ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT LIST_]
-
-Unless specified to the contrary, it is usual to assume that wall
-outlets in the living-room are to be placed 5 feet 6 inches above the
-floor, in bedrooms 5 feet 4 inches, and in halls 6 feet 3 inches. The
-usual height at which switches are placed is 4 feet.
-
-Thus, by using common sense and the phrase in the specifications, “All
-work shall meet the requirements of the National Electric Code,” and
-requiring the contractor to furnish a certificate of approval for the
-entire installation as issued by the Board of Fire Underwriters having
-jurisdiction in the community, the architect has a reasonable surety of
-securing a good and safe system of wiring and lighting.
-
-
-
-
-XI CONSTRUCTION OF THE TRIM
-
-
-The wood trim, the doors and windows, and the built-in furniture of
-the small house can make or mar its appearance more than any other
-one factor. Indeed, in no other form of architecture is the study of
-these details more important, and yet in no other type of building is
-the limitation of cost more exactingly imposed upon the architectural
-treatment of the trim.
-
-[Illustration: The kind of stock trim which some mills continue to keep
-on hand]
-
-[Illustration: A good Stock Trim
-
-From “Curtis Co.”]
-
-By the very economy demanded in the small house, the architect must
-make the mouldings of his casing in the simplest possible forms. The
-trim around doors and windows on the exterior and interior can boast
-of no special mouldings. In fact the selection must be made from stock
-material or else the cost will be too great. Most planing mills have
-standard types of trim, but generally they are very badly designed.
-However, one cannot go wrong in using a plain board casing ¾ inch by
-3⅝ inches, which has slightly rounded corners. The tops of doors and
-windows which have this simple casing should be capped with a fillet
-⁷/₁₆ inch, a head casing ¾ inch by 5 inches, and a cap mould 1⅛ inches
-by 2 inches. This eliminates the mitred corner, which is of such
-doubtful value in cheap work, since most wood trim is not properly
-seasoned and will quickly open all mitred joints.
-
-To match this simple trim the window apron should be a plain board
-¾ inch by 3⅝ inches, and the stool 1⅛ inches by 3⅝ inches. A plinth
-block at the base of the door trim in size 1⅛ inches by 3¾ inches by 7¼
-inches will match up with a plain base-board, ¾ inch by 7¼ inches, or
-one of similar size, with a cyma recta moulding on top.
-
-If the local mill from which the trim is purchased has stock mouldings
-of pleasing design, the architect may safely specify them, but he
-should not make the economic mistake of demanding specially designed
-casing from full-size details of his own. The small house cannot stand
-this additional cost.
-
-[Illustration: Any Mill will have the above in stock]
-
-In selecting the trim, it is always important to bear in mind that it
-must harmonize with the walls and have no obtrusive appearance, since
-it acts with the walls as a background for the furniture. In Colonial
-work the painting of the trim white, pearl-gray, or cream is always
-the most pleasing, and so the architect should select a wood which
-will best take the paint. White wood and white pine are ideal for this
-purpose. Gum wood is good, but there is always the chance that it will
-not hold its place and twist. Yellow pine is difficult to paint well,
-since the hard summer wood has a tendency to stand out beyond the
-softer spring wood, making the surface irregular; but this difficulty
-can be overcome if a number of priming coats are used to fill in the
-grain before the enamel is applied. It is a mistake to finish the
-painted trim with a glossy enamel, for this will destroy its quietness
-and background effect. A matte surface of paint or an egg-shell enamel
-finish is better.
-
-This same principle should be followed in selecting and treating the
-hardwood casing which is not to be painted. The trim should never
-be finished with a bright, glossy varnish and stain, for nothing is
-more ugly in its final effect. Treat the hardwood trim, such as oak,
-chestnut, ash, and the like, with an oil stain; rub in a filler,
-stained slightly darker, and then shellac. Over this apply a wax
-finish, and rub this down with a shoe brush. Varnish manufacturers make
-grades of varnish which give the dull effect of wax, and these can be
-used, if desired; but why? Many prefer to even omit the shellac and
-depend entirely upon the wax for the gloss.
-
-When trim is delivered to the job, it should not be stored in a damp
-place nor fitted in place before the plaster is entirely dry. In fact,
-in order to protect the trim from losing its shape, as soon as it comes
-on the job a priming coat, or filler, should be applied to it, and the
-ends and back painted with white-lead and oil. It will be noticed that
-all well-designed trim has a gouged-out space at the back to permit
-circulation of air around it, and also to make it easier to fit against
-a flat surface of plaster.
-
-[Illustration: Stock Bed Mouldings
-
-Stock Crown Mouldings]
-
-Mouldings for the trim of exterior cornices, string-courses, and the
-like are often specially designed by architects for the small house,
-but it is a much better plan to use stock mouldings, selecting them
-to approximate the design that is desired. Through the efforts of
-many concerns the market affords many well-designed stock patterns of
-mouldings for exterior purposes. The idea is sound, and makes possible
-a great variety of designs through the standardization of parts, but at
-the same time cutting down the cost.
-
-Likewise the standardization of doors and windows is another economic
-aid for the small house.
-
-As a rule, all exterior doors should be at least 1¾ inches thick, and
-of white pine, painted. The veneered door is not a very satisfactory
-type for outside use, unless, perhaps, it is protected by the porch,
-for even with the best waterproof glue there is a considerable tendency
-on the part of the veneer to break away from the soft pine core. Some
-consider that the 1⅜-inch-thick door is satisfactory for exterior doors
-in the small house, but, generally speaking, it is best to use this
-thickness only for interior doors.
-
-Softwood doors, 1¾ inches thick, have panels, if they are raised, only
-1⅛ inches thick; while doors 1⅜ inches thick have raised panels only
-⁹/₁₆ inch thick, and flat panels ⁵/₁₆ inch thick. The latter is quite
-evidently too thin for exterior doors.
-
-Interior doors of veneered woods usually have flat panels, ⁵/₁₆ inch
-thick, except the one-panel door, which is as thick as ⁷/₁₆ inch.
-Such panels consist of three layers, the two outside veneers and
-the interior softwood core with the grain running at right angles
-to the veneer. The stiles and rails of well-built veneered doors
-are made of built-up pine blocks, glued and locked together, with a
-tongue-and-groove joint, and fastened at the corners with hardwood
-dowels. Strips of hardwood to match the veneered face should be placed
-on each edge of the stiles and rails.
-
-[Illustration: Stock Exterior Doors
-
-Stock Interior Doors]
-
-The common-stock sizes of doors are as follows:
-
-    2 feet by 6 feet.
-    2 feet by 6 feet 6 inches.
-    2 feet by 6 feet 8 inches.
-    2 feet 4 inches by 6 feet 6 inches.
-    2 feet 4 inches by 6 feet 8 inches.
-    2 feet 6 inches by 6 feet 6 inches.
-    2 feet 6 inches by 6 feet 8 inches.
-    2 feet 6 inches by 7 feet.
-    3 feet by 6 feet 8 inches.
-    2 feet 8 inches by 7 feet.
-    3 feet by 6 feet 8 inches.
-    3 feet by 7 feet.
-
-The commonest type of window for the small house is equipped with the
-double-hung sash. This sash should be made of 1⅛-inch white pine,
-mortised and tenoned at the corners. The meeting rail ought to be
-rabbeted so that water is prevented from seeping through, and the
-bottom rail ought also to be rabbeted to fit over a similar rabbet in
-the sill. The size of the lower rail is usually 3 inches wide, the
-sides and top rails 2 inches wide, and the meeting rail 1⅛ inches wide.
-It is generally admitted that a window has little architectural charm
-without muntins, and these are made ¾ inch wide, as a rule. The glass
-of the window is inserted into the sash frame at least ¼ inch, and
-its plane is about one-third in from the outside face of the rails.
-The over-all dimensions of a window sash are determined by the size
-glass used, and as glass is cut in inches, the over-all dimensions of
-a sash will be in fraction of inches. For example, a double-hung sash
-of twelve lights, each 8 inches by 10 inches, will give a sash opening
-of 2 feet 4½ inches by 3 feet. If the lights measure 9 inches by 12
-inches, then the sash size will be 2 feet 7½ inches by 4 feet 6 inches.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The best type of double-hung window-frame is constructed so that the
-blind stop is rabbeted to receive the pulley stile, preventing any wind
-from blowing through. The pulley stiles are usually made of yellow
-pine, but the outside casing and sills should be of white pine. It is
-also a good precaution to have the sill rabbeted to receive the ground
-strip, so that air cannot come underneath the sill. The use of 1³/₁₆
-inch-thick material is common for all parts of the frame except the
-sill, which ought to be 1¾ inches thick. A 2¼-inch depth should be
-allowed for the weights in the box, and a space of ⅞ inch left between
-the stud and the top of the frame. Parting strips are made ⅜ inch wide.
-
-Where the frame is to be built into a masonry wall, the back of the
-weight-box is closed in, and a moulding, called the brick mould, should
-be provided for covering the outside joint between frame and masonry.
-In order to make this joint tight in hollow-tile construction, it is
-essential to stuff the back of the brick mould with elastic roofing
-cement.
-
-[Illustration: CASEMENT WINDOWS]
-
-There is not much reason to rehearse here the pros and cons of the
-casement window. When such windows open in, the screens and blinds are
-easier to handle, but the weather is apt to leak in more. When the
-sash opens out, screening is difficult, unless some patent operating
-hardware is used, but the window is more weatherproof. In either case,
-the difficulty of weathering can be overcome to a large extent by not
-attempting to keep out the rain, but lead it down and around the
-sides, draining it off at the sill. This is accomplished by cutting a
-¼-inch half-round groove around the sides and in the sill to act as
-a canal for collecting the water which has seeped in. A few ¼-inch
-round weep-holes from the groove in this sill outward will drain this
-collection of water off. Casement frames are made of heavier material
-than those used for double-hung sash, 1¾ inches being common. As the
-sash is hung from the sides like a door, its weight must not be so
-great that it will cause it to sag, and for this reason it is customary
-to limit the width of sash to 2 feet maximum. Some designers believe
-that the sash should also be at least 1¾ inches thick.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Although blinds add to the cost of the small house without apparently
-adding practical value, yet they are one of the most useful mediums
-of securing variation of color on the elevations. In Colonial days
-shutters served to protect the house, and were made solid with only a
-small hole in them, generally of some ornate cut-out design, like a
-half-moon, flower-pot, etc. To-day we want slats for ventilation. A
-good compromise, then, is to make the lower part of slats and the upper
-part solid, with a cut-out design. The stiles and rails of the shutter
-are made of 1⅛-inch material, the bottom rail being 3½ inches wide, the
-stiles and top rails 2 inches wide. Intermediate rails are often made
-2½ inches wide. It is best to project the stile 1 inch below the bottom
-of the lower rail, so that water collecting on the sill can drain off
-underneath the blind.
-
-In addition to the blinds, the window should be equipped with screens.
-These should be of copper, for only this material is economical in the
-long run. They are usually made of ¾-inch material, and the lower rail,
-stiles, and top rail made 1¾ inches wide.
-
-Other mill work of the exterior, such as porch columns, rails, etc.,
-ought to be built up from stock mouldings and patterns. There are
-numerous concerns selling well-designed wooden columns. The great
-danger of using stock columns, however, is in the fitting. Certain
-stock lengths are made with well-planned entasis, but if the design
-calls for an intermediate length the column is cut short, which
-destroys its proportions. On this basis many select square columns, or
-thin wooden columns without much entasis. The illustrations show some
-common-stock sizes for other outside trim, such as lattice, top rails,
-bottom rails, balusters, etc.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Of the interior mill work the stairs are the most important. For the
-small house they should be very simple, not only for economy but for
-appearance. Plain round and square balusters, 1³/₁₆ inch, and two to
-a tread, simple hand-rail and simple newel post, 3¾ inches, are more
-effective than elaborately turned members. The height of the hand-rail
-from the top of the tread to the hand-rail on a line with the face of
-the riser should be 2 feet 6 inches. The slope of the stairs should
-preferably be confined between 30 degrees and 35 degrees, and the
-common proportion between tread and riser should be maintained (tread
-and riser = 17½ inches).
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The treads should be of 1⅛-inch hardwood, and the risers of 1³/₁₆-inch
-softwood, rabbeted into the riser. Outside strings ought to be ⅝ inch
-thick where finishing on a ⅝-inch base. Inside strings should be
-1³/₁₆ inches thick. Enclosed stairs between walls should have strings
-fitted down on treads and risers, but elsewhere inside strings should
-be rabbeted for treads and risers. Newels should be housed out over
-supports.
-
-[Illustration: This is what the speculative builder spends money on]
-
-A feature of the small house which is neglected too much is the
-installation of built-in furniture. There is a substantial quality
-about such furniture which no mobile furniture can possess. The
-bookcase built into the wall, the window-seat permanently a part of the
-room, a charming mantel-piece, good panelling, built-in china-closets,
-tables, and benches in the breakfast alcove, a modern kitchen dresser
-with the equipment of a portable cabinet, dressing-tables, and closet
-shelves and drawers, medicine-cases and radiator enclosures are
-features which add so much to the small house that it seems strange
-that they are so often omitted. Many a speculative builder has realized
-the value of such furniture and sold his house upon the attractiveness
-of it. He knows that the young couple who purchases the small house
-usually comes from the small apartment, and has little furniture to
-spare. Here then is a place to spend money and not to economize.
-
-
-
-
-XII LESSONS TAUGHT BY DEPRECIATION
-
-
-What happens to the small house after it has been built? This is a
-question which should interest both the architect and builder, because
-from the answer can be had some very important lessons in construction.
-
-To know where the weather, mechanical wear and tear, fire and water,
-begin the decay of the house is to know where to specify materials
-which will give the greatest durability to the whole.
-
-This decay is called the natural depreciation of the house, but it
-is the architect’s duty to make this as insignificant as possible.
-It is essential to study the local conditions under which the house
-will have to stand. At the edge of the seashore, where the damp and
-salty winds are prevalent, one would be foolish to specify metal for
-screens, gutters, valleys, and leaders, which tended to go to pieces
-by corrosion. But in a dry locality the specifying of, say, galvanized
-iron for these parts would save money on the initial cost, and might
-not cause too great depreciation.
-
-Likewise, the choice of the general materials of which the house is
-built should be influenced by the experience of the neighborhood.
-A wooden house in a seashore resort requires painting very often,
-and perhaps a brick house would in the end be more economical. A
-wood-shingle roof on a house, tucked away under the dense trees of a
-lake shore, would have a very short life, and the use of some more
-permanent material would justify the additional expense.
-
-Indeed, on all hands, in every locality, we have lessons to learn
-concerning what happens to a house after it has been built, and how it
-might have been avoided. To stimulate the reader to observe more in
-this direction we will call attention to some of the most obvious ways
-in which a house depreciates.
-
-Examine most houses which have stood for ten to twenty years, and
-it will be found that the foundations in nearly every case have
-settled unevenly, to a greater or less extent. This may be due to
-unforeseen causes, such as the action of underground water, frost, and
-disintegration of mortar, but generally it is the result of foundations
-built by the rule of the thumb. A wooden house seems so light that the
-average builder never bothers to consider the footings nor the loadings
-on them. Many walls are built without any footings at all, even though
-part of them rest on stone and other parts on earth. Now, of course,
-nothing serious as a rule comes of this slightly uneven settlement,
-but, add it to other things, and the depreciation of the property goes
-on rapidly.
-
-[Illustration: Uneven Settlement]
-
-As an example of this, one house might be mentioned which was greatly
-marred by the settling of the footings under the porch columns. These
-columns supported the second floor, which projected over the porch.
-The amount of settlement was only about two inches, but this caused
-the windows to lose their rectangular shape, making the operation of
-the sash impossible, destroyed the drainage direction of the gutters,
-necessitating the relocation of the leaders and the repitching of the
-gutters, opened up the crack between the floor and the base-board, and
-made a large crack in the plaster wall and ceiling. The cause of it all
-was the building of the porch column footings upon filled-in earth,
-while the foundations of the rest of the house were upon rock. Uneven
-settlement was sure to take place under such conditions.
-
-This same damaging effect of settlement is often noticeable in wooden
-frame houses, which have not been properly constructed to avoid uneven
-distribution of cross-section wood in the walls and partitions.
-Wherever there is a difference of cross-section of wood in two walls
-which support the same beams, there is sure to be uneven settling.
-The wall which has the greatest number of linear inches vertically of
-horizontally laid timbers will settle the most. This will cause sagging
-floors, sprung door frames, and open joints.
-
-Many cracked stucco walls on the exterior have been caused by too much
-cross-section wood in their framing. A balloon-framed wall makes the
-best backing for an outside wall of stucco, because the studs extend
-from sill to plate without any horizontal timbers intervening.
-
-But it can always be predicted that the masonry walls and parts of the
-house will settle before the wooden walls and partitions. The chimney
-will settle more rapidly than the surrounding partitions of wood, and
-should, for this reason alone, be built entirely independent of any
-other part of the structure. Where the wooden framed wall butts into a
-chimney and the plaster is continuous over the brick of the chimney and
-the studs of the wall, there is sure to develop a crack at the joint
-because of the unequal settlement, unless the plaster is reinforced at
-this point with metal lath. Likewise, it is bad to support any part of
-the wooden floor upon a girder which bears upon the chimney, not only
-on account of the excessive sinking of the chimney, but the subsequent
-danger of fire which it creates.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A very bad method of constructing a chimney was imported from Europe,
-years ago, which develops serious fire dangers from its manner of
-settling. Instead of flashing and counter-flashing the joint of the
-chimney with the roof, this method employed the use of a projecting
-course of brick begun at the level of the roof. Thus the part of the
-chimney above the shingle roof was made larger than that underneath,
-and the outward step was used as a weather lap over the roofing
-material, and no flashing was needed to make the joint tight. Now, when
-the chimney settled faster than the roof, as it would, the upper part
-could not drop, but was caught upon the roof, and lifted from the lower
-part. This made a crack through which the hot gases could escape to the
-attic timbers and start a fire.
-
-On the other hand, wooden framed walls will settle badly, too, when
-dry rot sets into the sills. This is a very common defect in old
-houses, and generally, when any remodelling must be done, the sills
-have to be cut out and new ones set into place. Dry rot in the sills
-is caused by excessive dampness with no circulation of air. Very often
-a builder may take great pains to fire-stop his walls around the sill,
-but forget to leave ventilation space, and the sill is soon attacked by
-the fungus of rot. Unless timbers which come in contact with masonry
-are treated with creosote, or painted, they will be subject to dry rot
-in the average damp, warm climate.
-
-[Illustration: Solid Column]
-
-Many porch columns rot at their base and permit the settling of the
-roof. Solid columns are the least durable in this respect, for in a
-short time their core will go bad and the lower part will crumble.
-Wood base blocks for columns should be perforated with holes to permit
-the seepage of water under them. Cast-iron bases are preferred to the
-wooden one, when the column is to set upon a masonry porch floor.
-
-Settling causes many other defects besides those mentioned. The
-house-drain may be broken and the cellar flooded with sewage, if the
-wall around the pipe has been cemented up and it settles. The pitch of
-drain-pipes may be altered so much that back-up action of waste water
-may occur; steps may be caused to sag so that they become unsafe;
-lintels may be broken.
-
-The movement of the footings by frost is another evil that is
-noticeable in many old houses. Sidewalks are cracked, porch stairs
-loosened, drains in areas closed. In most cases like this the footings
-are not extended far enough below the frost-line, or insufficient
-cinder foundations are laid.
-
-[Illustration: Weathered Chimney]
-
-But the action of freezing water leaves its marks on other parts of
-the house. Unless some corrugations in leaders are made, the ice in the
-winter may burst them. The mortar on copings is loosened by this
-action, and on chimney tops, where heat and gases also help, the
-brickwork soon breaks down. Many failures of stucco work are directly
-caused by frost, and sometimes water leaks into the cells of hollow
-terra-cotta blocks, freezes, and bursts out the shell-like sides.
-The putty around the window is loosened by the drying action of the
-wind, and the prying action of the frost. Water-supply pipes in wall
-near the outside are broken when the cold winds freeze them, and the
-exposed gas-pipes in the chilly parts of the cellar are often entirely
-clogged in a severe winter. Leaks around windows in masonry walls are
-started by frost, and it is common to see tile on the porch floor, or
-brick borders and bases loosened by the same powerful agent that breaks
-boulders from the mountainsides.
-
-The heat of the sun is another destroyer of the house. It is death
-on paint, for it is forever baking it in the steam of the dew of the
-previous night, and when the body of linseed-oil is gone, the paint is
-no good. And it dries out the wood too much some days and spoils the
-jointing. It warps boards up and opens the mitred joints. It causes
-the wood shingles to crack and shrivel, so that when the next heavy
-rain comes the ceilings are stained by leaks. Tar for the roof and soft
-cements are caused to run out of place.
-
-Then, too, there is the deteriorating influence of the artificial heat
-inside of the house. The fireplace tiles are baked loose from their
-mortar beds, cast-iron dampers are cracked, chimneys are clogged with
-soot and catch fire, and thimbles which receive the smoke-pipe of the
-furnace are broken. But the heat from the radiator does much damage. It
-blackens the ceiling above it by hurling little particles of dust up
-against it; it warps and twists the wall-paper; it misshapes the doors
-and windows, and breaks loose the strips of veneer, and it often spills
-water over the floor to ruin the ceilings below.
-
-Added to all of the above depreciation is the natural wear and tear
-caused by the tenants. Floors are worn to splinters where they were
-of flat-grain wood; thresholds are thinned down, stair tread scooped
-out. Plaster is broken by moving furniture, and decorations stained by
-accidents of all varieties. Locks, hinges, and bolts are broken.
-
-Particularly is the mechanical equipment of the house subject to
-such deteriorating influences. Plumbing fixtures are broken, pipes
-are clogged, and joints made to leak through the corroding action of
-strong acids poured down the pipes. Radiator valves are turned out of
-adjustment, boilers are burned out, and hundreds of other things happen
-to this part of the house because of careless hands.
-
-Thus we may say that the important factors of depreciation which an
-architect should keep in mind are unequal settlement, action of frost,
-washing-out effects of rain-water, corrosion, the heat of the sun, the
-artificial heat of the furnace, and the foolishness of tenants.
-
-Unequal settlement can be prevented by carefully examining the
-construction, and the action of frost, heat, and sun can be minimized
-by the use of proper materials, and the foolishness of tenants can be
-partly offset by selecting those mechanical devices which are as near
-fool-proof as human hands can make them.
-
-
-
-
-XIII SELECTING MATERIALS FROM ADVERTISEMENTS
-
-
-In the planning of the construction of the small house, the architect
-has many problems of selection, such as the choosing of this brand of
-roofing material from among many makes or the specifying of this type
-of furnace from among many patterns, and, in fact, the selection of
-the best type and the best materials which the market affords in all
-branches of structural and mechanical devices. If he does not specify
-any one brand, but merely states that the contractor shall use an
-approved make of paint or an acceptable brand of hydrated lime, he has
-merely deferred his ultimate choice in the matter to a later date,
-for in the end he must decide whether the particular make or brand
-is acceptable, and in order to do this he must know enough about the
-various makes and brands on the market to judge wisely and in a fair
-spirit, for the chief motive in back of the contractor’s choice will be
-rather one of money than quality.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The problem, therefore, which confronts the architect in acting as
-judge of materials and brands as to their quality is very serious and
-extremely full of pitfalls, and outside of his personal experience
-and that of his friends, the choice must be made upon the claims of
-the manufacturers as presented in advertisements. Now, of course,
-the difficulties which advertising literature presents are the
-overstatements which are found in them and the suppression of facts
-which appear to the makers as derogatory of their product. But if the
-circulars of information and advertising statements are collected
-for any one type of mechanism or any one type of material or system
-of construction, it will be found that the truth of the matter will
-be implanted in the accumulated statements of the various concerns
-manufacturing these mechanisms or materials. What one manufacturer
-does not say another will, and very often a rival firm will reveal the
-defects of its competitor’s products by its advertisements. In fact,
-if you want to find out what is the “nigger in the wood-pile,” read
-the advertisements of a rival manufacturer. Of course it is not good
-taste in advertising to knock the other fellow’s products, but general
-statements are made which are enough to enlighten the alert reader as
-to what should be the good points to look for.
-
-For example, suppose the architect knew little or nothing about what
-should be the good qualities of a hot-air furnace of the pipeless type,
-but had before him the advertisements of various makers which we will
-designate as _A_, _B_, _C_, _D_, and _E_, although the quotations which
-are given are accurately taken from real advertisements of well-known
-firms, the identity of which we have purposely concealed under the
-assumed titles of the letters of the alphabet.
-
-Let us pick up advertisement of (_A_) manufacturer, and select what
-appear to be the important statements which occur in it. We read:
-“The grate is slightly cone-shaped, which breaks up all clinkers and
-makes the fuel roll toward the wall of the fire-pot, where air is
-mixed with the gas. This generates a much greater degree of heat than
-it is possible to obtain with the old duplex and flat grates, and
-clinkers that would form and be wasted in other furnaces are thereby
-consumed.” From this the architect has learned to consider the question
-of the grate, and certainly he has definitely found out what is the
-disadvantage of the furnaces which use the old duplex or flat grates.
-It ought to be his aim to ask the manufacturer of furnaces using these
-types of grates what they have to say in defense of this indictment.
-
-But let us continue to read: “The ash-pit is large and roomy on
-the inside, and is provided with a very large door, which makes it
-convenient for the removal of ashes.” It is evident from this that
-there are furnaces on the market which have this defect of too small an
-ash-pit and door. The architect can then mentally pigeonhole this as a
-point to be considered in examining a furnace.
-
-Continuing our reading we come across this statement: “The (_A_)
-radiator is cast in one piece, with no joints to be cemented or bolted
-together.” This is evidently a reflection upon the weaknesses of other
-makes which have radiators that are bolted and cemented together, and
-on investigation we soon learn that furnaces often have leaky radiators
-which permit the coal-gas to escape into the warm air delivered through
-the house. Here is a definite defect to be remembered.
-
-Suppose we turn now to advertisement (_B_), and here we read the
-following: “Insulating air-chamber acts as a positive division between
-the bodies of warm and return air.” This is certainly a hint of a
-possible defect in a furnace. Perhaps not all of the furnaces are
-adequately insulated at this division between the bodies of returning
-cold air and the outgoing warm air, with the resulting loss of
-efficiency and sluggishness of circulation.
-
-Reading on in the same advertisement we find the following: “The
-(_B_) smoke-plate is an added precaution against the leakage of smoke
-and gas.” Evidently there is some possibility of smoke leaking into
-the warm air, or else this device would not have been suggested, and
-probably there are some furnaces where this is a very serious objection.
-
-Turning to the next advertisement, (_C_), we read: “Only the best grade
-of iron goes into the casting.” This is another consideration; for
-evidently, from the following, certain types of furnaces do not use
-the best castings, and give trouble. “Breakdowns and imperfections are
-reduced to a minimum. The endless series of treatments and repairs is
-never required.”
-
-A further reading tells us that “the humidifier is ample capacity,”
-which statement suggests the possibility that not all humidifiers are
-large enough.
-
-But look what advertisement (_D_) informs us: “No heat lost by being
-radiated through casing into cellar.” This is certainly an interesting
-point to consider. And reading on we learn: “Long fire-travel in
-radiator insures a cool smoke-pipe and there is no fuel wasted.” This
-is surely a matter of design that ought to be observed in good furnaces.
-
-Still another fact is brought to light by “Fire-pot—one piece,
-heavy-ribbed for purposes of increasing its radiating surface and to
-give it greater power of resistance against expansive force of the
-fire.”
-
-But here is something none of the other advertisements have told us:
-“Steel radiators are preferable for the use of hard coal; cast-iron
-radiators for soft or hard coal or wood.” Also: “Radiators can be
-turned in either direction, thereby permitting smoke-pipe to be
-connected with chimney from the most advantageous point.”
-
-Finally, when we read in advertisement (_E_) the following, “Grate-bars
-are quickly removed and replaced. No bolts used,” we wonder whether
-other furnaces use bolts, and whether there is a real objection to them.
-
-Taking the information given in these advertisements, we can now make
-the following list of points to be considered in selecting any one make:
-
-      1. Is the grate so designed that clinkers will not
-         form?
-
-      2. Are the grate-bars easily removable?
-
-      3. Is the ash-pit large and roomy and is the door
-         amply large?
-
-      4. Is the radiator in one piece or so well fastened
-         that it is gas-tight?
-
-      5. Is the radiator steel or a high grade of cast-iron?
-
-      6. Is the inner casing so well insulated that it
-         prevents premature heating of the descending
-         air-currents?
-
-      7. What protection is there to prevent the chance
-         passage of smoke into the warm air-chamber?
-
-      8. Is the outer casing properly insulated to prevent
-         the waste of heat into the cellar?
-
-      9. Is the humidifier of ample capacity?
-
-     10. How is the fire-pot designed to increase the
-         efficiency of its radiating surface and how is it
-         strengthened against the expansive force of the
-         fire?
-
-     11. Is there a long enough passage for fire-travel,
-         so that no waste of heat is lost up the chimney?
-
-     12. Is the radiator flexible enough to permit of
-         the connection of the smoke-pipe from the most
-         advantageous point?
-
-Most certainly this is an array of matters to be considered in the
-selection of a furnace which no one, except an expert, would think of,
-but they are all drawn from the advertisements, and this process of
-study is open to any one who is interested in learning the technical
-difficulties involved in the selection of this particular mechanical
-device. Perhaps not all of the knowledge gained is scientific, but
-at least there are stimulating bits of information that should be
-investigated.
-
-Let us take one more example of this amusing game of comparing
-advertisements as applied to roofing materials. Here we will find many
-conflicting statements, but out of the whole battle of words we can
-glean some interesting truths.
-
-Turn to advertisement (_A_) and we read the following: “Nearly every
-objection to wood shingles as a roof-covering is applicable to slates,
-which have still other adverse features. Slates are not fireproof.
-Ask the underwriter how the insurance companies regard them, and
-especially how, in comparison with clay tiles, they are not permanent,
-though more so than wood shingles.... Slates attract lightning, and
-while the sun warps shingles and the wind rips them off, slates are
-easily broken, and if there is even a slight settlement or vibration,
-repairs are necessary. Moisture gets under them, and during the winter
-months especially causes them to lift up and break off. When the ice
-thaws, the broken pieces slide out, leaving a defective place in the
-roof. This will happen every winter with a slate roof, and to keep such
-a roof in perfect condition it must be gone over each spring and the
-broken slates replaced with new ones.”
-
-Turning to advertisement (_B_) for asbestos shingles we read a
-different point of view: “Unfortunately, however, slate, particularly
-that which is obtainable on the market at present, does not last much
-longer than _clay tile_ or tin shingles.”
-
-But reading from advertisement (_C_) we are amused at the following:
-“Slate being solid rock, they simply cannot wear out. They cannot
-rust, decay, crack, tear, warp, shrink, disintegrate, melt, burn, or
-smoulder. They will not contract or expand under the influence of heat
-or cold. They never need painting. They will not attract lightning—nor
-will they permit the growth of moss or decaying vegetable matter....
-One of the most important advantages is from the insurance standpoint.
-Many roofs (not alone wooden shingles) are highly inflammable; but
-a slate roof will not ignite from sparks from fire in an adjacent
-building, from passing locomotives, or from any other cause. This fact
-is so well recognized that insurance companies allow a very substantial
-reduction in rates on slate-roofed buildings.”
-
-The contradictory statements here are very amusing, but the truth can
-be seen between the lines, that the makers of clay tile really believe
-that slate is their real rival, and have searched very hard to pick
-flaws in it as a material for roofing. And when the advertisement of
-the asbestos shingle manufacturer is read, we learn that slate does
-not last much longer than clay tile. But both are insistent upon the
-opinion of the fire underwriters, and for this reason we naturally turn
-to see what they have to say, and we find that both slate and tile are
-under Class A roofing materials, with little difference made between
-them. As for the point of attracting lightning, why is slate used for
-switchboards if it is as good a conductor of electricity as a statement
-of the above type would imply? It is quite evident that one’s opinion
-of slate after all this controversy will be about on a par with one’s
-opinion of clay tile, and that one will realize that poor grades of
-either slate or tile, or poor workmanship, are rather more the causes
-of failure than the material itself.
-
-Many more examples might be given of this interesting method of
-learning the truth from advertisements, but the principle in all cases
-remains the same, so that further quotations would only amuse rather
-than instruct.
-
-
-
-
-XIV ROOFING MATERIALS
-
-
-A roofing material should not be judged by its first appearance, but
-rather by its condition after four or five winters have passed over it.
-And in choosing the roof for the small house, this is a statement which
-applies with even greater emphasis, since the temptation is magnified
-to select that material which is low in cost and bright upon its first
-appearance.
-
-As an illustration, there are certain types of wood-shingle roofs
-which have a charm in the beginning that is apt to disappear with age.
-These are constructed of shingles, dipped in many varieties of colored
-creosote stains, browns, reds, greens, blues, yellows, and the like,
-and when newly laid have a warm, mottled, and colorful texture which
-suggests the multiplicity of tone that nature often produces with age.
-In fact, the designer who originated this roof was trying to imitate
-the aging effect of nature, much as Tiffany glass is an imitation of
-the effect of time upon certain ancient glasses; only in the latter
-case the operation is the same but the time element reduced, while in
-the case of the roof it is a theatrical imitation of nature at work.
-
-And there are many other fads in roofing, all of which have as their
-basis the imitation of the weathering effect of nature. Ridge-poles
-are constructed with a sag to resemble the settlement which is often
-observed in picturesque old houses. Shingles are laid, like the scales
-of an armadillo, and ridges, hips, and eaves are rounded to present
-the appearance of old thatched roofs. Asbestos shingles are broken
-with rough edges, and defective tiles are used—all for the purpose of
-giving that ragged appearance which nature develops with age. Now, to
-a certain extent there is an element of architectural truth in such
-devices, but they should be used with the greatest discretion, for, as
-has been previously asked: “If a roof looks old when it is new, how old
-does it look when it really is old?”
-
-Before discussing the various methods of laying roofing materials, let
-us observe some of them after they have been on the house for a few
-years.
-
-Of course, we are all familiar with the short life of the wooden
-shingle, which is only about fifteen years. But the life can be
-extended by dipping them into creosote stains, either just before
-laying or by the more convenient processes of factory dipping. Cedar
-has been found to be the best wood for these shingles, since it has
-a natural resistance to decay. The old hand-split shingles were more
-durable than the modern shingles, for the surface that they exposed
-to the weather was the natural cleavage plane of the wood fibres. The
-sawed shingle delights in curling and twisting out of a flat plane, and
-always seems to split so that the crack lines up with the space between
-the shingles on the course above, thus permitting the rain to leak
-through. And then the nails either rust away or the wood rots around
-them, until individual shingles drop away from the others, leaving
-small or large holes in the roof. It is well recognized that the sparks
-from a neighboring fire find a ready meal in the punk and rotten butts
-of the shingles, and many a house has been burned to the ground because
-of this.
-
-The nearest competitor to the wooden shingle in cost is the asphalt
-shingle, which is made from roofing felt, saturated with asphalt
-compounds, and surfaced, under pressure, with crushed slate of greenish
-or red hue. The life of these shingles depends a great deal upon
-the thickness of the body. Some roofs, laid with very thin asphalt
-shingles, develop an appearance of chicken-pox after a year or two,
-for the heating effect of the sun, the lifting force of the wind and
-ice cause certain individual shingles to bend up from the plane of the
-roof and, in extreme cases, even flap in a heavy gale, like so many
-small pin-feathers. But this is not so true of the thicker grades of
-these shingles. Often, too, these asphalt shingles bulge under the hot
-sun, but this is due to careless laying, for each shingle should be
-separated from the other by a small space to allow for this expansion.
-It takes a good many years for the crushed slate on the surface to
-wear off, but gradually this happens, as also the elasticity of the
-body degenerates. Finally, as the surface begins to moult, the shingle
-itself becomes stiff and brittle and begins to break off. Of course,
-these shingles are superior to wood in resisting sparks from a near-by
-fire, and their life is longer, if they have a thick enough body.
-
-That same material used for asphalt shingles is made into roll
-roofings. So-called shingle strips are made, which consist of long,
-narrow rolls of asphalted felt with the crushed slate surface, the
-lower edge of which is cut out to form the lower third of the shingles,
-and, when applied to the roof, the appearance is identical to a roof
-laid with individual units. Another type of roll roofing is made to
-imitate wood shingles, by having a shingle pattern stamped with black
-asphalt upon the surface of crushed slate. It is laid on the roof from
-the ridge down to the eaves, lapping joints with the next roll about
-two inches. At a distance the black pattern gives the camouflaged
-appearance of a shingle roof. The chief objection to any of these roofs
-is that the long and large areas are nailed down along the edges so
-that the sag and expansion of the material raises little bumps and
-hills over the entire roof, which, to say the least, is very unsightly.
-Then, again, the nails are exposed, and unless they are copper, the
-chances are that they will rust away before the roof is worn out,
-permitting the edges to become loose and the wind to get under the
-material and rip it away from the roof. Moreover, the roll roofing has
-only one thickness at any point, while the shingle roofing has either
-two or three layers over the entire area of the roof.
-
-The cheaper grades of slate roof, such as one would be tempted to use
-on the small house, show weaknesses in aging that should not be used as
-arguments against slate roofs in general. These cheap roofs are built
-up of poorer grades of slate, and very thin sheets at that, and a poor
-grade of nail is used. The effect of weathering on such roofs is to
-chip off pieces of slate and to rust the nails, so that whole units
-drop off. Generally, too, in these cheap slate roofs, the tar paper is
-omitted from underneath, and the wind suction through the roof draws
-the snow through the cracks onto the floor of the attic, where it melts
-and stains the ceilings below. However, properly selected and well-laid
-slate roofs have none of these disadvantages, but then the cost of them
-is generally a barrier to using them on the small house.
-
-As with the slate roof, so with the tile roof, the cost is generally
-the reason for not selecting it, and yet, from an economical point of
-view, in the end they are not as expensive, since with the less durable
-roofs one is never sure of how much damage to the interior a leak will
-cause. Tile roofs of poor quality have as bad reputations as slate
-roofs. Small, thin tile are very brittle, and falling limbs and other
-objects often break individual tiles, and it is very hard to replace
-them. Unless the tile are laid upon a building-paper the wind suction
-is even worse than with slate roofs.
-
-Probably the greatest defects in tile or slate roofs is not in the
-material itself, but in the flashings and valley construction. Instead
-of using copper the flashings are usually of tin, which is permitted to
-rust out because of neglect in painting. Leaks develop in the valleys
-and around chimneys in spite of the roofing material.
-
-While asbestos shingles can show great practical durability, even
-superior to slate and tile in some cases, yet there are many instances
-of ugly weathering. Tile and slate roofs develop warm, lovely tones
-with age. Asbestos shingles, since they are chiefly made from cement
-under pressure, must necessarily depend for their color upon inert
-pigments introduced into their composition at the time of manufacture,
-and for this reason their color is apt rather to fade than become
-richer with age. Their tendency is to return to the natural color of
-the cement. For this reason we see on every hand red asbestos shingle
-roofs which have bleached out to sickly and thirsty pinks, and brown
-roofs that have blanched to whitish-brown, much like the color which
-chocolate candy develops when it is very stale. Then, too, certain
-makes of asbestos shingles show, as time goes on, salt-like deposits on
-the surface, like the whitewash which appears upon brick walls. This
-gives a motley appearance to the roof, for some shingles will develop
-this white stain more than others.
-
-The reader should not draw from these statements the general conclusion
-that the asbestos shingles should not be used, and that there have been
-none made that overcome the above difficulties, but it would be well
-for him to observe these defects before deciding upon any one brand.
-
-The manufacturers of tin advise that the tin be painted on both sides
-when laid, and thereafter kept painted at four to five-year intervals.
-In other words, the tin roof is as good-looking as the paint which
-covers it, for it has no color or texture of its own. Can there be much
-charm in a roof of this kind? Can one picture a cosey and homelike
-small house with either a flat or standing seam tin roof? Perhaps the
-flat decks which do not show are satisfactory, when covered with tin,
-but those upon which any walking is to be done should be covered with
-wood lattice or else the nails of the shoes may punch through the tin
-and cause a leak. Tin roofs have their place and their duty to perform,
-but they are hardly suited to flat roofs over which is to be done much
-walking. Heavy deck canvas, laid in paint and covered with paint,
-is the best for this purpose. The ferry-boats give evidence of the
-practical wear of this kind of roof.
-
-Tin or galvanized-iron shingles or imitation tiles are often seen
-applied to the roofs of small houses. The owner probably admired a real
-tile roof, and the nearest approach his pocketbook would permit him to
-come to it was the use of imitation tile of tin, copper, or galvanized
-iron. Most architects ridicule this peculiar weakness in human nature
-which chooses imitation diamonds, glass pearls, oil-paper stained-glass
-windows, and pressed-metal tiles, instead of real ones, but they should
-look to themselves before they throw stones, and ask who invented the
-imitation thatched roof of wooden shingles.
-
-
-_Shingle Roof_
-
-The wooden-shingle roof is of such old and traditional origin in this
-country that it seems useless to describe the essential features of its
-construction, yet for the sake of completeness we shall call attention
-to the important points to be observed. Cypress, cedar, and redwood
-are considered to be the best woods from which to saw shingles. The
-grain of the wood should be vertical and show the edge. It is generally
-conceded that creosote-dipped shingles which are treated at the
-factory are easier to apply than those dipped on the job, and, as all
-wood shingles should be treated with some preservative, it is well to
-consider them. However, much criticism has been aimed at factory-dipped
-shingles, in that they are generally too brittle from overdrying in the
-kilns, but this is not true of all makes. The sizes and the weathering
-of some of the standard creosoted shingles are as follows:
-
-      16 inches lengths, random widths, laid 4½ inches to
-         the weather, and either 5 or 6 shingles at the
-         butt ends to 2 inches.
-
-      18 inches lengths, random widths, laid 5½ inches to
-         the weather, and 5 butt ends to 2½ inches.
-
-      24 inches lengths, random widths, laid 7½ inches to
-         the weather, and ½ inch thick at the butt ends.
-
-There are about thirty varieties of colored stains to select from, and
-special shapes are cut for constructing the so-called thatched roof,
-the shingles being bent to a curve of about 20 inches radius. The pitch
-of wooden-shingle roofs should not be less than 8 inches rise per foot
-for the ordinary weathering shown in the above statements. The tops of
-rafters are covered with shingle lath, with a spacing suitable to the
-weathering arrangement of the shingles. There are some who advocate
-the use of sheathing to cover the rafters in a tight manner and also
-the use of building-paper underneath the shingles, but, although this
-gives a tighter and warmer roof, dry rot attacks the shingle much
-quicker because of the accumulation of dampness on the under side of
-the shingle courses.
-
-The first course of shingles at the eaves should be a double course
-with the upper layer breaking joints with the lower, and the shingles
-should project about 2 inches beyond the mouldings of the eaves and
-about 1½ inches beyond the edge of the gable ends of the roof.
-
-Hips may be finished either with the saddle-board or with a row of
-shingles running parallel to the line of the ridge. Hips are best
-finished with a row of shingles running parallel with their edges,
-which treatment is called the Boston hip. If the courses are carried
-to the hip line and mitred, then the joint must be waterproofed by
-using tin shingles underneath the wooden ones, these tin shingles
-being folded over the hip. The method of flashing around chimneys, at
-the base of dormers, and in open valleys will be more fully discussed
-in connection with slate roofs, and, since the principles are the
-same, what is said for slate roofs in this connection is true for
-wooden-shingle roofs.
-
-
-_Method of Laying Roofs_
-
-SLATE
-
-There has been much made of the so-called European method of laying
-slate roofs in recent years, but this type of roof costs more than the
-ordinary slate roof, since special heavy slate is used at the eaves,
-and the weathering is reduced as the courses approach the ridge, and
-special care is taken in blending colored slates. While this type of
-roof is very beautiful, it is really, from a point of view of cost,
-rather out of the race when applied to the small house, for it will be
-hard enough to stretch the estimates of the small house to include even
-the ordinary slate roof.
-
-In the preparation of the ordinary slate roof, the rafters should be
-covered with ⅞-inch thick, tongued-and-grooved roofing-boards. In
-order to prevent buckling, if they should swell with dampness, it is
-essential not to drive the joints between boards up too tight. As these
-boards are surfaced only on one side, this side is laid against the
-rafters and the tongues are placed upward so that a better shedding of
-water is secured. Good nailing with tenpenny nails is important, and
-all joints at ends of boards should be made over rafters. A cheaper but
-not so good a bed for the slate can be made with common, unsurfaced
-sheathing-boards. In the cheapest kind of work sheathing-boards are not
-used, but only shingles lath.
-
-Over the top of this rough boarding should be tacked 11 pounds per 100
-square feet slater’s roofing felt, laid horizontally and lapping joints
-3 inches.
-
-The usual commercial sizes of slates are ³/₁₆ inch thick, and of the
-following standard sizes: 6 by 12 inches, 7 by 12 inches, 8 by 12
-inches, 7 by 14 inches, 8 by 14 inches, 10 by 14 inches, 8 by 16
-inches, 9 by 16 inches, 10 by 16 inches, 12 by 16 inches, 9 by 18
-inches, 10 by 18 inches, 12 by 18 inches, 10 by 20 inches, 12 by 20
-inches, 11 by 22 inches, 12 by 22 inches, and 12 by 24 inches. They
-have two holes in each piece for nails, which nails should be 1-inch
-copper slater’s nails, or 3d galvanized slater’s nails for cheaper work.
-
-The first course should be started 2 inches below the line of the
-sheathing-boards at the eaves, and the necessary tilt is given with a
-³/₁₆ by 1 inch cant strip. A double thickness of slate is used for the
-first course, the upper layer breaking joints with the lower. At the
-gable ends the slate should not overhang more than 1½ inches.
-
-The exposure to the weather for courses of slate is determined by
-taking one-half of the length of the slate minus 3 inches.
-
-The ridges of the roof may be finished in two ways, either with the
-combed ridge or the saddle ridge. The combed ridge is formed by
-projecting a finishing course and a combing course of slate on the
-north or east side of the roof 1½ inches beyond the top and combing
-course on the opposite side of the roof. Both courses are laid with
-slate set lengthwise, the length being twice the width of the slate
-used on the roof. This last course is laid in elastic roofing cement,
-and the nails are also covered with it.
-
-The saddle ridge is formed by alternately butting the ends of the top
-course on one side with the top course on the other, and then doing the
-same with the combing course. This makes a zigzag joint which is closed
-by the elastic cement used in setting.
-
-The Boston hip is the best. Each course is brought at its upper or
-nailing edge to within 2 inches of the hip line. A small strip of slate
-then finishes this off by fitting to a mitre cut made on a slate set
-parallel with the line of the hip. These hip slates have the lower
-corner of their butt ends on a line with the next lower course, and
-they are lapped with the opposite hip slate and made tight with roofing
-cement.
-
-[Illustration: SLATE ROOF]
-
-Hips may also be finished by bringing each course up to the hip line,
-and mitring them with the opposite courses on the other side of the hip.
-
-Valleys should be lined with 16 ounces copper, 4 pounds lead, IX tin,
-or a prepared roofing roll weighing 37 pounds per 108 square feet.
-Measuring from the centre of the valley to the edge of the slate along
-the valley, this distance should be 2 inches at the top and increase ½
-inch in every 8 feet length of valley, to widen it out toward the
-bottom. The flashing should extend up under the slate on either side
-about two-thirds the width of the slate used. If 8-inch by 16-inch
-slates are used, this means that the distance should be about 5 inches.
-If the slopes of the two intersecting roofs are different, and there is
-a chance that the volume of water sweeping down the larger and steeper
-incline may be forced up under the slate at the valleys, the metal
-lining should be crimped up (inverted V-shape) at the centre, 1 inch,
-to form a little dam against the rush of the flood.
-
-[Illustration: SLATE DETAILS]
-
-Flashing used against chimneys, dormers, or other vertical walls
-should be bent up 4 inches and extend into the slate courses 4 inches.
-All vertical flashings against masonry should be cap-flashed and made
-tight with elastic cement. The cap-flashing should extend down over the
-flashing 3 inches, and be inserted into the masonry at least 2 inches.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Sometimes the closed valley is designed for slate roofs, in which
-case the valleys must be rounded out with the roofing-boards, blocked
-to position. The slate courses should be carried around this curved
-valley, but each course in the valley should be covered with flashing
-just under the lap of the course above and extend up toward the nails.
-
-
-TILE ROOFING
-
-Preparations of the roof for the laying of tile should follow similar
-lines described for slate roofs. Over the roofing-boards should be
-tacked asphalt roofing felt, weighing not less than 30 pounds per 100
-square feet and lapping 2½ inches.
-
-The valleys should be lined with this felt, running the entire length,
-and then the flashing metal placed on top, secured with clips at
-intervals. The width of the valley metal should not be less than 24
-inches, and both edges should be turned up ¼ inch the entire length of
-the strip. The felt covering the main surface of the roof should lap
-over the valley metal 4 inches.
-
-Cant strips must be nailed along the eaves to start the first course of
-tile, unless special tiles are provided. Copper nails should be used to
-fasten these tiles, and each unit should be locked with the next, as
-the pattern demands.
-
-[Illustration: Tile Roof]
-
-[Illustration: Tile Roof]
-
-Tiles which border the hips should be cut close against the hip board,
-and elastic cement used to make the joint tight. All hips and ridges
-are finished with specially designed ridge and hip roll tiles, and the
-interior spaces should be left empty and not be filled with pointing
-mortar as is sometimes done.
-
-
-ASBESTOS SHINGLES
-
-Asbestos shingles are applied in practically the same way as slate.
-Over the roofing-boards should be laid slater’s felt as for a slate
-roof, and a cant strip ¼ by 1½ inches should be nailed along the eaves
-line to start the first course of asbestos shingles, which should be
-a double course and overhang the eaves 1½ inches. The average size of
-asbestos shingles is 9 by 18 inches by ¼ inch for the lower layer of
-the first course, and 8 by 16 inches by ⅛ inch for the upper layer of
-the first course and the other courses. They are laid about 7 inches to
-the weather, and the ridges and hips may be finished with the Boston
-hip, or by a specially designed ridge and hip roll. Where the hip roll
-is used the ridge-pole should project above the roof, or a false one be
-added so that a substantial nailing can be had for this tile.
-
-The most widely advertised asbestos shingle roofs employ shingles
-which have rough edges, and which have various shades of coloring,
-some gray, some red, others reddish brown, and others grayish brown.
-The causes which led to the development of this type of roof were the
-artistic failures of the first asbestos shingle roofs. These early
-roofs were made with shingles which had edges as smooth and sharp as
-steel plates, surface texture as slick as a trowelled cement floor,
-and colors of either gray or pale red that were so perfectly matched
-that at a distance the individual shingles blended into one dead-level
-plane, so that the roof of the house looked more like the armored plate
-of a battleship than anything else—it was so perfectly made.
-
-
-ASPHALT SHINGLES
-
-Before laying asphalt shingles the rafters should be covered with
-tongued and grooved roofing-boards, and these covered with black
-waterproof building-paper, lapped 2 inches.
-
-[Illustration: ASPHALT SHINGLES]
-
-There are two types of asphalt shingle units. One consists of a unit
-of twin shingles, so arranged that the butt ends which show to the
-weather appear as two individual shingles, and the other consists of
-one shingle unit. Both types are usually laid 4 inches to the weather
-and nailed with 1-inch galvanized nails No. 10 wire with ⅜-inch heads.
-At the eaves should be nailed a galvanized-metal drip edge, and over
-this a double course of shingles for the first course. Hips and ridges
-are finished with what appears to be a Boston hip, but the shingles are
-bent over the hip line. The valleys and gutters are best when they are
-lined with strips of ready roofing similar to the shingles themselves.
-
-Asphalt shingles which come in long rolls or units of four or five are
-laid in a similar manner, except that, due to their continuous length,
-they are unable to expand without bulging up on the roof.
-
-
-TIN ROOFS
-
-Flat roofs, with an incline of about ½ inch to the foot, should be
-covered with the flat-seam roof. The standing seam may be used on roofs
-with a pitch not less than 2 inches to the foot. The tin is laid upon
-the sheathing-boards without an intermediate layer of building-paper;
-in fact, tar paper should never be used. In cities building codes often
-require that tin roofs should be laid upon roofing felt ¹/₁₆ inch
-thick, placed over the sheathing-boards, but this is a fire precaution
-against burning brands which may drop upon the roof, for this felt
-cushion gives an air insulation, preventing the quick ignition of the
-decking below the tin.
-
-[Illustration: Tin Roofs]
-
-In laying the flat-seam roof a number of sheets are fastened together
-to form a long strip of tin. The edges are bent over ½ inch, so that
-they can be interlocked with the next strip. The tin is fastened to the
-roof with tin cleats that lock into the seams of the sheets and are
-fastened at the other end with two 1-inch barbed-wire nails. These
-cleats are spaced about 8 inches apart. All the seams are flattened
-down, and solder well sweated into them, rosin being the only flux used.
-
-Tin, approximately in thickness 30-gauge, U. S. Standard, is called IC,
-and recommended for the roof proper, while valleys and gutters should
-be lined with IX tin, approximately 27-gauge. It should be painted on
-both sides, before laying, with pure linseed-oil and red lead, or red
-oxide, Venetian red, or metallic brown. Two coats should be given to
-the exposed side and a third coat about a year later. Before the second
-coat is applied the first should have dried for at least two weeks.
-
-The construction of the standing seam roof is shown in the drawings
-to consist of long strips of tin, made of standard sheets fastened
-together with the flat and soldered seam, but the edges of the strips
-fastened to the next strip with the so-called standing seam, which must
-run parallel to the pitch of the roof. Cleats, spaced a foot apart, are
-used to fasten the tin to the sheathing-boards. One edge of the next
-strip is turned up 1½ inches, and then over the top of the edge of the
-other strip. The cleat is locked in between the two. The upstanding
-seam is then turned down again upon itself, tightly locking the strips
-together.
-
-
-_Copper and Zinc Roofs_
-
-For a while, during the high prices created by the war, the thought
-of building a copper roof or a zinc roof on the small house would have
-been received with a doubtful shake of the head. This is no longer the
-case, however, for the prices of these materials have come down to
-within reason, and there is no doubt as to their durability. No one has
-questioned the weathering qualities of copper or zinc. The copper roofs
-which have shown such practical durability on large buildings have
-usually been laid about the same as that described for standing seam
-tin roofs. Cold-rolled or soft copper sheets, usually 20 inches wide,
-are used for this roof covering, weighing not less than 16 ounces to
-the square foot.
-
-This type of roof is rather expensive for the small house, even with
-the reduced cost of copper, and for this reason a lighter grade has
-been made, and offered for use in the form of pressed-metal shingles of
-very flat design. These copper shingles have been treated so that other
-colors than the copper shades can be secured.
-
-The zinc manufacturers have also placed on the market zinc shingles of
-special interlocking flat design for use on small houses.
-
-It has always been a debated question as to whether pressed-metal
-shingles were architecturally permissible. Certainly there are
-some forms which imitate the clay tile shingle that are decidedly
-inartistic, but the more natural flat patterns are less subject to this
-criticism.
-
-
-
-
-XV PAINTING AND VARNISHING THE HOUSE
-
-
-Actually the process of varnishing or painting the woodwork and
-metalwork on the house is the spreading of a thin protective coat, one
-thousandth part of an inch thick or less, over the surface, in order
-to protect it from the wear and tear of use and weather and decay.
-And a marvel it is that any material could be found which spread in
-so thin a film could withstand the chemical action of the sun’s rays,
-the expansion and contraction of the surface over which it is laid,
-the abrasive action of blown sand, hail, and rain, the natural wear of
-walking feet and rubbing clothes and bumping furniture, and a dozen
-other accidents which conspire to mar the surface of woodwork in the
-home.
-
-Is it a wonder that for this protective coat of varnish all experts
-demand that the best materials be used? But out of ignorance it is not
-always so, for the lower cost of varnish and paint is more evident than
-the quality of the substance of which they are made.
-
-The varnishes which are most used in good houses are made of
-resins, melted in a kettle and mixed with linseed-oil, and thinned
-with turpentine as they cool. They have the peculiar property, when
-spread with a brush over a surface, of hardening by a chemical change
-brought about by absorbing oxygen from the air, and making a strong,
-transparent, protective coat over the substance upon which they have
-been applied. The kind of resins[A] have much to do with the quality of
-the varnish, since the linseed-oil and turpentine are apt to be about
-the same grade in all varnishes. Dark or light varnishes can be made;
-hard or soft and elastic surfaces can be produced; varnishes capable
-of resisting the wettest kind of weather and those which turn white
-under the least dampness are manufactured for various purposes, and
-practically in all cases those varnishes which are the best are the
-highest in cost.
-
-[A] Varnish resins or gums are imported from countries that the average
-man knows little about. The island of Zanzibar furnishes one of the
-costliest and finest of gums. It is called Zanzibar copal and is the
-gum of a fossil tree. New Zealand furnishes the most widely used gum,
-kauri. It is dug out of the ground by the natives. The west coast of
-Africa furnishes the gum known as Sierra Leone copal, which is used
-much in automobile work.
-
-The cheap varnishes which are the most abundant upon the market, and
-which are used for cheap furniture and houses, are made of rosin
-and not resin, or are resin varnishes adulterated with rosin. Most
-houses erected by speculative builders are finished with cheap rosin
-varnishes, but no architect should be guilty of specifying them, for
-he should know better than to attempt to save money by purchasing the
-poorer grades of varnishes, since the real cost of varnished work is in
-the labor rather than in the cost of the materials used. These cheap
-rosin varnishes cannot stand up under the sponge test, which is merely
-the application of a wet sponge to the surface overnight. The next
-morning the rosin varnish will be found to be white and dissolved down
-to the wood, and will never recover its appearance. Better grades of
-varnish may turn white under this sponge test, but upon drying return
-to their original color, but the finest grades of varnish will not be
-affected at all. The difference between these varnishes can also be
-observed by rubbing the thumb over the surface of such a fine varnish
-as is on a piano and noticing that no effect other than a higher polish
-is produced, while if the same rubbing is done on a cheap varnish, it
-will be crumbled off from the wood. Every one has seen the ugly surface
-cracks which develop with age in old doors or upon old church pews in
-musty churches of the dark ages of American architecture. In nearly all
-cases these cracks are due to cheap rosin varnishes.
-
-Before varnishing or painting any interior woodwork, it is important to
-observe all the preliminary precautions, or else failure may result,
-even though the work is conscientiously performed in the latter stages.
-One of these early precautions is to paint the back of all trim for
-doors and windows with some good linseed-oil paint, and apply a first
-coat of filler to the outside surface, and all this as soon as it
-arrives on the job. This is to prevent the wood from absorbing the
-dampness which is prevalent in all new buildings, and as most trim has
-been kiln-dried beyond ordinary requirements for construction work,
-it is very thirsty for water, and will soak it up quickly from the
-atmosphere. This trim should not be permitted to stand in the building
-overnight without the priming coat. As the first coat of filler is
-linseed-oil, there is not much excuse for not doing this, for it can be
-applied very rapidly. Of course where the wood is to be stained with
-an oil stain, the application of the linseed-oil before the stain is
-applied will prevent the proper penetration of the stain into the wood,
-and, as the architect generally insists upon seeing samples of the
-staining work before it is applied, the above precautions of protecting
-the wood as soon as it comes are often thrown to the winds.
-
-And in connection with this matter of stains, a word may not be amiss.
-Most manufacturers make among their many stains certain brilliant-red
-mahogany colors, bright Irish-green colors, and horrible yellows. These
-are made to meet certain gaudy tastes shown by the public, but of their
-use by architects no word could condemn them enough. And on a par with
-these stains is the varnishing with no stain at all of yellow pine
-trim, an architectural atrocity which is committed on every hand in
-small houses. The quiet browns, grays, grayish greens, and the like are
-the only safe ranges of color for staining interior trim, for, after
-all, the casing of doors and windows must blend in with the walls and
-serve as a background for the furniture and not screech at it. And
-directly in line with this statement should be emphasized the rule that
-highly polished surfaces in varnishes for trim are as much out of place
-as brilliant colors. Many architects prefer wax in place of the polish
-of varnish, and with good reason. The manufacturers of varnishes make
-certain grades which dry with a dull finish, and also show samples of
-beautiful dull finishes which can be secured by the laborious method of
-rubbing the final coat of varnish with powdered pumice-stone, water,
-and felt.
-
-But before any varnishing can be done, and for that matter any
-painting, it is essential that the pores of the wood are filled, so
-that the surface to be varnished has no soft and absorbent places, but
-presents a hard and glossy body. Woods like oak, ash, and chestnut
-have such large pores that paste fillers are required to fill them in.
-These paste fillers consist of a solid part like pulverized quartz and
-a liquid part of a quick-drying varnish. It is rubbed over the surface
-of the wood and into the pores and permitted to set, when the excess
-is then wiped off with excelsior and, finally, felt. When the wood is
-stained with an oil stain, this filler may be colored to match.
-
-Architects are often shown samples of the beautiful finishes which
-are possible with the use of this or that manufacturer’s stains and
-varnishes, and supplied with specifications by which they are told they
-can secure these finishes, but much to their sorrow the results are not
-like the samples, and probably never will be. All of these samples are
-made under ideal conditions by the most careful experts. Laboratory
-conditions and regularity and first-class skill can produce finishes
-on a small sample board which could not possibly be reproduced in a
-building except at enormous costs. In the first place, there is always
-more or less dust blowing around in a newly constructed building, and
-not the greatest care is taken in it to provide the exact control of
-humidity and temperature required for drying varnishes. And, as every
-one knows, the men who do the painting are generally far from being the
-most skilful artisans of their trade. It, too, is a big temptation to
-put on one or two heavy coats of varnish instead of three or four thin
-coats, and there is not an expert living who can tell how many coats
-of varnish are on a piece of wood after the work is done. Unless the
-architect has observed each step of the application, he cannot deny,
-when the painter shows him the finished woodwork, that there are not as
-many coats of varnish on it as he required in his specifications. Yet
-time will tell the tale, but then it is too late.
-
-However, the treatment of floors and stair treads is the worry of
-many an architect, although he ought to remember that in factories
-sheet steel is laid on the floors at the doorways, and even this wears
-through. Why should he be disheartened if after a year the stair treads
-and the patches of floors near the door-sills are scratched down to the
-wood through coats of varnish one-thousandth of an inch thick? Even the
-best varnish will break down under this abrasion, but only the best
-should be used. Cheap floor varnishes are not worth the labor of
-laying, and yet how many spend money on them. Some architects, and with
-good reasons, prefer finishing the floors with wax instead of varnish.
-As a base for this wax, a thin coat of varnish is excellent. Various
-manufacturers have different formulas for floor waxes, and they are
-more or less complex, but generally turpentine is the softening and
-drying material. The wax paste is rubbed into the floor and polished
-with weighted brushes—a tedious job. However, it is a job which any
-servant or housewife of ordinary intelligence can perform, so that
-whenever the floors become worn around the doors or the stair treads
-become shabby, the housekeeper is able to repair them easily, and there
-is no doubt that a waxed floor is more beautiful than a varnished one.
-But remember the slipping and sliding rugs on a wax floor and be sure
-to fasten them down.
-
-When examined critically, paint is not much more than a varnish with a
-finely ground opaque powder, called the pigment, suspended in it. This
-pigment takes away the transparent qualities of the varnish and gives
-a definite color to the surface. Enamels actually do use varnishes as
-their vehicle or base, but ordinary paint uses linseed-oil, which acts
-much like a varnish, in that it has the property of becoming hard and
-elastic under the oxidizing effect of the air.
-
-The exteriors of most houses are painted with white-lead or zinc-white
-pigments mixed with linseed-oil. Zinc makes a harder paint than
-white-lead, but it is best to mix the two pigments together in the
-proportion of one-third of zinc to two-thirds of white-lead.
-
-In extensive investigations the U. S. Bureau of Standards suggests
-that much saving of money in paint would be made if white paint were
-abandoned altogether in favor of dark-colored pigments for exterior
-use. Horrible suggestions, but these are the facts in the case! White
-and light-tint paints invariably fail on the south side of a house,
-before the paint on the other side shows signs of deterioration.
-This is because the light of the sun breaks down the strength of the
-linseed-oil, which is the body of the paint film. For this reason dark
-pigments, which are more opaque, cut off the light and protect the oil
-film more than the lighter-colored pigments.
-
-Another common cause of failure in exterior painting is the application
-of it to the wood during unseasonable weather, when the surface of the
-wood is wet. Paint will only properly adhere to a wood surface when it
-is free of any moisture.
-
-Another one of the causes of failure of lead and zinc paints for
-exterior work suggested by some authorities is the use of volatile
-thinners like turpentine and benzine. They say that such thinners
-should not be permitted on the job, for they are a temptation to the
-painter. If raw linseed-oil is used, and it is necessary to shorten the
-time required for drying, some good drier should be added, say 5 per
-cent. This drier should be pale in color and free from rosin. Driers
-are usually made of oil combined with a good proportion of lead and a
-little of manganese.
-
-White pine, Douglas fir, yellow pine, cypress, or any of these woods,
-usually contain some knots, which are sure to damage exterior white
-paint unless properly treated. These knots have a certain amount of
-pitch in them, which will penetrate through any oil paint and leave an
-ugly mark. They should be covered with shellac, which is not affected
-by the pitch. Shellac is a spirit varnish made from shellac resins
-dissolved in alcohol. The yellow shellac is the strongest, but the
-white is used where a light-colored paint is to be applied on top of
-it. The pitch which is so bad in knots is often distributed throughout
-the wood, as in Southern yellow pine, and this will often cause
-the paint to peel off. To prevent this to a certain extent, some
-specifications advise using benzol in the priming coat, in order to
-make the paint penetrate more deeply into the wood and get a better
-grip on the surface.
-
-The priming coat of any painting job should either be pure linseed-oil
-or linseed-oil with very little pigment in it. Its purpose is to fill
-the pores of the wood before the other coats are applied, for if an
-ordinary thick coat of paint were applied to raw wood, the surface
-would draw so much oil out of the film of paint that most of the
-pigment would be left dry and unfastened upon the outside.
-
-Only after the wood has been given the priming coat is it then time to
-putty up the nail holes and other defects, and not before, because the
-dry wood, as in the case of paint, will suck out the oil from the putty
-and leave it without anything to bind it together. The best putty for
-this work is made of linseed-oil with enough white-lead in it to make
-a thick paste. The putty which is commonly used, however, is made of
-whiting or ground chalk mixed with linseed-oil. This is durable if real
-linseed-oil is used, but often some inferior adulterant is substituted.
-
-After the holes are all puttied, the other coats of paint may be
-added. At least two good coats should be applied, and three coats give
-superior results. Plenty of time should be allowed between coats to
-permit thorough drying of the previous one.
-
-
-
-
-XVI LABOR-SAVING DEVICES FOR THE HOME
-
-
-_The Demand_
-
-The need for labor-saving devices to help in housekeeping is more
-evident in the small house than in the larger house, although the
-cost of such machinery often prevents its installation in the former,
-whereas in the latter it is more to be found, since the person who
-builds a large house is apt to have more funds to draw upon. Yet
-labor-saving devices really belong to the small house, for the large
-house is still run by the servant, but the small one is kept by the
-lady of the house. She rightly objects to working in the old-style
-kitchen, which was very large and ugly, and the useless up-keep of
-many rooms that are really not needed is not to her liking, so that in
-practice the small house is in a way a labor-saving device in itself,
-since it reduces the amount of house to be kept, and makes the kitchen
-small and attractive. Then, frankly, labor-saving machinery is more
-becoming to this house, which is in itself designed to save labor, and
-money wisely spent upon such devices is by no means out of proportion
-to the cost of construction, even if in direct comparison it shows a
-larger percentage ratio to the building cost in the small house than in
-the large house.
-
-The fundamental needs which demand mechanical power in place of brawn
-can be classified into the following:
-
-    (_a_) Machines for cleaning.
-    (_b_) Machines for preparation of food.
-    (_c_) Machines for moving objects about the house.
-    (_d_) Machines designed to watch over various household cares.
-    (_e_) Machines to simplify and make pleasant the toilet.
-
-But before such machines could be developed to a point of usefulness,
-some source of power had to be found which could be used by the average
-family. This to-day is electricity. If the house cannot tap in on some
-public generating plant, then it is not at all too costly a proposition
-to install a private generating plant run by a gasolene-engine. The
-rapid spread of public-service wires throughout the country and the
-increasing demand for private generating plants is evidence that,
-where money permits, the people are ready to take advantage of the
-power of electricity to reduce the labor of keeping house. This
-electric energy which is being more widely distributed has called forth
-invention after invention of labor-saving machinery. It would not be
-hard to compile a list of some five hundred or more such machines,
-good, bad, and indifferent. Pick up any magazine and glance through
-the advertisements, and a fairly comprehensive list of housekeeping
-machines can be made, or look through some one of the popular
-scientific magazines and page after page will be found devoted to new
-inventions along this line. For example, in the latter, this is a small
-list made from a page of one of these magazines: A combined electric
-toaster and heater, a special brush on a long wire handle for cleaning
-the drain-pipe of the refrigerator, an electric clothes-wringer which
-has rollers soft enough not to break the buttons, a combined crib and
-wardrobe, the latter being under the mattress, a dust-pan which is held
-in position by the foot, a counterbalanced electric light that can be
-hung over the back of a chair and an electric water-heater to fasten to
-the faucet.
-
-
-_Machines for Cleaning_
-
-Under this classification ought to be included machines which reduce
-the need of cleaning, for they accomplish the same results, but in a
-negative way.
-
-One of the dirtiest and meanest jobs about the house is the sifting
-and shovelling of ashes from the furnace. The light ashes are bound to
-be tracked through the house on the feet, or float in the rising warm
-air to the rooms above, while the sifting process is going on. The
-continued need of removing ashes and putting more coal in the furnace
-to make more ashes often disgusts the housekeeper so much that the
-apartment-house looks very attractive, for here this dirty work is done
-by the janitor.
-
-Now the modern oil-burner, suitable to heat the furnace of a small
-house, represents a real labor-saving device, because it eliminates
-this problem of the ashes, but it requires electric power to make it
-practical, since a mechanical movement is necessary to properly atomize
-the oil for burning. Looking impartially at the latest inventions along
-this line that are now on the market, one cannot help but admit that
-they are highly desirable from the labor-saving point of view, if not
-always from an economical one. The easy control of the fire of one
-of these oil-burners is admirable. In mild weather the flame can be
-turned down quite low, burning perhaps only twelve gallons of oil in
-twenty-four hours, but if the weather suddenly becomes cold the flame
-is easily advanced to meet the conditions. No extra shovelling of coal
-is required in cold weather, and the worry of banking the fire in the
-evening is eliminated.
-
-But one must not forget the various improvements which have been made
-in coal-burning furnaces to eliminate the ash-and-coal-shovelling
-labor as much as possible. There is the self-feeding boiler, which
-has a large magazine of coal which can be filled once a day and which
-automatically supplies the fire with fuel as it burns up. Then, too,
-there is the large ash-pit in which the ashes may accumulate for some
-time before removal is necessary, or the revolving ash-collector sunk
-into the floor below the furnace into which the ashes may be dropped
-and taken out in cans.
-
-[Illustration: THE PORTABLE VACUUM CLEANER]
-
-For cleaning purposes, one must recognize the enormous grip that the
-vacuum cleaner has had on the popular mind, and nearly every housekeeper
-would own one if money permitted it. Perhaps the installation of pipes
-throughout the house for a central cleaning-machine in the cellar is a
-little too expensive for the small home, but certainly electric base
-plugs should be located in the rooms to which the portable type of
-cleaner can be attached. Such outlets should be placed in central
-positions in order to permit the moving of the machine to all parts of
-the various rooms.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration: UP-TO-DATE LAUNDRY]
-
-The laundry should be equipped with electric outlets to which an
-electric washer can be plugged. These machines usually require
-about 300 watts. Electric irons require about 600 watts. If laundry
-labor-saving devices are to be bought as a complete equipment,
-a small fortune can be spent upon them, for there are electric
-wringers, electrically driven mangles for ironing flat work, a special
-ironing-board with electric iron attachment, and electrically heated
-clothes-driers. A plan of a well-equipped laundry is shown in the cut.
-
-[Illustration: DISH WASHER AND TABLE]
-
-[Illustration: KITCHEN DRESSER OF WHITE ENAMELED STEEL]
-
-If we consider the machines used in the kitchen for cleaning purposes,
-a considerable list can be made, but the gas and oil stove and fireless
-cooker should not be forgotten, since they accomplish cleaning
-in a negative way, for they eliminate the dirt and ashes of the
-old-fashioned coal-range. Then, too, the automatic gas water-heater,
-and also the oil water-heater, give the best material for cleaning
-that is known to mankind—hot water. But as electricity becomes more
-available we have the electric stove and the electric water-heater,
-which is superior to the gas and oil heater, as far as labor-saving
-is considered. Then there is the electric dish-washer, which performs
-all the washing, rinsing, and drying operations. The dishes and other
-tableware are securely held in removable racks while being washed, thus
-preventing breakage. When not in operation this dish-washer can be
-used as a white-enamel-topped kitchen-table. One must not forget
-the electric silver-polisher and knife-grinder and other smaller
-instruments for cleaning that can be operated by a small motor.
-
-
-_Machines for the Preparation of Foods_
-
-Machines of this kind include a great variety of small inventions
-intended to safely store the food, prepare it for cooking, and cook it.
-There is the small electric refrigerator, the thermonor which keeps
-foods chilled by evaporation of water, the ordinary ice-box, with its
-special door to put ice in from the outside, the special receiving-box
-in the wall into which the milkman can place his milk-bottles in the
-morning or the butcher his meat. Then for the small house is the very
-important kitchen-cabinet, with its special place for the keeping of
-flour, sugar, dish-pans, and a hundred other things that are needed
-to be handy at the time of preparing the food. Electrically operated
-coffee-grinders, meat-choppers, bread-mixers, egg-beaters, toasters,
-coffee-percolators, chafing-dishes, samovars, frying-pans, teakettles,
-radiant grilles, and other similar devices are but a few suggestions of
-the multitude of inventions actually on the market and found practical
-as labor-saving machines. Why should one sweat at the brow on a hot
-summer day freezing the ice-cream when an electrically driven motor can
-do the same work at the cost of a few cents? Why should one swelter in
-the hot kitchen during the jam and jelly making season when an electric
-fan can give the necessary cooling breeze, and the electric stove apply
-the heat more to what it is cooking than to the surrounding atmosphere?
-Of course the answer is that the cost of such equipment is too high,
-but we are gradually learning how to make these articles cheaper, and
-also learning how much energy they save us. Old traditions are breaking
-down in the kitchen, and the new machines are accepted more readily
-than they used to be. No longer does the younger generation think
-that what was good enough for father or mother is good enough for it.
-Grandmother used to wear her fingers down peeling potatoes and carrots,
-and stain them black, but daughter prefers to use a simple scraping
-device of hard stones set in a waterproof substance, which acts like
-rough sandpaper upon the skins of the vegetables, and then grandmother
-used to chop meat in a bowl, but now it is put in at one end of an
-electric grinder and comes out hash at the other. The older generation
-of cooks were not attracted by labor-saving devices, but the point of
-view to-day is different. That is the reason that the small house is
-attracting more buyers to-day than formerly, for its small up-keep
-and its small and cheerful kitchen are means of escape from too heavy
-household duties.
-
-
-_Machines for Moving Objects about the House_
-
-[Illustration: A TABLE-SERVICE WAGON]
-
-The electric dumb-waiter belongs to this class, but it is not
-installed in small houses very often. However, every one can afford the
-clothes-chute, which guides the dirty clothes down to the laundry. The
-table-service wagon is a very convenient help in serving a meal and
-removing the dishes when there is no maid to wait upon the diners. Then
-there is the china-closet which opens through to the kitchen from the
-dining-room. The dishes are washed in the kitchen and placed in the
-closet, and at the next meal they are taken out from the dining-room
-side without waste of steps. The old ash-can need not be lugged out of
-the cellar if a small telescope hoist is installed, and the coal can
-be put into the cellar through a metal coal-chute, instead of through
-the window. Wet clothes from the laundry can be hung out of the window
-on a revolving drier without going out into the yard, or placed in an
-electric drier in the laundry on rainy days. The transportation of
-small objects about the house can be very much reduced if machinery for
-this purpose is installed in the beginning. Most people think it is
-worth the price, and as soon as they see a way to paying for it they
-are certain purchasers.
-
-
-_Machines That Automatically Keep Watch_
-
-There is no need of getting up at five o’clock in the morning to
-turn the draft on in the furnace so that the house will be warm by
-breakfast. An electric thermostatic control can be made to do this,
-and in fact it can be regulated to keep the house in good temperature
-all the day. It is not necessary to light a fire to have hot water
-if an automatic gas-heater is next to the boiler, which lights the
-gas with a pilot-light when the faucet is turned on or when the
-temperature gets below a predetermined number of degrees. One does
-not need to worry about burning the roast in the oven if an automatic
-clock-timer is on it, which turns off the gas after the meat has cooked
-the correct number of hours. Food in a fireless cooker never worries
-the housekeeper, for it will not burn, and she knows it will be ready
-to serve when taken out. She does not have to stay home to let the
-delivery boy in with the vegetables, for he can put them into a small
-metal box built into the wall, which has a door that permits him to
-put his goods in, but does not permit any one getting an arm into the
-house, and the ice-man can deliver ice without calling her to the door.
-And so it goes; each new invention along this line removes the need of
-thinking of the small things about the house and of being continually
-on hand and a slave to them.
-
-
-_Machines to Simplify the Toilet_
-
-We often forget the elegance of the modern bathtub, but think of the
-labor of our forefathers when the bath night came around. The water
-had to be heated on the stove, the tub gotten out and filled with
-cold water from the pump, and then warmed up with the water in the
-teakettle, and after all was finished the water and tub had to be
-removed. It was quite an event, and there is no wonder that a bath was
-taken only once a week. But what is it to have a bath to-day, with
-plenty of hot water, a thermostatic control of its temperature, a fine
-shower, and a warm bathroom. But such things as a bathroom with its
-modern lavatory, water-closet, and bathtub and tiled floor and wainscot
-are commonplace things, and are always expected to be installed in a
-house. One does not question the advisability of spending money on this
-equipment, and so it will be in the future with much of the machinery
-which we hesitate to buy to-day on account of the additional cost in
-the construction of the house.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If one is willing to spend the money, electrically operated
-shampooing-machines can be installed, curling-irons, vibrators,
-ozonators, hair-driers, shaving-mugs, heat-baths, etc., but these
-seem luxuries to us yet. But will the next generation look upon
-them this way? A very elegant bathroom may also be equipped with
-built-in receptacles in the tile wainscot for holding soap, sponges,
-toilet-paper, tumblers, tooth-brushes, etc. Fine white-enamelled
-medicine-cabinets are not uncommon to see built into the walls. Glass
-rods for towels and glass shelves for miscellaneous objects add much
-to the practical up-keep of the bathroom. Faucets over the bathtubs
-and lavatories are now covered with white enamel and have porcelain
-handles, so that the work of polishing nickel ones is done away with.
-Water-closet bowls are designed with such deep water-seals and with
-such powerful flushing-jets that they do not need the cleaning that the
-older types required. Tubs are built into the walls and down on the
-floors, so that dirt cannot collect under them, as it did under the old
-leg-supported tubs. Thus each year brings forth more improvements that
-are helping to reduce the labor of keeping house.
-
-
-
-
-XVII CONCRETE WORK AROUND THE HOUSE
-
-
-Concrete has become such an excellent servant to the needs of various
-objects built around the house that no apology will be offered for
-devoting a chapter to its use. Of course, one is familiar with the
-artistic flagstone walk with open joints through which the grass is
-allowed to grow, and one cannot deny the beauty of brick pavements; but
-in spite of these the concrete walk is found about more houses wherever
-one goes than any other type, and, although in most cases very ugly,
-yet it cannot be relegated to the past even by the most fastidious,
-for its existence depends upon very fundamental qualities of practical
-serviceability. And likewise, although we may not have seen concrete
-walks that had the charm of rubble-stone or brick, yet they are coming
-to be used more and more, for they can be made to appear very beautiful
-if properly made. Concrete garden furniture, concrete pools, fountains,
-garden ornaments, tennis-courts, and other familiar adjuncts to the
-lawn about the house, are making themselves evident on all sides. There
-is something about the material that lends itself to such uses, for
-even the owner of the house can get out and work in it, and need not
-call in a contractor.
-
-[Illustration: Rough Cast Finish or Splatter
-
-Dash Pebble Dash]
-
-However, much of the prejudice that exists against concrete is due to
-its usual ugly appearance, which is no fault of the material but of the
-one who built with it. We see too much concrete that is dull, pasty,
-and gray, and marred on the surface with cobweb lines of cracks; but
-this need not be. Concrete surfaces can be made as brilliant as any
-other material by properly treating it. All that is needed to do this
-is to carefully study the methods of producing textures, and texture is
-nothing more than breaking up the surface into small patches of light
-and dark, so intermingled that they give interest. For example, after
-the forms have been removed, the outside of the concrete can be covered
-with cement mortar, thrown onto it with a whisk-broom, which will make
-the mortar stick to the surface in little lumps and hills. The light
-playing over such a surface will cast shadows in the hollows between
-the lumps and light up the tops of the lumps. This will give a texture
-of interest that is pleasing to the eye. On the other hand, the cement
-mortar may be plastered over the surface of the concrete and used as
-a sticking bed to hold small pebbles of different colors and shades
-thrown against it. These pebbles will be colorful, some dark and dull
-and some light or sparkling like glass. Thus a play of broken light
-will be thrown back from the surface to the eye, and the observer will
-be pleased. Then, too, the outer layer of the cement, which was next
-to the forms, may be composed of white cement and some aggregate like
-small chips of marble. When the forms are removed it will be found that
-this beautiful aggregate will not show, but the entire surface will
-partake of the monotonous white or gray of the cement. However, if this
-thin coating of cement is removed, then the variety and sparkle of the
-aggregate below will be revealed. This might be done by striking the
-surface all over with a stone-cutting tool which is used to surface
-stones, or it might be done by a scrubbing or rubbing with carborundum
-blocks. There are innumerable ways by which texture can be developed
-on anything made of concrete, and experimenting in this line is a
-most fascinating employment. For this reason, if properly handled,
-concrete is particularly adapted to the making of all kinds of house
-accessories, since it is also easily shaped in moulds.
-
-[Illustration: Finish made by the Pointer
-
-Finish made by the Bush Hammer]
-
-The materials used for this concrete work have much to do with its
-success. Ordinarily there is no need of inspecting the cement, for
-most of the well-known brands of cement on the market are about as
-reliable as human effort can make them. The materials which do need
-consideration, however, are sand and gravel. The one essential of sand
-is that it be free from loam, mica, clay, and organic matter. No sand
-should contain more than 3 per cent by weight of loam or clay or 1 per
-cent of mica. The quantity of loam or other fine impurities can be
-determined by shaking the sand up with water in a bottle, and allowing
-it to settle. The fine impurities will settle on the top and its
-proportional relation to the sand estimated. To determine whether the
-sand has much organic matter in it, a 12-ounce prescription bottle can
-be filled with sand to 4½ inches and then added to this should be added
-a 3-per-cent solution of caustic soda until this solution and the sand
-fill seven ounces. The contents should be shaken well and allowed to
-stand for twenty-four hours. If the liquid which settles on top shows
-a dark color, then the sand has too much organic matter in it, but if
-it is clear or slightly yellow it may be used without washing. The
-size of sand particles should be such that they will pass through a
-quarter-inch screen.
-
-The usual size of aggregates should range from one-quarter inch to an
-inch and a half in diameter, and the various sizes should be so graded
-that they will make the most compact mass. The common run of bank
-gravel must be screened and washed. To make really good concrete that
-is water-tight, the grading of the aggregate is most important.
-
-In fact, to determine the various quantities that should be used of
-the materials on hand, some method must be adopted to give the quantity
-of cement necessary to fill the voids in the sand and the quantity of
-cement and sand necessary to fill the voids in the aggregate. A rather
-crude way of doing this is to employ water as the measure of the voids.
-Fill a pail with sand, and then pour water into it until the water,
-which is absorbed by the sand, comes to the same level as the sand.
-Note the quantity of water used up. If it represented 45 per cent of
-the volume of the sand, then it is known roughly that about 50 per cent
-of the volume of the sand ought to be the quantity of cement needed to
-fill in the voids of the sand. Thus, one part of cement to two parts
-of sand. If now the gravel is measured in the same way and it is found
-that the voids show about 40 per cent of the volume of the aggregate,
-then, assuming a little more than the water shows, about 50 per cent
-of sand and cement will be required to fill up these voids. That is,
-there should be just twice as much stone as there is cement and sand.
-We finally, then, arrive at the proportion for the concrete as follows:
-1 part of cement to 2 parts of sand to 4 parts of gravel.
-
-The amount of water which is added to make the mixture of concrete
-should not be too much. It should be of such a quantity that the mix is
-mushy but not watery, even when it is to be poured into forms.
-
-
-_Sidewalks and Porch Floors_
-
-[Illustration: Concrete Sidewalk]
-
-It is generally recognized that one-course concrete sidewalks are the
-most successful when built by the average workman, for the slab is
-of one uniform body and not two layers, which might not have knitted
-together properly. For porch floors and walks these slabs should be
-5 inches thick and laid on a good foundation. It is best to excavate
-4 inches for the depth of the walk, tamp the ground, and pour water
-over it, to note whether it is absorbed or stays on top. If it is not
-readily drained off, it ought not to be used as the foundation of the
-walk, but should be excavated to a depth of 10 inches to 12 inches.
-In this excavation should then be tamped gravel or cinders, and some
-provision should be made by which any water that would seep through
-this gravel may be drained off. The timbers used for the forms along
-the edges of the walk may be 2 by 6’s, held in position with pegs.
-Slabs should then be determined for length. Usually they should not be
-in excess of 6 feet in any one direction and ¼-inch expansion joints
-should be placed in the walks every 25 feet. If alternate slabs are
-laid, the forms can be removed, so that the intermediate slabs can
-be poured between them. Of course, a partial bond will be developed
-between slabs in this way, but these joints will be the weakest point
-in the walk, and if settlement takes place unequally and one slab
-breaks from the other, the crack will develop at this joint and not
-appear on the face. The expansion joints should, however, be real
-separations, made with strips of asphaltic felt set between slabs. The
-usual mixture for concrete walks should be 1 part cement to 2 parts
-sand to 3 parts of gravel. The mixture should not have too much water
-in it, and when poured into the forms the top should be levelled off
-with a straight stick stretched across from one side of the form to
-the other. Too much trowelling should be avoided, since this is apt to
-draw excess water to the surface and also cement, which will show hair
-cracks when hardened. It is best not to use a metal trowel but a wooden
-one, so that a partial sandy surface is made. After the walk has been
-laid it should be protected from drying out too quickly by laying over
-it 4 inches of earth or two or three layers of burlap, which should
-be wet down about twice a day for a week. All walks and porch floors
-should have graded tops, so that water will run off of them. This is
-usually ¼ inch to the foot.
-
-Sometimes porch floors give trouble from “dusting” and wearing away of
-the surface to a gritty and rough condition. This may have been caused
-by allowing the floor to dry too quickly or by having trowelled it
-too much and drawn cement to the surface. It may be remedied by using
-some one of the commercial floor hardeners or by painting the floor
-with water-glass solution or boiled linseed-oil. Water-glass solution
-should be diluted with 4 to 6 parts of water and applied with a brush
-in as many coats as the concrete will absorb. When boiled linseed-oil
-is used, it should be allowed to dry between coats, and as many coats
-should be added as the concrete will absorb. Both of these treatments
-will darken the floor, but the latter will darken it the most, and
-appears to be more effective.
-
-
-_Tennis-Court_
-
-In laying out any other platform construction of concrete, such as a
-tennis-court, the same principles of construction should be observed
-which were given above for sidewalks. However, more care should be
-taken with the drainage and foundation of the tennis-court. Not only
-should the 6-inch cinder or gravel bed be laid, but all around the
-outer edge of the court should be dug a trench about 18 inches wide and
-3 feet deep. There should be laid at the bottom of this a drain-pipe,
-with open joints, sloping from the centre of one end of the court
-around both sides and joining together again at the middle of the other
-end and connected with another pipe to carry off the water of that
-drain-pipe to some lower level. The diameter of the drain-pipe should
-be about 5 inches and the slope 6 inches from its highest level to its
-lowest level. The upper surface of the court itself should slope across
-from one long side to the other with a pitch of 2 inches. The division
-lines of the slabs should follow as closely as possible the division
-lines of the tennis-court. The length of the concrete platform should
-be 21 feet greater at each end than the length of the court and the
-width 12 feet wider each side. This makes the entire concrete court 60
-feet by 120 feet.
-
-[Illustration: Concrete Tennis-Court]
-
-
-_Concrete Driveway_
-
-[Illustration: Concrete Runways to Garage]
-
-Such driveways may lead to the garage or up to the porch of the house.
-One of the cheapest types to the garage is a double runway for the
-wheels of the automobile. These runways should be about 4 feet 8 inches
-on centres and made 18 inches wide. They should be constructed in the
-same way that walks are built.
-
-Where a full-width concrete driveway is built, it should be made about
-6 inches thick at the centre and 5 inches at the edges, sloping from
-the centre out. At intervals of every 25 feet expansion joints should
-be built as was specified for walks.
-
-
-_Concrete Steps_
-
-The only difficult problem in the construction of concrete steps is the
-making of forms. These should be well braced to prevent bulging when
-the concrete is tamped into them. The aggregate ought not to be over ¾
-inch diameter, so that as the material is tamped into the forms and the
-sides spaded, a good surface will be left when the forms are removed.
-If the aggregate is too large, some pieces may catch along the forms,
-and when they are removed large holes will be found in the risers of
-the steps. The treads should be finished with a wood trowel.
-
-[Illustration: Concrete Garden Retaining Wall]
-
-
-_Small Retaining Walls_
-
-Wherever terraces or lawns need the support of a small retaining wall,
-concrete is excellent for this purpose. The foundations of such walls
-should be carried down below the frost-line. The usual mixture is
-1 : 2 : 4. Drains should be built at intervals along the lower part of
-the wall, to allow the seeping ground water to come out. At intervals
-of about every 25 feet expansion joints should be made, somewhat
-the shape of the tongue and groove in flooring. The base of such a
-retaining wall should be at least as wide as ⁴/₁₀ the height of wall.
-
-
-_Pools and Fountain-Basins_
-
-[Illustration: Concrete Pool]
-
-Such ornaments to the garden are not entirely outside of the
-possibilities of the small house owner’s pocketbook. They should have
-the exterior walls carried down below frost-level, and the bottom and
-sides reinforced with steel. For the bottom woven-wire reinforcement
-will answer the purpose and for the sides ⅜-inch reinforcing rods
-should be used. These pools ought not to be more than about 2 feet
-deep, in which case the bottoms may be made 6 inches thick and the
-sides 12 inches at the top and 14 inches at the bottom.
-
-
-_Ornamental Garden Furniture of Concrete_
-
-[Illustration: Simple Types of Concrete Garden Seats]
-
-There is no great difficulty or secret in making simple garden
-furniture of concrete. Generally where the furniture is of simple
-lines, the mould can be made of wood. If, say, a bench is to be made,
-the top might be moulded as a slab of concrete, and the legs at the
-ends as slabs, and all fitted together. If flower-boxes are desired,
-the mould would necessarily have to be a little more complicated,
-but not greatly so. The one thing to remember in making any of these
-moulded bits of concrete is that they should always have embedded
-inside of them reinforcing wire lath.
-
-[Illustration: Concrete Vase for Garden]
-
-Of course the making of ornamental pots and vases is rather difficult
-and takes some skill. Here the original shape must be modelled in
-clay, and a plaster mould made of it, which is shellacked inside and
-greased. Special cores must also be designed, and where fine surfaces
-are desired various processes of mixing ingredients must be resorted
-to. This is a special field of itself, and men who do this kind of work
-generally have studied out methods of their own. Some examples of this
-kind of work are illustrated.
-
-
-
-
-XVIII CLASSIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARCHITECTURAL MOTIFS USED
-IN SMALL-HOUSE DESIGNING
-
-
-There are not many architectural motifs that can be used in designing
-the small house, and the ones which are employed over and over again
-are fundamentally a part of the construction. The plan must build up
-into block forms, because of the requirements of construction, and
-the designer has only a handful of shapes that make good roofs, for
-the same reason. The varieties of dormer-windows that he can put on
-the roof are limited to a few that are capable of being reasonably
-constructed. He cannot be original in the forms he selects, for they
-have all been thought out before. He should know them as he does the
-alphabet and build with them as he builds words with letters.
-
-For example, take the plan of the small house. Can there be much
-room for originality here? Usually there are at the most four rooms
-which must be arranged on the ground floor of the small house: the
-living-room, dining-room, kitchen, and pantry. On the second floor are
-generally placed the bedrooms. Does it not seem reasonable to assume
-that all of the best combinations of so few rooms must be quite limited
-in number, and that the chances are that they have already been thought
-out? Many a young designer has labored enthusiastically upon what he
-believes is his original layout for a small house, only to find later
-that his solution has been already worked out and perhaps a trifle
-better. When an inventor tackles any particular problem, his first
-step, if he is wise, is to consult the patents which have previously
-been issued along this line, and then he will know what has been done.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Square Plan
-    Rectangular Plan
-    “L”-Plan]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Rectangular Plan with Small Extension
-    T-Plan]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Combination of “T”-plan with L-plan
-    U-Plan]
-
-Try as hard as he will, no designer can get away from the fact that
-the cheapest arrangement of rooms in his small-house plan makes a
-square unit and builds a square block house, but that such a plan is
-one of the most difficult forms to make pleasing to the eye. For this
-reason the room arrangement, which gives a rectangular-shaped house,
-is more often adopted. But we often tire of too much repetition of the
-rectangular house, and designers try to vary it a little. There is not
-much leeway here, however. By adding a wing at right angles to the main
-rectangle of the house, we can have an L-shaped plan which is easier to
-give architectural variety to, but very uneconomical, for the number of
-linear feet of exterior wall for a house of this shape is just as great
-as that for a house which is a rectangle in plan, as long as the L and
-as wide. This also holds true of the U-shaped plan and the T-shaped
-plan and the combination of the T and the L shaped plans. In fact, as
-soon as the designer tries to get away from the simplest rectangular
-shapes in the small house, the economic reins pull him back, and he
-must go slow in selecting too picturesque plans. Limited, therefore,
-in his possible scope, the real work of the designer should be one of
-perfecting the acceptable solutions which have been already worked out.
-Only once in a generation are absolutely new arrangements stumbled on.
-
-[Illustration: GAMBREL GABLE]
-
-[Illustration: WALL GABLE HIP ROOF FLAT ROOF]
-
-On top of these various-shaped blocks, which these plans will form, a
-roof must be erected. Here again one would think that the architectural
-motifs would be quite varied, and yet when the matter is studied it is
-not the case. There are only five fundamental shapes of roofs which
-can be placed upon these blocks, and two of these types are really the
-same, and another ought not to be employed, so that, after all, there
-are actually only three fundamental roof motifs to use. These are the
-gable roof, the gambrel roof, and the hip roof. The wall-gable roof is
-merely a type of end treatment for the gable roof, and the flat roof
-is not suited to the average small house in the country or suburbs,
-because of traditions.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    A
-    B
-
-These two houses are ugly as sin, yet are considered very practical.
-All rooms on 2nd floor are square and cellars are high and dry.]
-
-[Illustration: C
-
-This house is considered impractical, because rooms on 2ⁿᵈ floor are
-not square and are lighted with dormers, and the cellar is low and
-partly omitted. But architecturally something can be said of it.]
-
-In the small house the designer has the choice of either placing these
-roofs above the second floor or placing the second floor within the
-roof. Where the former is selected he sets for himself a very difficult
-architectural problem—that of trying to make the proportions of a
-house limited in ground area fit under a roof placed too high. This
-has rarely been solved with any satisfaction, for in nearly all cases
-the house looks too high and stilted. The comparative drawings show
-how true this is. Notice how house _A_ and _B_ look stilted, while
-house _C_ has a charm which no manner of designing would ever add to
-the former. Is it not a fact to be reckoned with that the small house
-is best solved architecturally if the second floor is placed within
-the roof? Economy of material is certainly secured in this way, and
-the construction is greatly simplified. The chief difficulties are to
-properly ventilate these rooms under the roof, and to give them good
-lighting without making too many and too large dormers. This is a hard
-problem, but it has been solved successfully. The Dutch gambrel roof
-was developed for this purpose, and there has been no doubt as to its
-beauty, except when wrongly used by placing it above the second story
-or poking the second floor through it in one long, single dormer.
-
-[Illustration: VARIATIONS OF DESIGN DEVELOPED FROM THE FEW FUNDAMENTAL
-STRUCTURAL MOTIFS]
-
-It is quite evident from the above how important the roof designing
-is in the small house. It goes without saying that the simplest
-arrangement of roofs is the cheapest to build and the easiest to
-maintain. Every valley means a leak at some later date, for as
-careful as may be the builder, the history of roof valleys shows that
-they leak sooner or later. The designer cannot freely mix his roofs
-either. Gambrel roofs, hip roofs, and gabled roofs do not go together
-harmoniously, without considerable study, and as a general rule they
-should not be required to do so. The usual methods of construction of
-these types of roofs are indicated well enough in the drawings and need
-no explanation. The ridge-poles in all cases are not of any structural
-importance, but act as alignments for rafters. For this reason they are
-made only an inch thick. Hip rafters have much the same function in hip
-roofs. Whenever valley rafters are needed, these must be designed like
-floor girders. If dormers are built into the roof, it is customary
-to double the rafters around the openings. Where gable dormers are
-constructed, one of the valley rafters must be extended to the
-ridge-pole, or else the rafters will collapse.
-
-[Illustration: GAMBREL ROOF CONSTRUCTION]
-
-[Illustration: CONSTRUCTION OF GABLE ROOF]
-
-[Illustration: HIP ROOF CONSTRUCTION]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration: CONSTRUCTION OF A DORMER]
-
-Even when it comes to the design of dormer-windows, the limits
-of originality are quite restricted. The drawings show all of the
-possible types that have been used with any success. Variations in
-the proportions and the details of these motifs is about all that the
-designer can hope for, and yet this is one of the hardest problems to
-solve. The correct designing of dormer-windows is a very rare thing to
-be seen. How many houses of modern Colonial style have ugly dormers!
-They are usually made too large and too wide and fat. The dormer-windows
-used in the old Colonial houses were narrow and high, and in those
-proportions were their charming appeals. To-day a double-hung window
-with weight-boxes is used in these dormers, and the whole width made
-too wide because of these additions to the sides. This is a warning
-that the designer should be careful in adapting old motifs to modern
-requirements. This particular problem has been correctly solved with
-the use of the weight-box, but how many times it has not been solved
-is evident on all sides. Another unfortunate use of the dormer-window
-motif is the extension of the second floor up through the lower slope
-of the gambrel roof. This cuts away any legitimate lower section of the
-gambrel roof, and in order to preserve it, the designer projects it
-outward from the ends of the house, and has it skirt by the side of the
-second floor like an added toboggan-slide with no earthly reason for
-its existence. Then, too, the prairie-schooner dormer, the semicircle
-one, and the eyebrow dormer are certainly types to be used with great
-care, for they can become eyesores without effort, and they cost a
-good deal to construct. Where the dormer is to be made inconspicuous
-the flat-roof type has been successfully employed, but the roofing
-material on it should be tin or copper. In some of the trap-door types
-of dormers where the pitch is very slight, the roofing material ought
-to be of sheet metal. The sides of dormers are made less conspicuous by
-covering them with the same material as used on the roof, but this is
-not always desirable. However, all vertical joints of dormers with the
-roof should be carefully flashed to prevent leaks.
-
-[Illustration: FLAT TREATMENT OF GABLE END]
-
-The treatment of the gable ends of dormers is practically the same as
-that required for the treatment of the gable ends of the main roof.
-Here again, although on the face of it there seem to be innumerable
-ways of treating the gable ends of roofs, yet there are comparatively
-few methods. The drawings show about all the possible ways, and any
-types which appear to differ from these can be shown to be merely
-variations. The simplest method of treatment is to place a small
-moulding under the ends of the shingles. A variation of this can be
-made by adding a wide board below the moulding or a course of shingles
-running parallel with the edge. The classic cornice can be used, but
-great taste is needed in handling this motif, for any pitch which is
-not of the traditional classic pediment form is apt to look badly. The
-verge-board motif comes from half-timber traditions, and is generally
-used in a very careless fashion. In general, it usually looks best when
-some visible means of support is made a part of the design.
-
-[Illustration: FLAT TREATMENT OF GABLE END]
-
-[Illustration: ADAPTATION OF CLASSIC PEDIMENT]
-
-[Illustration: VERGE-BOARD TREATMENT OF GABLE END]
-
-The shingle imitation of the thatched-roof gable is one of those
-amusing architectural fads which do not have very deep roots, and
-sooner or later are forgotten.
-
-The wall-gable treatment is very dignified, but is usually associated
-with larger houses, but when simplified it has a charm which none of
-the other motifs can offer.
-
-[Illustration: SHINGLE IMITATING GABLE END OF THATCHED-ROOF WALL GABLE]
-
-Other than these few, there are no common motifs to use in adorning
-the gable end of a roof. This and the previous statements only go to
-prove that the originality of design in the small house is limited
-within a narrow scope, and that the real beauty is not obtained in
-trying to find different forms, but in trying to use the traditional
-structural forms in the best proportions and giving careful attention
-to the details. In fact, it has been said that house designing is
-largely an assembling, into pleasing general proportions, of carefully
-designed traditional details.
-
-
-
-
-XIX TRADITIONS OF BUILDING FROM WHICH OUR MODERN METHODS ARE DERIVED
-
-
-_Importance of Tradition_
-
-The art of building has grown by evolution, like other things in this
-world. The carpenter who builds in wood to-day builds according to
-certain customs which come down to him from centuries of carpenters.
-Modern methods of constructing the small house have all human history
-for their background. When we speak of modern methods, we merely refer
-to those which are used at this time, as they have evolved from past
-experience and been considered satisfactory. To hear some architects
-and builders talk, one would think that modern America had the monopoly
-on good construction, and that our system of building was newly
-invented. How often have we heard remarks like the following from the
-self-styled practical man: “The genius of the present age is eminently
-practical and constructive. Improvements of every kind and ingenious
-contrivances for easily effecting results, which in past ages were only
-accomplished by slow, laborious effort, ... etc.”
-
-But they were saying this kind of thing in 1858, for the above is
-quoted from a book of this date, so that even the practical man is
-traditional in his remarks about building.
-
-There are also too many young men to-day wasting their time
-discovering what they think are new ways of building, but which have
-been known for centuries and discarded as unsatisfactory. If they would
-only study what had already been done, they would save themselves a lot
-of trouble.
-
-
-_Styles of Design Change, but Construction the Same_
-
-The styles in designing houses may change from year to year, or more
-likely from generation to generation, but the methods of building and
-the traditions in back of them continue on, with only slight changes
-which mark the evolution of the art. In as brief a period as we have
-had in this country to produce domestic architecture, we can notice
-very distinct styles of design, but running through them all are
-similar ways of building. Our earliest Colonial houses were built
-according to traditions brought over from England. These traditions in
-turn had deep roots in Europe, back to primitive days, when houses were
-not much more than temporary, movable shacks.
-
-There is, however, one general trend through which building methods
-seem to pass. First, we have rather heavy, clumsy ways of building;
-this is followed by a long period of experimental cutting down of the
-materials of construction and standardization of parts; following this
-comes the stage of extreme lightness of construction, when the builders
-go as near the limit of safety as possible, and then accidents occur
-which tend to discredit the system.
-
-The early English houses were built of heavy oak-trees. Later
-half-timber houses used smaller structural members and more standard
-sizes. These traditions were brought to this country, but it was soon
-found that heavy oak was not necessary for their stability, but that
-some of the native soft woods would answer the purpose. The
-thinning-down process continued, until we developed the frame dwelling
-of balloon construction which is practically built of 2 by 4 pieces
-throughout.
-
-We are now having a building code formulated by the United States
-Department of Commerce, which is intended to establish the minimum
-requirements for small-house construction, so that greatest economy
-of material can be secured, but also a precedent set for the minimum
-cutting down of material in building. In the compilation of this
-code this tendency to reduce the quantity of material used was very
-evident in the discussions which centred around the problem of whether
-the brick walls for small houses should be 12 or 8 inches thick. In
-Colonial days they thought nothing of building them 2 feet thick.
-To-day we hesitate at building them as thick as 12 inches. In fact, our
-building codes show no uniformity of opinion on the matter, and our
-experts disagree. The preliminary form of the above-mentioned code has
-settled upon an 8-inch thickness for walls not exceeding 30 feet, and
-made additional allowance for an extra 5 feet in height on the gable
-end of the building.
-
-The process of thinning down is still going on, as this indicates.
-
-The illustrations representing briefly the historical progress of
-styles in domestic architecture in the United States are given to show
-how these styles have varied, and impress the reader with the rather
-constant undercurrent of construction methods throughout these changes.
-
-In the early Colonial houses the wooden frames were built of heavy
-oak timbers which were hewn into shape and dressed down with the adze.
-Sometimes rafters and joists were sawn, and the further along we
-progress in time the more we find the saw being used.
-
-[Illustration: AMERICAN DOMESTIC]
-
-[Illustration: AMERICAN DOMESTIC]
-
-[Illustration: AMERICAN DOMESTIC]
-
-If we now jump to the period between 1865 and 1889, we find that the
-awful atrocities of architecture were being built in the East with
-similar heavy frames, although slightly less massive. Where tradition
-was less strong in the West, the balloon frame had grown up, but during
-the same period houses of equally bad design were built with one or
-the other systems, showing that the system of construction had very
-little to do with the style of architecture. Even consider the variety
-of styles used in modern domestic work, and then one can realize that
-all of these different types of buildings are built much in the same
-way. Good design has apparently little relation to good construction,
-although good design is improved when it expresses the construction. We
-often see very beautiful houses set up for moving-picture plays, but
-these are built of flimsy stage scenery. We have also seen very ugly
-houses which make us curse the builder for having built them so well.
-
-
-_Fundamental Building Traditions Inherited from England_
-
-It is from England that we have inherited most of our building
-traditions of domestic work. The earliest methods of constructing a
-home were much the same for all European countries. Woven brushwood
-of the crudest sort was undoubtedly the first beginnings of domestic
-construction. The next step in advance was, according to a German
-theory, invented by a woman. It consisted of erecting leaning poles
-and stakes and filling the space between with inwoven wattlework. The
-shapes were conical, like the Indian tents, but later the gable roof
-shape was adopted because of the greater interior space allowed.
-
-In building the gable-shaped houses the early builders used very heavy
-and massive construction for the ridge-pole and its support, for
-they believed that this upheld the rafters. This tradition was kept
-alive until quite recent times, but now we know that when rafters are
-supported at their base, the ridge-pole practically takes none of the
-weight and need only be used for ease of erection.
-
-[Illustration: PRIMITIVE TYPE OLD ENGLISH CRUCK CONSTRUCTION]
-
-But to our ancestors the important problem in first erecting the house
-was to secure the substantial support of the ridge-pole. Obviously
-the erection of two forked trees at either end of the ridge-pole made
-an excellent solution, but when the room was long this meant that the
-interior had to be cluttered up with interior posts. We find then that
-one of the primitive methods in England of eliminating the interior
-posts was the adoption of the cruck system of construction which is
-shown in Fig. 2. By selecting two bent trees and placing them together
-in a shape like a wish-bone, the ridge-pole could be well supported
-without interior columns. By placing cross-tie beams on these bent
-trees and extending them outward, the plates for supporting the lower
-ends of the rafters could be held in position. This permitted the
-carpenters to erect the exterior walls independently of the roof, a
-thing which they seem to have desired.
-
-There is another variation of the above method of supporting the
-ridge-pole, and that is shown in Fig. 3. Instead of selecting a bent
-tree, one was secured which was upright for a certain height, and then
-which bent to one side with a branch. By placing two of these trees
-together, a perfect end was formed for the house. However, this was not
-a very good type, since it meant the selecting of very unusual-shaped
-trees.
-
-[Illustration: ENGLISH POST & TRUSS CONSTRUCTION]
-
-For this reason the system of post-and-truss construction, which is
-shown in Fig. 4, was the natural outcome of the above. Diagonal bracing
-at the corners evidently was found to be useful in resisting high
-wind-storms, and it was usually employed.
-
-There apparently remained a distrust of masonry walls among the
-carpenters, for they continued to support the roofs entirely upon heavy
-timber framing, and records show that the exterior walls were built up
-after the roof-framing had been completed. There are evidences that the
-early types of walls, after the primitive woven brushwood walls proved
-insecure, were made like a barricade of trees; that is, they were
-merely a continuous line of vertically placed tree-trunks. This, of
-course, was a ruinously expensive type of wall when timber became
-scarce, and it is no wonder that it grew to a system of construction
-like that shown in Fig. 5. Even this required a good deal of wood, so
-that the filling of the space between the timbers rather logically
-became masonry or plaster on lath. However, the method of building
-shown in Fig. 5 has all of the elements of the system of construction
-used in framing modern exterior walls. The most important difference is
-in the size of the timbers used.
-
-[Illustration:TYPE OF ANCIENT WOODEN WALL ENGLISH HALF TIMBER
-CONSTRUCTION]
-
-The half-timber construction of the Middle Ages was only the artistic
-treatment of this crude system of building. In drawing number 6 is a
-very simple half-timber house which shows practically no attempt at
-all to decorate. The construction is perfectly evident, and there are
-no curves and carving used to ornament the building, as can be seen on
-some of the more elaborate houses of the cities. This simple building
-system was the traditional background of the English carpenter, and it
-is not at all extraordinary that he brought his methods of building
-over to this country.
-
-[Illustration: TYPE OF FRAMING FOR COLONIAL OF FIRST PERIOD
-
-BRACED FRAME AS DEVELOPED FROM NEW ENGLAND COLONIAL]
-
-Even the custom of calling in the neighbors and feasting them when a
-house-raising was celebrated came directly from English traditions. The
-old post-and-truss construction of the early English houses required
-framing on the ground and then lifting into position afterward. Records
-show that the people from the surrounding countryside were called in to
-help, and their wages of hire were paid by the house owner with a huge
-feast. In early Colonial days the nearest neighbors were likewise
-called in to help raise the frame, and the host was supposed to feed
-the gathering, after the work was finished, and make a jolly party of
-eating and drinking—a sort of social debt, but not looked upon as
-wages, as in older days.
-
-The hard climate which the earliest American colonists had to face and
-also the abundant supply of wood which lay at their very doors were
-factors which slightly altered the traditions of building. After the
-house had been framed and the spaces between the timbers filled with
-plaster or masonry, the exterior was covered over with clapboards
-or shingles as an extra covering against the weather. The use of
-clapboards or shingles as an exterior covering of course was not new,
-for many English farmhouses show that it was used in that country. But
-with this difference in exterior appearance, the framing underneath was
-the same as shown in Fig. 7.
-
-
-_Revolt against New England Traditions_
-
-It was only a matter of time when the thinning-down process began to
-make itself evident in the traditions of Colonial carpentry, and from
-its clumsy beginnings it evolved into the more or less standard form of
-construction which we call the brace-frame.
-
-The difficulty of securing good labor in the West, and also the
-increasing use of the power sawmill, made it possible and necessary to
-standardize a quick and easy method of building which would meet the
-great demand for houses in rapidly growing communities.
-
-Quoting from the New York _Tribune_ of January 18, 1855, we have a
-very interesting account of the conditions which were then prevalent
-that brought about this later variation of the wooden frame structure.
-The conditions there described seem almost like our modern difficulties
-with labor and materials.
-
-“Mr. Robinson said: ... I would saw all my timbers for a frame house,
-or ordinary frame outbuilding, of the following dimensions: 2 × 8
-inches; 2 × 4; 2 × 1. I have, however, built them, when I lived on
-the Grand Prairie of Indiana, many miles from sawmills, nearly all of
-split and hewed stuff, making use of rails or round poles, reduced to
-straight lines and even thickness on two sides, for studs and rafters.
-But sawed stuff is much the easiest, though in a timber country the
-other is far the cheapest. First, level your foundation, and lay down
-two of the 2 × 8 pieces, flatwise, for side-walls. Upon these set the
-floor-sleepers, on edge, 32 inches apart. Fasten one at each end, and
-perhaps one or two in the middle, if the building is large, with a
-wooden pin. These end-sleepers are the end-sills. Now lay the floor,
-unless you design to have one that would be likely to be injured by
-the weather before you get on the roof. It is a great saving, though,
-of labor to begin at the bottom of a house and build up. In laying the
-floor first, you have no studs to cut and fit around, and can let your
-boards run out over the ends, just as it happens, and afterward saw
-them off smooth by the sill. Now set up a corner-post, which is nothing
-but one of the 2 × 4 studs, fastening the bottom by four nails; make it
-plumb, and stay it each way. Set another at the other corner, and then
-mark off your door and window places and set up the side-studs and put
-in the frames. Fill up with studs between, 16 inches apart, supporting
-the top by a line or strip of board from corner to corner, or stayed
-studs between. Now cover that side with rough sheeting boards, unless
-you intend to side-up with clapboards on the studs, which I never would
-do, except for a small, common building. Make no calculation about the
-top of your studs; wait till you get up that high. You may use them of
-any length, with broken or stub-shot ends, no matter. When you have got
-this side boarded as high as you can reach, proceed to set up another.
-In the meantime other workmen can be lathing the first side. When you
-have got the sides all up, fix upon the height of your upper floor, and
-strike a line upon the studs for the under side of the joist. Cut out a
-joist 4 inches wide, half inch deep, and nail on firmly one of the inch
-strips. Upon these strips rest the chamber floor-joist. Cut out a joist
-1 inch deep, in the lower edge, and lock it on the strip, and nail each
-joist to each stud. Now lay this floor, and go on to build the upper
-story, as you did the lower one; splicing on and lengthening out studs
-wherever needed, until you get high enough for the plate. Splice studs
-or joists by simply butting the ends together, and nailing strips on
-each side. Strike a line and saw off the top of the studs even upon
-each side—not the ends—and nail on one of the inch strips. That is
-the plate. Cut the ends of the upper joist the bevel of the pitch of
-the roof, and nail them fast to the plate, placing the end ones inside
-the studs, which you will let run up promiscuously, to be cut off by
-the rafter. Now lay the garret floor by all means before you put on
-the roof, and you will find that you have saved 50 per cent of hard
-labor. The rafters, if supported so as not to be over 10 feet long,
-will be strong enough of the 2 × 4 stuff. Bevel the ends and nail fast
-to the joist. Then there is no strain upon the sides by the weight of
-the roof, which may be covered with shingles or other materials—the
-cheapest being composition or cement roofs. To make one of this kind,
-take soft, spongy, thick paper, and tack it upon the boards in courses
-like shingles. Commence at the top with hot tar and saturate the paper,
-upon which sift evenly fine gravel, pressing it in while hot—that is,
-while tar and gravel are both hot. One coat will make a tight roof; two
-coats will make it more durable. Put up your partitions of stuff 1 × 4,
-unless where you want to support the upper joist—then use stuff 2 × 4,
-with strips nailed on top, for the joist to rest upon, fastening all
-together by nails, wherever timbers touch. Thus you will have a frame
-without a tenon or mortise, or brace, and yet it is far cheaper, and
-incalculably stronger when finished, than though it were composed of
-timbers 10 inches square, with a thousand auger holes and a hundred
-days’ work with the chisel and adze, making holes and pins to fill them.
-
-“To lay out and frame a building so that all its parts will come
-together requires the skill of a master mechanic, and a host of men and
-a deal of hard work to lift the great sticks of timber into position.
-To erect a balloon building requires about as much mechanical skill as
-it does to build a board fence. Any farmer who is handy with the saw,
-iron square, and hammer, with one of his boys or a common laborer to
-assist him, can go to work and put up a frame for an outbuilding, and
-finish it off with his own labor, just as well as to hire a carpenter
-to score and hew great oak sticks and fill them full of mortises, all
-by the science of the ‘square rule.’ It is a waste of labor that we
-should all lend our aid to put a stop to. Besides, it will enable many
-a farmer to improve his place with new buildings, who, though he has
-long needed them, has shuddered at the thought of cutting down half of
-the best trees in his wood-lot, and then giving half a year’s work to
-hauling it home and paying for what I do know is the wholly useless
-labor of framing. If it had not been for the knowledge of balloon
-frames, Chicago and San Francisco could never have arisen, as they did,
-from little villages to great cities in a single year. It is not alone
-city buildings, which are supported by one another, that may be thus
-erected, but those upon the open prairie, where the wind has a sweep
-from Mackinaw to the Mississippi, for there they are built, and stand
-as firm as any of the old frames of New England, with posts and beams
-16 inches square.”
-
-The above address, which was delivered before the American Institute
-Farmers’ Club, has been quoted in detail because of the interesting
-point of view of the days of 1855 which it reveals. When Mr. Robinson
-had finished there were other comments, especially one by Mr. Youmans,
-in which he described early conditions of building in San Francisco.
-He also said that he had adopted this plan of building on his farm in
-Saratoga County, where he found great difficulty in getting carpenters
-that would do as he wished. They could not give up tenons and mortises,
-and braces and big timbers, for the light ribs, 2 by 4 inches, of a
-balloon frame. Does this not remind the modern reader of comments he
-has heard upon all sides these days concerning labor which will not do
-what is wanted but insists on doing things in the old way?
-
-Some pertinent remarks were also made by a Mr. Stillman, who testified
-that he had seen whole blocks of houses built in two weeks at San
-Francisco, and better frames he never saw. He said they were put up a
-story at a time, the first two floors often being framed and sided in
-and lived in before the upper part of the house was up. Have we any
-such housing crisis as this, in these days, or did we do any quicker
-building of war villages than that described above?
-
-And now we read from the Preliminary Report on the Building Code
-Committee of the United States Department of Commerce the crystallized
-tradition of this system of wooden frame construction which was evolved
-so many years ago that we sometimes forget the conditions of its making:
-
-      “_Exterior Walls._—1. Wood studding shall be 2 × 4
-         inches nominal size or larger, and spaced not to
-         exceed 16 inches on centres. All walls shall be
-         securely braced at corners. The minimum sizes
-         specified in these requirements shall in all cases
-         be understood as referring to nominal sizes of
-         such timbers.
-
-      2. Exterior walls, except those of dwellings or parts
-         thereof not more than one story high, shall be
-         sheathed with boards not less than ⅞ inch thick.
-         Sheathing-boards shall be laid tight and properly
-         nailed to each stud with not less than 2 tenpenny
-         nails. Where the sheathing is omitted all corners
-         shall be diagonally braced and such other measures
-         taken to secure rigidity as may be necessary.
-
-      3. Wood sheathing may be omitted when other types of
-         construction are used that are proven of adequate
-         strength and stability by tests conducted by
-         recognized authorities.
-
-      4. When joists are supported on ledger or ribbon
-         boards, such boards shall not be less than 1 × 4
-         inches, shall be laid into the studs and securely
-         nailed with not less than 2 nails to each stud.
-         The floor-joists shall be well spiked to the sides
-         of the studs.”
-
-
-
-
-XX TRADITIONS OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF DOORS AND WINDOWS
-
-
-_Windows_
-
-[Illustration: Primitive window]
-
-What are the elements of design in the elevations of the small house?
-Surely they are not the five classical orders, as commonly used in
-monumental architecture, but rather they are the doors and windows. The
-successful placing and careful detailing of the doors and windows of a
-small house will have more to do with the architectural attractiveness
-of the structure than anything else, for, after all, the most important
-part of any elevation is the treatment of the holes in it. The walls
-would be plain and uninteresting but for the holes where the doors and
-windows are placed. The fenestration cannot be too large or too small,
-and here is the problem. We desire plenty of light and air, but we
-must also recognize that windows which are too large leave little wall
-space in the rooms, are cold in winter, and appear less homelike than
-smaller and snugger appearing ones. Then, too, windows which are of
-plain, clear glass in very large sheets make these holes appear open
-and black, and this is quite contrary to our traditions of the windows
-of a home, which should be safe and cosey. The omission of muntins from
-the windows of small houses is a great mistake in design, even though
-these small panes require a little more work to wash.
-
-[Illustration: Lattice Window]
-
-Our traditions of door and window construction come, as do other
-structural traditions, from England. Undoubtedly the earliest
-structures had no windows at all, but were lighted by the openings
-through the defective construction of the walls and also through the
-door. Our ancestors of those days were more interested in protecting
-themselves from outside intruders than they were in fresh air and
-sunshine in their rooms. When it was safe to build windows they were
-only holes in the walls. Some of the old huts, built on crucks, a
-construction previously described, had holes in the roofs for windows,
-which served the double purpose of letting in light and letting out
-the smoke of the fire. We get an inkling of what a window was from the
-very derivation of the word itself, which comes from the old Norse
-word “wind-auga” or wind-eye. This does not sound like a glazed sash,
-nor does the other Anglo-Saxon term for window, “wind-dur,” meaning
-wind-door, suggest a closed aperture. Of course these windows were
-undoubtedly closed in some way or other in stormy weather or when
-danger was outside. Probably a wooden board or shutter was used, which
-had a small peep-hole cut in it. These were hung from the top, and when
-opened were held in position with a prop on the outside.
-
-There is no certainty of when the smaller domestic houses of England
-began to use glazed windows. In 1519 William Horman wrote: “I wyll haue
-a latesse before the glasse for brekynge.” This would suggest that
-windows of latticework were preferred because of the cost of glass, and
-this might have been filled instead with canvas, horn, or tile to let
-in some light. But another writer in 1562 says: “Lattice keepeth out
-the light and letteth in the winde.” When glass windows were used,
-however, the small bits of glass were held in position by lead
-in diamond-shaped patterns, which probably were adopted from the
-form of the old lattice windows, although later it was found that
-rectangular panes were cheaper. But the use of glass in small houses
-is comparatively modern, for, before the reign of Henry VIII, glass
-windows were rare except in churches and gentlemen’s houses.
-
-[Illustration: An old unglazed window, the early beginnings of sash]
-
-Traditions of stone mullioned windows were very strong, and these
-brought about a system of building wooden, unglazed sash which had
-mullions made of oak, set in a heavy oak frame. One of these is shown
-in the drawings. The word “sash” is derived from the French “chassis,”
-and its earliest spelling was “shas” or “shash.” In a book, “Mechanick
-Exercises,” written by Moxon in 1700, he mentions “shas frames and shas
-lights.” It was these old, unglazed wooden sash which gave birth to the
-modern double-hung and casement window.
-
-[Illustration: Crude beginning of the sliding Sash]
-
-As first made, they opened by sliding in their frames, either
-horizontally or vertically. If they were built to slide vertically they
-were not counterbalanced with weights, as in our modern windows, but
-were held in position with a hook which caught in notches cut in the
-side of the frame. It is interesting to quote here what William Horman
-wrote in 1519: “I haue many prety wyndowes shette with louys goynge up
-and downe.”
-
-It is supposed that the idea of counterbalancing these sash by means
-of weights, attached by a cord running up over a pulley, came to England
-from Holland. This type began to be used about the latter half of the
-seventeenth century, and although the early examples were clumsy and
-heavy and the groove in which the sash were made to run was worked out
-in the solid, yet by the process of years of refinement the modern
-double-hung window was evolved. The traditions of these sliding windows
-were brought to America in Colonial days, and they proved to be the
-most suitable types for our rigorous climate, whereas the windows,
-which swung like doors from their sides, called casement windows, did
-not prove so weather-resisting.
-
-[Illustration: Modern Double-hung Window
-
-Casement Window Sash swings inward]
-
-To hear some individuals talk, one would almost think that the
-double-hung window was a modern, American invention of artistic
-atrociousness, and that the casement window was peculiarly English,
-having the sole right to artistic merit. As a matter of fact, the
-fashion in England for casement windows was an imported one from the
-Continent, which never reached certain farm sections of England. In
-fact, some years ago certain agricultural laborers refused to live
-in cottages fitted with casement windows which had been built by a
-district council. The Georgian revival, which had so much influence
-upon our early Colonial work, and which is also very much alive to-day
-in this country, brought into fashion again the traditional double-hung
-window.
-
-Of course there is much to be said against the artistic appearance of
-the double-hung window as compared with the casement window, but when
-all is said and done we still go on using more double-hung windows
-than casement windows, for in the majority of cases they prove to
-be more substantial in resisting the heavy winds and storms of our
-climate. Every now and again we hear some prominent architect urging
-the use of casement windows, and we can find plenty of manufacturers
-of casement window hardware telling us to use them, and the makers
-of steel casement sash drum in our ears the practical qualities of
-steel sash, and one is led to wonder why they are not used more. But
-traditions are stronger than advertisements.
-
-
-_Doors_
-
-There is an ancient English expression, “put t’ duur i’ t’ hoile” (put
-the door in the hole), which comes down from the times when the door
-was not fastened by hinges and did not swing into place, but had to be
-lifted up and placed over the door opening. When the door was opened
-it leaned against two stakes driven into the ground, or some similar
-support. These old doors were very small, as compared with our modern
-doors, and were probably made of light wattle, for we read in some old
-rhymes of throwing doors and windows on the attacking enemy. Even when
-solid-wood doors were used they were made of one piece of wood. Doors
-made of a number of planks of wood fastened together by battens or
-ledges were a later type. It was noticed that these sagged when hung
-in position and cross bracing was found necessary. These old batten
-or ledged doors were swung on pivots of wood which rested in sockets
-bored into the lintel and the sill. These pivots were called harrs, and
-later were made of iron. The evolution of the hinge idea from the harr
-is shown in a series of drawings. For many years these great hinges
-became a very decorative part of the door, and great care was taken
-with their designing. Our modern butt is quite the opposite in its
-characteristics, for instead of being a feature upon the face of the
-door it is completely hidden, except the socket and pin.
-
-[Illustration: Primitive Door
-
-Old door of solid wood plank
-
-Batten or Ledged Door]
-
-[Illustration: An old English Ledged Door]
-
-In building the old ledged doors, the planks were set vertically and
-held together with battens through which were driven wooden pegs. The
-ends of these pegs were chamfered, and a curious mark of tradition can
-be noted in the later doors, which were fastened with iron pins that
-were also chamfered on the ends, like the wooden pins. Later
-construction of doors shows the use of weather-stripping over the
-vertical joints and also the use of various layers of planks, with
-their grains running at right angles in each alternate layer. The end
-timber upon which the harr was placed was thicker than the planking,
-and later the timber upon the opposite side was made heavier in order
-to strengthen the crude locks. With this change and the moving of the
-battens to the upper and lower edges of the door, and the introduction
-of weather-stripping over the cracks between planks, there was created
-the prototype for the modern panelled door. It was only a slight step
-from this to frame the styles, top and bottom rails, and lock rails
-around the panels between them.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Wooden Harr
-    Iron Harr
-    Iron Harr
-    Iron Hinge & Hoolie
-
-Development of the Door Hinge]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Modern Loose-joint Butt
-    Loose-pin Butt (9)]
-
-
-Another type of door that was of traditional construction, and from
-the name of which we derive our word hatch, was the so-called
-“heck-door.” This door corresponds to the common “dutch-door,” which is
-familiar to us in Dutch Colonial houses. It was capable of being opened
-in two halves; the upper half could be swung in without the lower half.
-This type of door was invented from the necessity of protection against
-the sudden intrusion of strangers and also small animals, like pigs and
-hens.
-
-[Illustration: Simple Batten Door]
-
-[Illustration: Development of the panel door from the batten door.]
-
-The oldest method of fastening doors was to draw a long bar across
-them on the inside, very much like the bars which were used in Colonial
-houses in this country. A hole was cut into the jamb into which this
-bar could be run when locked, and in the opposite jamb was another hole
-into which it could be slid out of the way. The disadvantage of
-this type of door fastening was that it could only be fastened and
-unfastened from the inside. This led to other devices, such as a bolt
-that could be operated from the outside and a latch that could be
-lifted by a string, or a hole was cut in the door through which a small
-bit of metal could be passed that could be used as a lift for the latch.
-
-To-day we think of locks and bolts and latches as distinct, but this
-was not so at the time they were being evolved. Our word lock was used
-in the sense of securing the door in any manner. But gradually, as,
-step by step, the various mechanisms for locking a door were developed,
-the word became limited in its meaning, although we sometimes use it
-to-day in the sense of closing the door.
-
-
-
-
-XXI BUILDING THE SETTING FOR THE HOUSE
-
-
-_Theoretical Features of Ground Arrangement_
-
-There are five fundamentals which should be considered in finishing the
-grounds about the small house, for it must not be forgotten that the
-finest gem of domestic design will be lost unless it is placed in the
-right setting. These five principles are the production of an intimate
-relation between house and grounds, the formation of a natural frame
-about the house, the building of interesting approaches, the planting
-for seasonal effects, and the growing of interesting and beautiful
-vistas as viewed from the house.
-
-
-1.—INTIMATE RELATION BETWEEN HOUSE AND GROUNDS
-
-In considering this part of the problem, the designer must begin at
-the very outset to solve it. If the plot is level or capable of easy
-conversion into terraces, then the character of the house itself may
-be somewhat formal, symmetrical, and dignified; but it would be wrong
-to build a house of this kind upon a rolling and rollicking site. This
-latter kind of ground demands the picturesque type of house, and the
-roof lines should be planned to carry up some of the curves of the
-hillocks.
-
-[Illustration: STUDIED PLANTING]
-
-In all cases, however, it is generally recognized that the small house
-can best be tied into the surroundings by making it low, say a story
-and a half or one story, for one of two stories or even two and a half
-offers an ungainly elevation for an architectural composition. In rare
-instances have houses of this proportion been artistically finished.
-At any rate, the house should be kept as low as possible in the front,
-and the ugly, stilted foundations should not protrude above the level
-of the lawn. Nothing is so effective in producing a feeling of intimacy
-between house and grounds as to keep the level of the first floor only
-about six inches above the grade. This, of course, makes it difficult
-to light and ventilate the cellar, since any windows in the
-foundation-walls would have to open into areas. A compromise can be
-made by grading the lawn down at the back of the house, so that enough
-of the foundation can extend above the ground to permit of well-lighted
-cellar windows.
-
-[Illustration: THOUGHTLESS PLANTING]
-
-Another method by which an intimate connection between ground and
-house can be produced is in the blending of wall materials and
-foundation-stones. If the walls of the house are of stucco, and the
-lower part of them built of rubble-stone, then a gradual transition
-can be made from the stone to the stucco by carrying the stucco down
-over certain parts of the stone work, so that it flows into the
-mortar joints—like the waters of a lake flow into the little
-indentations of a rocky shore. This will eliminate any sharp horizontal
-line where the foundation-wall of stone ends and upper wall of stucco
-begins. As the stone has a natural intimacy with the soil, it easily
-makes the transition with the ground, and its effectiveness is very
-marked where the site is hilly and parts of the foundation are built
-upon little rocky juttings. This same easy transition can be made from
-stone foundation to brick wall. It is not possible to do it with the
-wooden wall, however.
-
-But perhaps the most widely used method of producing an intimate
-connection between ground and walls of the house is with foundation
-planting. There is much abuse of this method. To surround the base of
-the house with billowy clumps of shrubbery, so that it appears almost
-as if it were springing from a bed of clouds, is not at all satisfying.
-Nor should the owner have to be everlastingly kept at the job of
-trimming down these plants or removing dead ones which refuse to grow
-in the poor soil and bad drainage next to the cellar. And the house
-should not be made to mourn behind a bed of evergreens, protected at
-intervals with sentinel-like cedars, dark and foreboding, against the
-wall and sighing and whining in the wind. Rather should a delicate use
-be made of foundation planting by using vines, and now and then a small
-shrub or little evergreen. The object should be to make a shading and
-transition from the green lawn to the walls of the house by carrying
-upward upon the walls or against them some of the climbing plants,
-that the green of the ground may fade gradually into the white of the
-stucco or the red of the brick wall. Public buildings need massive
-and impressive foundations, but the small house should be nestled in
-Nature’s lap.
-
-
-2.—NATURAL FRAMING FOR HOUSE
-
-When viewed by the passer-by in the street the planting around the
-house should be so arranged that it makes a natural frame for it and
-creates a composition for a picture. Regarded from this angle there
-should be background trees, trees and shrubbery flanking the sides
-along the edge of the plot, a green open lawn stretching forward to
-the street, some columnar-shaped trees or lacelike trees wisely placed
-to suggest the middle ground, and then a wall or low hedge with low
-plantings to make a foreground.
-
-The background trees should be tall and mixed in character, so that
-their skyline is not stiff and wall-like. The trees which run along
-the edge of the lot ought also to be varied in type. Low shrubs should
-fill in the spaces between their trunks, but as they come forward on
-the property they should be more scattered, lower and thinner, so that
-the neighboring property can be seen, and finally they should end,
-allowing a blended connection between the lawns on either side. There
-are some who advocate that the site should be completely walled in with
-shrubs or fences and separated entirely from the neighboring plots, but
-this is not quite in harmony with our traditions, and ought not to be
-carried to this individual exclusiveness, although the rear of the lot
-may be so screened in.
-
-The green lawn should not be broken with flower-beds, for, taken at its
-largest, it is bound to be little, and nothing should be introduced to
-break it up. The windings of the front path may be such that clumps
-of low shrubbery and a few columnar trees, like cedars or Lombardy
-poplars, can be placed along its edge and produce a motif for the
-middle ground, like a moving silhouette against the elevation of the
-house as one passes by.
-
-The building up of the foreground should be with some low planting
-over which one can look. The use of fence or wall is legitimate if it
-does not cut off the view. Gates are a little out of harmony with our
-American traditions, for they mean that they should be attended by a
-gatekeeper, a human tool that is quite extinct in the average home, and
-especially in the small one.
-
-
-3.—INTERESTING APPROACHES
-
-Generally speaking, due to the smallness of the average plot upon which
-the little house is erected, the building of a prominent pathway to
-the front door directly in a straight line from the street, cutting
-the lawn and the property in two equal halves, is not pleasing. The
-lawn will be small enough as it is without chopping it into two pieces.
-If a straight approach is desirable, it should be made of materials
-that will not visibly produce this effect of division. Stone slabs
-of greenish color or neutral tones set with open joints, or even
-stepping stones, solve the problem. But the straight approach has not
-the mystery and picturesque quality of one which curves around the
-outside of the lawn, and is framed in with planting, so that the view
-of the house is constantly changing as one proceeds.
-
-The roadway to the garage might also be the way to the house. Nothing
-looks uglier than the straight cut from street to garage. Planning the
-location of this service building so that it cannot be seen from the
-street is an excellent step in the right direction.
-
-The material of which these paths and roads should be constructed ought
-to be in harmony with the house. Brick paths look well with brick
-houses, stone paths and gravel paths look well with stone houses,
-concrete paths and roads go well with concrete and stucco houses, for
-one naturally associates these materials as being left over from the
-building. It is the most natural thing in the world to use up a few
-of the bricks for the paths after one gets through building the brick
-house, or laying some of the stones to walk upon, after finishing the
-house of stone, or using up a few odd barrels of cement for the walks
-when the job on the concrete house is over. And being so natural a
-thing, there is a likable gesture in doing it.
-
-
-4.—PLANTING FOR THE SEASONS
-
-The composition of the picture which is the aim in all of this work
-about the house, should not be spoiled by careless selection of plants
-for the various seasons of the year. It is very unwise to place in the
-front of the house tender shrubs and flowers which wither and die in
-the winter months or which have to be wrapped in swaddling-clothes. Is
-there anything more forlorn than to see a lot of burlap-wrapped or
-hay-packed mummy trees or shrubs, standing out on the cold wintry lawn
-in front of the house? A few evergreen trees and a few broad-leaf trees
-which show delicate limbs when bare, and a few shrubs that hold the
-snows that settle upon them are the things to plant in the front of the
-house. Leave the tender plants to the garden in the rear.
-
-[Illustration: TYPE OF SMALL GARDEN  TYPE OF SMALL GARDEN]
-
-And this garden at the back of the house should be treated in a most
-private way. It should be surrounded with a wall or high hedge. There
-should be walks, border plantings, a little touch of water, and a
-seat in the smallest garden. It should be located so that it can be
-viewed from the house and enjoyed. Here all of the fine, delicate, and
-colorful flowers and plants can be placed. In the winter months the
-protected plants with their ugly clothes will not seem so out of place
-in this secreted patch of ground.
-
-
-5.—IMPROVING THE VIEW FROM THE HOUSE
-
-Next in importance to planning the setting of the house and its
-appearance from the street should be the planning of the views from
-windows of the house itself. The development of the private garden at
-the back is one help which was previously alluded to, but there are
-generally ugly things which can be seen from the windows of the house
-that need screening out. These ugly objects may be on the neighboring
-property, or they may be the drying-yard for the clothes, or the
-garage. Whatever they are, a screen of trees can be used to shut them
-from the view.
-
-But the most important part of this problem is to make the best of any
-view that may be possible from the house. A far-away river, a hill, or
-a meadow might be brought to sight by trimming some trees or brush.
-Distant landscapes are most satisfying to the eyes, for they rest them.
-
-
-_Construction of the Lawn_
-
-From what has been said, the importance of the lawn in front of
-the house can be appreciated. It is the rug spread out before the
-jewel-box. Over it one can view the beauty of the home, and so it needs
-the best attention. The very first thing to consider in building the
-lawn is to arrange for good drainage and a deep top layer of good soil,
-say 18" to 24". Pockets where water may collect and settle must be
-drained with tiles placed in the ground. The surface water should be
-carefully distributed away from the house.
-
-An ordinary site will have stones and weeds scattered over it. In the
-beginning these stones should be carted away and the weeds cut down
-with a scythe, and a plough run over the surface to a foot in depth,
-unless the subsoil is not sandy and holds water, in which case a deeper
-ploughing is better. Then stones and weeds should be taken out of this
-earth, not once, but as many times as the earth delivers up stones and
-weeds. When this is done, the grading may be started, and this should
-be with long, easy grades. Where trees and shrubs edge the lawn, a
-slight hollow in the grade will improve it.
-
-This graded soil is not ready for grass until it has been covered
-with 25 to 50 loads per acre of thoroughly decayed, composted stable
-manure, or, if not this, bone-dust, wood-ashes, superphosphates of
-lime, nitrate of ammonia, etc. This dressing should be raked into the
-top-soil with the harrow and hand rake, and whatever weeds and stones
-come up with this operation should be removed.
-
-Grass seed should then be selected which will give the most rugged
-growth for the particular conditions of the site. Often this can best
-be accomplished by using a mixture of seed. The different kinds of
-grass have qualities suited to certain types of soil. For example,
-Kentucky blue-grass, while coarse and not so attractive as some
-others, grows vigorously and holds its own in sandy soil. Rhode Island
-bent-grass makes good sod in moist climates, and redtop is apt to die
-off in a drought.
-
-This seed must be sown liberally to make allowances for loss in
-germination, and evenly to prevent patchy growth. About six bushels
-per acre is considered enough. All of this must be raked under with a
-fine-toothed iron rake and pressed down with a heavy roller. As soon as
-the blades are tall enough to be caught in the mower, this new grass
-should be cut, for this helps to make it grow thicker and keep down the
-weeds. But work on the lawn does not end here. Constant care is the
-price of a good one.
-
-
-_Construction of Roads and Paths_
-
-Attention has already been called to the use of materials for paths and
-roads which harmonize with the materials of the house. In a previous
-chapter, details were given on the construction of concrete paths and
-roads. Therefore other types will be considered here, such as brick,
-gravel, and stone.
-
-The driveway to the garage ought to be about 10 feet wide and flare
-out to a 15-foot width at the house, where the car is driven up to the
-entrance, so that an incoming car can pass by any which is standing in
-front of the door. This roadway should widen out into a Y shape in
-front of the garage, as shown in the drawings, to permit of backing out
-and turning around. A round turning area in front of the garage may
-be substituted for this Y-shaped arrangement. Any curves made in the
-driveway should have a radius from centre of the curve to outside edge
-of the road of 30 feet 6 inches, although a Ford car can run on a road
-having a radius of only 14 feet.
-
-If the driveway is to be of gravel and the subsoil is wet or clayey,
-drainage must be arranged for along the edges. Trenches 3 feet to 4
-feet deep should be dug on either side and 3-inch diameter agricultural
-tile laid at the bottom with open joints covered with collars, then a
-layer of sod, and then 6 inches of field stone or gravel, and finally
-top-soil. Wherever there are pockets that would collect surface water,
-outlets should be constructed and covered with iron grating. All the
-subsoil tile should connect with one main tile and drain off at some
-low point.
-
-For ordinary light traffic the road itself may be built with a
-foundation of stones to a depth of 2 feet. This should be covered with
-a layer of coarse gravel 2½ inches thick, a top layer of finer gravel
-4 inches thick, and rolled with a heavy roller after water or some
-bituminous binder has been sprinkled over it. A crown of ½ inch to the
-foot should be made, and any grades ought to be kept about 5 feet in
-100 feet, and at the most 10 feet in 100 feet.
-
-In the construction of gravel walks the grade should be kept to within
-12 feet in 100 feet and be crowned ¼ inch per foot.
-
-The success of the brick walk depends upon the foundation used. A poor
-one will permit the bricks to settle unevenly, crack, and break away at
-the edges. The bricks themselves may be laid in any number of different
-and interesting patterns, such as the basket weave or the herring-bone.
-A row of bricks on edge along the outside of the walk makes an
-excellent finish.
-
-[Illustration: TYPES OF STONE PATHS]
-
-[Illustration: TYPES OF BRICK WALKS]
-
-The foundations of the brick walk may be built of sand, cinders, or
-concrete. The first two give a walk somewhat irregular, and grass can
-be made to grow in the joints. To begin the laying of a brick walk,
-the earth should be excavated to a depth of 4 inches, and either a
-bed of sand 2 inches thick, or a concrete of one part cement to eight
-parts sand 3 inches thick should be spread. When the bricks have been
-arranged on this bed, sand should be worked into the joints between
-them by leaving a layer on the walk for a few days and brushing it into
-the crevices.
-
-Where concrete is used for the base, a more rigid walk will result,
-and in such types it is customary to use mortar to fill the joints. A
-thin 1:3 grout can be brushed into these joints and the little that is
-smeared over the surface can be washed off with scrubbing-brush, water,
-and 5-per-cent muriatic acid. A better method is to pour grout into the
-joints, wiping the brick clean before the mortar sets.
-
-There are a number of different types of stone walks that can be used,
-depending upon the character of the stone in the neighborhood. Flat
-flagstone walks are usually rather uninteresting, and many prefer the
-picturesque effect which is produced by stepping stones. These ought
-to be placed about 22 inches apart to make walking easy on them. A
-very interesting and much-used walk is made by setting flat stones of
-different shapes together, like the pieces of a cut-out puzzle, but
-leaving a small space between each stone in which grass or moss can be
-grown.
-
-
-
-
-XXII FINANCING THE CONSTRUCTION WORK
-
-
-The problem of financing the small house is a part of the problem of
-building, and to some extent is a very personal affair, and every
-prospective owner has his own difficulties and personal solutions.
-Those who have saved for a number of years enough money to invest in
-this adventure of home-building are quite simply fixed, and all that
-they need consider is how large a house they can have for the money
-saved.
-
-A method was shown in an early chapter by which the approximate cost
-of a house could be determined when the plans were in the rough. This
-consisted of studying the houses built in the neighborhood where the
-new home was to be erected, calculating their cubical contents and
-dividing this into their total cost, so that their cost per cubic
-foot could be known. By comparing this result with the figures which
-the local builders had offered, a fair idea could be obtained of how
-much per cubic foot the new house would run. A few figures were given
-for the different types of construction, but nothing certain can be
-predicted from them, for, as was pointed out, the cost is definitely
-related to the locality and the time.
-
-Once, however, having arrived at a reasonably correct cost figure for
-the cubic foot, the question of how big a house is to be had for the
-money is quickly determined. Divide this cost per cubic foot into the
-total sum of money which is to be used for building the house, and the
-allowable number of cubic feet in the new house will be found. If now
-the average height of the new house, from the cellar to the average
-height of the roof, is divided into this allowable cubic contents, the
-allowable ground area for the plan will be known.
-
-For example, suppose the sum that can be invested in the house itself
-is $10,000, and it is found that the houses in the locality, of similar
-construction, cost per cubic foot about 35 cents. Dividing 35 cents
-into $10,000, it is found that a house having approximately 28,570
-cubic feet can be constructed. If 8 feet is allowed from cellar floor
-to level of first floor, 9 feet from first to second floor, and 13
-feet from second floor to the average height of the roof, then a total
-average height for the house will be found to be 30 feet. Dividing this
-30 feet into 28,570 cubic feet, it will be found that a floor area of
-approximately 950 square feet can be had. Now, as the floor area of
-the plan of any two-story house is determined by the area required for
-the second floor and not the first, the desired sizes of the various
-bedrooms should be approximated, and the results added together to see
-whether they come within the allowable floor area. Continuing this
-example, suppose that the master bedroom is to be approximately 14 feet
-by 15 feet, the other three bedrooms approximately 12 feet by 12 feet,
-the toilet about 7 feet by 10 feet, the hall about 8 feet by 12 feet,
-then by adding the area of these rooms together it will be quickly
-found out whether the allowable area has been exceeded.
-
-    Master bedroom, 14 feet by 15 feet            210 square feet
-    Three other bedrooms, 12 feet by 12 feet      432   “      “
-    Toilet, 7 feet by 10 feet                      70   “      “
-    Hall, 8 feet by 12 feet                        96   “      “
-                                                  ———————————————
-          Total                                   808 square feet
-
-This number of square feet is within the amount allowed, which is 950,
-but additional area must be added to this for closets, say 3 feet by
-4 feet for the closet of the master bedroom, and 3 feet by 3 feet for
-the closets of the other rooms, and other closets for linen and space
-for chimneys and the like, making about 60 square feet, which should be
-left for this part of the plan. This makes the area about 868 square
-feet, and no allowance has been made for porches or passageways. It
-is quite evident from this that the number of bedrooms desired, their
-approximate size, and the size of the toilet and closets is nearly
-up to the maximum which the limitations of cost will permit. Working
-with these approximate figures, the plans of the house can be roughly
-prepared, the area required for the second-floor rooms being used as
-a basis for the allowable area of the first floor, since it is more
-than enough, for the second-floor area of a house, as has been said, is
-always greater than the minimum area for the first floor.
-
-When roughly prepared plans and elevations have been arranged on this
-basis, the cubage can again be checked, and if it is over the allowed
-amount, the size should be cut down; if under, increased. The cubical
-contents of porches may be computed at one-quarter of the cubage of the
-main portion of the house, but if enclosed with glass they should be
-estimated at their full cubic contents.
-
-Having thus roughly arrived at the plans and elevations of the house
-which is within the allowed cubage, a rough outline specification
-should be prepared in which the essential materials, workmanship, and
-mechanical equipment are defined. Enough information will then be had
-from which a rough estimate can be secured from a local contractor, or
-even the architect may make an estimate, based upon previous examples
-of other houses. If this rough estimate comes within the allowable
-figure which is to be spent for construction, then the contract
-drawings can be safely started, and a reasonable assurance can be had
-that the cost of the house will not go beyond the amount of money
-available. As most contractors will give an outside price on any
-preliminary estimates of this kind, unless radical changes are made in
-the plans, it can almost surely be the case that the final estimate on
-the contract documents will be less. However, there are often times
-when the final figures exceed these preliminary estimates, and one
-should always be prepared to shrink parts of the building or withdraw
-some of the finest requirements of the specifications.
-
-But one of the prime essentials in financing any building operation
-is to be sure that the contract drawings contain everything which is
-desired in the finished building, and that none or very few changes
-are made in the building after the contract is let and the building
-is in process of construction. Alterations from the original plans,
-after construction work has begun, come under the bugbear title for
-all architects, “Extras.” They always mean waste of money. Likewise,
-things which were omitted from the plans and specifications, which
-are later found to be necessary, run up extraordinary bills, and the
-general impression which most people have that a building operation
-always costs more in the end than was originally counted upon is due
-largely to the neglect of these factors. Competent architects make such
-complete plans and specifications that extras of the “omission type”
-are avoided, but most small houses are built from plans that are not
-complete, or prepared by architects who sell their services at such low
-rates that they cannot afford to take the time to check up the plans
-carefully. It is right here that the architect has a real business
-point to give the client, namely, that if he does not pay for carefully
-prepared plans and specifications in the beginning, he will pay out
-much more in the end for extras.
-
-Up to this point the financing of the small house, for the one who
-has the money, is not complicated, but this is the unusual condition,
-because the average person who builds the small house has not the ready
-cash to put into it, for that is the reason he builds a small house.
-The average individual who builds the small house generally has a
-certain amount which can be invested and the rest must be borrowed, and
-there are many who advise that even if one did have the whole amount to
-invest, it would be better to borrow some for the building operation,
-and keep out as much as possible for investments in other lines where
-the money might bring in greater returns.
-
-The problem naturally turns upon where and how much can be borrowed for
-the building operation. Here again a very personal matter is involved.
-Some will have very close friends from whom they can secure a large
-first and second mortgage at a fairly reasonable rate, others may be
-able to secure a first mortgage from some financing institution which
-will be an amount equal to one-half the total cost of land and house,
-and then they may be able to secure a second mortgage from some friend,
-for most business houses are not prone to take second mortgages. Often
-a greater sum can be raised on the contract system, for by this method
-the person lending the money is more certainly assured of securing
-quick control of it in case of the necessity of action when payments on
-the interest fail. By the contract method, the individual lending the
-money holds the deed of the property, and can secure control of the
-property more quickly than if he had a mortgage and the owner held the
-deed. In many cases where foreclosure of mortgages are found necessary,
-there may be a delay of a year or more before the money-lender can
-secure control of the property, but if he holds the deed the delay
-is shortened, and because of this fact he is apt to lend more money
-than 50 per cent of the total value. Of course, in the contract method
-the owner secures the deed to the property when his last payment is
-made upon the principle and he has wiped out all of his interest
-indebtedness.
-
-But probably one of the most satisfactory systems yet devised for
-financing the small house is through the various building and loan
-associations which have grown to great strength in this country.
-These associations not only offer investment opportunities for small
-investors, but they make excellent and easy terms for those to whom
-they lend money for home-building. The arrangements with these
-institutions make the payments on mortgages almost like the payments in
-monthly rents, and yet at the same time the principle is continually
-being reduced, so that in about twelve years it is completely paid
-off. Then, too, one is assured of not being in the hands of some
-unscrupulous money-lender, as sometimes one discovers a friend to be,
-however trustworthy he may have seemed before this business relation
-developed.
-
-These building-loan associations will lend as high as 80 per cent
-on the value of house and grounds, provided the character of the
-individual in the community warrants it. Their average-size loans have
-been computed to be about $4,000. If the minimum payment is adhered to,
-the loan is usually paid up in twelve years, although arrangements can
-be made by which this can be shortened. The interest charged is from 6
-per cent to 8 per cent.
-
-If the money is not secured through the above source, then it is
-customary to pay a commission to the agent who secures a loan from
-some financing institution or private investor. This commission
-differs, according to the locality, ranging from 1 to 4 per cent on
-first mortgages, and from 5 per cent upward on second mortgages. If a
-contract is desired on a second mortgage, the agent will be obliged to
-secure it from some private individual, for first-mortgage companies
-will not purchase them. This often leads to discounts of from 15 to 30
-per cent on second mortgages and contracts.
-
-It is well for every prospective owner, before he considers financing
-the construction of a small house, to sit down and figure out all of
-the incidental expenditures which are connected with it, for often some
-of the minor items are not taken into account, and they may spoil the
-whole scheme. Taking a typical example, the items of expense are as
-follows:
-
-    1. Cost of the lot.
-    2. Fee for title search.
-    3. Tax search and recording fee.
-    4. Possibly cost of surveying lot, but not always.
-    5. Broker’s fee for securing mortgage.
-    6. Interest on each advance of the loan during erection.
-    7. Cost of the building less the amount borrowed.
-    8. Architect’s fee.
-    9. Owner’s liability insurance.
-   10. Fee for filing plans in Building Department.
-
-
-_Cost to be Met during Year of Ownership_
-
-    1. Interest on building loan.
-    2. Payment on reduction of loan.
-    3. Interest lost on owner’s money which he invested in
-         the lot and building.
-    4. Fire insurance.
-    5. Up-keep, usually about 1½ per cent.
-    6. Taxes on property and water-supply.
-    7. Possible assessments.
-    8. Maintenance cost, such as coal, gas, and electricity.
-
-The above list of expenses should be frankly faced in the beginning,
-tabulated, and duly considered by every prospective owner of the small
-house. There are some architects who for fear of discouraging their
-clients from building will not sit down with them and show them a plain
-statement of the money they will have to invest, and when all of these
-minor items begin to pop up during the progress of the operations, the
-client begins to lose confidence, wonders where the next unexpected
-bill will come from, and blames the architect for having misrepresented
-conditions to him. Any prospective owner who has to be blind-folded to
-the costs which he must meet in order to muster up courage to build
-ought to be left alone, for he will do the architect no good, but
-considerable harm. Individuals who have their castles in the air so
-high that they cannot reduce their dreams to dollars and cents before
-they begin, ought never to build. These are the kind that start the
-cry that it always costs more to build than one ever figured on in the
-beginning.
-
-But coming back to the question of securing the building loan, it will
-be found that nearly all lenders will insist that the owner put his
-money in first. That is, he must meet the first payments to the builder
-himself, until he has put in all of his share. The rest will then be
-taken up by the financing institution, but always enough will be held
-back to assure sufficient funds for the completion of the house and
-the payment of all bills. The lender generally states at what periods
-of the construction money will be passed over, and this schedule is
-generally adopted as the one for the periodic payments to the builder.
-Of course the contractor must be consulted on the matter and his
-approval secured, but there will be little difficulty on this score,
-for he will recognize the power of the financing institution to dictate
-the dates of payment.
-
-As to the matter of contracting for the construction of the small
-house, there is little doubt that for so small a building the method
-of securing one general contractor to assume the responsibility of
-the whole work is the best. There are many who believe in employing
-day labor, and hiring the services of a supervising builder. The cost
-is itemized and the contractor adds a percentage as his share. This
-insures better-class work, but in practically all cases it is more
-expensive, and no assurance can be had of the final cost.
-
-When the plans are let out to various contractors for bids, there
-should be no obligation attached to them that the lowest bidder will
-secure the job. This is a protection, for the human element often
-enters into relations of this kind, and the lowest bidder may not be
-the most trustworthy personage, nor have the best reputation.
-
-When the contract is finally let, there are a number of things which it
-should cover that are intended to protect the finances of the owner.
-For instance, the contractor should be required to maintain insurance
-that will protect him from the claims under workmen’s compensation
-acts, and from any other claims for damages for personal injury,
-including death, which might arise from the operations of building. The
-owner should also maintain a similar liability insurance to protect
-himself.
-
-The owner should carry a fire insurance on the entire building and
-materials to at least 80 per cent of the total value.
-
-When there is doubt as to the financial strength of a contractor, he
-should be required to furnish a bond covering the faithful performance
-of the contract and the payment of all obligations.
-
-Then, too, it is customary to set forth cash allowances in the
-specifications to cover certain items, like plumbing fixtures,
-hardware, and electric light fixtures. The contractor should be made to
-declare that the contract sum includes these cash allowances.
-
-Careful understanding with the contractor should be arranged as to the
-method by which he will be paid. Generally, as was previously stated,
-the financing institution has control over the schedule of payments,
-and, once this is agreeable to the contractor, he should be required to
-submit to the architect an application for each payment, with receipts
-and other vouchers, showing his payments for materials and labor,
-including payments to subcontractors, at least ten days before each
-payment falls due. It is the duty of the architect to determine the
-accuracy of each one of these applications for payment before he issues
-the certificate of payment for such amount as he decides is properly
-due. There are some architects who make it a practice to hold back a
-certain percentage of the first payment, and continue this with every
-later payment, until the last, in order to have a club over the head
-of the contractor and also a factor of safety, lest the builder has
-rendered an application for payment in excess of the amount of labor
-and material delivered. This, of course, will cause hard feelings
-sometimes, and create friction between architect and contractor, a
-thing studiously to be avoided, and for this cause such procedure
-should be dropped when the architect knows the character of the
-contractor.
-
-The architect should always reserve the right to withhold part or all
-of the certificate of payment when defective work is not remedied,
-or when any claims are filed, or there is reasonable evidence that
-claims will be filed, or when the contractor fails to make payments
-to subcontractors, or to dealers for materials, or when there is a
-reasonable doubt that the contract can be completed for the balance
-unpaid, or when any damage involving liabilities has been done by one
-contractor to another. The architect should also hold back the final
-payment, if there are any liens existing against the building, until
-they are removed.
-
-In order to avoid many of the trivial and annoying expenses which occur
-in a building operation, the contractor should be required to pay
-for all permits and licenses (but not permanent easements) which are
-necessary according to local laws. The contractor should also be made
-to pay all royalties on patents, if there are any, and all license fees.
-
-But, probably, the most difficult part of the building operation to
-finance are the extras. When something is found to have been omitted
-from the plans and specifications, and the contractor did not cover
-it in his bid, or when the owner changes his mind and requires an
-alteration, then this extra work must be paid for at a high rate, for
-nearly all contractors look upon such extras as good pickings. In fact,
-there are some contractors who deliberately go over the plans and
-specifications to note what extras may be needed, and then counting
-upon their profits from these extras, they put in a low bid, so that
-they can beat their competitors, secure the job, and then proceed to
-make up their losses with bills which they put in for the extras.
-Likewise, a contractor who is honest, if he finds himself losing money
-on any building operation, will try to ease his losses and gain profit
-with the extras.
-
-There must, therefore, be some basis upon which estimates for these
-extras will be determined. The values for these extras or changes in
-the work may be determined by a submitted estimate and acceptance in a
-lump sum, by a unit price named in the contract or subsequently agreed
-upon, or by the cost and percentage, or by the fixed-fee method. If
-the contractor claims that any instructions, by drawings or otherwise,
-involve extra cost under his contract, he should be required to give
-the architect written notice of it before proceeding to do the work,
-within two weeks after receiving such instructions.
-
-A final problem of financing should be considered, and that is the
-emergency which might arise should the contractor neglect to prosecute
-the work properly or fail to perform any provision of his contract. If
-such is the case, the owner should reserve the right in the contract,
-that after three days’ written notice to the contractor he may make
-good such deficiencies and deduct the cost from the payment due the
-contractor at that time. Of course every contract should provide for
-the owner’s right to terminate the contract should the contractor fail
-to do his work, or prove bankrupt, or persistently disregard laws, or
-continually violate the provisions of the contract.
-
-
-
-
-
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-Harold Vandervoort Walsh
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-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Construction of the Small House, by 
-Harold Vandervoort Walsh
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
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-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The Construction of the Small House
-       A Simple and Useful Source of Information of the Methods
-              of Building Small American Homes, for Anyone Planning to
-              Build
-
-Author: Harold Vandervoort Walsh
-
-Release Date: April 20, 2020 [EBook #61880]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CONSTRUCTION OF THE SMALL HOUSE ***
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-Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
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-</pre>
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<h1>THE CONSTRUCTION OF<br />THE SMALL HOUSE</h1>
-
-<p class="center">A SIMPLE AND USEFUL SOURCE OF INFORMATION<br />
-ON THE METHODS OF BUILDING SMALL AMERICAN HOMES,<br />FOR ANYONE PLANNING TO BUILD</p>
-
-<p class="center space-above2"><small>BY</small><br /><big>H. VANDERVOORT WALSH</big></p>
-
-<p class="f90">INSTRUCTOR OF CONSTRUCTION IN<br />THE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE,<br />
-COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY</p>
-
-<p class="center space-above2 space-below2">WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY<br />THE AUTHOR</p>
-
-<p class="center">NEW YORK<br />CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS<br />1923</p>
-
-<p class="center space-above2"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1923, by</span><br />CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS</p>
-
-<p class="center">Printed in the United States of America</p>
-
-<p class="center space-below2">Published February, 1923</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/logo.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="167" />
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="chapter"><h2 class="nobreak">CONTENTS</h2></div>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="TOC" cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl"><small>CHAPTER</small></td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><small>PAGE</small></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">I.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Present-Day Economic Troubles</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">&nbsp;1</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">II.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">General Types and Costs</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">III.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Essential Standards of Quality in Building Materials</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">IV.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Types of Wooden-Frame Construction</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">V.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Construction of the Masonry and Wood Dwelling</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">VI.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Safeguards Against Fire in Dwellings</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">VII.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Poor Methods of Construction Employed by</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap"><span class="ws3">Unscrupulous Builders</span></span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">VIII.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Essential Features of Good Plumbing</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">IX.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Methods of Heating</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">X.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Lighting and Electric Work</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">XI.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Construction of the Trim</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">XII.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Lessons Taught by Depreciation</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">XIII.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Selecting Materials from Advertisements</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">XIV.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Roofing Materials</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">XV.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Painting and Varnishing the House</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">XVI.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Labor-Saving Devices for the Home</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">XVII.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Concrete Work Around the House</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">XVIII.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Classification and Construction of the Architectural</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap"><span class="ws3">Motifs Used in Small-House Designing</span></span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">XIX.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Traditions of Building from Which Our Modern Methods&emsp;&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap"><span class="ws3">Are Derived</span></span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">XX.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Traditions of the Construction of Doors and Windows</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">XXI.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Building the Setting for the House</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">XXII.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Financing the Construction Work</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="f150 space-below2"><b>CONSTRUCTION OF THE<br />SMALL HOUSE</b></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>I</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">PRESENT-DAY ECONOMIC TROUBLES</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>Immediately after the war the housing shortage made itself very
-evident, because the landlords discovered that it existed, and realized
-that they had it within their power to exact extortionate rents.
-Statisticians got busy and put their heads together and informed the
-public that within the next five years there would have to be built
-some 3,300,000 new homes to properly house the people. The building
-magazines likewise were predicting great things in construction, and
-all in the building industry were looking for fat years of prosperity,
-for here was the need and there was the pressure of the high rents.
-Why should not the thousands of families that had waited build
-now, when they saw their money going to waste in high rents? All
-kinds of advertisements were sent out to urge the public to build,
-and own-your-own-home shows sprang up in every large city, and one
-could find plenty of builders who would say that one should build
-immediately, before prices went higher.</p>
-
-<p>And seeing the poor, unprotected home-builder, the greed of human
-nature seized all in the building industry as it had entangled all
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>
-other business lines, and the price of materials leaped into the air,
-and the cost of labor became swollen, and all had that bloated and
-enlarged look which comes over the face of him who is sure of his meal.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_010.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="403" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">Before the war he planned for this</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>At the end of 1918 the average cost of all building materials was up to
-175 per cent over that of 1913, but by the first quarter of 1920 they
-had gotten up to 300 per cent increase over 1913 prices. Lumber had
-gone up 373 per cent. Labor had also risen to 200 per cent.</p>
-
-<p>Mr. Average Citizen found that the home he had been saving his money
-to build had flown from his hand, like a bird. The sketches and plans
-he had prepared for a nice little $10,000 home now represented an
-investment of $20,000 or more. In fact, if he expected to build at all,
-he had to be reconciled to a small house of six or seven rooms, which
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>
-would cost him not less than $10,000 or more, or as much as the large
-house which he had planned originally to build.</p>
-
-<p>Then what happened? Mr. Average Citizen did not build. The confidently
-predicted building boom which the building material manufacturers had
-looked for did not materialize. Prices were too high, and the public
-could not be made to believe that they would not come down, and the
-public was right.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_011.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="304" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">Now his plans have shrunk to this</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The light began to break as well as the prices, and we find the cost
-of building materials dropping suddenly. By the end of 1920 they had
-reached the 200 mark. By March, 1922, they had reached the 155 level,
-and are still going down with slight fluctuation.</p>
-
-<p>But during all of this time we heard all kinds of theories as to how
-the problem should be met. Some architects went so far as to predict
-that people could no longer build individual houses for themselves;
-that the day of the small house was over. They claimed that the only
-solution was in the construction of group houses. Such groups would
-eliminate much of the expensive street paving as ordinarily required,
-and cut to a minimum the water supply-lines and sewage systems.
-Semi-detached houses in groups were capable of saving the cost on one
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
-outside wall, one chimney, one set of plumbing pipes for each house in
-the group. The heating could also be reduced to a community basis, and
-the land so distributed that the best air and light could be had with
-the minimum waste.</p>
-
-<p>Many architects conscientiously tried to reduce the cost of
-construction of the small house by inventing cheaper ways and methods
-of building. However, the estimates came in just as high, because
-the average small contractor who builds the small house was afraid
-of innovations, since there was too great an element of risk, and he
-was conservative. To meet this difficulty some architects attached
-to their office organization construction departments by means of
-which they were able to build according to their economical plans and
-secure the advantage of the saving in cost. This was held by many
-to be unprofessional. Other architects secured lower bids by having
-a written agreement with the various contractors who were competing
-that, if they received the contract, the owner would be responsible for
-and pay for any increase in labor or material prices which might take
-place during the period of erection. Likewise the contractor agreed to
-give the owner the benefit of any reduction in prices which might take
-place during the time of erection. This simple understanding seemed to
-relieve the contractor of nervousness, and his bids were often lower.
-Still other architects claimed that the cost of construction could only
-be reduced by standardizing all of the parts. Certain mills had secured
-high-class talent to design stock doors, cornices, windows, columns,
-and the like, and the results were very satisfactory, both artistically
-and economically.</p>
-
-<p>This problem of the cost of the small house was very acute, and,
-although it has been relieved somewhat by the decreasing prices at this
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
-time, yet it will always be an integral part of the problem of building
-the small house.</p>
-
-<p>In fact, to properly design the small house and build it economically
-requires the greatest care for detail. Many well-established architects
-will not bother with this architectural problem, for the time required
-to consider all these small details is greater than they can afford to
-give in proportion to the fee they receive. For this reason most of
-this work is done by the young architect or by the speculative builder,
-who generally shows very bad taste in selecting his design, while the
-young architect is apt to be somewhat inexperienced in his knowledge of
-construction.</p>
-
-<p>The very first thing that must be considered in the problem of the
-building of the small house is the question of money, because this
-determines what kind of a lot can be purchased, how large the house
-can be, and of what type of construction it can be built. Experts on
-financing say that the cost of the house should be such that it can be
-paid off in full within fifteen years. This means that the cost of the
-proposed home must be arranged to come within definite limits. Methods
-of approximately determining the cost of a house in its preliminary
-sketch stages will be considered later, but it is sufficient to say
-here, that once this first problem is solved carefully, other matters
-are much easier to take care of. If one knows the cost, the question
-of borrowing money is made easier, and one is not misled into wild
-fancies of larger houses than possibly the pocketbook could afford. The
-worst mistake that a young architect can make is to lead his client
-to believe that he can have a certain design for less money than will
-actually be the case. It is always best to overestimate the cost in the
-beginning than to underestimate it.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>“But,” says the client, “I can buy a house and lot at ‘Heavenly Rest
-Real Estate Park’ for that price, and on the instalment plan, too. I
-don’t see why the cost of a house built from your plans should be so
-much greater than this.”</p>
-
-<p>And that is a big question to answer, one which this volume will
-attempt to make clear, one to which only a knowledge of construction
-can give a real and satisfactory answer. It is the old story, that a
-well-built article is bound to cost more than a poorly built one; but
-how to know the well-built article!</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>II</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle"> GENERAL TYPES AND COSTS<br />
-  <i>Types of House Construction</i></span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<h3>TYPE I</h3>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_015.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="514" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">Type I Wooden Frame</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>All small houses may be classified into four types, according to their
-construction. The first type is the commonest and is the wooden frame
-structure. This has exterior walls and interior partitions built of
-light wooden studs, and the floors and ceilings framed with wooden
-joists. The exterior walls may be covered with clapboard, shingles,
-stucco, brick veneer, or stone veneer. The roof is generally covered
-with wooden shingles, although slate, tile, asbestos, and asphalt
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
-shingles are often used. These houses are the most numerous, because
-the cost of wood in the past has been so much less than other materials
-that they appealed to the average builder’s financial sense. However,
-the cost of such dwellings to the country as a whole has been very
-high, for they are extremely dangerous when attacked by fire. More
-than twenty-two millions of dollars are wasted by fire each year in
-these houses. They also cost us a great deal in up-keep. It would be
-interesting to see what was the total cost per year to repaint them
-and keep the roofs in order. It certainly would run into the millions.
-Although wood increased from about $30.00 per thousand board feet to
-about $85.00 in the Eastern markets from pre-war days, and is now
-dropping below $55.00, yet the wooden house is still listed as the
-cheapest, for the cost of other materials has also increased, as brick
-from $10.00 per thousand to $23.00 until very recently, and cement from
-$2.00 to $3.25 per barrel. In any comparison of cost the wooden frame
-building is taken as the base or cheapest type of construction,
-although it is the most expensive in up-keep and fire-hazard of
-all. Until the price of wood increases in excessive proportion to
-other materials, there is no doubt that this type of house will be
-the commonest. However, there is much that can be done to make them
-more fire-resisting, and, although we cannot look to the speculative
-builders to use such methods, since they increase the costs slightly,
-yet the architect should not overlook them.</p>
-
-<h3>TYPE II</h3>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_017.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="340" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">Type II Masonry and Wood</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The second type of dwelling which is next in vogue has exterior walls
-of stone, brick, concrete, or terra-cotta, and interior floors,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
-partitions, and roof of wooden frame construction. These are very
-slightly more fireproof than the wooden frame structure, and as a
-class they are more costly in the beginning, but require less expense
-in up-keep. They resist attack from external fires better than the
-wooden frame building, but if the fire starts within, they will burn
-just as readily. Although the fire loss per year of this class is not
-nearly as great as for the first type, yet it must be appreciated that
-there are not so many of them. The chief advantage of the masonry house
-of this second type lies in the lowered cost of up-keep, longer life,
-and saving of heating-fuel in the winter. A great deal of literature
-has been circulated by brick, cement, and hollow terra-cotta tile
-manufacturers by which the public has been educated to believe that
-this type of structure is much more fire-resisting than it is. Of
-course this campaign of education was intended to stimulate interest in
-their product, and it had no unselfish motive back of it. The result of
-this propaganda is evident in the public belief that such houses are
-fireproof houses, while as a matter of fact they are not.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_018.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="408" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">Type II · Masonry walls · Interior·Wood</p>
-</div>
-
-<h3>TYPE III</h3>
-
-<p>The third class of dwelling is quite rare, and very few small houses
-are built that could be classified under it. Some builders call them
-fireproof houses, although this is erroneous. These buildings have
-walls, roofs, floors, and partitions built of incombustible materials,
-but the finished floors, the trim, windows, and doors are of wood. The
-exterior walls are of masonry construction, and the construction of
-the floors and roofs consists of steel beams with terra-cotta arches
-or concrete floor slabs, spanning in between them, and the partitions
-are of terra-cotta, gypsum, metal lath and plaster, or other similar
-materials. They may also be built of reinforced concrete throughout,
-or any other combination of these materials. There have been very few
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
-examples of this kind of construction used in the small house. It is an
-unfortunate condition that it is more adaptable to the costly mansion
-than to the average house of the middle-class citizen, for the high
-cost of construction of this character, in most cases, permits it to
-be used only by the wealthy man. Examples where such houses have been
-built generally show an investment of $30,000 or more, or, if they
-were built to-day, $50,000 or more. Those attempts to use this form
-of construction in the small house have been made by large building
-corporations, and have been chiefly represented by concrete houses of
-very ugly design.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_019.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="329" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">Type III. Walls, floors, partitions
-        fireproof, but windows, doors and trim of wood.</p>
-</div>
-
-<h3>TYPE IV</h3>
-
-<p>The fourth and last type of dwelling is the ideal fireproof house, but
-it is so costly that very few examples exist. This type can be termed
-fireproof with accuracy, for all structural parts, including doors,
-windows, and trim, are of incombustible materials. Metal trim is used
-or wood that has been treated to make it fire-resisting. This latter
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
-class of construction is so out of the reach of the average
-home-builder, on account of its cost, that its value cannot be
-thoroughly appreciated. Practically the only examples in existence are
-large mansions, built by wealthy clients.</p>
-
-<p><i>Cost Does Not Indicate Fire-Resistance.</i>—In this classification of
-buildings it would almost seem that the cost of a building indicated
-its fireproof qualities. This is not true, however. There are many
-expensive dwellings which are just as great fire-traps as the less
-expensive ones. In both cases the fire hazards are the same, if they
-are built of the same type of construction. In fact, we could build a
-$60,000 dwelling according to Type II, and also a $10,000 one according
-to Type II, and make the latter more fire-resisting than the former by
-using certain precautions of construction in which the spread of fire
-is retarded.</p>
-
-<p>Except in unusual cases, the construction of the ordinary dwelling
-will be either according to the first or second type, and any fire
-precautions that are desirable must be applicable to them. Most
-comparisons of relative costs are made between the dwellings included
-under these two types, and the difference will be mostly a difference
-in the kind of exterior walls used in the construction. In fact, if any
-comparisons are made between different kinds of buildings, as to their
-relative costs, it is essential that only one feature be made variable
-and that all others be kept the same.</p>
-
-<h3><i>The Question of Costs</i></h3>
-
-<p>Ever since the closing of the war the problem of knowing the cost of
-the construction of the small house has been a very intricate one, and
-no sure estimates could be made, until the plans were completed and let
-out for bids. Previous to the war, when costs were somewhat stabilized,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
-it was possible to predict with a reasonable amount of accuracy the
-cost of the dwelling when the plans were still only roughed in.</p>
-
-<p>In order to show the fluctuation in prices, an example of a seven-room
-frame house of Type I can be mentioned. This house was practically 30
-by 34 feet, and had a cubical contents of about 29,100 cubic feet and
-an area of 2,640 square feet. In 1914 this house cost $5,529.00, but
-at the peak of prices in 1920 this house cost $12,815.00, which was an
-increase of 131 per cent. In the spring of 1922 this same house cost
-$9,502.00 to build, which was about 71 per cent over that of pre-war prices.</p>
-
-<p>With a heavy pressure of needed construction in dwellings, the cost
-of materials seems to be settling down to a very gradual decrease in
-cost, so that the present rates show a more stable curve of decline
-than those of the latter part of 1920 and during 1921. The unfortunate
-factor which is noticeable is that certain building interests believe
-that a building boom is inevitable, and therefore that it is the time
-to hold up prices again. Wherever this has happened a building boom has
-been headed off.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Cubic-Foot System of Estimating</i></h3>
-
-<p>The average client, in spite of the difficulties above mentioned,
-insists upon securing from the architect an approximate idea of how
-much of a house he can have for $12,000.00, etc., or whatever sum he
-has been able to save for his small home. In order to approximate this
-figure, the architect must use the cubic-foot system of estimating. Now
-under changing conditions of prices this system is rather inaccurate,
-so that it should be used with great care. Any figures which are given
-here are bound to be only approximations, due to the fact that they
-are more or less of a local nature and must be given at this time of
-writing. <i>The only satisfactory way of using the cubic-foot system of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
-estimating is to secure prices from one’s own locality on work recently
-finished.</i></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_022.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="466" />
-    <p class="f120 space-below1">Type II</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>If the approximate cost of a house of Type I is desired, observe some
-recently erected house of that same character, secure its dimension,
-and calculate its cubical contents and then its cost per cubic foot. In
-order to be consistent, the method of computing the cubage must be the
-same in all cases. The following is recommended as a uniform basis:
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>1. Determine total area of the building on the ground floor,
-including all projections.</p>
-
-<p>2. Determine the average height of the building from the cellar
-floor to the average height of the roof.</p>
-
-<p>3. Multiply the above together for the cubical contents.</p>
-
-<p>4. Open porches may be added at one-quarter their cubical contents,
-and closed ones at their full value.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="453" />
-    <p class="f120 space-below1">Type II</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="center"><i>Prices per Cubic Feet Near New York for Two-Story Dwellings,<br />
-June, 1922</i></p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Type I</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">32 to 38 cents per cubic foot</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Type II</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">38 to 42 cents per cubic foot</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3><i>Factors Influencing the Selection of Materials</i></h3>
-
-<p>From what has been previously stated, it will be noticed that, as a
-rule, the architect in selecting the kind of material with which he
-will build his house is limited on account of expense to the first
-two types of construction—namely, the frame dwelling and the masonry
-house with wood interior. The latter two fire-resisting types are
-better fitted to the larger mansions, where expense is not so important
-an item. Undoubtedly the comparative costs between the various kinds
-of exterior walls will have much to do with the selection; but more
-often the local conditions will outweigh these considerations. In some
-places a house built of stone will be the best and most economical;
-in others, where there is an abundance of good sand, the cement house
-will be suitable, while those located near brick centres will find this
-material adaptable.</p>
-
-<p>The ideal method, of selecting a material of construction purely from
-an æsthetic point of view, is not always possible. But, after all, is
-not the most abundant local material the most harmonious to use for any
-one locality? Nature adapts her creations to the soil and the scenery
-into which she places them. All her animals are marked with colors
-which harmonize with the woods or fields in which they live. In fact
-this harmony is their protection, and in the war we imitated it in
-our camouflage painting. It is astonishingly evident, in the New York
-Museum of Natural History, how far more beautiful are animal tableaux
-which are set in painted scenery, representing accurately their natural
-habitat, than those which are exhibited alone in the cases, without
-a suggestion of their surroundings. Their marks and colorings seem
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
-ridiculous when they are separated from their natural surroundings.
-The same principle holds true in selecting the material for the small
-house. A stone house, built of native stone, in a stony, rugged region,
-is the most harmonious of all. A cement house in a flat, sandy country
-always seems in accord with the scene. A brick house in hills of clay
-most certainly appears the best, and a wooden house, near the great
-outskirts of the timber-land, is a part of the inspiring picture. Why
-are so many of the old colonial houses so charming? One of the reasons
-is the careful use of local materials.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Some Principles of Economical Design</i></h3>
-
-<p>In the first architectural studies of the house, since this problem
-of cost is ever with us, it is well to be familiar with some of those
-broad and general principles of economical design.</p>
-
-<p>The lower we keep our house to the ground, the less will be the expense
-of labor, for, when work must be done above the reach of a man’s hands,
-it means the construction of scaffolds and the lifting by special
-hoists of the materials. This is not so important a consideration
-with the light wooden frame building as it is with the masonry house.
-Wherever we have brick, stone, or concrete exterior walls, for the sake
-of economy they should be built low. Mr. Ernest Flagg has found this
-to be so very true that, in houses which he is constructing at Dongan
-Hills on Staten Island, he has carefully limited the height of all
-walls to one story, and starts the construction of his roof from this
-level. Of course, at the gable end of the house, it is necessary to
-carry them up much higher. Now, the starting of the roof from the top
-of the first floor makes all the second floor come within the roof, and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
-this heretofore has been impracticable, on account of the great heat
-generated under the roof and the inability of dormer-windows to
-ventilate the rooms properly. Mr. Flagg has solved this problem by
-inventing a simple roof ventilator which is located on the ridge of
-the roof, and serves the purpose of both lighting and ventilating.
-So successful has this been, that the space which in most houses is
-called the attic, and is wasted, has been made available and livable.
-What he has accomplished by these ventilators is the ability to
-start the roof at the top of the first floor, and thus lower the
-exterior walls and set the attic in the place of the second floor and
-make it very livable. Not only does this principle of design save
-considerable money, but it follows one of those great laws of beauty,
-so prevalent in nature. It makes the house low and nestling in the
-landscape, thereby harmonizing it with the surroundings. The house of
-the uncultured speculator stares blatantly at you and is proud of its
-complete isolation and difference from the landscape; but the house
-of those who have taste is modestly in harmony with the surroundings.
-The ugly house thrusts into the air without close connection with the
-ground, while the comely one cuddles in nature’s lap. Is it not strange
-that this principle of economy is a law of beauty?</p>
-
-<p>There are other features of economy in design which should be observed.
-The simpler and more straightforward the design, the cheaper it is and
-the more beautiful it can be made in the hands of the good artist.
-Simplicity is the highest art, as it is also the most economical thing.
-Likewise the cost of a house can be reduced by shaping as nearly to a
-square as possible, and reducing the outside walls to the minimum. The
-semi-detached house in the group plan accomplishes this in the best
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
-manner, and gives to the whole structure that low, long skyline that is
-so very pleasing. This also makes one soil-line and one chimney do for
-both houses, a great point in economy. Some architects believe these
-group houses are the only economical solution of the problem of the
-small house.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>III</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">ESSENTIAL STANDARDS OF QUALITY IN<br />
-  BUILDING MATERIALS<br /> <i>Materials Used</i></span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>It will be remembered that the commonest types of small houses are
-the wooden frame house and the masonry-and-wood house. Now it is
-essential that certain definite qualities be required of all materials
-of construction which enter into the building of these houses, and
-although there are many facts covering the standard qualities and
-methods of manufacture, yet one cannot expect to remember all of them.
-It is sufficient if one knows those qualities which mean satisfactory
-building and durability when applied to the structure.</p>
-
-<p>Of the large number of materials which enter into the construction of
-a house, the following are the most important and should be maintained
-at a high standard: wood, clay products, cementing materials, metals,
-glass, and paint.</p>
-
-<h3>WOODS</h3>
-
-<p>It is possible to enter into a long discussion of the classes,
-qualities, methods of conversion, defects of wood and similar subjects,
-but these are not pertinent to the main idea, namely, the essential
-qualities of woods which are used in the construction of the small
-house. There is a prevalent impression abroad that the supply of wood
-is becoming so depleted that it will in the future be used only for
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
-special ornamental features. This is wrong, for we still have enough
-virgin forests left to supply the country for several generations, and
-with the growth of forestry we will maintain a certain source of supply.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_029.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="463" />
-    <p class="author">Knots</p>
-    <p>Waney edges<br />Star and ring shakes</p>
-    <p class="f120 space-below1">Common timber defects</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>We have two classes of woods on the market which are used in different
-parts of the structure, according to their special qualities. These are
-commercially known as hard and soft woods, although this is not a very
-scientific distinction, since some of the soft woods are harder than
-some of the hard woods, and vice versa. Scientists have more accurate
-names than these, but as the above are so well established, there is no
-doubt as to what is meant.</p>
-
-<p>In the market, lumber is not only classified according to the above,
-but according to the species of tree it comes from, and also according
-to certain standard grades of the same kind. These grades are
-determined by the presence of certain defects. The recognized defects
-are knots, shakes, checks, splits, streaks, pitch-pockets, stain, rot,
-wane, warp, cupping, mineral streaks, pith on the face of the board,
-and worm-holes.</p>
-
-<p>Various large lumber associations issue rules governing standard sizes
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
-and classifications for woods to be used in construction. The best and
-the next best are the usual grades which are used for the interior
-and exterior trim of houses. These grades have many designations, as
-“clears” and “selects,” or “A” and “B,” or “No. 1” and “No. 2,” or
-“firsts” and “seconds.”</p>
-
-<p>The grades used for the rough framing, such as studs, joists, rafters,
-subfloors, and sheathing, are not so good. They are designated as “No.
-1 common” and “No. 2 common.” A poorer grade still, known as “No. 3
-common,” is sometimes used for cheap temporary structures.</p>
-
-<p>For the details of grading and standard sizes of lumber, one should
-possess Circular 64 of the United States Department of Agriculture on
-“How Lumber is Graded.”</p>
-
-<p>Next to the grading of timber, the most important factor of quality is
-the relative durability of the various woods, for upon this depends to
-a large extent the choice of them for special places. The <a href="#TABLE_23">table
-on page 23</a> is taken from a government classification.</p>
-
-<p>From this table it will be noticed that the soft woods as a class are
-relatively more durable than the hard woods. This is true, because of
-the fact that the structure of soft woods is simple, while that of the
-hard woods is complex. When the former become wet and expand and then
-dry out and shrink, the structure is not stressed internally as much as
-is that of the hard woods, and they are therefore much more capable of
-withstanding the action of the weather. Also certain of the soft woods
-have natural properties of resisting dry or wet rot.</p>
-
-<p>Certain species of woods are, therefore, selected for particular
-parts of the house according to the needs of durability, strength,
-appearance, and local supply.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Rough wooden framing requires a wood that is fairly abundant and
-strong. The soft woods are generally used, and those which are
-classified as <i>durable</i> in the table are the most used.</p>
-
-<div class="center">
-<a name="TABLE_23" id="TABLE_23">&nbsp;</a>
-<p class="f120">RELATIVE DURABILITY OF THE COMMON WOODS</p>
-</div>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Durability of Woods" cellpadding="0" rules="cols" >
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc bb" colspan="4">&nbsp;</th>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <th class="tdc bb" colspan="4"><i>The Soft Woods</i></th>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <th class="tdc bb"><span class="smcap">very durable</span></th>
-      <th class="tdc bb"><span class="smcap">durable</span></th>
-      <th class="tdc bb"><span class="smcap">intermediate</span></th>
-      <th class="tdc bb"><span class="smcap">non-durable</span></th>
-  </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Northern white cedar.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Douglas fir.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Eastern hemlock.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">True firs.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Western red cedar.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Tamarack.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Western hemlock.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Spruces.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Cypress.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Western larch.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Loblolly-pine.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Redwood.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Long-leaf yellow pine.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Norway pine.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Eastern white pine.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Short-leaf yellow pine.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Sugar-pine.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Western white pine.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl bb">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1 bb">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1 bb">Western yellow pine.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1 bb">&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc bb" colspan="4"><b><i>The Hard Woods</i></b></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Chestnut.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Black cherry.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">White ash.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Basswood.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Black walnut.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">White oak.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Butternut.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Beech.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Black locust.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Red gum.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Birch.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Yellow poplar.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Buckeye.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Red oak.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Cottonwood.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">White elm.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Hard maple.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Soft maple.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Sycamore.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Cotton gum.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc bt" colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<p>For rough underflooring and sheathing the cheapest and most abundant
-local wood is used. Durability is not essential.</p>
-
-<p>For shingles the most durable woods must be used, such as cypress,
-cedar, and redwood.</p>
-
-<p>Lath are generally cut from waste slabs, and should be of some soft
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
-wood like spruce or of one of the softer hard woods. Siding should be
-made from one of the soft woods, especially those which are classed as
-durable in the table.</p>
-
-<p>Porch columns and the like require very durable woods. They should be
-hollow except for very small ones. Built-up columns of interlocking
-type are usually specified, but the lumber used should be thoroughly
-kiln-dried so that the joints will not open.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_032.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="119" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Edge grain</td>
-      <td class="tdc">Flat grain</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Difference in the cut<br />of flooring boards.</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&emsp;The flat grain in the softer<br />woods is not durable.</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>Flooring should be capable of resisting wear and should not splinter.
-The hard woods as a class are more adaptable than the soft woods,
-although yellow pine and Douglas fir are used a great deal on account
-of their cheapness. These latter are divided into two grades: “flat
-grain,” in which the annual rings are almost parallel to the surface,
-and “edge grain,” in which the annual rings run almost perpendicular
-to the surface. The latter is more desirable, since it wears better.
-The flat grain splinters off, due to the layers of soft spring wood and
-hard summer wood. Oak flooring comes plain and quarter sawn, which is
-practically the same as the cut of yellow pine, but since oak is strong
-either way, the wearing qualities are not very different. Maple is also
-an excellent wood for flooring, since it is hard and smooth.</p>
-
-<p>Door and window frames may be made from many kinds of wood, although
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
-the soft and more durable woods are generally accepted as the best.
-Specially hard and durable woods should be used for the thresholds.</p>
-
-<p>Doors which are to be used on the exterior should be of a soft and
-durable wood. The choice of wood for interior doors is limited only
-by the taste of the designer. The doors which stand best the warping
-effect of steam-heat in the winter are constructed of white pine cores
-with a veneer on the exterior made from some hard wood.</p>
-
-<p>Sash and blinds require a soft and durable wood. Sash are subject to
-the drying of steam-heat on the interior and cold and dampness on the
-exterior. Sash built of yellow pine sapwood have rotted in a few years,
-and while soft maple, birch, and basswood have been used, they are not
-durable, although easily worked. White pine is considered to be the
-best for sash and blinds.</p>
-
-<p>The selection of woods for interior trim depends only upon the
-designer’s taste, since neither relative durability nor strength
-is a requirement. The harder woods in the past have been used more
-extensively for interior trim than the soft, because of their
-supposedly better and richer appearance, but this is not so true
-to-day, for new methods of treating such woods as cypress and yellow
-pine have shown them to be fitted for the best artistic places. Of
-course hard woods are not dented from knocks by furniture as easily as
-the soft woods, and in this way retain their appearance longer.</p>
-
-<h3>CLAY PRODUCTS</h3>
-
-<p><i>Bricks.</i>—In considering the essential qualities of bricks for the
-small house it must be appreciated that those bricks which are used on
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
-the exterior must be able to resist the effects of weather and produce
-the best artistic results, while those which are in the interior of
-walls or chimney need not be held up to such rigid standards. The
-determination of the resistance of bricks to frost and weather action
-is quite simple. A brick which struck by a hammer gives a clear ring is
-one which has been well burned and has no soft spots, cracks, or weak
-places. Such a brick can be said to be satisfactory for exterior use,
-provided that it has the proper form and color desired and is not so
-overburned as to be twisted and warped. Another requirement sometimes
-specified is that the face brick made from soft clay should not show
-a percentage of absorption in excess of 15 per cent, and for the
-stiff-moulded or dry-pressed bricks not more than 10 per cent. This,
-however, cannot be a hard-and-fast rule, due to the variation of clays.</p>
-
-<p>Certain red bricks, unless they are burned very hard, show, when
-built into the wall, a very ugly white surface discoloration, called
-“whitewash” or efflorescence. This is not entirely due to the brick,
-since the mortar that is used may sometimes produce it. If it is due to
-the brick it can be discovered before the brick is used in the wall, by
-placing a sample brick on edge in a pan containing one inch of either
-rain or distilled water. As the water is absorbed by the brick, the
-white discoloration will develop on the top surface after several days
-of standing if it contains the salts which will cause the whitewash.
-Those bricks which have been very hard-burned will not discolor under
-any circumstances. If after passing this test the brick wall should
-develop whitewash, it can be laid to the mortar. In order to prevent
-any such occurrence it is necessary to waterproof the joints around
-window-sills and between the foundations and the wall, so that the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
-minimum amount of water will be soaked up into the wall when it rains.
-An expensive addition of 2 per cent of barium carbonate to the mortar
-will tend to fix the soluble salts which cause this efflorescence.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_035.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="221" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">Method of testing a sample brick to see whether<br />
-                                   it will have a tendency to whitewash</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Hollow Tiles.</i>—Hollow terra-cotta tiles covered with stucco or brick
-veneer are being used more extensively than ever, due to the cheaper
-cost of laying them, since they are larger units, and also to the fact
-that they build a cellular wall. Wherever these tiles are used for
-bearing walls it is important that they be hard-burned, but the softer
-ones may be permitted in non-bearing partitions. Tiles for use in outer
-walls should be hard-burned, free from cracks, straight, and should not
-show a greater absorption of water than 10 per cent. As these tiles
-are intended to support loads from floor-joists, it is essential that
-they should have the correct proportion of voids to solid shells and
-webs. The maximum width of any voids should not exceed 4 inches and the
-thickness of any shells or webs should not be less than 15 per cent
-of this measurement. In tests it has been shown that tiles laid with
-webs vertical are stronger than those with webs horizontal, but this
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
-difference in strength is not of very great importance in the small
-house, where the loads are very light. The chief thing to avoid in the
-setting of tile, when they are vertical webbed, is the dripping of
-mortar to the bottom and the insufficient spreading of it over the ends
-of the webs and shells. This can be overcome by laying wire lath over
-each course, and then buttering the mortar on the inside and outside
-edges. The mortar is prevented from falling out of place by the lath,
-and because it is not continuous through the wall, any penetration of
-moisture through it is stopped.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_036.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="321" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">Showing the use of metal lath in the joints of vertically<br />
-                                   webbed hollow-tile, to prevent the dropping of the mortar<br />
-                                   into the voids and also allow the separation of mortar joint</p>
-</div>
-
-<h3><i>Cementing Materials</i></h3>
-
-<p>The most important cementing materials which enter into the
-construction of the small house are lime, cement, gypsum, and their
-various mixtures, as mortar, plaster, and concrete.</p>
-
-<p>The various technical requirements for good lime and cement are very
-strict and detailed, and for the small house it is customary to cover
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
-their qualities in the briefest manner by referring to the standard
-specifications of the American Society for Testing Materials.</p>
-
-<p>Slaked lime should be made from well-burned quicklime, free from ashes,
-clinker, and other foreign materials.</p>
-
-<p>Dry hydrated lime should be the finely divided product resulting from
-mechanically slaking pure quicklime at the place of manufacture.</p>
-
-<p>The specifications of the American Society for Testing Materials
-covering the quality of cement should be followed where large purchases
-are made. Where small quantities are to be used, the reliability of the
-dealer must be the basis of purchase.</p>
-
-<p>As mortars and concretes made from these materials are as important as
-the cements or limes, it is essential to have definite standards for them.</p>
-
-<p><i>Lime mortar</i> should be made of 1 part by volume of slaked lime putty
-or dry hydrated lime and not more than 4 parts by volume of sand. The
-use of hydrated lime is recommended, since the poor qualities which are
-apt to develop from careless slaking of quicklime are thus avoided. It
-also comes in smaller packages, and if the entire quantity is not used
-at once it may be stored without deterioration. It is only necessary to
-mix the hydrated lime with water until it becomes a paste, and then add
-the necessary sand. The purpose of adding sand is to increase the bulk
-and to reduce the shrinkage which pure lime paste will develop as it
-hardens. Pure lime paste, without sand, will shrink, crack, and develop
-very little strength. By introducing sand this contraction is reduced,
-but the addition of too much will decrease the strength slightly.
-However, this decrease of strength is very little. A mortar made of
-1 part lime to 6 parts sand is nearly as strong as one made from 1 part
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
-lime and 3 parts sand. The maximum amount of sand to be used is
-generally governed by the ease of working, and not so much by the
-strength. A lime which is too sandy will not spread easily on the trowel.</p>
-
-<p><i>Cement mortar</i> is, of course, a stronger material and can be used in
-damp places where lime mortar would deteriorate. The theory of mixtures
-of both cement mortar and concrete is to proportion the materials
-so that they produce the most compact substance. For instance, in
-the cement mortar the cement should just fill the voids between the
-particles of sand, and in concrete this cement mortar should just fill
-the voids in between the larger aggregate, and this larger aggregate
-should be so graded in size that it makes the most compact body. It
-used to be thought that certain definite numerical proportions, as laid
-down by theory, of the various ingredients would hold true for all
-kinds of sands and aggregates. For instance, the proportion of 1 part
-of cement, 3 parts of sand, and 6 parts of aggregate was thought to be
-the best for ordinary use under all conditions. But extensive tests
-by the government have shown that the only real way to determine the
-correct proportions of mixtures is to experiment with the particular
-sand and gravel that will be used, and to test them to see what
-ratios give the most compact mass. It has also been found that round
-aggregates, like pebbles, produce the strongest concrete, since the
-particles flow into place better than the sharper aggregates, which
-formerly were considered necessary because of the supposed idea that
-they made a better mechanical bond with one another. The proportion of
-water is also important, a quaking mixture producing the best results.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>It is customary in small work, however, where no experiments can be
-made on various mixtures to determine their proper proportions, to
-follow the old rules of thumb for amounts.</p>
-
-<p>Cement mortar should be made of cement and sand in the proportions of 1
-part of cement and not more than 3 parts of sand by volume.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_039.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="360" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_top">Good. Very compact</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&emsp;Bad. Not compact because of<br /> poor grading of aggregate</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><br />Good and bad concrete</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>If cement-lime mortar is to be used it should not have more than 15
-per cent by volume of the cement replaced by an equal volume of dry
-hydrated lime. The addition of hydrated lime to cement mortar improves
-its working qualities, making it slide more readily on the trowel and
-also increasing its waterproofness. Its strength is not decreased
-within the limits prescribed.</p>
-
-<p>In concrete work it is as important to have good sand and aggregate
-as cement. Sand should be sharp, clean, coarse quartz. The sand used
-should not, when it is rubbed in the hand, leave the palm stained.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Gravel which is used as an aggregate should be free from clay or loam,
-except such as naturally adheres to the particles. If there is too much
-clay or loam, it should be washed with water. When bank gravel is used
-the best results will be obtained if it is screened from the sand and
-remixed in the proper proportions for fine and coarse aggregate. For
-ordinary mass concrete the size of aggregate should vary from ¼ inch to
-2 inches, and in reinforced work should not exceed 1¼ inches.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_040.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="404" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">STUCCO ON METAL LATH OVER WOOD STUDS</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The best proportion of parts to use must vary according to the
-requirements, but for the small house good results will be obtained
-by using 1 part of cement, 2 parts of sand, and 4 parts of gravel or
-broken stone.</p>
-
-<p><i>Stucco Work.</i>—Stucco is really a Portland-cement plaster used on
-the exterior, and its success depends a great deal upon the quality of
-materials employed and workmanship. All stucco to a greater or less
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
-degree cracks, but the problem is to make the cracks as small as
-possible. The government is carrying on an extensive investigation
-of the problem of stucco through experiments on fifty-six exterior
-panels which have been under observation since 1915. Each one of these
-panels has been spread upon a different base or made with different
-proportions. So far only two panels have been found to be entirely
-free from cracks, although many are practically uninjured by the small
-cracks which have developed. It is therefore quite evident that as
-a rule it must be assumed that the stucco will crack to a certain
-extent, and in order to cover such defects a rough surface is the
-best. As to proportions of mixtures, there is a great variation of
-opinion. The commonest is 1 part of cement, 2½ parts of sand, to which
-is added about ¹/₁₀ part of hydrated lime by weight of cement. For a
-more detailed account on stucco, send for the Progress Report issued
-by the Bureau of Standards on the Durability of Stucco and Plaster
-Construction.</p>
-
-<p><i>Plastering.</i>—The qualities of internal plaster depend upon the
-construction of the wall, the methods of application of the plaster,
-and the quality of the plastering material.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_042.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="457" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">Scratch coat is for bonding;<br />
-                                   brown coat for plasticity;<br />
-                                   finished coat for appearance</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The walls and ceiling to which plaster is to be applied must be so
-constructed as to be practically rigid under the loads that they will
-carry. Since plaster is not elastic, any slight change in shape of
-the surface will cause it to crack. The common backings which are
-satisfactory for plastering are wood lath, metal lath, and masonry,
-such as concrete, terra-cotta tile, brick, plaster board, etc. Wood
-lath makes the least rigid back of all, and for this reason is not
-considered the best, although it is the cheapest. Unless the wood laths
-are wet before the plaster is applied, they will absorb the moisture
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
-from the plaster and swell, thus cracking the wall. Metal lath for this
-reason is superior. Masonry walls should be made rough to give the
-necessary key for the plaster to cling to. In brick walls the joints
-are raked out, in concrete walls the surface is picked, and the outside
-of terra-cotta tile is marked with grooves for this purpose.</p>
-
-<p>The best results in plaster are secured with three coats. The first
-coat is called the scratch coat, and is intended to form a bond
-between the wall itself and the plaster. It should be pressed into
-the apertures between the lath to secure a good bonding key, and its
-surface should be scratched with a tool to give the required bond
-between it and the next coat, or brown coat. The brown coat forms the
-main body of the plaster and averages about ¾ inch to ⅞ inch thick. The
-finished coat is then added on top of this and is intended to develop
-a plane surface with the desired color. Each coat should be allowed to
-dry out and then be wet before the next one is added. If wood lath is
-used, this drying and wetting will cause the lath to shrink and swell,
-so that cracks will be developed in the scratch and brown coats. These
-should be filled in before the finished coat is added.</p>
-
-<p>The materials which should be used in the various coats depend upon the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
-requirements which are necessary for each one. As the most important
-characteristic of the scratch coat is strength, and that of the brown
-plasticity, and the final coat appearance, the materials must be
-proportioned accordingly.</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="4">SCRATCH-COAT PROPORTIONS</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Hydrated lime<span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">133</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">parts</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">by weight</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Sand</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">400</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;“</td>
-      <td class="tdc"> “</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Hair</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">1</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">part</td>
-      <td class="tdc">“</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="4">BROWN COAT</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Hydrated lime</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">100</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">parts</td>
-      <td class="tdc">“</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Sand</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">400</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;“</td>
-      <td class="tdc">“</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Hair</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">part</td>
-      <td class="tdc">“</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="4">FINISHED COAT</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc" colspan="4"><i>Smooth Finish</i></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">1 part by volume of calcined gypsum.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">3 parts<span class="ws4">“</span><span class="ws4">lime paste.</span></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<h3 class="space-above2"><i>Metals</i></h3>
-
-<p>The most used metal in the small house is the so-called tin-plate or
-roofing tin. It is not a true tin-plate, for it contains 75 per cent
-lead and 25 per cent tin, applied to a base of soft steel or wrought
-iron. It comes in two grades, IX and IC, the former being No. 28 gauge
-and the latter No. 30 gauge. The lighter is used for roofing and the
-heavier for valleys and gutters. The tin does not entirely protect the
-base metal, so that it is necessary to paint both sides before it is applied.</p>
-
-<p>Galvanized iron is another form of sheet metal which is extensively
-used for work on the small house. It consists of sheet iron or steel,
-covered with zinc. This coating should be free from pinholes or bare
-spots, and of a thickness to prevent cracking or peeling. If the
-coating is sufficient and well done, it is superior in lasting quality
-to the ordinary tin-plate.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Copper, since the war, has come back into use again as a sheet metal
-for the small house, for its cost has dropped within reason. In
-order to meet a certain popular demand a light grade of copper sheet
-roofing has been placed on the market, although it has generally been
-considered that sheets weighing less than 16 ounces per square foot
-were not suitable for roofs.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Glass</i></h3>
-
-<p>There are two kinds of window-glass used, double thick and single
-thick. The former is ⅛ inch thick or less, and the latter is ¹/₁₂ inch
-thick. It is customary to use double thick in all window-panes over 24
-inches in size. The grading is AA, A, and B, according to the presence
-of defects, such as blisters, sulphur stains, smoke stains, and stringy
-marks.</p>
-
-<p>Plate glass is used only where the expense will permit. It is different
-from window-glass in that the latter is made from blown glass, while plate
-glass is made from grinding and polishing down sheets of rolled glass.</p>
-
-<p>There are quite a number of other minor materials which enter into the
-construction of the small house, but they are more or less identified
-with the mechanical equipment and the finishing, and will be considered
-under these headings.</p>
-
-<p>Sheet lead weighing 5 to 6 pounds per square foot is often used for
-counter-flashing. Leaders and leader heads of cast lead have been made
-practical by one company, which has developed a method of hardening the lead.</p>
-
-<p>Zinc, like copper, is again being urged upon the public by the
-manufacturers since the war demand is over. Zinc spouts are usually made
-from No. 11 zinc gauge, which is equal in thickness to No. 24 steel gauge.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>There is hardly any need to mention the durable qualities of copper,
-zinc, or lead. Wherever the cost permits, one cannot deny that
-materials of such durable nature are the proper ones to use.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>IV</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">TYPES OF WOODEN-FRAME CONSTRUCTION<br />
-  <i>Types Explained</i></span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <a name="I_046" id="I_046"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_046.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="350" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">BRACED-FRAME</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>There are no sharp distinctions between the various types of
-wooden frame construction. But in order to classify certain tendencies,
-we will arbitrarily define four types. To these we will give the names
-of <a href="#I_046">braced-frame</a>, <a href="#I_048">balloon-frame</a>,
-<a href="#I_048">combination-frame</a>, and <a href="#I_052">platform-frame</a>.</p>
-
-<p>The braced-frame is the oldest type, and originated in Colonial days
-in New England. It was developed under the influence of a tradition of
-heavy, European half-timber construction, and also nourished by the
-abundance of wood directly at hand. The fact that nails were not made,
-except by hand, urged the carpenters to use methods of fastening which
-required as few as possible. Because of these factors, then, certain
-definite characteristics of this type of wooden frame construction
-manifest themselves in the use of timbers, far larger than necessary
-for safety, and joints consisting of mortises and tenons.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>As the sawmill became mechanically more rapid, and as nails were being
-turned out by machines more plentifully, the Yankee who went West
-on adventuresome trips, and cared little for a permanent dwelling,
-devised a system of light-frame construction which became known as
-the <a href="#I_048">balloon-frame</a>. This was put together with the greatest
-speed, and required only nails for fastening all joints. The timbers which were
-used were standardized to one size, namely, 2 inches by 4 inches.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_047.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="329" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">CORNER CONSTRUCTION OF BRACED-FRAME<br />MORTICE &amp; TENON JOINTS</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Now, both of these types had advantages and disadvantages which were
-bound to influence later builders. Those who had been accustomed to
-build according to the braced-frame system found that lumber was
-becoming scarcer, and that nails were cheaper than they formerly were.
-Certain features of the <a href="#I_048">balloon-frame</a> appealed to them, such
-as its greater speed of construction, its smaller timbers, and lightness.
-On the other hand, those people who had lived in houses constructed
-according to the balloon system of framing found that they were very
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
-flimsy, that fires quickly consumed them, that rats and vermin could
-travel freely through the walls, and that, after all, they were only
-the most temporary sort of shelter. These folks looked back at the
-old methods of building, and saw the good features of solidity and
-permanence. We had, therefore, the growing together of the two systems
-of construction into a type which we call the combination-frame
-dwelling.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="I_048" id="I_048"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_048.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="436" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_top">BALLOON-FRAME</td>
-      <td class="tdc_top"><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">COMBINATION-FRAME</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p class="space-above2">However, progress did not stop at this point.
-The houses built according to this newly devised system were found to
-settle unevenly, which cracked plaster ceilings and walls and made
-doors and windows into leaning parallelograms. The cause of this was
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
-found to be due to the natural shrinkage of wood as it dried out.
-Now, all wood shrinks mostly across the grain, and not with it, so
-that the amount of settlement of any wooden wall depends upon the
-amount of cross-section of wood which it contains. If there is more
-in the interior partitions than in the exterior, it is certain that
-the floor-joists will settle down on the inside ends more than the
-outside. This is exactly what happened. It occurred not only in the
-combination-frame but in the braced and balloon frame. Various devices
-were introduced to avoid this defect, but all were more or less
-incomplete. Nevertheless, it all led gradually to the development of
-the fourth type of construction, which is called the platform-frame,
-for lack of a better name. This frame solves the problem of uneven
-settlement in the wooden structure. It also makes the location of the
-windows of the second floor independent of those of the first floor,
-which is not the case with the balloon-frame, for in this type the
-studs extend in one piece from the sill to the plate, requiring the
-centring of the windows of the second floor over those on the first.</p>
-
-<p>The methods which are used in constructing the small house of to-day
-are not as simply classified as the previous description would lead one
-to believe. The old New England braced-frame has practically gone out
-of existence, yet many of its features remain. The balloon-frame is
-used only in the cheapest sort of structures, yet many of its details
-are found in the modern dwelling; The combination-frame in all its many
-varied forms can be called the advanced type.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Study of Detail in the Combination-Frame</i></h3>
-
-<p>The illustrations show the four types in their entirety. But in order
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
-to fully understand the combination-frame, it is necessary to know what
-features of the braced-frame and balloon-frame are used to-day.</p>
-
-<h4>THE FEATURES OF THE BRACED-FRAME<br />WHICH HAVE SURVIVED</h4>
-
-<p>1. <i>The use of the girt</i>, because it permits the location of the
-second-floor windows at any point irrespective of the first floor
-windows. This cannot be done when a ribbon-board is used, for this
-requires studs which extend continuously from sill to plate, and if
-any windows are to be located on the second floor, they must be placed
-directly over those on the first floor. The ribbon-board does not
-act as a stop for either vermin or fire, as does the girt. However,
-fire-stops can be introduced in connection with the ribbon-board, if
-the extra expense is no hindrance.</p>
-
-<p>2. <i>The use of the sill</i>, because it serves as a firm foundation for
-the outside studs and first tier of floor-joists. The balloon-frame has
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
-no sill, for the floor-joists are set directly upon the top of the
-foundation-wall, and the exterior studs are built on top of them.</p>
-
-<p>3. <i>The use of the corner braces</i>, because they stiffen the frame.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_050.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="424" />
-    <p class="center space-below2">TYPICAL FRAMING OF “WAR HOUSES.”</p>
-</div>
-
-<h4>FEATURES OF THE BALLOON-FRAME<br />WHICH HAVE PERSISTED</h4>
-
-<p>1. <i>The use of small timbers</i>, or the standardization of the 2 by 4 for
-all parts except the sill, because of economy. The corner-posts are
-made of three 2 by 4’s, and the plate is made of two 2 by 4’s.</p>
-
-<p>2. <i>The use of the nailed joint</i>, because of its cheapness and its
-greater strength. It will not rattle loose when the timber seasons, as
-does the mortise and tenon joint in the braced-frame.</p>
-
-<p>3. <i>The use of the ribbon-board</i>, in place of the girt, for those
-houses which are to be stuccoed, and a rigid, outside wall-frame is
-desired from sill to plate.</p>
-
-<p>4. <i>The use of diagonal sheathing-boards</i>, to brace the frame instead
-of the corner-pieces. The reasons for this are not very certain, since
-diagonal bracing with sheathing is not always effective, while it is
-extremely wasteful.</p>
-
-<p>The combination-frame includes all of the present-day methods
-which make use of selected features of both the braced-frame and
-balloon-frame, such as were noted above. There are no rules to follow.
-In certain sections of the country one type is favored more than the
-other. Where a house is to be covered with stucco, the balloon-frame is
-a better type to use than the braced-frame, since it gives a stiffer
-outside wall as a backing for the stucco.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Platform-Frame</i></h3>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <a name="I_052" id="I_052"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_052.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="341" />
-    <p class="center">PLATFORM FRAME</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>It will be noticed in the illustration how different is the amount
-of cross-section of wood in exterior and interior walls of the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
-combination-frame, a thing which causes the unequal settlement
-previously alluded to. In order to reduce this to a minimum, it is
-often specified that the studs of all interior partitions be carried
-down to the top of the cap of the partition below or to the top of the
-supporting girder, thus reducing the amount of cross-section timber.
-This is not a complete cure, however, although it is a big improvement.</p>
-
-<p>The real solution of the difficulty lies in the use of the platform
-system of construction. In this system the first floor is built on top
-of the foundation-walls, as though it were a platform. A sill, called
-the box-sill, is constructed for the exterior support of the ends of
-the floor-joists by laying down a timber the same size as the joists
-and setting another one on the extreme edge in a vertical position. The
-angle thus formed makes a resting-box into which the floor-joist can
-be framed. The interior ends of the floor-joists should be supported
-upon a steel I-beam upon which has been placed a 2-inch-thick timber.
-The I-beam should be supported upon steel-tube columns which have been
-filled with concrete. On top of the floor-joists should be nailed
-the underflooring, laid diagonally. The first floor then appears as
-a perfectly smooth platform. Now wherever there is to be erected an
-interior or exterior partition, a 2 by 4, called the sole piece, is
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
-nailed directly on top of the rough flooring. This serves as a sill for
-the studs of the partition, which are now erected vertically upon them
-and capped with double 2 by 4’s on the top. Now the second floor is
-built on top of the partitions in the same manner as the first, and a
-new platform is constructed, so to speak. Upon this is then erected the
-partitions of the second floor, and on this the floor of the attic. In
-fact, this construction proceeds floor by floor, and each floor is an
-independent platform. If the drawings are examined it will be noticed
-that the amount of cross-section of wood in any one bearing partition
-is identically the same as in any other. The dwelling built in this
-way, then, cannot settle unevenly, and the cracked plaster and twisted
-doors will be eliminated.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_053.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="506" />
-    <p class="center">CLAPBOARDS OVER WOODEN STUDS</p>
-</div>
-
-<h3><i>Features Common to All</i></h3>
-
-<p>There are certain features which are common to all types of frames. For
-instance, the framing around all doors and windows requires the use of
-double 2 by 4’s or the use of one 4 by 4.</p>
-
-<p>These framing studs around the window are set 5 inches higher and 8
-inches wider than the dimensions of the finished window. Those about
-the door-openings are set 2 inches higher and 4 inches wider.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_054.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="417" />
-    <p class="center">BRICK VENEER OVER WOODEN STUDS.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>All use sheathing-boards of ⅞-inch stock to cover the outside of the
-studs, and these are usually 6 inches to 8 inches wide.</p>
-
-<p>The usual spacing of studs is 16 inches on centres, and they are
-generally of 2 by 4’s, although where any pipes or flues are run
-through the partition they should be 2 by 6’s.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Interior stud partitions should be bridged or braced once in their
-height, and partitions which run parallel to the floor-joists should
-have a capping-board, so that the proper nailing for lath can be
-secured. In fact, at all intersections of partitions care should be
-exercised that the required nailing for lath is provided.</p>
-
-<p>In the construction of roofs the average spacing of rafters is 20
-inches on centres. They should be doubled around all openings. The
-ridge is usually of a 1-inch by 10-inch piece. The size of the rafters
-varies with the length of span and load. They are usually 2 inches by
-6 inches for short spans and light loads, and 2 inches by 8 inches or
-2 inches by 10 inches for long spans and comparatively heavy loads.
-Valley rafters must always be deeper and heavier than the rafters and
-should be designed as a girder. The hip rafters do not carry any great
-load, but are often made deeper to fit the incline cut of the jack rafters.</p>
-
-<p>All floor-joists are spaced 16 inches on centres, and should be
-bridged. The following is the table commonly followed for good house
-construction, although lighter work is most often specified:</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Floor-joists" cellpadding="0" >
-  <thead><tr>
-      <th class="tdc">SPAN</th>
-      <th class="tdc" colspan="2">TIMBER</th>
-  </tr>
-  </thead>
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">12' and under</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">2" × 10"</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;cross-bridged once.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">12' to 15'</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">2" × 10"</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;doubled every other one, if good stiffness</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;is desired, and bridged twice.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">15' to 20'</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">3" × 12"</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;and of long-leaf yellow pine, crowned at</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;centre ½", and bridged three times.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">20' to 25'</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">3" × 14"</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;of long-leaf yellow pine, crowned at the</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;centre 1" for the 25' spans, and bridged four times.</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<p>Floor-joists should be doubled around all openings larger than 3 feet,
-and joists should be hung from the header beam by metal straps.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>There are many precautions which should be taken to prevent the spread
-of fire in the wooden frame house, but those will be considered as
-a special subject. Likewise the discussion of certain defects of
-construction which are commonly found in the speculative house will be
-dealt with later.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>V</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">CONSTRUCTION OF THE MASONRY<br />
-  AND WOOD DWELLING</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>In one of the previous chapters it was pointed out that the type of
-construction next in general use to that of the wooden frame house was
-the dwelling of masonry and wood. This was designated as Type II, and
-defined as a building with exterior walls of stone, brick, concrete,
-or terra-cotta, and interior floors and partitions of wooden frame
-construction.</p>
-
-<p>The difference in construction between the wooden frame structure
-and the masonry-and-wood building is mostly in the material used for
-the exterior walls. The interiors of both types are constructed in
-practically the same way, the floors being of light wooden joists and
-the partitions of wooden studs.</p>
-
-<p>The oldest varieties of the masonry houses in America are represented
-by the stone and brick dwellings of Colonial days. These are so
-substantially built, and often so artistic in conception, that they
-have become common models from which to draw inspiration. The concrete
-house of the monolithic or block type, and that of hollow terra-cotta
-tile, is a modern development.</p>
-
-<h3><i>The Stone House</i></h3>
-
-<p>The stone house is very adaptable to all those regions where this
-material can be secured from the excavation of the cellar or from some
-neighboring road improvement. Sometimes an old stone wall serves as a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
-source of supply. Because of the native character of this material it
-will always be in harmony with the landscape.</p>
-
-<p>In building the wall of stone there are a number of things to be
-observed, where success is desired. The wall should be well bonded
-together, the lintels over the windows should be strong, the
-foundations should be adequate to prevent cracks, the method of laying
-should be artistic, and the form of jointing in harmony with it.</p>
-
-<p>All native stones used for rubble wall construction have certain
-characteristics of color and formation. Certain stones will split
-easily into long, flat shapes, others seem to have very little
-lamination and break into jagged, irregular patterns, while others are
-so soft that they lend themselves to easy shaping in squared blocks
-of regular size. Sometimes, even, the neighborhood may be filled with
-round field stones, which can be used to imbed into the face of the
-wall and produce a surface of round bumps. Whatever is the character of
-the native stone, it should be used in its simplest form and not forced
-into imitation of some other type. The soft brown sandstones which are
-seen in some Colonial houses are easily cut and squared; but to cut
-up a hard stone into such carefully shaped blocks, in imitation of
-this Colonial work, would not only be a waste of money but a waste of
-artistic effect.</p>
-
-<h4>METHOD OF LAYING</h4>
-
-<p class="space-below2">According to the way in which the stone
-naturally lends itself, we have various types of rubble walls. The
-commonest is the rough rubble wall in which the stones have neither
-regular shapes nor regular sizes, or even courses. The wall is composed
-of large stones and small stones (the latter are called spalls, and
-fill in the interstices between the larger stones). The joints of
-mortar between the stones may be plastered roughly over the surface,
-covering much of the face of the stones themselves, or they may be
-roughly but neatly pointed with white mortar, or the joints may be
-raked out. Where the stone has a natural tendency to cleave into long,
-flat shapes, the rough rubble may become more regularly coursed in
-appearance. All of these types are respectively illustrated in
-<a href="#I_059_A">Figures 1</a>, <a href="#I_059_A">2</a>,
-<a href="#I_059_B">3</a>, and <a href="#I_059_C">4</a>.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="I_059_A" id="I_059_A">&nbsp;</a>
-    <img src="images/i_059_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="188" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_top">Fig. 1.</td>
-      <td class="tdc_top"><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Fig. 2.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_top">Rough Rubble—Plastered joints</td>
-      <td class="tdc_top"><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Rough Rubble—large white,<br />roughly pointed joints</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="I_059_B" id="I_059_B">&nbsp;</a>
-    <img src="images/i_059_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="153" />
-    <p class="center">Fig. 3.<br />Rough Rubble—trowled<br />joints</p>
-</div>
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="I_059_C" id="I_059_C">&nbsp;</a>
-    <img src="images/i_059_c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="166" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_top">Fig. 4.</td>
-      <td class="tdc_top"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Fig. 5.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_top">Rough Rubble, or ledged<br />work Raked Joints.</td>
-      <td class="tdc_top"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Cobweb Rubble—tooled<br />joints—no spalls</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
-A softer stone, which can be dressed with the hammer, may
-be treated in two different ways: It may be shaped to fit closely,
-without using any spalls to fill up the interstices, and, thus,
-appear as a cut-out puzzle; this is called “cobweb rubble.”
-However, the more dignified treatment is the squared, uncoursed
-rubble, in which the blocks are cut to rectangular shape and the
-joints pointed with a tool. <a href="#I_059_C">Figures 5</a> and
-<a href="#I_061_A">6</a> illustrate these.</p>
-
-<p>A wall built entirely of field stone depends upon the mortar
-for its strength. It appears the best when the joints of the
-surface are raked out, permitting a large part of the stones to
-project outward. <a href="#I_061_A">Figure 7</a> illustrates this kind of rubble wall.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>When the rubble wall is built with very carefully squared stones,
-and in regular courses, it partakes more of the monumental character
-of ashlar work and draws away from the rustic value of rubble. In
-determining the amount of cutting which is to be done, the character of
-the building should be considered, remembering that the smoother and
-more finished the wall, the more monumental is its appearance.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="I_061_A" id="I_061_A">&nbsp;</a>
-    <img src="images/i_061_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="186" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_top">Fig. 6.</td>
-      <td class="tdc_top"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Fig. 7.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_top">Square uncoursed Rubble<br /> tooled joints</td>
-      <td class="tdc_top"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Field stone Rubble raked joints</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-<hr class="r25" />
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_061_b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="246" />
-    <p class="center">Bond stone every 2' in ht. and 3' in length</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-<h4>MORTAR, BOND, AND THICKNESS</h4>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_062.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="441" />
-    <p class="center">Thickness of<br />rubble-stone wall</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The kind of mortar which should be used for the rubble wall depends
-upon its location and desired appearance. All foundation-walls,
-and all walls which are subject to dampness, should be built with
-Portland-cement mortar. Lime mortar may be used in walls above grade,
-although cement mortar, or cement-lime mortar is superior. As the
-strength of a rubble wall depends more upon the mortar than the bond,
-it is well to use the best. However, care should be taken that the
-wall is well bonded. A wall which consists of two faces, not bonded
-together, should not be built. A bond stone which carries through from
-one face to the other should be set into the wall every 2 feet in
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
-height, and every 3 feet in length. This bond stone should be flat and
-about 12 inches in width and 8 inches thick. The usual thickness of
-walls for dwellings not over three stories in height is 16 inches, and the
-foundation-walls are made 8 inches thicker than the wall above or 2 feet.</p>
-
-<p>The footings under a stone wall should be of concrete, not less than 12
-inches thick, and should rest upon solid ground at a depth equal to,
-or greater than, the frost-line below the surface, unless solid rock
-occurs above this point. The width of the footings should be such that
-it projects outward on both sides of the wall at least 4½ inches.</p>
-
-<h4>FURRING</h4>
-
-<p>The interior of all stone walls, and in fact all masonry walls, will
-show condensation of moisture over the interior surface, and if they
-are plastered directly on the interior the decorations will be ruined
-by the collection of so much water. The cause of this condensation is
-the same as that which forms sweat on the exterior surface of a glass
-of cold water. In order to eliminate this disagreeable feature, all
-masonry walls are furred on the interior before the lath and plaster
-is applied. The furring makes an air space between the wall and the
-plaster, and all dampness is prevented from penetrating to the interior
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
-surface of the plaster. To further increase the damp-proof qualities of
-a masonry wall they are sometimes built hollow, as, for example, the
-hollow brick wall, or the hollow terra-cotta tile wall. This air space
-also serves as an insulator for heat, preventing the escape of heat
-from the interior of the building in winter and the penetration of it
-into the structure in the summer.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_063.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="285" />
-    <p class="center">Furring Strip</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The commonest type of furring is the 1-inch by 2-inch wooden strip,
-nailed to the joints of the masonry or to wall plugs inserted in
-the joints. Metal furring strips are also extensively used, and
-occasionally hollow terra-cotta furring blocks.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Brick House</i></h3>
-
-<p>Like the stone house, the brick dwelling is one of the oldest types
-in this country. Examples of early brick houses show a taste for good
-brick, which later died out on account of the introduction of the first
-American machine-made bricks. These early machine-made bricks were
-extremely ugly, due to their perfection of geometric shape, smoothness
-of surface, and monotony of red color. Later improvements in the
-manufacture of brick have released this material for extensive artistic
-use. The surface was given a varied color and texture, and the form
-was not made so machine-like. To-day we have a variety of bricks which
-range in colors through reds, yellows, buffs, greens, blues, and even
-dark violets. Textures of wire-cut bricks are rich and varied, and, if
-properly handled, can produce the very finest architecture.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_064_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="210" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_top"><big><b>11.</b></big></td>
-      <td class="tdc_top"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><big><b>14.</b></big></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_top">Running Bond and<br />method of Bonding</td>
-      <td class="tdc_top"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Flemish Bond</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-    <img src="images/i_064_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="105" />
-    <p class="center"><big><b>12.</b></big><br />English Bond</p>
-    <img src="images/i_064_c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="116" />
-    <p class="center"><big><b>13.</b></big><br />Dutch Bond or<br />English Cross Bond</p>
-</div>
-
-<h4>BONDING AND CONSTRUCTION</h4>
-
-<p>The thickness of brick walls for dwellings not higher than three
-stories ought to be 12 inches, although 8 inches is considered by many
-experts to be quite thick enough for small houses. If the foundation
-walls are of rubble-stone they should be 8 inches thicker, and if of
-brick or concrete they should be 4 inches thicker. Usually the walls
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
-will be faced with some variety of face brick, in which case they
-should be bonded into the wall. If a running bond is used, the face
-brick should be bonded into the backing at every sixth course by
-cutting the corners of each brick in that course of face brick and
-putting in a row of diagonal headers behind them, and also using
-suitable metal anchors in bonding courses at intervals not exceeding
-3 feet. Where Flemish bond is used, the headers of every third course
-should be a full brick and bonded into the backing. If the face brick
-is of different thickness to that of the common brick backing, the
-courses of the exterior and interior should be brought to a level bed
-at intervals of about eight courses in height of face brick, and the face
-tied into the backing by a full header course or other suitable method.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_065.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="430" />
-    <p class="center">FISKLOCK BRICK</p>
-</div>
-
-<h4>FUNDAMENTAL BONDS IN BRICKWORK</h4>
-
-<p>It is very easy to understand the bonds in brickwork if the fundamental
-forms are known. There are, in reality, but two real bonds: namely, the
-English and the Flemish bond. The so-called running bond is no bond
-at all; while the common bond is found only in common brick walls,
-and uses a bonding course of headers every sixth course. The Dutch
-bond is only a slightly altered arrangement of the English bond, and
-is produced by merely shifting the centring of vertical joints of the
-stretcher course. By arranging these fundamental bonds in varying
-manners a decorative pattern can be produced on the wall of brick.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_066.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="262" />
-    <p class="center"><big><b>15.</b></big><br />Brick Joints</p>
-</div>
-
-<h4>TYPES OF JOINTS</h4>
-
-<p>Here, again, as in the stone wall, the mortar joint plays a great part
-in the final effect of the design. It can be safely set forth as a rule
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
-that the rougher the texture of the brick used, the rougher and wider
-should be the joint. For the smooth-faced brick the joint should be
-small and finished with a tool. For a rough-faced brick the joint
-should be large and rough in texture. The various forms of brick joints
-in common use are shown in the illustrations.</p>
-
-<h4>LINTEL CONSTRUCTION</h4>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_067.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="223" />
-    <p class="center"><big><b>16.</b></big><br />Lintel Construction</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the construction of lintels in either the wall of brick or stone,
-the introduction of either wood or steel is necessary for strength.
-Where the openings are less than 4 feet in width, timber lintels are
-used at the back of the lintel or arch, which are cut to serve as a
-centre for a rowlock or keyed arch. Any face brick may be supported by
-using a small steel angle. Where lintels are wider than 4 feet, steel
-I-beams, channels, or angles must be used. Where the span is more than
-6 feet, it is necessary to build in bearing plates for the support of
-the ends of lintels.</p>
-
-<h3><i>The Ideal Brick Wall</i></h3>
-
-<p>It would be well to mention here the new type of brick wall which is
-being advertised widely by the Common Brick Manufacturers Association.
-This wall is claimed to be very suited to the small house, and no doubt
-it would be, if it were possible to secure the co-operation of the local mason.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>This type of brick wall is built hollow, and arranged as shown in the
-drawings. There are no continuous mortar joints from the exterior
-to the interior through which moisture can penetrate. There are
-many features of advantage which the following table shows, but,
-unfortunately, not all mason contractors will give the owner the
-advantage of the reduction in cost which this wall permits.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_068.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="230" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">8" IDEAL WALL</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">12" IDEAL WALL</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">COMMON BRICK</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>For 100 square feet of wall, 8 inches thick, the following materials
-are required:</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Brick wall material list" cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="2">FOR SOLID BRICK WALL</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr_ws1">1,233</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">bricks.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">2.6&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">sacks of cement.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">2.9&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">bags of hydrated lime.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">.7&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">cubic yards of sand.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr_ws1">9</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">hours of a bricklayer’s time.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr_ws1">10</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">hours of a mason’s helper’s time.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_space-above2" colspan="2">FOR IDEAL ALL ROLOK WALL</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr_ws1">904</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">bricks.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr_ws1">1</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">sack of cement.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">1.2&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">sacks of hydrated lime.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">.3&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">cubic yards of sand.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr_ws1">8</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">hours of bricklayer’s time.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr_ws1">6</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">hours of a mason’s helper’s time.</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p>
-<h3><i>Hollow-Tile House</i></h3>
-
-<p>The past decade has seen an increasing use of hollow terra-cotta tile
-as a building material for the walls of the small house. It has many
-advantages which have made its popularity increase, such as its larger
-and lighter construction unit, reducing the labor of setting, its
-cellular wall features, and its availability. There is much information
-published by the manufacturers describing the correct construction, but
-always, of course, with an eye to advertising the material.</p>
-
-<p>However, there has been much conflicting testimony made concerning
-the practicability of hollow-tile construction, and some of the
-disadvantages should be noted. As a rule, they have proved to be strong
-enough to support the weight of the structure imposed upon them, but
-in the Southwest, where tornado winds are prevalent, these walls have
-been criticised because of their lack of stability and their porosity.
-Hollow-tile walls have been thrown down while those constructed of
-brick have stood, and driving rain-storms frequently make the inside of
-the walls wet.</p>
-
-<p>The stability can be increased by filling them with concrete, but the
-allowable strength cannot be considered to have been raised. Tests have
-shown that this filling does not increase the strength, because of the
-difference in the elasticity of the two materials.</p>
-
-<h4>TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION</h4>
-
-<p>There are two types of hollow terra-cotta blocks, one which builds with
-cells vertically and the other which builds with cells horizontally.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
-This latter is generally an interlocking tile. The strongest wall for
-vertical-load resistance is built with vertical-cell tiles.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_070.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="221" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><big><b>20.</b></big></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><big><b>18.</b></big></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Support of floor-joists</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Hollow-tile wall<br />Cells Horizontal</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>All hollow-tile should be laid in Portland-cement mortar, and the webs
-should be arranged so that they build over one another. The bearing of
-floor beams and girders on walls, built with blocks of vertical cells,
-should be made by covering the tile with templates of terra-cotta
-slabs, filling them with concrete or protecting them with plates of
-steel. Where chases are required for pipes they should not be cut into
-the wall, but special blocks should be used to build around them. All
-lintels under 5 feet should be constructed with tile arches, reinforced
-with concrete and steel rods inside of their webs.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_071_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="246" />
-    <p class="center"><big><b>17.</b></big><br />Vertical cell Hollow-tile wall</p>
-</div>
-
-<h4>PRECAUTIONS AGAINST DAMPNESS</h4>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_071_b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="122" />
-    <p class="center"><big><b>21.</b></big><br />Construction<br />of lintel</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_072.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="347" />
-    <p class="center">Brick Veneered<br />Hollow-tile wall</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In order to prevent the penetration of moisture the mason should butter
-all joints on the inside and outside edges, leaving an empty space
-between, in order to insulate against the transmission of moisture
-through the joint. To prevent the collection of mortar in the cells of
-the tile, due to droppings during construction, the spreading of metal
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
-lath over the top of each course of tile will accomplish this and
-also make the strength of the wall greater. Although it is often
-recommended that hollow-tile be plastered directly upon the interior,
-yet this is not safe in those sections of the country where there are
-driving rain-storms. For this reason it is advisable to fur them on the
-interior. It is also recommended that a waterproofing compound be added
-to the stucco applied to the exterior. Another fact should be observed:
-namely, that all door and window frames, since they are of wood, will
-tend to shrink and thus open up the joints and permit the leakage of
-rain-water. Oakum should be stuffed behind all brick moulds to prevent
-this. Care should also be taken to make drips under all sills, so that
-no water will leak into the interior of the wall. All belt courses
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
-should also have steep washes. Stucco should not be carried down to the
-grade level, but a course of solid material, like brick, concrete, or
-stone, should be built at this point.</p>
-
-<h4>VENEERING</h4>
-
-<p>It is sometimes customary to veneer walls of hollow-tile with brick,
-especially those tiles which are of the interlocking type, since a
-better bond can be secured. In any case, any brick veneer should be
-bonded to the backing with a row of headers every 16 inches, or be
-attached with metal ties. This veneering should not be considered as
-part of the required thickness of wall.</p>
-
-<h4>WALL THICKNESS</h4>
-
-<p>The thickness of hollow-tile walls should be the same as for walls of
-brick. The construction of light 10-inch and 8-inch walls, while strong
-enough as a substitute for a frame dwelling, is not strong against
-weather or fire. The only justification for thin walls is the slightly
-reduced cost of materials. Hollow blocks, as a rule, are not used
-for foundations, although they are satisfactory under buildings not
-higher than 40 feet. It is better to fill such walls with concrete and
-waterproof them on the exterior.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Concrete House</i></h3>
-
-<p>The development of the concrete house has been stimulated by large
-corporations erecting towns of them in one locality. The erection of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
-concrete houses by individual builders cannot, as a rule, follow those
-systems which are adapted to group construction. The use of large
-precast units may be satisfactory for a development of a hundred or
-more houses, but it is not economical for a single operation. The use
-of heavy steel forms for casting monolithic houses of concrete, while
-under certain favorable labor conditions may be satisfactory for a
-small job, yet as a rule is better adapted to large enterprises. Such
-steel forms are represented by the Lambie forms and the Hydraulic
-forms. Even wood forms of heavy construction, like those used in the
-Ingersoll system in work at Union and Phillipsburg, are not adapted
-to an operation involving less than fifty identical houses. Another
-system, combining both the precast and the cast-in-place work, called
-the Simpsoncraft system, is not economical for small operations. This
-uses thin precast slabs for walls and floors, and precast concrete
-beams. The precast parts are tied together by casting in place
-reinforced studs of concrete.</p>
-
-<p>Practically the only available systems which are useful for the small
-operation are (1) monolithic houses, built with light, portable steel
-forms or wooden forms, and (2) the concrete block house.</p>
-
-<h4>BLOCK HOUSE</h4>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_074.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="180" />
-    <p class="center"><big><b>25.</b></big><br />Typical Concrete<br />block wall</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The concrete house, especially that built of blocks, often has the
-defect of being damp on the interior, unless precautions have been
-taken to avoid this. It is always best to fur the interior of walls,
-although there have been cases where the blocks have been waterproofed
-and the interiors remained dry. Usually those blocks which are cast
-in a very dry state are porous, while those which are poured show
-considerable compactness. The great difficulty in using concrete blocks
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
-lies in the inexperienced and inartistic work of the large number of
-“would-be manufacturers,” whose only claim to the product consists of
-having purchased a machine which will turn out so many blocks a day
-and reap them an advertised fortune in a short period. A thoroughly
-reliable concrete block can be made, if there is used plenty of good
-cement, clean aggregate with proper proportions of fine and coarse to
-secure density, sufficient water to make a wet mixture, and then the
-product kept damp while curing. The surface should also be finished in
-some artistic manner. A good method consists in applying about an inch
-of white cement and showy aggregate to the outer facing of the block,
-and then, when the block has been set into the wall, finish it off with
-a stone-tooling machine, such as a pointer, operated by a pneumatic
-hammer. Blocks, also, should be of the hollow-wall type, so that an air
-space between can be secured for ventilation and insulation.</p>
-
-<h4>MONOLITHIC HOUSE</h4>
-
-<p>The commonest method of building monolithic walls of concrete is to
-use wooden forms. These are built in sets of panels, one for the
-exterior and the other for the interior face of each course. These are
-successively raised, one above the other, in pouring the walls. Mr.
-Ernest Flagg, architect, has developed a remarkably simple system of
-concrete-wall construction with the wooden form. Roughly broken stone
-are set against the inside of the forms, used for the exterior face of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
-the wall, and the rest of the wall is filled up with concrete. By
-raising the boards which are used for the forms, as each layer hardens,
-the wall can be erected without skilled labor and yet have the
-appearance, on the exterior, of a stone wall. Of course it is necessary
-to point the joints of the stone work after the forms have been removed.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_075.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="248" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><big><b>22.</b></big></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><big><b>24.</b></big></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_top">Typical monolithic wall construction</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Stone faced concrete wall<br />developed by Ernest Flagg</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>Of the light steel forms, the most important on the market are the
-Metaforms and the Morrill forms. The Metaforms, originally the
-Reichert forms, are composed of individual form units. All units are
-standardized and interchangeable, and equipped with the necessary
-clamps and locking devices. These units are built of sheet steel,
-strongly reinforced, and measure 2 feet square. A single course of
-Metaforms is composed of an inner and outer shell of plates. As the
-work progresses the bottom course is taken off and placed above for
-the next, there being usually three courses of forms in operation.
-The Morrill form is also a sheet-steel form, only it uses a hinged
-“swing-up” construction, by which the lower courses of the form can be
-swung up into position for the new course as the work progresses.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The Van Guilder double-wall machines have been gradually
-increasing in use throughout the country. They are not for
-sale, but the company establishes a contracting organization in
-different centres. The machine is a steel mould which is moved
-along and upward as the concrete wall is tamped in it. It builds
-a double wall in tiers. Each tier is 9 inches high and 5 feet
-long. A complete circuit of one tier is made around the wall,
-and then the next tier is begun on top.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_076.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="273" />
-    <p class="center"><big><b>23.</b></big><br />A double monolithic wall built by<br />the Van Guilder machine.</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>VI</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">SAFEGUARDS
-        AGAINST FIRE IN DWELLINGS</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<h3><i>The Necessity for Safeguards</i></h3>
-
-<p>The majority of small houses will be built of either wood-frame
-construction or of wood-and-masonry construction for many years to
-come, in spite of the propaganda favoring fireproof dwellings, for the
-cost of materials and labor are so adjusted that houses of this better
-type cannot be built by the average citizen. In fact, 90 per cent of
-the houses erected to-day use wooden studs and floor beams.</p>
-
-<p>This method of building costs the fire insurance companies about
-$60,000,000 a year. The actual loss must be even greater than this, for
-not all houses are insured.</p>
-
-<p>We might as well face these facts frankly and accept the next best
-means of preventing this enormous annual loss of dwellings by
-establishing safeguards against this fire dragon at the most vulnerable
-parts of the building. We must place the armor of protection where
-it is needed most, and set up the safeguards against fire where the
-dangerous enemy attacks.</p>
-
-<p>On examination of the insurance reports upon this question, we find
-that 96 per cent of all the fires originate inside of the houses. The
-most important cause of these fires is defective chimney construction.
-Bad fireplace design, careless flue construction, and poor masonry work
-in the chimney are responsible for many a tragic fire and a total loss
-of furniture, clothes, and household goods of well-meaning citizens. It
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
-is true that this is a cause of fire which may be prevented by building
-good chimneys and fireplaces, but there are other causes that are not
-so easily regulated, such as explosions from kerosene, short circuits
-in the electric iron or vacuum cleaner, careless throwing around of
-burned matches and cigarettes, and many other accidents which are bound
-to occur in spite of all precautions. When such fires start, there is
-only one thing to do: extinguish them in the quickest possible manner.
-But this cannot be done easily if the walls and the floors of the house
-are so built that they act as hidden passages and flues for the flames
-to creep insidiously throughout the building, breaking out in the most
-unexpected places and entrapping the unwary in dangerous positions. The
-way that many dwellings are constructed makes it possible for a fire
-to start in the cellar over the smoke-pipe from the furnace, in the
-dead of night, creep silently through the floors and up the interior
-partitions to the attic and second floor, until suddenly, bursting
-forth in all its fury, it has the sleeping inhabitants ensnared in a
-box of fire that has cut off their escape. The terrible heat has eaten
-away the strength of the bearing partitions, the floors collapse, the
-stairs are encircled with a writhing flame, and smoke and fire issue
-from everywhere as suddenly as though they had been spontaneously
-produced. There is no time to fight such a fire as this; about all
-that can be done is to escape in safety, and then the history of such
-conflagrations tells of the tragic death of many children left behind
-in the excitement.</p>
-
-<p>It is this fearful danger of the secret entrapping of fire that it is
-possible to eliminate from the wooden house. At least we can make this
-demon element come out into the open, where we can see to fight him. We
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
-can set safeguards against his passage through floors and walls,
-up stairs, and behind wainscots. In most cases where houses are so
-protected a fire can be quickly extinguished by the fire department or
-by a chemical fire-extinguisher kept in the house.</p>
-
-<p>This business of setting up fire-stops when the house is being
-constructed should be known. The closing of the passage between the
-plaster, furring strips, and masonry wall, the blocking of continuous
-ways through exterior stud walls and interior bearing partitions, the
-filling in of the hollow spaces behind wainscots, the protecting of the
-under side of stairs, and many other precautions can be provided for in
-the plans and specifications without adding much to the expense.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Placing of the Fire-Stops</i></h3>
-
-<p>There are two general places where these fire-stops should be
-constructed: in the vertical walls to cut off concealed drafts and in
-the horizontal floors to act as barriers between one floor and the
-next. A fire which starts in the cellar can be confined for some time
-from spreading upward if the ceiling is covered with metal lath and
-plaster and all the possible vertical openings in the walls are stopped
-with concrete, mineral wool, or other effective material. On the other
-hand, a fire which starts in the attic may spread to the lower stories
-by sparks dropping down inside of the partitions, unless they are
-properly fire-stopped.</p>
-
-<p>It is very important, however, to have fire-stops carefully built,
-for when gas is heated to the temperature of combustion it will pass
-through very small crevices, setting fire to the materials on the other
-side. It only requires a temperature of 1000° F. to ignite wood, and if
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
-the air is this hot, although it may appear harmless, it will set
-fire to whatever combustible material it touches. For this reason,
-fire-stops carelessly installed are as good as none. As an example
-of this, blocks of wood are sometimes used between the studs as a
-fire-stopping material, but, as it requires time to fit this material
-in place, small cracks are often left between the blocks and the studs,
-which permit the heated gases easily to pass through them to the other
-side. This is also true when bricks are used for fire-stops. As the
-average stud is only about 3¾ inch wide, and the average brick is
-4 inches, it is impossible to fill the space between the studs with
-bricks, laid flatwise, but they must be set on edge, leaving a wide
-crevice which must be filled in with mortar. This is often poorly done
-or omitted entirely, making the brick fire-stop inadequate.</p>
-
-<p>In enumerating the places where fire-stops should be built, the most
-important ones are the blocking of the space between the plaster and
-furred brick wall at each floor level and the closing of the air-space
-in exterior stud walls at each floor (<a href="#I_081_A">Figs. 1</a>,
-<a href="#I_081_A">2</a>, <a href="#I_081_B">3)</a>. The filling in
-of the hollow space at the base of every interior stud partition is
-likewise necessary (<a href="#I_081_B">Fig. 4</a>). A wooden cornice banks up the
-heat from any neighboring fire, and it is advisable to fire-stop the space around
-the ends of the rafters where they join with the ceiling-joists over
-the plate (<a href="#I_082">Fig. 5</a>). Where the second floor of the house
-projects out over the porch, it should be filled with fire-stopping material,
-not only for safety against fire but also to keep out the cold in the
-winter (<a href="#I_082">Fig. 6</a>). The pockets into which sliding-doors roll
-should be lined with gypsum board, not only as a fire retardant but also
-to prevent cold drafts from coming out of these pockets (<a href="#I_083_A">Fig. 7</a>).
-The plaster should be carried down behind all wooden wainscots as a
-fire-stop (<a href="#I_083_A">Fig. 8</a>). The space between the stair carriage
-should also be closed at each story (<a href="#I_083_B">Fig. 9</a>), and all chases
-and ducts should be filled at each floor level. Wherever exposed pipes pass through
-horizontal parts of the house they should be run through sleeves.
-Wherever hot-air flues go from one floor to the next they should be
-packed around with incombustible material (<a href="#I_083_B">Fig. 10</a>), and all
-registers in floors should be insulated in the same way. The space between floor-joists
-and chimneys must also be filled in with fire-stopping materials.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="I_081_A" id="I_081_A">&nbsp;</a>
-    <img src="images/i_081_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="301" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_top">Fire-stopping of furred off space<br />in brick wall</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Fire-stopping of furred off space<br />in brick wall</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><big><b>Fig 1</b></big></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><big><b>Fig 2</b></big></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-        <a name="I_081_B" id="I_081_B">&nbsp;</a>
-    <img src="images/i_081_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="307" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc_top">Fire stop at base of exterior<br />stud wall</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Fire stop for interior bearing<br />partition of studs</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><big><b>Fig 3</b></big></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><big><b>Fig 4</b></big></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="I_082" id="I_082">&nbsp;</a>
-    <img src="images/i_082.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="298" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Fire stop at end of rafters</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Fire stop in ceiling of porch<br />roof where 2nd floor<br />projects over</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><big><b>Fig 5</b></big></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><big><b>Fig 6</b></big></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="I_083_A" id="I_083_A">&nbsp;</a>
-    <img src="images/i_083_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="338" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Fire-stop of sliding door</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Fire-stop of Wainscot</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><big><b>Fig 7</b></big></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><big><b>Fig 8</b></big></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-    <a name="I_083_B" id="I_083_B">&nbsp;</a>
-    <img src="images/i_083_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="220" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><big><b>Fig 9</b></big></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws7">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><big><b>Fig 10</b></big></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3><i>Materials to be Used</i></h3>
-
-<p>It is not necessary to use expensive materials for fire-stops, but they
-should be carefully placed. Materials like mineral wool are the best,
-since they expand as the wood shrinks and fill up the space. Concrete
-which is held in position by strips of metal lath is also excellent.
-The concrete or mortar used can be made from refuse material, and need
-not have any great strength. Old bricks are satisfactory if they are
-slushed into position with mortar which fills all the crevices. Gypsum
-blocks are good except for damp location, where they absorb moisture
-easily and, holding it, induce dry rot in the surrounding timbers.
-Asbestos board, gypsum board, and metal lath and plaster are suitable
-for covering large areas, such as cellar ceilings, over the boiler.
-In fact, fire-stopping can be cheaply done with odd-and-end bits of
-material which usually go to waste around the building.</p>
-
-<p>The details of constructing these fire-stops are best shown in the
-illustrations, and no further descriptions will be necessary.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Chimney Construction</i></h3>
-
-<p>In view of what was said in the first part of this chapter, the
-construction of a chimney by approved methods is also a safeguard
-against fire. It can be considered a rule that every chimney should
-be lined with a terra-cotta flue, that every chimney should be
-an independent structure of its own, with walls thick enough for
-stability, capable of standing upon their own foundations and not hung
-from any part of the structure, that all woodwork of the building
-should be framed far enough from the chimney to make no contact with
-it, and, finally, that all the smoke-pipes which enter into the flues
-should be proof against leakage of flames and heat of such intensity as
-to cause combustion.</p>
-
-<p>In the past this need of lining the flues of a chimney with
-terra-cotta flue tiles was not considered important, but to-day it is
-a well recognized fact that no chimney is safe without this protective
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
-lining. There are many instances where chimneys are built without this
-lining and show no fire dangers, but the action of flue gases is slow
-and sure, and the mortar is attacked gradually, with the resulting
-disintegration of the brickwork, through which the flames eventually
-find their way to the surrounding wood timbers. It is found that even
-where terra-cotta flue linings are used the hot gases from the burning
-of natural gas as a fuel break down their resistance and they crumble,
-so that in such cases the flue linings should be made of fire-clays.
-From practical experience the minimum thickness allowable for any of
-these flue linings should be 1 inch, and the joints should not be made
-with collars.</p>
-
-<p>When setting these linings they should be laid in cement mortar, not
-in lime mortar, for this disintegrates under the action of gases from
-burning wood. The joints should be struck smooth on the inside, and the
-space between the lining and the brickwork filled in solid with mortar.
-Wherever two flue linings are run within the same chimney space, the
-joints should be staggered or offset at least 6 inches. Two linings,
-however, in one chimney space should be the maximum number permitted.
-Where more are required, each group of two should be separated by
-brick walls of at least 4 inches, which are well bonded into the
-outside walls of the chimney. This is in order to give stability to the
-chimney and also prevent any fires in one flue spreading to others. The
-thickness of outside walls of the chimney around the flues should not
-be less than 4 inches if built of brick or reinforced concrete, but
-if built of stone they should be 8 inches. Wherever there is no flue
-lining of terra-cotta, such as in the smoke-chamber, the thickness of the
-masonry from the interior to the exterior should never be less than 8 inches.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>If chimneys are built of reinforced concrete, the reinforcements should
-be run in both directions to prevent cracks during the setting of the
-cement or from temperature stresses. Where concrete blocks are used,
-reinforcements should run continuously around the blocks, and the shell
-of the blocks should not be less than 4 inches thick.</p>
-
-<p>Wherever the walls of dwellings are of brick and 12 or more inches
-thick, they may be used to contain chimney flues. If it is necessary to
-corbel out the flues from the wall, they should not extend farther than
-4 inches from the face of the wall, and the corbelling should not be
-done with less than five courses of bricks.</p>
-
-<p>Next in importance to the correct lining of flues is the proper
-construction of the foundation under chimneys. There are often cases
-where it is necessary to cut off the chimneys below in part or in whole
-to supply room on the first floor. This should be avoided as much as
-possible, but if it cannot be done it should be supported by steelwork
-from the ground up.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_087_a.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="279" />
-    <p class="center">Fire place<br /><big><b>Fig 12</b></big></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Another mistake that is continually made is to cut off the chimney
-at too low a level and cap it with only a plastering of mortar. All
-chimneys should be carried at least 3 feet above flat roofs and 2
-feet above the ridge of a peak roof and properly capped with stone,
-terra-cotta, or concrete. If they are not capped, and the bricks
-improperly tied, the mortar joints will be loosened by the action of
-the weather and the heat issuing from the chimney, and eventually
-the bricks will be moved from their position, leaving the top in a
-dilapidated condition.</p>
-
-<p>This extension of the chimney through the roof leaves a joint which
-must be covered with flashing to prevent leaking. The usual method of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
-building a tin-covered cricket behind the chimney, and protecting the
-other sides with tin flashing counter-flashed is very satisfactory; but
-the practice of corbelling the brickwork out over the roof, in order to
-cover over the joint, is extremely bad. When a chimney built in this
-way settles, the corbelled-out parts catch on the roof, and the whole
-top of the chimney is lifted off, leaving a crack through which the hot
-gases pass to the wooden rafters. See illustrations on pages <a href="#I_153">145</a>
-and <a href="#I_178">170</a>.</p>
-
-<p>If there are any fireplaces to be built in the chimney the walls should
-never be less than 8 inches thick around them. It is best to line them
-with fire-brick of at least 2 inches in thickness. Hearths should
-extend in front of the fireplace at least 20 inches to prevent sparks
-from falling on the wooden floors. These hearths should be supported
-upon trimmer arches or be constructed of reinforced concrete. It is
-important to keep the woodwork of any mantel away from the opening at
-the top at least 12 inches and at the sides at least 8 inches.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_087_b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="152" />
-    <p class="center"><big><b>Fig 11</b></big></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In fact, no woodwork should be permitted to come in contact with any
-part of the chimney. Wooden beams and joists should be kept at least
-2 inches from the chimney and at least 4 inches from the back of any
-fireplace. This space, as was previously stated, should be filled in
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
-with fire-stopping material. Where a chimney is on the line with a
-wooden stud partition, it is better to plaster directly over the
-brickwork of the chimney than to carry studs over it on which lath and
-plaster is constructed. By using metal lath over the brickwork the
-danger of cracks can be eliminated. Where a base-board must be carried
-along this wall in which such a chimney occurs, the plaster should be
-carried down behind it and then asbestos board should be placed behind
-the base-board to prevent too much heat coming in contact with it.</p>
-
-<p>If these precautions are taken in the construction of the chimney and
-the correct methods of fire-stopping employed, the house of wood can
-be made less of a fire-trap than it is to-day. None of these devices
-require much additional expense, and should, on this basis, have a
-broad appeal.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>VII</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">POOR METHODS OF
-   CONSTRUCTION EMPLOYED<br /> BY UNSCRUPULOUS BUILDERS</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>It would be an endless task to list and describe all of the possible
-faults of construction which an unscrupulous builder might use in the
-erection of a small house, and, indeed, it would result largely in
-rehearsing all of the details of good construction, and then reversing
-them, showing that instead of doing the correct thing it was done
-quite the opposite way. But there are certain obvious and glaring
-faults of construction which are employed by speculative builders with
-one purpose in mind, namely, to reduce the cost but maintain a good appearance.</p>
-
-<p>An intentional and clever disguise of poor construction is, at heart,
-the dishonest thing against which this is written. The defects of
-construction which are either the result of ignorance or unskilled
-labor, while they are bad enough, are not malicious, but those defects
-which are intentionally planned are simply systems of stealing, and
-they are usually found in the so-called speculative house, which the
-unwary public buys in preference to securing an honest house, designed
-by an architect. And it is this system of dishonest construction that makes
-the speculative house seem, on the face, cheaper than the honest house.</p>
-
-<p>Indeed, it is the whole intention of such dishonest methods of building
-to make the house seem, on the face of it, substantial, good-looking,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
-and honest, but to hide, beneath the glamour of its exterior,
-weaknesses of structure which will cause all kinds of failures after
-a few years of standing. So long as the house stands together until
-the builder has sold it to some unsuspecting buyer, that is all that
-interests him.</p>
-
-<p>In observing some of these dishonest methods of construction it is well
-to keep in mind that they will appear on the exterior well done, but
-that their faults are hidden, and intentionally planned to reduce the
-cost for the builder.</p>
-
-<p>In order to systematize our observations along these lines let us
-imagine a house which we will inspect in an orderly fashion. We will
-begin with the cellar and proceed upward to the roof. This house is an
-ordinary frame dwelling upon a stone foundation.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_091.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="420" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">The Fake Leader</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">The Poorly Made Floor</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p class="space-above1">Entering the cellar-door, the first thing we notice is
-that at the base of the stairs leading to this door is a puddle of water left from
-the last rain-storm. Upon inquiring concerning it we learn that in
-every rain-storm, and especially during the winter when the ground is
-frozen, the surface water flows down the steps, collects in the areaway
-in front of the cellar-door, and overflows the sill into the cellar
-itself—all because the builder had omitted a drain-pipe in the centre
-of this area to save money. Becoming interested in this matter of
-drainage, we look around at the areas under each of the cellar-windows
-and find that the drains have been omitted from these, and that a few
-broken pebbles were thrown into the bottom to give the impression that
-the water could drain off into the soil, and all this to save money and
-deceive the buyer. Inspecting the ground around the foundation-wall we
-notice that about each leader the earth has been worn down by dripping
-water, as though the leader had backed up and the gutter had overflowed.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
-Inquiry shows that such is the case in every rain-storm. Apparently
-the outlet for the leader has been stopped up, so, in order to find
-out whether this is true, we need to remove the lower section of the
-leader from the terra-cotta pipe to look into it, for often it becomes
-clogged at this point with leaves and dirt. Breaking away the cement
-joint and pulling gently upon the sheet-metal leader, we suddenly find
-that it crumbles in our hands, and that the leader consists of a coat
-of paint holding a few particles of rust together. Yes, cheap, thin,
-so-called galvanized-iron leaders to save money and deceive the buyer!
-But continuing our search for the stoppage we poke our cane into the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
-section of terra-cotta pipe projecting above the ground which received
-the leader, and find that it stops short. Twisting it around to remove
-the material which seems to block the pipe we find, much to our
-surprise, that the entire section of terra-cotta pipe breaks off, and
-then, looking closer, we find that this pipe does not connect with a
-cast-iron drainage-pipe leading to the plumbing system or to a dry
-well, but had merely been stuck into the ground to give this appearance
-and to save money and deceive the buyer. No wonder the leader backed up
-and the gutters overflowed in a rain-storm!</p>
-
-<p>By this time we have become very suspicious of the house, so that when
-we finally go down into the cellar our attention is attracted to a
-section of the cement floor near the furnace where the large ash-cans
-are standing. The top surface has cracked under the weight of the
-cans, and it appears to be in thin slivers of cement. Leaning down and
-prying under one of these cracked pieces with a knife, a thin slab
-of concrete, about a quarter of an inch thick, is lifted up from the
-floor, and beneath this slab we find about 2 or 3 inches of tamped
-ashes, and then dirt. We marvel that this floor has lasted even as long
-as it has with so much water running into the cellar in damp weather.
-Think of it, 2 inches of ashes and a quarter of an inch of cement
-mortar on the top, when the correct method of building is to lay about
-6 inches of cinders for a foundation, then 3 inches of concrete on top
-of this, and finally a top coat, 1 inch thick, of cement mortar over all.</p>
-
-<p>Looking up from the floor we are rather impressed by the clean,
-whitewashed effect of the walls of the cellar, and one would hardly
-believe that it was a damp one, but around the windows and at certain
-points in the wall the whitewash is streaked with black, as though
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
-water had leaked in. Going over to these places in the wall it is
-quite evident that during the winter and damp season water has soaked
-through these crevices. Poking around with a penknife we are amazed
-at the ease with which the knife penetrates the mortar between the
-joints of the stones. Working at it a little harder with the knife
-soon shows that if the cellar were a prison it would not be very hard
-to scratch one’s way out through that wall. Suddenly, without warning,
-one of the stones in the wall drops out onto the floor, and we get a
-view of the construction within. For certain it is one of those stone
-walls built up with two faces, not bonded together, except by mortar
-which seems to be made up of mud and a small trace of lime, which lime
-has disintegrated with the constant dampness to which it has been
-subjected. A piece of the mortar we find can be crumbled easily in
-the hand. This is evidence of the employment of the cheapest kind of
-labor for the masonry work and the cutting down of expense in using
-poor materials. We only have to look closely to see that there is
-developing a long diagonal crack in the wall, and we can imagine that
-if the contractor built so poor a wall above the ground, the chances
-are that there is no footing beneath it. Near at hand a large bulge
-is noticeable, and when we hit it with a hammer the whole thing has a
-rotten sound, for the inside face is bulging inward from the load upon
-it and the uneven settling of the foundations.</p>
-
-<p>Looking up now at the neatly whitewashed ceiling we cannot help but be
-suspicious of the plaster beneath the surface, so going over to that
-part of the ceiling above the smoke-pipe leading from the furnace to
-the chimney we jab our cane against it, and, as we expected, a big slab
-breaks off and crashes to the floor, revealing partly charred wooden
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
-lath beneath, which have been baking in the heat rising from the
-smoke-pipe, and which would eventually catch fire. Examining the
-plaster very closely we observe that in addition to being a very thin
-coat it has no hair in it to act as a reinforcement for the plaster key
-which held it to the lath base.</p>
-
-<p>But being rather inquisitive about the construction hidden behind the
-plaster, and having broken some of it down, the removal of the few
-lath is worth the look behind them. And there we see the girder which
-supports the floor-joists resting upon the chimney instead of on a
-special pier or column. This saved the contractor the cost of the pier
-or the column, but the owner would probably lose his house some day by
-fire creeping through the joints of the brickwork of the chimney to the
-ends of this wooden girder, for it was quite evident that the mortar
-used in the chimney was not much better than that used in the wall, and
-it is well known that lime mortar disintegrates under the action of hot
-gases from burning wood.</p>
-
-<p>Turning our attention now to other parts of the cellar, we notice that
-in the floor of the laundry a place had been broken into, and upon
-inquiry we find that this hole was dug by the plumber in repairing a
-stoppage of the system of drainage-pipes under the floor. It seems that
-the contractor had omitted placing any clean-outs in the pipes which he
-had laid under the cellar floor, and the owner’s wife, by accident, in
-pouring a pail of wash water down the water-closet in the cellar had
-allowed a rag to go down with it, which clogged up the system, so that
-the waste from the kitchen-sink began to back up into the laundry-tubs.
-As there was no way to get at the pipes, the plumber, in cleaning out
-the system, was obliged to break through the floor and cut out a hole
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
-in the pipe to run a wire through to the clean-out on the house-trap.
-The contractor who built the house had saved about fifteen dollars in
-omitting this clean-out, but the owner lost fifty dollars in plumbers’
-bills before he repaired this defect.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_095.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="321" />
-    <p class="center">Fresh Air Inlet<br />Under Window</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Another defect was also found by the owner in the system of
-water-supply. There had been installed only one shut-off cock for the
-entire building, so that whenever a new washer had to be placed upon a
-faucet on any fixture the entire system had to be turned off. As most
-of the faucets throughout the house were of very cheap design, this
-had to be done very often, until one day the owner had turned the main
-shut-off cock once too often for its strength, and the handle broke
-off. He was obliged to call in the plumber to turn the water on again,
-as well as install a new shut-off cock.</p>
-
-<p>Questioning the owner further, we learn that a disagreeable odor of
-sewage enters the dining-room windows during the summer months when all
-the sash are open, but as he admits he knows little about plumbing, he
-isn’t sure of its cause, but he thinks it comes from a pipe which opens
-directly beneath one of these windows. When we investigate we find that
-it is the fresh-air inlet of the plumbing system of the house. The
-contractor had saved money on piping by carrying this to the nearest
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
-outdoor point, which happened to be directly under the window of the
-dining-room, so that whenever any water-closet was flushed in the house
-a puff of foul air was blown out of this pipe in the most convenient
-place for it to enter the house if the windows were open. Instead of
-spending the extra money for piping to carry this fresh-air inlet well
-away from any windows, the contractor had put in the shortest length
-possible.</p>
-
-<p>After looking at this pipe we glance at the porch near by and notice
-that it is beginning to sag. So, crawling under the porch, we find that
-instead of masonry piers under the porch columns, there are wooden
-posts driven into the ground, and that not only have these begun to
-settle under the weight but also have rotted away considerably near the
-ground, where they are subject to dampness. While we are under here we
-notice that the floor-joists are small, 2 by 4 inch timbers, and have
-sagged a great deal because of their extreme scantiness for the span
-over which they are placed.</p>
-
-<p>In fact, as we walk up on the porch it vibrates under our weight, and
-when we enter the house we notice the same weakness, only to a slightly
-less degree. The owner says that in the beginning the floors were stiff
-enough, but that this weakness had been getting worse each year. It is
-evident that there is faulty bridging and too small timbers. Probably
-in the beginning the nails of the upper flooring helped to stiffen the
-beams, but as these became worn in their sockets the joists lost this
-additional strength. This lack of proper-size framing timbers saved the
-builder money but would cost the buyer a pretty penny some day.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>But we are astonished at the excellent appearance of the floors, for
-by this time the things that are good are more surprising than the
-things that are bad. Then it occurs to us that of course the floor
-would be good, for this is part of the house which is visible and
-helps to catch the buyer’s eye. But later, when we go up-stairs, we
-notice that the floors are not so fine, but are the common flat-grained
-boards which sliver off and catch in your shoe if you scuffle. The
-owner also points out the kitchen as one of the biggest fakes he has
-seen. It has an oak floor, and when he had bought the house he had
-been deeply impressed with the luxury of having an oak floor not only
-in the dining-room but also in the kitchen. But he is not so keen now,
-for with constant scrubbing the cheap varnish and filler had come off
-and the pores of the oak have been exposed, so that now the floor is
-the greatest catch-dirt ever invented, and to make matters still worse
-the oak had been poorly seasoned, the boards had shrunk, the cracks
-opened, and there is no underflooring below to prevent the dust and
-dirt from sifting through these cracks from the hollow space between
-the floor-joists. The owner says he is about to install a new floor.
-He also admits that the varnish which gave such a fine surface to the
-dining-room and living-room floors when he first saw the house was so
-poor, and scratched so badly, that he had to have the floors completely
-done over.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_098.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="278" />
-    <p class="center">THE DEFECTIVE<br />PLASTER</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Glancing around at the walls of the living-room and the dining-room we
-notice that the wall-paper has cracked in a number of places, pulled
-up, and curled away. It is extremely ugly and unkempt, and we remark
-about it to the owner. He says that he is completely discouraged about
-it, that he has tried everything to make the wall-paper stay down, but
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
-that as soon as the winter comes on, the steam-heated air on the inside
-and the cold air on the outside seem to draw the paper up and away,
-pulling the surface of the plaster with it. He has glued large pieces
-of paper which have curled up in this manner back into position again,
-but the plaster was so weak that as soon as the paper began to peel
-off, the top layer of plaster pulled away with the paper. In fact,
-examining one example of this, we observe that the paper which had
-sprung loose from the wall has underneath it a thin coat of plaster
-about a sixteenth of an inch thick, showing that the glue had fastened
-the paper to the plaster, but the plaster itself had given way. This
-type of plastered wall is the result of using cheap materials, and it
-is another evidence of the extremes to which contractors will go to
-save money and deceive the buyer.</p>
-
-<p>As we pass by one of the pockets into which the sliding-doors roll we
-feel a draft coming out of it, and we question the owner whether the
-house is cold in winter, and he admits it is worse than we suspect.
-He informs us that it is especially cold on the second floor in those
-rooms where the floors project over the porch. We ask him whether
-he has noticed any drafts coming in through the cracks around the
-base-boards and trim, and he points to these cracks, showing us bits
-of cotton which he has plugged into them. We suspect that what is the
-trouble is the omission of sheathing-boards over the studs between the
-roof of the porch and the ceiling-joists where this roof intersects
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
-with the house wall, and also the failure to fill with cinders the
-space between the floor-joists of the projecting part of the room which
-extends over the porch. That this is true the owner admits, for he had
-noticed it while repairing a few shingles on the roof of the porch. The
-contractor had saved a little money by this trick, and no one could
-tell that he had done it by merely looking at the exterior.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_099.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="282" />
-    <p class="center space-below2">Where The Cold Air Gets In</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>This same line of inquiry leads us to ask the owner about the
-heating-plant, and we find that the house cannot be properly heated.
-We therefore suspect that the radiation is too small, so we calculate
-the required size of a radiator for one room, and find that the one
-actually installed is too small. Yet, as the owner says: “When he
-bought the house, how was he to know that there was not a large enough
-heating-plant?”</p>
-
-<p>We inquire then whether he has any trouble with the fireplace, which we
-presume he must use to help out on cold days. He admits he cannot keep
-it from smoking badly. So we go over to it and run our hand up into the
-throat to feel around, and find that there is no smoke-chamber, and,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
-what is more, the flue is only about 4 inches by 8 inches, and is not
-even lined with terra-cotta flue tile. We inform him that he will never
-have a good fireplace draft until that chimney is rebuilt, and that the
-size of the flue looks more like the vent for a gas-log than anything else.</p>
-
-<p>We then went through the house noting as many defects as we could,
-which were beginning to make their appearance. For example, we find
-that all the doors are badly sagging, showing that the blocking has
-been omitted from the back of the jambs where the butts are screwed on.
-The putty in the windows is crumbling out, as though it were clay. All
-the thresholds are of soft wood and are wearing badly. The trim in many
-places was springing and twisting, due to the use of cheap and poorly
-seasoned wood and the omission of enough nails. Some of the door-stiles
-are made of two pieces which have opened up at the joints and left ugly
-cracks. All the stairs squeak badly, indicating that they had been
-poorly built. Some of the balusters have worked loose and rattle in
-their mortises, and the hand-rail shakes when it is grasped.</p>
-
-<p>We notice a number of stained ceilings, and inquire about the roof.
-We are informed that it has leaked badly in the valleys, where the
-tin is not wide enough to prevent the water which runs down one slope
-from washing up under the shingles of the adjoining slope and over the
-edge of the flashing tin of the valley into the house. We learn also
-that the shingle roof of the porch, which has a very slight incline,
-continually leaks, and looking out upon it we notice that the shingles
-are set nearly 7 inches to the weather instead of less than 4 inches,
-as they should be for so small a pitch.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>We notice that it has leaked around the windows, and, observing the
-top of the trim on the exterior, note that there is no flashing over
-it to throw off the water flowing down from the clapboards. While we
-are examining the windows the owner volunteers to tell us about his
-experience with the windows on the second floor. After he had bought
-the house he found that only one window in each bedroom had any weights
-and sash-cords in it, and that he had to buy these for all the other
-windows when he discovered it. He says he never thought of trying each
-window before he purchased the place.</p>
-
-<p>Just then we happen to be looking at the lock on one of the doors, and
-we spy one of those back-handed locks which never holds the door closed
-and which always catches and keeps one from closing the door unless
-the knob is turned. It is a right-hand lock placed upon a left-hand
-door. We recognize in this the contractor’s efforts to use up all the
-second-hand odd bits of hardware which he possessed.</p>
-
-<p>By this time we find ourselves so disgusted with the sharp tricks of
-dishonest building that we call a halt at looking farther, but we feel
-quite convinced that there is a real difference in quality between such
-a speculative house and the honest house of an architect’s designing,
-and, what is more, we feel convinced that there is a real reason for
-the architect’s house costing more in the beginning than such a house,
-but that in the end the cheap speculative house is the most costly
-proposition which a buyer can invest his money in.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>VIII</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">ESSENTIAL FEATURES
-  OF GOOD PLUMBING</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<h3><i>The Problem</i></h3>
-
-<p>There are three things which will affect the plumbing system of the
-small house; namely, the existence or non-existence of municipal
-plumbing codes under which the structure is erected, the existence
-or non-existence of a public sewer, and, finally, the type of
-water-supply, whether it is public or private.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <a name="I_102" id="I_102">&nbsp;</a>
-    <img src="images/i_102.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="209" />
-</div>
-
-<p>If there are no plumbing codes to follow, it is sometimes possible to
-save money on the plumbing; but unless the specifications are very
-rigid, there is danger of poor work being installed. By saving money is
-not meant installing cheap material, but eliminating certain features
-which most plumbing codes require and which are not essential in
-producing the best possible type of plumbing system. For example, in
-most cities the ordinary traps which are required under each fixture to
-prevent the sewer-gas from returning into the air of the house, after
-the waste water has drained out, must be equipped with back-vent pipes
-in order to eliminate dangers of siphonage. The cheap S trap (shaped
-like an S turned on its side) without this back-venting will siphon
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
-out, that is, lose its water-seal by atmospheric pressure pushing the
-water out of the trap in its attempt to fill a vacuum created by the
-discharge from a water-closet on the floor above. By back-venting
-these traps, as shown on <a href="#I_102">page 94</a>, this danger of siphonage
-is reduced, and, therefore, most codes have adopted this regulation
-requiring back-venting. But to-day the market offers certain traps
-which are claimed to be anti-siphonable and which do not require
-this back-venting, with the consequent result of reducing the cost
-of the equipment. Most plumbing codes have not changed their old
-regulations, for many authorities do not yet believe in the possibility
-of an anti-siphon trap, and so require the use of the back-venting
-system. Consequently, wherever the small house is constructed within
-jurisdiction of these laws, the plumbing will cost more than where
-the anti-siphon trap can be used without the elaborate system of
-back-venting.</p>
-
-<p>Likewise, wherever there is a public sewer, the problem of sewage
-disposal is simple and cheap; but if the house is not located near
-any such public convenience, special methods must be employed for the
-destruction of the waste matter. The best is the septic tank (<a href="#I_104">see
-illustration</a>) with the small subsurface irrigation tile, through which
-the partially purified material from the septic tank is distributed
-under the ground for complete purification by air and bacteria. The
-other method of disposal—pouring the sewage into a cesspool—is to be
-deplored, unless there is possibility of an early construction of a
-public sewer, and no drinking-water is secured from the premises.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="I_104" id="I_104">&nbsp;</a>
-    <img src="images/i_104.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="303" />
-    <p class="center">—SMALL SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANT—</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The third consideration which affects the plumbing system of the small
-house is whether it can draw upon a public water-supply, or whether it
-must secure its private supply from a well or a near-by stream or lake.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
-A private source of supply generally means the erection of a storage
-tank. The best type of tank for this purpose is the pneumatic tank,
-which is installed in the cellar, and not in the attic, as was the
-old-fashioned tank. The water is pumped into this tank, and the air
-which is in it is trapped, so that the more water that is pumped into
-the tank, the more compressed becomes the air. This springlike cushion of
-air gives enough pressure to force the water to any fixture in the house.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="I_105" id="I_105">&nbsp;</a>
-    <img src="images/i_105.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="630" />
-    <p class="center">—PLUMBING SYSTEM USING ANTI-SYPHON TRAPS—</p>
-</div>
-
-<h3><i>Simplest Type of Drainage System</i></h3>
-
-<p>On <a href="#I_105">page 97</a> is represented the simplest type of drainage system
-that can be installed in the small house, but since it uses anti-siphon traps
-and no back-venting, it will not be possible to make use of it in all
-cities or towns which have plumbing rules prohibiting it. The average
-small house does not have room for more than one bath, a kitchen-sink,
-a set of laundry-tubs, and a toilet for the servant, generally placed
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
-in the cellar. For purposes of economy it is essential to place all
-of these fixtures on the same soil-line, the main pipe which extends
-vertically from the horizontal house-drain in the cellar up through the
-roof. If the bathroom is so located that the vertical line which serves
-its fixtures cannot serve the kitchen-sink or the laundry-tubs, then
-a special waste-line or small vertical pipe draining fixtures other
-than water-closets, must be carried up and through the roof, which is
-extravagant of material. As this waste-line will be only 2 inches in
-diameter, it is necessary to increase its diameter to 4 inches before
-projecting it from the roof, since it may become clogged in the winter
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
-with frost. But the main soil-line is 4 inches in diameter and needs
-no increaser on it. The main house-drain is also made 4 inches in
-diameter, and is generally laid under the cellar floor with a pitch
-of ¼ inch to the foot. At the junction of the vertical soil-line with
-it, and also at any other point where there is a marked change in
-direction, the house-drain should be equipped with clean-out holes,
-covered with brass screw-caps. Just where the house-drain leaves the
-house, a house-trap is installed (<a href="#I_105">see illustration</a>),
-and back of this an inlet for fresh air to permit the circulation of air in the
-system. The foundations should be arched over the house-drain where it passes
-through them, so that any settlement of the masonry will not come upon
-the pipe and cause it to be broken.</p>
-
-<p>The material of which the house-drain, soil-line, and waste-line are
-made is usually cast-iron, and of a grade known as extra heavy. The
-joints are the bell-and-spigot type, which are stuffed with oakum and
-then closed tight with 12 ounces of fine, soft pig lead for each inch
-in diameter of the pipe. Branches are usually of galvanized wrought
-iron or lead, but lead should be limited in use in modern plumbing,
-although the term plumbing originated from the Latin word for lead.
-The common limitations upon the length of branches of lead pipe are:
-8 feet for 1½-inch pipe, 5 feet for 2-inch pipe, 2 feet for 3-inch
-pipe, 2 feet for 4-inch pipe. The parts of the branch pipes which are
-visible are generally made of brass nickel-plated. The joints between
-lead pipe and lead pipe, and between lead pipe and brass pipe, are made
-by the common wiped joint. Joints between lead pipe and cast-iron pipe
-are made by first wiping the lead pipe to a brass ferrule, a piece of
-pipe in shape like a bell with the top cut off, and then inserting and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
-caulking this into the cast-iron pipe. The joints between wrought-iron
-pipes are made with the screw joint, and between wrought-iron and cast
-iron with the screw joint, by using connections of malleable cast-iron
-which have been threaded.</p>
-
-<p>The usual sizes for branch wastes from the fixtures are as follows: for
-water-closets 4 inches, for bathroom-tubs 1½ inches, for lavatories
-1½ inches, for kitchen-sinks 2 inches, for laundry-tubs 1½ inches,
-and when in sets of three 2 inches. The size of the waste from the
-bathroom-tub can be increased to 2 inches with great advantage, if the
-additional slight expense is not objectionable.</p>
-
-<p>The vertical soil-lines should be supported at each floor by metal
-straps placed under the hub and fastened to the floor-joists. It is
-very important to properly flash the base of the projecting portion
-of the soil-line above the roof. Wherever the branch soil-line to the
-water-closet is connected, a short TY connection may be employed in
-order to avoid the projection of the parts of the pipe beyond the plane
-of the ceiling in the floor below. However, no short TY connections
-should be made in any horizontal pipes.</p>
-
-<p>A very important economical consideration should be noted in laying
-out the arrangement of the bathroom fixtures in this connection. The
-horizontal branch soil-lines and waste-lines must be carried through
-the floor construction, and they should be so arranged that they can
-run parallel with the floor-joists; otherwise deep cuts will have to be
-made in them. In the case of the branch soil-line it is essential to
-place the water-closet as near to the main soil-stack as possible, for
-with a 4-inch pipe the joists must be framed around it rather than be
-cut, since so deep a gouge would weaken too much the strength of them.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
-A similar consideration must be given to the framing in stud partitions
-which are bearing the loads of the floors above, for too deep cuts in
-them, to allow for the passage of pipes, will weaken them greatly. In
-this connection it ought to be noted that an ordinary 4-inch soil-pipe
-cannot be carried in a stud partition made with 2 by 4 studs, since
-the outer edges of the joints of the pipe will project beyond the face
-of the plaster, and for this reason some convenient place should be
-planned for them in closets, or 2 by 6 studs should be used in the
-partition through which they are run.</p>
-
-<h3><i>The More Complicated Back-Vent System</i></h3>
-
-<p>The essential parts of the plumbing system remain the same as described
-above, but each trap is considered to be siphonable, and must be
-prevented from losing its water-seal by the use of back-venting pipes.
-Whenever, then, there is an unusual amount of semi-vacuum created
-in the pipes by the discharge of some fixture above, the outside
-air-pressure can relieve it by passing through the back vents rather
-than by forcing out the water-seal in the traps. The usual type of
-trap employed is the modified S trap with the small TY connection to
-give what is known as continuous venting. Formerly the vent was taken
-off from the crown of the three-quarter-S trap, which was too near the
-surface of the water-seal, causing excessive evaporation and danger of
-clogging, but with the continuous system of venting, the waste-pipe
-is a continuation of the vent-line, and the trap enters into its side
-through a TY fitting, overcoming the disadvantage of the older system.</p>
-
-<p>The size of traps should conform to the size of waste-pipes, and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
-usually the size of the branch vents is about the same size as the
-waste-lines. However, there are special conditions where this varies.
-For venting the water-closet trap, it should be noted that the vent is
-not taken from the trap which is contained within the fixture itself,
-but is taken from the upper side of the bend (usually of lead) where
-the fixture is joined with the piping system, and is 2 inches in diameter.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_109.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="608" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">PLUMBING SYSTEM USING BACK-VENTING</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Where there are two fixtures, such as the lavatory and the bathtub,
-with 1½-inch branch vents coming from the traps, these may be joined
-into one main branch vent, which need not be more than 1½ inches in
-diameter. The pitch of the branch vents entering into the main vent
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
-should be at an angle of about 45 degrees, so that all rust scale will
-drop down into the fixture outlet and be washed away.</p>
-
-<p>The main vent, which runs parallel with the main soil-line, needs to
-be only 2 inches in diameter, and should be branched in at the bottom
-and the top to the main soil-line, as shown in the drawings. The
-material of which both main vent and branch vent is made should be
-galvanized-iron piping.</p>
-
-<p>The fresh-air inlet, the house-trap, the clean-outs, and all other
-parts of the system are the same as was shown for the simpler method
-of plumbing.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Rain-Water Drainage</i></h3>
-
-<p>The small house need not drain off its roof-water into the plumbing
-system, if the plumbing code does not require it. The simplest and
-easiest method to dispose of it is to collect the water in gutters,
-lead it down the waterspouts into pipes which terminate in a dry well
-in the ground. Small roofs over porches and back doors need not even
-have the leaders, but spill the roof-water out onto the ground, where a
-stone has been placed to prevent the undermining of the surface of the
-lawn by the wearing action of the water stream.</p>
-
-<p>In outlying city districts where the sewers have not yet been installed
-it is customary to carry the roof-water in pipes below the level of the
-sidewalk to the gutters of the street or to a leaching cesspool which
-is independent of the cesspool used for sewage disposal, and which is
-practically the same thing as a dry well, for the bottom is made with
-gravel through which the rain-water seeps off into the surrounding soil.</p>
-
-<p>Wherever the rain-leaders must be connected to the drainage system of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
-the house, the sheet-metal leaders are inserted into cast-iron pipes
-called shoes at the base, which in turn are trapped on the inside
-of the cellar wall and connected with the house-drain. It is always
-best to try to trap a group of leaders to one trap rather than use a
-separate trap for each leader.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Tests and Precautions</i></h3>
-
-<p>There is nothing very complicated in the plumbing system of the small
-house. Certain sanitary precautions should be observed in arranging
-lines, however. For example, the termination of the main soil-line
-should not occur near a dormer or other window, nor should the
-termination of the fresh-air inlet be located in the cellar wall under
-a door or window. The system when completed in the roughed-in form
-should be tested for leakage by filling it with water, and when all
-the fixtures are connected and every part of the system is supposed to
-be in working order, either the peppermint or the smoke test should
-be used to detect any further possible leakage. The peppermint test
-consists in pouring hot water and 2 ounces of oil of peppermint into
-the top of the system from the roof, after all the fixture traps have
-been filled with water, and then detecting with the nose where the
-leaks are. If the smoke test is employed, a smoke machine is best. Old
-oily rags and tar paper are burned in the machine, which has its flue
-connected with the fresh-air inlet, and the smoke is pumped through
-the system until it appears escaping from the soil-line extension on
-the roof. If there are any leaks, the odor and the smoke stain will
-attract attention to them, and if the water-closet traps in the bowls
-are defective, the yellow stain of the smoke will make it very evident.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3><i>Refrigerator Connections</i></h3>
-
-<p>The drainage from the refrigerator should never be directly connected
-with the drainage system of the house. If the plumbing code requires
-any connection at all, the usual arrangement is to drip the ice-box
-water into a lead-lined tray which has a pipe at least 1¼ inches in
-diameter that carries the water down to the laundry-tubs in the cellar
-and spills it into them. On the other hand, if there are no plumbing
-regulations, it is best to drain this water off into a small hole in
-the ground into which has been thrown gravel, and this will permit the
-water to soak into the surrounding soil.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Water-Supply Pipes</i></h3>
-
-<p>If there is a city supply of water, the small house should have a
-main supply-line from the water-main in the street of at least ¾-inch
-diameter, but this does not give the service that a larger pipe, say a
-1¼-inch pipe, does, for often with the smaller pipe, if the water is
-being drawn in the kitchen, none will be secured from the faucets in
-the second-floor bathroom. The kitchen-sink should have a service pipe
-of at least ¾ inch, the tubs the same, and the lavatory ½ inch.</p>
-
-<p>All service-lines should be compact and as direct as possible, and long
-horizontal runs under floors should be avoided. Hot-water supply-lines
-should be kept at least 6 inches from cold-water lines. There should
-be a shut-off at the entrance of the supply-line to the house, at the
-base of all vertical risers, and under each fixture. To avoid water
-hammer, it is best to take all faucets off the sides of the termination
-of pipes, rather than from the ends, for in this way an air-cushion can
-form, relieving the pounding action of the water in the pipes.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Supply-lines should never be run in the corners of buildings
-where they are in danger of freezing, and they should be kept
-out of the exterior walls of houses as much as possible for the
-same reasons. The packing of pipes where they pass through
-the floors will often prevent freezing caused by cold drafts
-around them.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Hot-Water Supply</i></h3>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_113.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="365" />
-</div>
-
-<p>It is generally accepted to-day that the most convenient method of
-securing hot water in the small house is with the instantaneous type of
-gas-heater, connected with a boiler for storage purposes, but capable
-of delivering water directly into the pipes without passage through
-the boiler, when a sudden demand is made upon it. These gas-heaters
-have a system of Bunsen-burners which heat the water as it passes
-through a series of copper coils, and generally the water is warmed to
-a temperature of 100 degrees in one passage. They are automatically
-controlled, so that when the temperature of the water goes below a
-certain fixed standard the gas-burner is lighted by a small pilot-light
-until the proper temperature is reached, when it is shut off again.</p>
-
-<p>Although these heaters are arranged to deliver hot water directly from
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
-the coils, yet if they had no boiler to store up the water, much larger
-heaters would be required than necessary. For storage purposes, then, a
-40-gallon boiler is satisfactory for a residence with one bath and one
-kitchen, and if there are two baths a 50-gallon boiler is needed. The
-usual location of the boiler and heater is in the cellar.</p>
-
-<p>However, where there is no gas to be used, the coal-heater must
-be employed—either the tank-heater or the water-back in the
-kitchen-range. The latter was the usual old-fashioned method of heating
-the water, and the boiler was located alongside of the kitchen-range.
-The size of the water-back was proportioned on the basis of 2 square
-inches of heating surface to each gallon storage capacity in the
-boiler. The tank-heater is a special coal-burning stove, designed to
-serve as an iron-warmer and a water-heater, being usually placed in the
-laundry in the cellar. Another method of securing hot water, which is
-not recommended, is to place heating coils in the furnace; it obstructs
-the fire-pot, chills the fire, overheats the water in cold weather and
-underheats it in warm weather, and does not operate at all during the summer.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Fixtures</i></h3>
-
-<p>The modern bathroom fixture may be made of one of three materials: true
-porcelain, earthenware, or enamelled-iron. The true porcelain fixtures
-are the heaviest, the most durable, and the most expensive. The
-material is non-absorbent and white in color, and the surface presents
-a gloss which is in reality a form of glass. When it is chipped the
-fracture shows the material below as white, and a drop of ink will not
-be absorbed by it.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>In imitation of the porcelain fixtures are made earthenware ones, but
-which are in no way to be compared to the true porcelain, although a
-casual glance at them would lead one to think that they were porcelain
-fixtures. However, a chip from the surface will reveal the yellow
-and porous texture of the earthenware below the glazed surface. The
-glossy white surface in time stains and becomes covered with small
-hair-cracks, unlike the porcelain fixtures, and for this reason they
-are not as sanitary nor as durable. They are cheaper than the true
-porcelain fixtures, but this material should be avoided in water-closet
-bowls, but is admissible for use in tubs and lavatories.</p>
-
-<p>The enamelled-iron fixtures are considered by most to be superior to
-the earthenware fixtures, since they do not craze, are lighter, and
-generally more durable. The quality of this ware can be judged by the
-absence of roughness, blisters, bubbles, and spots, and freedom from
-hair-cracks and peeling. Bathtubs of the modern type made of enamelled
-iron have the rich appearance of porcelain fixtures, since the sides
-are rolled over and covered with enamel, unlike the old-fashioned
-types, which had the interiors lined with the enamel and the exteriors
-painted with white paint.</p>
-
-<p>The mechanical operation of the various fixtures is so well
-standardized that not much choice is given between the catalogue of
-one firm and another. The best type of water-closets are the siphon,
-the siphon-jet, and the converging jets, the latter being a more
-modern development, which has eliminated the noise of the siphon
-action and yet which accomplishes a quick and rapid flushing action.
-The lavatories which are most commonly specified are of the pedestal
-type, although the modern tendency in sanitary bathroom design is to
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
-eliminate as far as possible all junction of fixtures with the floor,
-for it is here that dirt and stains develop. Such arrangements carried
-to the extreme would require a sunk bathtub, a lavatory without legs,
-and special compartment for the water-closet, but this would be absurd
-for the small house. However, the built-in bathtub is far superior to
-the old-fashioned tub which stood upon legs, and under which all manner
-of dirt could collect.</p>
-
-<p>We often hear the remark that no wonder the cost of living to-day
-is so much higher than it was with our ancestors, who knew nothing
-about the clean, tile-lined bathrooms with porcelain tubs, white and
-glistening lavatories with all the cold and hot water needed, while
-in the old days the wooden tub, set up in the kitchen near the range,
-was good enough for the Saturday-night bath, and the tin pan, filled
-under the hand-pump outside on the back porch, was good enough to wash
-the hands in each morning. But although the modern bathroom and the
-modern plumbing system is an economic burden to the small house, it is
-doubtful if we shall ever see the day when it is abolished in order to
-cut down on the cost.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>IX</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">METHODS OF HEATING</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<h3><i>System Adapted to the Small House</i></h3>
-
-<p>The heating problem for the small house was for our ancestors a very
-simple mechanical device, consisting, as we all know, of either the
-fireplace or the stove. The former method still has a charm which we
-are not willing to dispense with, although we do not depend upon its
-efficiency to do the actual work of warming, but install some more
-complicated system, such as a steam heating-plant, to perform the
-practical work. A fireplace has a sentimental and intellectual warmth
-that no radiator can supply.</p>
-
-<p>Even the stove has a certain fascination for many, recalling cold
-wintry nights when the family sat about the red-hot casting, the women
-knitting and the men burning their shoe-leather and smoking. Some
-advocates of the stove are so energetic in their arguments concerning
-the efficiency of this method of heating that one almost doubts the
-defects which lead inventors to manufacture other devices. But the
-housewife knows the labor of shovelling coal into three or four
-stoves, knows the great clouds of hot, fine ashes which rise into the
-atmosphere and settle upon the shelves, the tops of picture-frames, and
-the polished surface of the piano.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_118_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="274" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Warm-Air Furnace with Pipes</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Steam Heat—One-pipe</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-    <img src="images/i_118_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="237" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Steam Heat—Two-pipes</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Hot Water Heating</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>And the inventor saw the tired, worn look of the housewife, removed the
-stove to the cellar and installed tin pipes from this central heater
-to the various rooms, and then waited for applause and purchasers. It
-seemed so simple, but it did not solve the problem entirely, for when
-the wind blew from the north into the windows, it pressed out the warm
-air from the exposed rooms, forced it down the pipes up through which
-it was supposed to come, and then rushed it up the flues on the south
-or warm side of the house, overheating this part and leaving the cold
-rooms of the house unheated. The drum of the furnace over which the air
-passed to receive its warmth from the burning coal would leak every
-time fresh fuel was added, for the odor of coal-gas became very evident
-throughout the house. Moreover, the heat was very dry and unpleasant,
-so that water-jars had to be set about to moisten the air.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Then came the inventor again with a new device, a steam-boiler, pipes
-to distribute the steam, and radiators to give off the heat in the
-steam to the room. Here at last was a method of heating which would
-supply warmth in the cold parts of the house, even under the windows,
-through which the chilliest air penetrated. But the sizes of the
-radiators were calculated to heat the house to 70 degrees when it was
-zero outside, although the average winter day was much warmer than
-this. In this way the occupants of the house were cooked with an excess
-of heat during moderate weather, for there was no way to regulate the
-amount of heat given off from the radiator; it either was filled with
-steam, giving off its maximum quantity of heat, or else it was empty
-and cold.</p>
-
-<p>To meet this difficulty presented by the steam-heated radiator,
-the hot-water system was developed. Instead of distributing heat
-with the medium of steam which under low pressure was fixed at one
-temperature, heat was circulated by hot water from the central boiler.
-The temperature of this water could be regulated for mild weather by
-lowering the fire. However, since the hottest water was cooler than
-steam, it required larger radiators and more piping, so that the
-initial cost of a hot-water plant was more than that of a steam system.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_120_a.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="164" />
-    <p class="center">Simplified diagram of<br />Vapor-vacuum system</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In order to overcome the disadvantages of the inflexible
-steam-radiator, inventors finally developed the so-called
-“vapor-vacuum” system of steam-heating. In this equipment the air was
-driven from the entire length of pipes and from the radiators by the
-pressure of the rising steam from the boiler, and forced through a
-special ejector which closed when the steam came in contact with it,
-preventing the return of air into the interior. Thus when the pipes and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
-radiators were filled with steam (there being no air left), no pressure
-was set up to resist the circulation of the water vapor, and when the
-hot steam condensed in a radiator to a thimbleful of water, more steam
-was drawn in to take its place, for no air could enter the pipes. In
-this way the quantity of steam delivered to the radiators could be
-regulated by a special valve with a varying number of ports, and by
-turning the valve to a certain position enough steam would be permitted
-to enter the radiator to keep it half full, or by shifting the valve
-to another point enough steam would enter to fill the radiator to
-three-quarters of its capacity. In fact, the requisite amount of steam
-could be admitted to the radiator to balance the speed of condensation
-and retain whatever level of steam in it was desirable. Thus the steam
-system became at once a flexible system of heating, and could meet the
-changing requirements of the weather.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_120_b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="158" />
-    <p class="center">Hot water radiator<br />heated by steam</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A further development of the hot-water system then came about. In this
-device the radiators were made to contain water, but the heat was
-circulated through the pipes by means of steam. This steam was poured
-over the surface of the water in the radiator and transferred its heat
-to it. According to the quantity of steam poured over the water, the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
-latter could be heated to various temperatures. Of course the water in
-the radiator was the medium for distributing the heat outward from the
-radiator itself.</p>
-
-<p>Still another improvement was made upon the hot-water system by
-introducing the principle of the closed expansion tank. In the ordinary
-system the water is allowed to expand at the top through an expansion
-tank, so that the actual pressure on the water of the system is
-atmospheric. Under this pressure the temperature of the water cannot be
-raised to more than 212 degrees Fahrenheit, for beyond this it boils
-and changes to steam. However, in the closed-tank system a so-called
-heat-generator is added on the line leading to the expansion tank,
-which, by means of a column of mercury, is capable of adding 10 pounds
-more pressure than the atmosphere to the water in the system, and thus
-raising the boiling-point to about 240 degrees. This generator is so
-designed, however, that, although it adds this greater pressure to
-the water, yet the natural expansion of the water in the system is
-permitted through it in case of emergency. By permitting the raising of
-the temperature of the water, the size of radiators can be cut down 50
-per cent, which, of course, reduces the quantity of water needed and
-permits a quicker heating of the system when the fire is started. Thus
-a saving of fuel is accomplished and the disadvantage of the ordinary
-hot-water system is eliminated; namely, the long time required to get
-hot water in the radiators after the fire is started in the morning
-from its banked condition of the previous night.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_122_a.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="268" />
-    <p class="center">Pipeless Furnace</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>However, the genius of the inventor was not at rest on the problem of
-warm-air heating, for he discovered that he could abolish the flues,
-which he once thought were essential, and use but one register and one
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
-flue. This is called the pipeless furnace. A register is employed
-which has an outer and inner section. The outer section permits the
-cold air from the house to pass down through it and over the drum of
-the furnace. The inner section of the register permits this hot air to
-escape upward and through the house by natural distribution. Thus the
-hot air rises from, and the cool air settles back into, the furnace
-without utilizing flues. The circulation of this system was found to
-be superior to the older method as ordinarily installed, and very much
-cheaper to install. In fact, it is the cheapest of all systems of
-heating. It is especially adapted to the small, low-cost house.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_122_b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="188" />
-    <p class="center">Hot Water Heating—Boiler<br />in Dining-Room</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>To reduce the cost of hot-water heating and make it also available for
-this class of small house, the manufacturers produced another type of
-water heating-plant. In this device the water-heater was installed
-in one of the rooms of the house, like a stove, but the exterior was
-designed to serve as a hot-water radiator for the room in which it was
-placed. From this heater pipes were taken off to distribute heat to
-other radiators, located in adjoining rooms. The principle remains the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
-same as the former system; the only difference lies in the reduction of
-cost by eliminating the boiler from the cellar and utilizing it to heat
-the room in which it was placed.</p>
-
-<p>Other attempts to improve the mechanics of heating have been more along
-the line of perfecting the operation of valves or the utilization of
-other fuels than coal. Gas-radiators have been tried, but they are so
-expensive to operate in most parts of the country that they are not
-always suited to the needs of the small house. Electric heaters, too,
-are not within the pocketbook of the average person owning the small
-house. Fuel oil-burners also have been devised to take the place of the
-coal-grate. Wherever oil is cheap enough to permit their use they are
-great labor-savers, since they eliminate all the shovelling of coal and
-handling of ashes. These will be discussed later.</p>
-
-<p>Briefly, then, the available systems for the heating of the small house are:</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Heating systems." cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><i>Hot-air.—a.</i></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Furnace with flues.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><i>b.</i></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Furnace without flues.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><i>Steam.—a.</i></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Ordinary gravity system.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&emsp;One-pipe.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&emsp;Two-pipe.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><i>b.</i></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Vapor-vacuum system.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><i>Hot-water.—a.</i></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Ordinary open-tank system.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&emsp;One-pipe.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">&emsp;Two-pipe.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><i>b.</i></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Closed-tank system.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><i>c.</i></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Special open-tank system with boiler used as radiator.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><i>d.</i></td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Patent system using water in radiators but steam for circulation.
-                 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<h3><i>Methods Employed in Calculating the<br />Required Size of Heater</i></h3>
-
-<p>The basis of calculating the required size of any one of the systems
-previously mentioned is to assume that a certain temperature of heat
-is to be maintained when the weather is zero, and then by means of the
-laws of heat transmission estimate the quantity of heat lost per hour
-from the house. The amount of heat lost per hour is, of course, the
-quantity which the heating system must supply. Knowing this, a system
-is installed which is capable of supplying this heat loss.</p>
-
-<p>In such devices as the warm-air furnace the required size can be
-computed directly to meet the heat loss, but where radiators are used
-the required sizes of these must first be determined to offset the
-losses from the rooms in which they are installed, and then the size of
-the heater must be estimated to supply sufficient heat to the radiators
-and to make up for the losses of heat through the distributing-pipes.</p>
-
-<p>The usual temperature to which the small house is heated when it is
-zero outside is 70 degrees Fahrenheit. It is then assumed that a
-certain quantity of heat is lost through the walls of the house by
-radiation and convection and conduction, and another quantity lost by
-the leakage of warm air out through the window-cracks. (The quantity of
-heat is measured in British thermal units, called B. T. U.’s.)</p>
-
-<p>To understand the manner by which heat is lost through the exterior
-walls, it is necessary to know the meaning of radiation, convection,
-and conduction.</p>
-
-<p>By standing before an open fire the heat given off by radiation can be
-observed by shutting it off with a piece of paper held between the face
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
-and the fire. This is the transmission of the heat through the ether,
-and is similar to the transmission of light, since this heat will pass
-through glass, like light.</p>
-
-<p>Convection of heat is illustrated by heating air in one place and
-transferring that air to another place, where it will give up its heat
-to surrounding bodies.</p>
-
-<p>Conduction of heat is illustrated by heating the end of an iron rod and
-noticing that the heat will eventually be transmitted along the length
-of it to the other end.</p>
-
-<p>The heat within a house escapes from the interior to the colder
-atmosphere of the exterior through the walls, by radiation through the
-glass windows and the substance of the walls, by the convection action
-of the warm air of the interior giving up its heat to the interior
-face of the wall and the cold air of the exterior extracting this heat
-from the exterior face and carrying it off, and also by the action of
-conduction of the materials of which the wall is composed.</p>
-
-<p>The quantity of heat lost is measured by the number of B. T. U.’s lost
-through one square foot of the wall each hour. As the window-glass
-loses heat through it more quickly than the wall, it is necessary to
-calculate this separately. The process, then, for estimating the heat
-loss from a room is as follows:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>1. Estimate the number of square feet of exposed wall surface in the
-room, including windows.</p>
-
-<p>2. Subtract from the above the area of the windows to find the net
-wall area.</p>
-
-<p>3. Multiply this net wall area by the number of B. T. U.’s which the
-wall loses per square foot of surface for each hour.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>These factors are given in the following table:</p>
-</div>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Heat loss estimation." cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc" rowspan="3">TYPE OF WALL</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&emsp;Zero outside and 70 degrees</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">inside—Number of B. T. U.’s</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">lost for each square foot of</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Brick wall, furred and plastered:</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">wall surface each hour</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">8" thick</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">21.0</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">12" thick</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">17.5</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Frame wall, sheathed, clapboarded,&emsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">21.7 (with building-paper use</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"> and plastered</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">20.3)</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<p class="blockquot">Hollow-tile wall and concrete and stone have factors
-about the same as for the furred brick wall.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_126.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="590" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">SIDE ELEVATION</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>4. Add to this the number of B. T. U.’s lost per hour through the
-windows. This is determined by multiplying the area of the windows by
-the heat loss in B. T. U.’s per hour for each square foot of window,
-which is 78.8 for single windows, and where storm-windows are added it
-is 31.5 B. T. U.’s.</p>
-
-<p>5. This total sum is the number of B. T. U.’s lost through walls and
-windows for each hour.</p>
-
-<p>6. To this must be added the heat lost by leakage through the
-window-cracks. This is secured by measuring the length of window-cracks
-on the side which has the greatest length of crack and multiplying this
-by 168, or the number of B. T. U.’s lost each hour for each linear foot
-of window-crack. For very tight windows reduce above to 84.</p>
-
-<p>7. The total of all the above gives the number of B. T. U.’s lost
-each hour from the room when the outside temperature is zero and the
-inside is 70 degrees Fahrenheit.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Knowing the quantity of heat lost per hour, a radiator must be
-installed which will supply this amount per hour. As the average
-steam-radiator supplies about 250 B. T. U.’s per hour from each square
-foot of its surface, the number of square feet required for a radiator
-to be installed in the room can be found by dividing 250 into the
-number of B. T. U.’s which were found to be lost from the room each hour.</p>
-
-<p>A hot-water radiator gives off about 150 B. T. U.’s per hour for
-each square foot of surface, so that the radiator is generally about
-one-third larger than the steam-radiator.</p>
-
-<p>Knowing the required number of feet of radiation for the radiator, the
-proper size can be selected from the manufacturer’s catalogue.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>By lumping the total number of square feet of radiation for all the
-radiators throughout the house together and adding 35 per cent to this
-to make up for loss through pipes and under-rating of boilers, the size
-of the boiler can be selected from the catalogue to fit this need.</p>
-
-<p>To estimate the size of a warm-air furnace, the total quantity of heat
-lost from all the rooms of the house should be calculated in the same
-way, and then 25 per cent added to allow for cold attics and exposure.
-This quantity should then be multiplied by 2.4 and divided by 8,000
-to find the number of pounds of coal which will be required to be
-burned per hour. By dividing this amount by 5, the grate area of the
-required furnace can be found, and the correct size selected from the
-manufacturer’s catalogue.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>X</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">LIGHTING
-   AND ELECTRIC WORK</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<h3><i>Modern Developments</i></h3>
-
-<p>When we talk of lighting the modern home, there is generally but one
-idea that enters our minds—electric lighting. Even those dwellings
-remote from any power-house are installing small generators in
-preference to the oil or gas lighting systems.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_129.jpg" alt="" width="100" height="205" />
-    <p class="center">The modern<br />50-watt bulb</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Then, too, when we refer to good lighting we no longer think of
-glaring bulbs of light, exposing all the harsh glow of the white, hot
-filaments, causing one’s eyes to squint and strain to find things in
-the corners of the room; but we picture a room flooded with mellow
-illumination emitted from fixtures which shield the direct rays of
-light from our vision.</p>
-
-<p>Another change that has come about in our conception of good
-illumination is the quantity and intensity of the light we expect from
-the incandescent bulb. It was only a few years ago that we marvelled
-at the yellow light given off by the 16-candle-power carbon-filament
-bulb. But to-day if a bulb gave off as feeble an attempt at lighting
-as did these old ones we would think it on its way to the graveyard of
-lightning-bugs. We cannot talk of 16-candle-power lamps when the glow
-of a modern Mazda light is around. We used to specify on the plans
-so many 16-candle-power lights for the dining-room or living-room
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
-fixtures, and it is hard to change our habits to refer to the modern 40
-or 50 watt lamps which have taken their place in the home.</p>
-
-<p>Thus within a period of not more than ten years our whole conception of
-illumination has been jolted out of a rut.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Indirect Lighting</i></h3>
-
-<p>Now we have reacted so far in the matter of protecting our eyes from
-a direct view of the source of light that some enthusiasts advocate a
-system of indirect illumination, concealing the lights so completely
-from the eyes that their location is difficult to know. This is
-carrying the problem too far beyond its rational limits. Such a system
-of indirect illumination reduces shadow to a minimum; consequently the
-forms and the beauty of objects in the room are flattened. Moreover,
-the eye unconsciously is confused at not being able to locate the
-source from which the illumination comes, and, being puzzled, the mind
-naturally resents it. For the small house, at least, the system of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
-indirect illumination carried to this extreme is not at all suitable.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="I_130" id="I_130">&nbsp;</a>
-    <img src="images/i_130.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="304" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">Fig 1</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A type of fixture which develops a partial indirect illumination, and
-yet which allows a certain quantity of light to come through direct to
-the eyes, so that the source of light is easily discernible is the most
-satisfying and most suggestive of home comfort. Such a fixture is shown
-on <a href="#I_130">page 122</a>.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Common-Sense Solution Needed</i></h3>
-
-<p>Moreover, the lighting of a small house must be studied with common
-sense, and no rule of the thumb can be laid down. Certain enthusiastic
-illuminating engineers offer typical plans and suggestions for the
-wiring of houses, which plans are crowded so full of outlets that they
-look like a map of the starry heavens. We have in front of us now such
-a plan in which a small living-room is marked to contain four wall
-outlets containing two lights each, two more outlets on each side of
-the fireplace, a wall plug for attaching a portable lamp or two lights,
-and a central ceiling outlet for four lights. In addition to these is
-another base plug and floor plug. The room is about 14 by 17 feet, and
-if all lights were turned on at once and all base plugs attached to
-lamps there would be a possible grand total of twenty 50-watt lamps
-in this medium-sized room. Such brilliant illumination might please
-the jaded nerves of the tired business man, but his wife would never
-consent to such a garish display of wealth-eating current.</p>
-
-<p>The problem of illumination for the small house can be sanely
-considered from five different angles: (1) General illumination; (2)
-local illumination; (3) ornamental illumination; (4) movable lamps; and
-(5) light control.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>By general illumination is meant the lighting required to flood the
-room as a whole, and not locally in any one corner. The easiest and
-commonest method of doing this is to provide a central fixture,
-containing from two to four 50-watt lamps, or their equivalent, which
-are hidden in some commercial type of semi-indirect lighting fixture.
-The type of fixture shown on <a href="#I_130">page 122</a> is one of the
-finest, and with a silk shade around it the warm, cheerful effect of a home is
-greatly enhanced by this method of lighting. When this fixture is hung in the
-dining-room or living-room a single 200-watt Mazda lamp is employed,
-while in the other rooms a single 100-watt lamp is used. In the kitchen
-no shade is necessary. Usually in laying out the electric outlets
-upon a plan the central dining-room and living-room lights are shown
-to carry four 50-watt lamps, and those in the other rooms, in the
-hall, and on the porch are marked to have two 50-watt lamps or their
-equivalent.</p>
-
-<p>But it is not absolutely essential to have a central light for general
-illumination. Some architects prefer to have a certain number of wall
-lights controlled by one switch, and obtain a general glow with these
-lamps. By securing the right type of fixture which shields the raw
-filament of light from the eyes, this method of general illumination
-often produces a feeling of comfort and homelikeness unsurpassed by the
-other system.</p>
-
-<p>In those rooms where work is done under the central light, such as
-the kitchen and pantry, and where opaque, indirect reflectors have
-been used throughout the rest of the house, it is essential to provide
-direct lighting-fixtures, so that the light can be thrown down upon the
-working plane. Translucent reflectors or prismatic reflectors are used, and
-a frosted bulb or a porcelain-tipped bulb is most suitable with this reflector.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Local illumination is intended to give greater intensity of light over
-certain portions of the room where work is carried on. Either a wall
-light or a special drop light, protected by a reflector, is used.
-Such lights are placed conveniently over the kitchen-sink and side
-table, over the laundry-tubs and ironing-board, over the coal-bin,
-near the boiler and over the work-bench in the cellar, by the side of
-the lavatory in the bathroom, over at the side of the dresser in the
-bedrooms, inside of closets and alongside of the serving-table in the
-dining-room. These local outlets are generally planned to carry two
-50-watt lamps or their equivalent.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_133.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="139" />
-    <p class="center space-below1"><i>Types of Direct Lighting Reflectors</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Other wall lights than these are usually introduced for ornamental
-purposes. The side lights for the fireplace in the living-room, or the
-panel lights on the wall, or the bracket lights for the bookcase cannot
-be considered more than ornamental features. Not more than one 50-watt
-lamp is planned for these outlets.</p>
-
-<p>In addition to the general, local, and ornamental illumination are
-those portable lamps which have become more and more a serviceable and
-decorative feature of the home. The reading-lamp in the living-room,
-the light for the music on the piano, the table-lamp in the bedroom,
-and the candle-lamps on the dining-room table are the most used of this
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
-portable type. To properly attach these bulbs, a base-board outlet must
-be installed at a convenient place in the room, so that the electric
-cord to the light will not have to be too long nor pass across any part
-of the floor where it may trip up the feet of some absent-minded member
-of the family.</p>
-
-<p>When the lighting of the small house has been considered from these
-angles, the control is then the essential problem. The incoming
-feeder, the meter, the house switch and service switch, and the
-distributing panel must be located conveniently in the cellar. Often
-the distributing panel with its fuses is placed on the first floor for
-convenience of replacing a burned out fuse when some line has been
-overcharged.</p>
-
-<p>The next matter of control is the location of switches. All central
-outlets and general illumination should be controlled by a switch at
-the entrance-door to the room. The usual type of switch used is the
-so-called three-way switch.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_134.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="204" />
-    <p class="center space-below1"><i>The 3-way Switch to control<br />light at two places</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The hall light should be controlled from up-stairs and from
-down-stairs. The porch lights and the front and rear door lights should
-be switched on and off either from the inside or outside of the house.
-One light in the cellar should be governed by a switch at the top of
-the cellar stairs. And this is about all the complication of control
-necessary.</p>
-
-<p>Now, in addition to the lighting of a house, certain floor and
-base-board outlets must be provided for attaching various electrical
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
-devices that have become rather common. In every cellar there should be
-at least one special power-current outlet for any household machinery
-that might be installed. In the laundry there should be at least two
-special outlets to which a washing-machine, a mangle, electric drier,
-or an electric iron can be connected.</p>
-
-<p>There should be at least one special outlet in the kitchen to which
-may be attached a motor for operating the coffee-grinder, egg-beater,
-ice-cream freezer, dish-washer, etc. Sometimes an electric refrigerator
-may be installed, in which case an outlet must be provided for this motor.</p>
-
-<p>Sometimes a special outlet is installed in pantry for a dish-warmer or
-water-heater.</p>
-
-<p>In the dining-room a floor outlet should be provided for operating on
-the table such things as a toaster, chafing-dish, coffee-percolator,
-egg-boiler, etc.</p>
-
-<p>In the living-room a floor outlet will be found useful for such
-electric apparatus as would be carried on a tea-table or for running a
-home stereopticon.</p>
-
-<p>In the bathroom and in the master’s bedroom a special outlet is useful
-to connect up such devices as vibrators, hair-driers, curling-irons,
-shaving-mugs, electric heaters, etc.</p>
-
-<p>Base-board outlets of the ordinary type should be distributed
-throughout the house to provide convenient connections for vacuum
-cleaners and fans.</p>
-
-<p>Most of these electric devices require not more than 600 watts.
-Electric irons, toasters, chafing-dishes, coffee-percolators, and other
-heating mechanisms use up to this maximum of watts, but motor-operated
-machines, like fans and ice-cream freezers, require about 100 watts.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>As to the kind of wiring which the architect should specify,
-he has a limited choice. The knob-and-tube system is the
-cheapest, but not the safest. The flexible cable (BX) is better,
-although slightly more expensive. Rigid conduits or flexible
-steel conduits are not suited to the economic needs of the small
-house and are not used, except in special places. For example,
-an overhead feed wire may be brought in from the street at the
-level of the cornice, and then carried down to the cellar in a
-rigid conduit on the outside of the house.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_136_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="72" />
-    <p class="center"><span class="ws4">Cleat</span></p>
-    <img src="images/i_136_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="110" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Knob</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Tube<span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-    <img src="images/i_136_c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="58" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Flexible Conduit (BX)</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws8">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Rigid Conduit</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>In addition to the wiring for lighting there must be an independent
-system for bell service. The current for such a system must be supplied
-by dry batteries when the local power company gives a service of direct
-current, but when it supplies an alternating current a transformer can
-be used and the bells operated upon this energy. In the kitchen there
-should be a magnet-operated annunciator, connected with the front and
-rear doors and the dining-room push-button.</p>
-
-<p>In laying out the lighting plans for a small house the standard symbols
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
-shown here are used, but a key should always be given to their meaning
-upon some part of the sheet, for it must be appreciated that the
-contractor can easily forget.</p>
-
-<p>As an aid to laying out the lighting system on the plans, the following
-checking list is suggested, since it is simple.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <p class="f120"><b><i>SMALL HOUSE<br />ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT LIST</i></b></p>
-    <img src="images/i_137.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="581" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Unless specified to the contrary, it is usual to assume that wall
-outlets in the living-room are to be placed 5 feet 6 inches above the
-floor, in bedrooms 5 feet 4 inches, and in halls 6 feet 3 inches. The
-usual height at which switches are placed is 4 feet.</p>
-
-<p>Thus, by using common sense and the phrase in the specifications, “All
-work shall meet the requirements of the National Electric Code,” and
-requiring the contractor to furnish a certificate of approval for the
-entire installation as issued by the Board of Fire Underwriters having
-jurisdiction in the community, the architect has a reasonable surety of
-securing a good and safe system of wiring and lighting.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>XI</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">CONSTRUCTION OF THE TRIM</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>The wood trim, the doors and windows, and the built-in furniture of
-the small house can make or mar its appearance more than any other
-one factor. Indeed, in no other form of architecture is the study of
-these details more important, and yet in no other type of building is
-the limitation of cost more exactingly imposed upon the architectural
-treatment of the trim.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_138.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="429" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">The kind of stock trim which some mills<br />
-                                   continue to keep on hand</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_139_a.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="212" />
-    <p class="center">A good Stock Trim<br />From “Curtis Co.”</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>By the very economy demanded in the small house, the architect must
-make the mouldings of his casing in the simplest possible forms. The
-trim around doors and windows on the exterior and interior can boast
-of no special mouldings. In fact the selection must be made from stock
-material or else the cost will be too great. Most planing mills have
-standard types of trim, but generally they are very badly designed.
-However, one cannot go wrong in using a plain board casing ¾ inch by
-3⅝ inches, which has slightly rounded corners. The tops of doors and
-windows which have this simple casing should be capped with a fillet
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
-⁷/₁₆ inch, a head casing ¾ inch by 5 inches, and a cap mould 1⅛ inches
-by 2 inches. This eliminates the mitred corner, which is of such
-doubtful value in cheap work, since most wood trim is not properly
-seasoned and will quickly open all mitred joints.</p>
-
-<p>To match this simple trim the window apron should be a plain board
-¾ inch by 3⅝ inches, and the stool 1⅛ inches by 3⅝ inches. A plinth
-block at the base of the door trim in size 1⅛ inches by 3¾ inches by 7¼
-inches will match up with a plain base-board, ¾ inch by 7¼ inches, or
-one of similar size, with a cyma recta moulding on top.</p>
-
-<p>If the local mill from which the trim is purchased has stock mouldings
-of pleasing design, the architect may safely specify them, but he
-should not make the economic mistake of demanding specially designed
-casing from full-size details of his own. The small house cannot stand
-this additional cost.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_139_b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="165" />
-    <p class="center">Any Mill will have<br />the above in stock</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In selecting the trim, it is always important to bear in mind that it
-must harmonize with the walls and have no obtrusive appearance, since
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
-it acts with the walls as a background for the furniture. In Colonial
-work the painting of the trim white, pearl-gray, or cream is always
-the most pleasing, and so the architect should select a wood which
-will best take the paint. White wood and white pine are ideal for this
-purpose. Gum wood is good, but there is always the chance that it will
-not hold its place and twist. Yellow pine is difficult to paint well,
-since the hard summer wood has a tendency to stand out beyond the
-softer spring wood, making the surface irregular; but this difficulty
-can be overcome if a number of priming coats are used to fill in the
-grain before the enamel is applied. It is a mistake to finish the
-painted trim with a glossy enamel, for this will destroy its quietness
-and background effect. A matte surface of paint or an egg-shell enamel
-finish is better.</p>
-
-<p>This same principle should be followed in selecting and treating the
-hardwood casing which is not to be painted. The trim should never
-be finished with a bright, glossy varnish and stain, for nothing is
-more ugly in its final effect. Treat the hardwood trim, such as oak,
-chestnut, ash, and the like, with an oil stain; rub in a filler,
-stained slightly darker, and then shellac. Over this apply a wax
-finish, and rub this down with a shoe brush. Varnish manufacturers make
-grades of varnish which give the dull effect of wax, and these can be
-used, if desired; but why? Many prefer to even omit the shellac and
-depend entirely upon the wax for the gloss.</p>
-
-<p>When trim is delivered to the job, it should not be stored in a damp
-place nor fitted in place before the plaster is entirely dry. In fact,
-in order to protect the trim from losing its shape, as soon as it comes
-on the job a priming coat, or filler, should be applied to it, and the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
-ends and back painted with white-lead and oil. It will be noticed that
-all well-designed trim has a gouged-out space at the back to permit
-circulation of air around it, and also to make it easier to fit against
-a flat surface of plaster.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_141.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="332" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Stock Bed Mouldings</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Stock Crown Mouldings</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>Mouldings for the trim of exterior cornices, string-courses, and the
-like are often specially designed by architects for the small house,
-but it is a much better plan to use stock mouldings, selecting them
-to approximate the design that is desired. Through the efforts of
-many concerns the market affords many well-designed stock patterns of
-mouldings for exterior purposes. The idea is sound, and makes possible
-a great variety of designs through the standardization of parts, but at
-the same time cutting down the cost.</p>
-
-<p>Likewise the standardization of doors and windows is another economic
-aid for the small house.</p>
-
-<p>As a rule, all exterior doors should be at least 1¾ inches thick, and
-of white pine, painted. The veneered door is not a very satisfactory
-type for outside use, unless, perhaps, it is protected by the porch,
-for even with the best waterproof glue there is a considerable tendency
-on the part of the veneer to break away from the soft pine core. Some
-consider that the 1⅜-inch-thick door is satisfactory for exterior doors
-in the small house, but, generally speaking, it is best to use this
-thickness only for interior doors.</p>
-
-<p>Softwood doors, 1¾ inches thick, have panels, if they are raised, only
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
-1⅛ inches thick; while doors 1⅜ inches thick have raised panels only
-⁹/₁₆ inch thick, and flat panels ⁵/₁₆ inch thick. The latter is quite
-evidently too thin for exterior doors.</p>
-
-<p>Interior doors of veneered woods usually have flat panels, ⁵/₁₆ inch
-thick, except the one-panel door, which is as thick as ⁷/₁₆ inch.
-Such panels consist of three layers, the two outside veneers and
-the interior softwood core with the grain running at right angles
-to the veneer. The stiles and rails of well-built veneered doors
-are made of built-up pine blocks, glued and locked together, with a
-tongue-and-groove joint, and fastened at the corners with hardwood
-dowels. Strips of hardwood to match the veneered face should be placed
-on each edge of the stiles and rails.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_142.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="275" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Stock Exterior Doors</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws7">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Stock Interior Doors</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p class="space-above2">The common-stock sizes of doors are as follows:</p>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub4">2 feet by 6 feet.</li>
-<li class="isub4">2 feet by 6 feet 6 inches.</li>
-<li class="isub4">2 feet by 6 feet 8 inches.</li>
-<li class="isub4">2 feet 4 inches by 6 feet 6 inches.</li>
-<li class="isub4">2 feet 4 inches by 6 feet 8 inches.</li>
-<li class="isub4">2 feet 6 inches by 6 feet 6 inches.</li>
-<li class="isub4">2 feet 6 inches by 6 feet 8 inches.</li>
-<li class="isub4">2 feet 6 inches by 7 feet.</li>
-<li class="isub4">3 feet by 6 feet 8 inches.</li>
-<li class="isub4">2 feet 8 inches by 7 feet.</li>
-<li class="isub4">3 feet by 6 feet 8 inches.</li>
-<li class="isub4">3 feet by 7 feet.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
-The commonest type of window for the small house is equipped with the
-double-hung sash. This sash should be made of 1⅛-inch white pine,
-mortised and tenoned at the corners. The meeting rail ought to be
-rabbeted so that water is prevented from seeping through, and the
-bottom rail ought also to be rabbeted to fit over a similar rabbet in
-the sill. The size of the lower rail is usually 3 inches wide, the
-sides and top rails 2 inches wide, and the meeting rail 1⅛ inches wide.
-It is generally admitted that a window has little architectural charm
-without muntins, and these are made ¾ inch wide, as a rule. The glass
-of the window is inserted into the sash frame at least ¼ inch, and
-its plane is about one-third in from the outside face of the rails.
-The over-all dimensions of a window sash are determined by the size
-glass used, and as glass is cut in inches, the over-all dimensions of
-a sash will be in fraction of inches. For example, a double-hung sash
-of twelve lights, each 8 inches by 10 inches, will give a sash opening
-of 2 feet 4½ inches by 3 feet. If the lights measure 9 inches by 12
-inches, then the sash size will be 2 feet 7½ inches by 4 feet 6 inches.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_143.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="627" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The best type of double-hung window-frame is constructed so that the
-blind stop is rabbeted to receive the pulley stile, preventing any wind
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
-from blowing through. The pulley stiles are usually made of yellow
-pine, but the outside casing and sills should be of white pine. It is
-also a good precaution to have the sill rabbeted to receive the ground
-strip, so that air cannot come underneath the sill. The use of 1³/₁₆
-inch-thick material is common for all parts of the frame except the
-sill, which ought to be 1¾ inches thick. A 2¼-inch depth should be
-allowed for the weights in the box, and a space of ⅞ inch left between
-the stud and the top of the frame. Parting strips are made ⅜ inch wide.</p>
-
-<p>Where the frame is to be built into a masonry wall, the back of the
-weight-box is closed in, and a moulding, called the brick mould, should
-be provided for covering the outside joint between frame and masonry.
-In order to make this joint tight in hollow-tile construction, it is
-essential to stuff the back of the brick mould with elastic roofing
-cement.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_144.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="525" />
-    <p class="center">CASEMENT WINDOWS</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>There is not much reason to rehearse here the pros and cons of the
-casement window. When such windows open in, the screens and blinds are
-easier to handle, but the weather is apt to leak in more. When the
-sash opens out, screening is difficult, unless some patent operating
-hardware is used, but the window is more weatherproof. In either case,
-the difficulty of weathering can be overcome to a large extent by not
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
-attempting to keep out the rain, but lead it down and around the
-sides, draining it off at the sill. This is accomplished by cutting a
-¼-inch half-round groove around the sides and in the sill to act as
-a canal for collecting the water which has seeped in. A few ¼-inch
-round weep-holes from the groove in this sill outward will drain this
-collection of water off. Casement frames are made of heavier material
-than those used for double-hung sash, 1¾ inches being common. As the
-sash is hung from the sides like a door, its weight must not be so
-great that it will cause it to sag, and for this reason it is customary
-to limit the width of sash to 2 feet maximum. Some designers believe
-that the sash should also be at least 1¾ inches thick.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_145.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="433" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Although blinds add to the cost of the small house without apparently
-adding practical value, yet they are one of the most useful mediums
-of securing variation of color on the elevations. In Colonial days
-shutters served to protect the house, and were made solid with only a
-small hole in them, generally of some ornate cut-out design, like a
-half-moon, flower-pot, etc. To-day we want slats for ventilation. A
-good compromise, then, is to make the lower part of slats and the upper
-part solid, with a cut-out design. The stiles and rails of the shutter
-are made of 1⅛-inch material, the bottom rail being 3½ inches wide, the
-stiles and top rails 2 inches wide. Intermediate rails are often made
-2½ inches wide. It is best to project the stile 1 inch below the bottom
-of the lower rail, so that water collecting on the sill can drain off
-underneath the blind.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>In addition to the blinds, the window should be equipped with screens.
-These should be of copper, for only this material is economical in the
-long run. They are usually made of ¾-inch material, and the lower rail,
-stiles, and top rail made 1¾ inches wide.</p>
-
-<p>Other mill work of the exterior, such as porch columns, rails, etc.,
-ought to be built up from stock mouldings and patterns. There are
-numerous concerns selling well-designed wooden columns. The great
-danger of using stock columns, however, is in the fitting. Certain
-stock lengths are made with well-planned entasis, but if the design
-calls for an intermediate length the column is cut short, which
-destroys its proportions. On this basis many select square columns, or
-thin wooden columns without much entasis. The illustrations show some
-common-stock sizes for other outside trim, such as lattice, top rails,
-bottom rails, balusters, etc.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_146.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="520" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Of the interior mill work the stairs are the most important. For the
-small house they should be very simple, not only for economy but for
-appearance. Plain round and square balusters, 1³/₁₆ inch, and two to
-a tread, simple hand-rail and simple newel post, 3¾ inches, are more
-effective than elaborately turned members. The height of the hand-rail
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
-from the top of the tread to the hand-rail on a line with the face of
-the riser should be 2 feet 6 inches. The slope of the stairs should
-preferably be confined between 30 degrees and 35 degrees, and the
-common proportion between tread and riser should be maintained (tread
-and riser = 17½ inches).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_147.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="392" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The treads should be of 1⅛-inch hardwood, and the risers of 1³/₁₆-inch
-softwood, rabbeted into the riser. Outside strings ought to be ⅝ inch
-thick where finishing on a ⅝-inch base. Inside strings should be
-1³/₁₆ inches thick. Enclosed stairs between walls should have strings
-fitted down on treads and risers, but elsewhere inside strings should
-be rabbeted for treads and risers. Newels should be housed out over
-supports.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_148.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="386" />
-    <p class="center">This is what the speculative builder<br />spends money on</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A feature of the small house which is neglected too much is the
-installation of built-in furniture. There is a substantial quality
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
-about such furniture which no mobile furniture can possess. The
-bookcase built into the wall, the window-seat permanently a part of the
-room, a charming mantel-piece, good panelling, built-in china-closets,
-tables, and benches in the breakfast alcove, a modern kitchen dresser
-with the equipment of a portable cabinet, dressing-tables, and closet
-shelves and drawers, medicine-cases and radiator enclosures are
-features which add so much to the small house that it seems strange
-that they are so often omitted. Many a speculative builder has realized
-the value of such furniture and sold his house upon the attractiveness
-of it. He knows that the young couple who purchases the small house
-usually comes from the small apartment, and has little furniture to
-spare. Here then is a place to spend money and not to economize.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>XII</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">LESSONS TAUGHT
-   BY DEPRECIATION</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>What happens to the small house after it has been built? This is a
-question which should interest both the architect and builder, because
-from the answer can be had some very important lessons in construction.</p>
-
-<p>To know where the weather, mechanical wear and tear, fire and water,
-begin the decay of the house is to know where to specify materials
-which will give the greatest durability to the whole.</p>
-
-<p>This decay is called the natural depreciation of the house, but it
-is the architect’s duty to make this as insignificant as possible.
-It is essential to study the local conditions under which the house
-will have to stand. At the edge of the seashore, where the damp and
-salty winds are prevalent, one would be foolish to specify metal for
-screens, gutters, valleys, and leaders, which tended to go to pieces
-by corrosion. But in a dry locality the specifying of, say, galvanized
-iron for these parts would save money on the initial cost, and might
-not cause too great depreciation.</p>
-
-<p>Likewise, the choice of the general materials of which the house is
-built should be influenced by the experience of the neighborhood.
-A wooden house in a seashore resort requires painting very often,
-and perhaps a brick house would in the end be more economical. A
-wood-shingle roof on a house, tucked away under the dense trees of a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
-lake shore, would have a very short life, and the use of some more
-permanent material would justify the additional expense.</p>
-
-<p>Indeed, on all hands, in every locality, we have lessons to learn
-concerning what happens to a house after it has been built, and how it
-might have been avoided. To stimulate the reader to observe more in
-this direction we will call attention to some of the most obvious ways
-in which a house depreciates.</p>
-
-<p>Examine most houses which have stood for ten to twenty years, and
-it will be found that the foundations in nearly every case have
-settled unevenly, to a greater or less extent. This may be due to
-unforeseen causes, such as the action of underground water, frost, and
-disintegration of mortar, but generally it is the result of foundations
-built by the rule of the thumb. A wooden house seems so light that the
-average builder never bothers to consider the footings nor the loadings
-on them. Many walls are built without any footings at all, even though
-part of them rest on stone and other parts on earth. Now, of course,
-nothing serious as a rule comes of this slightly uneven settlement,
-but, add it to other things, and the depreciation of the property goes
-on rapidly.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_151.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="298" />
-    <p class="center">Uneven Settlement</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>As an example of this, one house might be mentioned which was greatly
-marred by the settling of the footings under the porch columns. These
-columns supported the second floor, which projected over the porch.
-The amount of settlement was only about two inches, but this caused
-the windows to lose their rectangular shape, making the operation of
-the sash impossible, destroyed the drainage direction of the gutters,
-necessitating the relocation of the leaders and the repitching of the
-gutters, opened up the crack between the floor and the base-board, and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
-made a large crack in the plaster wall and ceiling. The cause of it all
-was the building of the porch column footings upon filled-in earth,
-while the foundations of the rest of the house were upon rock. Uneven
-settlement was sure to take place under such conditions.</p>
-
-<p>This same damaging effect of settlement is often noticeable in wooden
-frame houses, which have not been properly constructed to avoid uneven
-distribution of cross-section wood in the walls and partitions.
-Wherever there is a difference of cross-section of wood in two walls
-which support the same beams, there is sure to be uneven settling.
-The wall which has the greatest number of linear inches vertically of
-horizontally laid timbers will settle the most. This will cause sagging
-floors, sprung door frames, and open joints.</p>
-
-<p>Many cracked stucco walls on the exterior have been caused by too much
-cross-section wood in their framing. A balloon-framed wall makes the
-best backing for an outside wall of stucco, because the studs extend
-from sill to plate without any horizontal timbers intervening.</p>
-
-<p>But it can always be predicted that the masonry walls and parts of the
-house will settle before the wooden walls and partitions. The chimney
-will settle more rapidly than the surrounding partitions of wood, and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
-should, for this reason alone, be built entirely independent of any
-other part of the structure. Where the wooden framed wall butts into a
-chimney and the plaster is continuous over the brick of the chimney and
-the studs of the wall, there is sure to develop a crack at the joint
-because of the unequal settlement, unless the plaster is reinforced at
-this point with metal lath. Likewise, it is bad to support any part of
-the wooden floor upon a girder which bears upon the chimney, not only
-on account of the excessive sinking of the chimney, but the subsequent
-danger of fire which it creates.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_152.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="381" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<a name="I_153" id="I_153"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_153.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="289" />
-</div>
-
-<p>A very bad method of constructing a chimney was imported from Europe,
-years ago, which develops serious fire dangers from its manner of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
-settling. Instead of flashing and counter-flashing the joint of the
-chimney with the roof, this method employed the use of a projecting
-course of brick begun at the level of the roof. Thus the part of the
-chimney above the shingle roof was made larger than that underneath,
-and the outward step was used as a weather lap over the roofing
-material, and no flashing was needed to make the joint tight. Now, when
-the chimney settled faster than the roof, as it would, the upper part
-could not drop, but was caught upon the roof, and lifted from the lower
-part. This made a crack through which the hot gases could escape to the
-attic timbers and start a fire.</p>
-
-<p>On the other hand, wooden framed walls will settle badly, too, when
-dry rot sets into the sills. This is a very common defect in old
-houses, and generally, when any remodelling must be done, the sills
-have to be cut out and new ones set into place. Dry rot in the sills
-is caused by excessive dampness with no circulation of air. Very often
-a builder may take great pains to fire-stop his walls around the sill,
-but forget to leave ventilation space, and the sill is soon attacked by
-the fungus of rot. Unless timbers which come in contact with masonry
-are treated with creosote, or painted, they will be subject to dry rot
-in the average damp, warm climate.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_154.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="292" />
-    <p class="center">Solid Column</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Many porch columns rot at their base and permit the settling of the
-roof. Solid columns are the least durable in this respect, for in a
-short time their core will go bad and the lower part will crumble.
-Wood base blocks for columns should be perforated with holes to permit
-the seepage of water under them. Cast-iron bases are preferred to the
-wooden one, when the column is to set upon a masonry porch floor.</p>
-
-<p>Settling causes many other defects besides those mentioned. The
-house-drain may be broken and the cellar flooded with sewage, if the
-wall around the pipe has been cemented up and it settles. The pitch of
-drain-pipes may be altered so much that back-up action of waste water
-may occur; steps may be caused to sag so that they become unsafe;
-lintels may be broken.</p>
-
-<p>The movement of the footings by frost is another evil that is
-noticeable in many old houses. Sidewalks are cracked, porch stairs
-loosened, drains in areas closed. In most cases like this the footings
-are not extended far enough below the frost-line, or insufficient
-cinder foundations are laid.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_155.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="299" />
-    <p class="center">Weathered Chimney</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>But the action of freezing water leaves its marks on other parts of
-the house. Unless some corrugations in leaders are made, the ice in the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
-winter may burst them. The mortar on copings is loosened by this
-action, and on chimney tops, where heat and gases also help, the
-brickwork soon breaks down. Many failures of stucco work are directly
-caused by frost, and sometimes water leaks into the cells of hollow
-terra-cotta blocks, freezes, and bursts out the shell-like sides.
-The putty around the window is loosened by the drying action of the
-wind, and the prying action of the frost. Water-supply pipes in wall
-near the outside are broken when the cold winds freeze them, and the
-exposed gas-pipes in the chilly parts of the cellar are often entirely
-clogged in a severe winter. Leaks around windows in masonry walls are
-started by frost, and it is common to see tile on the porch floor, or
-brick borders and bases loosened by the same powerful agent that breaks
-boulders from the mountainsides.</p>
-
-<p>The heat of the sun is another destroyer of the house. It is death
-on paint, for it is forever baking it in the steam of the dew of the
-previous night, and when the body of linseed-oil is gone, the paint is
-no good. And it dries out the wood too much some days and spoils the
-jointing. It warps boards up and opens the mitred joints. It causes
-the wood shingles to crack and shrivel, so that when the next heavy
-rain comes the ceilings are stained by leaks. Tar for the roof and soft
-cements are caused to run out of place.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Then, too, there is the deteriorating influence of the artificial heat
-inside of the house. The fireplace tiles are baked loose from their
-mortar beds, cast-iron dampers are cracked, chimneys are clogged with
-soot and catch fire, and thimbles which receive the smoke-pipe of the
-furnace are broken. But the heat from the radiator does much damage. It
-blackens the ceiling above it by hurling little particles of dust up
-against it; it warps and twists the wall-paper; it misshapes the doors
-and windows, and breaks loose the strips of veneer, and it often spills
-water over the floor to ruin the ceilings below.</p>
-
-<p>Added to all of the above depreciation is the natural wear and tear
-caused by the tenants. Floors are worn to splinters where they were
-of flat-grain wood; thresholds are thinned down, stair tread scooped
-out. Plaster is broken by moving furniture, and decorations stained by
-accidents of all varieties. Locks, hinges, and bolts are broken.</p>
-
-<p>Particularly is the mechanical equipment of the house subject to
-such deteriorating influences. Plumbing fixtures are broken, pipes
-are clogged, and joints made to leak through the corroding action of
-strong acids poured down the pipes. Radiator valves are turned out of
-adjustment, boilers are burned out, and hundreds of other things happen
-to this part of the house because of careless hands.</p>
-
-<p>Thus we may say that the important factors of depreciation which an
-architect should keep in mind are unequal settlement, action of frost,
-washing-out effects of rain-water, corrosion, the heat of the sun, the
-artificial heat of the furnace, and the foolishness of tenants.</p>
-
-<p>Unequal settlement can be prevented by carefully examining the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
-construction, and the action of frost, heat, and sun can be minimized
-by the use of proper materials, and the foolishness of tenants can be
-partly offset by selecting those mechanical devices which are as near
-fool-proof as human hands can make them.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>XIII</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">SELECTING
-  MATERIALS FROM ADVERTISEMENTS</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the planning of the construction of the small house, the architect
-has many problems of selection, such as the choosing of this brand of
-roofing material from among many makes or the specifying of this type
-of furnace from among many patterns, and, in fact, the selection of
-the best type and the best materials which the market affords in all
-branches of structural and mechanical devices. If he does not specify
-any one brand, but merely states that the contractor shall use an
-approved make of paint or an acceptable brand of hydrated lime, he has
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
-merely deferred his ultimate choice in the matter to a later date,
-for in the end he must decide whether the particular make or brand
-is acceptable, and in order to do this he must know enough about the
-various makes and brands on the market to judge wisely and in a fair
-spirit, for the chief motive in back of the contractor’s choice will be
-rather one of money than quality.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_158.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="371" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The problem, therefore, which confronts the architect in acting as
-judge of materials and brands as to their quality is very serious and
-extremely full of pitfalls, and outside of his personal experience
-and that of his friends, the choice must be made upon the claims of
-the manufacturers as presented in advertisements. Now, of course,
-the difficulties which advertising literature presents are the
-overstatements which are found in them and the suppression of facts
-which appear to the makers as derogatory of their product. But if the
-circulars of information and advertising statements are collected
-for any one type of mechanism or any one type of material or system
-of construction, it will be found that the truth of the matter will
-be implanted in the accumulated statements of the various concerns
-manufacturing these mechanisms or materials. What one manufacturer
-does not say another will, and very often a rival firm will reveal the
-defects of its competitor’s products by its advertisements. In fact,
-if you want to find out what is the “nigger in the wood-pile,” read
-the advertisements of a rival manufacturer. Of course it is not good
-taste in advertising to knock the other fellow’s products, but general
-statements are made which are enough to enlighten the alert reader as
-to what should be the good points to look for.</p>
-
-<p>For example, suppose the architect knew little or nothing about what
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
-should be the good qualities of a hot-air furnace of the pipeless type,
-but had before him the advertisements of various makers which we will
-designate as <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, and <i>E</i>, although
-the quotations which are given are accurately taken from real
-advertisements of well-known firms, the identity of which we have
-purposely concealed under the assumed titles of the letters of the alphabet.</p>
-
-<p>Let us pick up advertisement of (<i>A</i>) manufacturer, and select what
-appear to be the important statements which occur in it. We read:
-“The grate is slightly cone-shaped, which breaks up all clinkers and
-makes the fuel roll toward the wall of the fire-pot, where air is
-mixed with the gas. This generates a much greater degree of heat than
-it is possible to obtain with the old duplex and flat grates, and
-clinkers that would form and be wasted in other furnaces are thereby
-consumed.” From this the architect has learned to consider the question
-of the grate, and certainly he has definitely found out what is the
-disadvantage of the furnaces which use the old duplex or flat grates.
-It ought to be his aim to ask the manufacturer of furnaces using these
-types of grates what they have to say in defense of this indictment.</p>
-
-<p>But let us continue to read: “The ash-pit is large and roomy on
-the inside, and is provided with a very large door, which makes it
-convenient for the removal of ashes.” It is evident from this that
-there are furnaces on the market which have this defect of too small an
-ash-pit and door. The architect can then mentally pigeonhole this as a
-point to be considered in examining a furnace.</p>
-
-<p>Continuing our reading we come across this statement: “The (<i>A</i>)
-radiator is cast in one piece, with no joints to be cemented or bolted
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
-together.” This is evidently a reflection upon the weaknesses of other
-makes which have radiators that are bolted and cemented together, and
-on investigation we soon learn that furnaces often have leaky radiators
-which permit the coal-gas to escape into the warm air delivered through
-the house. Here is a definite defect to be remembered.</p>
-
-<p>Suppose we turn now to advertisement (<i>B</i>), and here we read the
-following: “Insulating air-chamber acts as a positive division between
-the bodies of warm and return air.” This is certainly a hint of a
-possible defect in a furnace. Perhaps not all of the furnaces are
-adequately insulated at this division between the bodies of returning
-cold air and the outgoing warm air, with the resulting loss of
-efficiency and sluggishness of circulation.</p>
-
-<p>Reading on in the same advertisement we find the following: “The
-(<i>B</i>) smoke-plate is an added precaution against the leakage of smoke
-and gas.” Evidently there is some possibility of smoke leaking into
-the warm air, or else this device would not have been suggested, and
-probably there are some furnaces where this is a very serious objection.</p>
-
-<p>Turning to the next advertisement, (<i>C</i>), we read: “Only the best
-grade of iron goes into the casting.” This is another consideration; for
-evidently, from the following, certain types of furnaces do not use
-the best castings, and give trouble. “Breakdowns and imperfections are
-reduced to a minimum. The endless series of treatments and repairs is
-never required.”</p>
-
-<p>A further reading tells us that “the humidifier is ample capacity,”
-which statement suggests the possibility that not all humidifiers are
-large enough.</p>
-
-<p>But look what advertisement (<i>D</i>) informs us: “No heat lost by being
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
-radiated through casing into cellar.” This is certainly an interesting
-point to consider. And reading on we learn: “Long fire-travel in
-radiator insures a cool smoke-pipe and there is no fuel wasted.” This
-is surely a matter of design that ought to be observed in good furnaces.</p>
-
-<p>Still another fact is brought to light by “Fire-pot—one piece,
-heavy-ribbed for purposes of increasing its radiating surface and to
-give it greater power of resistance against expansive force of the fire.”</p>
-
-<p>But here is something none of the other advertisements have told us:
-“Steel radiators are preferable for the use of hard coal; cast-iron
-radiators for soft or hard coal or wood.” Also: “Radiators can be
-turned in either direction, thereby permitting smoke-pipe to be
-connected with chimney from the most advantageous point.”</p>
-
-<p>Finally, when we read in advertisement (<i>E</i>) the following, “Grate-bars
-are quickly removed and replaced. No bolts used,” we wonder whether
-other furnaces use bolts, and whether there is a real objection to them.</p>
-
-<p>Taking the information given in these advertisements, we can now make
-the following list of points to be considered in selecting any one make:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>1. Is the grate so designed that clinkers will not form?</p>
-
-<p>2. Are the grate-bars easily removable?</p>
-
-<p>3. Is the ash-pit large and roomy and is the door amply large?</p>
-
-<p>4. Is the radiator in one piece or so well fastened that it is
-gas-tight?</p>
-
-<p>5. Is the radiator steel or a high grade of cast-iron?</p>
-
-<p>6. Is the inner casing so well insulated that it prevents premature
-heating of the descending air-currents?
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>7. What protection is there to prevent the chance passage of smoke
-into the warm air-chamber?</p>
-
-<p>8. Is the outer casing properly insulated to prevent the waste of
-heat into the cellar?</p>
-
-<p>9. Is the humidifier of ample capacity?</p>
-
-<p>10. How is the fire-pot designed to increase the efficiency of its
-radiating surface and how is it strengthened against the expansive
-force of the fire?</p>
-
-<p>11. Is there a long enough passage for fire-travel, so that no waste
-of heat is lost up the chimney?</p>
-
-<p>12. Is the radiator flexible enough to permit of the connection of
-the smoke-pipe from the most advantageous point?</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Most certainly this is an array of matters to be considered in the
-selection of a furnace which no one, except an expert, would think of,
-but they are all drawn from the advertisements, and this process of
-study is open to any one who is interested in learning the technical
-difficulties involved in the selection of this particular mechanical
-device. Perhaps not all of the knowledge gained is scientific, but
-at least there are stimulating bits of information that should be
-investigated.</p>
-
-<p>Let us take one more example of this amusing game of comparing
-advertisements as applied to roofing materials. Here we will find many
-conflicting statements, but out of the whole battle of words we can
-glean some interesting truths.</p>
-
-<p>Turn to advertisement (<i>A</i>) and we read the following: “Nearly every
-objection to wood shingles as a roof-covering is applicable to slates,
-which have still other adverse features. Slates are not fireproof.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
-Ask the underwriter how the insurance companies regard them, and
-especially how, in comparison with clay tiles, they are not permanent,
-though more so than wood shingles.... Slates attract lightning, and
-while the sun warps shingles and the wind rips them off, slates are
-easily broken, and if there is even a slight settlement or vibration,
-repairs are necessary. Moisture gets under them, and during the winter
-months especially causes them to lift up and break off. When the ice
-thaws, the broken pieces slide out, leaving a defective place in the
-roof. This will happen every winter with a slate roof, and to keep such
-a roof in perfect condition it must be gone over each spring and the
-broken slates replaced with new ones.”</p>
-
-<p>Turning to advertisement (<i>B</i>) for asbestos shingles we read a
-different point of view: “Unfortunately, however, slate, particularly
-that which is obtainable on the market at present, does not last much
-longer than <i>clay tile</i> or tin shingles.”</p>
-
-<p>But reading from advertisement (<i>C</i>) we are amused at the following:
-“Slate being solid rock, they simply cannot wear out. They cannot
-rust, decay, crack, tear, warp, shrink, disintegrate, melt, burn, or
-smoulder. They will not contract or expand under the influence of heat
-or cold. They never need painting. They will not attract lightning—nor
-will they permit the growth of moss or decaying vegetable matter....
-One of the most important advantages is from the insurance standpoint.
-Many roofs (not alone wooden shingles) are highly inflammable; but
-a slate roof will not ignite from sparks from fire in an adjacent
-building, from passing locomotives, or from any other cause. This fact
-is so well recognized that insurance companies allow a very substantial
-reduction in rates on slate-roofed buildings.”
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The contradictory statements here are very amusing, but the truth can
-be seen between the lines, that the makers of clay tile really believe
-that slate is their real rival, and have searched very hard to pick
-flaws in it as a material for roofing. And when the advertisement of
-the asbestos shingle manufacturer is read, we learn that slate does
-not last much longer than clay tile. But both are insistent upon the
-opinion of the fire underwriters, and for this reason we naturally turn
-to see what they have to say, and we find that both slate and tile are
-under Class A roofing materials, with little difference made between
-them. As for the point of attracting lightning, why is slate used for
-switchboards if it is as good a conductor of electricity as a statement
-of the above type would imply? It is quite evident that one’s opinion
-of slate after all this controversy will be about on a par with one’s
-opinion of clay tile, and that one will realize that poor grades of
-either slate or tile, or poor workmanship, are rather more the causes
-of failure than the material itself.</p>
-
-<p>Many more examples might be given of this interesting method of
-learning the truth from advertisements, but the principle in all cases
-remains the same, so that further quotations would only amuse rather
-than instruct.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>XIV</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">ROOFING MATERIALS</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>A roofing material should not be judged by its first appearance, but
-rather by its condition after four or five winters have passed over it.
-And in choosing the roof for the small house, this is a statement which
-applies with even greater emphasis, since the temptation is magnified
-to select that material which is low in cost and bright upon its first
-appearance.</p>
-
-<p>As an illustration, there are certain types of wood-shingle roofs
-which have a charm in the beginning that is apt to disappear with age.
-These are constructed of shingles, dipped in many varieties of colored
-creosote stains, browns, reds, greens, blues, yellows, and the like,
-and when newly laid have a warm, mottled, and colorful texture which
-suggests the multiplicity of tone that nature often produces with age.
-In fact, the designer who originated this roof was trying to imitate
-the aging effect of nature, much as Tiffany glass is an imitation of
-the effect of time upon certain ancient glasses; only in the latter
-case the operation is the same but the time element reduced, while in
-the case of the roof it is a theatrical imitation of nature at work.</p>
-
-<p>And there are many other fads in roofing, all of which have as their
-basis the imitation of the weathering effect of nature. Ridge-poles
-are constructed with a sag to resemble the settlement which is often
-observed in picturesque old houses. Shingles are laid, like the scales
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
-of an armadillo, and ridges, hips, and eaves are rounded to present
-the appearance of old thatched roofs. Asbestos shingles are broken
-with rough edges, and defective tiles are used—all for the purpose of
-giving that ragged appearance which nature develops with age. Now, to
-a certain extent there is an element of architectural truth in such
-devices, but they should be used with the greatest discretion, for, as
-has been previously asked: “If a roof looks old when it is new, how old
-does it look when it really is old?”</p>
-
-<p>Before discussing the various methods of laying roofing materials, let
-us observe some of them after they have been on the house for a few years.</p>
-
-<p>Of course, we are all familiar with the short life of the wooden
-shingle, which is only about fifteen years. But the life can be
-extended by dipping them into creosote stains, either just before
-laying or by the more convenient processes of factory dipping. Cedar
-has been found to be the best wood for these shingles, since it has
-a natural resistance to decay. The old hand-split shingles were more
-durable than the modern shingles, for the surface that they exposed
-to the weather was the natural cleavage plane of the wood fibres. The
-sawed shingle delights in curling and twisting out of a flat plane, and
-always seems to split so that the crack lines up with the space between
-the shingles on the course above, thus permitting the rain to leak
-through. And then the nails either rust away or the wood rots around
-them, until individual shingles drop away from the others, leaving
-small or large holes in the roof. It is well recognized that the sparks
-from a neighboring fire find a ready meal in the punk and rotten butts
-of the shingles, and many a house has been burned to the ground because of this.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The nearest competitor to the wooden shingle in cost is the asphalt
-shingle, which is made from roofing felt, saturated with asphalt
-compounds, and surfaced, under pressure, with crushed slate of greenish
-or red hue. The life of these shingles depends a great deal upon
-the thickness of the body. Some roofs, laid with very thin asphalt
-shingles, develop an appearance of chicken-pox after a year or two,
-for the heating effect of the sun, the lifting force of the wind and
-ice cause certain individual shingles to bend up from the plane of the
-roof and, in extreme cases, even flap in a heavy gale, like so many
-small pin-feathers. But this is not so true of the thicker grades of
-these shingles. Often, too, these asphalt shingles bulge under the hot
-sun, but this is due to careless laying, for each shingle should be
-separated from the other by a small space to allow for this expansion.
-It takes a good many years for the crushed slate on the surface to
-wear off, but gradually this happens, as also the elasticity of the
-body degenerates. Finally, as the surface begins to moult, the shingle
-itself becomes stiff and brittle and begins to break off. Of course,
-these shingles are superior to wood in resisting sparks from a near-by
-fire, and their life is longer, if they have a thick enough body.</p>
-
-<p>That same material used for asphalt shingles is made into roll
-roofings. So-called shingle strips are made, which consist of long,
-narrow rolls of asphalted felt with the crushed slate surface, the
-lower edge of which is cut out to form the lower third of the shingles,
-and, when applied to the roof, the appearance is identical to a roof
-laid with individual units. Another type of roll roofing is made to
-imitate wood shingles, by having a shingle pattern stamped with black
-asphalt upon the surface of crushed slate. It is laid on the roof from
-the ridge down to the eaves, lapping joints with the next roll about
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>
-two inches. At a distance the black pattern gives the camouflaged
-appearance of a shingle roof. The chief objection to any of these roofs
-is that the long and large areas are nailed down along the edges so
-that the sag and expansion of the material raises little bumps and
-hills over the entire roof, which, to say the least, is very unsightly.
-Then, again, the nails are exposed, and unless they are copper, the
-chances are that they will rust away before the roof is worn out,
-permitting the edges to become loose and the wind to get under the
-material and rip it away from the roof. Moreover, the roll roofing has
-only one thickness at any point, while the shingle roofing has either
-two or three layers over the entire area of the roof.</p>
-
-<p>The cheaper grades of slate roof, such as one would be tempted to use
-on the small house, show weaknesses in aging that should not be used as
-arguments against slate roofs in general. These cheap roofs are built
-up of poorer grades of slate, and very thin sheets at that, and a poor
-grade of nail is used. The effect of weathering on such roofs is to
-chip off pieces of slate and to rust the nails, so that whole units
-drop off. Generally, too, in these cheap slate roofs, the tar paper is
-omitted from underneath, and the wind suction through the roof draws
-the snow through the cracks onto the floor of the attic, where it melts
-and stains the ceilings below. However, properly selected and well-laid
-slate roofs have none of these disadvantages, but then the cost of them
-is generally a barrier to using them on the small house.</p>
-
-<p>As with the slate roof, so with the tile roof, the cost is generally
-the reason for not selecting it, and yet, from an economical point of
-view, in the end they are not as expensive, since with the less durable
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
-roofs one is never sure of how much damage to the interior a leak will
-cause. Tile roofs of poor quality have as bad reputations as slate
-roofs. Small, thin tile are very brittle, and falling limbs and other
-objects often break individual tiles, and it is very hard to replace
-them. Unless the tile are laid upon a building-paper the wind suction
-is even worse than with slate roofs.</p>
-
-<p>Probably the greatest defects in tile or slate roofs is not in the
-material itself, but in the flashings and valley construction. Instead
-of using copper the flashings are usually of tin, which is permitted to
-rust out because of neglect in painting. Leaks develop in the valleys
-and around chimneys in spite of the roofing material.</p>
-
-<p>While asbestos shingles can show great practical durability, even
-superior to slate and tile in some cases, yet there are many instances
-of ugly weathering. Tile and slate roofs develop warm, lovely tones
-with age. Asbestos shingles, since they are chiefly made from cement
-under pressure, must necessarily depend for their color upon inert
-pigments introduced into their composition at the time of manufacture,
-and for this reason their color is apt rather to fade than become
-richer with age. Their tendency is to return to the natural color of
-the cement. For this reason we see on every hand red asbestos shingle
-roofs which have bleached out to sickly and thirsty pinks, and brown
-roofs that have blanched to whitish-brown, much like the color which
-chocolate candy develops when it is very stale. Then, too, certain
-makes of asbestos shingles show, as time goes on, salt-like deposits on
-the surface, like the whitewash which appears upon brick walls. This
-gives a motley appearance to the roof, for some shingles will develop
-this white stain more than others.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The reader should not draw from these statements the general conclusion
-that the asbestos shingles should not be used, and that there have been
-none made that overcome the above difficulties, but it would be well
-for him to observe these defects before deciding upon any one brand.</p>
-
-<p>The manufacturers of tin advise that the tin be painted on both sides
-when laid, and thereafter kept painted at four to five-year intervals.
-In other words, the tin roof is as good-looking as the paint which
-covers it, for it has no color or texture of its own. Can there be much
-charm in a roof of this kind? Can one picture a cosey and homelike
-small house with either a flat or standing seam tin roof? Perhaps the
-flat decks which do not show are satisfactory, when covered with tin,
-but those upon which any walking is to be done should be covered with
-wood lattice or else the nails of the shoes may punch through the tin
-and cause a leak. Tin roofs have their place and their duty to perform,
-but they are hardly suited to flat roofs over which is to be done much
-walking. Heavy deck canvas, laid in paint and covered with paint,
-is the best for this purpose. The ferry-boats give evidence of the
-practical wear of this kind of roof.</p>
-
-<p>Tin or galvanized-iron shingles or imitation tiles are often seen
-applied to the roofs of small houses. The owner probably admired a real
-tile roof, and the nearest approach his pocketbook would permit him to
-come to it was the use of imitation tile of tin, copper, or galvanized
-iron. Most architects ridicule this peculiar weakness in human nature
-which chooses imitation diamonds, glass pearls, oil-paper stained-glass
-windows, and pressed-metal tiles, instead of real ones, but they should
-look to themselves before they throw stones, and ask who invented the
-imitation thatched roof of wooden shingles.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3><i>Shingle Roof</i></h3>
-
-<p>The wooden-shingle roof is of such old and traditional origin in this
-country that it seems useless to describe the essential features of its
-construction, yet for the sake of completeness we shall call attention
-to the important points to be observed. Cypress, cedar, and redwood
-are considered to be the best woods from which to saw shingles. The
-grain of the wood should be vertical and show the edge. It is generally
-conceded that creosote-dipped shingles which are treated at the
-factory are easier to apply than those dipped on the job, and, as all
-wood shingles should be treated with some preservative, it is well to
-consider them. However, much criticism has been aimed at factory-dipped
-shingles, in that they are generally too brittle from overdrying in the
-kilns, but this is not true of all makes. The sizes and the weathering
-of some of the standard creosoted shingles are as follows:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p class="no-indent">16 inches lengths, random widths, laid 4½ inches to the weather,
-and either 5 or 6 shingles at the butt ends to 2 inches.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">18 inches lengths, random widths, laid 5½ inches to the weather,
-and 5 butt ends to 2½ inches.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">24 inches lengths, random widths, laid 7½ inches to the weather,
-and ½ inch thick at the butt ends.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>There are about thirty varieties of colored stains to select from, and
-special shapes are cut for constructing the so-called thatched roof,
-the shingles being bent to a curve of about 20 inches radius. The pitch
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>
-of wooden-shingle roofs should not be less than 8 inches rise per foot
-for the ordinary weathering shown in the above statements. The tops of
-rafters are covered with shingle lath, with a spacing suitable to the
-weathering arrangement of the shingles. There are some who advocate
-the use of sheathing to cover the rafters in a tight manner and also
-the use of building-paper underneath the shingles, but, although this
-gives a tighter and warmer roof, dry rot attacks the shingle much
-quicker because of the accumulation of dampness on the under side of
-the shingle courses.</p>
-
-<p>The first course of shingles at the eaves should be a double course
-with the upper layer breaking joints with the lower, and the shingles
-should project about 2 inches beyond the mouldings of the eaves and
-about 1½ inches beyond the edge of the gable ends of the roof.</p>
-
-<p>Hips may be finished either with the saddle-board or with a row of
-shingles running parallel to the line of the ridge. Hips are best
-finished with a row of shingles running parallel with their edges,
-which treatment is called the Boston hip. If the courses are carried
-to the hip line and mitred, then the joint must be waterproofed by
-using tin shingles underneath the wooden ones, these tin shingles
-being folded over the hip. The method of flashing around chimneys, at
-the base of dormers, and in open valleys will be more fully discussed
-in connection with slate roofs, and, since the principles are the
-same, what is said for slate roofs in this connection is true for
-wooden-shingle roofs.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3><i>Method of Laying Roofs</i></h3>
-
-<h4>SLATE</h4>
-
-<p>There has been much made of the so-called European method of laying
-slate roofs in recent years, but this type of roof costs more than the
-ordinary slate roof, since special heavy slate is used at the eaves,
-and the weathering is reduced as the courses approach the ridge, and
-special care is taken in blending colored slates. While this type of
-roof is very beautiful, it is really, from a point of view of cost,
-rather out of the race when applied to the small house, for it will be
-hard enough to stretch the estimates of the small house to include even
-the ordinary slate roof.</p>
-
-<p>In the preparation of the ordinary slate roof, the rafters should be
-covered with ⅞-inch thick, tongued-and-grooved roofing-boards. In
-order to prevent buckling, if they should swell with dampness, it is
-essential not to drive the joints between boards up too tight. As these
-boards are surfaced only on one side, this side is laid against the
-rafters and the tongues are placed upward so that a better shedding of
-water is secured. Good nailing with tenpenny nails is important, and
-all joints at ends of boards should be made over rafters. A cheaper but
-not so good a bed for the slate can be made with common, unsurfaced
-sheathing-boards. In the cheapest kind of work sheathing-boards are not
-used, but only shingles lath.</p>
-
-<p>Over the top of this rough boarding should be tacked 11 pounds per 100
-square feet slater’s roofing felt, laid horizontally and lapping joints
-3 inches.</p>
-
-<p>The usual commercial sizes of slates are ³/₁₆ inch thick, and of the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
-following standard sizes: 6 by 12 inches, 7 by 12 inches, 8 by 12
-inches, 7 by 14 inches, 8 by 14 inches, 10 by 14 inches, 8 by 16
-inches, 9 by 16 inches, 10 by 16 inches, 12 by 16 inches, 9 by 18
-inches, 10 by 18 inches, 12 by 18 inches, 10 by 20 inches, 12 by 20
-inches, 11 by 22 inches, 12 by 22 inches, and 12 by 24 inches. They
-have two holes in each piece for nails, which nails should be 1-inch
-copper slater’s nails, or 3d galvanized slater’s nails for cheaper work.</p>
-
-<p>The first course should be started 2 inches below the line of the
-sheathing-boards at the eaves, and the necessary tilt is given with a
-³/₁₆ by 1 inch cant strip. A double thickness of slate is used for the
-first course, the upper layer breaking joints with the lower. At the
-gable ends the slate should not overhang more than 1½ inches.</p>
-
-<p>The exposure to the weather for courses of slate is determined by
-taking one-half of the length of the slate minus 3 inches.</p>
-
-<p>The ridges of the roof may be finished in two ways, either with the
-combed ridge or the saddle ridge. The combed ridge is formed by
-projecting a finishing course and a combing course of slate on the
-north or east side of the roof 1½ inches beyond the top and combing
-course on the opposite side of the roof. Both courses are laid with
-slate set lengthwise, the length being twice the width of the slate
-used on the roof. This last course is laid in elastic roofing cement,
-and the nails are also covered with it.</p>
-
-<p>The saddle ridge is formed by alternately butting the ends of the top
-course on one side with the top course on the other, and then doing the
-same with the combing course. This makes a zigzag joint which is closed
-by the elastic cement used in setting.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The Boston hip is the best. Each course is brought at its upper or
-nailing edge to within 2 inches of the hip line. A small strip of slate
-then finishes this off by fitting to a mitre cut made on a slate set
-parallel with the line of the hip. These hip slates have the lower
-corner of their butt ends on a line with the next lower course, and they are
-lapped with the opposite hip slate and made tight with roofing cement.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_176.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="418" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">SLATE ROOF</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Hips may also be finished by bringing each course up to the hip line,
-and mitring them with the opposite courses on the other side of the hip.</p>
-
-<p>Valleys should be lined with 16 ounces copper, 4 pounds lead, IX tin,
-or a prepared roofing roll weighing 37 pounds per 108 square feet.
-Measuring from the centre of the valley to the edge of the slate along
-the valley, this distance should be 2 inches at the top and increase ½
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>
-inch in every 8 feet length of valley, to widen it out toward the
-bottom. The flashing should extend up under the slate on either side
-about two-thirds the width of the slate used. If 8-inch by 16-inch
-slates are used, this means that the distance should be about 5 inches.
-If the slopes of the two intersecting roofs are different, and there is
-a chance that the volume of water sweeping down the larger and steeper
-incline may be forced up under the slate at the valleys, the metal
-lining should be crimped up (inverted V-shape) at the centre, 1 inch,
-to form a little dam against the rush of the flood.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_177.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="374" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">SLATE DETAILS</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Flashing used against chimneys, dormers, or other vertical walls
-should be bent up 4 inches and extend into the slate courses 4 inches.
-All vertical flashings against masonry should be cap-flashed and made
-tight with elastic cement. The cap-flashing should extend down over the
-flashing 3 inches, and be inserted into the masonry at least 2 inches.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<a name="I_178" id="I_178"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_178.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="313" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Sometimes the closed valley is designed for slate roofs, in which
-case the valleys must be rounded out with the roofing-boards, blocked
-to position. The slate courses should be carried around this curved
-valley, but each course in the valley should be covered with flashing
-just under the lap of the course above and extend up toward the nails.</p>
-
-<h4>TILE ROOFING</h4>
-
-<p>Preparations of the roof for the laying of tile should follow similar
-lines described for slate roofs. Over the roofing-boards should be
-tacked asphalt roofing felt, weighing not less than 30 pounds per 100
-square feet and lapping 2½ inches.</p>
-
-<p>The valleys should be lined with this felt, running the entire length,
-and then the flashing metal placed on top, secured with clips at
-intervals. The width of the valley metal should not be less than 24
-inches, and both edges should be turned up ¼ inch the entire length of
-the strip. The felt covering the main surface of the roof should lap
-over the valley metal 4 inches.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Cant strips must be nailed along the eaves to start the first course of
-tile, unless special tiles are provided. Copper nails should be used to
-fasten these tiles, and each unit should be locked with the next, as
-the pattern demands.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_179_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="315" />
-    <p class="f120">Tile Roof</p>
-</div>
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_179_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="336" />
-    <p class="f120">Tile Roof</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Tiles which border the hips should be cut close against the hip board,
-and elastic cement used to make the joint tight. All hips and ridges
-are finished with specially designed ridge and hip roll tiles, and the
-interior spaces should be left empty and not be filled with pointing
-mortar as is sometimes done.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4>ASBESTOS SHINGLES</h4>
-
-<p>Asbestos shingles are applied in practically the same way as slate.
-Over the roofing-boards should be laid slater’s felt as for a slate
-roof, and a cant strip ¼ by 1½ inches should be nailed along the eaves
-line to start the first course of asbestos shingles, which should be
-a double course and overhang the eaves 1½ inches. The average size of
-asbestos shingles is 9 by 18 inches by ¼ inch for the lower layer of
-the first course, and 8 by 16 inches by ⅛ inch for the upper layer of
-the first course and the other courses. They are laid about 7 inches to
-the weather, and the ridges and hips may be finished with the Boston
-hip, or by a specially designed ridge and hip roll. Where the hip roll
-is used the ridge-pole should project above the roof, or a false one be
-added so that a substantial nailing can be had for this tile.</p>
-
-<p>The most widely advertised asbestos shingle roofs employ shingles
-which have rough edges, and which have various shades of coloring,
-some gray, some red, others reddish brown, and others grayish brown.
-The causes which led to the development of this type of roof were the
-artistic failures of the first asbestos shingle roofs. These early
-roofs were made with shingles which had edges as smooth and sharp as
-steel plates, surface texture as slick as a trowelled cement floor,
-and colors of either gray or pale red that were so perfectly matched
-that at a distance the individual shingles blended into one dead-level
-plane, so that the roof of the house looked more like the armored plate
-of a battleship than anything else—it was so perfectly made.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4>ASPHALT SHINGLES</h4>
-
-<p>Before laying asphalt shingles the rafters should be covered with
-tongued and grooved roofing-boards, and these covered with black
-waterproof building-paper, lapped 2 inches.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_181.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="370" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">ASPHALT SHINGLES</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>There are two types of asphalt shingle units. One consists of a unit
-of twin shingles, so arranged that the butt ends which show to the
-weather appear as two individual shingles, and the other consists of
-one shingle unit. Both types are usually laid 4 inches to the weather
-and nailed with 1-inch galvanized nails No. 10 wire with ⅜-inch heads.
-At the eaves should be nailed a galvanized-metal drip edge, and over
-this a double course of shingles for the first course. Hips and ridges
-are finished with what appears to be a Boston hip, but the shingles are
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>
-bent over the hip line. The valleys and gutters are best when they are
-lined with strips of ready roofing similar to the shingles themselves.</p>
-
-<p>Asphalt shingles which come in long rolls or units of four or five are
-laid in a similar manner, except that, due to their continuous length,
-they are unable to expand without bulging up on the roof.</p>
-
-<h4>TIN ROOFS</h4>
-
-<p>Flat roofs, with an incline of about ½ inch to the foot, should be
-covered with the flat-seam roof. The standing seam may be used on roofs
-with a pitch not less than 2 inches to the foot. The tin is laid upon
-the sheathing-boards without an intermediate layer of building-paper;
-in fact, tar paper should never be used. In cities building codes often
-require that tin roofs should be laid upon roofing felt ¹/₁₆ inch
-thick, placed over the sheathing-boards, but this is a fire precaution
-against burning brands which may drop upon the roof, for this felt
-cushion gives an air insulation, preventing the quick ignition of the
-decking below the tin.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_182.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="316" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">Tin Roofs</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In laying the flat-seam roof a number of sheets are fastened together
-to form a long strip of tin. The edges are bent over ½ inch, so that
-they can be interlocked with the next strip. The tin is fastened to the
-roof with tin cleats that lock into the seams of the sheets and are
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>
-fastened at the other end with two 1-inch barbed-wire nails. These
-cleats are spaced about 8 inches apart. All the seams are flattened
-down, and solder well sweated into them, rosin being the only flux used.</p>
-
-<p>Tin, approximately in thickness 30-gauge, U. S. Standard, is called IC,
-and recommended for the roof proper, while valleys and gutters should
-be lined with IX tin, approximately 27-gauge. It should be painted on
-both sides, before laying, with pure linseed-oil and red lead, or red
-oxide, Venetian red, or metallic brown. Two coats should be given to
-the exposed side and a third coat about a year later. Before the second
-coat is applied the first should have dried for at least two weeks.</p>
-
-<p>The construction of the standing seam roof is shown in the drawings
-to consist of long strips of tin, made of standard sheets fastened
-together with the flat and soldered seam, but the edges of the strips
-fastened to the next strip with the so-called standing seam, which must
-run parallel to the pitch of the roof. Cleats, spaced a foot apart, are
-used to fasten the tin to the sheathing-boards. One edge of the next
-strip is turned up 1½ inches, and then over the top of the edge of the
-other strip. The cleat is locked in between the two. The upstanding
-seam is then turned down again upon itself, tightly locking the strips
-together.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Copper and Zinc Roofs</i></h3>
-
-<p>For a while, during the high prices created by the war, the thought
-of building a copper roof or a zinc roof on the small house would have
-been received with a doubtful shake of the head. This is no longer the
-case, however, for the prices of these materials have come down to
-within reason, and there is no doubt as to their durability. No one has
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>
-questioned the weathering qualities of copper or zinc. The copper roofs
-which have shown such practical durability on large buildings have
-usually been laid about the same as that described for standing seam
-tin roofs. Cold-rolled or soft copper sheets, usually 20 inches wide,
-are used for this roof covering, weighing not less than 16 ounces to
-the square foot.</p>
-
-<p>This type of roof is rather expensive for the small house, even with
-the reduced cost of copper, and for this reason a lighter grade has
-been made, and offered for use in the form of pressed-metal shingles of
-very flat design. These copper shingles have been treated so that other
-colors than the copper shades can be secured.</p>
-
-<p>The zinc manufacturers have also placed on the market zinc shingles of
-special interlocking flat design for use on small houses.</p>
-
-<p>It has always been a debated question as to whether pressed-metal
-shingles were architecturally permissible. Certainly there are
-some forms which imitate the clay tile shingle that are decidedly
-inartistic, but the more natural flat patterns are less subject to this
-criticism.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>XV</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">PAINTING AND
-   VARNISHING THE HOUSE</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>Actually the process of varnishing or painting the woodwork and
-metalwork on the house is the spreading of a thin protective coat, one
-thousandth part of an inch thick or less, over the surface, in order
-to protect it from the wear and tear of use and weather and decay.
-And a marvel it is that any material could be found which spread in
-so thin a film could withstand the chemical action of the sun’s rays,
-the expansion and contraction of the surface over which it is laid,
-the abrasive action of blown sand, hail, and rain, the natural wear of
-walking feet and rubbing clothes and bumping furniture, and a dozen
-other accidents which conspire to mar the surface of woodwork in the home.</p>
-
-<p>Is it a wonder that for this protective coat of varnish all experts
-demand that the best materials be used? But out of ignorance it is not
-always so, for the lower cost of varnish and paint is more evident than
-the quality of the substance of which they are made.</p>
-
-<p>The varnishes which are most used in good houses are made of
-resins, melted in a kettle and mixed with linseed-oil, and thinned
-with turpentine as they cool. They have the peculiar property, when
-spread with a brush over a surface, of hardening by a chemical change
-brought about by absorbing oxygen from the air, and making a strong,
-transparent, protective coat over the substance upon which they have
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>
-been applied. The kind of resins<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a>
-have much to do with the quality of the varnish, since the linseed-oil
-and turpentine are apt to be about the same grade in all varnishes.
-Dark or light varnishes can be made; hard or soft and elastic surfaces
-can be produced; varnishes capable of resisting the wettest kind
-of weather and those which turn white under the least dampness are
-manufactured for various purposes, and practically in all cases those
-varnishes which are the best are the highest in cost.</p>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a>
-  Varnish resins or gums are imported from countries that the average
-  man knows little about. The island of Zanzibar furnishes one of the
-  costliest and finest of gums. It is called Zanzibar copal and is the
-  gum of a fossil tree. New Zealand furnishes the most widely used gum,
-  kauri. It is dug out of the ground by the natives. The west coast of
-  Africa furnishes the gum known as Sierra Leone copal, which is used
-  much in automobile work.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The cheap varnishes which are the most abundant upon the market, and
-which are used for cheap furniture and houses, are made of rosin
-and not resin, or are resin varnishes adulterated with rosin. Most
-houses erected by speculative builders are finished with cheap rosin
-varnishes, but no architect should be guilty of specifying them, for
-he should know better than to attempt to save money by purchasing the
-poorer grades of varnishes, since the real cost of varnished work is in
-the labor rather than in the cost of the materials used. These cheap
-rosin varnishes cannot stand up under the sponge test, which is merely
-the application of a wet sponge to the surface overnight. The next
-morning the rosin varnish will be found to be white and dissolved down
-to the wood, and will never recover its appearance. Better grades of
-varnish may turn white under this sponge test, but upon drying return
-to their original color, but the finest grades of varnish will not be
-affected at all. The difference between these varnishes can also be
-observed by rubbing the thumb over the surface of such a fine varnish
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
-as is on a piano and noticing that no effect other than a higher polish
-is produced, while if the same rubbing is done on a cheap varnish, it
-will be crumbled off from the wood. Every one has seen the ugly surface
-cracks which develop with age in old doors or upon old church pews in
-musty churches of the dark ages of American architecture. In nearly all
-cases these cracks are due to cheap rosin varnishes.</p>
-
-<p>Before varnishing or painting any interior woodwork, it is important to
-observe all the preliminary precautions, or else failure may result,
-even though the work is conscientiously performed in the latter stages.
-One of these early precautions is to paint the back of all trim for
-doors and windows with some good linseed-oil paint, and apply a first
-coat of filler to the outside surface, and all this as soon as it
-arrives on the job. This is to prevent the wood from absorbing the
-dampness which is prevalent in all new buildings, and as most trim has
-been kiln-dried beyond ordinary requirements for construction work,
-it is very thirsty for water, and will soak it up quickly from the
-atmosphere. This trim should not be permitted to stand in the building
-overnight without the priming coat. As the first coat of filler is
-linseed-oil, there is not much excuse for not doing this, for it can be
-applied very rapidly. Of course where the wood is to be stained with
-an oil stain, the application of the linseed-oil before the stain is
-applied will prevent the proper penetration of the stain into the wood,
-and, as the architect generally insists upon seeing samples of the
-staining work before it is applied, the above precautions of protecting
-the wood as soon as it comes are often thrown to the winds.</p>
-
-<p>And in connection with this matter of stains, a word may not be amiss.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
-Most manufacturers make among their many stains certain brilliant-red
-mahogany colors, bright Irish-green colors, and horrible yellows. These
-are made to meet certain gaudy tastes shown by the public, but of their
-use by architects no word could condemn them enough. And on a par with
-these stains is the varnishing with no stain at all of yellow pine
-trim, an architectural atrocity which is committed on every hand in
-small houses. The quiet browns, grays, grayish greens, and the like are
-the only safe ranges of color for staining interior trim, for, after
-all, the casing of doors and windows must blend in with the walls and
-serve as a background for the furniture and not screech at it. And
-directly in line with this statement should be emphasized the rule that
-highly polished surfaces in varnishes for trim are as much out of place
-as brilliant colors. Many architects prefer wax in place of the polish
-of varnish, and with good reason. The manufacturers of varnishes make
-certain grades which dry with a dull finish, and also show samples of
-beautiful dull finishes which can be secured by the laborious method of
-rubbing the final coat of varnish with powdered pumice-stone, water,
-and felt.</p>
-
-<p>But before any varnishing can be done, and for that matter any
-painting, it is essential that the pores of the wood are filled, so
-that the surface to be varnished has no soft and absorbent places, but
-presents a hard and glossy body. Woods like oak, ash, and chestnut
-have such large pores that paste fillers are required to fill them in.
-These paste fillers consist of a solid part like pulverized quartz and
-a liquid part of a quick-drying varnish. It is rubbed over the surface
-of the wood and into the pores and permitted to set, when the excess
-is then wiped off with excelsior and, finally, felt. When the wood is
-stained with an oil stain, this filler may be colored to match.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Architects are often shown samples of the beautiful finishes which
-are possible with the use of this or that manufacturer’s stains and
-varnishes, and supplied with specifications by which they are told they
-can secure these finishes, but much to their sorrow the results are not
-like the samples, and probably never will be. All of these samples are
-made under ideal conditions by the most careful experts. Laboratory
-conditions and regularity and first-class skill can produce finishes
-on a small sample board which could not possibly be reproduced in a
-building except at enormous costs. In the first place, there is always
-more or less dust blowing around in a newly constructed building, and
-not the greatest care is taken in it to provide the exact control of
-humidity and temperature required for drying varnishes. And, as every
-one knows, the men who do the painting are generally far from being the
-most skilful artisans of their trade. It, too, is a big temptation to
-put on one or two heavy coats of varnish instead of three or four thin
-coats, and there is not an expert living who can tell how many coats
-of varnish are on a piece of wood after the work is done. Unless the
-architect has observed each step of the application, he cannot deny,
-when the painter shows him the finished woodwork, that there are not as
-many coats of varnish on it as he required in his specifications. Yet
-time will tell the tale, but then it is too late.</p>
-
-<p>However, the treatment of floors and stair treads is the worry of
-many an architect, although he ought to remember that in factories
-sheet steel is laid on the floors at the doorways, and even this wears
-through. Why should he be disheartened if after a year the stair treads
-and the patches of floors near the door-sills are scratched down to the
-wood through coats of varnish one-thousandth of an inch thick? Even the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>
-best varnish will break down under this abrasion, but only the best
-should be used. Cheap floor varnishes are not worth the labor of
-laying, and yet how many spend money on them. Some architects, and with
-good reasons, prefer finishing the floors with wax instead of varnish.
-As a base for this wax, a thin coat of varnish is excellent. Various
-manufacturers have different formulas for floor waxes, and they are
-more or less complex, but generally turpentine is the softening and
-drying material. The wax paste is rubbed into the floor and polished
-with weighted brushes—a tedious job. However, it is a job which any
-servant or housewife of ordinary intelligence can perform, so that
-whenever the floors become worn around the doors or the stair treads
-become shabby, the housekeeper is able to repair them easily, and there
-is no doubt that a waxed floor is more beautiful than a varnished one.
-But remember the slipping and sliding rugs on a wax floor and be sure
-to fasten them down.</p>
-
-<p>When examined critically, paint is not much more than a varnish with a
-finely ground opaque powder, called the pigment, suspended in it. This
-pigment takes away the transparent qualities of the varnish and gives
-a definite color to the surface. Enamels actually do use varnishes as
-their vehicle or base, but ordinary paint uses linseed-oil, which acts
-much like a varnish, in that it has the property of becoming hard and
-elastic under the oxidizing effect of the air.</p>
-
-<p>The exteriors of most houses are painted with white-lead or zinc-white
-pigments mixed with linseed-oil. Zinc makes a harder paint than
-white-lead, but it is best to mix the two pigments together in the
-proportion of one-third of zinc to two-thirds of white-lead.</p>
-
-<p>In extensive investigations the U. S. Bureau of Standards suggests
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>
-that much saving of money in paint would be made if white paint were
-abandoned altogether in favor of dark-colored pigments for exterior
-use. Horrible suggestions, but these are the facts in the case! White
-and light-tint paints invariably fail on the south side of a house,
-before the paint on the other side shows signs of deterioration.
-This is because the light of the sun breaks down the strength of the
-linseed-oil, which is the body of the paint film. For this reason dark
-pigments, which are more opaque, cut off the light and protect the oil
-film more than the lighter-colored pigments.</p>
-
-<p>Another common cause of failure in exterior painting is the application
-of it to the wood during unseasonable weather, when the surface of the
-wood is wet. Paint will only properly adhere to a wood surface when it
-is free of any moisture.</p>
-
-<p>Another one of the causes of failure of lead and zinc paints for
-exterior work suggested by some authorities is the use of volatile
-thinners like turpentine and benzine. They say that such thinners
-should not be permitted on the job, for they are a temptation to the
-painter. If raw linseed-oil is used, and it is necessary to shorten the
-time required for drying, some good drier should be added, say 5 per
-cent. This drier should be pale in color and free from rosin. Driers
-are usually made of oil combined with a good proportion of lead and a
-little of manganese.</p>
-
-<p>White pine, Douglas fir, yellow pine, cypress, or any of these woods,
-usually contain some knots, which are sure to damage exterior white
-paint unless properly treated. These knots have a certain amount of
-pitch in them, which will penetrate through any oil paint and leave an
-ugly mark. They should be covered with shellac, which is not affected
-by the pitch. Shellac is a spirit varnish made from shellac resins
-dissolved in alcohol. The yellow shellac is the strongest, but the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>
-white is used where a light-colored paint is to be applied on top of
-it. The pitch which is so bad in knots is often distributed throughout
-the wood, as in Southern yellow pine, and this will often cause
-the paint to peel off. To prevent this to a certain extent, some
-specifications advise using benzol in the priming coat, in order to
-make the paint penetrate more deeply into the wood and get a better
-grip on the surface.</p>
-
-<p>The priming coat of any painting job should either be pure linseed-oil
-or linseed-oil with very little pigment in it. Its purpose is to fill
-the pores of the wood before the other coats are applied, for if an
-ordinary thick coat of paint were applied to raw wood, the surface
-would draw so much oil out of the film of paint that most of the
-pigment would be left dry and unfastened upon the outside.</p>
-
-<p>Only after the wood has been given the priming coat is it then time to
-putty up the nail holes and other defects, and not before, because the
-dry wood, as in the case of paint, will suck out the oil from the putty
-and leave it without anything to bind it together. The best putty for
-this work is made of linseed-oil with enough white-lead in it to make
-a thick paste. The putty which is commonly used, however, is made of
-whiting or ground chalk mixed with linseed-oil. This is durable if real
-linseed-oil is used, but often some inferior adulterant is substituted.</p>
-
-<p>After the holes are all puttied, the other coats of paint may be
-added. At least two good coats should be applied, and three coats give
-superior results. Plenty of time should be allowed between coats to
-permit thorough drying of the previous one.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>XVI</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">LABOR-SAVING
-   DEVICES FOR THE HOME</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<h3><i>The Demand</i></h3>
-
-<p>The need for labor-saving devices to help in housekeeping is more
-evident in the small house than in the larger house, although the
-cost of such machinery often prevents its installation in the former,
-whereas in the latter it is more to be found, since the person who
-builds a large house is apt to have more funds to draw upon. Yet
-labor-saving devices really belong to the small house, for the large
-house is still run by the servant, but the small one is kept by the
-lady of the house. She rightly objects to working in the old-style
-kitchen, which was very large and ugly, and the useless up-keep of
-many rooms that are really not needed is not to her liking, so that in
-practice the small house is in a way a labor-saving device in itself,
-since it reduces the amount of house to be kept, and makes the kitchen
-small and attractive. Then, frankly, labor-saving machinery is more
-becoming to this house, which is in itself designed to save labor, and
-money wisely spent upon such devices is by no means out of proportion
-to the cost of construction, even if in direct comparison it shows a
-larger percentage ratio to the building cost in the small house than in
-the large house.</p>
-
-<p>The fundamental needs which demand mechanical power in place of brawn
-can be classified into the following:
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub4">(<i>a</i>) Machines for cleaning.</li>
-<li class="isub4">(<i>b</i>) Machines for preparation of food.</li>
-<li class="isub4">(<i>c</i>) Machines for moving objects about the house.</li>
-<li class="isub4">(<i>d</i>) Machines designed to watch over various household cares.</li>
-<li class="isub4">(<i>e</i>) Machines to simplify and make pleasant the toilet.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>But before such machines could be developed to a point of usefulness,
-some source of power had to be found which could be used by the average
-family. This to-day is electricity. If the house cannot tap in on some
-public generating plant, then it is not at all too costly a proposition
-to install a private generating plant run by a gasolene-engine. The
-rapid spread of public-service wires throughout the country and the
-increasing demand for private generating plants is evidence that,
-where money permits, the people are ready to take advantage of the
-power of electricity to reduce the labor of keeping house. This
-electric energy which is being more widely distributed has called forth
-invention after invention of labor-saving machinery. It would not be
-hard to compile a list of some five hundred or more such machines,
-good, bad, and indifferent. Pick up any magazine and glance through
-the advertisements, and a fairly comprehensive list of housekeeping
-machines can be made, or look through some one of the popular
-scientific magazines and page after page will be found devoted to new
-inventions along this line. For example, in the latter, this is a small
-list made from a page of one of these magazines: A combined electric
-toaster and heater, a special brush on a long wire handle for cleaning
-the drain-pipe of the refrigerator, an electric clothes-wringer which
-has rollers soft enough not to break the buttons, a combined crib and
-wardrobe, the latter being under the mattress, a dust-pan which is held
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
-in position by the foot, a counterbalanced electric light that can be
-hung over the back of a chair and an electric water-heater to fasten to
-the faucet.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Machines for Cleaning</i></h3>
-
-<p>Under this classification ought to be included machines which reduce
-the need of cleaning, for they accomplish the same results, but in a
-negative way.</p>
-
-<p>One of the dirtiest and meanest jobs about the house is the sifting
-and shovelling of ashes from the furnace. The light ashes are bound to
-be tracked through the house on the feet, or float in the rising warm
-air to the rooms above, while the sifting process is going on. The
-continued need of removing ashes and putting more coal in the furnace
-to make more ashes often disgusts the housekeeper so much that the
-apartment-house looks very attractive, for here this dirty work is done
-by the janitor.</p>
-
-<p>Now the modern oil-burner, suitable to heat the furnace of a small
-house, represents a real labor-saving device, because it eliminates
-this problem of the ashes, but it requires electric power to make it
-practical, since a mechanical movement is necessary to properly atomize
-the oil for burning. Looking impartially at the latest inventions along
-this line that are now on the market, one cannot help but admit that
-they are highly desirable from the labor-saving point of view, if not
-always from an economical one. The easy control of the fire of one
-of these oil-burners is admirable. In mild weather the flame can be
-turned down quite low, burning perhaps only twelve gallons of oil in
-twenty-four hours, but if the weather suddenly becomes cold the flame
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
-is easily advanced to meet the conditions. No extra shovelling of coal
-is required in cold weather, and the worry of banking the fire in the
-evening is eliminated.</p>
-
-<p>But one must not forget the various improvements which have been made
-in coal-burning furnaces to eliminate the ash-and-coal-shovelling
-labor as much as possible. There is the self-feeding boiler, which
-has a large magazine of coal which can be filled once a day and which
-automatically supplies the fire with fuel as it burns up. Then, too,
-there is the large ash-pit in which the ashes may accumulate for some
-time before removal is necessary, or the revolving ash-collector sunk
-into the floor below the furnace into which the ashes may be dropped
-and taken out in cans.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_196.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="291" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">THE PORTABLE VACUUM CLEANER</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>For cleaning purposes, one must recognize the enormous grip that the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
-vacuum cleaner has had on the popular mind, and nearly every
-housekeeper would own one if money permitted it. Perhaps the
-installation of pipes throughout the house for a central
-cleaning-machine in the cellar is a little too expensive for the small
-home, but certainly electric base plugs should be located in the rooms
-to which the portable type of cleaner can be attached. Such outlets
-should be placed in central positions in order to permit the moving of
-the machine to all parts of the various rooms.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_197_a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="407" />
-</div>
-<hr class="r25" />
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_197_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="314" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">UP-TO-DATE LAUNDRY</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The laundry should be equipped with electric outlets to which an
-electric washer can be plugged. These machines usually require
-about 300 watts. Electric irons require about 600 watts. If laundry
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
-labor-saving devices are to be bought as a complete equipment,
-a small fortune can be spent upon them, for there are electric
-wringers, electrically driven mangles for ironing flat work, a special
-ironing-board with electric iron attachment, and electrically heated
-clothes-driers. A plan of a well-equipped laundry is shown in the cut.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_198.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="294" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">DISH WASHER AND TABLE</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_199.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="170" />
-    <p class="center">KITCHEN DRESSER OF<br />WHITE ENAMELED STEEL</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>If we consider the machines used in the kitchen for cleaning purposes,
-a considerable list can be made, but the gas and oil stove and fireless
-cooker should not be forgotten, since they accomplish cleaning
-in a negative way, for they eliminate the dirt and ashes of the
-old-fashioned coal-range. Then, too, the automatic gas water-heater,
-and also the oil water-heater, give the best material for cleaning
-that is known to mankind—hot water. But as electricity becomes more
-available we have the electric stove and the electric water-heater,
-which is superior to the gas and oil heater, as far as labor-saving
-is considered. Then there is the electric dish-washer, which performs
-all the washing, rinsing, and drying operations. The dishes and other
-tableware are securely held in removable racks while being washed, thus
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
-preventing breakage. When not in operation this dish-washer can be
-used as a white-enamel-topped kitchen-table. One must not forget
-the electric silver-polisher and knife-grinder and other smaller
-instruments for cleaning that can be operated by a small motor.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Machines for the Preparation of Foods</i></h3>
-
-<p>Machines of this kind include a great variety of small inventions
-intended to safely store the food, prepare it for cooking, and cook it.
-There is the small electric refrigerator, the thermonor which keeps
-foods chilled by evaporation of water, the ordinary ice-box, with its
-special door to put ice in from the outside, the special receiving-box
-in the wall into which the milkman can place his milk-bottles in the
-morning or the butcher his meat. Then for the small house is the very
-important kitchen-cabinet, with its special place for the keeping of
-flour, sugar, dish-pans, and a hundred other things that are needed
-to be handy at the time of preparing the food. Electrically operated
-coffee-grinders, meat-choppers, bread-mixers, egg-beaters, toasters,
-coffee-percolators, chafing-dishes, samovars, frying-pans, teakettles,
-radiant grilles, and other similar devices are but a few suggestions of
-the multitude of inventions actually on the market and found practical
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>
-as labor-saving machines. Why should one sweat at the brow on a hot
-summer day freezing the ice-cream when an electrically driven motor can
-do the same work at the cost of a few cents? Why should one swelter in
-the hot kitchen during the jam and jelly making season when an electric
-fan can give the necessary cooling breeze, and the electric stove apply
-the heat more to what it is cooking than to the surrounding atmosphere?
-Of course the answer is that the cost of such equipment is too high,
-but we are gradually learning how to make these articles cheaper, and
-also learning how much energy they save us. Old traditions are breaking
-down in the kitchen, and the new machines are accepted more readily
-than they used to be. No longer does the younger generation think
-that what was good enough for father or mother is good enough for it.
-Grandmother used to wear her fingers down peeling potatoes and carrots,
-and stain them black, but daughter prefers to use a simple scraping
-device of hard stones set in a waterproof substance, which acts like
-rough sandpaper upon the skins of the vegetables, and then grandmother
-used to chop meat in a bowl, but now it is put in at one end of an
-electric grinder and comes out hash at the other. The older generation
-of cooks were not attracted by labor-saving devices, but the point of
-view to-day is different. That is the reason that the small house is
-attracting more buyers to-day than formerly, for its small up-keep
-and its small and cheerful kitchen are means of escape from too heavy
-household duties.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Machines for Moving Objects about the House</i></h3>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_201.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="194" />
-    <p class="center">A TABLE-SERVICE WAGON</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The electric dumb-waiter belongs to this class, but it is not
-installed in small houses very often. However, every one can afford the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>
-clothes-chute, which guides the dirty clothes down to the laundry. The
-table-service wagon is a very convenient help in serving a meal and
-removing the dishes when there is no maid to wait upon the diners. Then
-there is the china-closet which opens through to the kitchen from the
-dining-room. The dishes are washed in the kitchen and placed in the
-closet, and at the next meal they are taken out from the dining-room
-side without waste of steps. The old ash-can need not be lugged out of
-the cellar if a small telescope hoist is installed, and the coal can
-be put into the cellar through a metal coal-chute, instead of through
-the window. Wet clothes from the laundry can be hung out of the window
-on a revolving drier without going out into the yard, or placed in an
-electric drier in the laundry on rainy days. The transportation of
-small objects about the house can be very much reduced if machinery for
-this purpose is installed in the beginning. Most people think it is
-worth the price, and as soon as they see a way to paying for it they
-are certain purchasers.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Machines That Automatically Keep Watch</i></h3>
-
-<p>There is no need of getting up at five o’clock in the morning to
-turn the draft on in the furnace so that the house will be warm by
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>
-breakfast. An electric thermostatic control can be made to do this,
-and in fact it can be regulated to keep the house in good temperature
-all the day. It is not necessary to light a fire to have hot water
-if an automatic gas-heater is next to the boiler, which lights the
-gas with a pilot-light when the faucet is turned on or when the
-temperature gets below a predetermined number of degrees. One does
-not need to worry about burning the roast in the oven if an automatic
-clock-timer is on it, which turns off the gas after the meat has cooked
-the correct number of hours. Food in a fireless cooker never worries
-the housekeeper, for it will not burn, and she knows it will be ready
-to serve when taken out. She does not have to stay home to let the
-delivery boy in with the vegetables, for he can put them into a small
-metal box built into the wall, which has a door that permits him to
-put his goods in, but does not permit any one getting an arm into the
-house, and the ice-man can deliver ice without calling her to the door.
-And so it goes; each new invention along this line removes the need of
-thinking of the small things about the house and of being continually
-on hand and a slave to them.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Machines to Simplify the Toilet</i></h3>
-
-<p>We often forget the elegance of the modern bathtub, but think of the
-labor of our forefathers when the bath night came around. The water
-had to be heated on the stove, the tub gotten out and filled with
-cold water from the pump, and then warmed up with the water in the
-teakettle, and after all was finished the water and tub had to be
-removed. It was quite an event, and there is no wonder that a bath was
-taken only once a week. But what is it to have a bath to-day, with
-plenty of hot water, a thermostatic control of its temperature, a fine
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
-shower, and a warm bathroom. But such things as a bathroom with its
-modern lavatory, water-closet, and bathtub and tiled floor and wainscot
-are commonplace things, and are always expected to be installed in a
-house. One does not question the advisability of spending money on this
-equipment, and so it will be in the future with much of the machinery
-which we hesitate to buy to-day on account of the additional cost in
-the construction of the house.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_203.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="356" />
-</div>
-
-<p>If one is willing to spend the money, electrically operated
-shampooing-machines can be installed, curling-irons, vibrators,
-ozonators, hair-driers, shaving-mugs, heat-baths, etc., but these
-seem luxuries to us yet. But will the next generation look upon
-them this way? A very elegant bathroom may also be equipped with
-built-in receptacles in the tile wainscot for holding soap, sponges,
-toilet-paper, tumblers, tooth-brushes, etc. Fine white-enamelled
-medicine-cabinets are not uncommon to see built into the walls. Glass
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
-rods for towels and glass shelves for miscellaneous objects add much
-to the practical up-keep of the bathroom. Faucets over the bathtubs
-and lavatories are now covered with white enamel and have porcelain
-handles, so that the work of polishing nickel ones is done away with.
-Water-closet bowls are designed with such deep water-seals and with
-such powerful flushing-jets that they do not need the cleaning that the
-older types required. Tubs are built into the walls and down on the
-floors, so that dirt cannot collect under them, as it did under the old
-leg-supported tubs. Thus each year brings forth more improvements that
-are helping to reduce the labor of keeping house.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>XVII</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">CONCRETE
-   WORK AROUND THE HOUSE</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>Concrete has become such an excellent servant to the needs of various
-objects built around the house that no apology will be offered for
-devoting a chapter to its use. Of course, one is familiar with the
-artistic flagstone walk with open joints through which the grass is
-allowed to grow, and one cannot deny the beauty of brick pavements; but
-in spite of these the concrete walk is found about more houses wherever
-one goes than any other type, and, although in most cases very ugly,
-yet it cannot be relegated to the past even by the most fastidious,
-for its existence depends upon very fundamental qualities of practical
-serviceability. And likewise, although we may not have seen concrete
-walks that had the charm of rubble-stone or brick, yet they are coming
-to be used more and more, for they can be made to appear very beautiful
-if properly made. Concrete garden furniture, concrete pools, fountains,
-garden ornaments, tennis-courts, and other familiar adjuncts to the
-lawn about the house, are making themselves evident on all sides. There
-is something about the material that lends itself to such uses, for
-even the owner of the house can get out and work in it, and need not
-call in a contractor.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_206.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="144" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Rough Cast Finish<br />or Splatter Dash</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Pebble Dash</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>However, much of the prejudice that exists against concrete is due to
-its usual ugly appearance, which is no fault of the material but of the
-one who built with it. We see too much concrete that is dull, pasty,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>
-and gray, and marred on the surface with cobweb lines of cracks; but
-this need not be. Concrete surfaces can be made as brilliant as any
-other material by properly treating it. All that is needed to do this
-is to carefully study the methods of producing textures, and texture is
-nothing more than breaking up the surface into small patches of light
-and dark, so intermingled that they give interest. For example, after
-the forms have been removed, the outside of the concrete can be covered
-with cement mortar, thrown onto it with a whisk-broom, which will make
-the mortar stick to the surface in little lumps and hills. The light
-playing over such a surface will cast shadows in the hollows between
-the lumps and light up the tops of the lumps. This will give a texture
-of interest that is pleasing to the eye. On the other hand, the cement
-mortar may be plastered over the surface of the concrete and used as
-a sticking bed to hold small pebbles of different colors and shades
-thrown against it. These pebbles will be colorful, some dark and dull
-and some light or sparkling like glass. Thus a play of broken light
-will be thrown back from the surface to the eye, and the observer will
-be pleased. Then, too, the outer layer of the cement, which was next
-to the forms, may be composed of white cement and some aggregate like
-small chips of marble. When the forms are removed it will be found that
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>
-this beautiful aggregate will not show, but the entire surface will
-partake of the monotonous white or gray of the cement. However, if this
-thin coating of cement is removed, then the variety and sparkle of the
-aggregate below will be revealed. This might be done by striking the
-surface all over with a stone-cutting tool which is used to surface
-stones, or it might be done by a scrubbing or rubbing with carborundum
-blocks. There are innumerable ways by which texture can be developed
-on anything made of concrete, and experimenting in this line is a
-most fascinating employment. For this reason, if properly handled,
-concrete is particularly adapted to the making of all kinds of house
-accessories, since it is also easily shaped in moulds.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_207.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="146" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Finish made by the Pointer</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Finish made by the Bush Hammer</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>The materials used for this concrete work have much to do with its
-success. Ordinarily there is no need of inspecting the cement, for
-most of the well-known brands of cement on the market are about as
-reliable as human effort can make them. The materials which do need
-consideration, however, are sand and gravel. The one essential of sand
-is that it be free from loam, mica, clay, and organic matter. No sand
-should contain more than 3 per cent by weight of loam or clay or 1 per
-cent of mica. The quantity of loam or other fine impurities can be
-determined by shaking the sand up with water in a bottle, and allowing
-it to settle. The fine impurities will settle on the top and its
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>
-proportional relation to the sand estimated. To determine whether the
-sand has much organic matter in it, a 12-ounce prescription bottle can
-be filled with sand to 4½ inches and then added to this should be added
-a 3-per-cent solution of caustic soda until this solution and the sand
-fill seven ounces. The contents should be shaken well and allowed to
-stand for twenty-four hours. If the liquid which settles on top shows
-a dark color, then the sand has too much organic matter in it, but if
-it is clear or slightly yellow it may be used without washing. The
-size of sand particles should be such that they will pass through a
-quarter-inch screen.</p>
-
-<p>The usual size of aggregates should range from one-quarter inch to an
-inch and a half in diameter, and the various sizes should be so graded
-that they will make the most compact mass. The common run of bank
-gravel must be screened and washed. To make really good concrete that
-is water-tight, the grading of the aggregate is most important.</p>
-
-<p>In fact, to determine the various quantities that should be used of
-the materials on hand, some method must be adopted to give the quantity
-of cement necessary to fill the voids in the sand and the quantity of
-cement and sand necessary to fill the voids in the aggregate. A rather
-crude way of doing this is to employ water as the measure of the voids.
-Fill a pail with sand, and then pour water into it until the water,
-which is absorbed by the sand, comes to the same level as the sand.
-Note the quantity of water used up. If it represented 45 per cent of
-the volume of the sand, then it is known roughly that about 50 per cent
-of the volume of the sand ought to be the quantity of cement needed to
-fill in the voids of the sand. Thus, one part of cement to two parts
-of sand. If now the gravel is measured in the same way and it is found
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>
-that the voids show about 40 per cent of the volume of the aggregate,
-then, assuming a little more than the water shows, about 50 per cent
-of sand and cement will be required to fill up these voids. That is,
-there should be just twice as much stone as there is cement and sand.
-We finally, then, arrive at the proportion for the concrete as follows:
-1 part of cement to 2 parts of sand to 4 parts of gravel.</p>
-
-<p>The amount of water which is added to make the mixture of concrete
-should not be too much. It should be of such a quantity that the mix is
-mushy but not watery, even when it is to be poured into forms.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Sidewalks and Porch Floors</i></h3>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_210.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="201" />
-    <p>Concrete Sidewalk</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>It is generally recognized that one-course concrete sidewalks are the
-most successful when built by the average workman, for the slab is
-of one uniform body and not two layers, which might not have knitted
-together properly. For porch floors and walks these slabs should be
-5 inches thick and laid on a good foundation. It is best to excavate
-4 inches for the depth of the walk, tamp the ground, and pour water
-over it, to note whether it is absorbed or stays on top. If it is not
-readily drained off, it ought not to be used as the foundation of the
-walk, but should be excavated to a depth of 10 inches to 12 inches.
-In this excavation should then be tamped gravel or cinders, and some
-provision should be made by which any water that would seep through
-this gravel may be drained off. The timbers used for the forms along
-the edges of the walk may be 2 by 6’s, held in position with pegs.
-Slabs should then be determined for length. Usually they should not be
-in excess of 6 feet in any one direction and ¼-inch expansion joints
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>
-should be placed in the walks every 25 feet. If alternate slabs are
-laid, the forms can be removed, so that the intermediate slabs can
-be poured between them. Of course, a partial bond will be developed
-between slabs in this way, but these joints will be the weakest point
-in the walk, and if settlement takes place unequally and one slab
-breaks from the other, the crack will develop at this joint and not
-appear on the face. The expansion joints should, however, be real
-separations, made with strips of asphaltic felt set between slabs. The
-usual mixture for concrete walks should be 1 part cement to 2 parts
-sand to 3 parts of gravel. The mixture should not have too much water
-in it, and when poured into the forms the top should be levelled off
-with a straight stick stretched across from one side of the form to
-the other. Too much trowelling should be avoided, since this is apt to
-draw excess water to the surface and also cement, which will show hair
-cracks when hardened. It is best not to use a metal trowel but a wooden
-one, so that a partial sandy surface is made. After the walk has been
-laid it should be protected from drying out too quickly by laying over
-it 4 inches of earth or two or three layers of burlap, which should
-be wet down about twice a day for a week. All walks and porch floors
-should have graded tops, so that water will run off of them. This is
-usually ¼ inch to the foot.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Sometimes porch floors give trouble from “dusting” and
-wearing away of the surface to a gritty and rough condition.
-This may have been caused by allowing the floor to dry too
-quickly or by having trowelled it too much and drawn cement
-to the surface. It may be remedied by using some one of the
-commercial floor hardeners or by painting the floor with water-glass
-solution or boiled linseed-oil. Water-glass solution should
-be diluted with 4 to 6 parts of water and applied with a brush
-in as many coats as the concrete will absorb. When boiled linseed-oil
-is used, it should be allowed to dry between coats, and
-as many coats should be added as the concrete will absorb.
-Both of these treatments will darken the floor, but the latter will
-darken it the most, and appears to be more effective.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Tennis-Court</i></h3>
-
-<p>In laying out any other platform construction of concrete, such as a
-tennis-court, the same principles of construction should be observed
-which were given above for sidewalks. However, more care should be
-taken with the drainage and foundation of the tennis-court. Not only
-should the 6-inch cinder or gravel bed be laid, but all around the
-outer edge of the court should be dug a trench about 18 inches wide and
-3 feet deep. There should be laid at the bottom of this a drain-pipe,
-with open joints, sloping from the centre of one end of the court
-around both sides and joining together again at the middle of the other
-end and connected with another pipe to carry off the water of that
-drain-pipe to some lower level. The diameter of the drain-pipe should
-be about 5 inches and the slope 6 inches from its highest level to its
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>
-lowest level. The upper surface of the court itself should slope across
-from one long side to the other with a pitch of 2 inches. The division
-lines of the slabs should follow as closely as possible the division
-lines of the tennis-court. The length of the concrete platform should
-be 21 feet greater at each end than the length of the court and the
-width 12 feet wider each side. This makes the entire concrete court 60
-feet by 120 feet.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_212_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="277" />
-    <p class="center space-below2">Concrete Tennis-Court</p>
-</div>
-
-<h3><i>Concrete Driveway</i></h3>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_212_b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="182" />
-    <p class="center">Concrete Runways to Garage</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Such driveways may lead to the garage or up to the porch of the house.
-One of the cheapest types to the garage is a double runway for the
-wheels of the automobile. These runways should be about 4 feet 8 inches
-on centres and made 18 inches wide. They should be constructed in the
-same way that walks are built.</p>
-
-<p>Where a full-width concrete driveway is built, it should be made about
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>
-6 inches thick at the centre and 5 inches at the edges, sloping from
-the centre out. At intervals of every 25 feet expansion joints should
-be built as was specified for walks.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Concrete Steps</i></h3>
-
-<p>The only difficult problem in the construction of concrete steps is the
-making of forms. These should be well braced to prevent bulging when
-the concrete is tamped into them. The aggregate ought not to be over ¾
-inch diameter, so that as the material is tamped into the forms and the
-sides spaded, a good surface will be left when the forms are removed.
-If the aggregate is too large, some pieces may catch along the forms,
-and when they are removed large holes will be found in the risers of
-the steps. The treads should be finished with a wood trowel.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_213.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="325" />
-    <p class="center">Concrete Garden Retaining Wall</p>
-</div>
-
-<h3><i>Small Retaining Walls</i></h3>
-
-<p>Wherever terraces or lawns need the support of a small retaining wall,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>
-concrete is excellent for this purpose. The foundations of such walls
-should be carried down below the frost-line. The usual mixture is
-1 : 2 : 4. Drains should be built at intervals along the lower part of
-the wall, to allow the seeping ground water to come out. At intervals
-of about every 25 feet expansion joints should be made, somewhat
-the shape of the tongue and groove in flooring. The base of such a
-retaining wall should be at least as wide as ⁴/₁₀ the height of wall.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Pools and Fountain-Basins</i></h3>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_214.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="321" />
-    <p class="center">Concrete Pool</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Such ornaments to the garden are not entirely outside of the
-possibilities of the small house owner’s pocketbook. They should have
-the exterior walls carried down below frost-level, and the bottom and
-sides reinforced with steel. For the bottom woven-wire reinforcement
-will answer the purpose and for the sides ⅜-inch reinforcing rods
-should be used. These pools ought not to be more than about 2 feet
-deep, in which case the bottoms may be made 6 inches thick and the
-sides 12 inches at the top and 14 inches at the bottom.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3><i>Ornamental Garden Furniture of Concrete</i></h3>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_215_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="366" />
-    <p class="center">Simple Types of Concrete Garden Seats</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>There is no great difficulty or secret in making simple garden
-furniture of concrete. Generally where the furniture is of simple
-lines, the mould can be made of wood. If, say, a bench is to be made,
-the top might be moulded as a slab of concrete, and the legs at the
-ends as slabs, and all fitted together. If flower-boxes are desired,
-the mould would necessarily have to be a little more complicated,
-but not greatly so. The one thing to remember in making any of these
-moulded bits of concrete is that they should always have embedded
-inside of them reinforcing wire lath.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_215_b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="96" />
-    <p class="center">Concrete Vase for Garden</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Of course the making of ornamental pots and vases is rather difficult
-and takes some skill. Here the original shape must be modelled in
-clay, and a plaster mould made of it, which is shellacked inside and
-greased. Special cores must also be designed, and where fine surfaces
-are desired various processes of mixing ingredients must be resorted
-to. This is a special field of itself, and men who do this kind of work
-generally have studied out methods of their own. Some examples of this
-kind of work are illustrated.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>XVIII</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">CLASSIFICATION
-   AND CONSTRUCTION OF<br />THE ARCHITECTURAL MOTIFS USED<br />IN SMALL-HOUSE DESIGNING</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>There are not many architectural motifs that can be used in designing
-the small house, and the ones which are employed over and over again
-are fundamentally a part of the construction. The plan must build up
-into block forms, because of the requirements of construction, and
-the designer has only a handful of shapes that make good roofs, for
-the same reason. The varieties of dormer-windows that he can put on
-the roof are limited to a few that are capable of being reasonably
-constructed. He cannot be original in the forms he selects, for they
-have all been thought out before. He should know them as he does the
-alphabet and build with them as he builds words with letters.</p>
-
-<p>For example, take the plan of the small house. Can there be much
-room for originality here? Usually there are at the most four rooms
-which must be arranged on the ground floor of the small house: the
-living-room, dining-room, kitchen, and pantry. On the second floor are
-generally placed the bedrooms. Does it not seem reasonable to assume
-that all of the best combinations of so few rooms must be quite limited
-in number, and that the chances are that they have already been thought
-out? Many a young designer has labored enthusiastically upon what he
-believes is his original layout for a small house, only to find later
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>
-that his solution has been already worked out and perhaps a trifle
-better. When an inventor tackles any particular problem, his first
-step, if he is wise, is to consult the patents which have previously
-been issued along this line, and then he will know what has been done.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_217_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="79" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Square Plan</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Rectangular<br />Plan</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&emsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">“L”-Plan<span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-    <img src="images/i_217_b.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="109" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Rectangular Plan<br />with Small Extension</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&emsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdc">T-Plan<span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-    <img src="images/i_217_c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="89" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Combination of “T”-plan<br />with L-plan</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">U-Plan<span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>Try as hard as he will, no designer can get away from the fact that
-the cheapest arrangement of rooms in his small-house plan makes a
-square unit and builds a square block house, but that such a plan is
-one of the most difficult forms to make pleasing to the eye. For this
-reason the room arrangement, which gives a rectangular-shaped house,
-is more often adopted. But we often tire of too much repetition of the
-rectangular house, and designers try to vary it a little. There is not
-much leeway here, however. By adding a wing at right angles to the main
-rectangle of the house, we can have an L-shaped plan which is easier to
-give architectural variety to, but very uneconomical, for the number of
-linear feet of exterior wall for a house of this shape is just as great
-as that for a house which is a rectangle in plan, as long as the L and
-as wide. This also holds true of the U-shaped plan and the T-shaped
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>
-plan and the combination of the T and the L shaped plans. In fact, as
-soon as the designer tries to get away from the simplest rectangular
-shapes in the small house, the economic reins pull him back, and he
-must go slow in selecting too picturesque plans. Limited, therefore,
-in his possible scope, the real work of the designer should be one of
-perfecting the acceptable solutions which have been already worked out.
-Only once in a generation are absolutely new arrangements stumbled on.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_218_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="149" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">GAMBREL</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">GABLE<span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-    <img src="images/i_218_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="166" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">WALL GABLE</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">HIP ROOF</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">FLAT ROOF</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>On top of these various-shaped blocks, which these plans will form, a
-roof must be erected. Here again one would think that the architectural
-motifs would be quite varied, and yet when the matter is studied it is
-not the case. There are only five fundamental shapes of roofs which
-can be placed upon these blocks, and two of these types are really the
-same, and another ought not to be employed, so that, after all, there
-are actually only three fundamental roof motifs to use. These are the
-gable roof, the gambrel roof, and the hip roof. The wall-gable roof is
-merely a type of end treatment for the gable roof, and the flat roof
-is not suited to the average small house in the country or suburbs,
-because of traditions.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <p class="f150">A<span class="ws6">B</span></p>
-    <img src="images/i_219_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="148" />
-    <p class="blockquot center">These two houses are ugly as sin, yet are considered very practical.
-                      All rooms on 2nd floor are square and cellars are high and dry.</p>
-    <p class="f150">C</p>
-    <img src="images/i_219_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="146" />
-    <p class="blockquot center">This house is considered impractical, because rooms on 2ⁿᵈ floor are
-                                not square and are lighted with dormers, and the cellar is low and
-                                partly omitted. But architecturally something can be said of it.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the small house the designer has the choice of either placing these
-roofs above the second floor or placing the second floor within the
-roof. Where the former is selected he sets for himself a very difficult
-architectural problem—that of trying to make the proportions of a
-house limited in ground area fit under a roof placed too high. This
-has rarely been solved with any satisfaction, for in nearly all cases
-the house looks too high and stilted. The comparative drawings show
-how true this is. Notice how house <i>A</i> and <i>B</i> look stilted, while
-house <i>C</i> has a charm which no manner of designing would ever add to
-the former. Is it not a fact to be reckoned with that the small house
-is best solved architecturally if the second floor is placed within
-the roof? Economy of material is certainly secured in this way, and
-the construction is greatly simplified. The chief difficulties are to
-properly ventilate these rooms under the roof, and to give them good
-lighting without making too many and too large dormers. This is a hard
-problem, but it has been solved successfully. The Dutch gambrel roof
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>
-was developed for this purpose, and there has been no doubt as to its
-beauty, except when wrongly used by placing it above the second story
-or poking the second floor through it in one long, single dormer.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_220.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="364" />
-    <p class="blockquot center">VARIATIONS OF DESIGN DEVELOPED FROM THE FEW
-                                FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURAL MOTIFS</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>It is quite evident from the above how important the roof designing
-is in the small house. It goes without saying that the simplest
-arrangement of roofs is the cheapest to build and the easiest to
-maintain. Every valley means a leak at some later date, for as
-careful as may be the builder, the history of roof valleys shows that
-they leak sooner or later. The designer cannot freely mix his roofs
-either. Gambrel roofs, hip roofs, and gabled roofs do not go together
-harmoniously, without considerable study, and as a general rule they
-should not be required to do so. The usual methods of construction of
-these types of roofs are indicated well enough in the drawings and need
-no explanation. The ridge-poles in all cases are not of any structural
-importance, but act as alignments for rafters. For this reason they are
-made only an inch thick. Hip rafters have much the same function in hip
-roofs. Whenever valley rafters are needed, these must be designed like
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>
-floor girders. If dormers are built into the roof, it is customary
-to double the rafters around the openings. Where gable dormers are
-constructed, one of the valley rafters must be extended to the
-ridge-pole, or else the rafters will collapse.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_221_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="354" />
-    <p class="center">GAMBREL ROOF CONSTRUCTION</p>
-    <img src="images/i_221_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="340" />
-    <p class="center">CONSTRUCTION OF GABLE ROOF</p>
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_222_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="296" />
-    <p class="center">HIP ROOF CONSTRUCTION</p>
-    <img src="images/i_222_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="348" />
-</div>
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_223.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="194" />
-    <p class="center">CONSTRUCTION OF<br />A DORMER</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Even when it comes to the design of dormer-windows, the limits
-of originality are quite restricted. The drawings show all of the
-possible types that have been used with any success. Variations in
-the proportions and the details of these motifs is about all that the
-designer can hope for, and yet this is one of the hardest problems to
-solve. The correct designing of dormer-windows is a very rare thing to
-be seen. How many houses of modern Colonial style have ugly dormers!
-They are usually made too large and too wide and fat. The dormer-windows
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>
-used in the old Colonial houses were narrow and high, and in those
-proportions were their charming appeals. To-day a double-hung window
-with weight-boxes is used in these dormers, and the whole width made
-too wide because of these additions to the sides. This is a warning
-that the designer should be careful in adapting old motifs to modern
-requirements. This particular problem has been correctly solved with
-the use of the weight-box, but how many times it has not been solved
-is evident on all sides. Another unfortunate use of the dormer-window
-motif is the extension of the second floor up through the lower slope
-of the gambrel roof. This cuts away any legitimate lower section of the
-gambrel roof, and in order to preserve it, the designer projects it
-outward from the ends of the house, and has it skirt by the side of the
-second floor like an added toboggan-slide with no earthly reason for
-its existence. Then, too, the prairie-schooner dormer, the semicircle
-one, and the eyebrow dormer are certainly types to be used with great
-care, for they can become eyesores without effort, and they cost a
-good deal to construct. Where the dormer is to be made inconspicuous
-the flat-roof type has been successfully employed, but the roofing
-material on it should be tin or copper. In some of the trap-door types
-of dormers where the pitch is very slight, the roofing material ought
-to be of sheet metal. The sides of dormers are made less conspicuous by
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>
-covering them with the same material as used on the roof, but this is
-not always desirable. However, all vertical joints of dormers with the
-roof should be carefully flashed to prevent leaks.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_224.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="206" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">FLAT TREATMENT OF GABLE END</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The treatment of the gable ends of dormers is practically the same as
-that required for the treatment of the gable ends of the main roof.
-Here again, although on the face of it there seem to be innumerable
-ways of treating the gable ends of roofs, yet there are comparatively
-few methods. The drawings show about all the possible ways, and any
-types which appear to differ from these can be shown to be merely
-variations. The simplest method of treatment is to place a small
-moulding under the ends of the shingles. A variation of this can be
-made by adding a wide board below the moulding or a course of shingles
-running parallel with the edge. The classic cornice can be used, but
-great taste is needed in handling this motif, for any pitch which is
-not of the traditional classic pediment form is apt to look badly. The
-verge-board motif comes from half-timber traditions, and is generally
-used in a very careless fashion. In general, it usually looks best when
-some visible means of support is made a part of the design.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_225_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="218" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">FLAT TREATMENT OF GABLE END</p>
-    <img src="images/i_225_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="209" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">ADAPTATION OF CLASSIC PEDIMENT</p>
-    <img src="images/i_225_c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="274" />
-    <p class="center space-below2">VERGE-BOARD TREATMENT OF GABLE END</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>
-The shingle imitation of the thatched-roof gable is one of those
-amusing architectural fads which do not have very deep roots, and
-sooner or later are forgotten.</p>
-
-<p>The wall-gable treatment is very dignified, but is usually associated
-with larger houses, but when simplified it has a charm which none of
-the other motifs can offer.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_226.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="224" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">SHINGLE IMITATING GABLE<br />END OF THATCHED-ROOF</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">WALL GABLE<span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>Other than these few, there are no common motifs to use in adorning
-the gable end of a roof. This and the previous statements only go to
-prove that the originality of design in the small house is limited
-within a narrow scope, and that the real beauty is not obtained in
-trying to find different forms, but in trying to use the traditional
-structural forms in the best proportions and giving careful attention
-to the details. In fact, it has been said that house designing is
-largely an assembling, into pleasing general proportions, of carefully
-designed traditional details.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>XIX</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">TRADITIONS OF
-  BUILDING FROM WHICH<br />OUR MODERN METHODS ARE DERIVED</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<h3><i>Importance of Tradition</i></h3>
-
-<p>The art of building has grown by evolution, like other things in this
-world. The carpenter who builds in wood to-day builds according to
-certain customs which come down to him from centuries of carpenters.
-Modern methods of constructing the small house have all human history
-for their background. When we speak of modern methods, we merely refer
-to those which are used at this time, as they have evolved from past
-experience and been considered satisfactory. To hear some architects
-and builders talk, one would think that modern America had the monopoly
-on good construction, and that our system of building was newly
-invented. How often have we heard remarks like the following from the
-self-styled practical man: “The genius of the present age is eminently
-practical and constructive. Improvements of every kind and ingenious
-contrivances for easily effecting results, which in past ages were only
-accomplished by slow, laborious effort, ... etc.”</p>
-
-<p>But they were saying this kind of thing in 1858, for the above is
-quoted from a book of this date, so that even the practical man is
-traditional in his remarks about building.</p>
-
-<p>There are also too many young men to-day wasting their time
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>
-discovering what they think are new ways of building, but which have
-been known for centuries and discarded as unsatisfactory. If they would
-only study what had already been done, they would save themselves a lot
-of trouble.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Styles of Design Change, but Construction the Same</i></h3>
-
-<p>The styles in designing houses may change from year to year, or more
-likely from generation to generation, but the methods of building and
-the traditions in back of them continue on, with only slight changes
-which mark the evolution of the art. In as brief a period as we have
-had in this country to produce domestic architecture, we can notice
-very distinct styles of design, but running through them all are
-similar ways of building. Our earliest Colonial houses were built
-according to traditions brought over from England. These traditions in
-turn had deep roots in Europe, back to primitive days, when houses were
-not much more than temporary, movable shacks.</p>
-
-<p>There is, however, one general trend through which building methods
-seem to pass. First, we have rather heavy, clumsy ways of building;
-this is followed by a long period of experimental cutting down of the
-materials of construction and standardization of parts; following this
-comes the stage of extreme lightness of construction, when the builders
-go as near the limit of safety as possible, and then accidents occur
-which tend to discredit the system.</p>
-
-<p>The early English houses were built of heavy oak-trees. Later
-half-timber houses used smaller structural members and more standard
-sizes. These traditions were brought to this country, but it was soon
-found that heavy oak was not necessary for their stability, but that
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>
-some of the native soft woods would answer the purpose. The thinning-down
-process continued, until we developed the frame dwelling of balloon
-construction which is practically built of 2 by 4 pieces throughout.</p>
-
-<p>We are now having a building code formulated by the United States
-Department of Commerce, which is intended to establish the minimum
-requirements for small-house construction, so that greatest economy
-of material can be secured, but also a precedent set for the minimum
-cutting down of material in building. In the compilation of this
-code this tendency to reduce the quantity of material used was very
-evident in the discussions which centred around the problem of whether
-the brick walls for small houses should be 12 or 8 inches thick. In
-Colonial days they thought nothing of building them 2 feet thick.
-To-day we hesitate at building them as thick as 12 inches. In fact, our
-building codes show no uniformity of opinion on the matter, and our
-experts disagree. The preliminary form of the above-mentioned code has
-settled upon an 8-inch thickness for walls not exceeding 30 feet, and
-made additional allowance for an extra 5 feet in height on the gable
-end of the building.</p>
-
-<p>The process of thinning down is still going on, as this indicates.</p>
-
-<p>The illustrations representing briefly the historical progress of
-styles in domestic architecture in the United States are given to show
-how these styles have varied, and impress the reader with the rather
-constant undercurrent of construction methods throughout these changes.</p>
-
-<p>In the early Colonial houses the wooden frames were built of heavy
-oak timbers which were hewn into shape and dressed down with the adze.
-Sometimes rafters and joists were sawn, and the further along we
-progress in time the more we find the saw being used.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <p class="f120 space-above2"><b>AMERICAN DOMESTIC</b></p>
-    <img src="images/i_230.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="646" />
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span></p>
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <p class="f120 space-above2"><b>AMERICAN DOMESTIC</b></p>
-    <img src="images/i_231.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="650" />
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p>
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <p class="f120 space-above2"><b>AMERICAN DOMESTIC</b></p>
-    <img src="images/i_232.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="642" />
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>
-If we now jump to the period between 1865 and 1889, we find that the
-awful atrocities of architecture were being built in the East with
-similar heavy frames, although slightly less massive. Where tradition
-was less strong in the West, the balloon frame had grown up, but during
-the same period houses of equally bad design were built with one or
-the other systems, showing that the system of construction had very
-little to do with the style of architecture. Even consider the variety
-of styles used in modern domestic work, and then one can realize that
-all of these different types of buildings are built much in the same
-way. Good design has apparently little relation to good construction,
-although good design is improved when it expresses the construction. We
-often see very beautiful houses set up for moving-picture plays, but
-these are built of flimsy stage scenery. We have also seen very ugly
-houses which make us curse the builder for having built them so well.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Fundamental Building Traditions<br />Inherited from England</i></h3>
-
-<p>It is from England that we have inherited most of our building
-traditions of domestic work. The earliest methods of constructing a
-home were much the same for all European countries. Woven brushwood
-of the crudest sort was undoubtedly the first beginnings of domestic
-construction. The next step in advance was, according to a German
-theory, invented by a woman. It consisted of erecting leaning poles
-and stakes and filling the space between with inwoven wattlework. The
-shapes were conical, like the Indian tents, but later the gable roof
-shape was adopted because of the greater interior space allowed.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>In building the gable-shaped houses the early builders used very heavy
-and massive construction for the ridge-pole and its support, for
-they believed that this upheld the rafters. This tradition was kept
-alive until quite recent times, but now we know that when rafters are
-supported at their base, the ridge-pole practically takes none of the
-weight and need only be used for ease of erection.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="I_234" id="I_234">&nbsp;</a>
-    <img src="images/i_234.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="207" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">PRIMITIVE TYPE</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">OLD ENGLISH CRUCK<br />CONSTRUCTION</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>But to our ancestors the important problem in first erecting the house
-was to secure the substantial support of the ridge-pole. Obviously
-the erection of two forked trees at either end of the ridge-pole made
-an excellent solution, but when the room was long this meant that the
-interior had to be cluttered up with interior posts. We find then that
-one of the primitive methods in England of eliminating the interior
-posts was the adoption of the cruck system of construction which is
-shown in <a href="#I_234">Fig. 2</a>. By selecting two bent trees and placing them
-together in a shape like a wish-bone, the ridge-pole could be well supported
-without interior columns. By placing cross-tie beams on these bent
-trees and extending them outward, the plates for supporting the lower
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>
-ends of the rafters could be held in position. This permitted the
-carpenters to erect the exterior walls independently of the roof, a
-thing which they seem to have desired.</p>
-
-<p>There is another variation of the above method of supporting the
-ridge-pole, and that is shown in <a href="#I_235">Fig. 3</a>. Instead of selecting
-a bent tree, one was secured which was upright for a certain height, and then
-which bent to one side with a branch. By placing two of these trees
-together, a perfect end was formed for the house. However, this was not
-a very good type, since it meant the selecting of very unusual-shaped trees.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="I_235" id="I_235">&nbsp;</a>
-    <img src="images/i_235.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="231" />
-    <p class="center space-below1">ENGLISH POST &amp; TRUSS CONSTRUCTION</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>For this reason the system of post-and-truss construction, which is
-shown in <a href="#I_235">Fig. 4</a>, was the natural outcome of the above.
-Diagonal bracing at the corners evidently was found to be useful in
-resisting high wind-storms, and it was usually employed.</p>
-
-<p>There apparently remained a distrust of masonry walls among the
-carpenters, for they continued to support the roofs entirely upon heavy
-timber framing, and records show that the exterior walls were built up
-after the roof-framing had been completed. There are evidences that the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>
-early types of walls, after the primitive woven brushwood walls proved
-insecure, were made like a barricade of trees; that is, they were
-merely a continuous line of vertically placed tree-trunks. This, of
-course, was a ruinously expensive type of wall when timber became
-scarce, and it is no wonder that it grew to a system of construction
-like that shown in <a href="#I_236">Fig. 5</a>. Even this required a good deal
-of wood, so that the filling of the space between the timbers rather logically
-became masonry or plaster on lath. However, the method of building
-shown in <a href="#I_236">Fig. 5</a> has all of the elements of the system of
-construction used in framing modern exterior walls. The most important difference
-is in the size of the timbers used.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="I_236" id="I_236">&nbsp;</a>
-    <img src="images/i_236.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="224" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">TYPE OF ANCIENT<br />WOODEN WALL</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">ENGLISH HALF TIMBER<br />CONSTRUCTION</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>The half-timber construction of the Middle Ages was only the artistic
-treatment of this crude system of building. In <a href="#I_236">drawing number 6</a>
-is a very simple half-timber house which shows practically no attempt at
-all to decorate. The construction is perfectly evident, and there are
-no curves and carving used to ornament the building, as can be seen on
-some of the more elaborate houses of the cities. This simple building
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>
-system was the traditional background of the English carpenter, and it
-is not at all extraordinary that he brought his methods of building
-over to this country.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="I_237" id="I_237">&nbsp;</a>
-    <img src="images/i_237.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="458" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">TYPE OF FRAMING FOR COLONIAL<br />OF FIRST PERIOD</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">BRACED FRAME AS DEVELOPED FROM<br />NEW ENGLAND COLONIAL</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>Even the custom of calling in the neighbors and feasting them when a
-house-raising was celebrated came directly from English traditions. The
-old post-and-truss construction of the early English houses required
-framing on the ground and then lifting into position afterward. Records
-show that the people from the surrounding countryside were called in to
-help, and their wages of hire were paid by the house owner with a huge
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>
-feast. In early Colonial days the nearest neighbors were likewise
-called in to help raise the frame, and the host was supposed to feed
-the gathering, after the work was finished, and make a jolly party of
-eating and drinking—a sort of social debt, but not looked upon as
-wages, as in older days.</p>
-
-<p>The hard climate which the earliest American colonists had to face and
-also the abundant supply of wood which lay at their very doors were
-factors which slightly altered the traditions of building. After the
-house had been framed and the spaces between the timbers filled with
-plaster or masonry, the exterior was covered over with clapboards
-or shingles as an extra covering against the weather. The use of
-clapboards or shingles as an exterior covering of course was not new,
-for many English farmhouses show that it was used in that country. But
-with this difference in exterior appearance, the framing underneath was
-the same as shown in <a href="#I_237">Fig. 7</a>.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Revolt against New England Traditions</i></h3>
-
-<p>It was only a matter of time when the thinning-down process began to
-make itself evident in the traditions of Colonial carpentry, and from
-its clumsy beginnings it evolved into the more or less standard form of
-construction which we call the brace-frame.</p>
-
-<p>The difficulty of securing good labor in the West, and also the
-increasing use of the power sawmill, made it possible and necessary to
-standardize a quick and easy method of building which would meet the
-great demand for houses in rapidly growing communities.</p>
-
-<p>Quoting from the New York <i>Tribune</i> of January 18, 1855, we have a
-very interesting account of the conditions which were then prevalent
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>
-that brought about this later variation of the wooden frame structure.
-The conditions there described seem almost like our modern difficulties
-with labor and materials.</p>
-
-<p>“Mr. Robinson said: ... I would saw all my timbers for a frame house,
-or ordinary frame outbuilding, of the following dimensions: 2 × 8
-inches; 2 × 4; 2 × 1. I have, however, built them, when I lived on
-the Grand Prairie of Indiana, many miles from sawmills, nearly all of
-split and hewed stuff, making use of rails or round poles, reduced to
-straight lines and even thickness on two sides, for studs and rafters.
-But sawed stuff is much the easiest, though in a timber country the
-other is far the cheapest. First, level your foundation, and lay down
-two of the 2 × 8 pieces, flatwise, for side-walls. Upon these set the
-floor-sleepers, on edge, 32 inches apart. Fasten one at each end, and
-perhaps one or two in the middle, if the building is large, with a
-wooden pin. These end-sleepers are the end-sills. Now lay the floor,
-unless you design to have one that would be likely to be injured by
-the weather before you get on the roof. It is a great saving, though,
-of labor to begin at the bottom of a house and build up. In laying the
-floor first, you have no studs to cut and fit around, and can let your
-boards run out over the ends, just as it happens, and afterward saw
-them off smooth by the sill. Now set up a corner-post, which is nothing
-but one of the 2 × 4 studs, fastening the bottom by four nails; make it
-plumb, and stay it each way. Set another at the other corner, and then
-mark off your door and window places and set up the side-studs and put
-in the frames. Fill up with studs between, 16 inches apart, supporting
-the top by a line or strip of board from corner to corner, or stayed
-studs between. Now cover that side with rough sheeting boards, unless
-you intend to side-up with clapboards on the studs, which I never would
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>
-do, except for a small, common building. Make no calculation about the
-top of your studs; wait till you get up that high. You may use them of
-any length, with broken or stub-shot ends, no matter. When you have got
-this side boarded as high as you can reach, proceed to set up another.
-In the meantime other workmen can be lathing the first side. When you
-have got the sides all up, fix upon the height of your upper floor, and
-strike a line upon the studs for the under side of the joist. Cut out a
-joist 4 inches wide, half inch deep, and nail on firmly one of the inch
-strips. Upon these strips rest the chamber floor-joist. Cut out a joist
-1 inch deep, in the lower edge, and lock it on the strip, and nail each
-joist to each stud. Now lay this floor, and go on to build the upper
-story, as you did the lower one; splicing on and lengthening out studs
-wherever needed, until you get high enough for the plate. Splice studs
-or joists by simply butting the ends together, and nailing strips on
-each side. Strike a line and saw off the top of the studs even upon
-each side—not the ends—and nail on one of the inch strips. That is
-the plate. Cut the ends of the upper joist the bevel of the pitch of
-the roof, and nail them fast to the plate, placing the end ones inside
-the studs, which you will let run up promiscuously, to be cut off by
-the rafter. Now lay the garret floor by all means before you put on
-the roof, and you will find that you have saved 50 per cent of hard
-labor. The rafters, if supported so as not to be over 10 feet long,
-will be strong enough of the 2 × 4 stuff. Bevel the ends and nail fast
-to the joist. Then there is no strain upon the sides by the weight of
-the roof, which may be covered with shingles or other materials—the
-cheapest being composition or cement roofs. To make one of this kind,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>
-take soft, spongy, thick paper, and tack it upon the boards in courses
-like shingles. Commence at the top with hot tar and saturate the paper,
-upon which sift evenly fine gravel, pressing it in while hot—that is,
-while tar and gravel are both hot. One coat will make a tight roof; two
-coats will make it more durable. Put up your partitions of stuff 1 × 4,
-unless where you want to support the upper joist—then use stuff 2 × 4,
-with strips nailed on top, for the joist to rest upon, fastening all
-together by nails, wherever timbers touch. Thus you will have a frame
-without a tenon or mortise, or brace, and yet it is far cheaper, and
-incalculably stronger when finished, than though it were composed of
-timbers 10 inches square, with a thousand auger holes and a hundred
-days’ work with the chisel and adze, making holes and pins to fill them.</p>
-
-<p>“To lay out and frame a building so that all its parts will come
-together requires the skill of a master mechanic, and a host of men and
-a deal of hard work to lift the great sticks of timber into position.
-To erect a balloon building requires about as much mechanical skill as
-it does to build a board fence. Any farmer who is handy with the saw,
-iron square, and hammer, with one of his boys or a common laborer to
-assist him, can go to work and put up a frame for an outbuilding, and
-finish it off with his own labor, just as well as to hire a carpenter
-to score and hew great oak sticks and fill them full of mortises, all
-by the science of the ‘square rule.’ It is a waste of labor that we
-should all lend our aid to put a stop to. Besides, it will enable many
-a farmer to improve his place with new buildings, who, though he has
-long needed them, has shuddered at the thought of cutting down half of
-the best trees in his wood-lot, and then giving half a year’s work to
-hauling it home and paying for what I do know is the wholly useless
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>
-labor of framing. If it had not been for the knowledge of balloon
-frames, Chicago and San Francisco could never have arisen, as they did,
-from little villages to great cities in a single year. It is not alone
-city buildings, which are supported by one another, that may be thus
-erected, but those upon the open prairie, where the wind has a sweep
-from Mackinaw to the Mississippi, for there they are built, and stand
-as firm as any of the old frames of New England, with posts and beams
-16 inches square.”</p>
-
-<p>The above address, which was delivered before the American Institute
-Farmers’ Club, has been quoted in detail because of the interesting
-point of view of the days of 1855 which it reveals. When Mr. Robinson
-had finished there were other comments, especially one by Mr. Youmans,
-in which he described early conditions of building in San Francisco.
-He also said that he had adopted this plan of building on his farm in
-Saratoga County, where he found great difficulty in getting carpenters
-that would do as he wished. They could not give up tenons and mortises,
-and braces and big timbers, for the light ribs, 2 by 4 inches, of a
-balloon frame. Does this not remind the modern reader of comments he
-has heard upon all sides these days concerning labor which will not do
-what is wanted but insists on doing things in the old way?</p>
-
-<p>Some pertinent remarks were also made by a Mr. Stillman, who testified
-that he had seen whole blocks of houses built in two weeks at San
-Francisco, and better frames he never saw. He said they were put up a
-story at a time, the first two floors often being framed and sided in
-and lived in before the upper part of the house was up. Have we any
-such housing crisis as this, in these days, or did we do any quicker
-building of war villages than that described above?
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>And now we read from the Preliminary Report on the Building Code
-Committee of the United States Department of Commerce the crystallized
-tradition of this system of wooden frame construction which was evolved
-so many years ago that we sometimes forget the conditions of its making:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>“<i>Exterior Walls.</i>—1. Wood studding shall be 2 × 4 inches nominal
-size or larger, and spaced not to exceed 16 inches on centres. All
-walls shall be securely braced at corners. The minimum sizes specified
-in these requirements shall in all cases be understood as referring to
-nominal sizes of such timbers.</p>
-
-<p>2. Exterior walls, except those of dwellings or parts thereof not
-more than one story high, shall be sheathed with boards not less than ⅞
-inch thick. Sheathing-boards shall be laid tight and properly nailed to
-each stud with not less than 2 tenpenny nails. Where the sheathing is
-omitted all corners shall be diagonally braced and such other measures
-taken to secure rigidity as may be necessary.</p>
-
-<p>3. Wood sheathing may be omitted when other types of construction
-are used that are proven of adequate strength and stability by tests
-conducted by recognized authorities.</p>
-
-<p>4. When joists are supported on ledger or ribbon boards, such boards
-shall not be less than 1 × 4 inches, shall be laid into the studs and
-securely nailed with not less than 2 nails to each stud. The floor-joists
-shall be well spiked to the sides of the studs.”</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>XX</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">TRADITIONS OF THE
-  CONSTRUCTION<br />OF DOORS AND WINDOWS</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<h3><i>Windows</i></h3>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_245_a.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="316" />
-    <p class="center">Primitive window</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>What are the elements of design in the elevations of the small house?
-Surely they are not the five classical orders, as commonly used in
-monumental architecture, but rather they are the doors and windows. The
-successful placing and careful detailing of the doors and windows of a
-small house will have more to do with the architectural attractiveness
-of the structure than anything else, for, after all, the most important
-part of any elevation is the treatment of the holes in it. The walls
-would be plain and uninteresting but for the holes where the doors and
-windows are placed. The fenestration cannot be too large or too small,
-and here is the problem. We desire plenty of light and air, but we
-must also recognize that windows which are too large leave little wall
-space in the rooms, are cold in winter, and appear less homelike than
-smaller and snugger appearing ones. Then, too, windows which are of
-plain, clear glass in very large sheets make these holes appear open
-and black, and this is quite contrary to our traditions of the windows
-of a home, which should be safe and cosey. The omission of muntins from
-the windows of small houses is a great mistake in design, even though
-these small panes require a little more work to wash.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_245_b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="298" />
-    <p class="center">Lattice Window</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Our traditions of door and window construction come, as do other
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>
-structural traditions, from England. Undoubtedly the earliest
-structures had no windows at all, but were lighted by the openings
-through the defective construction of the walls and also through the
-door. Our ancestors of those days were more interested in protecting
-themselves from outside intruders than they were in fresh air and
-sunshine in their rooms. When it was safe to build windows they were
-only holes in the walls. Some of the old huts, built on crucks, a
-construction previously described, had holes in the roofs for windows,
-which served the double purpose of letting in light and letting out
-the smoke of the fire. We get an inkling of what a window was from the
-very derivation of the word itself, which comes from the old Norse
-word “wind-auga” or wind-eye. This does not sound like a glazed sash,
-nor does the other Anglo-Saxon term for window, “wind-dur,” meaning
-wind-door, suggest a closed aperture. Of course these windows were
-undoubtedly closed in some way or other in stormy weather or when
-danger was outside. Probably a wooden board or shutter was used, which
-had a small peep-hole cut in it. These were hung from the top, and when
-opened were held in position with a prop on the outside.</p>
-
-<p>There is no certainty of when the smaller domestic houses of England
-began to use glazed windows. In 1519 William Horman wrote: “I wyll haue
-a latesse before the glasse for brekynge.” This would suggest that
-windows of latticework were preferred because of the cost of glass, and
-this might have been filled instead with canvas, horn, or tile to let
-in some light. But another writer in 1562 says: “Lattice keepeth out
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>
-the light and letteth in the winde.” When glass windows were used,
-however, the small bits of glass were held in position by lead
-in diamond-shaped patterns, which probably were adopted from the
-form of the old lattice windows, although later it was found that
-rectangular panes were cheaper. But the use of glass in small houses
-is comparatively modern, for, before the reign of Henry VIII, glass
-windows were rare except in churches and gentlemen’s houses.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_246_a.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="226" />
-    <p class="center">An old unglazed window,<br /> the early beginnings<br />of sash</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Traditions of stone mullioned windows were very strong, and these
-brought about a system of building wooden, unglazed sash which had
-mullions made of oak, set in a heavy oak frame. One of these is shown
-in the drawings. The word “sash” is derived from the French “chassis,”
-and its earliest spelling was “shas” or “shash.” In a book, “Mechanick
-Exercises,” written by Moxon in 1700, he mentions “shas frames and shas
-lights.” It was these old, unglazed wooden sash which gave birth to the
-modern double-hung and casement window.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_246_b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="330" />
-    <p class="center">Crude beginning of the<br />sliding Sash</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>As first made, they opened by sliding in their frames, either
-horizontally or vertically. If they were built to slide vertically they
-were not counterbalanced with weights, as in our modern windows, but
-were held in position with a hook which caught in notches cut in the
-side of the frame. It is interesting to quote here what William Horman
-wrote in 1519: “I haue many prety wyndowes shette with louys goynge up
-and downe.”</p>
-
-<p>It is supposed that the idea of counterbalancing these sash by means
-of weights, attached by a cord running up over a pulley, came to England
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>
-from Holland. This type began to be used about the latter half of the
-seventeenth century, and although the early examples were clumsy and
-heavy and the groove in which the sash were made to run was worked out
-in the solid, yet by the process of years of refinement the modern
-double-hung window was evolved. The traditions of these sliding windows
-were brought to America in Colonial days, and they proved to be the
-most suitable types for our rigorous climate, whereas the windows,
-which swung like doors from their sides, called casement windows, did
-not prove so weather-resisting.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_247.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="293" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Modern Double-hung Window</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Casement Window Sash swings inward</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>To hear some individuals talk, one would almost think that the
-double-hung window was a modern, American invention of artistic
-atrociousness, and that the casement window was peculiarly English,
-having the sole right to artistic merit. As a matter of fact, the
-fashion in England for casement windows was an imported one from the
-Continent, which never reached certain farm sections of England. In
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>
-fact, some years ago certain agricultural laborers refused to live
-in cottages fitted with casement windows which had been built by a
-district council. The Georgian revival, which had so much influence
-upon our early Colonial work, and which is also very much alive to-day
-in this country, brought into fashion again the traditional double-hung window.</p>
-
-<p>Of course there is much to be said against the artistic appearance of
-the double-hung window as compared with the casement window, but when
-all is said and done we still go on using more double-hung windows
-than casement windows, for in the majority of cases they prove to
-be more substantial in resisting the heavy winds and storms of our
-climate. Every now and again we hear some prominent architect urging
-the use of casement windows, and we can find plenty of manufacturers
-of casement window hardware telling us to use them, and the makers
-of steel casement sash drum in our ears the practical qualities of
-steel sash, and one is led to wonder why they are not used more.
-But traditions are stronger than advertisements.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Doors</i></h3>
-
-<p>There is an ancient English expression, “put t’ duur i’ t’ hoile” (put
-the door in the hole), which comes down from the times when the door
-was not fastened by hinges and did not swing into place, but had to be
-lifted up and placed over the door opening. When the door was opened
-it leaned against two stakes driven into the ground, or some similar
-support. These old doors were very small, as compared with our modern
-doors, and were probably made of light wattle, for we read in some old
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>
-rhymes of throwing doors and windows on the attacking enemy. Even when
-solid-wood doors were used they were made of one piece of wood. Doors
-made of a number of planks of wood fastened together by battens or
-ledges were a later type. It was noticed that these sagged when hung
-in position and cross bracing was found necessary. These old batten
-or ledged doors were swung on pivots of wood which rested in sockets
-bored into the lintel and the sill. These pivots were called harrs, and
-later were made of iron. The evolution of the hinge idea from the harr
-is shown in a series of drawings. For many years these great hinges
-became a very decorative part of the door, and great care was taken
-with their designing. Our modern butt is quite the opposite in its
-characteristics, for instead of being a feature upon the face of the
-door it is completely hidden, except the socket and pin.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_249.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="253" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Primitive Door</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Old door of solid wood plank</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Batten or Ledged Door</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_250_a.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="365" />
-<p class="center">An old English<br />Ledged Door</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In building the old ledged doors, the planks were set vertically and
-held together with battens through which were driven wooden pegs. The
-ends of these pegs were chamfered, and a curious mark of tradition can
-be noted in the later doors, which were fastened with iron pins that
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>
-were also chamfered on the ends, like the wooden pins. Later
-construction of doors shows the use of weather-stripping over the
-vertical joints and also the use of various layers of planks, with
-their grains running at right angles in each alternate layer. The end
-timber upon which the harr was placed was thicker than the planking,
-and later the timber upon the opposite side was made heavier in order
-to strengthen the crude locks. With this change and the moving of the
-battens to the upper and lower edges of the door, and the introduction
-of weather-stripping over the cracks between planks, there was created
-the prototype for the modern panelled door. It was only a slight step
-from this to frame the styles, top and bottom rails, and lock rails
-around the panels between them.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_250_b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="138" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Wooden<br />Harr</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Iron<br />Harr</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Iron<br />Harr</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Iron Hinge &amp;<br />Hoolie</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-      <p class="center">Development of the Door Hinge</p>
-</div>
-<div class="figleft">
-    <img src="images/i_250_c.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="120" />
-      <p class="center">Modern</p>
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">Loose-joint Butt</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">Loose-pin Butt</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-      <p class="f150"><b>(9)</b></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Another type of door that was of traditional construction, and from
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>
-the name of which we derive our word hatch, was the so-called
-“heck-door.” This door corresponds to the common “dutch-door,” which is
-familiar to us in Dutch Colonial houses. It was capable of being opened
-in two halves; the upper half could be swung in without the lower half.
-This type of door was invented from the necessity of protection against
-the sudden intrusion of strangers and also small animals, like pigs and hens.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_251_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="239" />
-     <p>Simple Batten Door</p>
-     <p class="f120">Development of the panel door from the batten door.</p>
-    <img src="images/i_251_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="215" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The oldest method of fastening doors was to draw a long bar across
-them on the inside, very much like the bars which were used in Colonial
-houses in this country. A hole was cut into the jamb into which this
-bar could be run when locked, and in the opposite jamb was another hole
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>
-into which it could be slid out of the way. The disadvantage of
-this type of door fastening was that it could only be fastened and
-unfastened from the inside. This led to other devices, such as a bolt
-that could be operated from the outside and a latch that could be
-lifted by a string, or a hole was cut in the door through which a small
-bit of metal could be passed that could be used as a lift for the latch.</p>
-
-<p>To-day we think of locks and bolts and latches as distinct, but this
-was not so at the time they were being evolved. Our word lock was used
-in the sense of securing the door in any manner. But gradually, as,
-step by step, the various mechanisms for locking a door were developed,
-the word became limited in its meaning, although we sometimes use it
-to-day in the sense of closing the door.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>XXI</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">BUILDING THE
-   SETTING FOR THE HOUSE</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<h3><i>Theoretical Features of Ground Arrangement</i></h3>
-
-<p>There are five fundamentals which should be considered in finishing the
-grounds about the small house, for it must not be forgotten that the
-finest gem of domestic design will be lost unless it is placed in the
-right setting. These five principles are the production of an intimate
-relation between house and grounds, the formation of a natural frame
-about the house, the building of interesting approaches, the planting
-for seasonal effects, and the growing of interesting and beautiful
-vistas as viewed from the house.</p>
-
-<h4>1.—INTIMATE RELATION BETWEEN<br />HOUSE AND GROUNDS</h4>
-
-<p>In considering this part of the problem, the designer must begin at
-the very outset to solve it. If the plot is level or capable of easy
-conversion into terraces, then the character of the house itself may
-be somewhat formal, symmetrical, and dignified; but it would be wrong
-to build a house of this kind upon a rolling and rollicking site. This
-latter kind of ground demands the picturesque type of house, and the
-roof lines should be planned to carry up some of the curves of the hillocks.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_254.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="527" />
-    <p class="f120 space-below1">STUDIED PLANTING</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In all cases, however, it is generally recognized that the small house
-can best be tied into the surroundings by making it low, say a story
-and a half or one story, for one of two stories or even two and a half
-offers an ungainly elevation for an architectural composition. In rare
-instances have houses of this proportion been artistically finished.
-At any rate, the house should be kept as low as possible in the front,
-and the ugly, stilted foundations should not protrude above the level
-of the lawn. Nothing is so effective in producing a feeling of intimacy
-between house and grounds as to keep the level of the first floor only
-about six inches above the grade. This, of course, makes it difficult
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span>
-to light and ventilate the cellar, since any windows in the
-foundation-walls would have to open into areas. A compromise can be
-made by grading the lawn down at the back of the house, so that enough
-of the foundation can extend above the ground to permit of well-lighted
-cellar windows.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_255.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="540" />
-    <p class="f120 space-below1">THOUGHTLESS PLANTING</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Another method by which an intimate connection between ground and
-house can be produced is in the blending of wall materials and
-foundation-stones. If the walls of the house are of stucco, and the
-lower part of them built of rubble-stone, then a gradual transition
-can be made from the stone to the stucco by carrying the stucco down
-over certain parts of the stone work, so that it flows into the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>
-mortar joints—like the waters of a lake flow into the little
-indentations of a rocky shore. This will eliminate any sharp horizontal
-line where the foundation-wall of stone ends and upper wall of stucco
-begins. As the stone has a natural intimacy with the soil, it easily
-makes the transition with the ground, and its effectiveness is very
-marked where the site is hilly and parts of the foundation are built
-upon little rocky juttings. This same easy transition can be made from
-stone foundation to brick wall. It is not possible to do it with the
-wooden wall, however.</p>
-
-<p>But perhaps the most widely used method of producing an intimate
-connection between ground and walls of the house is with foundation
-planting. There is much abuse of this method. To surround the base of
-the house with billowy clumps of shrubbery, so that it appears almost
-as if it were springing from a bed of clouds, is not at all satisfying.
-Nor should the owner have to be everlastingly kept at the job of
-trimming down these plants or removing dead ones which refuse to grow
-in the poor soil and bad drainage next to the cellar. And the house
-should not be made to mourn behind a bed of evergreens, protected at
-intervals with sentinel-like cedars, dark and foreboding, against the
-wall and sighing and whining in the wind. Rather should a delicate use
-be made of foundation planting by using vines, and now and then a small
-shrub or little evergreen. The object should be to make a shading and
-transition from the green lawn to the walls of the house by carrying
-upward upon the walls or against them some of the climbing plants,
-that the green of the ground may fade gradually into the white of the
-stucco or the red of the brick wall. Public buildings need massive and
-impressive foundations, but the small house should be nestled in Nature’s lap.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4>2.—NATURAL FRAMING FOR HOUSE</h4>
-
-<p>When viewed by the passer-by in the street the planting around the
-house should be so arranged that it makes a natural frame for it and
-creates a composition for a picture. Regarded from this angle there
-should be background trees, trees and shrubbery flanking the sides
-along the edge of the plot, a green open lawn stretching forward to
-the street, some columnar-shaped trees or lacelike trees wisely placed
-to suggest the middle ground, and then a wall or low hedge with low
-plantings to make a foreground.</p>
-
-<p>The background trees should be tall and mixed in character, so that
-their skyline is not stiff and wall-like. The trees which run along
-the edge of the lot ought also to be varied in type. Low shrubs should
-fill in the spaces between their trunks, but as they come forward on
-the property they should be more scattered, lower and thinner, so that
-the neighboring property can be seen, and finally they should end,
-allowing a blended connection between the lawns on either side. There
-are some who advocate that the site should be completely walled in with
-shrubs or fences and separated entirely from the neighboring plots, but
-this is not quite in harmony with our traditions, and ought not to be
-carried to this individual exclusiveness, although the rear of the lot
-may be so screened in.</p>
-
-<p>The green lawn should not be broken with flower-beds, for, taken at its
-largest, it is bound to be little, and nothing should be introduced to
-break it up. The windings of the front path may be such that clumps
-of low shrubbery and a few columnar trees, like cedars or Lombardy
-poplars, can be placed along its edge and produce a motif for the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span>
-middle ground, like a moving silhouette against the elevation of the
-house as one passes by.</p>
-
-<p>The building up of the foreground should be with some low planting
-over which one can look. The use of fence or wall is legitimate if it
-does not cut off the view. Gates are a little out of harmony with our
-American traditions, for they mean that they should be attended by a
-gatekeeper, a human tool that is quite extinct in the average home, and
-especially in the small one.</p>
-
-<h4>3.—INTERESTING APPROACHES</h4>
-
-<p>Generally speaking, due to the smallness of the average plot upon which
-the little house is erected, the building of a prominent pathway to
-the front door directly in a straight line from the street, cutting
-the lawn and the property in two equal halves, is not pleasing. The
-lawn will be small enough as it is without chopping it into two pieces.
-If a straight approach is desirable, it should be made of materials
-that will not visibly produce this effect of division. Stone slabs
-of greenish color or neutral tones set with open joints, or even
-stepping stones, solve the problem. But the straight approach has not
-the mystery and picturesque quality of one which curves around the
-outside of the lawn, and is framed in with planting, so that the view
-of the house is constantly changing as one proceeds.</p>
-
-<p>The roadway to the garage might also be the way to the house. Nothing
-looks uglier than the straight cut from street to garage. Planning the
-location of this service building so that it cannot be seen from the
-street is an excellent step in the right direction.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The material of which these paths and roads should be constructed ought
-to be in harmony with the house. Brick paths look well with brick
-houses, stone paths and gravel paths look well with stone houses,
-concrete paths and roads go well with concrete and stucco houses, for
-one naturally associates these materials as being left over from the
-building. It is the most natural thing in the world to use up a few
-of the bricks for the paths after one gets through building the brick
-house, or laying some of the stones to walk upon, after finishing the
-house of stone, or using up a few odd barrels of cement for the walks
-when the job on the concrete house is over. And being so natural a
-thing, there is a likable gesture in doing it.</p>
-
-<h4>4.—PLANTING FOR THE SEASONS</h4>
-
-<p>The composition of the picture which is the aim in all of this work
-about the house, should not be spoiled by careless selection of plants
-for the various seasons of the year. It is very unwise to place in the
-front of the house tender shrubs and flowers which wither and die in
-the winter months or which have to be wrapped in swaddling-clothes. Is
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span>
-there anything more forlorn than to see a lot of burlap-wrapped or
-hay-packed mummy trees or shrubs, standing out on the cold wintry lawn
-in front of the house? A few evergreen trees and a few broad-leaf trees
-which show delicate limbs when bare, and a few shrubs that hold the
-snows that settle upon them are the things to plant in the front of the
-house. Leave the tender plants to the garden in the rear.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_259.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="230" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc">TYPE OF SMALL GARDEN</td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc">TYPE OF SMALL GARDEN</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>And this garden at the back of the house should be treated in a most
-private way. It should be surrounded with a wall or high hedge. There
-should be walks, border plantings, a little touch of water, and a
-seat in the smallest garden. It should be located so that it can be
-viewed from the house and enjoyed. Here all of the fine, delicate, and
-colorful flowers and plants can be placed. In the winter months the
-protected plants with their ugly clothes will not seem so out of place
-in this secreted patch of ground.</p>
-
-<h4>5.—IMPROVING THE VIEW FROM THE HOUSE</h4>
-
-<p>Next in importance to planning the setting of the house and its
-appearance from the street should be the planning of the views from
-windows of the house itself. The development of the private garden at
-the back is one help which was previously alluded to, but there are
-generally ugly things which can be seen from the windows of the house
-that need screening out. These ugly objects may be on the neighboring
-property, or they may be the drying-yard for the clothes, or the
-garage. Whatever they are, a screen of trees can be used to shut them
-from the view.</p>
-
-<p>But the most important part of this problem is to make the best of any
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span>
-view that may be possible from the house. A far-away river, a hill, or
-a meadow might be brought to sight by trimming some trees or brush.
-Distant landscapes are most satisfying to the eyes, for they rest them.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Construction of the Lawn</i></h3>
-
-<p>From what has been said, the importance of the lawn in front of
-the house can be appreciated. It is the rug spread out before the
-jewel-box. Over it one can view the beauty of the home, and so it needs
-the best attention. The very first thing to consider in building the
-lawn is to arrange for good drainage and a deep top layer of good soil,
-say 18" to 24". Pockets where water may collect and settle must be
-drained with tiles placed in the ground. The surface water should be
-carefully distributed away from the house.</p>
-
-<p>An ordinary site will have stones and weeds scattered over it. In the
-beginning these stones should be carted away and the weeds cut down
-with a scythe, and a plough run over the surface to a foot in depth,
-unless the subsoil is not sandy and holds water, in which case a deeper
-ploughing is better. Then stones and weeds should be taken out of this
-earth, not once, but as many times as the earth delivers up stones and
-weeds. When this is done, the grading may be started, and this should
-be with long, easy grades. Where trees and shrubs edge the lawn, a
-slight hollow in the grade will improve it.</p>
-
-<p>This graded soil is not ready for grass until it has been covered
-with 25 to 50 loads per acre of thoroughly decayed, composted stable
-manure, or, if not this, bone-dust, wood-ashes, superphosphates of
-lime, nitrate of ammonia, etc. This dressing should be raked into the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span>
-top-soil with the harrow and hand rake, and whatever weeds and stones
-come up with this operation should be removed.</p>
-
-<p>Grass seed should then be selected which will give the most rugged
-growth for the particular conditions of the site. Often this can best
-be accomplished by using a mixture of seed. The different kinds of
-grass have qualities suited to certain types of soil. For example,
-Kentucky blue-grass, while coarse and not so attractive as some
-others, grows vigorously and holds its own in sandy soil. Rhode Island
-bent-grass makes good sod in moist climates, and redtop is apt to die
-off in a drought.</p>
-
-<p>This seed must be sown liberally to make allowances for loss in
-germination, and evenly to prevent patchy growth. About six bushels
-per acre is considered enough. All of this must be raked under with a
-fine-toothed iron rake and pressed down with a heavy roller. As soon as
-the blades are tall enough to be caught in the mower, this new grass
-should be cut, for this helps to make it grow thicker and keep down the
-weeds. But work on the lawn does not end here. Constant care is the
-price of a good one.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Construction of Roads and Paths</i></h3>
-
-<p>Attention has already been called to the use of materials for paths and
-roads which harmonize with the materials of the house. In a previous
-chapter, details were given on the construction of concrete paths and
-roads. Therefore other types will be considered here, such as brick,
-gravel, and stone.</p>
-
-<p>The driveway to the garage ought to be about 10 feet wide and flare
-out to a 15-foot width at the house, where the car is driven up to the
-entrance, so that an incoming car can pass by any which is standing in
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>
-front of the door. This roadway should widen out into a Y shape in
-front of the garage, as shown in the drawings, to permit of backing out
-and turning around. A round turning area in front of the garage may
-be substituted for this Y-shaped arrangement. Any curves made in the
-driveway should have a radius from centre of the curve to outside edge
-of the road of 30 feet 6 inches, although a Ford car can run on a road
-having a radius of only 14 feet.</p>
-
-<p>If the driveway is to be of gravel and the subsoil is wet or clayey,
-drainage must be arranged for along the edges. Trenches 3 feet to 4
-feet deep should be dug on either side and 3-inch diameter agricultural
-tile laid at the bottom with open joints covered with collars, then a
-layer of sod, and then 6 inches of field stone or gravel, and finally
-top-soil. Wherever there are pockets that would collect surface water,
-outlets should be constructed and covered with iron grating. All the
-subsoil tile should connect with one main tile and drain off at some
-low point.</p>
-
-<p>For ordinary light traffic the road itself may be built with a
-foundation of stones to a depth of 2 feet. This should be covered with
-a layer of coarse gravel 2½ inches thick, a top layer of finer gravel
-4 inches thick, and rolled with a heavy roller after water or some
-bituminous binder has been sprinkled over it. A crown of ½ inch to the
-foot should be made, and any grades ought to be kept about 5 feet in
-100 feet, and at the most 10 feet in 100 feet.</p>
-
-<p>In the construction of gravel walks the grade should be kept to within
-12 feet in 100 feet and be crowned ¼ inch per foot.</p>
-
-<p>The success of the brick walk depends upon the foundation used. A poor
-one will permit the bricks to settle unevenly, crack, and break away at
-the edges. The bricks themselves may be laid in any number of different
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span>
-and interesting patterns, such as the basket weave or the herring-bone.
-A row of bricks on edge along the outside of the walk makes an
-excellent finish.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_264_a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="452" />
-    <p class="center">TYPES OF STONE PATHS</p>
-    <img src="images/i_264_b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="462" />
-    <p class="center space-below2">TYPES OF BRICK WALKS</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The foundations of the brick walk may be built of sand, cinders, or
-concrete. The first two give a walk somewhat irregular, and grass can
-be made to grow in the joints. To begin the laying of a brick walk,
-the earth should be excavated to a depth of 4 inches, and either a
-bed of sand 2 inches thick, or a concrete of one part cement to eight
-parts sand 3 inches thick should be spread. When the bricks have been
-arranged on this bed, sand should be worked into the joints between them by
-leaving a layer on the walk for a few days and brushing it into the crevices.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Where concrete is used for the base, a more rigid walk will result,
-and in such types it is customary to use mortar to fill the joints. A
-thin 1:3 grout can be brushed into these joints and the little that is
-smeared over the surface can be washed off with scrubbing-brush, water,
-and 5-per-cent muriatic acid. A better method is to pour grout into the
-joints, wiping the brick clean before the mortar sets.</p>
-
-<p>There are a number of different types of stone walks that can be used,
-depending upon the character of the stone in the neighborhood. Flat
-flagstone walks are usually rather uninteresting, and many prefer the
-picturesque effect which is produced by stepping stones. These ought
-to be placed about 22 inches apart to make walking easy on them. A
-very interesting and much-used walk is made by setting flat stones of
-different shapes together, like the pieces of a cut-out puzzle, but leaving
-a small space between each stone in which grass or moss can be grown.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-  <h2 class="nobreak"><big>XXII</big><br /><span class="h_subtitle">FINANCING THE
-  CONSTRUCTION WORK</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>The problem of financing the small house is a part of the problem of
-building, and to some extent is a very personal affair, and every
-prospective owner has his own difficulties and personal solutions.
-Those who have saved for a number of years enough money to invest in
-this adventure of home-building are quite simply fixed, and all that
-they need consider is how large a house they can have for the money saved.</p>
-
-<p>A method was shown in an early chapter by which the approximate cost
-of a house could be determined when the plans were in the rough. This
-consisted of studying the houses built in the neighborhood where the
-new home was to be erected, calculating their cubical contents and
-dividing this into their total cost, so that their cost per cubic
-foot could be known. By comparing this result with the figures which
-the local builders had offered, a fair idea could be obtained of how
-much per cubic foot the new house would run. A few figures were given
-for the different types of construction, but nothing certain can be
-predicted from them, for, as was pointed out, the cost is definitely
-related to the locality and the time.</p>
-
-<p>Once, however, having arrived at a reasonably correct cost figure for
-the cubic foot, the question of how big a house is to be had for the
-money is quickly determined. Divide this cost per cubic foot into the
-total sum of money which is to be used for building the house, and the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>
-allowable number of cubic feet in the new house will be found. If now
-the average height of the new house, from the cellar to the average
-height of the roof, is divided into this allowable cubic contents, the
-allowable ground area for the plan will be known.</p>
-
-<p>For example, suppose the sum that can be invested in the house itself
-is $10,000, and it is found that the houses in the locality, of similar
-construction, cost per cubic foot about 35 cents. Dividing 35 cents
-into $10,000, it is found that a house having approximately 28,570
-cubic feet can be constructed. If 8 feet is allowed from cellar floor
-to level of first floor, 9 feet from first to second floor, and 13
-feet from second floor to the average height of the roof, then a total
-average height for the house will be found to be 30 feet. Dividing this
-30 feet into 28,570 cubic feet, it will be found that a floor area of
-approximately 950 square feet can be had. Now, as the floor area of
-the plan of any two-story house is determined by the area required for
-the second floor and not the first, the desired sizes of the various
-bedrooms should be approximated, and the results added together to see
-whether they come within the allowable floor area. Continuing this
-example, suppose that the master bedroom is to be approximately 14 feet
-by 15 feet, the other three bedrooms approximately 12 feet by 12 feet,
-the toilet about 7 feet by 10 feet, the hall about 8 feet by 12 feet,
-then by adding the area of these rooms together it will be quickly
-found out whether the allowable area has been exceeded.</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="TOC" cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Master bedroom, 14 feet by 15 feet</td>
-      <td class="tdr_ws1">210</td>
-      <td class="tdc">square</td>
-      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;feet</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Three other bedrooms, 12 feet by 12 feet&emsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr_ws1">432</td>
-      <td class="tdc">“</td>
-      <td class="tdc">“</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Toilet, 7 feet by 10 feet</td>
-      <td class="tdr_ws1">70</td>
-      <td class="tdc">“</td>
-      <td class="tdc">“</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Hall, 8 feet by 12 feet</td>
-      <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">96</td>
-      <td class="tdc bb">“</td>
-      <td class="tdc bb">“</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Total</td>
-      <td class="tdr_ws1">808</td>
-      <td class="tdc">square</td>
-      <td class="tdc">feet</td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>
-This number of square feet is within the amount allowed, which is 950,
-but additional area must be added to this for closets, say 3 feet by
-4 feet for the closet of the master bedroom, and 3 feet by 3 feet for
-the closets of the other rooms, and other closets for linen and space
-for chimneys and the like, making about 60 square feet, which should be
-left for this part of the plan. This makes the area about 868 square
-feet, and no allowance has been made for porches or passageways. It
-is quite evident from this that the number of bedrooms desired, their
-approximate size, and the size of the toilet and closets is nearly
-up to the maximum which the limitations of cost will permit. Working
-with these approximate figures, the plans of the house can be roughly
-prepared, the area required for the second-floor rooms being used as
-a basis for the allowable area of the first floor, since it is more
-than enough, for the second-floor area of a house, as has been said, is
-always greater than the minimum area for the first floor.</p>
-
-<p>When roughly prepared plans and elevations have been arranged on this
-basis, the cubage can again be checked, and if it is over the allowed
-amount, the size should be cut down; if under, increased. The cubical
-contents of porches may be computed at one-quarter of the cubage of the
-main portion of the house, but if enclosed with glass they should be
-estimated at their full cubic contents.</p>
-
-<p>Having thus roughly arrived at the plans and elevations of the house
-which is within the allowed cubage, a rough outline specification
-should be prepared in which the essential materials, workmanship, and
-mechanical equipment are defined. Enough information will then be had
-from which a rough estimate can be secured from a local contractor, or
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span>
-even the architect may make an estimate, based upon previous examples
-of other houses. If this rough estimate comes within the allowable
-figure which is to be spent for construction, then the contract
-drawings can be safely started, and a reasonable assurance can be had
-that the cost of the house will not go beyond the amount of money
-available. As most contractors will give an outside price on any
-preliminary estimates of this kind, unless radical changes are made in
-the plans, it can almost surely be the case that the final estimate on
-the contract documents will be less. However, there are often times
-when the final figures exceed these preliminary estimates, and one
-should always be prepared to shrink parts of the building or withdraw
-some of the finest requirements of the specifications.</p>
-
-<p>But one of the prime essentials in financing any building operation
-is to be sure that the contract drawings contain everything which is
-desired in the finished building, and that none or very few changes
-are made in the building after the contract is let and the building
-is in process of construction. Alterations from the original plans,
-after construction work has begun, come under the bugbear title for
-all architects, “Extras.” They always mean waste of money. Likewise,
-things which were omitted from the plans and specifications, which
-are later found to be necessary, run up extraordinary bills, and the
-general impression which most people have that a building operation
-always costs more in the end than was originally counted upon is due
-largely to the neglect of these factors. Competent architects make such
-complete plans and specifications that extras of the “omission type”
-are avoided, but most small houses are built from plans that are not
-complete, or prepared by architects who sell their services at such low
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span>
-rates that they cannot afford to take the time to check up the plans
-carefully. It is right here that the architect has a real business
-point to give the client, namely, that if he does not pay for carefully
-prepared plans and specifications in the beginning, he will pay out
-much more in the end for extras.</p>
-
-<p>Up to this point the financing of the small house, for the one who
-has the money, is not complicated, but this is the unusual condition,
-because the average person who builds the small house has not the ready
-cash to put into it, for that is the reason he builds a small house.
-The average individual who builds the small house generally has a
-certain amount which can be invested and the rest must be borrowed, and
-there are many who advise that even if one did have the whole amount to
-invest, it would be better to borrow some for the building operation,
-and keep out as much as possible for investments in other lines where
-the money might bring in greater returns.</p>
-
-<p>The problem naturally turns upon where and how much can be borrowed for
-the building operation. Here again a very personal matter is involved.
-Some will have very close friends from whom they can secure a large
-first and second mortgage at a fairly reasonable rate, others may be
-able to secure a first mortgage from some financing institution which
-will be an amount equal to one-half the total cost of land and house,
-and then they may be able to secure a second mortgage from some friend,
-for most business houses are not prone to take second mortgages. Often
-a greater sum can be raised on the contract system, for by this method
-the person lending the money is more certainly assured of securing
-quick control of it in case of the necessity of action when payments on
-the interest fail. By the contract method, the individual lending the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>
-money holds the deed of the property, and can secure control of the
-property more quickly than if he had a mortgage and the owner held the
-deed. In many cases where foreclosure of mortgages are found necessary,
-there may be a delay of a year or more before the money-lender can
-secure control of the property, but if he holds the deed the delay
-is shortened, and because of this fact he is apt to lend more money
-than 50 per cent of the total value. Of course, in the contract method
-the owner secures the deed to the property when his last payment is
-made upon the principle and he has wiped out all of his interest
-indebtedness.</p>
-
-<p>But probably one of the most satisfactory systems yet devised for
-financing the small house is through the various building and loan
-associations which have grown to great strength in this country.
-These associations not only offer investment opportunities for small
-investors, but they make excellent and easy terms for those to whom
-they lend money for home-building. The arrangements with these
-institutions make the payments on mortgages almost like the payments in
-monthly rents, and yet at the same time the principle is continually
-being reduced, so that in about twelve years it is completely paid
-off. Then, too, one is assured of not being in the hands of some
-unscrupulous money-lender, as sometimes one discovers a friend to be,
-however trustworthy he may have seemed before this business relation
-developed.</p>
-
-<p>These building-loan associations will lend as high as 80 per cent
-on the value of house and grounds, provided the character of the
-individual in the community warrants it. Their average-size loans have
-been computed to be about $4,000. If the minimum payment is adhered to,
-the loan is usually paid up in twelve years, although arrangements can
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span>
-be made by which this can be shortened. The interest charged is from 6
-per cent to 8 per cent.</p>
-
-<p>If the money is not secured through the above source, then it is
-customary to pay a commission to the agent who secures a loan from
-some financing institution or private investor. This commission
-differs, according to the locality, ranging from 1 to 4 per cent on
-first mortgages, and from 5 per cent upward on second mortgages. If a
-contract is desired on a second mortgage, the agent will be obliged to
-secure it from some private individual, for first-mortgage companies
-will not purchase them. This often leads to discounts of from 15 to 30
-per cent on second mortgages and contracts.</p>
-
-<p>It is well for every prospective owner, before he considers financing
-the construction of a small house, to sit down and figure out all of
-the incidental expenditures which are connected with it, for often some
-of the minor items are not taken into account, and they may spoil the
-whole scheme. Taking a typical example, the items of expense are as follows:</p>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub4">  1. Cost of the lot.</li>
-<li class="isub4">  2. Fee for title search.</li>
-<li class="isub4">  3. Tax search and recording fee.</li>
-<li class="isub4">  4. Possibly cost of surveying lot, but not always.</li>
-<li class="isub4">  5. Broker’s fee for securing mortgage.</li>
-<li class="isub4">  6. Interest on each advance of the loan during erection.</li>
-<li class="isub4">  7. Cost of the building less the amount borrowed.</li>
-<li class="isub4">  8. Architect’s fee.</li>
-<li class="isub4">  9. Owner’s liability insurance.</li>
-<li class="isub4">10. Fee for filing plans in Building Department.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3><i>Cost to be Met during Year of Ownership</i></h3>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub4">1. Interest on building loan.</li>
-<li class="isub4">2. Payment on reduction of loan.</li>
-<li class="isub4">3. Interest lost on owner’s money which he invested in the lot and building.</li>
-<li class="isub4">4. Fire insurance.</li>
-<li class="isub4">5. Up-keep, usually about 1½ per cent.</li>
-<li class="isub4">6. Taxes on property and water-supply.</li>
-<li class="isub4">7. Possible assessments.</li>
-<li class="isub4">8. Maintenance cost, such as coal, gas, and electricity.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>The above list of expenses should be frankly faced in the beginning,
-tabulated, and duly considered by every prospective owner of the small
-house. There are some architects who for fear of discouraging their
-clients from building will not sit down with them and show them a plain
-statement of the money they will have to invest, and when all of these
-minor items begin to pop up during the progress of the operations, the
-client begins to lose confidence, wonders where the next unexpected
-bill will come from, and blames the architect for having misrepresented
-conditions to him. Any prospective owner who has to be blind-folded to
-the costs which he must meet in order to muster up courage to build
-ought to be left alone, for he will do the architect no good, but
-considerable harm. Individuals who have their castles in the air so
-high that they cannot reduce their dreams to dollars and cents before
-they begin, ought never to build. These are the kind that start the
-cry that it always costs more to build than one ever figured on in the
-beginning.</p>
-
-<p>But coming back to the question of securing the building loan, it will
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>
-be found that nearly all lenders will insist that the owner put his
-money in first. That is, he must meet the first payments to the builder
-himself, until he has put in all of his share. The rest will then be
-taken up by the financing institution, but always enough will be held
-back to assure sufficient funds for the completion of the house and
-the payment of all bills. The lender generally states at what periods
-of the construction money will be passed over, and this schedule is
-generally adopted as the one for the periodic payments to the builder.
-Of course the contractor must be consulted on the matter and his
-approval secured, but there will be little difficulty on this score,
-for he will recognize the power of the financing institution to dictate
-the dates of payment.</p>
-
-<p>As to the matter of contracting for the construction of the small
-house, there is little doubt that for so small a building the method
-of securing one general contractor to assume the responsibility of
-the whole work is the best. There are many who believe in employing
-day labor, and hiring the services of a supervising builder. The cost
-is itemized and the contractor adds a percentage as his share. This
-insures better-class work, but in practically all cases it is more
-expensive, and no assurance can be had of the final cost.</p>
-
-<p>When the plans are let out to various contractors for bids, there
-should be no obligation attached to them that the lowest bidder will
-secure the job. This is a protection, for the human element often
-enters into relations of this kind, and the lowest bidder may not be
-the most trustworthy personage, nor have the best reputation.</p>
-
-<p>When the contract is finally let, there are a number of things which it
-should cover that are intended to protect the finances of the owner.
-For instance, the contractor should be required to maintain insurance
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span>
-that will protect him from the claims under workmen’s compensation
-acts, and from any other claims for damages for personal injury,
-including death, which might arise from the operations of building. The
-owner should also maintain a similar liability insurance to protect
-himself.</p>
-
-<p>The owner should carry a fire insurance on the entire building and
-materials to at least 80 per cent of the total value.</p>
-
-<p>When there is doubt as to the financial strength of a contractor, he
-should be required to furnish a bond covering the faithful performance
-of the contract and the payment of all obligations.</p>
-
-<p>Then, too, it is customary to set forth cash allowances in the
-specifications to cover certain items, like plumbing fixtures,
-hardware, and electric light fixtures. The contractor should be made to
-declare that the contract sum includes these cash allowances.</p>
-
-<p>Careful understanding with the contractor should be arranged as to the
-method by which he will be paid. Generally, as was previously stated,
-the financing institution has control over the schedule of payments,
-and, once this is agreeable to the contractor, he should be required to
-submit to the architect an application for each payment, with receipts
-and other vouchers, showing his payments for materials and labor,
-including payments to subcontractors, at least ten days before each
-payment falls due. It is the duty of the architect to determine the
-accuracy of each one of these applications for payment before he issues
-the certificate of payment for such amount as he decides is properly
-due. There are some architects who make it a practice to hold back a
-certain percentage of the first payment, and continue this with every
-later payment, until the last, in order to have a club over the head
-of the contractor and also a factor of safety, lest the builder has
-rendered an application for payment in excess of the amount of labor
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>
-and material delivered. This, of course, will cause hard feelings
-sometimes, and create friction between architect and contractor, a
-thing studiously to be avoided, and for this cause such procedure
-should be dropped when the architect knows the character of the
-contractor.</p>
-
-<p>The architect should always reserve the right to withhold part or all
-of the certificate of payment when defective work is not remedied,
-or when any claims are filed, or there is reasonable evidence that
-claims will be filed, or when the contractor fails to make payments
-to subcontractors, or to dealers for materials, or when there is a
-reasonable doubt that the contract can be completed for the balance
-unpaid, or when any damage involving liabilities has been done by one
-contractor to another. The architect should also hold back the final
-payment, if there are any liens existing against the building, until
-they are removed.</p>
-
-<p>In order to avoid many of the trivial and annoying expenses which occur
-in a building operation, the contractor should be required to pay
-for all permits and licenses (but not permanent easements) which are
-necessary according to local laws. The contractor should also be made
-to pay all royalties on patents, if there are any, and all license fees.</p>
-
-<p>But, probably, the most difficult part of the building operation to
-finance are the extras. When something is found to have been omitted
-from the plans and specifications, and the contractor did not cover
-it in his bid, or when the owner changes his mind and requires an
-alteration, then this extra work must be paid for at a high rate, for
-nearly all contractors look upon such extras as good pickings. In fact,
-there are some contractors who deliberately go over the plans and
-specifications to note what extras may be needed, and then counting
-upon their profits from these extras, they put in a low bid, so that
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>
-they can beat their competitors, secure the job, and then proceed to
-make up their losses with bills which they put in for the extras.
-Likewise, a contractor who is honest, if he finds himself losing money
-on any building operation, will try to ease his losses and gain profit
-with the extras.</p>
-
-<p>There must, therefore, be some basis upon which estimates for these
-extras will be determined. The values for these extras or changes in
-the work may be determined by a submitted estimate and acceptance in a
-lump sum, by a unit price named in the contract or subsequently agreed
-upon, or by the cost and percentage, or by the fixed-fee method. If
-the contractor claims that any instructions, by drawings or otherwise,
-involve extra cost under his contract, he should be required to give
-the architect written notice of it before proceeding to do the work,
-within two weeks after receiving such instructions.</p>
-
-<p class="space-below2">A final problem of financing should be
-considered, and that is the emergency which might arise should the
-contractor neglect to prosecute the work properly or fail to perform
-any provision of his contract. If such is the case, the owner should
-reserve the right in the contract, that after three days’ written
-notice to the contractor he may make good such deficiencies and deduct
-the cost from the payment due the contractor at that time. Of course
-every contract should provide for the owner’s right to terminate the
-contract should the contractor fail to do his work, or prove bankrupt,
-or persistently disregard laws, or continually violate the provisions
-of the contract.</p>
-
-<div class="transnote bbox">
-<p class="f120 space-above1">Transcriber&#8217;s Notes:</p>
-<hr class="r5" />
-<p class="indent">The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up
-                  paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p>
-<p class="indent">Typographical errors have been silently corrected.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
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