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If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: The Ecclesiastical Orders of Knighthood - -Author: James Van der Veldt - -Release Date: April 10, 2020 [EBook #61799] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - _The Ecclesiastical Orders - of - Knighthood_ - - - _by_ - James van Der Veldt, O.F.M. - _of_ - The Catholic University of America - - - The Catholic University of America Press - 620 Michigan Avenue, N.E. - Washington 17, D. C. - 1956 - - - Reprinted from - _The American Ecclesiastical Review_ - - October, November, December, 1955 - and January, 1956 - - - First printing—April, 1956 - Second printing—July, 1956 - Third printing—November, 1957 - - - - - FOREWORD - - -Widespread interest in the Ecclesiastical Orders of Knighthood has been -demonstrated by continual requests for information pertaining to them on -the part of libraries and individual persons, particularly those who -have been knighted. In the United States this interest lies chiefly in -those Orders most familiar to Americans, such as the Order of Malta, the -Order of the Holy Sepulchre, the Order of St. Gregory, and in the medals -Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice and Benemerenti. Such interest prompted the -publication of this booklet which contains reprints of four articles -originally published in the “American Ecclesiastical Review.” - -The booklet gives a description of the history, organization, emblems -and membership requirements of the various Orders connected with the -Catholic Church and which are still in existence. - -By way of introduction, Part One deals with the historical -background—the origin and development of Knighthood in general. Parts -Two and Three treat the Religious Military Orders which originated in -the Holy Land—The Order of Malta, the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, the -Teutonic Order—and the Military Orders of Spain and Portugal. Finally, -Part Four treats of those Orders which are directly bestowed by the Holy -See—the Order of Christ, the Order of the Golden Spur, the Order of -Pius, the Order of St. Gregory, and of St. Sylvester. In addition the -papal decorations are described. - -The final pages of the booklet display the insignia of the three -ecclesiastical groups: Military Orders of Knighthood, Pontifical Orders -of Knighthood and Papal Decorations, with a brief description of shape -and color. The pictures present the Knight’s cross, unless otherwise -designated. Since the emblems of the Orders of Calatrava, Alcantara and -Montesa are identical in form, only one picture is used for all three -with a specification of the respective colors. Under the heading of -Pontifical Decorations a picture is given of the Lateran Cross which is -recognized, although not directly bestowed, by the Holy See. - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - _Page_ - Part I - Historical Background 1 - Development of the Orders of Knighthood 7 - Part II - The Sovereign Military Order of St. John of Jerusalem 14 - The Order of the Teutonic Knights 23 - Part III - The Iberian Military Orders 28 - The Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem 33 - Part IV - Pontifical Orders of Knighthood 41 - The Supreme Order of Christ 42 - Order of the Golden Spur 47 - The Order of Pius 49 - Order of St. Gregory the Great 50 - The Order of Saint Sylvester, Pope 51 - The Papal Decorations 52 - Illustrations 55 - - - - - THE ECCLESIASTICAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD - Part I - - - HISTORICAL BACKGROUND - -The term ecclesiastical orders of knighthood embraces those knightly -orders which, in one way or another, are connected with the Catholic -Church. At the present time they are in two different groups: the -pontifical orders of knighthood in the strict sense and a group of -chivalric orders which derive from medieval military orders and continue -to come under ecclesiastical jurisdiction. - -The Pontifical or Papal Orders of Knighthood are conferred directly by -His Holiness the Pope (_Ordini Equestri Pontifici, conferiti -direttamente dal Sommo Pontefice con lettere apostoliche_). They -include: the Supreme Order of Christ, the Order of the Golden Spur, the -Order of Pius, the Order of Saint Gregory the Great, and the Order of -Saint Sylvester, Pope.[1] - -The remaining group identified with ecclesiastical orders of knighthood -is that of religious military orders. Originally they were religious -orders of lay brothers and as such came under the jurisdiction of the -Holy See. They enjoyed the approbation and protection of the Holy -Father, and it is in that sense they partake of the name, pontifical. -Yet they always had a certain autonomy, in that they had their own -government, with a grand master at the head, whose office was similar to -that of a Superior General of a religious order. Most of these ancient -military orders are now extinct or have become purely secular orders of -knighthood. A few have retained some features of their ecclesiastical -character. They are the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, known also as -the Order of Malta, the Teutonic Order, and the Order of the Holy -Sepulchre, as well as the extant Spanish Military Orders. - -Difference in objective is another important feature between the two -groups. The military orders, from the outset, pursued a specific -purpose, as the care of the sick and the poor, the protection of the -faith, crusading against infidels. This survives today in the existing -military orders though in a much modified form. - -All other existing orders of knighthood, be they ancient or more recent -in origin, are honorary and mere orders of merit. Their only purpose is -that of bestowing tokens of respect for well-deserving citizens, to -reward military or civil services to the country or the crown, to -recognize merit in the field of art, science, charity, or business. -Orders of merit are “orders” only in the broad sense of the term; they -have a constitution or statutes, but such documents usually contain -little more than a description of the origin of the order, its -privileges and the degrees of its members as well as the reason for -conferring the order and its form of the decorations. In fact, the term -“order” has come to be limited to the insignia which the members are -entitled to wear. - -Within the framework of the above twofold classification of pontifical -and military orders, another dual grouping exists which is based on -historical criteria. Some of the ecclesiastical orders of knighthood go -back to the age of chivalry; this is certainly the case with the -military orders, the Order of Christ, and probably the Order of the -Golden Spur. The origin of the Knights of the Holy Sepulchre is still -historically debatable. The remaining pontifical orders of knighthood -were established long after the age of chivalry came to a close. - -Distinct from the orders of knighthood are a certain number of -ecclesiastical decorations. These are marks of honor (_distintivi de -onore_), without, however, extending the title of Knight to the -recipient. It is, therefore, incorrect to designate a person receiving -such an honor as knighted by the Pope, as it is equally incorrect to put -all the ecclesiastical orders of knighthood under the heading of papal -decorations. - -Ecclesiastical decorations, like the ecclesiastical orders of -knighthood, are of two kinds. Those bestowed directly by the Holy See -and consequently strictly pontifical are the Cross “Pro Ecclesia et -Pontifice” and the Medal “Benemerenti.” The second category are those -approved by the Holy See and their recipients may wear the decoration at -the papal court and at ecclesiastical ceremonies. The honor, however, is -not granted directly by the Pope. An example thereof is the Lateran -Cross, which is conferred by the Chapter of the Basilica of Saint John -Lateran. - -This brief outline will be clarified as the various orders are treated -in subsequent articles. It is our intention in the present article to -confine ourselves to a survey of the historical background of the orders -of knighthood. - -Although much of the information about the early beginnings of -knighthood is rooted in conjecture, a plausible thesis would make -knighthood coincide with the rise of the cavalry in Europe, during the -first half of the eighth century. It coincides with the times when the -Christians in the encounters with the Saracens soon discovered that -their infantry were no match for those who fought on horseback. Such -armies had much greater mobility, and the center of gravity in the -Christian military strategy shifted accordingly. - -Throughout the first hundred years after this new horseback “militia” -had been introduced, all free men could join it, on condition that they -were able to provide a horse and equip it at their own expense. Only -people of some means could afford this luxury, and the wealthier class -was that of the landowners. Service in the cavalry, therefore, implied -the possessing of some property, preferably in the form of land. - -A revolutionary innovation took place simultaneously in the system of -land ownership, changing from an allodial, i.e., absolute ownership, to -a feudal system. That is why the horseback military service came to be -linked with the feudal method of land tenure. It accounts for the -historical development of knighthood being so closely related to the -history of the feudal system. The history of feudal land ownership is -hardly pertinent here, and it will suffice here to state that the -tenants-in-chief and their subalterns in the feudal system formed the -cavalry of the army; they were the horsemen, chevaliers, or knights. -That is how the original form of knighthood became so intimately -associated with the tenure of land, and how the knights were known as -feudal knights. - -While the knights were initially landed gentry, gradually—and already a -considerable time before the Crusades—a different type of knight -appeared, namely, that of the horseman without land. Equally so, -knighthood began to constitute a distinct social class. No longer was -feudal tenure the background of knighthood but rather personal valor. -The development was the consequence of the custom of primogeniture as it -existed in the Frankish form of the feudal system. - -Two types of feudal succession were known on the European continent. -Where the Longobard feudal law held sway, as was the case in Italy, at -the death of the feudatory incumbent, the land was divided among his -male heirs. In many cases the original fief was cut into ever smaller -portions during successive generations. This gentry were still -landholders, even though their financial position, due to the divisions -and subdivisions of the ancestral property, might not be much better -economically than that of the peasants who actually worked the land. - -In France and other countries where the Frankish feudal system -prevailed, conditions were altogether different. Here, according to the -law of primogeniture, the entire feud passed to the eldest son, who was -then bound by an oath of fealty to his overlord. The younger sons had to -be satisfied with precious little; they might make a livelihood by -offering their service to their eldest brother, in which case they were -obliged to do the menial work of the estate very much the same as that -of domestics and peasants. It is quite understandable that many of these -younger sons, particularly the less amenable and the more venturesome, -could be expected to scorn such an inferior station in life. Being of -noble birth, this dispossessed youth might say with the steward of the -gospel: “What shall I do?... To dig I am not able; to beg I am ashamed.” -Only two callings were open to them, the priestly or the military -vocation, and of the two the calling of soldier was far more attractive. -Upon leaving the paternal domain, they usually were given a horse and -armor to aid in their search for economic independence. For the most -part, they did not have to look long, because war was in progress all -over Europe among the many and small feudal states. Yet, because they -were no longer aligned with the feudal hierarchy, they had no obligation -to render military service to any specific lord and could approach the -highest bidder. This meant that a new and ever increasing group of -independent, non-feudal horsemen came into existence who sought to win -their spurs on their own merit. They became knights, not because they -happened to have a feudal estate, but because of personal exploits on -the battlefield. These soldiers frequently gained more than glory and -honor inasmuch as a grateful employer who had taken them into his pay -would extend his bounty to presenting them with a castle and some land, -upon success in a military expedition. The medieval right of plunder -could provide the victorious knight with the necessary accoutrement to -furnish his newly-won castle. One readily appreciates the consolidation -of the economic position for those concerned. There was this difference, -however, that their possessions came to them not by right of birth but -by personal valor. - -The same kind of knight appeared also in the lands of the Longobard -feudal system. The small gentry in Italy, unsatisfied with what little -they possessed, often offered their military services to the rapidly -growing townships. This eventually bettered their economic as well as -their political status. - -Two types of knighthood were then in existence, the older form of -territorial knighthood concentrated in ruling fief-holders, and the -newer form, that of chivalry founded on individual military service. -Since the latter was bestowed upon a soldier independently of a fief, it -might be called non-feudatory knighthood. - -As the non-feudal knights grew to be the more numerous, knighthood -became a separate class of society. Like any other social institution, -knighthood passed through the storm-and-stress period of adolescence. -Knights in the tenth and part of the eleventh centuries were often -enough no more than bands of lawless brigands. Living as they did -outside the ranks of the feudal hierarchy, these “gentlemen” interpreted -the fact of not being bound by fealty to any particular master as a kind -of charter of freedom from all laws and prohibitions. As narrated in the -medieval lays or ballads, the examples of lawlessness and cruelty among -some knights are, of course, outstanding. Yet, this new social class was -indeed a menace to society. It was understandable, in the long run, that -the authorities should look for means to call a halt to the excesses. In -this effort the civil authorities were strongly supported by the Church, -which launched a kind of peace offensive, endeavoring to direct the -crude energies of knighthood into right channels and make of the new -class an instrument of good in the social structure. There was success -so that little by little knighthood became respectable to a remarkable -degree. The reaction described had set in at the end of the tenth -century, and a century later a change for the better in the moral life -of the knights was everywhere in evidence. The reform was, however, not -due exclusively to outside forces. As a class, the knights had the same -needs and the same aspirations; and the better elements among them would -try to enter into some sort of common tie. That common bond was a code -of honor for knighthood and came to be generally accepted by the end of -the eleventh century, namely around the time of the first Crusade. The -motto of a good knight was succinctly expressed in the following Italian -rhyme: “_La mia anima a Dio, la mia vita al Re, il mio cuore alla Dama, -l’onore per me_ (My soul to God, my life to the Crown, my heart to the -Lady, my own the renown).” The duties of a knight broadened into that of -protecting and defending the Church, the widows, the orphans and the -oppressed, of vindicating justice, and of avenging evil. The catalogue -of the cardinal virtues for chivalry included courtesy, valor, class -loyalty, self-denial, munificence, and hospitality. The code was -well-nigh theoretically perfect, even if all knights did not observe it -in practice. As a matter of fact, the virtues to which the knight was -dedicated sometimes led to exaggerations, distortions, and their very -opposite. - -The high point in the age of chivalry came during the Crusades, those -religious wars waged in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries by the -Christians of Western Europe against the Mohammedans for the recovery of -the Holy Land. An interaction came about between the Crusades and -chivalry. The spirit of chivalry was largely responsible for making -possible these campaigns for a religious ideal. Thereby, the Crusades -provided a powerful impetus in the development of knighthood, for it was -during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries that chivalry attained its -highest peak both in quality and quantity. The Crusades did not create a -new type of knighthood, but they gave the knights a chance to show their -mettle. - -When the landless soldiers of the Cross distinguished themselves in -battle just as well or perhaps even better than the feudal knights, it -was reasonable that they should claim their reward. If they fought as -well as those who owed knighthood to their feudal status, why should -they not claim the honors and benefits of knighthood? In that way the -Crusades gave the horsemen large scale opportunity to become knights -through personal valor. However, the _conditio sine qua non_ for -becoming a knight at this time was still the old law that the candidates -should be of noble birth, that is to say, that they could trace their -descent from the ancient feudal families. In the century following the -Crusades the decline of knighthood set in, and it is generally admitted -that by 1500 the age of chivalry had passed. Then it was that its -tradition and spirit were kept alive in the orders of knighthood. - - - DEVELOPMENT OF THE ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD - -The first orders of knighthood were radically of a religious nature -inasmuch as they pursued a religious purpose and were organized like -other religious communities. The order of knighthood was composed of a -body of knights, united by some common objective as the care of the sick -or the defense of the Catholic faith, and who were pledged with the vows -of obedience, poverty and chastity, led a community life under a chosen -head and professed a common rule approved by the ecclesiastical -authorities. - -The birthplace of all orders of knighthood was the Holy Land and they -appeared during the period of the Crusades. True, some historians -attempt to date the origin of the military orders as far back in -antiquity as possible, for instance, to Charlemagne and his paladins or -to Constantine the Great and his mother, Saint Helena. The claims of -such ancestry fanatics to the contrary notwithstanding, it can safely be -said that no military order of knighthood, either regular or secular, -came into existence before the first Crusade, as the Bollandist -Papebrock said in 1738: “Fallunt aut volentes falluntur adulatores -studio placendi abrepti, quicumque militarium religionum principia ante -XII saeculum requirunt” (_AA. SS. Boll._, Apr., III, 155). - -The Holy Land was the scene of the rise of three types of religious -orders. Some were orders of charity, or hospital orders, dedicating -themselves to the care of the poor and sick pilgrims who came to visit -the holy places. The oldest and most famous was the Order of Saint -Lazarus which was functioning even before the Crusades began. Its scope -was the care of lepers; moreover, lepers could become members of the -congregation, and it has been alleged that during a period of its -existence the grand master was chosen from among these sorely afflicted -members. The confraternity always remained primarily an order of -charity. The fact that the brothers admitted some knights stricken with -leprosy who gave aid to the crusaders, particularly during the siege of -Acre, when the common cause demanded everybody’s efforts, is certainly -not sufficient reason to call the congregation of Saint Lazarus a -military order of knighthood. Nonetheless, many centuries after their -expulsion from the Holy Land, the remnants of this congregation were -absorbed into a military order, as we shall see hereafter. - -A second group of religious orders founded in the Holy Land had an -exclusively military objective, inasmuch as their purpose was to protect -the pilgrims against the attacks of the Moslems and to defend the cause -of the Cross. The prototype of such knightly societies was the Order of -the Temple. - -The third type of religious order in Palestine was of a mixed character, -combining works of charity with military service. The most illustrious -examples of this group were the Order of Saint John in Jerusalem and the -Teutonic Order. - -Due to their predominant military character, only the last two groups -are orders of knighthood in the strict sense of the word. Their members -combined the seemingly contrasting qualities of soldiers and monks, of -“militia” and “religio.” Being a “religio” such orders needed -ecclesiastical approbation, but as a “religio militaris” they needed -special authorization from the Holy See which alone could give religious -persons permission “hostem ferire sine culpa,” “blamelessly to strike -the enemy.”[2] - -The orders founded in the Holy Land during the Crusades were the -original military orders. The pattern of the military orders founded in -the Holy Land during the Crusades was subsequently copied in various -countries of Europe. We may distinguish several groups which show an -ever increasing secular element and a decrease of ecclesiastical ties. -Of each group only a few examples can be cited, omitting those of lesser -significance. - -The most faithful imitators of the original orders are the military -orders set up in the Iberian Peninsula. Although founded by the kings of -Spain and Portugal and used by them for their own purposes, these orders -were directly dependent on the Holy See at first. Only later, when the -sovereigns took over the grandmastership and made it hereditary in their -family, did they lose their independence, without, however, abandoning -their religious character. - -The principal military orders in Italy came into existence at a rather -late date in history, on or after 1500, a date traditionally accepted as -marking the end of the age of chivalry. With the grand mastership vested -in the crown, these Italian orders harbored the same cause for -deterioration as eventually appeared in the Spanish orders, because they -were dynastic orders from the start. Nonetheless, the Italian military -orders greatly resembled the original ones, both in objective and -organization. They aspired to the protection of the Italian coastline -against the Moslem pirates from the Barbary States in North Africa who -at the time were infesting the Mediterranean; they harassed the merchant -marine and sporadically attacked harbors and towns along the coast. The -objective of these orders, then, was much the same as that of the Order -of Malta at that time, namely sea-warfare against Islam. Such an -organization was the Order of Saint Stephen, established in 1562 by -Cosimo I, Grand Duke of Tuscany, with the approval of the Holy Father. -The knights of this order which had headquarters at Pisa cleared the -Mediterranean of corsairs and took an active part in the battle of -Lepanto. Eventually, however, it disintegrated, became completely -secularized and survived as an order of merit. - -The Order of Saint Maurice and Lazarus, founded in 1572 by Emmanuel -Philibert, Duke of Savoia, has an intriguing history. Comparatively late -in origin, it was a merger of two pre-existing institutions which date -back to much earlier times. - -One was the hospital congregation of Saint Lazarus, previously -mentioned. After the fall of Acre the fraternity was transferred to -Europe and for some time flourished in France. The Italian branch soon -declined and was finally suppressed by Pope Innocent VIII in 1490. There -remained, however, the possessions of the order and these were handed -over to certain gentlemen who, far from having an interest in lepers, -did little else but appropriate the revenues for their own use. - -The second institution was the so-called Order of Saint Maurice which, -if it was an order at all, hardly merited the name of a military order -by any stretch of the imagination. Yet whatever it lacked of the -military spirit has since been largely supplied by romance, insofar as -it was involved in the story of a layman who became antipope. When -Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoia, renounced the throne, he retired to -Ripaglia where he had built a church in honor of the holy martyr Maurice -to whom the house of Savoia had a special devotion. There, in 1434, the -duke with five other knights established the Sacred Militia of Saint -Maurice—a rather pompous title for a group of elderly widowers who had -retired into a hermitage. - -Four years later, the remnants of the Council of Basle revolted against -the legitimate Pope Eugene IV and elected the above-mentioned Amadeus. -He accepted under the title of Felix V and abandoned his solitude in -Ripaglia in the company of the other knightly widowers. Thenceforth -history has little to tell about the Sacred Militia of Saint Maurice. In -1572, Emmanuel Philibert, after lengthy negotiations, obtained from Pope -Gregory XIII permission to allot the possessions of the Order of Saint -Lazarus in his territory to the languishing Order of Saint Maurice. Out -of this merger developed the military religious Order of Saint Maurice -and Lazarus—the last of the military orders to come into existence. Its -objective was to curtail piracy on the high seas and combat the enemies -of the faith. However, the institution from its very inception was an -affair of the Savoian dynasty, the duke and his successors assuming the -office of grand master. The knights vowed obedience to the duke and were -subject to him not only as vassals but also by virtue of a religious -vow. They pledged themselves to serve in the convents of the order for -five years; one of these convents was in Turin for the ground forces and -the other in Nice for the naval forces. The character of the Order of -St. Maurice and Lazarus was completely changed when Victor Emmanuel II, -in 1860, made it a simple order of merit. - -Other dynastic orders of knighthood having some ties with the Church -were quite different. The motives for establishing them were various. -Some owed their origin simply to a chance occasion or a romantic event -not infrequently of a frivolous nature; some were commemorative of a -signal victory in battle or the accession of a prince to the throne. -Often enough, politics played a role, when a sovereign would wish to -bind his nobles closer to the crown. - -By way of example, we shall mention here some of the more illustrious -dynastic orders of knighthood. - -The Supreme Order of the Annunciation was set up in 1364 by Amadeus VI, -Count of Savoia, during a tournament which was held to celebrate the -victory of Savoia over a rival, the Marquis of Salusso. It would seem -that similar brotherhoods in arms had existed at the Savoyard court -under such romantic titles as the Round Table of the Black Swan, of the -Green Knights, and the like, but the new order was to achieve a -permanent character. At first, the objective of the newly organized -group was only fun and love, as evidenced by the love symbols that -decorated the collar of the knights. For that reason the brotherhood was -dubbed the Order of the Collar. A year later when Count Amadeus made a -trip to Constantinople and came in touch with the then extant religious -military orders, he dedicated the fraternity to the Blessed Virgin. The -religious element was heightened in the symbolic figure of fifteen -knights, representing the fifteen mysteries of Our Lady. When the -knights themselves had no time to say many prayers, they were quite -satisfied to find a convenient substitute for their religious -obligations in the persons of fifteen Carthusian monks at the Chapter -House of Pierre Chatal. The latter became the seat of the order. Their -first and last duty was to honor and serve faithfully their sovereign, -the count, and provide him with material benefits. Such privileges as -exemptions from taxes, a seat in the senate, and financial support from -the crown in case of necessity were given in return to the knights. In -1518 Duke Charles III attached to the knight’s collar a medal -representing the Annunciation of Our Lady, and from that time the -fraternity became known as the Order of the Collar and the Annunciation. -Moreover, the duke augmented the enrollment with five more knights, in -honor of the five wounds of Christ. - -In 1869, Victor Emmanuel II, who was soon to become King of a united -Italy, changed the character of the order; it was to be simply a means -of rewarding a restricted number of persons for outstanding services to -the dynasty or the state. - -The Order of the Golden Fleece was founded by Philip the Good, Duke of -Burgundy, in 1429, on the occasion of his marriage with the Infanta -Isabella of Portugal at Bruges in the Netherlands. Pope Eugene IV gave -approval in 1433 as did also Leo X in 1516. Of course, the origin and -the name enjoy the aura of the usual legends, one of which is that the -duke wished to commemorate the golden hair of Mary of Rumbrugge with -whom he was supposed to be in love. If such is true, the order was -certainly a peculiar wedding gift for his legitimate wife. The knights, -who numbered thirty-one, were staunchly organized, and the order soon -achieved great fame and was reputed to embody the very spirit of -chivalry. The Dukes of Burgundy and their successors acted as grand -masters. Eventually, it became an order of merit divided into two -branches, one under the jurisdiction of the Austrian Hapsburgs and the -other under the jurisdiction of the Spanish Bourbons. With the overthrow -of both of these houses the order is in abeyance. - -The French King Louis XI founded the Order of Saint Michael in 1469. -After having fallen into disrepute, because it took in all kinds of -members, its decoration was dubbed “_le collier à toutes bêtes_—the -collar to fit every animal.” The Order of the Holy Ghost replaced it in -1573 under King Henry III. The investiture of the knights was ritualized -with pompous religious ceremonies.[3] - -The foregoing examples emphasize the fact that these and similar -knightly fraternities were not without certain religious features. The -brotherhood was placed under the protection of a patron saint; it might -receive papal approbation; the meeting place of the knights included a -chapel; and the gatherings of the knights as well as the initiation of a -new member were graced with religious rites. The rule of these societies -imposed upon their members a virtuous life, as was fitting for a true -knight, such as the devotion to the Holy Spirit or the Blessed Virgin. -Sometimes the statutes exhorted the members to attend daily Mass, and -prescribed the reception of the sacraments twice or three times a year -as well as the daily recitation of a part of the divine office. However, -the dynastic orders of knighthood were different in character from the -original military orders, with little of “religio” and still less of -“militia.” Despite some religious features, the members did not take the -canonical vows, except the oath of fidelity to the crown, neither did -they live in common. Their military exploits, too, were quite -insignificant in comparison with those of the Templars or the -Hospitallers. When these knights fought at all, they did so not in a -body, but rather as individuals. The very exclusiveness of the Golden -Fleece (thirty-one knights) or the Annunziata Order (fifteen and later -twenty knights) excluded all large scale feats. Besides, the objective -of their military activities was not the defense of the faith, but the -conquest of any enemy with whom their sovereign might become embroiled. - -Further development of almost all orders of knighthood is one of -monotonous regularity. Those which did not become extinct were -completely secularized, some during the course of the Reformation and -others during the French Revolution. The latter abolished all orders of -knighthood in France, but in 1802 Napoleon re-established an order of -knighthood—that of the Legion of Honor. It was merely an order of merit, -and served as a model not only for the newer but also reverted upon the -older still existing orders. - -A few orders of knighthood did not become reduced to mere orders of -merit and did retain a link with the Church. These include the Order of -Malta, that of the Teutonic Knights, the Holy Sepulchre, and the Iberian -military orders, which will be the subject of the subsequent articles. - - - - - THE ECCLESIASTICAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD - Part II - - - THE SOVEREIGN MILITARY ORDER OF ST. JOHN OF JERUSALEM - -This order, also called the Order of Rhodes and more widely known as the -Order of Malta, from the locations of its headquarters after it was -forced to leave the Holy Land, is the oldest order of knighthood in -existence, antedating even that of the Order of the Garter by more than -two hundred years. It is also the most illustrious and meritorious of -the religious military orders. Its origin goes back to the hospital for -Christian pilgrims in Jerusalem, established in the first half of the -11th century by a group of merchantmen from Amalfi, Italy. When the -crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099 the hospital was headed by a layman -named Gerard whose birthplace is variously given as Martiques in -Provence, Amalfi in southern Italy and Tonco in Piedmont, all in line -with the respective nationality of the historians who wrote his life.[4] -This saintly man organized the hospital staff into a community of lay -brothers for whom he drew up appropriate constitutions which were -approved in 1113 by Pope Paschal II. The fraternity became known as the -Hospitallers of St. John, after the patron saint of the church which was -attached to the hospital. This patron was St. John the Almoner, -Patriarch of Alexandria, who had provided the means for rebuilding the -churches of the Resurrection and of Calvary in Jerusalem. Later the -Hospitallers adopted the better known St. John the Baptist as their -patron saint. - -Whereas Gerard was the founder of the Order of St. John, his successor -Raymond du Puy, a knight from Provence, became its organizer. While he -was Master of the Hospital (1120-60), the community, although continuing -its hospital work, began also to engage in services of a military -character. The military duties consisted at first in providing armed -protection for the sick and the poor and military escorts for the -pilgrims. Soon the brotherhood took part in the defense of the Latin -Kingdom of Jerusalem and in the battles against the Moslems and thus -became a full-fledged military order. But the order never forsook its -humble beginnings; its militarization only added a new objective to its -activities, as expressed in the age-old motto: _Obsequium pauperum et -tuitio fidei_—service of the poor and protection of the faith. - -During the process of militarization three classes of brothers -developed: the knights who led in the fighting and held most of the -higher administrative functions at headquarters and in the other houses -of the order; the chaplains who took care of the spiritual needs of the -other members of the order and of the patients in the hospitals; the -sergeants-at-arms, who were the serving brothers. In the beginning, -persons not belonging to the military aristocracy or nobility could -enter the class of knights, but as from Master Hugh Revel (1258-77) the -rule was laid down that such as desired to be admitted as knights should -prove nobility on both father’s and mother’s side. When occasionally a -few knights were received into the order who were not fully qualified -with regard to their armorial bearings, they were called -Knights-of-Grace (admitted by favor) in contrast to the duly qualified -members who were called Knights-of-Justice, a distinction which has -prevailed until recently. - -The number of professed knights was always quite limited, scarcely in -excess of 500 or 600 knights. Since the order was essentially a lay -organization, the number of professed priests always remained very -small. The professed chaplains served mainly in the Convent, that is, -the general headquarters of the order, and were therefore called -Conventual Chaplains. The _cura animarum_ in the houses outside the -Convent was for the most part exercised by priests who did not belong to -the order, but were engaged by the order according to its needs; since -they were throughout the time of office under the jurisdiction of the -grand master they were called Chaplains of Magistral Obedience. - -The professed sergeants-at-arms assisted the knights; they were at first -quite important and numerous but eventually almost completely faded out -of the picture, being replaced by hired help. In fact, the knights -employed a considerable number of men for all their enterprises, both -charitable and military: physicians and other personnel in the hospital -were engaged on a paid basis, the soldiers who formed the body of the -order’s army were mercenary troops as were the sailors on their fleet in -the days of Rhodes and Malta. - -At the top of this hierarchical pyramid stood the Master. His official -title, ever since the days of Blessed Gerard, was Master of the -Hospital. Although often referred to, even in earlier days, as the Grand -Master, he did not formally assume the latter title until 1489. After -the order had settled on Malta, the Grand Master Alof de Wignacourt -(1601-1622) was given the title of prince of the Holy Roman Empire by -the Emperor and the Pope bestowed on him and his successors a rank equal -to a Cardinal of the Holy Roman Church with the title of Eminence. -Besides these sonorous titles, the grand master, like all other -professed members of the order, also uses the religious title Frà -(Brother) which is put before his baptismal name. To date there have -been seventy-six grand masters. - -The monastic habit of the order was a wide black cassock with a slit on -each side for the arms. In the days of Blessed Gerard a plain white -cross was sewn on the breast; Master Raymond introduced the -eight-pointed white cross which has become the emblem of the order down -to the present day. Since these bell-like cloaks were rather cumbersome -in battle, Pope Innocent IV in 1248 granted the knights permission to -wear a black surcoat over armour when on active service. Pope Alexander -IV in 1259 changed the color of this tunic to red, with a plain white -cross. The choir dress of the professed knights is even at present a -black mantle with the Maltese cross and a very elaborate maniple. - -The headquarters of the order, wherever they might be, in Jerusalem, -Acre, Rhodes or Malta, were called the Convent. In its developed form -this Convent consisted of the palace of the grand master, the living -quarters of the knights and their assistants, the stables for the -horses, the church and the hospital. - -Even by modern standards the hospital in Jerusalem was quite large; -Master Roger des Moulins in a letter of 1178 puts the number of patients -at 950. According to the statutes of 1182, the medical staff consisted -of four physicians and a number of male nurses. Special regulations were -laid down concerning hygiene. A wise rule was that each patient, after -admittance, should hand over his valuables to the hospital authorities -so as to prevent protests and reclamations in case of loss or theft. A -religious in charge registered all the belongings of a patient and gave -them back after he was dismissed. The statutes of the hospital in -Jerusalem served as a model for, and sometimes were literally copied by, -other hospital organizations in the Middle Ages.[5] - -In view of the fact that before the crusades hospitals in the more -modern sense of the word hardly existed, the charity work of the Knights -of St. John—and to a lesser extent that of the other orders founded in -the Holy Land—has been hailed as a kind of innovation. Historians agree -that the Hospitallers must be credited with having created the hospital -in the organized sense. - -Whenever the knights of St. John had to transfer their Convent, they -considered it one of their first duties to attach to it a well-equipped -hospital for “our lords the sick.” The hospital in Rhodes, restored by -the Italian government under Mussolini to its original condition, was a -large and beautiful building. On Malta the hospital or “Sacra -Infirmeria” developed into a center for medical sciences, particularly -surgery and ophthalmology. - -The militarization of the order had a double effect. Knights from every -country in Europe enrolled under the red banner with the white cross. At -the same time the military reputation of the order greatly increased the -number of donations and legacies which had been given already at the -time the order was devoted to charity work. These possessions scattered -throughout the Near East and Europe called for administration and -management. Although the supervisory system was very complicated and -only gradually developed, it may be said in general that the order was -divided in bailiwicks and priories which were roughly equivalent to -provinces in other orders and each priory comprised a number of -commanderies. The house of a commander might be a manor, a castle, a -walled-in-portion or a fortified church with an annex. Each house -contained, besides the chapel and the living quarters for the household, -a number of rooms, to be used as a ward for travellers and as a hospital -for sick pilgrims.[6] - -The functions of the priors and commanders were manifold: they collected -the revenues of the estates of the order, they gave protection to the -pilgrims, occasionally they built or maintained roads and bridges and -their “mansiones” were recruiting stations for the order. When the days -of the great pilgrimages were over, several hospices of St. John grew -into regular hospitals. - -The territorial organization of the order achieved its final completion, -when it was divided into _langues_ or tongues. When the headquarters of -the order were in Rhodes and Malta, the knights of each _langue_ lived -together in their own residence, called _auberge_ or inn, so that the -Convent consisted of a number of national “monasteries.” - -Although the training of the Knights of St. John was mainly aimed at -making them good fighters—a life not particularly conducive to -sanctity—yet the chronicles of the order boast a number of men and women -noted for their holiness. To mention a few: Gerard, the Founder, and -Raymond du Puy, who have been always revered as Blessed; St. Hugh, -Commander of Geneva; the sergeant-at-arms Blessed Gerard Mercati who, -however, died as a Franciscan; and the most renowned among the women -saints, St. Ubaldescha, St. Toscana and St. Fiora of Beaulieu.[7] - -The military and political history of the Order of St. John is an -eight-hundred-years-long Odyssey which can be best characterized as the -road from Jerusalem to Rome by way of Acre, Rhodes, Malta, and a number -of other places, including a curious detour by Russia. The Hospitallers -stayed in the Holy Land for almost two centuries, until 1291; they then -had their headquarters on the island of Rhodes for another two hundred -years (1309-1522), and afterwards transferred to the island of Malta for -two centuries and a half (1530-1798), finally moving to Rome in 1834.[8] - -In the Palestinian period the Hospitallers fought for the defense of the -Latin kingdom of Jerusalem; together with the Templars they supplied the -best-trained and disciplined troops and, especially in the times of -disaster, their forces were the most stable and reliable. During the -last forty years of the kingdom the defense of the country rested almost -completely upon these two military orders.[9] - -In the armies of the Christians in the Holy Land the knights formed a -sort of division, composed of between 300 and 500 knights and a number -of hired soldiers. This division was sometimes used as a flank, but more -often as a vanguard or rear guard. Besides, the knights built and -garrisoned an impressive number of fortresses of which the most powerful -were Margat and Crac. - -Only seven knights of St. John, including the master, survived the fall -of Acre in 1291. They found asylum on the island of Cyprus. During their -years there, the knights began to build up a naval force. With this they -conquered the island of Rhodes, where they were firmly established in -1308. Thus they became known as Knights of Rhodes.[10] - -At Rhodes the knights reached the peak of power and influence, never -quite attained in the same measure before or after. And this is all the -more remarkable because the number of knights on the island never -exceeded three hundred. By building enormous fortifications they made -the island an almost impregnable bastion against the attacks of the -Mamelukes of Egypt and Syria and the Turks of Constantinople. With their -naval power they started a new type of warfare against the old enemies. -In Rhodes the knights became a sovereign power like the sea republics of -Italy or the Hanseatic cities in Germany.[11] Their navy flew its own -flag, a white cross on a red field, they minted their own money, they -concluded treaties with other sovereign states on the basis of equality -and they had their diplomatic representatives at many courts. After -repulsing numerous attacks, the knights finally were overwhelmed by a -strong expeditionary force under Sultan Soliman I and capitulated Dec. -21, 1522. - -Once again the remaining knights drifted around in search of a dwelling -place; they established their capital successively in Crete, Messina, -Baia, Viterbo, and Nizza. Finally, on March 24, 1530, they obtained from -Emperor Charles V, in his capacity as king of Sicily, the island of -Malta and adjacent islands as a “perpetual and free feud.” The only -obligation attached to this transfer was that the knights should -annually, on the feast of All Saints, offer a falcon or a hawk to the -King of Sicily, whoever he might be. Thus the Order of Saint John became -a feudatory of the kingdom of Sicily territorially, but as a religious -order it continued dependent on the authority of the Holy See. From -their key position in the Mediterranean, the knights watched the -movements of the Turkish fleet and engaged in battle the corsairs from -Tripoli and the other Barbary States. Twice a year the order equipped a -“caravan,” namely a naval expedition, to ferret out pirates along the -coastline of the Mediterranean. As in Rhodes, in Malta the knights -sustained several attacks from the Turks, the most memorable of which -was the “Great Siege” (1565). The knights were victorious on all -occasions. However, in the eighteenth century a decline in spirit and in -discipline set in. What the Turks failed to achieve, Napoleon did; on -his way to Egypt, without striking a blow he captured the fortress of -Malta, believed to be impregnable (June 12, 1798). The weak Grand Master -Ferdinand von Hompesch soon resigned and the order established a -provisional headquarters at Trieste which at the time was under Austria. - -A peculiar situation then arose: an orthodox emperor made himself Grand -Master of this thoroughly Catholic Order of St. John. Paul I of Russia, -who for some time had in mind using the Hospitallers and their island -bastion for political purposes, had managed to establish a grand priory -in Russia. The Russian knights in 1798 elected Paul as Grand Master, but -he died in 1801 without being able to do anything on behalf of the -order. With England taking Malta from the French in 1800, the old -capital was lost for good. - -Upon the loss of Malta the order reached the lowest point in all its -glorious history. The order’s headquarters shifted from Messina to -Catania to Ferrara and finally in 1834 they were established in Rome. -The knights had one more grand master after Paul I, but when he died in -1805, the Pope allowed them only to elect lieutenant grand masters who -were to be ratified by him. This state of affairs continued for -seventy-four years until Leo XIII by a Bull of March 29, 1879, -re-established the office of grand master with headquarters in Rome.[12] - -From then on the order regained part of its old vitality. It had lost -its territorial sovereignty, military activities had ceased, but it now -reverted to its original objective: _obsequium pauperum_. The order -became again a welfare and charity organization. Looking back over its -long history one might say that at first its master was the -superintendent of a hospital, then he became a commanding army general -(to which office he subsequently added that of an admiral), and in this -age the grand master has become the president of an international -Catholic White Cross which at times collaborates with the international -Red Cross. - -The order has built and maintains an impressive number of hospitals—in -Italy alone there are 19 with a total of 5,290 beds; it takes care of a -number of children’s homes, child centers and trade schools for -abandoned children. During the two world wars, the order established -military hospitals and had a number of ambulance trains and airplanes -for the transport of wounded soldiers; in catastrophes such as -earthquakes or other disasters it provides food and medical help. It -also extends financial and medical assistance to the Catholic foreign -missions.[13] - -Expenses involved in these activities are paid out of the revenues from -the remaining properties of the order and the contributions of its -members throughout the world. - -The present organization of the Order of Malta consists of three large -categories, each subdivided into a number of ranks.[14] They are the -Knights of Justice, who take the three monastic vows and form the -strictly religious nucleus of the order; the Knights of Honour and -Devotion who are required to furnish proof of ancient nobility; the -Knights of Magistral Grace who are affiliated to the order and are -somewhat reminiscent of the old class of sergeants-at-arms. Besides, -there are three other groups: the Chaplains, Dames of Honour and -Devotion, and the Donates. The grand master may bestow on persons -outside the order the Cross of Merit of the Order of Malta, an honour -which may be conferred also on non-Catholics and consists of five -classes. - -The Order of Malta is divided into five grand priories and fourteen -national associations, including the “Association of Master Knights of -the Sovereign Military Order of Malta in the United States of America.” -Those knights who do not belong to any of the priories or associations -depend directly on the grand master and are called _Knights in Gremio -Religionis_.[15] - -The Order of St. John, although deprived of its territory, retains its -sovereign character. The palace of the grand master and the other houses -in Rome are extra-territorial, that is to say enjoy the same privilege -as that accorded to the other foreign embassies and legations; the order -issues its own diplomatic passports and entertains diplomatic missions -and legations in several countries.[16] - -Recently the legal status of the Order of Malta in the Church has been -defined with greater precision. Pope Pius XII, on Dec. 10, 1951, -appointed a special tribunal of five cardinals, presided over by the -Dean of the Sacred College, Cardinal Eugene Tisserant, in order to -determine the nature of the order and the extent of its competence both -as a sovereign and as a religious institution, as well as its -relationship to the Holy See. After long discussions the commission of -cardinals on Jan. 24, 1953, gave the following unanimous verdict:[17] - -The Order of Malta is a sovereign order, inasmuch as it enjoys certain -prerogatives which, according to the principles of international law, -are proper to sovereignty. These rights have been recognized by the Holy -See and a number of states. However, these rights do not comprise all -the powers and prerogatives that belong to sovereign states in the full -sense of the word. - -Insofar as the Order of Malta is composed of knights and chaplains, it -is a “religio” and more precisely a religious order, approved by the -Holy See, according to the _Codex juris canonici_, Can. 487 and 488, nn. -1 and 2. The purpose of this order is, besides the sanctification of its -members, also the pursuit of religious objectives, charity, and welfare -work. - -The sovereign and the religious character of the order are intimately -related, inasmuch as the former serves to attain the objectives of the -order as a religious institution and its development in the world. - -The Order of Malta depends on the Holy See and, as a religious order, on -the Sacred Congregation of Religious. - -Those persons who have obtained marks of distinction from the order and -the associations of these persons depend on the order, and, through it, -on the Holy See. - -Questions concerning the institution’s character as a sovereign order -are treated by the Secretariat of State of His Holiness. Those of a -mixed nature are received by the Sacred Congregation of Religious in -accord with the Secretariat of State. - -The present decisions do not interfere with the order’s acquired rights, -customs and privileges which the Popes have granted or recognized, -inasfar as they are still in force according to the norms of canon -law[18] and the order’s own constitutions.[19] - - - THE ORDER OF THE TEUTONIC KNIGHTS - -The origin of the Order of the Teutonic Knights was practically the same -as that of the Order of Saint John: the Teutonic Order sprang from a -fraternity of lay men engaged in charitable work. A number of crusaders -from Bremen and Lübeck in Germany, under the leadership of a certain -Meister Sigebrand, operated a field hospital during the dreadful winter -of the Siege of Acre (1190 A.D.), when the Christian army through famine -and sickness was almost decimated. Pope Clement III, recognizing the -remarkable services of the confraternity, gave it his approbation in -1191; the first Superior of this religious congregation was Conrad, -chaplain of Fredrick of Swabia. During the next eight years a number of -German knights joined, and the community gradually assumed the character -of a military order of knighthood, becoming known as the Teutonic -Knights of the Hospital of Saint Mary of Jerusalem. The Pope approved -the Order in 1199 with Henry Walpott of Bossenheim as first master. The -new order was organized along the same lines as the Hospitallers; it -comprised professed knights, priests and lay brothers and its purpose -was to care for the poor and the sick as well as to wage war against the -foes of Christendom. Like the Hospitallers, the knights followed the -Augustinian rule, but whereas the former wore a black mantle with a -white cross, the Teutonic Knights adopted a white mantle with a black -cross. Only German candidates were eligible for the new order, which -rapidly grew in numbers and influence. This may have been due to the -fact that the German knights, always resentful of the predominantly -Latin influence in the existing military orders, were only too happy to -have an organization of their own and thus gave it strong support. The -fourth Master, Hermann of Salza (1210-1239), shifted the military -activities of his order from Palestine, first to Hungary, and then to -the northeastern frontier of Germany, where the order engaged in -fighting the heathen Prussians. But although the Knights operated mainly -in Prussia, their general headquarters still continued at Acre, until -the latter fell in 1291, after which they transferred to Venice. -Finally, in 1309, the seat of the order was established in the famous -fortress of Marienburg in Prussia.[20] - -In 1236 the Teutonic Order absorbed the remnants of the Brothers of the -Sword, an order of knighthood which had been founded some thirty-four -years earlier for the purpose of subjugating and christianizing the -peoples of the Baltic countries of Livonia, Lettonia and Esthonia (now -known as Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia). - -Thus the Teutonic Knights prevailed in these countries. By donations and -conquest the knights gradually increased their holdings, until they -included large parts of Prussia, Kurland and Lithuania. Although these -followers of Christ used the unorthodox methods of fire and sword for -the propagation of the faith, it cannot be denied that they greatly -contributed to the pacification and civilization of the peoples under -their jurisdiction. They encouraged cultivation of the land and built a -great number of towns and villages, providing each with a church. In -some places they erected schools and, faithful to the original purpose -of their order, they established hundreds of hospitals and hospices. In -this respect it is worthy of note that the Teutonic Knights were the -first to establish a mental hospital (Dollhaus) in Germany, namely at -Elbig in 1316. The knights also proved to be clever businessmen inasmuch -as they sponsored profitable markets in foreign countries for the -produce of their land. - -For more than a century after the final subjugation of the Prussians in -1283, the Teutonic Knights were the undisputed rulers of a vast and -well-organized domain that stretched along the coast of the Baltic Sea, -from the river Oder to Leningrad. The grand master, residing in his -fortified convent of Marienburg and then from 1457 on at Königsburg, was -_de jure et de facto_ a sovereign, equal to the other princes of the -Empire, and only nominally subordinate to the Emperor. But in the -fifteenth century decline set in. The first blow was struck in 1410, -when in the battle of Tannenberg the Knights were overthrown by the -Polish troops. In 1525 the Order received the _coup de grâce_; its grand -master Albrecht of Brandenburg embraced the Protestant religion, -secularized the possessions of the Order in East Prussia which once he -had vowed to protect, and styled himself Duke of Prussia.[21] When later -this duchy was united with Brandenburg, the foundations were laid for -the kingdom of Prussia and eventually for the German Reich of the -Hohenzollerns. In 1561, when Gotthard Kettler, “Landmeister” of Livonia, -followed Albrecht’s apostasy, the Teutonic Order ceased to be a -sovereign power. However, the loss of sovereignty did not mean the end -of the Teutonic Order, for—although a skeleton of its former glory—it -still possessed large estates and strongholds in Western Germany. -(During the Reformation the Teutonic Knights in the Netherlands -separated themselves from their Catholic brethren. This Protestant -branch was suppressed by Napoleon but was re-established at the time of -the Restoration and is known as the bailiwick of Utrecht.) After the -loss of Prussia the general head of the order became known as “Hoch-und -Deutsch Meister” (Grand-and Teutonic Master). From 1590 on, these grand -masters were almost without exception members of the imperial house of -Hapsburg, which meant that the former independent Teutonic Order became -more and more an appendix of the Austrian crown. Nevertheless, the order -was not completely secularized. True, community life soon ceased to -exist, but the knights still took religious vows. The next blow was -dealt by Napoleon, who suppressed the Teutonic Order in Germany and -confiscated its possessions. The order was now restricted to the -confines of the Austrian empire. Around 1839, attempts were made to -revive the languishing order by dedicating its members—priests and -professed knights—to its original objective, namely ambulance service -and works of charity. Besides, the professed knights, instead of -fighting the infidels, took upon themselves the obligation of serving as -officers in the Austrian army. - -The question of profession was settled by a papal indult in 1886 -(_Neminem profecto latet_, March 16, 1886), according to which the -knights of the Teutonic Order were to take simple perpetual vows which, -however, included the same rights and obligations as solemn vows. - -When the Hapsburg dynasty fell after the first World War, only a handful -of knights were left. On April 30, 1923, the grand master Eugene, -Archduke of Hapsburg-Lothringen, commander in chief of the Austrian -forces on the Italian front in World War I, resigned and was succeeded -by Bishop Norbert Klein. - -In 1929 a radical change took place in the entire structure of the -order. The erstwhile military order of the Teutonic Knights was -transformed into a religious community of priests and lay-brothers with -solemn vows similar to any other religious congregation in the Catholic -Church. It assumed the title of _Ordo_ _Teutonicus Sanctae Mariae in -Jerusalem_ (officially designated by the initials O.T.) and is listed in -the _Annuario pontificio_ as a mendicant order. This new community—with -a very old past—devotes itself to parish work and works of charity; it -is divided into five provinces (Austria, Bavaria, Italy, Yugoslavia and -the practically extinct province of Czechoslovakia) with a total -membership of 93, of whom 70 are priests. (See the _Catalogus ordinis -teutonici_, Jan. 1, 1950). A congregation of sisters is affiliated to -the Order, also divided into five provinces with a total membership of -572, mostly dedicated to hospital work. - -The superior general has the old title of Grand Master (Hochmeister, -Supremus Magister); he has abbatial rank and enjoys the privilege of the -_pileolus violaceus_. So far his residence is in Vienna, Austria. The -professed knights of the old guard who were still alive when the -transformation was effected became members of the new outfit with the -title of Ordensritter (Knights of the Order). Since the last grand -master, Eugene of Hapsburg, died in January, 1955, only one of the old -knights is left. It is all that remained of an order which at one time -counted its knights by the hundreds. However, as a remnant of the old -prerogatives, the new Teutonic Order has the right to bestow knighthood -on eminent Catholic men, either lay or clerical, and on great -benefactors of the order. These honorary knights are called -_familiares_. Before 1952 the order had made use of this privilege in -only three cases. - - - - - THE ECCLESIASTICAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD - Part III - - - THE IBERIAN MILITARY ORDERS - -In Spain and Portugal the fight against the Moors who since the eighth -century had conquered large sections of the Iberian peninsula prompted -the founding of a considerable number of military religious orders. The -chief ones in Spain were the Order of Calatrava (founded in 1158 and -approved by Pope Alexander III in 1164) which absorbed the smaller -orders of Montjoie (1180) and Montfrac (1198), the Order of Alcantara -(1156), the Order of Santiago (1175) and the Order of Our Lady of -Monteza (1319). Those in Portugal were the Order of Saint Benedict of -Avis, previously known as the Order of the Knights of Evora (1146), the -short-lived Ala Order, so called after the wing of Archangel Michael, -and the Order of Christ (1318).[22] - -They were all founded in the second half of the twelfth century, except -the Order of Christ and that of Monteza which originated more than a -century later. The origin of several of these institutions is identified -with the problem of finding a suitable garrison for frontier fortresses. -When a king had captured a Moorish stronghold, he would evidently look -around for some reliable soldiers to whom he could entrust his conquest. -For instance, after the Castilian kings Alphonso III and Sancho III had -conquered the Moorish fortress Calatrava in the Mancha, they entrusted -the defense of this citadel to the Cistercian Abbot Raymond of Fiteiro, -and soon numerous knights and soldiers rallied around the abbot for the -protection of this bastion against the Moors. Thus the Order of -Calatrava came into existence. The members took the rule and the habit -of Citeaux and elected a grand master in 1164. A few years later the -order severed connections with the Cistercians and was approved by -several Popes as an autonomous regular military order. As the Moors were -gradually forced back toward the south, the order changed headquarters -several times; one of its residences was Montsalvat which acquired some -fame in literature as the locale of many romances of chivalry. The -Orders of Avis and Alcantara were established for the same purpose as -that of Calatrava, namely the defense of the boundaries between Spain -and Moorish territory. - -The origin of the Knights of Santiago or Saint James of Compostella was -slightly different. Compostella prided itself on possessing the body of -Saint James the Apostle, who, according to tradition, stayed for a while -in Spain to preach the gospel and consecrated the first Spanish bishops. -After the Apostle had been martyred in Jerusalem, his body was -transferred to Compostella, which for that reason ranked in the Middle -Ages as one of the most venerable shrines of Christendom, with an -importance surpassed only by Rome and Jerusalem. However, the numerous -pilgrims from all countries in Europe visiting the Apostle’s tomb in -this far corner of Galicia were often waylaid and robbed by brigands and -Moors. For that reason a number of Spanish knights banded together to -protect the pilgrims on the road to Compostella, and in 1175 this group -of pious soldiers was canonically approved as a religious military -order. The Knights of Santiago erected hospices and strongholds on the -Spanish side of the Pyrenees as did the Knights of St. John on the -French side. A fortified church erected by the Hospitallers at this time -and still in a stage of good repair may be seen at Luz-St. Sauveur near -Lourdes. - -The origin of the Order of Christ and that of Monteza were quite -different from that of the other Iberian military orders, as we shall -see when we come to speak of the Pontifical Orders of Knighthood. - -Although each of the Iberian military orders had, of course, its own, -often fascinating, history, the general development of these -institutions followed very much the same pattern. The knights lived in -their convents and castles ruled by their grand masters; they showed -great prowess in the wars against the Moorish invaders, and -simultaneously they rose to power and political influence, accumulating -immense wealth from the bounty of grateful kings and the pious faithful. -Sometimes one order of knighthood confronted another on the field of -battle, as happened when they took opposite sides in civil wars that so -frequently occurred on the peninsula. This continued until most of the -peninsula was under one rule through the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon -and Isabella of Castile. The reign of these two sovereigns, _los Reyes -Catolicos_, marked the end of the Moorish occupation, but at the same -time accounts for the decline of the religious military orders. After -the surrender of Granada in 1492—the year in which Columbus first sailed -westward from Palos—the Moors were definitely driven off the Iberian -Peninsula, but by the same token the military orders lost their very -_raison d’être_. The fact that the Portuguese Orders of Christ and of -Avis kept the military spirit alive for some time by sending out -expeditions to Africa to fight the Mohammedans in their own stronghold -altered but little the inevitable course of events. The religious -military orders on the Iberian Peninsula were doomed to die a slow -death. - -Ferdinand the Catholic administered the first blow in 1482 by assuming -the grand mastership of all the Spanish military orders, with the -exception of the Order of Monteza. Although this seizure was, -canonically speaking, an infraction of the rights of the Church, the act -was legalized some decades later, when the Pope put the military orders -permanently under the Spanish crown. The Portuguese orders followed suit -in 1551, when the mastership was vested in the Crown of Portugal. The -only remaining independent order was that of Monteza which, however, -shared the same fate in 1587. Thus all the military orders of the -Iberian Peninsula lost their independence in the sixteenth century. - -During the same century the religious nature of the orders greatly -changed. True, the knights still took the monastic vows, but these vows -came to have a rather indulgent interpretation. The vow of obedience -meant, of course, obedience to the Crown. The vow of poverty was in most -instances altered into a vow to lead an upright life (_conversio -morum_). And the vow of chastity was changed into that of matrimonial -chastity (_castitas conjugalis_). The knights were allowed to marry -once, but the vow implied that if they committed a sin of impurity, they -sinned not only against marriage but also against their vow. In the -Order of Alcantara the vow of chastity was replaced by a vow to defend -the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin.[23] - -Although the kings had taken over the title, office and privileges of -grand master, the orders still enjoyed a sort of semi-autonomy, inasmuch -as their possessions still belonged theoretically to the orders as such. -But the ideas of the French Revolution in Portugal and the Napoleonic -occupation of Spain delivered the final blow to the rapidly expiring -military orders. They were completely secularized, and their properties -confiscated. The Restoration almost succeeded in degrading the once -proud knights of Calatrava, Santiago, Alcantara and Monteza to the role -of “carpet knights” and court ornaments. However, not quite. There is -still some difference between the military orders and the mere orders of -merit of the Spanish State as, for instance, that of the Order of Isabel -la Catolica. The organization of the Spanish military orders still -maintains a number of elements that bestow on them a distinctly -ecclesiastical flavor. (While describing the present status of the -Iberian military orders we have limited ourselves to the Spanish; the -Portuguese Order of Avis was suppressed by King Pedro in 1834 and the -present condition of the Order of Christ will be spoken of later). - -In the first place, the candidates eligible to these orders must be -Catholic. An additional prerequisite, reminiscent of the original -objective of the orders, is that candidates must evidence that neither -Moors nor Jews are found among their forebears. The reception of the -“habit” is accompanied by a rather elaborate Church ceremonial according -to the ritual of each particular order. This investiture constitutes the -candidates novices of the order. Most of them remain novices throughout -their life, but a number of them take the religious vows—in the sense -explained above (_votum castitatis conjugalis_). These professed knights -have also the obligation of reciting some prayers daily, originally the -equivalent of the Divine Office. Before the pontificate of Pius XI the -professed knights were bound daily to say one hundred Paters, Aves and -Glorias. Since then, however, this obligation has been reduced to one -Pater, Ave and Gloria. - -Another important link with the Church is the “Priory of the Military -Orders” which actually is a bishopric comprising more than half a -million Catholics. The establishment of the priory was intended to -compensate somewhat for the loss of property which the Military Orders -had suffered in consequence of the so-called _desamortización_ laws of -the prime minister, Juan Alvarez de Mendizabal. By a decree of Oct. 11, -1835, the latter suppressed most religious orders in Spain and -confiscated their properties. These laws also affected the military -orders, which had jurisdiction over a large number of abbeys, parishes, -monasteries and churches throughout Spain and enjoyed the revenues of -these properties. This infringement upon the rights of the Church was -rectified by a substitute compromise in the Concordat of 1851. The -Spanish province of Ciudad Real (19,741 square kilometers) is set apart -as a “coto redondo,” literally a rounded-off territory, known as the -Priory of the Military Orders. This priory is a “prelatura nullius,” -immediately dependent on the Holy See. The prior is titular bishop of -Dora, his official title being “Obispo Prior de los Ordenes Militares.” -This dignitary is appointed prior by the Spanish King in his capacity of -grand master, but the papal authority is required to elevate the -appointee to the episcopal dignity. The former jurisdictional rights of -the military orders are, so to say, grouped together in this diocese and -vested in the prior. The emoluments of the ecclesiastical properties in -the priory go to the diocese and the salaries of the bishop, canons, -pastors and other parish priests are paid by the Spanish government, in -the name of the grand master. The priests of the diocese of Ciudad Real -must belong to one of the four military orders—an arrangement which -reinstates the old division of the members of the orders into the -classes of knights and priests. - -Recently, on Aug. 27, 1953, a new concordat was concluded between the -Holy See and Spain, and thus the status of the Priory of Ciudad Real was -reconfirmed.[24] Article VIII of the concordat reads as follows: -“Continuerà a sussistere a Ciudad Real il Priorato _Nullius_ degli -Ordini Militari.” - -Since the office of Grand Master of the Military Orders, after the -abdication of the king in 1931, is in abeyance, the bishop-prior is the -acting head of the orders, inasmuch as he is the chairman of a -commission whose task it is to prepare a project of law designed to put -the orders on a more solid juridical basis. The military orders were -suppressed by the Red Government of 1931-1936, but were re-established -by the Franco regime. The task of this commission is to define with -greater precision the rights and privileges of the Spanish military -orders. - - - THE EQUESTRIAN ORDER OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE OF JERUSALEM - -The origin of this order of knighthood (_Ordo Equestris Sancti Sepulchri -Hierosolymitani_) is the subject of a great deal of controversy. There -is no doubt that the Knights of the Holy Sepulchre originated in the -Holy Land and existed at the time of the Crusades or possibly even -earlier. There is no doubt either that for many years an order of -knighthood was in existence and called the Order of the Holy Sepulchre. -For some time it was listed as a pontifical order of knighthood, -apparently because, off and on, the popes have been its grand masters, -but the _Annuario pontificio_ has ceased to list it as such since 1931, -when Pope Pius XI transferred the grand mastership to the Patriarch of -Jerusalem. However, the order as it presently exists is an -ecclesiastical order of knighthood; article 44 of its statutes, -published in 1949, clearly states that it “is strictly religious, both -in character and objective.” The problem is not only at what time it -originated as an order, but also what its status was; more particularly -whether it ever achieved the status of a religious military order, as -did the Templars or the Hospitallers. - -Some writers believe that the Knights of the Holy Sepulchre formed an -order which was founded even before the Crusades. In fact, they are of -the opinion that this order was the cradle from which all other -religious military orders in the Holy Land developed. This is the -position found amongst older authors and at present strenuously defended -in the monumental work of Guido A. Quarti.[25] - -According to this author the prototype of the Knights of the Holy -Sepulchre is to be found in the “rabdophoroi,” macebearers, who are said -to have been attached to the church of the Holy Sepulchre from ancient -times to keep order during the ceremonies. These ushers were, according -to Quarti, “i primitivi cavalieri” of the Holy Sepulchre. They are -supposed to have formed a fraternity which was instituted when Saint -Helena, in the beginning of the fourth century, built the basilica of -the Sepulchre. Other authors go even farther back and point out that in -Jerusalem a confraternity of hermits existed to whom Pope Anaclet in 81 -is said to have assigned the custody of Christ’s tomb. Some writers -attribute the foundation of this legendary society to the Apostle St. -James, first bishop of Jerusalem.[26] - -This confraternity, then, is taken to be the forerunner of the Order of -the Holy Sepulchre. When in 451 the bishopric of Jerusalem was made a -patriarchate, the confraternity of custodians is believed to have been -transformed into a chapter of canons. Whatever the vicissitudes of this -chapter may have been throughout the succeeding centuries, we arrive at -some more solid historical data at the time of the first Crusade. After -Godfrey de Bouillon had captured the Holy City in 1099, a chapter of -canons was instituted in the basilica of the Sepulchre of our Redeemer. -Now, according to Quarti, this chapter was a religious military order, -the oldest of all such institutions. - -This opinion is criticized by many authors, even though they admit that -the first knights of the Holy Sepulchre appeared during the reign of -Godfrey. They concede that at the time of the Crusades there was a -chapter of canons attached to the church of the Holy Sepulchre in -Jerusalem. But they find no proof that this chapter formed a religious -order, let alone a military order. The most that can be said is that it -acted in some respects like the orders of St. John or the Temple, -inasmuch as it received ample donations in the form of manors, farms, -fishing rights and the like, not only in Palestine, but also in many -parts of Europe. And like the military orders, the chapter of the Holy -Sepulchre established priories in many lands to administer the estates -it had received. - -The most famous of these donations was the bequest made by King Alfonso -of Aragon, who willed in 1134 that his kingdom be equally divided among -the Templars, the Hospitallers, and the Canons of the Holy Sepulchre. -The three organizations wisely ceded their rights to Ramon Berenguer IV, -Count of Barcelona. But the event had an intriguing juridical angle, -because it made it possible for the “Order” of the Holy Sepulchre to -claim at a later date the title of “sovereign order.” For—so it was -argued—the chapter of the Holy Sepulchre was by right the partial -sovereign of the kingdom of Aragon until the disputes concerning this -legacy were settled; and by ceding its rights to the count, the chapter -had acted as a sovereign power. - -On the other hand it is admitted that the Crusades gave rise to the -existence of knights who, being knighted at the Holy Sepulchre, were -called after it. During the Crusades, before or after battle, hundreds -of soldiers were dubbed knights, and it was only natural that these -soldiers who came to fight in Palestine for Christ’s sake were eager to -receive the knighthood in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, right at the -tomb where the body of Christ rested for three days. This may have been -the case during the first Crusade when Godfrey de Bouillon assumed the -title of Defender of the Holy Sepulchre; in fact, legend has it that -Godfrey created twenty knights of the Holy Sepulchre. It is also -possible that the soldiers knighted at the tomb of the Saviour assumed a -special distinction which at first may have consisted of the -patriarchical cross with double bar and after the fall of Acre in 1291 -assumed the form of the five-fold cross which still is the symbol of the -Knights of the Sepulchre. Wearing the same badge, some knights may have -banded together in groups and fought side by side on the principle of -brotherhood in arms. - -However, it is extremely doubtful that these knights formed an order, -like that of the Order of Saint John, for the records make no mention of -monastic vows, rule, community life, community of goods, or regular -organization. It is equally doubtful that the knights formed a secular -brotherhood in arms, but granted that they did, the fraternity had no -permanent organization. - -Like most other knights, when these knights of the Holy Sepulchre had -completed their service in the Holy Land they went back home to Europe. -And like all other knights—with the exception only of those of Saint -John—after the fall of Acre they left the Orient for good. Back in -Europe some knights of the Holy Sepulchre may have retired into -monasteries, as many a battle-weary knight did, perhaps to fulfill a -vow. Small groups of knights belonging to the same district may have -founded convents. As a matter of fact, mention is made of several -religious communities of the Holy Sepulchre in Spain, Belgium, France, -Germany, Poland and elsewhere. But it is here that the critics insist -that such communities were not formed by knights, like those of the -Templars and the Knights of Saint John, but by canons and even by -canonesses. These communities were probably independent of one another, -like Benedictine abbeys, but it could be expected that they would be -designated as belonging to the Order of the Holy Sepulchre. It would -follow also that, conformable to the customs of the time and under the -influence of the Knights of the Holy Sepulchre who naturally would take -an interest in those convents, the epithet “military” was added to the -term “order.” Such seems precisely to have happened, for one of the -first, or at least one of the most famous of these institutions, -established at Saragosa in 1276 and occupied by women, came to bear the -sonorous title: “Real Monastero de Canonesas Comendadores de la Orden -Militar del Santo Sepulcro”—The Royal Monastery of the -Canonesses-Commanders of the Military Order of the Holy Sepulchre. - -At the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries -the monasteries and convents of the Holy Sepulchre seemed to have passed -through a crisis. Pope Innocent VIII issued the bull _Cum sollerti -meditatione_ on March 28, 1489, whereby all the members of the order and -its possessions were incorporated in the Order of Saint John, and the -latter’s grand master still bears the title of the Master of the Order -of the Holy Sepulchre. But many of those concerned objected; they stayed -the execution of the decree until the pope died, and remonstrated with -his successor, Alexander VI. Alexander, in a bull of Aug. 13, 1496, -declared himself grand master of the order, but by then it was an empty -title, because the order soon dissolved into several groups. Emperor -Maximilian obtained from Alexander in 1497 the independence of the -houses of the Holy Sepulchre and made the prior of Miechow the master -general; the king of Spain was the recipient of the same favor from Leo -X in 1512; and the Duke of Nevers became the head of the French group. -In this way the Order of the Holy Sepulchre came to be divided into -three national branches, each closely connected with the ruling dynasty. - -Besides, there were still the individual knights of the Holy Sepulchre -who did not form a homogeneous group, but who more than anyone else -could lay claim to that title, inasmuch as they had been knighted at the -tomb of Christ in Jerusalem. The old custom may have been interrupted -for some time after the Christians evacuated the Holy Land, but was -restored by the Franciscans to whom was committed the care of the Holy -Land. They had arrived in Palestine around 1230; after the Christian -armies left they managed as best they could despite opposition and -persecution, and Pope Clement VI in 1342 made them the official -custodians of the Holy Land. In that capacity they formed in a certain -way the continuation of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. And like the -kings of Jerusalem, the superior of the Franciscans who bore the title -of “Custos” continued the old tradition of bestowing the knighthood in -the church of the Holy Sepulchre. But this time the people who received -the honor were not soldiers but rather pilgrims of noble birth—and at -times of not so noble birth—who had made substantial donations to the -holy places. Pope Leo X confirmed the right of the superior of the -Franciscans to continue this practice. About the same time one more -grand master of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre entered upon the stage, -inasmuch as the custos assumed the title, and various popes acknowledged -its use. However, the custos who was to bestow the honor ran into -difficulties, historical as well as canonical. In the first place, there -was the age-old tradition according to which a knight could be created -only by a knight. Besides, the dubbing to knighthood involved the use of -a sword, but the custos being a priest was forbidden by canon law to -carry a sword. The usual procedure, therefore, was that the priest would -give the various blessings, and one or another knight, often enough at -hand among the crowd of pilgrims, would carry out the dubbing with the -sword. Thus history records that a certain German count, who in -Jerusalem joined the Third Order of St. Francis and was hence known as -Brother John of Prussia, conducted the ceremonies of conferring -knighthood from 1478 to 1498. But in case no such knightly assistance -was available there was little else left for the priest to do but carry -out the sword ceremonial himself. And here the office of grand master, -being vested in the custos, provided a convenient excuse to circumvent -the canonical irregularity involved in that act. - -The Knights of the Holy Sepulchre enjoyed many privileges, some of which -were of a rather peculiar character. They had precedence over the -members of all orders of knighthood, except those of the Golden Fleece; -they could create notaries public, legitimize bastards, and change a -name given in baptism; they were empowered to pardon prisoners whom they -happened to meet while the prisoners were on their way to the scaffold; -they were allowed to possess goods belonging to the Church, even though -they were laymen. In view of such privileges it is not surprising that -many aspired to the honor of becoming Knights of the Holy Sepulchre. The -good Franciscan friars in Jerusalem, too, seem to have made a rather -generous use of their power to confer knighthood. - -The history of the order in the last century was not less involved than -in the preceding centuries, especially with regard to the grand -mastership which shifted time and again. When in 1847 Pope Pius IX -re-established the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, he transferred the -office of grand master from the custos of the Franciscans to the -patriarch who from now on possessed the exclusive right of conferring -the knighthood. In 1868 the same pope approved new statutes whereby for -the first time membership was divided into three classes: knights grand -cross, commanders, plain knights, and stipulated the admission fee -according to rank. These contributions were used to defray the expenses -of the seminary and the outlying missions of the patriarchate. Because -this arrangement involved a financial loss for the basilica of the Holy -Sepulchre which up to this time had received the stipends connected with -the enrollment of the knights, Pope Leo XIII founded a cross of honor -which was not intended to confer knighthood but was rather a mark of -distinction bestowed on the pilgrim who visited Jerusalem. This cross -extended to three classes: gold, silver and bronze, and the revenues -derived from it went to the treasury of the basilica. In 1888, the same -pope also approved the establishment of a female branch of the order, -known as the “Dames of the Holy Sepulchre.” - -Pope St. Pius X in a letter of May 3, 1907[27] took upon himself the -grand mastership, but delegated the patriarch as his lieutenant who, in -the name of the Holy Father, could appoint the knights. He was also -given the right to erect chapters in various countries. St. Pius X also -unified the use of uniforms and decorations. He gave the knights the -right to wear a mantle of white wool with the red five-fold cross -attached on the left-hand side. In view of the old claim that the order -was a military institution, the pope gave the knights permission to wear -the cross of the order suspended from a military trophy. In the case of -the ladies, the emblem was to be worn hanging from a golden loop. - -The office of grand master continued to be vested in the Holy See until -1928, when Pius XI again appointed the patriarch of Jerusalem as “rector -et administrator.” - -A complete reorganization of the order was made by Pope Pius XII. By -apostolic letter of July 16, 1940, he appointed a cardinal as the -“Patronus seu Protector” of the order. In a _Motu proprio_ of Aug. 15, -1945, he assigned the Church and the monastery of St. Onophrius in Rome -as the Order’s official center. Finally, by Apostolic Letter _Quam -Romani Pontifices_ of Sept. 14, 1949, the pope promulgated complete new -statutes for the Order.[28] If, up to that date, more and more the order -had assumed the character of an order of merit, this new constitution -gives it explicitly a definite purpose. The objective is “to revive in -modern form the spirit and ideal of the Crusades, with the weapons of -the faith, the apostolate, and christian charity.” More specifically the -purpose consists in “the preservation and the propagation of the faith -in Palestine, assistance to and development of the missions of the Latin -patriarchate of Jerusalem, providing for its charitable, cultural and -social undertakings and the defense of the rights of the Catholic church -in the Holy Land, the cradle of the order.” - -The order, as a “juridical person,” is placed under the protection of -the Supreme Pontiff who appoints a cardinal as the grand master. The -order consists of five classes. The first—and very exclusive—class -consists of the “Knights of the Collar,” numbering no more than twelve -persons. In addition this same degree belongs by right to the grand -master, the cardinal secretary of his Holiness, the cardinal secretary -of the Sacred Congregation of the Oriental church and the Latin -patriarch of Jerusalem. Besides this special class there are four -degrees, both for knights and ladies: grand cross, commanders with -plaque (grand officers), commanders and knights. - -The distinctive emblem, in its more or less elaborate forms according to -the various ranks, is the five-double cross which in the present -document is constantly designated as the cross of Godfrey of -Bouillon.[29] - -Besides conferring knighthood, the Order of the Holy Sepulchre grants -three honorary decorations as marks of distinction: the “Palm of the -order,” “the Cross of Merit” which can also be bestowed on -non-Catholics, and the “Pilgrim’s Shell” which is given to those knights -and dames of the order who visit the Holy Land. - -The creation of knights and dames of the order is reserved to the -cardinal grand master who transmits the diploma to the secretariate of -state of His Holiness for the visa and the seal. The patriarch of -Jerusalem, who is the grand prior of the order, has also the right of -nomination, but this right is limited to the canons of the basilica of -the Holy Sepulchre and persons residing in the territory of the -patriarchate. Moreover, the patriarch must notify the grand master of -these nominations and the latter then grants the diploma. - -The order is divided into several chapters; in the United States there -are two lieutenancies. - -The religious character of the knightly order of the Holy Sepulchre -comes to the fore not only in the description of its objective and the -required qualifications of its members, but also in the ceremonial -investiture of the newly elected knights which was approved by the -Congregation of Sacred Rites, Aug. 24, 1945. This ceremony combines a -profession of faith with the ancient ritual used for the dubbing of -knighthood. The candidates do not take monastic vows but promise to live -an upright Christian life in accordance with the commandments of God and -the precepts of the Church, in absolute fealty to the Supreme Pontiff, -as true soldiers of Christ. - - - - - THE ECCLESIASTICAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD - Part IV - - - PONTIFICAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD - -The Pontifical Orders of Knighthood, in contrast with the other -ecclesiastical orders heretofore mentioned, are directly dependent on -the Pope and membership in them is bestowed by the Holy See. They are, -in decreasing order of rank, the Order of Christ, the Order of the -Golden Spur, the Order of Pius, the Order of Saint Gregory the Great, -and the Order of Saint Sylvester, Pope. - -That of the Order of Christ can with certainty trace its origin back to -the age of chivalry; and in all probability that of the Golden Spur. The -last three, in their present status, are of more recent date, the Order -of Pius and of St. Gregory being founded in the last century, whereas -the present order of St. Sylvester was established in the beginning of -this century. - -All of them are secular orders of merit, even though the ritual of -investiture followed by the Order of Christ contains some elements that -are reminiscent of the ancient religious order from which it descends. - -All matters concerning the bestowal, registration, legislation and -description of emblems, badges and uniforms of the pontifical orders are -handled by the chancery of the orders of knighthood which functions -under the “Secretaria a Brevibus Apostolicis Literis,” a section of the -Papal Secretariate of State. - -The very exclusive Orders of Christ and of the Golden Spur have only one -degree, that of knights. The other three, at present, consist of three -degrees or classes of which the second class is subdivided: (1) Grand -Cross Knights; (2) Commanders with plaque and Commanders; (3) Knights. -The first wear the cross of the respective order hanging from the grand -cordon, that is to say a large ribbon in the colors of the respective -orders passing from the right shoulder over the breast to the left side -of the body. Besides, the members of this class are entitled to the -_plaque_, an ornamental brooch in the form of a radiating star -surrounding the emblem of the order to be worn on the chest. The knights -commanders wear the cross of the order on a ribbon around the neck; the -first degree commanders are entitled to a _plaque_ of minor dimensions; -those of the second degree do not enjoy this privilege. The class of the -knights wear the cross on a small ribbon pinned on the left chest of the -uniform or suit. - -To the question why the Papacy bestows these decorations, the answer is -given by a Pope who certainly disapproved of any vanity or show but who -nevertheless recognized the value of such decorations, namely St. Pius -X. In the preamble to the Brief _Multum ad excitandos_ (Feb. 7, -1905)[30] in which he reorganized the Orders of Christ, of the Golden -Spur and of St. Sylvester, the holy pontiff makes this statement: -“Multum ad excitandos ad egregia facinora hominum animos, praemia -virtuti reddita valent, quae dum ornant egregios bene de re sacra vel -publica meritos viros, ceteros exemplo rapiunt ad idem laudis honorisque -spatium decurrendum.” And his predecessor, Pius IX, in the Brief -_Romanis Pontificibus_ (June 17, 1847),[31] declared that orders of -knighthood “are not instituted to encourage vanity and ambition, but -solely to reward virtue and outstanding merits.”[32] - - - THE SUPREME ORDER OF CHRIST - MILITIA DOMINI NOSTRI JESU CHRISTI - -Saint Pius X in his Brief _Multum ad excitandos_, mentioned above, -decreed that the Supreme Order of Christ is to be considered the highest -ranking of all Pontifical Orders. It looks almost like an ironical twist -of history when we recall that the highest decoration granted by the -Pope at the present day proves to derive from a religious order which -one of the Pope’s predecessors suppressed in the fourteenth century. - -The Order of Christ was founded in the year 1318, but since it is a -continuation—under a different name—of the Order of the Templars, it -goes as far back as 1119. In all probability this makes the Order of -Christ the oldest order of knighthood in the world. We say, in all -probability, for there is quite a controversy about the prior antiquity -of the Order of the Temple or that of the Hospital. The most likely -answer seems to be that the Order of the Hospital antedates the former -by a few years, inasmuch as the Hospitallers were organized in the year -1112. However, at first they were an order of charity and only gradually -did they develop into a military order during the reign of the second -master, Raymond du Puy (1120-60), whereas the Templars were organized -from the outset as a military order. For that reason the Temple can be -said to be the prototype of all orders of knighthood. - -Although the leaders of the first Crusade had defeated the infidels in -the Holy Land and captured Jerusalem, July 15, 1099, still many bands of -Saracens were left which held several mountain strongholds and were -roving around the countryside, harassing the Christian pilgrims on their -way to the holy places. In view of this state of affairs, Hugh de Payns, -a knight from Champagne, in 1119, twenty years after the capture of -Jerusalem, gathered around him in that city seven companions and formed -with these knights a religious community. In contrast with the ordinary -religious groups, this community had a special character, for the -knights not only took the usual vows of obedience, poverty and chastity, -but they added a fourth vow of a decidedly military nature. In virtue of -this vow the knights became a kind of transport troops, providing the -Christian pilgrims with police escort. Later, the vow assumed a more -general character, namely that of defending the Holy Land. The knights -called themselves _Milites Christi_, soldiers of Christ, but because -their first Convent was a part of the palace of the king of Jerusalem, -which was supposed to have been built close by the place where once -Solomon’s temple stood, they became traditionally known as the Knights -of the Temple, or the Templars. - -In the first few years of their existence, they followed the Augustinian -rule, but later adopted a rule written for them by St. Bernard of -Clairvaux, the great promoter of the second crusade and admirer of the -Templar’s ideal. This rule was based on the rule of the Cistercians but -adapted to the way of life of the knights. Because of this connection -with St. Bernard’s order, the knights wore over their armature a white -mantle to which Pope Eugenius III added a red cross. The members of the -Temple were divided into three classes: the knights, the -sergeants-at-arms and priests who acted as chaplains for the order. - -In the space allotted it is not possible to discuss in detail the -development, the activities and the decline of the Templars. They proved -themselves real heroes in the battles against the enemies of the Cross, -although at times they were imprudent and reckless, and needlessly -sacrificed their men. Occasionally, they were in arms against their -Christian brothers, especially the Hospitallers of St. John. They had -the reputation of being proud, even to the point of arrogance. Great -wealth they accumulated, but—unlike the Hospitallers—they were little -engaged in works of charity and thus left themselves open to charges of -selfishness and greed as launched against them by their enemies. - -After the fall of Acre (1291) the Templars gave up the fight against the -Crescent. The Knights of St. John kept on fighting at sea while the -“Soldiers of Christ” (Knights Templar) retired to Western Europe, and -became bankers as well as financial administrators of kings and -merchants. - -These financial enterprises—so different from the original objectives as -envisaged by St. Bernard—did not last long. Twenty-one years after they -had left the Orient, the Templars were suppressed on April 3, 1312, by -Pope Clement V who acted under pressure from the French king Philip the -Fair. The merits of the trial, in which the charges against the Templars -were weighed is still a matter of debate among historians, the majority -of whom, however, believe that these charges were false in general. -There is the curious note that the Pope in his formula of suppression -stated that the act of extinction was not to be taken as a condemnation -of the Templars; also, that Philip the Fair had the last Grand Master, -Jacques de Molay, burned at the stake (March 18, 1314), before the three -cardinals whom the Pope had ordered to investigate his case had a chance -to bring the trial to an end. It is true, nonetheless, that the Order of -the Templars outlived its usefulness for the Church—except in Portugal -and Spain.[33] - -That exception was to have far-flung consequences. The Templars in -Portugal and Spain had not become mere bankers, but still lived up to -the purpose for which they were founded, namely the fight against the -infidel. Hence, King Denis I of Portugal—husband of St. Elizabeth—and -James II of Aragon were quite satisfied with the services of the -Templars in their countries and refused to believe the charges of -idolatry and heresy brought against them. They therefore failed to obey -the directives of the papal decree of suppression. Of course, they could -not possibly allow the Templars to continue under their old name, for -such a flagrant act of disobedience might well have merited -excommunication. In their countries, they allowed the Templars to -reorganize as a new military order of knighthood. Thus the Order of -Christ came into existence in Portugal (1318) and the Order of Our Lady -of Monteza in Spain; the latter was used for the defense of the coastal -areas against the Saracens.[34] - -One year after King Denis had established the Order of Christ and had -assigned them the defense of Algarvia, a portion of his kingdom then -threatened by the Moors, the Pope gave his blessing to the “new” -institution. John XXII, successor of Clement V, in the Constitution _Ad -ea, e quibus_ of March 14, 1319[35] gave the approbation, stipulating -that the Knights of Christ should assume the rule of the Cistercians—as -the Templars had done—but, in addition, should follow some of the -customs then in vogue in the Order of Calatrava. Besides, the Pope gave -them all the properties of “the erstwhile Order of the Temple” (_Ordo -quondam Templi_). - -The vicissitudes of the Order of Christ in Portugal do not concern us -here. Suffice it to say that they followed the usual pattern. The -knights assisted the kings in their fight against the Moors, had their -inevitable quarrels about jurisdictions and possessions and lost their -religious character before the close of the 15th century. In 1499 -Alexander VI freed them from their solemn vows and allowed them to -marry. Eventually, the Order of Christ, like the other military orders -in Portugal, became an order of merit. When the Republic was proclaimed -in 1910, the order was abolished, but was re-established in 1918, with -the President of the Republic assuming the office of grand master. - -Of more importance is that the Order of Christ entered into an intimate -relationship with the papacy. When John XXII approved the Order of -Christ, he did so with the proviso that the Holy See had the right to -appoint knights of that order. This regulation has been interpreted in a -two-fold way. Some historians hold that there was originally only one -order of which the Pope was the real head and that the kings of Portugal -were his hereditary lieutenants in that kingdom. Others, however, -believe that ever since 1319 there were two distinct Orders of Christ, -one Portuguese and one Pontifical. The fact is that the Popes, since the -time of John XXII, have conferred the knighthood of Christ. Besides, the -Popes introduced a new element in the concept of knighthood. Instead of -creating the knights by the usual ceremony of dubbing, the Pope -appointed them by “letters patent,” that is to say by issuing a decree -whereby he conferred the rights and privileges of the knighthood upon -those he designated. The purpose of the papal Order of Christ was the -defense of the interests of the Holy See. It was throughout most of its -history quite exclusive. - -Pope St. Pius X in the Brief _Multum ad excitandos_ decreed not only -that the Order of Christ is the highest Pontifical order of knighthood -but also specified with greater precision its insignia and the uniform -of the members. The former consists in a red Latin cross surrounding a -white cross and surmounted by a crown, pending from a double golden -chain, an ornamental brooch, called the “plaque” or star and a sword. -The uniform consists of a red tunic, white trousers and a white mantle. - -The Pontifical Order of Christ consists of one class only: membership is -reserved mostly to sovereigns and heads of state. In the year 1954 there -were, according to the _Annuario Pontificio_, only five Knights of the -Order of Christ in the world. - -Although the Pontifical Order of Christ is an order of merit, its -ancient religious origin is reflected in the fact that its members must -be Catholic, and also in its ritual of investiture. After receiving the -apostolic Brief of nomination (letters patent), the new knight presents -himself with two witnesses before a cardinal of his choice or, if that -is not possible, before the bishop of his diocese to whom he shows the -Brief. He promises obedience to His Holiness the Pope and recites the -profession of faith, whereupon the presiding dignitary invests him with -the collar of the order. - - - ORDER OF THE GOLDEN SPUR - MILITIA AURATA - -In the Middle Ages, the spur was the symbol of knighthood, and in that -sense all knights could be said to belong to the “Order of the Spur.” -When the Order of the Golden Spur was established is unknown. Pope St. -Pius X in his Brief _Multum ad excitandos_ maintains that it is among -the oldest orders of knighthood and refers to the tradition which would -have Pope St. Sylvester (314-35) the founder: “Neminem latet Ordinem -Militiae auratae, sive ab aureo calcari, inter vetustissimos jure esse -enumerandum: Constantino enim Magno Imperatore, Silvester PP. I sanctae -memoriae decessor Noster, auctor illius fuisse dicitur.” Be that as it -may, the Pope expresses regret that in the course of time “the order has -lost its ancient splendor and dignity because of human weaknesses and -the vicissitudes of the times.” - -In the 16th century, for one thing, the right to confer this knighthood -was no longer reserved to the Holy See. In 1539 Paul III Farnese -(1534-49) granted high dignitaries of the papal court and the Roman -princely families the privilege of conferring the Golden Spur. From that -time on the order was so freely bestowed that it fell into disrepute. - -To make matters worse, one of the Medici Popes, Pius IV (1559-65), -decreed that membership of the Golden Spur entailed automatically the -personal title of Roman Count for the titulary and hereditary nobility -for his descendents. All this depreciated not only the distinctiveness -of the Order of the Golden Spur but also of the Roman nobility. - -Additional confusion was created when the Knights of the Golden Spur -began to wear the coveted eight-pointed white cross of the Knights of -the Order of Jerusalem. Pope Benedict XIV by a Brief of Sept. 7, 1747, -abolished this abuse and ordered that the badge of the Order of the -Golden Spur be an octagonal gilded cross with a small spur hanging from -it. - -At long last Pope Gregory XVI took the reformation of the Golden Spur in -hand—a reformation which proved to be quite radical. In a Brief _Cum -hominum mentes_ of Oct. 31, 1841,[36] the Pope practically suppressed -the Order of the Golden Spur and established in its place the Order of -St. Sylvester, presumably the founder of the old order. In remembrance -of the latter, the Pope decreed that the accompanying title of the new -order be _Militia Aurata_. The Pope reserved the right of conferring -this new knighthood to the Holy See exclusively, revoking all delegated -rights once given by his predecessors and abolished the privilege of -conferring nobility. The membership of the order was reduced to 150 -commanders and 300 knights and confined within the Papal States. - -In 1905 another radical change occurred in the history of the Golden -Spur. Pope St. Pius X by the Brief _Multum ad excitandos_ separated the -Order of the Golden Spur from that of St. Sylvester, making them two -distinct orders from that time on. - -In recognition of the 50th anniversary of the proclamation of the dogma -of the Immaculate Conception, the restored _Militia Aurata_ was put -under the protection of the Immaculate Mother of Christ. Moreover, Pius -ordered that the gilded cross of the order should in its centre carry a -medal with a crowned monogram of Mary. This cross hangs from a trophy -which in turn is attached to a red ribbon with white edgings to be worn -around the neck. The knights also wear a plaque in the form of a silver -star on which the same cross and medal are superimposed; their uniform -is a red tunic and black trousers. - -Pope Pius emphatically reiterated that membership does not entail -personal nobility and still less hereditary nobility. The order -comprises only one class, namely that of knights. The number of knights -may not exceed 100, “lest the honor be decreased by too large a number,” -as the Brief states. Actually, in 1954, there were only ten Knights of -the Golden Spur in the entire world. This knighthood is conferred upon -men, “qui vel armis, vel scriptis, vel praeclaris operibus rem -catholicam auxerint, et Ecclesiam Dei virtute tutarint, aut doctrina -illustraverint.” Membership is not limited to Catholics; the sentence -just quoted leaves sufficient room for the candidacy of non-Catholics, -inasmuch as they, too, may help the cause of Catholicism, as in signing -a concordat with the Church or by giving freedom to the Catholic -missions. In fact, four out of the ten existing knights are -non-Catholics: one Greek Orthodox and three Mohammedans, among them the -Shah of Iran.[37] - - - THE ORDER OF PIUS - ORDO PIANUS - -The Order of Pius is the third in rank of the Pontifical Orders of -Knighthood. It was erected by Pope Pius IX by the Brief _Romanis -Pontificibus_, and was called after the founder, but also to honor the -memory of Pius IV (1559-65) who in 1559 had instituted an Ordo Pianus. -Since the latter had ceased to exist in the course of time, the order -established by Pius IX could not be considered a continuation of it. -However, the Pope stated specifically that he wished to “revive the -ancient appellation introduced by his predecessor.” - -The order consisted of two degrees: knights of the first and knights of -the second class. At the moment of nomination, they received title to -personal nobility; in the case of the knights of the first class, the -title was transmissible to their sons. The decoration of the order is an -eight-pointed blue star surrounding a medal with the inscription “Pius -IX” and “Virtuti et Merito”; the reverse bears the date of the -foundation of the order, 1847. The decoration hangs from a blue ribbon -with red edgings. The uniform is blue. The knights of the second degree -were to wear the emblem on the left chest, those of the first degree had -the privilege to wear it hanging from a blue ribbon around the neck. The -latter could also wear a silver emblem similar to the badge but of -larger dimensions on the left chest; only, however, after obtaining the -special and expressed authorization of the Holy See. - -Several of the stipulations made by Pius IX were changed within the next -hundred years. One might speak of these changes as the story of the -_minutiae_ of an order of knighthood. In the first place there was the -plaque. Two years after the founding of his order, Pius IX issued at -Gaeta, in exile, the Brief _Cum hominum mentes_ (June 17, 1849), wherein -he ordered that from that date on all knights of the first class enjoyed -the privilege of the emblem, but that a special permission of the Holy -See was needed to wear a jewelled emblem. Moreover, knights of the first -class should no longer wear the star of the order pendent from a collar -around the neck, but from the grand cordon. This rule made them Knights -of the Grand Cross. - -By the Brief _In ipso_ of Nov. 11, 1856, issued from the palace of the -Quirinal, Pope Pius IX extended the number of degrees to three: (1) -Knights of the Grand Cross, wearing the grand cordon emblem; (2) Knights -of the Second Class or Commanders, wearing the collar; (3) Knights of -the Third Class, wearing the emblem on a small ribbon on the chest. - -Pope Pius X in his Brief _Multum ad excitandos_ reintroduced the famous -emblem and instituted an intermediary degree by dividing the commanders -into two classes: those with the emblem and those without. - -Finally, Pope Pius XII in the Brief _Litteris suis_ issued at St. -Peter’s, Nov. 11, 1939,[38] abolished the title to nobility of all -knights to be nominated in the future. In giving the reason for this -rule, the Pope reiterated the words of his predecessor, namely that the -order was not instituted to encourage vanity and ambition, but only to -reward personal merit. - - - ORDER OF ST. GREGORY THE GREAT - ORDO GREGORIANUS - -In the United States probably the best known of all the Pontifical -Orders of Knighthood is the Order of St. Gregory, although it was -originally instituted to honor the citizens of the erstwhile Papal -States. When the energetic general of the Camaldulese became Pope under -the name of Gregory XVI (1830-46), the Papal States were frequently -troubled with political uprisings. In suppressing these rebellious -movements, the Pope was aided not only by Austrian troops but also by -many of his own faithful subjects. - -To honor those who had distinguished themselves in the defense of the -temporal power of the Holy See, Gregory erected an order of knighthood -which he named after the first Pope who bore his own name, Saint Gregory -I (590-604), and who is considered by several historians as the real -founder of the temporal power of the Popes. However, the Brief _Quod -summis quibusque_, issued at St. Mary Major (Sept. 1, 1831), whereby -Gregory XVI erected this new pontifical order, does not restrict its -membership explicitly to his own subjects, but extends it to those -persons who have shown “incontrovertible loyalty to the Holy See,” and -to those who have distinguished themselves by their virtue and piety, by -their social position, by the zeal evidenced in fulfilling high office, -or, in general, by the excellent reputation in which they are held. - -The Pope decreed that the emblem of the order should be an eight-pointed -red cross, having a little white medal in the center engraved with a -picture of Saint Gregory the Great, the reverse of the medal carrying -the motto _Pro Deo et Principe_. The cross hangs from a red ribbon with -yellow borders, the colors of the order. - -As originally instituted the order consisted of four degrees: (1) the -Knights Grand Cross of the first class, who wore the cross on the grand -cordon, and who were also entitled to wear a large cross in the form of -a jewelled star on the chest; (2) Knights Grand Cross of the second -class, who wore the same large ribbon but only a small single plaque on -the left chest; (3) Knights Commanders whose cross hung from a ribbon -around the neck; (4) Knights who wore the cross on the left chest. - -In the Brief _Cum amplissimo honorum_, issued at St. Peter’s, May 30, -1834, Pope Gregory reduced the order to three degrees. The two degrees -of Knights Grand Cross were combined and the right to wear a jewelled -emblem required special permission from the Holy See. This decree also -specified the maximum number of Knights of St. Gregory for the residents -of the Papal States. The Knights Grand Cross should be no more than 30, -the Commanders no more than 70, the Knights no more than 300. However, -the Pope reserved the right to nominate also persons residing outside -the Pontifical States; the number of these nominees was unlimited. - -There are two classes of Gregorian Knights, a civilian and military.[39] -The difference is that the former wear the cross hanging from a green -crown of laurel, whereas the latter have the cross hanging from a -trophy. It is interesting to note that neither of the two documents -issued by Gregory XVI says a word about a special uniform for the -Knights of St. Gregory. The green uniform was later prescribed by Pope -Pius IX. - - - THE ORDER OF SAINT SYLVESTER, POPE - -This order—as we saw previously—was instituted by Pope Gregory XVI in -1841 to replace the Order of the Golden Spur, but since the name of -“Militia Aurata” was perpetuated, the order was spoken of as a -combination of the two. In 1905 Pope St. Pius X “separated” the two -orders and made the Order of Saint Sylvester the lowest ranking of the -Pontifical Orders of Knighthood. - -The order has three degrees, the second being subdivided into two -classes: Knights of the Grand Cross; Knight Commanders with and without -emblem; simple Knights. The emblem is an eight-pointed white cross with -a medal of St. Sylvester in the center, the reverse side of the medal -bearing the dates 1841-1905 in Roman figures to commemorate the order’s -founding by Gregory XVI and its renovation by St. Pius X. The emblem is -a silver star with the cross of the order superimposed. The colors of -the grand cordon, collar and ribbon on which the cross hangs, according -to the different degrees, are three bands of red and two of black. The -uniform of the order is black. - - - THE PAPAL DECORATIONS - -The decorations bestowed by the Holy See at the present time are the -Cross “Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice” and the medal “Benemerenti.” These -decorations do not confer knighthood upon the recipient, but are medals -of honor (_distintivi di onore_) given to both men and women who merit -public token of gratitude from the Pope for their services. The -conferring takes place by means of a diploma issued from the -Secretariate of State. - - - _Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice_ - -Pope Leo XIII instituted this cross by the Apostolic Letter _Quod -singulari Dei concessu_ of July 17, 1888,[40] to commemorate the -fiftieth anniversary of his ordination to the priesthood. Originally it -was intended to reward those persons who had distinguished themselves in -organizing the Vatican exposition in which were exhibited the gifts -which Leo had received from every part of the world on the occasion of -his golden jubilee. Later, the bestowal was extended to those who were -eminent in their devotion toward the Church and the Papacy. The cross -was initially issued in three degrees, gold, silver and bronze; Pope St. -Pius X in 1908 decreed that the cross should come only in gold. The four -arms of the cross are decorated with a comet and in between the arms are -found four lilies: these embellishments are meant to recall the coat of -arms of the Pecci family from which Leo derived. In the center of the -cross is placed a medal bearing the bust of the founding Pope with the -inscription “Leo XIII, P.M. Ann. X” (the tenth year of Leo’s -pontificate). The medal bears on the reverse side the tiara and the -papal keys with the inscription “Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice.” On the -reverse side of the arms of the cross are found these words “Prid. Cal. -Ian. 1888.” The cross hangs from a red, white, and yellow ribbon, to be -worn on the left chest. - - - _Benemerenti_ - -This is the name of a series of medals issued by several Popes in order -to reward distinguished services at special occasions. Pius VIII was the -first to grant such a Benemerenti medal. The practice was continued by -Gregory XVI in 1831 when he had a medal coined to reward those of his -subjects who had shown themselves particularly faithful to the Pope -during that troublesome year. Pope Pius IX did the same in gratitude to -the soldiers who fought for him during the revolution of 1848 and 1849. -St. Pius X, too, issued in 1910 a Benemerenti medal which was preferably -granted for military services. A special medal is given to the Palatine -guards after some years of faithful service. Pius XI created a -Benemerenti medal to remunerate persons as well as groups who -distinguished themselves in the organization of the Holy Year 1925 and -of the missionary exhibition which was held in the Vatican in the same -year. - -Besides these special medals there is a Benemerenti medal of a more -general character. It comes in gold, silver and bronze and it bears the -effigy and the name of the reigning Pope, and on the reverse side a -crown of laurel and the letter “B” (“Benemerenti”). The medal hangs from -a yellow ribbon edged with white, to be worn on the left chest. - -Hardly an institution in the world today has the equivalent of honors -parallel to that of the Roman Catholic Church. In an age when initiative -and ability tend to become lost in the overwhelming social changes that -are so universal, these honors stand out as another instance of the -timelessness of that Church. They salvage values and ideals from the -past. Chivalry is more than romance; it is one of the graces of human -dignity. Those who would spurn the past cannot build the future. These -honors are enshrined in a morality and code that is rooted in the love -and charity of Christ made visible through human compassion and effort. -They envision the kingdom of heaven as their perspective quite in the -way of the parable Our Lord so earnestly preached when He tenderly -uttered the words: “Well done, good and faithful servant.” - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS - - - MILITARY ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD - - [Illustration: Teutonic Order - Black cross with white borders, black ribbon.] - - [Illustration: Order of the Holy Sepulchre - Red cross of Godfrey de Bouillon, military trophy, black ribbon.] - - [Illustration: Order of Malta - Grand Cross of Professed Bailiff: White cross, crown, military - trophy and black ribbon with two gold designs, representing crown of - thorns.] - - [Illustration: Order of Calatrava - Red Cross fleury. - Order of Alcantara - Green cross fleury. - Order of Monteza - Red Cross and black fleur-de-lis.] - - [Illustration: Order of Santiago - Lily-hilted sword in red.] - - - PONTIFICAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD - - [Illustration: Order of the Golden Spur - Gold cross with golden spur pendent from it, white medal, military - trophy, red ribbon bordered with white.] - - [Illustration: Order of St. Gregory - Civil division: red cross, blue medallion, golden crown, oak leaves, - red ribbon with orange borders.] - - [Illustration: Order of St. Sylvester - White cross on gold rays, medal of St. Sylvester, ribbon with five - strands, three red, two black.] - - [Illustration: Order of Christ - White Latin cross, imposed on red cross, crown, military trophy and - golden chain.] - - [Illustration: Order of Pius - Eight-pointed blue star, white medallion, rays of golden flames, - blue ribbon bordered with red.] - - - PONTIFICAL DECORATIONS - - [Illustration: Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice - Gold cross, fleur-de-lis, medal with image of Leo XIII, purple - ribbon with white and yellow line on each border.] - - [Illustration: Benemerenti Medal - Gold, silver or bronze medal with image of reigning Pontiff, yellow - ribbon edged with white.] - - [Illustration: Lateran Cross - Gold or silver cross, medallions of the Saviour, St. Peter, St. - Paul, St. John the Baptist and St. John the Apostle, red ribbon with - two blue stripes.] - - - - - FOOTNOTES - - -[1]_The American Ecclesiastical Review_, XXXVII (1907), 497-503, carried - an article by Joseph J. Murphy under the title, “Pontifical - Decorations,” as they were reorganized by Pope Pius X. In the same - volume (pp. 324-26) a correspondent criticized the Pope for being - “exceedingly lavish in his bestowal” of knighthood and other such - honors and he felt that the spirit of a republican community “is - entirely against their bestowal.” Three years later (“Roman Curial - Honors and American Republican Sentiment,” _AER_, XLII [1910], - 341-44), another (or the same?) correspondent expressed the - conviction that the Papal appointments to “knights, marquises, - monsignori and the like ... are entirely out of place in America and - even contrary to the spirit of our people, if not also to the letter - of the Constitution.” In both cases the editor’s equivocal comment - left no doubt that he wished to run with the hares and hold with the - hounds, and his statement that “such decorations as go with these - titles are of much the same character as the secret society emblems - and titles used in our numerous American fraternities” was, if not - startling, at least amusing. - -[2]Pio Paschini, “Ordini Equestri,” _Enciclopedia Cattolica_, IX, col. - 252. - -[3]Cf. Wm. F. Stadelman, “The Royal Order of the Saint Esprit” (_AER_, - LIV [1916], 641-61). There was an older Order of the Holy Ghost, - established in Naples in 1352 by Louis of Taranto, but it hardly - survived the death of its founder. Cf. Stadelman, “The Knights of - the Holy Ghost of the Good Intention” (_AER_, LIV [1914], 652-69). - -[4]F. Giraud, _Le Bienheureux Gérard_ (Aix, 1919); Carlo Guarmani, _Gli - Italiani in Terra Santa, reminiscenze e ricerche storiche_ (Bologna, - 1872), pp. 28-29. E. J. King, _The Knights Hospitallers in the Holy - Land_ (London: Methuen, 1939, p. 20), says that the theory that - Gerard’s surname was Tonce or that he hailed from Tonco is based on - “the error of some copyist of a Latin text, who seeing the words - ‘Gerardus tunc’ mistook the adverb for a surname.” - -[5]See C. Fedeli, _L’ordine di Malta e le scienze mediche_ (Pisa, 1913); - Hans Karl von Zwehl, _Ueber die Caritas im Johanniter-Malteser Orden - seit seiner Gründung_ (Essen: Fredebeul und Koenen, 1929); Edgar - Erskine Hume, _Medieval Work of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John - of Jerusalem_ (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1940). - -[6]For a description of the provincial organization of the Hospitallers - see Elizabeth Wheeler Schermerhorn, _On the Trail of the - Eight-pointed Cross_ (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1940). - -[7]A. Bosio, _Les vies des Saints de l’Ordre de St. Jean de Jéruzalem_ - (Paris: Baudoin, 1631); Mathieu de Goussancourt, _Martyrologe des - Chevaliers de St. Jean, dits de Malte_, 2 vols. (Paris: F. Noel, - 1643). - -[8]E. Rossi, _Riassunto storico del S. M. Ordine San Giovanni in - Gerusalemme, di Rodi e di Malta_ (Rome, 1926); C. Bottarelli-M. - Monterisi, _Storia politica e militare del Sovrano Ordine di S. - Giovanni di Gerusalemme_, 2 Vols. (Milan, 1940); Giacomo C. Bascapé, - “Historic Summary of the Sovereign Military Order of St. John of - Jerusalem and Malta,” in: _The Official General Roll of the Grand - Magistery_ (Milan: Ciarrocca, 1949), pp. 17-61. - -[9]For this period see Edwin J. King, _The Knights Hospitallers in the - Holy Land_ (London: Methuen, 1930). - -[10]Hans Prutz, “Die Anfänge der Hospitaler auf Rhodes,” - _Sitzungsbericht der Königlichen Bayerischen Akademie der - Wissenschaften_, Jg. 1908, Abh. 1. - -[11]Giacomo C. Bascapé, _L’ordine Sovrano di Malta e gli Ordini Equestri - della Chiesa nella storia e nel diritto_ (Milan, 1941). - -[12]Michel de Pierredon, _Histoire politique de l’Ordre Souverain des - Hospitaliers de Saint-Jean de Jéruzalem, dit de Malta, depuis la - chute de Malte jusqu’à nos jours_ (Poitiers: Imprimérie du Poiton, - 1926). - -[13]E. Nasalli Rocca di Corneliano, “Lineamenti dell’organizzazione - regionale e della funzione assistenziale dell’Ordine,” in: _Studi in - onore di C. Calisse_ (Milan, 1939). - -[14]For an excellent survey in five languages of the division, degrees, - emblems and uniforms of the order see Rudolf Prokopowski, _Ordre - Souverain et Militaire Jéroselymitain de Malte_ (Vatican City: - Éditions “Ecclesia,” 1950). - -[15]See for membership of the order: _The Official General Roll of the - Grand Magistery_ (Milan: Ciarrocca, 1949). - -[16]A. Visconti, “La sovranità dell’Ordine di Malta nel diritto - italiano,” _Rivista di diritto privato_, VI (1936), 195-205. - -[17]_AAS_, XXXV (1953), 765-67. - -[18]_Codex juris canonici_, can. 4 and 5; can. 25-30; can. 63-79. - -[19]One of the most extensive collections in the United States dealing - with the Knights of Malta is to be found in the Library of The - Catholic University of America. The collection was assembled by Mr. - Foster Stearns who in 1955 entrusted it to The Catholic University. - The Library has prepared a catalog classifying the 281 titles which - include imprints from 1480 to the present day. - -[20]For the history of the Teutonic Order, see Arbogast Reiterer, O.T., - _Das Deutsche Kreuz, Geschichte des Deutschen Ritterorders_ (Graz, - 1922). - -[21]E. Joachim, _Die Politik des letzten Hochmeisters in Preuszen, - Albrecht van Brandenburg_, 3 Vols. (Publikationen aus dem K. - Preuszichen Staatsarchive, 1892-1895). - -[22]M. Guillamas, _De los Ordenes militares de Calatrava, Santiago, - Alcantara y Montesa_ (Madrid, 1852). - -[23]An interesting account on the vows and obligations of the Spanish - Military Orders can be found in: Alonso Peñafiel y Araugo, - _Obligaciones y excellentias de los tres ordenes militares Santiago, - Calatrava y Alcantara_ (Madrid: Diego Dias de la Carrera, - 1643)—Microfilm in the Library of Congress. - -[24]_AAS_, XXXV (1953), 625-56. - -[25]Guido A. Quarti, _I Cavalieri del Santo Sepulcro di Gerusalemme_ - (Milano: Enrico Gualdoni, s.d.). - -[26]Pierre Verduc, _La vie du bienheureux Théodore de Celles, - restaurateur du très-ancien ordre canonial militaire et hospitalier - de Ste-Croix_ (Périgneux, 1681), pp. 40-42; 79-101; Odoardo - Fialetti, _Degli habiti delle religioni con le armi e breve - descrizione loro_ (Venezia, 1626). - -[27]_ASS_, XL (1907), 324-25. - -[28]_Statuto dell Ordine Equestre del Santo Sepolcro de Gerusalemme_ - (Rome: Tipografia Poliglotta Vaticana, 1950). - -[29]Albert de Mauroy, _La croix de Jérusalem et son origine_ (Rome, - 1914). - -[30]_A.S.S._, XXXVII (1904-1905), 565-71. - -[31]_Pii P.M. IX Acta_, I, 1, (Rome, 1854), 43-45. - -[32]F. Guigue de Champvans de Farémont, _Histoire et législation des - ordres de chevalerie, marques d’honneur et médailles du Saint-Siège_ - (Paris, 1932); M. Gorino, _Causa, titoli nobiliari e Ordini equestri - pontifici_ (Turin, 1933); S. Felice y Quadremy, _Ordenes de - Caballeria Pontificias_ (Mallorca, 1950). - -[33]Cf. G. Mollat, _Les Papes d’Avignon_, 9th ed. (Paris, 1950), pp. - 562-65. - -[34]According to a tradition among Free Masons, a number of French - Templars went into hiding and formed a lodge of masonry. - -[35]_Bullarium Romanum_, IV (Rome, 1644), 277-84. - -[36]_Acta Gregorii PP., XVI_, III (Rome, 1903), 178-80. - -[37]_Annuario Pontificio_ (1954), p. 998. - -[38]_A.A.S._, XXXII (1940), 41. - -[39]_Notificatio Cancellariae Ordinum Equestrium_ (_A.S.S._, XXXVII - [1905]), 565. - -[40]_Acta Leonis XIII_, VIII (1889), 259. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ecclesiastical Orders of Knighthood, by -James Van der Veldt - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD *** - -***** This file should be named 61799-0.txt or 61799-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/1/7/9/61799/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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