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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..292b5be --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #61433 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/61433) diff --git a/old/61433-0.txt b/old/61433-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1c7b2f6..0000000 --- a/old/61433-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2532 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Mammals of Mount McKinley National Park, by Adolph Murie - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Mammals of Mount McKinley National Park - -Author: Adolph Murie - -Illustrator: Olaus Murie - -Release Date: February 17, 2020 [EBook #61433] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAMMALS OF MOUNT MCKINLEY *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - MAMMALS OF MOUNT McKINLEY - NATIONAL PARK - ALASKA - - - by - Adolph Murie - - Sketches by Olaus Murie - - Photographs by Charles J. Ott - - [Illustration: Mount McKinley Natural History Association] - - Published by the - Mount McKinley Natural History Association - - [Illustration: NATIONAL PARK SERVICE] - - Published in cooperation with the - National Park Service - - - Copyright August, 1962 by - Mount McKinley Natural History Association - - Printed in U.S.A. - Pisani Printing Company, San Francisco - - - - - CONTENTS - - - Denali Wilderness 1 - Introduction 3 - Grizzly Bear 7 - Black Bear 11 - Caribou 11 - Moose 15 - Dall Sheep 17 - Mountain goat 20 - Wolf 21 - Coyote 22 - Red fox 24 - Lynx 26 - Wolverine 27 - Marten 29 - Mink 30 - River Otter 31 - Short-tailed weasel 31 - Least weasel 33 - Snowshoe rabbit 33 - Collared Pika 35 - Hoary marmot 37 - Arctic ground squirrel 39 - Red squirrel 40 - Northern flying squirrel 43 - Porcupine 43 - Beaver 47 - Muskrat 49 - Shrews 50 - Bat 52 - The Mouse World 52-54 - Hay mouse - Brown lemming - Bog lemming - Chestnut-cheeked vole - Tundra vole - Meadow vole - Red-backed mouse - Checklist of Mammals of Mount McKinley National Park 56 - - [Illustration: Caribou migrating from summer range.] - - - - - Denali Wilderness - - -The national park idea represents a far-reaching cultural achievement, -for here we raise our thoughts above the average, and enter a sphere in -which the intangible values of the human heart and spirit take -precedence. Mingled with the landscape of McKinley Park is the spirit of -the primeval. The region is dedicated to the preservation of wilderness. -Here we try to refrain from the coarser uses of nature legitimate -elsewhere. - -All the plants and animals enjoy a natural and normal life without human -restrictions. Freedom prevails—the foxes are free to dig burrows where -they will; to hunt ptarmigan, ground squirrels and mice as the spirit -moves; and they share in the ownership of the blueberry and crowberry -patches. The grizzlies wander over their ancestral home unmolested; dig -roots and ground squirrels, graze grass, and harvest berries according -to whatever menu appeals to them. The “bad” wolf seeks an honest living -as of yore; he is a respected citizen, morally on a par with everyone -else. His hunting of mice, ground squirrels, caribou and Dall sheep is -his way of life and he has the freedom to follow it. No species of plant -is favored above the rest, and they grow together, quietly competing, or -living in adjusted composure. Our task is to perpetuate this freedom and -purity of nature, this ebb and flow of life—first, by insuring ample -park boundaries so that the region is large enough to maintain the -natural relationships, and secondly, to hold man’s intrusions to the -minimum. - -Most of us feel with Thoreau that “The wilderness is near as well as -dear to every man.” We come to McKinley to watch; to catch a glimpse of -the primeval. We come close to the tundra flowers, the lichens, and the -animal life. Each of us will take some inspiration home; a touch of the -tundra will enter our lives—and, deep inside, make of us all poets and -kindred spirits. - -Our national parks, here in the north, are set aside, not only for -Alaskans, or for Americans, but for all humanity. To preserve the -delicate charm and the wildness of the region our thoughts must be -guided by a morality encompassing the spiritual welfare of the universe. - - [Illustration: Tundra in the foreground and on the far side of - Thorofare Bar. Muldrow Glacier shows at the foot of Mount McKinley.] - - - - - Introduction - - - [Illustration: Bear and cub.] - -The Mount McKinley region was set aside as a National Park in 1917. The -foresighted conservationists who advocated National Park status for this -country were activated chiefly by their desire to preserve the flora and -fauna in its pristine condition. An effort was made to give the park -ample boundaries, but desirable extensions were later made, and it is -possible that in the future additional adjustments will be desirable -from the standpoint of assuring a self-sustaining ecological unit. - -A drive from the Nenana River, the eastern boundary, to Wonder Lake, -some 90 miles to the west and directly north of Mount McKinley, is -always a fresh adventure. No two days are the same. One day we may see -more grizzlies than usual; on another trip we may be especially -fortunate and catch sight of a wolf or a wolverine. It is desirable to -drive slowly and to stop occasionally to examine the landscape for -animal life—the mountains for Dall sheep, the river bars and passes for -grizzlies and caribou, and the water, for birds, beaver, or moose. - -Some of the birds to be seen along the way are the ptarmigan—willow -ptarmigan in the low country, rock ptarmigan on the high passes (the -white-tailed are confined to higher elevations and probably will not be -seen)—the long-tailed jaegers, the whimbrel (Hudsonian curlew), golden -plovers, short-billed gulls, golden eagles, and several kinds of ducks. -Ornithologists will be especially interested in seeing such asiatic -birds as the wheatear and the willow warbler. - -Much of the park is treeless tundra, but strips of woods follow the -rivers far into the park, and patches grow here and there on the -adjacent mountain slopes. Timberline varies according to soil and -exposure; in places it reaches elevations of over 3,500 feet. - -White spruce is the common conifer. Black spruce is confined to poorly -drained and boggy areas. Along the north boundary I have seen a few -patches of tamarack. Cottonwood and aspen are widely distributed and a -few tree birches grow at lower elevations. Along the McKinley River an -extensive strip of cottonwoods may be seen from the highway. - -The tundra supports a growth of willow and dwarf birch. Over twenty -kinds of willow occur in the park. They range in size from small forms -only 2 or 3 inches in height, to brushy growths 20 feet tall. In places -the small willows may grow dense enough to form a sod. These shrubs are -highly important for wildlife. Alder brush is widely distributed and -plentiful on canyon slopes; near Wonder Lake there are many clumps of -alder in the rolling tundra. - -The low ground cover over the park consists of mosses, lichens, sedges, -grasses, horsetails, and herbaceous plants—many species of each. Early -flowers may begin blooming in late April and early May, and at the -higher elevations some blooms may be seen in late summer. - -The annual berry crop is bounteous and is an important source of food -for a host of birds and mammals. Even the mountain sheep have been found -enjoying the blueberries. Blueberry, crowberry, cranberry, buffaloberry, -and alpine bearberry are all widely distributed. The berries begin to -ripen in late July. - -With the melting of the snow in the spring, the white landscape of -winter is transformed into a brown countryside—brown grasses, sedges, -and leafless shrubbery. Snow fields still persist on the mountain -slopes, and the spruces are dark green, but brown hues seem to dominate -one’s impression of the tundra at this time. In June—the time varies a -little with the year—the landscape is magically transformed from a dull -brown to the brightest green. Early in August spots of red and yellow -colors begin to show. By late August and early September the country is -again transformed and we have a world of crimson and other shades of -red, trimmed with yellow and gold of willow, aspen, and cottonwood. The -alders add contrast for they remain summer-green throughout the autumn -color season. - -Over much of the country the ground remains frozen below a depth of a -few feet. In some shaded areas where the ground is deeply carpeted with -moss the soil remains frozen within less than 2 feet of the surface. The -continuous thawing of the soil in summer keeps the surface moist until -autumn. The thawed surface soil tends in places to creep imperceptibly -down slopes as it becomes water-soaked, even though plant life has a -strong stabilizing influence. Occasionally the soil becomes saturated -with moisture to considerable depths and we have rather large land -slides such as the one that recently formed Slide Lake on Stony Creek; -the one that shows prominently on the south slope of Sable Mountain; and -one to the south of the road at about 3-Mile that caused spruces to lean -in various directions. Thawed, water-logged surface soil rests uneasily -on the frozen sub-stratum. - - [Illustration: Typical glacial stream. Grizzlies and caribou may - often be seen in the streambed and Dall sheep on the mountain - slopes.] - -A number of parallel, northward-flowing streams head in glaciers lying -along the north slope of the Alaska Range. The streams are not -large—most of them can be waded without getting too wet—so it is -surprising to find them bordered by wide gravel bars. This is due to -lack of stream stabilization. In summer the streams carry a load of silt -which may be dropped along the way. Channels are continually being -gouged out here and filled in somewhere else so that the stream keeps -breaking over its sides and forming additional channels. High water, due -to a warm day and much glacier melting, or to heavy rains, may cause the -streams to flow into entirely new channels. When the main stream reaches -the side of the gravel bar it will erode the bank and thus broaden the -river bar. This type of erosion is noticeable just below the Teklanika -bridge. Gravel bars that have not been invaded for a long period may -become covered with vegetation, and it is on some of these old bars that -we often see grizzlies digging roots in the spring of the year. But even -these bars are temporary. One such bar on the Toklat River was invaded -by part of the river a few years ago and much of the sod is being washed -away today. Physiographic processes are all very active in the region. -On many slopes we see the turf breaking away, and here and there a small -land slip. - - [Illustration: Typical ice blister.] - -Those who come to the park the early part of the summer may see -extensive fields of ice on the river bars. These are the result of what -is called overflow. During cold weather the ice on the streams freezes -so thick that there is not room for all of the water to pass under the -ice, and since it must run somewhere it develops pressure and breaks out -on the surface where it spreads widely underneath the snow. Here it -freezes. This process continues throughout the winter and often forms -ice patches many feet thick. When one is dog-mushing on rivers the -overflow water under the snow is a hazard before it freezes, and the -driver of a dogteam must watch to avoid such spots. Conditions are worst -during the coldest weather, at a time when a wetting is most serious. - -Out in the park there are no trails except for one down Savage Canyon. -The country is so open that trails are not needed. The river bars -furnish excellent hiking, and even walking across the upland tundra is -easy. A number of campgrounds are located along the road between the -Nenana River and Wonder Lake. - -This booklet is made available as a quick reference pertaining to the -mammals in the park. The comments on each species are brief but perhaps -sufficient to suggest their status. Distances are deceiving so field -glasses should be used in searching the landscape for the larger animals -such as sheep, caribou, and bears. - - -Grizzly Bear -_Ursus horribilis_ - -The grizzly’s domain in the park extends from the glaciers at the heads -of the rivers, northward to the north boundary. The grizzly may be -discovered on an old river bar, on one of the low passes between the -rivers, or traveling high on a mountain slope. One of the favorite -haunts along the road is Sable Pass, where each summer one to four -females with cubs, along with a few lone or mated bears, take residence. - -Any bear seen out in the park is almost certain to be a grizzly because -the black bear is confined to the wooded low country along the east and -north boundaries. The hump on the shoulder and the dishfaced profile -(rather than almost straight, as in the black bear) are good field -characters. The general coloration varies from cream color (rare) to -straw color, brown, chocolate, and black. The legs are always blackish. -The fur fades considerably during the spring and summer. Hence, the new -coat, fully developed by autumn, is always darker, and gives the bear a -new, fresh look. One old male grizzly, not very fat, weighed 650 pounds. -The females are considerably smaller. Because of the long claws on the -forepaws, the track of the grizzly can be readily distinguished from -that of the black bear, whose forepaw claws are shorter and more curved. - -In the spring when grizzlies first come forth from their dens they seem -to do much wandering over the higher slopes. At this season I have noted -their tracks leading to the remains of sheep, caribou, and moose that -had succumbed during the winter. Usually the wolves, foxes, and -wolverines have long since feasted on the fleshy parts, but the bears -are happy to crush the bones that remain on the premises and thus obtain -a taste of the succulent marrow. - -The spring and early-summer food is chiefly the root of the peavine -(_Hedysarum alpinum americanum_) that flourishes on old vegetated river -bars and on many mountain slopes. Using both paws, with their long -claws, and straining backward with his body weight, chunks of sod are -turned over to expose the thick peavine roots. With delicate strokes, -his paws further expose the roots, which taste much like the garden -variety of pea. So extensive is the root-digging at times that an area -may look like a plowed field when the bear has finished. At this season, -because of these food habits, bears can often be seen on the open river -bars and on the ridge slopes. Cranberries and crowberries that have -wintered under the snow are often eaten in spring. - -In June, green vegetation becomes available and a drastic change of diet -results. The root digging is terminated for something better. A grass, -(_Arctagrostis latifolia_), with a stiff and juicy stalk, and growing in -swales and wettish areas, is a favorite. The bears also graze -extensively on horsetail (_Equisetum arvense_), mountain-sorrel (_Oxyria -digyna_), and the tall showy white saxifrage (_Boykinia richardsonii_). -A pea (_Oxytropis viscida_), growing abundantly far up the streams on -old river bars is extensively grazed. - -The grizzly is quite fastidious in his feeding on dock (_Rumex -fenestratus_). He severs the thick juicy stem with a bite and as he -chews, the large reddish seed head drops from his lips, neatly -discarded. - -The grizzlies continue grazing and chomping green grasses and herbs -until berry time when another major change of food habits takes place. -Some grazing still persists but now the bears turn wholeheartedly to -blueberries, crowberries, and the bitter scarlet buffaloberries, the -three species of berries most abundant and available. The lush berry of -alpine bearberry (_Arctous alpinus_), that ground-hugging woody plant -that colors patches of the landscape a brilliant scarlet in autumn, are -sometimes eaten, but not with any efficiency. The berry diet continues -through the autumn but at this season a few roots may again be sought. - -The bear belongs to the order _Carnivora_ and yet little mention has -been made of meat in the diet. He is perhaps, so to speak, a victim of -evolution and has had to adjust. As his mature size became ever larger -through eons of time, he became too slow to catch large herbivores such -as the caribou, and his large body required more sustenance than could -be secured by digging for mice and ground squirrels under usual -circumstances. Therefore he had to turn more and more to vegetation -which could be secured in quantity. This is not as drastic a change as -we might offhand suppose. It is one chiefly of degree, because we find -carnivores such as the fox and the marten turning to a berry diet for a -period, from choice. - -But it appears that the grizzly would like more meat than is generally -available. This I infer from the quantity he eats when he finds a -carcass and from the avidity with which bears of all kinds seek spawning -fish when available. The only animal that the grizzly consistently hunts -in the park is the ground squirrel, but a squirrel contributes only a -mouthful and its capture usually requires excessive time and energy. -Sometimes a squirrel is surprised and captured before it can disappear -in a burrow. But generally a squirrel is secured only after extensive -excavating which may involve as much as half an hour, and not -infrequently the bear, after much digging, fails to unearth his intended -victim. In years when meadow mice and lemmings are especially abundant, -bears may make their capture a project which contributes at least a -tasty diversion. Caribou and moose calves may occasionally be captured -when very young, but the season for this food is short. Occasionally -tidings come to a bear’s keen nose that carrion lies upwind, and the -lucky bear keeps gorging until only a few bones and patches of hide -remain. - -After feeding on a carcass the bear often covers it with sod and -vegetation. One fall at Stony Creek I watched a bear at a cache which -showed up as a dark mound surrounded by a dark circular area from which -the sod had been torn loose. For an hour the bear kept methodically -raking the surrounding area beyond. - - [Illustration: Grizzly bears digging for ground squirrels.] - -He was scraping the loose vegetation toward the cache, working leisurely -with one paw at a time. The loosened material was pushed toward the -cache as the work progressed. When I examined the area later, I noted a -circular patch, extending out 20 feet from all sides of the carcass, -that had been combed clean of loose vegetation. The bear finally lay -down on the cache to wait for digestion to create more space for this -rich fare. - -North of Wonder Lake a grizzly had similarly covered a caribou that a -hunter had left lying in the field. The bear was not at the cache, but -since most of the carcass was still intact, he probably was not far -away. I found some carcasses that were not covered with sod. A mother -and two yearlings at Polychrome Pass left a caribou carcass without -covering it and retired to some steep cliffs overlooking the area. The -following day they rested near the carcass, but still no effort was made -to cover it. - -Mating takes place in May, June and early July, and a pair remains -together for two or three weeks. I suspect that a male might look for a -second marriage following the termination of the first. One large -crippled male was successfully consorting with two females at the same -time, neither female objecting to the presence of the other—in fact, -both probably preferred it that way. - -The cubs are born in the hibernating den in midwinter, are 8 or 9 inches -long, and weigh less than 2 pounds at birth. The number of cubs in a -litter ordinarily varies from one to three, two being the most frequent. - -The cubs not only nurse throughout the first summer but to about the -same extent during their second summer abroad, when they are robust -yearlings. I had been surprised to find yearlings regularly nursing, but -it was a greater surprise to observe mother grizzlies nursing cubs over -2 years old, in their third summer abroad. The protracted nursing period -indicates a breeding interval of females with cubs, of three or more -years, since females followed by nursing yearlings have not been seen -consorting with a male. - -The dens used for hibernation are excavated by the grizzly if natural -caves are not available. A den is usually dug on a rather steep slope. -The entrance to one I examined was about 2 feet wide and a little less -than 2½ feet high. A tunnel 6 feet long led to the chamber which was -roughly 4 feet in diameter. Cinquefoil brush and grass had been used for -the bed. This den was still usable six years after it was dug. But -another den dug in October caved in the following summer. It lacked the -firm protective sod roof of the more durable den. - -Bears, like humans, enjoy a good back-scratching. Trees along a trail or -on some strategic point are much used, as shown by the rubbing signs and -the adhering hairs. If trees are not available, willow brush, a boulder -or a sod bank may be used. The corner of a log cabin is considered an -excellent surface. A pole lying on the ground is a fair substitute, and -where no structure is available and a bear feels itchy he may lie on the -ground with all four feet in the air, wriggling ludicrously with -excessive energy to do the job. - -Generally the grizzlies wander freely over the tundra. But they are not -averse to taking advantage of a convenient trail when they have a -definite destination. Trails that are much used by bears, such as we -sometimes find along the bank of a river or through a woods, show a -series of worn depressions. These depressions are due to the grizzlies’ -tendency to step in the same tracks. They no doubt have been formed by -the passage of many bears over a long period. Pieces of such bear trails -may be seen a half mile above Teklanika bridge and a short distance -below the bridge, on the west side of the river bar. - -The grizzly has survived in only a few states, more by accident than by -our planning for his future. In Alaska we have a great opportunity for -giving the grizzly and the rest of the fauna ample room for carrying on -their living in a natural, free manner. The grizzly needs extensive -wilderness country for his way of life, and wild country is also vital -for the highest development of human culture. If we provide for the -future of the grizzly, we at the same time provide wilderness for our -own needs. - - -Black Bear -_Euarctos americanus_ - -The black bear is widely distributed in Alaska. In the park it is -confined to the forested areas along the north and east boundaries. I -have occasionally seen one near the Nenana River and in the Wonder Lake -area I have seen them 3 or 4 miles north of the park feeding on -blueberries. - -Black bears may be black or brown, but those I have seen at McKinley -have all been of the black color phase. The black bear lacks the -pronounced shoulder hump of the grizzly. The tan muzzle is also -distinctive. Equipped with strong, curved claws, the black bear climbs -trees with surprising agility, a talent the grizzly seems to lack. - -The food habits of the black bear are similar to those of the grizzly, -but in general they spend more time turning over rocks and tearing apart -logs in search of insect life. They feed on herbs and grass, are fond of -berries, hunt mice and dig out ground squirrels, and are ever on the -alert for carrion. In the Rocky Mountains and on the West Coast, they -occasionally strip the bark from trunks of spruces, pines, and firs in -order to feed on the inner cambium layer. Along the coast of Alaska they -sometimes congregate to feed on spawning salmon. - -Where we have bears we have potential bear problems. Roadside feeding of -bears creates beggar bears—always dangerous. Allowing bears to obtain -food in cabins or camps demoralizes them, encourages them in a life of -plunder and general anti-human depredations—the usual outcome is damage -to humans and the death of the bears. A point of view generally -disregarded by all is the effect of garbage on the bears. No garbage -should be made available to bears anywhere for the simple reason that -such artificial food interferes with the natural feeding habits of bears -and their natural distribution, tending to congregate large numbers of -them in a limited area. Administrators and public alike must ever be -heedful of the problem. Clean campsites and proper garbage disposal are -desirable in this regard. - - -Caribou -_Rangifer arcticus stonei_ - -The caribou is a circumpolar deer adapted to life in the Arctic. Both -sexes carry antlers and even the calves grow a spike 6 or 8 inches long. -The cow’s antlers are small and branching; those of the old bull are -towering and picturesque, with a well-developed brow tine extending over -the nose from one or both antlers. As you see the caribou in his easy, -swinging trot, you will perhaps notice his big feet. The hoofs, rounded -and spreading, and the dew claws well developed, serve him as snowshoes -in winter, and as a broad support in the soft tundra. - - [Illustration: Caribou.] - -Each spring the caribou appear in faded, dun coats, their color pattern -gone, the long hair worn and frayed. Winter hardships are behind and the -sprouting, nutritious, vitamin-packed green forage is available—nature’s -restorative. On the hummocks the caribou are already finding the new -growth of sedge hidden by the old, leached, brown blades. As the winter -coat is shed, and the new black pelage shows in patches, the animals -have a moth-eaten look. - -In May and early June, the caribou that have wintered along the north -boundary of the park and northward to Lake Minchumina, move into the -park, continue eastward to the Teklanika and Sanctuary rivers, and cross -to the south side of the Alaska Range over the glaciers at the heads of -these rivers. At this time the bands are small, numbering from a few -individuals to one or two hundred. After feeding on the south side of -the range for 2 or 3 weeks, the caribou return en masse, usually in late -June or early July, but in 1960 about the middle of June. Herds -numbering one or two thousand are not unusual, and I have seen an -assemblage of four or five thousand. The herds cross Sable Pass and -travel parallel with the road to Muldrow Glacier. From there they may -strike northward or continue on westward. In August and September at -least a few caribou may be found especially in the Wonder Lake area. - -Caribou are inordinately fond of lichens which they eagerly feed upon at -all seasons. In summer they take advantage of the variety of foods -available and feed extensively on grasses, many herbaceous species, -willows, and lichens. Lichens are much sought in fall and winter, and in -these seasons grasses and sedges continue to be major foods. - -Caribou are plagued by warble flies and nostril flies throughout the -summer. These beelike insects cause the caribou great annoyance. The -warble fly lays eggs on the hair of the legs and underparts of the body. -The eggs soon hatch, the larvae penetrate the hide, and move to the back -region where they emerge as swollen larvae in the spring. The nostril -flies deposit living larvae in the nostrils. The larvae become lodged -back in the throat in a mass and the following spring are coughed out; -they pupate on the ground, and soon emerge as terrorizing flies. A -caribou may dash away in panic to escape a fly, then stop in a wet sedgy -depression and hold its nose close to the ground. Thus it may stand for -long periods if not attacked. On sunny days when the flies are very -active, the movement of the herds is drastically influenced. The large -herds may seek a high, breezy ridge, or a snowfield, to minimize the -attack. Commonly, one or two thousand on such days assemble in a compact -group on a broad gravel bar where they may stand all day. Should clouds -cover the sun, the herd disperses to feed, but again converges if the -sun reappears. - - [Illustration: A caribou bull.] - -By midsummer the old hair has been shed and the caribou are in a short -blackish coat that continues to grow. Not until September is this new -pelage fully developed. By then it has become a rich chocolate brown, -trimmed with white. The pattern is most striking in the old bulls. A -silvery cape covers the neck and part of the shoulders and forms a mane -on the throat. A white line extends back along the sides of the body, -and the belly is white. The blunt nose is tipped with white and an oval -white patch surrounds the tail. A white patch shows the location of the -upper gland on the hind legs. White anklets border each shiny black -hoof. The pattern is similar, but much more subdued in the cows and -younger bulls. - -The magnificent antlers of the old bulls have hardened by late August. -The velvet covering them during their growth is now rubbed off with a -vigor suggesting the oncoming rut. At first the white antlers are often -stained pinkish by the blood in the velvet. Continued rubbing on the -brush removes the pinkish color and the antlers develop to a rich brown. - -The bulls begin to spar soon after rubbing off the velvet. Even before -serious fighting occurs, a bull may show his superiority to some of his -companions. At this time two strange bulls do not hesitate to approach -each other and, with no preliminaries, join antlers and try to drive -each other back. These early fights are brief and on a more or less -friendly basis. A sharp prong may cause a bull to pull away and be -unwilling to resume sparring. But later, when a bull has acquired cows, -up to a dozen or two, he herds them constantly, and fights all -challengers. - -The single reddish calf is generally born in May. His strength and speed -develop rapidly so that he is soon able to follow the herds in their -hurried travels. By autumn he has acquired a coat similar to that of the -adults. - -A close relationship exists between the caribou and the wolf, one that -has prevailed for thousands of years. Although the wolf largely subsists -on caribou over much of the north, natural adjustments have prevailed so -that caribou have prospered in the presence of wolf populations. Wolves -prey extensively on caribou calves in spring. When a wolf takes after a -herd of caribou containing calves, both old and young hold their own for -a time. But soon a calf may begin to fall behind the racing herd, its -endurance not quite up to that of the others. It is overtaken and -eliminated. Natural selection has operated, a culling operation that -over eons of time would seem to have evolutionary significance. - -Grizzly bears capture a few very young calves. Encouraged by their -early-season success they continue chasing calves long after the calves -have gained strength and speed enough to readily escape. After a few -failures, I suspect that a grizzly learns that the calf-catching season -has passed and is no longer tempted to gallop ponderously and -fruitlessly with excess power but not sufficient fleetness to capture -fleeing calves. - - -Moose -_Alces alces gigas_ - -The northern conifer forest, stretching across the continent, is the -home of the moose. In Alaska he has reached his greatest size. A mature -bull weighs 12 to 15 hundred pounds, and his huge, palmate antlers have -reached a record spread of about 80 inches. - -At a distance the moose appears to be black except for his long, -light-colored stockings. The large head is supported on a short neck, a -shoulder hump is prominent, the nose is loose and bulbous. A special -feature is the bell that hangs from the throat. The legs are -inordinately long and the hoofs sharp. - -Moose may be discovered anywhere along the park road. They are -frequently to be seen between Savage and Sanctuary rivers, and along -Igloo Creek. In the Igloo Creek area three or four old bulls may -generally be found spending the summer together, their daily movements -usually covering about a half-mile or less. We speak of the moose as a -forest animal, but it is often found the year round in willow brush -beyond timber. It is not uncommon to see moose in the willows on the -treeless passes such as Sable and Polychrome. - -The principal food of the moose is browse. In summer the leaves are -stripped from the branches; at other seasons the twigs are eaten. -Willows and dwarf birch are the chief browse species in the park. Aspens -and cottonwoods are relished but are not plentiful enough to be very -important. Alder is generally eaten only sparingly in winter. Farther -south over the moose’s range, firs and hemlock are highly palatable in -winter. The long legs enable the moose to reach high in his browsing. It -is not unusual to find winter browsing sign 12 feet or more from the -ground where the moose have stood on snow to feed. Tall willow brush and -aspen saplings are often broken over in order to get at the twigs out of -reach. The muzzle may be used for this, or the limb may be grasped in -the mouth and pulled down. Many broken willows are evident on the bars -along Igloo Creek. - -The long legs and short neck make grazing difficult. In Wyoming I once -saw a cow and calf feeding on mushrooms, a delicacy. Reaching the ground -was not easy—the calf dropped to his knees, and the cow was for part of -the time down on one knee. - -In summer moose may be seen in lakes and ponds feeding on submerged -vegetation. Where the water is deep the moose may disappear below the -surface in his feeding. - - [Illustration: Bull moose in a snowstorm.] - - [Illustration: Yearling moose.] - -Rutting activities begin by the first of September and continue into -October. The antlers of the bulls have reached full size and hardened by -the end of August, at which time the bulls begin to rub off the velvet, -the skin that has covered the growing antlers. Saplings and brush are -thrashed with great vigor, and this activity continues long after the -antlers have been cleaned. Apparently it serves as one of the outlets -for the strong rutting emotions. The bulls soon begin to spar and to -determine who is boss over whom. And they begin to seek the cows. A -successful bull usually has but a single cow, and he follows her closely -as she moves about in her feeding. During the rut he utters at intervals -a deep grunt. The cow, apparently when in an emotional state, utters a -drawn-out wailing call. - -The one or two calves are generally born in late May or early June. They -are reddish without spots. The mother must sometimes protect her calf -from prowling grizzlies and this she generally seems fully capable of -doing, judging from incidents in which the bear is chased away by an -infuriated mother. A large male grizzly, however, is apparently not -easily discouraged. By autumn the calves have made a surprising growth -and have a new coat that resembles that of the adults. They remain with -the mother until near the time for a new calf, when she no longer -tolerates their presence. - -The moose is a wilderness animal, requiring for his haunts big country. -The picturesque bull, silhouetted on a hill or on a lake shore, adds -repose and serenity to the wilderness. - - -Dall Sheep -_Ovis dalli_ - -The Dall or white sheep is one of the outstanding wildlife features of -the park. The north side of the greater part of the Alaska Range is -excellent sheep habitat. Within the park the most extensive sheep -country extends from the Nenana River to the Muldrow glacier, a distance -of about 70 miles by road. - -Most of the sheep spend the winter north of the road. This is favorable -winter range because the snowfall is relatively light and strong winds -keep the exposed ridges free of snow. - -Many sheep remain on the winter range all year, but more of them migrate -toward the heads of the rivers in May and June. In making the migration, -the sheep must in places cross 2 or 3 miles of low country. They are -fully aware of their vulnerability to grizzlies and wolves in these -crossings. Before venturing away from a safe take-off ridge, they may -scrutinize the low country for a day or two, until they feel that no -danger lurks along the way. A band of 60 or 70 sheep may move across -slowly in a rather compact group; at other times urgency replaces -caution and they frequently break into a hurried gallop. Having reached -the safety of rough country again, the sheep may gambol about as though -the weight of tension has suddenly been lifted. The return migration is -made in August and September. - -The large amber-colored horns of the rams with transverse ridges and -sweeping outward curl have a rugged, graceful beauty. They may spread -widely at the tips or curl rather close to the head. The ewes are less -imposing. Their horns are slender spikes that extend upward in a slight -curve, resembling those of the mountain goat but they lack the shiny jet -black color and are not as sharp. The horns are never shed and continue -to grow throughout the sheep’s life span of 11 to 14 years. The growth -is slight during the later years. Growth takes place during the summer -when food is highly nutritious. In winter only a groove or ridge -encircling the horn is formed. By counting these annual rings the age of -a sheep can be determined. - -For detecting danger the sheep depend on their sharp eyes. They appear -to disregard scent which for many animals is the final decisive word on -any situation. But this seems quite logical, because the sheep generally -have a strategic view, and in the varying air currents no dependence can -be placed on getting scent messages. Noises are considered rather -unimportant unless the sheep have already caught a glimpse of movement -nearby. - -To approach sheep for photography it is usually best to move slowly -toward them from below with no attempt to hide. They at once become -suspicious if they glimpse someone stalking. However, I have at times -stalked sheep where the opportunity for undetected close observation was -obvious. On one occasion, from a ragged rocky ridge top, I spent most of -an afternoon watching a band of rams some 50 yards away without being -discovered. Some bands are wilder than others and the same band does not -always behave uniformly. A band that has rested and is ready to move may -take your approach as an excuse for a romp. - -The food of sheep consists of grasses, herbaceous species and browse, -chiefly willow. Scattered over the range are a number of salt licks -which the sheep seek for minerals. - -The most active mating period extends from about the middle of November -to the middle of December. The rams who have been fraternizing on -friendly terms for many months, now and then showing mating behavior -such as gentle joustings, begin to take greater notice of the ewes. The -old rams continue to associate, but now serious battling takes place. -The fighting follows rather uniform conventional rules. The two matched -battlers move apart several yards, then, as though by a signal, they -turn and face each other and at the same time rise up on their hind -legs, then charge full speed at each other, their horns crashing -together with a loud thud. If the joust is even, they may repeat the -performance until the superiority of one of the combatants is evident. -But there is some tolerance among the rams, for two or more may breed -with ewes in a band indiscriminately. - -The numbers of sheep on a range under natural conditions may vary -considerably. In the park, a very high population, possibly as high as -5,000 or more, suffered severe losses during 1929 and again in 1932, due -to extremely deep snow conditions, and an icy crust in the latter year. -In 1945 the population was down to about 500. Since 1945 there has been -a steady increase. The numbers in 1959 were up to about 2,000. - - [Illustration: Dall sheep; rams on the Alaska Range in summer.] - -Sheep are subject to wolf predation, especially when the numbers are so -high that part of the population must graze on hills too gentle for -safety. Sheep legs are strong and sturdy but for their effective -functioning steep country is needed. The steep terrain is, so to speak, -part of their legs. In my studies in the park, the losses showed that it -was the very old, the ailing, and the lambs in their first winter that -were most vulnerable to predation. The lynx (when rabbit numbers have -crashed and these animals have become scarce), wolverine, and grizzly -may capture an occasional sheep but their effect is unimportant. The -golden eagle may capture an occasional young lamb, but all my -observations and food-habit studies indicate that any eagle predation -that takes place is insignificant. If the park is large enough to -support the sheep and their predators (natural conditions), we have a -situation ideal for the future of the sheep. - -Mountain sheep have a high esthetic appeal. In part this may be due to -their setting, for we associate them with their beautiful haunts, the -precipitous cliffs and ledges intermingled with green slopes spangled -with flowers. This is idyllic country in which to hike and climb. Here -we encounter the golden eagle who shares the ridge tops with the sheep; -the wheatear, who comes all the way from Asia to nest; the gray-crowned -rosy finches; the flashing black and white snowbirds nesting in rock -crevices; and the surfbird that has left the ocean beaches to nest in -these remote mountains. And up high, the saxifrages, delicate yellow -poppies, forget-me-nots and spring beauties add color to it all. - - -Mountain Goat -_Oreamnos kennedyi_ - -On May 27, 1955, a goat was discovered on Igloo Mountain on the slope -directly above the cabin I was occupying. It remained on the mountain -for 3 weeks before wandering away. It has not been seen since. This is -the only verified record for the park. But two road men reported seeing -a goat cross the road at Mile 3, on August 8, 1950. I believe this to be -a good record because both men are reliable observers. In the fall of -1950 a goat was shot at Cantwell, not far from the park boundary. - -The nearest known goat range is about 60 miles from the park in the -Talkeetna Mountains. The goats that reached the park may have been -sporadic wanderers for it is not unusual for goats to occasionally -wander 25 or 30 miles from their known ranges. On the other hand, it is -possible that the goats are expanding their range toward the park. In -1959, I was told that a band of a dozen goats had been reported at the -head of Jack River where they had not been reported before. Jack River -lies between the goat range and the park. - -Identification is not difficult. The goat’s horns are short, slightly -curved spikes, similar to the horns of the female sheep, but shiny black -and smooth rather than grayish and rugose. The goat’s chin whiskers are -identifying, as is the shoulder hump, and the knee length pantaloons of -long hair. Also the goat’s face is noticeably longer than that of sheep. -The goat sexes are similar. - -It is not unlikely that goats will continue to be occasionally seen in -the park. Any lone “sheep” might turn out to be a goat. - - [Illustration: Alaska wolf. - _From a color sketch by William J. Berry._] - - -Wolf -_Canis lupus pambasileus_ - -Wolves vary considerably in size and color. The average male weighs -about 100 pounds and the female somewhat less, about 85 pounds. Their -color may be almost white, black, gray, or brown. Most wolves in -interior Alaska are either black or brownish like a coyote. The facial -markings show some variation and there may occasionally be noticeable -patterns over the rest of the body. A few wolves have a blackish saddle; -one that I knew had a black robber-mask across the eyes. Individual -disposition and behavior also varies. A handsome male had an extra touch -of spirit in his gallop; a male parent had a dour expression and seemed, -to my imagination, weighted with care. Wolves raised in captivity from -puppyhood are extremely friendly. - -For a den, the wolf considers an enlarged fox burrow both convenient and -suitable. Dens have been found in a variety of situations. One was -located on a wooded rock bluff, another was beyond timber near the top -of a bluff bordering a river, and one was on a wooded island between old -river channels. The four to six young, probably the average size of -litter, are born the early part of May. The mother remains at home with -the pups and the male provides the victuals. - -At one den that I observed closely there were two extra males and an -extra female with the pair. These wolves all fraternized in the most -friendly manner. Before departing for the night hunt, the five would -sometimes assemble in a close group, wag tails and frisk about, and -sitting on haunches sing in chorus. Later in the season this group of -five adults was joined by two additional males. - -The following year the same pair returned to the den. They were -accompanied by one of the extra males that had been at the den the -previous year. The extra female and one of the bachelors set up their -own housekeeping farther down the river. But when their pups were large -enough to travel, they all came up the river and joined the original -pair. Young and old combined added up to 15 wolves. This wolf pack was -composed of two pairs, an extra adult, and 10 pups. Some of the extra -wolves of the previous year were not seen—they may have been trapped or -poisoned beyond the park boundaries during the winter months. - -The wolf’s food varies with the seasons and the prey species available. -When voles and lemmings are plentiful, the wolves may spend hours in the -grass and sedge areas pouncing on them. During the summer months the -ground squirrel has at times been one of the more important food items. -Occasionally an unfortunate marmot is surprised and in years when -rabbits are plentiful, the snowshoe rabbit becomes a food source. I have -found remains of several porcupines eaten by wolves, the spine-covered -hide neatly inverted. - -But the wolf also, and primarily, feeds on the ungulates—the mountain -sheep, caribou, and moose. Under natural conditions the relationship -between the wolf and these prey species is old and tried. There is the -aphorism, “nothing in nature offends nature.” In the hunting of these -animals the wolf appears to be an evolutionary force in that there is a -tendency for the weaker individuals to succumb. - -In spring the wolf hunts the caribou calves, which early develop -surprising speed, so that when a wolf chases a group of caribou, the -calves race along with the adults. But after a time a weak calf, one not -up to the others in endurance, may begin to drop behind, and it is this -weak individual that is overtaken, an example of the elimination of the -weak, the survival of the fittest. In the winter hunting, the old and -weak animals are the most susceptible. It is a struggle, a testing for -all, but through the ages, the sheep, moose, and caribou have survived -and come down to us adapted to their particular way of life, with the -wolf as one of the environmental factors. - -At McKinley we have an opportunity to preserve a northern flora and -fauna. But the future of the wolf is precarious because the home range -of the park wolves extends beyond park boundaries into territory where -the wolf has no protection, where there is a bounty on his head. The -silencing of the longdrawn call of the wolf would be a tragic loss to -the human spirit. - - -Coyote -_Canis latrans incolatus_ - -So far as known, the coyote has always been rare out in the park. Along -the Nenana River, however, I frequently have heard his song. Here he -seems to find conditions more favorable for his way of life. Perhaps it -is the presence of the snowshoe rabbit in this low brushy country that -attracts him. - - [Illustration: Coyote.] - - [Illustration: Red fox.] - -The coyote weights about 25 pounds on the average. His color is brownish -with black-tipped hairs intermingled. Color variation in coyotes is so -slight it is not noticeable in the field; he does not have the black, -whitish and various color patterns that are present in the wolf. The -muzzle is long and pointed, ears well developed, eyes sharp. - -As a field biologist I have had an opportunity to observe coyotes in -many regions. In Yellowstone I made a 2-year study of its relationships -with other animals because it had been feared by some that he would -destroy the antelope, bighorn, and deer, if not controlled. The study -showed that the coyote there lived chiefly on meadow mice and pocket -gophers in summer, and carrion in winter, and that he had no harmful -effect on the large ungulates. - -On the San Carlos Indian Reservation in Arizona the coyote was blamed -for cattle losses. Here a study showed that the basic cause of losses -was over-use of the range and that where grazing was good all losses -were insignificant. Cattlemen are finding this true and are beginning to -appreciate the usefulness of the coyote as a curbing influence on rodent -depredations. In addition to a meat diet, which includes great -quantities of grasshoppers in season, the coyote feeds extensively on -fruit. On Isle Royale, in Lake Superior, I found it feeding on -sarsaparilla berries; in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, on silverberry and -quantities of haw; in Arizona, on manzanita and juniper berries, the -latter being the winter staff of life. - -The coyote is best known for his song, which in all its variations, -symbolizes the spirit of wildness and remote country. J. Frank Dobie in -his _The Voice of the Coyote_ expresses the sentiment of many when he -writes: “I confess to a sympathy for the coyote that has grown until it -lives in the deepest part of my nature.” - - -Red Fox -_Vulpes fulva alascensis_ - -The fabled red fox is abundant, widely distributed over the park and -frequently seen. Silver, cross, and red color phases, along with some -intermediate variants, are well represented, and two or three of these -types frequently show up in a single litter. The prominent white tip on -the tail distinguishes the fox from the coyote and wolf. - -Hundreds of dens are scattered over the countryside, many more than are -used in any one season. They are located indiscriminately in spruce -woods and out on the open tundra miles from the nearest tree. Each pair -has a selection of old dens to choose from, but often they occupy -favorite sites year after year. During a season, a family sometimes -moves from their first choice to a den nearby. The connecting burrows of -a den usually have 5 or 6 entrances and one I examined had 19. - -The young are born the early part of May. By June the blackish, -blue-eyed, chubby pups may be seen walking about clumsily. At this age -they are nursed in the open. One mother that I often watched almost -always nursed her five pups from a standing position. Only twice did I -see her lying on her side to nurse. As the pups grow they become slimmer -and the eyes turn brown and the coat color changes so that the different -color types can be identified. Although nursing seems to cease toward -the end of June, the cubs remain at the den into September. - -While the male travels far to hunt, the vixen remains at home to watch -over the pups. Most of the time she is curled up at the den or perhaps a -hundred yards away on a prominence. When she wishes to nurse the pups or -give them food, she puts her head in the mouth of a burrow and calls -softly “mmmmm,” “mmmmm.” If they do not come forth, she may go to -another entrance and call. But usually they respond at once. A sharp, -guttural “klung” has the opposite meaning; when the pups hear this -warning they scurry into a burrow. This command is often given after the -pups have nursed and the mother wants to go off a short distance to lie -down. - -The female exhibits extreme friendliness toward her mate. When he -returns to the den after an absence she greets him with tail-wagging, -face-licking and much wriggling of her body. He is less demonstrative -and acts tired, which he probably is after several hours of hunting. She -picks up his offerings—usually mice or ground squirrels—eats her fill -or, if not hungry, carries the booty to the burrows and calls to the -young. He moves off to one side to rest. She sometimes watches for his -return from various points. One evening a vixen impatiently moved from -one lookout to another for over 2 hours before the male arrived and -received her warm welcome. - -Mice and lemmings are the staple all-year food, but in summer the ground -squirrel may make up about half the diet. When snowshoe hares and -ptarmigan are plentiful, they become prominent in the diet. Carrion is -especially attractive in winter, and the fox attends carcasses and curls -up on the snow to wait until the wolves and wolverine have eaten. He -robs wolf and wolverine caches, and he sometimes has his own caches -robbed. - -In the latter part of July the foxes go berrying, for they are fond of -fruit. Blueberries and crowberries are everywhere available for the -picking. The berries are also eaten in winter sometimes, it is said, -quite extensively when mice are scarce. - -Foxes appear to be well able to take care of themselves. They can outrun -the grizzly, wolf, and wolverine. When the golden eagle swoops at him he -stands on watch with his bushy tail erect and straight as a ramrod. The -eagle dares not strike. - - -Lynx -_Lynx canadensis_ - -The lynx manner is one of independence, confidence and complacency. He -walks through the woods with dignity, looking neither right nor left. Of -course, he is not as oblivious as he appears to be. He may even stop to -watch you, but only briefly, and then he continues sedately on his way. - -His long legs are thicker than seem necessary to support the lean body, -but they are no doubt valuable for long jumps and pouncing. The large, -widespreading feet serve him well as snowshoes, and strong, curved claws -enable him to scramble readily up a tree. The eyes are startlingly big -and yellow and the throat ruff gives to the face a squarish look. Long, -glistening black tassels adorn the ears. The stub tail, about 4 inches -long and tipped with black, serves to register emotions. The winter fur -is soft and grayish, with few markings except for the facial pattern; -the summer coat is more tawny. - -Nature has bestowed on the lynx a snowshoe fixation so that he spends -his nights and days thinking and dreaming of rabbit dinners. So -dependent has he become on the rabbit for his main course that his -numbers flourish and wane in the wake of rabbit statistics. - -During the period between 1954 and 1956, when lynx were abundant in the -park, I made a study of their food habits by analyzing several hundred -lynx scats. In addition to rabbits, the lynx had fed considerably on -ptarmigan and in summer on ground squirrels. This part of the diet -increased as the rabbits decreased. But with the decline of the rabbits, -the supplemental foods did not suffice to maintain the population, and -the lynx became scarce. - - [Illustration: Lynx.] - -In the winter of 1907-08, Charles Sheldon noted two instances of lynx -preying on sheep. The rabbit population had crashed and the lynx had -turned to other sources for survival. One lynx that made its attack on a -sheep from ambush found the prey rather large, for in the ensuing -struggle he received some severe bruises. He apparently was driven to -hunting animals out of his class. About 2 years after rabbits -disappeared in the Kuskokwim River region a number of years ago, lynx -did some preying on reindeer in winter by leaping on their backs and -biting the neck. The lynx were said to have attacked the reindeer only -that one winter. During periods of food scarcity, lynx have also been -observed to prey on each other. - -The young are born in May in a cave, or perhaps more often, under a -windfall. The gestation period is about 60 days. - -In early June, 1955, I saw a lynx in the spruce woods near Savage River. -As I stood watching I heard crying sounds up in the woods. The lynx -disappeared in the direction of the crying. I followed and saw the -parent under a windfall as it was departing with a baby in its mouth, -the last of a litter it was moving. Snow and rain had fallen and the -mother was carrying her family, one by one, from under an inadequate -windfall to another about 250 yards away. The new home was under a -brushy spruce that provided a dry shelter in any kind of weather. So -well hidden and secure did the mother feel that she barely opened her -sleepy eyes even when approached within 20 feet. - -How empty the woods and willow patches become with the decline of the -rabbits and the departure of the lynx. It is like an empty stage after -the actors have finished their play and departed. Scattered through the -quiet woods are their signs of life and activity, but the action has -stopped. On the tall willows, 6 feet from the ground, is the gnawed -white rabbit-line, where rabbits had sat on the snow and gnawed the bark -within reach. In places the ground is littered with severed twigs, many -of them partially gnawed. And everywhere one encounters tufts of rabbit -fur and hind legs, left on the green moss, signifying rabbit tragedies -and lynx banquets. But the rabbits will return again to dance in the -moonlight, and the lynx will be back in his rich domain walking with -stately and regal step. - - -Wolverine -_Gulo hylaeus_ - -The fabulous wolverine is a powerful and picturesque member of the -weasel tribe weighing up to 35 pounds or more. Because of his stocky -build and long hair, he resembles a small bear. Frequently the large -hoary marmot is mistaken for him—there is considerable similarity. But -the broad yellowish-tan stripe on the sides of the body is distinctive. -A whitish collar, not always visible, extends across the throat. The -tail is short and bushy; the sharp, well-developed claws are whitish. -His range is circumpolar and extends southward in the mountains to -Colorado and California, but he is now scarce south of Canada. - -The wolverine in late years seems to have become more plentiful in the -park; nevertheless, it is always considered something special to see -one. They range from river bottom to ridge top, are found in the woods -or in open country miles beyond timber. Perhaps because of the open -view, he is frequently seen on the low passes, especially on Sable Pass. - -In winter the track of the far-wandering wolverine is frequently seen. -In his usual gait he bounces along with back arched. Each jump usually -leaves a set of three imprints; the one in front is made by a hind foot; -the middle imprint is made by a hind foot falling in the track of a -front foot; the rear imprint is made by the other front foot. As in the -tracks of a hopping rabbit, the hind feet tend to be brought up ahead of -the front feet. - -The wolverine readily climbs trees. One winter, near a moose carcass, -tracks in the snow showed that a wolf had chased a wolverine up a tree -on two or three occasions. If the two had met in the open the -threatening posture of the wolverine would, no doubt, be sufficient to -discourage attack. When attacked by a dog, a wolverine has been seen to -lie on its back in a defensive attitude, a position that was effective. -Powerful ripping claws and jaws face the attack. - -Not much quantitative information has been gathered on his food habits. -I have watched him pouncing on mice and suspect that mice (voles) and -lemmings are the most important items in his diet. In summer he captures -ground squirrels, sometimes by doing some digging. Once I noted that he -had dug out a wasp nest hidden in the ground. The calves of caribou and -moose, when very young, are no doubt potential victims. But observations -indicate that even a caribou can ward off an attack on the young calves. -Such items would, of course, be unimportant in the wolverine’s total -economy. His wide wanderings in winter would seem to be helpful in -finding carrion. In rich wild country, considerable carrion probably -comes his way. I have found the wolverine attending a frozen moose -carcass for a number of days. When a carcass is not frozen, he carries -away what he can to cache for later use. - -The gestation period is said to be about 9 months. The breeding -apparently takes place in summer. The fertilized eggs, after brief -development, lie unattached and dormant in the uterus for several -months. Some time in midwinter the eggs become attached to the wall of -the uterus and the more usual development takes place. (The marten and -short-tailed weasel have a similar breeding history.) Females have been -found in a nursing condition in early April. Along Igloo Creek, Mr. and -Mrs. Edwin C. Park watched a mother nurse two young at least two-thirds -grown. - - [Illustration: Wolverine.] - -According to Peter Krott, in his fascinating book about the wolverine in -Europe, this fierce animal makes a friendly pet. The author, in the -beginning, made a business of acquiring young wolverines for sale to -zoos. Because the animal was rare and intriguing, the demand was great -and the prices remunerative. But Mr. Krott and his wife became fond of -the wolverines and found it ever harder to dispose of them. Soon they -ceased selling them, and, instead, kept them as pets and allowed them to -roam freely over wild country. Studies were made of their habits. Their -wolverines might wander far and stay away for several days, but they -would return at intervals. - -The wolverine is at home in the McKinley wilderness. Here we have the -rare opportunity of seeing him in his natural environment. - - -Marten -_Martes americana actuosa_ - -The marten is long and lithe, and its graceful activity is conspicuous. -The usual color is a rich brown, shading to blackish on the feet and -tail. The face is grayish with a short, dark line extending upward from -the inner corner of each eye. A large orange throat and breast patch is -very striking in most individuals. The fur is soft and long, the tail is -long and well-furred, and serves to register various emotions. The -marten is alert to sounds and this is indicated by its well-developed, -broad ears. - -The body is 16 to 17 inches long, and the tail, including hair at tips, -8 or 9 inches. A large male may weigh up to 2½ pounds. The female is -somewhat smaller than the male. - -The marten is found in the forested parts of the park along the northern -and eastern boundary. In winter, I have noted a few tracks in the big -spruce woods south of Wonder Lake. In Wyoming, I have found martens in -rock slides beyond timber, the rock crevasses furnishing the desired -protection. - - [Illustration: Marten.] - -At one time the marten was thought to depend on the red squirrel for his -daily fare, but recent studies indicate that ordinarily relatively few -red squirrels are eaten. A food-habits study made at Castle Rocks near -the northwest corner of the park showed that the martens there were -living primarily on meadow voles and the red-backed mouse. Blueberries -were eaten in winter as well as in summer. In Wyoming, I have found -martens feeding extensively on blueberry, rhamnus, haw, and mountain -ashberries by choice at a time when voles and other foods were -plentiful. Like the fox and coyote, they have a strong predilection for -berries. In slide rock, they manage to capture an occasional pika. - -The marten breeds in July and August, but the young are not born until 9 -months later. The long gestation period for such a small animal is due -to the delayed attachment of the fertilized egg to the uterus. Except -for the period when the female is followed by young, and during the -breeding period, martens travel alone. - -In Grand Teton Park, Wyoming, where I had much opportunity to observe -martens, I found that, although they seldom captured a red squirrel, in -their vagabond life over their home area, they did use red squirrel -homes for sleeping. The marten might spend a few days resting in a -squirrel’s spare nest, then move on to another squirrel domicile for a -few days. The squirrels suffered only the inconvenience of an unwanted -guest, and perhaps the temporary loss of a favorite bed. - - -Mink -_Mustela vison ingens_ - -The mink is the amphibious member of the weasel family. He lives along -rivers and lakes and probably forages more in the water than on land. -Fish, frogs, insects, snails, crayfish, rabbits, muskrats, and mice all -appear on his bill of fare. In the country between the mouth of the -Yukon and the Kuskokwim River, the mink is said to subsist largely on -Alaska blackfish (_Dallia pectoralis_). So abundant were the mink in the -area that the Eskimo were called “mink people.” The muddy waters in this -watery region apparently supported enough blackfish for both the mink -and the natives. This fish is said to have been the chief food of the -natives. It is very tenacious of life. Kegs of live fish, packed -densely, were kept for food in the dwellings. A steady slow rotary -movement of the mass of fish brought each fish to the surface at -intervals for a gulp of air. When a frozen blackfish is thawed, it is -said to become as lively as ever. - -Mink tracks have been noted along the Nenana River, but over most of the -eastern half of the park the mink is rare. - - -River Otter -_Lutra canadensis yukonensis_ - -The otter is rare in the park. It was reported present in Wonder Lake -some years ago and tracks in the snow were reported at Savage River. It -probably occurs in the Nenana River, along the eastern park boundary. - -The otter, a member of the weasel family, has become adapted to life in -the water. His body is about 3 feet long, and his long muscular tail is -over a foot long. His cousin, the sea otter, plentiful in the Aleutian -Islands, is much larger and more specialized for an aquatic life. - -I have watched a family of otters in Grand Teton Park fishing for an -hour or longer. They kept diving steadily, and occasionally one would -come up with a small fish which he would proceed to eat, beginning at -the head. Larger fish are taken ashore. Trout, chubs, and suckers were -available but numerous droppings showed that the otter were feeding -chiefly on the chubs and suckers. The fish taken were no doubt those -most easily captured. A few crayfish were also eaten. This particular -family was living in a large beaver house also occupied by beavers. They -entered their chamber by land and apparently lived upstairs above the -beaver’s part of the house with its underwater entrance. - -In winter the otter frequently travels over the snow from one piece of -water to another. In these travels he slides on his belly down all -slopes and sometimes even on the level. In play, a family may repeatedly -climb a mudbank or a snowbank to course down a slide leading into water. - - -Short-Tailed Weasel -_Mustela erminea arctica_ - -Two species of weasel occur in the park. The larger one with a -black-tipped tail is called the short-tailed weasel, and the smaller one -with an extremely short and all-white tail is the least weasel. - -Both weasels are brown in summer and white in winter, a protective -coloration no doubt useful in escaping detection. In some southern parts -of their ranges these weasels remain brown all year, and in intermediate -areas part of the population turns white in winter and part of it -remains brown. It is apparent that climate has an effect on coat color, -the specific factor being the presence or absence of snow on the ground. - -It has been pointed out that the short-tailed weasel is much larger in -the north than in the southern part of the range. In Wyoming and -Colorado, where the tiny least weasel is absent, the short-tailed weasel -approaches the least weasel in size and probably fills that weasel’s -niche in the environment. - -The food of the short-tailed weasel probably consists chiefly of various -species of meadow mice and lemmings. Observations indicate that ground -squirrels and rabbits may occasionally be captured. Shrews no doubt are -also on the menu. - -In winter, weasel tracks form an odd pattern. Their jumps are -alternately long and short, and often they make an erratic trail. -Frequently the tracks show that the weasel disappears and travels -beneath the surface for a stretch before reappearing. - -Even though weasels are not very palatable because of their -well-developed musk glands, they nevertheless are often preyed upon. It -is a case of coyote or fox capturing any small animal that moves and -examining the victim afterwards. Weasels are often left uneaten. - - [Illustration: Short-tailed weasel.] - - -Least Weasel -_Mustela rixosa eskimo_ - -The range of the least weasel is circumpolar. In North America it is -found over most of Alaska and Canada, and southward to Montana, Kansas, -North Carolina. It is widely dispersed but apparently nowhere abundant. -This tiny weasel is only 6 to 6½ inches long with a maximum tail length -of 1½ inches. It is the smallest living member of the carnivores and -weighs no more than a meadow mouse. The tail is pure white, lacking the -black tip present in other weasels. - -I have a record of four specimens from the park. One captured in a -mousetrap was 5½ inches long, the tail measuring less than 1 inch. I -found a dead one at an eagle perch on a ridge top, and remains of two -others on gravel bars, apparently discarded after being captured. - -A sourdough on the Koyokuk River with whom my brother and I stayed one -night, had a least weasel spending the winter with him. It had the run -of the cabin and was very tame. - -Apparently the chief food of the least weasel is mice, some of them -about as large as himself. - - -Snowshoe Rabbit -_Lepus americanus macfarlani_ - -Like the ptarmigan and the northern weasel, the snowshoe rabbit, or -varying hare, each autumn changes from a dominantly brown summer coat to -a white winter ensemble. (In Washington where snow is scarce in its -habitat, the snowshoe rabbit remains brown the year round.) His coat -color blends at all seasons with his background, so all he need do to be -fairly sure of escaping visual detection is to have confidence in his -camouflage and sit motionless. The fur is so long, thick, and warm that -he can sit all day in fifty below zero weather without freezing. His -large hind legs are equipped with snowshoe feet, an obvious advantage in -snow country. - -The most favorable rabbit habitat is the brushy country along the east -and north boundaries. Here a few may always be found. Out in the park -they are quite scarce except in those years when the population is at or -near a peak. - -In winter, the rabbits feed on bark gnawed from various shrubs and -saplings. Willow, dwarf birch and alder, because of their high -palatability and abundance, are especially important winter foods. In -years of rabbit abundance, I have seen patches of willow and dwarf birch -trimmed to the snow line. At such times large willow brush may show a -white band 2 feet wide where the rabbits have gnawed the bark within -reach of the snow line. As the snow deepens, some foods are buried but -the change of level brings new food supplies within reach. A variety of -other shrubs are also eaten at this season. Spruce bark is relished. -Porcupines, and also red squirrels, feeding in a spruce tree -inadvertently add to the rabbit menu many dropped spruce twigs. In -summer, the rabbits turn to a variety of fresh green foods. - -The young of the snowshoe rabbit are furred and active when born and -apparently there is no real nest provided. (In the cottontail branch of -the family the young are born hairless, helpless and in a warm nest.) -The litters may vary from one to six. The gestation period is about 36 -days. The young are weaned (in captivity) when about 4 weeks old. The -females breed again soon after a litter is born. It seems likely that a -female may have as many as three or four litters during a summer. A male -is apparently with a female for only a short time. - -A number of animals are subject to cycles of extreme abundance and -scarcity. The pendulum swings from one extreme to the other. A -population, in spite of enemies of all kinds, increases until the -numbers become so large that they threaten the food supply or, because -of congestion, are drastically reduced by diseases. The length of cycle -in a species depends upon annual losses and the rate of increase. Cycles -are relatively short in voles and lemmings which breed at an early age -(a few weeks), breed often, and have large litters. In these small -rodents the cycle may cover a span of about 4 years. In larger species, -the cycles are longer. - -The snowshoe hare is one of the more obvious examples of a cyclic -species. From acute scarcity the population in about 10 years pyramids -until the country is full of rabbits. The woods are alive with a variety -of activity. Enterprise, lovemaking, and tragedy are at their peak. Not -only have the rabbits multiplied, but their enemies have flourished, and -the lynx, fox, wolverine and birds of prey have all prospered, and -certain enemies such as the lynx, become especially abundant. - -During the high rabbit population peak, between 1953 and 1955, a few -dead rabbits began to appear in the summer of 1954. In early August a -group of tourists on a short walk noted three dead rabbits in the hotel -area. But the rabbits were still numerous in the spring of 1955 and I -anticipated the woods alive with young rabbits the following months. -Instead, they decreased. By July, along Igloo Creek, they had become -scarce. The so-called rabbit crash had taken place. - -Nature steps into all situations, and one control or another -automatically appears. Food shortage, disease, predation or competition -enter the picture. Adjusting is a continuous process. Many people are -talking and writing about the human population explosion in our midst, -fearing that space for ourselves and nature is disappearing alarmingly. -Perhaps we should consider the snowshoe rabbit. - - [Illustration: Snowshoe rabbit, or varying hare.] - - -Collared Pika -_Ochotona collaris_ - -The pika, cony, or rock rabbit, as he is variously called, makes his -home in rock slides. His way of life, and his physical attributes, are -such, that he would have difficulty surviving away from the labyrinth of -passages in his slide rock home. - -The pika is in the same order (different family) as hares and rabbits. -Like rabbits, they have two pairs of upper incisors; back of the grooved -anterior incisors is a pair of very small incisors. The feet are furred; -the ears are not long but are rounded and prominent. Something has -happened to the external tail for there is none. The tail vertebrae lie -under the body skin. The plump body is about 6 or 7 inches long as the -cony sits on a rock; the color is gray. - - [Illustration: Collared pika (cony, rock rabbit)] - -The call is a single nasal “yank,” usually uttered while perched on a -rock where he can look around. He may be difficult to locate, but a -movement as he disappears in a crevice and reappears on the same rock or -one nearby will reveal him. Usually other calls from various parts of -the rock field will indicate the location of other pikas. - -The pika is known for his hay making in preparation for the long winter. -During much of the summer he is busy carrying grass, herbs, and twigs to -his many caches located in cavities protected from the weather. The -vegetation is usually added slowly enough to the various caches so that -it all cures properly. Only occasionally is a cache moldy. I have noted -a few caches composed of the broad, heavy coltsfoot leaves that had -failed to dry properly; possibly these slow-drying leaves were harvested -in wet weather. Nearly all plants within range of his rocky habitat are -used. Willow, rose, grass, sedge, horsetail, various saxifrages, -fireweed, coltsfoot, fruiticose and even crustose lichens are some of -the many plants that have been found in the caches. Some books say that -the hay is spread over rocks to dry and then stored. The pika’s -technique is superior to such quick drying, and results in more -nutritious and greener hay. - -The sheep, moose and caribou often seek mineral licks consisting of clay -which can be readily eaten. Ground squirrels and marmot feed on pebbles -or fine dust in their craving for minerals. On one occasion I watched a -pika gnawing a rock. A niche showed that a considerable amount of it had -been eaten. I carried the rock away as a sample of rock-eating but later -thought better of it and returned it to the pika. Perhaps in the future -I may be able to check the rock again. - -Along the road, the first good place to look for pikas is in the jumble -of rocks above the Savage River bridge, an accumulation that has fallen -away from a rocky point, part of which is still in place. On Polychrome -Pass are several rock fields where many pikas are living. Another pika -place along the road is a mile or two beyond Camp Eilson. A pretty -picture is a pika carrying a bouquet of flowers, neatly arranged, as -though he were going a-courting. - - -Hoary Marmot -_Marmota caligata_ - - [Illustration: Hoary marmot mother and young.] - -The hoary marmot is an amplified version of the eastern woodchuck. It is -roughly bicolor, being gray over the shoulder region and light brown -over the hips. The black patch across the nose enhances its facial -aspect somewhat, and the jet-black feet add a little contrast to its -appearance. He has a bushy tail that he jerks about a good deal, -especially when he travels. Occasionally, he is mistaken for a -wolverine. His soft color pattern is an excellent example of camouflage -and of this he apparently is aware as he flattens himself on a rock to -escape detection. - -His voice is exceptional. One day, some years ago, I walked down Savage -Canyon with two companions. One of them, who stopped to photograph some -flowers, was left far behind. When he finally overtook us he said that -he had heard us whistling and had hurried as best he could. We said we -had not whistled, but he was still sure he had heard us. Then it dawned -on me that he had been hearing the loud piercing, prolonged warning -whistles of the marmots that make their homes in the canyon. This -whistle is one of the familiar sounds in marmot country. The approach of -a fox, grizzly bear or golden eagle is announced by loud whistling which -alerts everyone, including ground squirrels and mountain sheep, to be on -their guard. - -One day three of us watched a youngish marmot high on a sheep ridge. He -was apprehensive and for a time whistled at intervals. When one of my -companions whistled in the same key, the marmot answered. But if the -imitation were off key there was no reply. The marmot responded as long -as our patience held. This instance may have been exceptional for I have -had no opportunity as yet to make additional observations. - -The marmot has learned to seek a home in a rock fortress as a safeguard -against being excavated by a grizzly. Whenever possible the dens are dug -in rocky areas, or at rock outcrops. One den on a steep slope that I -observed for several years was enlarged and renovated each year. The -small rocks encountered in the digging were carried out in the mouth and -dropped on the edge of the mound. In late summer, mouthfuls of dry grass -are carried in for the winter hibernating nest. One look at the broad, -fat marmot suggests that he could sleep a long time without food. When -he retires, he may plug the entrance with rocks and mud. - -The home life of the marmots has not been carefully studied but they -seem to live in colonies, all using a number of dens distributed as much -as 200 yards or more apart. I have seen several adults in a colony and -watched them move from one den to another. In traveling between some of -the dens the marmots are highly vulnerable if surprised by one of their -enemies. The attractive black-eyed young require two or more years to -gain the dimensions and weight of their elders. - -Two excellent places to find marmots along the highway are the jumbled -boulders on the east end of the Savage River bridge and in Polychrome -Pass, especially on a gray, lichen-covered rock below the road and the -rocky ridge across the ravine from it. If not active, the marmots may -generally be seen flattened out on a rock, basking in the sunshine. - -Some of the marmots in these places and also in remote areas are quite -tame. I walked practically alongside one big marmot as it fed in a patch -of mertensia. It gobbled up dozens of the big leaves and chewed them -down lustily and noisily, scarcely regarding my presence. Accustomed to -harmless mountain sheep and caribou, they sometimes apparently place -humans in the same category. - - -Arctic Ground Squirrel -_Citellus parryi ablusus_ - - [Illustration: Arctic ground squirrel at alert.] - -The most neighborly animals in the park are the ground squirrels. They -quickly become tame at cabins and campgrounds and eagerly stuff their -cheek pouches with hotcakes until their gulps become ludicrous with -excessive efforts to make room for one more mouthful. Leave a cabin door -ajar and the bread supply is soon being appropriated. - -Ground squirrels are always standing erect shouting worried warnings of -danger. Much of the time the cries seem to be only an outlet for -accumulated nervousness. But one learns to differentiate these cries -from those delivered in dead earnest. When extreme anxiety is -unmistakable, it pays to become alert. Their cries have often served to -call my attention to passing grizzlies, wolves, foxes, lynx and -low-flying eagles. And the whole wildlife community similarly benefits. -The message is relayed in all directions by ground squirrels in a sort -of chain reaction, but emphasis in delivery gradually decreases until -the message is lost. The cheery calls and sharp warnings of the ground -squirrels are for many of us, closely associated with the general flavor -and enchantment of the north country. - -The winter months are spent hibernating in a burrow, curled up in a -grass nest. A few squirrels remain active until the middle of October or -even later. In the spring some come forth in April. Where deep -snowfields cover the dens and it seems unlikely that much temperature -change could penetrate to the squirrels, they nevertheless awaken as -though provided with alarm clocks and tunnel to the surface. Their muddy -tracks radiate from each den over the snow as the squirrels seek exposed -forage. - -General observations indicate that the female has only one litter each -breeding season. The young do not reach adult size by the first autumn. -Year after year, the ground squirrel population in the park is high. Yet -no indication of cyclic behavior has been observed. Possibly their many -enemies prevent them from becoming superabundant and, therefore, subject -to epidemic disease. - -Ground squirrels are an important factor in the park ecology. They -furnish about 90 percent of the golden eagle’s diet, and in some -localities they are the chief food of the gyrfalcon. The wolf at times -feeds extensively on them, and they contribute heavily, sometimes 50 -percent, to the fox diet. The information available indicates that the -wolverine often captures them, and with the disappearance of the -rabbits, the lynx deigns to hunt them for a season. For the grizzly they -furnish his most dependable taste of meat. The bears spend many hours -excavating for ground squirrels. - - -Red Squirrel -_Tamiasciurus hudsonicus preblei_ - -The noisy red squirrel, with his churring, chattering, and -“sic-sic-ing,” lends a touch of the familiar to the northern woods. He -has followed the spruces along the rivers to timberline, and I saw one a -half-mile beyond timber, living perhaps temporarily, among the pikas in -tumbled rocks. They are generally plentiful, but in 1956 I found them -extremely scarce. A catastrophic die-off had apparently occurred in the -park, and that year the squirrels were also reported scarce in other -parts of Alaska. - -These northern squirrels have a spruce cone economy. Even before the -middle of August they are frantically harvesting spruce cones (chiefly -white spruce in the park). One afternoon a squirrel worked steadily in a -group of spruces for almost 3 hours, cutting cones and giving them a -flip with his mouth or paws. Hundreds were scattered about under the -trees, and still they continued to rain and strike the ground with dull -thuds. Occasionally the squirrel seemed to get his wires crossed and, -instead of dropping a cone, would run all the way down the trunk with -it. - -Sometimes twigs bearing a cluster of cones are nipped off. In two or -three sizeable caches all the cones were in clusters still attached to -twigs. Perhaps this rather efficient method of handling cones is at -times accentuated by certain individuals. - - [Illustration: Red squirrel.] - -In September I have seen many caches scattered about on the forest floor -as though piled hurriedly as a temporary expedient. One heap measured 5 -feet long, 3 feet wide and about 7 inches deep. Possibly these heaps -were later stored more carefully in secluded spots with the tips of the -cones pointed downward. After the cones are stored, the squirrels -continue to give them solicitous care. One spring when melting snow -exposed a cache of cones, they were re-cached in various places, but -each cone was first bitten into, and if spoiled was discarded. About the -same time another cache of cones in a burrow was also removed and stored -elsewhere. - -Another food item that is stored in quantity is the mushroom. Many are -placed on spruce branches where, if they do get wet, they will soon dry -out and remain edible, and I once found great quantities stored in a -cabin. - -Aside from the cached foods, the red squirrels feed extensively, at -least through the winter and spring, on the buds of spruce twigs. Often -you may find many twigs on the ground with the tiny buds neatly removed. -In Wyoming, I have found squirrels in summer living for days on the -larvae in cottonwood galls, and I suspect such food may be eaten in -Alaska too, where galls are found. - - [Illustration: Northern flying squirrel.] - -Each squirrel commonly has two or more nests built of grasses, shredded -bark, ptarmigan feathers, and hair of rabbits, moose or whatever is -available. The squirrel piles this material on a branch until it is 2 or -3 feet high. One squirrel that I watched building a nest pushed himself -into the middle of the heap. Soon the whole nest shook vigorously at -intervals. Apparently he was forming a chamber. - -The chatter of red squirrels, their piles of middens and their busy -harvesting activities, add cheer and life to the northern woods. - - -Northern Flying Squirrel -_Glaucomys sabrinus yukonensis_ - -When the gesticulating red squirrel has finished his daylight bustling -and retires to his nest, the flying squirrel comes forth to take over -the night, but in a gentle and quiet manner. Like the night-flying owl, -its coat is soft and its flight silent. - -The furred “wing” membranes on each side of the body are attached to the -full length of the fore and hind legs and are supported and extended in -part by a cartilaginous process growing out from the wrist. Thus when -the legs are extended laterally, the squirrel becomes a glider with the -most delicate and reliable controls. His sailing carries him from the -top of one tree to the base of another where he checks his speed by an -upward swing and alights with a soft thud. Sharp claws and squirrel -agility give him the climbing ability to get quickly up a tree. Where -trees are widely spaced as they are in some stands of large cottonwoods, -he may in winter make a five-point landing in the snow, his broad -thickly-furred tail serving as rudder and gliding surface, and to a less -extent as a landing ski. I have seen tracks showing a touch and a raise -before the final landing with legs drawn under; then follow long jumps -over the snow to the nearest tree. The nest is usually built in a tree -cavity. - -Perhaps the height of night esthetics is lying in a sleeping bag under -the open sky, the stars and moon lighting up the spaces between the -trees, and watching a family of flying squirrels gliding overhead in -their night play, their shadowy forms silhouetted against the moonlit -sky. - - -Porcupine -_Erethizon dorsatum myops_ - -The porcupine has been accused of being slow-witted, but we must admit -that he has not done badly for he is able to lead an unhurried life in -the country. His quill protection has, no doubt, decreased his need for -mental activity, and his eyesight does seem deficient. But his hearing -is quite keen, and judging by his nose activity it appears that his -sense of smell is on the acute side. His mental and physical attributes -are all based on the quill. - -The upper surface of the porcupine, except for the vulnerable face, is -covered with several hundred ivory colored quills, touched with black or -brown, and reaching a length up to at least 2½ inches. They are -needle-sharp and just back from the tip are numerous minute barbs. When -the quill enters the flesh of an enemy, any muscular movement causes the -quill to move forward until it emerges on the opposite side or becomes -lodged against the bone or under the hide. - -When the porcupine senses danger he raises the quills on his back and -has his muscular spine-studded tail in readiness to flip upward. He -tries to keep his rear toward the enemy and to push his head into -protective brush. The quills are loosely attached to the skin so pull -out readily when they stick into anything. The underside of the body, in -addition to the face, lacks quills but because of the short legs, the -belly region is close to the ground and not vulnerable unless the -porcupine is flipped over on his back. I knew a sled dog that sometimes -killed porcupines by weaving and maneuvering until he had an opportunity -to grasp the vulnerable nose and thus avoid the quills. Wolves, coyotes -and wolverines feed on porcupines; possibly they use a similar technique -in overcoming the quill armor. - -In winter the porcupine feeds extensively on the inner bark and the -needles of conifers. The patches where the bark has been removed are a -common sight in porcupine woods. The spruces, in the last stand of -timber on the east side of the Toklat River along the road, were nearly -all killed by girdling, many of them back in the 1920’s when the -porcupine population was extremely high. This scraggly woods is a -favorite nesting area for pigeon hawks, sparrow hawks, magpies, and -shrikes so that porcupine activity that seemed generally harmful has -been highly beneficial to these species. Many porcupines spend the -winter in a willow patch beyond the spruce and subsist on willow. For -shelter in winter a windfall, hollow tree, or an old fox or wolf den may -be used. Several may take residence under a cabin. - -In spring I have watched porcupines climbing clumsily in tall willow -brush feeding on the swollen buds. Swaying on a limb he reaches for a -slender branch, pulls it to him and passes the length of it past his -nose to discover the buds which he nips off. If the branch is -obstreperous and cannot readily be handled in this manner, he severs it -with his rodent incisors and then removes the buds as his paws -manipulate the twig past his jaws. The new shoots of fireweed and other -herbs are avidly sought in early summer. Willow leaves are included in -the varied summer diet. - -The breeding season is in the fall and the young are born about 7 months -later. The usual single young one weighs about a pound, almost as much -as a new born grizzly. The eyes are open, the short spines are evident, -and protective reactions are soon functioning. - -Their voice development is quite obvious when one or more porcupines -resides under a cabin. The night moanings, squeaks of irritability, -cluckings, and caressing sounds are enough to keep even the exhausted -hiker awake. - - [Illustration: Porcupine.] - - [Illustration: Beaver.] - - -Beaver -_Castor canadensis_ - -Beavers may be found at Horseshoe Lake, Riley Creek, various ponds near -the Nenana River, and in ponds and creeks along the road in the Wonder -Lake region. They are out chiefly at night, but many families emerge for -pond activity by 2 or 3 o’clock in the afternoon. - -Beavers are large rodents, scaling 60 pounds or more. Their weight does -not make them good hikers but it is no handicap in water where they -paddle their way about as though they were skiffs. And when they sit up -to gnaw down an aspen or cottonwood, a favorite pastime, a good solid -fulcrum might be a comfortable advantage. The broad, flat, scaly tail -serves as a prop when sitting erect, as a rudder when swimming, and for -sounding an alarm (by slapping water) when an enemy is discovered. - -The front feet are equipped with five strong toes which serve well as -hands for holding twigs as the animal feeds on bark. The claws function -well in all digging operations, and the arms suffice for holding gobs of -mud against the chest as he pushes the load onto the dam or house. -Occasionally, he carries mud in his arms as he walks up the house roof -on hind legs. - -The hind feet are large and webbed for swimming. Even the nails on the -toes are flattened in keeping with the swimming needs. The nail of the -second hind claw is double and the nail of the first toe fits down on a -hard pad and is movable like a duck’s bill. These specialized claws are -used for combing the fur and possibly for removing some of the large -beetles that live in the fur. The prominent incisors, used for gnawing, -grow continuously, as they do in all rodents, in order to compensate for -wear. This is an especially fortunate adaptation for the beaver, who -does so much gnawing. Otherwise his teeth would soon be worn to the -gums. If an incisor for any reason is thrown out of line, so it has no -surface to bite against and wear, it will become excessively elongated -as it grows in a curve. - -A flourishing beaver colony apparently consists of the parents, the -young of the year, and the previous year’s offspring. It is for this -reason that we often discover three sizes of beavers in a pond. Much of -beaver activity involves cooperative projects where there is latitude -for any amount of individual initiative. The dam or dams must be built, -or raised, or kept in repair. The house, located either out in the pond, -or partially or wholly on the shore, may require additional sticks, and -toward autumn is plastered on the outside with wet mud as a sort of -annual renovation. This “stucco” winterizes the lodge. Occasionally, it -is decided that a new house is needed and that gives young and old -plenty to do. Some beavers along Riley Creek live in bank burrows and -build no dams or houses. - - [Illustration: The author inspecting a beaver house at low water.] - -The most effective dam that has come to my attention was built at the -outlet of Wonder Lake in 1960; it raised the water level of the lake -over 2 feet. For many days the outlet stream was dry. The water held -back in the lake amounted to well over 100 million cubic feet or over 7 -billion pounds of water. - -The water depth beside the lodge must be deepened if too shallow, so -that the underwater entrance to the lodge is deep enough to keep from -freezing over, and imprisoning the occupants. Also a certain depth of -water is needed beside the lodge in which to store the brush pile that -is the winter food supply. Another activity practised extensively by -some colonies is the building of canals, some of which may have great -length. The mud from the digging is deposited along the canal forming a -raised border. These waterways are useful for general travel to food -areas and for transporting branches and poles. - -The favorite foods of the beaver include willow, aspen, cottonwood, and -alder. Willow brush re-sprouts readily and grows rapidly, therefore -maintains itself better than some of the other foods. Also it flourishes -in the wet habitat created by the beaver ponds. - -Where beavers create ponds with their dams, they produce a habitat for -fish, ducks, muskrats, shore birds, moose and many other forms of water -and shore life. In Wyoming, I have observed the dead trees, killed by -flooding, used by herons for nesting, and one of the heron nests was -later used by a pair of geese. - -The rich, warm coat of the beaver has long been worn by both humans and -beavers, but the beaver wears it best. - - -Muskrat -_Ondatra zibethicus spatulatus_ - -In some parts of Alaska where extensive favorable pond habitat prevails, -muskrats are abundant and their sedge lodges are a part of the scenery. -In the park there are a few muskrats in Horseshoe Lake and other ponds -and creeks near the eastern border, and also in the Wonder Lake area. -These usually live in bank burrows with submerged entrances. It is not -uncommon to find a muskrat living in an occupied beaver house, -apparently utilizing an unoccupied cranny. They ply back and forth -across the pond, just as the beavers do, and submerge with a mouthful of -sedge which they are taking to the young. At Wonder Lake, I have seen -muskrats swimming under the little bridge across the stream inlet, -carrying sedges to young that were kept in a burrow in a nearby bank of -the lake. - -Because muskrats are associated with beavers they are sometimes mistaken -for young beavers. The longer scaly tail, that is flattened vertically -rather than horizontally, serves as a certain identification. The -muskrat is also much quicker in its actions, and is smaller than any -beaver old enough to be abroad. - -The muskrats’ chief food consists of green vegetation (various -waterplants and sedges) and clams when available; it has even been -reported catching small fish in some regions. Some of the deeper -waterplants it secures by diving, and in the spring I have watched them -climb onto the ice to eat them. A muskrat looks very tiny sitting on the -ice beside a big beaver. - -Muskrat have their winged and fourfooted enemies. Mink, living in the -same environment, prey on them, but not indiscriminately. Other -carnivores such as the fox, coyote, and wolf might encounter one on -land, but chiefly by accident. - - -Shrews -_Sorex sp. and Microsorex sp._ - -Shrews may be identified by their long, pointed, mobile nose, extremely -minute eyes, short velvety fur and blackish-tipped teeth. They are the -smallest mammals in the world, some kinds weighing less than 3 grams. It -would require over 100 of these to weigh one pound. Because of the -shrew’s small size and long nose, Alaskans frequently refer to them as -long-nosed mice. - -Thousands of shrews (four species) are vigorously active in the park but -are rarely seen. Occasionally, one may be discovered crossing an open -area, like a mechanical toy, or one may flash from cover and as quickly -disappear. They share with the voles and lemmings the shade and darkness -of the hidden runways beneath the moss and grassy cover. Here they are -active predators, darting about in their search for prey. With nervous -activity they examine their microhabitat in search of insects and other -invertebrates. Spiders flee in haste when the presence of a shrew is -sensed. Their hunting technique appears to consist of random movements -until they collide with their victim. They no doubt depend chiefly upon -the sense of smell in recognizing their prey. - -Shrews eat often and a great deal. In captivity, a shrew weighing 3.6 -grams ate over three times its weight of food daily. Any kind of meat -attracts shrews, as many Alaskans have learned when discovering their -meat caches invaded by them. The energetic activity of shrews suggests -the need for rapid metabolism and plentiful supply of body fuel. - -Although shrews are active throughout the winter, they nevertheless -appear to be delicately attuned to their environment. They seem to be -especially susceptible to chilling, perhaps because of their tiny body -and short fur. Winter temperatures in the north are severe, but ground -temperatures under the snow blanket are rather moderate. Shrews perhaps -require only a warm nest—their intense activity keeping them warm when -foraging. - -Shrews are not rated high gastronomically by many mammals. This is -apparently due to the hip glands which have a strong, pungent odor. But -their lack of palatability does not give them much protection. If, for -instance, a fox locates a faint sound in the grass, he pounces and -learns later what he has caught. If the prey is a shrew, it may be left -where killed by the fox, carried a short way and dropped, or during -denning time even brought home to the den before discarded. I have often -found shrew carcasses lying uneaten about fox dens. Birds of prey feed -more extensively on them possibly because of their poorly developed -sense of smell, and sense of taste. Grayling, and also trout, have been -found with one or more shrews in their stomachs. At Moose Creek, several -grayling were taken which had eaten shrews, one having eaten three of -them. This indicates that the species captured, readily enter the water. -(One species, the water shrew, not found in the park, is specialized for -aquatic life). - - [Illustration: Denali (Mount McKinley) in early winter.] - -The shrew population is apparently cyclic for there are years when they -are very abundant, followed by years of extreme scarcity. - -Four kinds of shrews are in the park. They differ from one another in -several respects, but may be fairly well identified by tail length -alone. The masked shrew (_Sorex cinereus_) has a tail averaging about 39 -millimeters long; the tail of the vagrant shrew (_Sorex obscurus_) -averages about 48 mm.; and that of the rare pygmy shrew (_Microsorex -hoyi eximius_), 31 mm. The average length of tail of the Arctic shrew -(_Sorex arcticus tundrensis_) is about 36 mm., overlapping slightly in -this measurement that of the masked shrew, but the rich chocolate color -of the Arctic shrew will identify it. - - -Bat -_Vespertilioninae_ - -A bat was reported in flight at Wonder Lake in 1959 and again in 1960. -Since no specimen has been examined there is no definite identification, -but judging from the geographical distribution of bats it seems probable -that those seen in the park belong to the genus _Myotis_. Three or four -species of this genus are known to occur in southeastern Alaska. The -little brown bat (_Myotis lucifugus alascensis_) has been taken at -Illiamna Lake at the base of the Alaska Peninsula so it seems likely -that this is the bat seen at Wonder Lake. - - -The Mouse World -_Microtinae_ - -Are there any trails in the park? Yes, thousands of miles, but most of -them are under a canopy of grass and sphagnum moss and are only 1 or 2 -inches wide, so of course they are not of much use to you. And even if -we could nibble on Alice’s mushroom and grow, in reverse, small enough -to use them, we would hardly dare, at least a lady wouldn’t, for she -would soon meet a mouse, inasmuch as these trails have been constructed -by, and belong to, mice. And I might add that the fierce little shrews -use them too. Where the trails cross green, mossy carpets and enter tiny -exquisite nooks I imagine one might also meet a few northern fairies. - -Seven kinds of mice (voles and lemmings) are known to live in the park. -Some of these are quite outstanding for one thing or another, and -possibly all of them are, if we only knew more about them. However, we -do know that they are all important. - - * * * * * * * * - -I am best acquainted with the haymouse, or singing vole (_Microtus -miurus oreas_) because some of my field observations led me to him. Some -years ago I kept finding many caches of dried vegetation, some caches -large enough to fill a bushel basket. This hay was always kept either -off the ground or under cover. It was placed at the base of willows in -the basket formed by the many stems, or on a surface spruce root, in a -rock niche, or under a log. Pikas are known to make hay, but no such -activity has been reported for mice. Pikas were not involved for they -live in the talus rock, and these caches were mostly far from pika -habitat. After considerable effort, I learned that a yellowish-brown -field mouse was the interesting haymaker. The hay is put up for winter -use. The sign showed that sometimes a snowshoe hare found a cache and -helped himself. - -In addition to hay, this mouse also stores roots in underground cellars -that he excavates, and the roots are not thrown in helter-skelter, at -least not in most of the caches I examined. The black, round nutlike -tubers of the horsetail were in one pile, coltsfoot underground stems in -another, and carrotlike roots of a pedicularis in still another. An -interesting feature was the structure of some of the tunnels which were -built in the form of a pearl necklace. Tiny passages, just large enough -for the body of the mouse to squeeze through, joined the cavities or, so -to speak, the “pearls.” In addition to all of these accomplishments, -these mice do much miniature warbling, enough so they have been called -singing voles. - - [Illustration: Haymouse (singing vole)] - -The tail is short, measuring slightly over 1 inch; the body length -averages about 5 inches. It is found from moist lowland habitats to -ridge tops. - - * * * * * * * * - -The large, plump, and richly-colored brown lemming (_Lemmus -trimucronatus alascensis_) is notorious for his overpopulation problem. -On some occasions they migrate in hordes, even into the ocean in some -parts of their circumpolar home. The lemming is cyclic in the park, but -usually only to about the same degree as the other mice. However, in the -low part of the cycle, they may become extremely scarce, more so than do -the voles. The brown lemming does not turn white in winter as does its -relative, the collared lemming (over most of its range). The body is -about 5½ inches long and the tail is just under 1 inch. The thumb claw -consists of a three-pronged flat nail. A large lemming weighs about -one-quarter pound. They are widely distributed in both open tundra and -woods where the habitat is not too dry. - - [Illustration: Brown Lemming.] - - * * * * * * * * - -The northern bog lemming (_Synaptomys borealis dalli_) is usually not -thought of as a true lemming, but it does belong to the lemming tribe. -It has a short tail, less than 1 inch long; the body length is about 4 -inches; the upper incisors have a vertical groove near the outer edge; -and the males have a white spot on each side marking the location of hip -glands. The thumb claw is a broad nail, in this respect resembling the -brown lemming. The distribution of this mouse is spotty. It was taken in -the Wonder Lake area in a wet grass and sedge habitat just inside a -spruce woods. - - * * * * * * * * - -The chestnut-cheeked vole (_Microtus xanthognathus_), the largest mouse -in the park, has a body length of 6 or 7 inches, tail length of about 2 -inches, and weighs up to about 6 ounces. These mice live in isolated -colonies but where found may be abundant. Not recorded in the park since -1907 when it was abundant along the Toklat River. - - * * * * * * * * - -The tundra vole (_Microtus oeconomus macfarlani_) is a large vole widely -distributed, and is especially fond of dense grass or sedge habitats. -Its body length is 5 to 5½ inches, and tail length a little less than 2 -inches. Its brownish-gray color is similar to the common meadow mouse. - - * * * * * * * * - -The meadow vole (_Microtus pennsylvanicus tananaensis_) is common in -interior Alaska, so far as known, but is rare in the park. With more -investigation, it may be found plentiful in places along the north -boundary. This is a common vole over much of Canada and the Rocky -Mountain, central and eastern states. It prefers moist habitats. The -body length is about 5 inches, tail about 2 inches, and the color is -dark brown. - - * * * * * * * * - -The northern red-backed mouse (_Clethrionomys rutilus dawsonii_) lives -in both the open tundra and the woods. Generally, it has a reddish back, -but in a dark color phase, the back is blackish. These mice are fond of -berries, their teeth being stained blue during the blueberry season. -They also feed on seeds, stems, and leaves. - - [Illustration: Meadow vole.] - - [Illustration: Red-backed mouse.] - - [Illustration: Red-backed mouse.] - -The several species of mice vary in abundance from year to year. In -places where some of them have been studied, a well-defined 3 or 4 year -cycle has been noted. The mouse populations have a tremendous influence -on our wildlife economy. Foxes, martens, weasels, owls, hawks and a host -of others feed extensively on this fauna and react to its abundance. -When the lemming increase in the north, the snowy owls (and others) -increase, and when the lemming become scarce, these owls come south in -search of food and we have the snowy owl invasions, especially in -north-central and eastern states. In 1955, when mice were abundant, the -hawk owls in the park reached a high point, but again became scarce when -the mouse population dropped. - - - - - Checklist of The Mammals of Mount McKinley National Park - - - [_] Arctic Shrew - [_] Masked Shrew - [_] Dusky Shrew - [_] Pygmy Shrew - [_] Bat (Species unknown) - [_] Black Bear - [_] Grizzly Bear - [_] Marten - [_] Short-tailed Weasel - [_] Least Weasel - [_] Mink - [_] Wolverine - [_] River Otter - [_] Red Fox - [_] Coyote - [_] Wolf - [_] Lynx - [_] Hoary Marmot - [_] Arctic Ground Squirrel - [_] Red Squirrel - [_] Northern Flying Squirrel - [_] Beaver - [_] Bog Lemming - [_] Brown Lemming - [_] Northern Red-backed Mouse - [_] Meadow Vole - [_] Singing Vole - [_] Tundra Vole - [_] Chestnut-cheeked Vole - [_] Muskrat - [_] Porcupine - [_] Collared Pika - [_] Snowshoe Rabbit - [_] Moose - [_] Caribou - [_] Mountain goat - [_] Dall Sheep - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Mammals of Mount McKinley National Park, by -Adolph Murie - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAMMALS OF MOUNT MCKINLEY *** - -***** This file should be named 61433-0.txt or 61433-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/1/4/3/61433/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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} -.author { text-align:right; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em; display:block; } - -dl.biblio dt { margin-top:.6em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt div { display:block; float:left; margin-left:-6em; width:6em; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt.center { margin-left:0em; text-align:center; text-indent:0; } -dl.biblio dd { margin-top:.3em; margin-left:3em; text-align:justify; font-size:90%; } -p.biblio { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -.clear { clear:both; } -p.book { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -p.review { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; } -p.pcap { margin-left:0em; text-indent:0; text-align:center; margin-top:0; } -p.pcapc { margin-left:4.7em; text-indent:0em; text-align:justify; } -span.attr { font-size:80%; font-family:sans-serif; } -span.pn { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; }</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's Mammals of Mount McKinley National Park, by Adolph Murie - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Mammals of Mount McKinley National Park - -Author: Adolph Murie - -Illustrator: Olaus Murie - -Release Date: February 17, 2020 [EBook #61433] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAMMALS OF MOUNT MCKINLEY *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Mammals of Mount McKinley National Park, Alaska" width="500" height="753" /> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<h1>MAMMALS OF MOUNT McKINLEY -<br />NATIONAL PARK -<br />ALASKA</h1> -<p class="center">by -<br /><b><span class="sc">Adolph Murie</span></b></p> -<p class="center"><b>Sketches by <span class="sc">Olaus Murie</span></b></p> -<p class="center"><b>Photographs by <span class="sc">Charles J. Ott</span></b></p> -</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p02.jpg" alt="Mount McKinley Natural History Association" width="400" height="340" /> -</div> -<p class="center">Published by the -<br />Mount McKinley Natural History Association</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p02a.jpg" alt="NATIONAL PARK SERVICE" width="208" height="260" /> -</div> -<p class="center">Published in cooperation with the -<br />National Park Service</p> -<p class="tbcenter">Copyright August, 1962 by -<br />Mount McKinley Natural History Association</p> -<p class="center smaller">Printed in U.S.A. -<br />Pisani Printing Company, San Francisco</p> -<h2 id="toc" class="center">CONTENTS</h2> -<dl class="toc"> -<dt><a href="#c1">Denali Wilderness</a> 1</dt> -<dt><a href="#c2">Introduction</a> 3</dt> -<dt><a href="#c3">Grizzly Bear</a> 7</dt> -<dt><a href="#c4">Black Bear</a> 11</dt> -<dt><a href="#c5">Caribou</a> 11</dt> -<dt><a href="#c6">Moose</a> 15</dt> -<dt><a href="#c7">Dall Sheep</a> 17</dt> -<dt><a href="#c8">Mountain goat</a> 20</dt> -<dt><a href="#c9">Wolf</a> 21</dt> -<dt><a href="#c10">Coyote</a> 22</dt> -<dt><a href="#c11">Red fox</a> 24</dt> -<dt><a href="#c12">Lynx</a> 26</dt> -<dt><a href="#c13">Wolverine</a> 27</dt> -<dt><a href="#c14">Marten</a> 29</dt> -<dt><a href="#c15">Mink</a> 30</dt> -<dt><a href="#c16">River Otter</a> 31</dt> -<dt><a href="#c17">Short-tailed weasel</a> 31</dt> -<dt><a href="#c18">Least weasel</a> 33</dt> -<dt><a href="#c19">Snowshoe rabbit</a> 33</dt> -<dt><a href="#c20">Collared Pika</a> 35</dt> -<dt><a href="#c21">Hoary marmot</a> 37</dt> -<dt><a href="#c22">Arctic ground squirrel</a> 39</dt> -<dt><a href="#c23">Red squirrel</a> 40</dt> -<dt><a href="#c24">Northern flying squirrel</a> 43</dt> -<dt><a href="#c25">Porcupine</a> 43</dt> -<dt><a href="#c26">Beaver</a> 47</dt> -<dt><a href="#c27">Muskrat</a> 49</dt> -<dt><a href="#c28">Shrews</a> 50</dt> -<dt><a href="#c29">Bat</a> 52</dt> -<dt><a href="#c30">The Mouse World</a> 52-54</dt> -<dd><a href="#c31">Hay mouse</a></dd> -<dd><a href="#c32">Brown lemming</a></dd> -<dd><a href="#c33">Bog lemming</a></dd> -<dd><a href="#c34">Chestnut-cheeked vole</a></dd> -<dd><a href="#c35">Tundra vole</a></dd> -<dd><a href="#c36">Meadow vole</a></dd> -<dd><a href="#c37">Red-backed mouse</a></dd> -<dt><a href="#c38">Checklist of Mammals of Mount McKinley National Park</a> 56</dt> -</dl> -<div class="img" id="fig1"> -<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="631" /> -<p class="pcap">Caribou migrating from summer range.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div> -<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">Denali Wilderness</span></h2> -<p>The national park idea represents a far-reaching cultural achievement, -for here we raise our thoughts above the average, and enter a sphere in -which the intangible values of the human heart and spirit take precedence. -Mingled with the landscape of McKinley Park is the spirit of the -primeval. The region is dedicated to the preservation of wilderness. Here -we try to refrain from the coarser uses of nature legitimate elsewhere.</p> -<p>All the plants and animals enjoy a natural and normal life without -human restrictions. Freedom prevails—the foxes are free to dig burrows -where they will; to hunt ptarmigan, ground squirrels and mice as the -spirit moves; and they share in the ownership of the blueberry and crowberry -patches. The grizzlies wander over their ancestral home unmolested; -dig roots and ground squirrels, graze grass, and harvest berries according -to whatever menu appeals to them. The “bad” wolf seeks an honest living -as of yore; he is a respected citizen, morally on a par with everyone else. -His hunting of mice, ground squirrels, caribou and Dall sheep is his way -of life and he has the freedom to follow it. No species of plant is favored -above the rest, and they grow together, quietly competing, or living in adjusted -composure. Our task is to perpetuate this freedom and purity of -nature, this ebb and flow of life—first, by insuring ample park boundaries -so that the region is large enough to maintain the natural relationships, -and secondly, to hold man’s intrusions to the minimum.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div> -<p>Most of us feel with Thoreau that “The wilderness is near as well as -dear to every man.” We come to McKinley to watch; to catch a glimpse -of the primeval. We come close to the tundra flowers, the lichens, and the -animal life. Each of us will take some inspiration home; a touch of the -tundra will enter our lives—and, deep inside, make of us all poets and -kindred spirits.</p> -<p>Our national parks, here in the north, are set aside, not only for -Alaskans, or for Americans, but for all humanity. To preserve the delicate -charm and the wildness of the region our thoughts must be guided by a -morality encompassing the spiritual welfare of the universe.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig2"> -<img src="images/p04.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="627" /> -<p class="pcap">Tundra in the foreground and on the far side of Thorofare Bar. Muldrow Glacier shows -at the foot of Mount McKinley.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_3">3</div> -<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">Introduction</span></h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p04a.jpg" alt="Bear and cub." width="600" height="190" /> -</div> -<p>The Mount McKinley region was set aside as a National Park in 1917. -The foresighted conservationists who advocated National Park status for -this country were activated chiefly by their desire to preserve the flora and -fauna in its pristine condition. An effort was made to give the park ample -boundaries, but desirable extensions were later made, and it is possible -that in the future additional adjustments will be desirable from the standpoint -of assuring a self-sustaining ecological unit.</p> -<p>A drive from the Nenana River, the eastern boundary, to Wonder Lake, -some 90 miles to the west and directly north of Mount McKinley, is always -a fresh adventure. No two days are the same. One day we may see more -grizzlies than usual; on another trip we may be especially fortunate and -catch sight of a wolf or a wolverine. It is desirable to drive slowly and to -stop occasionally to examine the landscape for animal life—the mountains -for Dall sheep, the river bars and passes for grizzlies and caribou, -and the water, for birds, beaver, or moose.</p> -<p>Some of the birds to be seen along the way are the ptarmigan—willow -ptarmigan in the low country, rock ptarmigan on the high passes (the -white-tailed are confined to higher elevations and probably will not be -seen)—the long-tailed jaegers, the whimbrel (Hudsonian curlew), golden -plovers, short-billed gulls, golden eagles, and several kinds of ducks. Ornithologists -will be especially interested in seeing such asiatic birds as the -wheatear and the willow warbler.</p> -<p>Much of the park is treeless tundra, but strips of woods follow the rivers -far into the park, and patches grow here and there on the adjacent mountain -slopes. Timberline varies according to soil and exposure; in places it -reaches elevations of over 3,500 feet.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div> -<p>White spruce is the common conifer. Black spruce is confined to poorly -drained and boggy areas. Along the north boundary I have seen a few -patches of tamarack. Cottonwood and aspen are widely distributed and a -few tree birches grow at lower elevations. Along the McKinley River an -extensive strip of cottonwoods may be seen from the highway.</p> -<p>The tundra supports a growth of willow and dwarf birch. Over twenty -kinds of willow occur in the park. They range in size from small forms -only 2 or 3 inches in height, to brushy growths 20 feet tall. In places the -small willows may grow dense enough to form a sod. These shrubs are -highly important for wildlife. Alder brush is widely distributed and plentiful -on canyon slopes; near Wonder Lake there are many clumps of alder -in the rolling tundra.</p> -<p>The low ground cover over the park consists of mosses, lichens, sedges, -grasses, horsetails, and herbaceous plants—many species of each. Early -flowers may begin blooming in late April and early May, and at the -higher elevations some blooms may be seen in late summer.</p> -<p>The annual berry crop is bounteous and is an important source of -food for a host of birds and mammals. Even the mountain sheep have -been found enjoying the blueberries. Blueberry, crowberry, cranberry, -buffaloberry, and alpine bearberry are all widely distributed. The berries -begin to ripen in late July.</p> -<p>With the melting of the snow in the spring, the white landscape of -winter is transformed into a brown countryside—brown grasses, sedges, -and leafless shrubbery. Snow fields still persist on the mountain slopes, -and the spruces are dark green, but brown hues seem to dominate one’s -impression of the tundra at this time. In June—the time varies a little -with the year—the landscape is magically transformed from a dull brown -to the brightest green. Early in August spots of red and yellow colors -begin to show. By late August and early September the country is again -transformed and we have a world of crimson and other shades of red, -trimmed with yellow and gold of willow, aspen, and cottonwood. The -alders add contrast for they remain summer-green throughout the autumn -color season.</p> -<p>Over much of the country the ground remains frozen below a depth of -a few feet. In some shaded areas where the ground is deeply carpeted -with moss the soil remains frozen within less than 2 feet of the surface. -The continuous thawing of the soil in summer keeps the surface moist -until autumn. The thawed surface soil tends in places to creep imperceptibly -down slopes as it becomes water-soaked, even though plant life has -a strong stabilizing influence. Occasionally the soil becomes saturated -with moisture to considerable depths and we have rather large land slides -such as the one that recently formed Slide Lake on Stony Creek; the one -that shows prominently on the south slope of Sable Mountain; and one -to the south of the road at about 3-Mile that caused spruces to lean in various -<span class="pb" id="Page_5">5</span> -directions. Thawed, water-logged surface soil rests uneasily on the -frozen sub-stratum.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig3"> -<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="457" /> -<p class="pcap">Typical glacial stream. Grizzlies and caribou may often be seen in the streambed and -Dall sheep on the mountain slopes.</p> -</div> -<p>A number of parallel, northward-flowing streams head in glaciers lying -along the north slope of the Alaska Range. The streams are not large—most -of them can be waded without getting too wet—so it is surprising -to find them bordered by wide gravel bars. This is due to lack of stream -stabilization. In summer the streams carry a load of silt which may be -dropped along the way. Channels are continually being gouged out here -and filled in somewhere else so that the stream keeps breaking over its -sides and forming additional channels. High water, due to a warm day -and much glacier melting, or to heavy rains, may cause the streams to -flow into entirely new channels. When the main stream reaches the side -of the gravel bar it will erode the bank and thus broaden the river bar. -This type of erosion is noticeable just below the Teklanika bridge. -Gravel bars that have not been invaded for a long period may become -covered with vegetation, and it is on some of these old bars that we often -see grizzlies digging roots in the spring of the year. But even these bars -are temporary. One such bar on the Toklat River was invaded by part -<span class="pb" id="Page_6">6</span> -of the river a few years ago and much of the sod is being washed away -today. Physiographic processes are all very active in the region. On many -slopes we see the turf breaking away, and here and there a small land slip.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig4"> -<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="469" /> -<p class="pcap">Typical ice blister.</p> -</div> -<p>Those who come to the park the early part of the summer may see extensive -fields of ice on the river bars. These are the result of what is -called overflow. During cold weather the ice on the streams freezes so -thick that there is not room for all of the water to pass under the ice, and -since it must run somewhere it develops pressure and breaks out on the -surface where it spreads widely underneath the snow. Here it freezes. This -process continues throughout the winter and often forms ice patches many -feet thick. When one is dog-mushing on rivers the overflow water under -the snow is a hazard before it freezes, and the driver of a dogteam must -watch to avoid such spots. Conditions are worst during the coldest -weather, at a time when a wetting is most serious.</p> -<p>Out in the park there are no trails except for one down Savage Canyon. -The country is so open that trails are not needed. The river bars furnish -excellent hiking, and even walking across the upland tundra is easy. A -number of campgrounds are located along the road between the Nenana -River and Wonder Lake.</p> -<p>This booklet is made available as a quick reference pertaining to the -mammals in the park. The comments on each species are brief but perhaps -sufficient to suggest their status. Distances are deceiving so field glasses -should be used in searching the landscape for the larger animals such as -sheep, caribou, and bears.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_7">7</div> -<h3 id="c3">Grizzly Bear -<br /><i>Ursus horribilis</i></h3> -<p>The grizzly’s domain in the park extends from the glaciers at the heads -of the rivers, northward to the north boundary. The grizzly may be discovered -on an old river bar, on one of the low passes between the rivers, -or traveling high on a mountain slope. One of the favorite haunts along -the road is Sable Pass, where each summer one to four females with cubs, -along with a few lone or mated bears, take residence.</p> -<p>Any bear seen out in the park is almost certain to be a grizzly because -the black bear is confined to the wooded low country along the east and -north boundaries. The hump on the shoulder and the dishfaced profile -(rather than almost straight, as in the black bear) are good field characters. -The general coloration varies from cream color (rare) to straw color, -brown, chocolate, and black. The legs are always blackish. The fur fades -considerably during the spring and summer. Hence, the new coat, fully -developed by autumn, is always darker, and gives the bear a new, fresh -look. One old male grizzly, not very fat, weighed 650 pounds. The females -are considerably smaller. Because of the long claws on the forepaws, the -track of the grizzly can be readily distinguished from that of the black -bear, whose forepaw claws are shorter and more curved.</p> -<p>In the spring when grizzlies first come forth from their dens they seem -to do much wandering over the higher slopes. At this season I have noted -their tracks leading to the remains of sheep, caribou, and moose that -had succumbed during the winter. Usually the wolves, foxes, and wolverines -have long since feasted on the fleshy parts, but the bears are happy to -crush the bones that remain on the premises and thus obtain a taste of -the succulent marrow.</p> -<p>The spring and early-summer food is chiefly the root of the peavine -(<i>Hedysarum alpinum americanum</i>) that flourishes on old vegetated river -bars and on many mountain slopes. Using both paws, with their long -claws, and straining backward with his body weight, chunks of sod are -turned over to expose the thick peavine roots. With delicate strokes, his -paws further expose the roots, which taste much like the garden variety -of pea. So extensive is the root-digging at times that an area may look like -a plowed field when the bear has finished. At this season, because of these -food habits, bears can often be seen on the open river bars and on the -ridge slopes. Cranberries and crowberries that have wintered under the -snow are often eaten in spring.</p> -<p>In June, green vegetation becomes available and a drastic change of -diet results. The root digging is terminated for something better. A grass, -(<i>Arctagrostis latifolia</i>), with a stiff and juicy stalk, and growing in swales -and wettish areas, is a favorite. The bears also graze extensively on horsetail -(<i>Equisetum arvense</i>), mountain-sorrel (<i>Oxyria digyna</i>), and the tall -<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span> -showy white saxifrage (<i>Boykinia richardsonii</i>). A pea (<i>Oxytropis viscida</i>), -growing abundantly far up the streams on old river bars is extensively -grazed.</p> -<p>The grizzly is quite fastidious in his feeding on dock (<i>Rumex fenestratus</i>). -He severs the thick juicy stem with a bite and as he chews, the large -reddish seed head drops from his lips, neatly discarded.</p> -<p>The grizzlies continue grazing and chomping green grasses and herbs -until berry time when another major change of food habits takes place. -Some grazing still persists but now the bears turn wholeheartedly to blueberries, -crowberries, and the bitter scarlet buffaloberries, the three species -of berries most abundant and available. The lush berry of alpine bearberry (<i>Arctous -alpinus</i>), that ground-hugging woody plant that colors patches of the -landscape a brilliant scarlet in autumn, are sometimes eaten, but not -with any efficiency. The berry diet continues through the autumn but -at this season a few roots may again be sought.</p> -<p>The bear belongs to the order <i>Carnivora</i> and yet little mention has -been made of meat in the diet. He is perhaps, so to speak, a victim of -evolution and has had to adjust. As his mature size became ever larger -through eons of time, he became too slow to catch large herbivores such -as the caribou, and his large body required more sustenance than could -be secured by digging for mice and ground squirrels under usual circumstances. -Therefore he had to turn more and more to vegetation which -could be secured in quantity. This is not as drastic a change as we might -offhand suppose. It is one chiefly of degree, because we find carnivores -such as the fox and the marten turning to a berry diet for a period, from -choice.</p> -<p>But it appears that the grizzly would like more meat than is generally -available. This I infer from the quantity he eats when he finds a carcass -and from the avidity with which bears of all kinds seek spawning fish -when available. The only animal that the grizzly consistently hunts in -the park is the ground squirrel, but a squirrel contributes only a mouthful -and its capture usually requires excessive time and energy. Sometimes a -squirrel is surprised and captured before it can disappear in a burrow. -But generally a squirrel is secured only after extensive excavating which -may involve as much as half an hour, and not infrequently the bear, -after much digging, fails to unearth his intended victim. In years when -meadow mice and lemmings are especially abundant, bears may make -their capture a project which contributes at least a tasty diversion. Caribou -and moose calves may occasionally be captured when very young, -but the season for this food is short. Occasionally tidings come to a bear’s -keen nose that carrion lies upwind, and the lucky bear keeps gorging -until only a few bones and patches of hide remain.</p> -<p>After feeding on a carcass the bear often covers it with sod and vegetation. -One fall at Stony Creek I watched a bear at a cache which showed -up as a dark mound surrounded by a dark circular area from which the -<span class="pb" id="Page_9">9</span> -sod had been torn loose. For an hour the bear kept methodically raking -the surrounding area beyond.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig5"> -<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="507" /> -<p class="pcap">Grizzly bears digging for ground squirrels.</p> -</div> -<p>He was scraping the loose vegetation toward the cache, working leisurely -with one paw at a time. The loosened material was pushed toward the -cache as the work progressed. When I examined the area later, I noted a -circular patch, extending out 20 feet from all sides of the carcass, that -had been combed clean of loose vegetation. The bear finally lay down -on the cache to wait for digestion to create more space for this rich fare.</p> -<p>North of Wonder Lake a grizzly had similarly covered a caribou that -a hunter had left lying in the field. The bear was not at the cache, but -since most of the carcass was still intact, he probably was not far away. -I found some carcasses that were not covered with sod. A mother and two -yearlings at Polychrome Pass left a caribou carcass without covering it -and retired to some steep cliffs overlooking the area. The following day -they rested near the carcass, but still no effort was made to cover it.</p> -<p>Mating takes place in May, June and early July, and a pair remains -together for two or three weeks. I suspect that a male might look for a -second marriage following the termination of the first. One large crippled -male was successfully consorting with two females at the same time, -neither female objecting to the presence of the other—in fact, both probably -preferred it that way.</p> -<p>The cubs are born in the hibernating den in midwinter, are 8 or 9 inches -long, and weigh less than 2 pounds at birth. The number of cubs in a -litter ordinarily varies from one to three, two being the most frequent.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div> -<p>The cubs not only nurse throughout the first summer but to about the -same extent during their second summer abroad, when they are robust -yearlings. I had been surprised to find yearlings regularly nursing, but it -was a greater surprise to observe mother grizzlies nursing cubs over 2 -years old, in their third summer abroad. The protracted nursing period -indicates a breeding interval of females with cubs, of three or more years, -since females followed by nursing yearlings have not been seen consorting -with a male.</p> -<p>The dens used for hibernation are excavated by the grizzly if natural -caves are not available. A den is usually dug on a rather steep slope. The -entrance to one I examined was about 2 feet wide and a little less than -2½ feet high. A tunnel 6 feet long led to the chamber which was roughly -4 feet in diameter. Cinquefoil brush and grass had been used for the bed. -This den was still usable six years after it was dug. But another den -dug in October caved in the following summer. It lacked the firm protective -sod roof of the more durable den.</p> -<p>Bears, like humans, enjoy a good back-scratching. Trees along a trail -or on some strategic point are much used, as shown by the rubbing signs -and the adhering hairs. If trees are not available, willow brush, a boulder -or a sod bank may be used. The corner of a log cabin is considered an -excellent surface. A pole lying on the ground is a fair substitute, and -where no structure is available and a bear feels itchy he may lie on the -ground with all four feet in the air, wriggling ludicrously with excessive -energy to do the job.</p> -<p>Generally the grizzlies wander freely over the tundra. But they are not -averse to taking advantage of a convenient trail when they have a definite -destination. Trails that are much used by bears, such as we sometimes -find along the bank of a river or through a woods, show a series of worn -depressions. These depressions are due to the grizzlies’ tendency to step -in the same tracks. They no doubt have been formed by the passage of -many bears over a long period. Pieces of such bear trails may be seen a -half mile above Teklanika bridge and a short distance below the bridge, -on the west side of the river bar.</p> -<p>The grizzly has survived in only a few states, more by accident than by -our planning for his future. In Alaska we have a great opportunity for -giving the grizzly and the rest of the fauna ample room for carrying on -their living in a natural, free manner. The grizzly needs extensive wilderness -country for his way of life, and wild country is also vital for the -highest development of human culture. If we provide for the future of -the grizzly, we at the same time provide wilderness for our own needs.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_11">11</div> -<h3 id="c4">Black Bear -<br /><i>Euarctos americanus</i></h3> -<p>The black bear is widely distributed in Alaska. In the park it is confined -to the forested areas along the north and east boundaries. I have occasionally -seen one near the Nenana River and in the Wonder Lake area I have -seen them 3 or 4 miles north of the park feeding on blueberries.</p> -<p>Black bears may be black or brown, but those I have seen at McKinley -have all been of the black color phase. The black bear lacks the pronounced -shoulder hump of the grizzly. The tan muzzle is also distinctive. -Equipped with strong, curved claws, the black bear climbs trees with -surprising agility, a talent the grizzly seems to lack.</p> -<p>The food habits of the black bear are similar to those of the grizzly, -but in general they spend more time turning over rocks and tearing -apart logs in search of insect life. They feed on herbs and grass, are fond -of berries, hunt mice and dig out ground squirrels, and are ever on the -alert for carrion. In the Rocky Mountains and on the West Coast, they -occasionally strip the bark from trunks of spruces, pines, and firs in order -to feed on the inner cambium layer. Along the coast of Alaska they sometimes -congregate to feed on spawning salmon.</p> -<p>Where we have bears we have potential bear problems. Roadside feeding -of bears creates beggar bears—always dangerous. Allowing bears to -obtain food in cabins or camps demoralizes them, encourages them in a -life of plunder and general anti-human depredations—the usual outcome -is damage to humans and the death of the bears. A point of view generally -disregarded by all is the effect of garbage on the bears. No garbage -should be made available to bears anywhere for the simple reason that -such artificial food interferes with the natural feeding habits of bears -and their natural distribution, tending to congregate large numbers of -them in a limited area. Administrators and public alike must ever be -heedful of the problem. Clean campsites and proper garbage disposal are -desirable in this regard.</p> -<h3 id="c5">Caribou -<br /><i>Rangifer arcticus stonei</i></h3> -<p>The caribou is a circumpolar deer adapted to life in the Arctic. Both -sexes carry antlers and even the calves grow a spike 6 or 8 inches long. -The cow’s antlers are small and branching; those of the old bull are -towering and picturesque, with a well-developed brow tine extending -over the nose from one or both antlers. As you see the caribou in his -<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span> -easy, swinging trot, you will perhaps notice his big feet. The hoofs, -rounded and spreading, and the dew claws well developed, serve him as -snowshoes in winter, and as a broad support in the soft tundra.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig6"> -<img src="images/p09.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="599" /> -<p class="pcap">Caribou.</p> -</div> -<p>Each spring the caribou appear in faded, dun coats, their color pattern -gone, the long hair worn and frayed. Winter hardships are behind and -the sprouting, nutritious, vitamin-packed green forage is available—nature’s -restorative. On the hummocks the caribou are already finding the -new growth of sedge hidden by the old, leached, brown blades. As the -winter coat is shed, and the new black pelage shows in patches, the animals -have a moth-eaten look.</p> -<p>In May and early June, the caribou that have wintered along the north -boundary of the park and northward to Lake Minchumina, move into -the park, continue eastward to the Teklanika and Sanctuary rivers, and -cross to the south side of the Alaska Range over the glaciers at the heads -of these rivers. At this time the bands are small, numbering from a few -individuals to one or two hundred. After feeding on the south side of -the range for 2 or 3 weeks, the caribou return en masse, usually in late -June or early July, but in 1960 about the middle of June. Herds numbering -one or two thousand are not unusual, and I have seen an assemblage -<span class="pb" id="Page_13">13</span> -of four or five thousand. The herds cross Sable Pass and travel parallel -with the road to Muldrow Glacier. From there they may strike northward -or continue on westward. In August and September at least a few caribou -may be found especially in the Wonder Lake area.</p> -<p>Caribou are inordinately fond of lichens which they eagerly feed upon -at all seasons. In summer they take advantage of the variety of foods -available and feed extensively on grasses, many herbaceous species, willows, -and lichens. Lichens are much sought in fall and winter, and in -these seasons grasses and sedges continue to be major foods.</p> -<p>Caribou are plagued by warble flies and nostril flies throughout the -summer. These beelike insects cause the caribou great annoyance. The -warble fly lays eggs on the hair of the legs and underparts of the body. -The eggs soon hatch, the larvae penetrate the hide, and move to the -back region where they emerge as swollen larvae in the spring. The nostril -flies deposit living larvae in the nostrils. The larvae become lodged back -in the throat in a mass and the following spring are coughed out; they -pupate on the ground, and soon emerge as terrorizing flies. A caribou -may dash away in panic to escape a fly, then stop in a wet sedgy depression -and hold its nose close to the ground. Thus it may stand for long periods -if not attacked. On sunny days when the flies are very active, the movement -of the herds is drastically influenced. The large herds may seek a -high, breezy ridge, or a snowfield, to minimize the attack. Commonly, -one or two thousand on such days assemble in a compact group on a -broad gravel bar where they may stand all day. Should clouds cover the -sun, the herd disperses to feed, but again converges if the sun reappears.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig7"> -<img src="images/p09a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="467" /> -<p class="pcap">A caribou bull.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div> -<p>By midsummer the old hair has been shed and the caribou are in a -short blackish coat that continues to grow. Not until September is this -new pelage fully developed. By then it has become a rich chocolate brown, -trimmed with white. The pattern is most striking in the old bulls. A -silvery cape covers the neck and part of the shoulders and forms a mane -on the throat. A white line extends back along the sides of the body, -and the belly is white. The blunt nose is tipped with white and an oval -white patch surrounds the tail. A white patch shows the location of the -upper gland on the hind legs. White anklets border each shiny black hoof. -The pattern is similar, but much more subdued in the cows and younger -bulls.</p> -<p>The magnificent antlers of the old bulls have hardened by late August. -The velvet covering them during their growth is now rubbed off with a -vigor suggesting the oncoming rut. At first the white antlers are often -stained pinkish by the blood in the velvet. Continued rubbing on the brush -removes the pinkish color and the antlers develop to a rich brown.</p> -<p>The bulls begin to spar soon after rubbing off the velvet. Even before -serious fighting occurs, a bull may show his superiority to some of his -companions. At this time two strange bulls do not hesitate to approach -each other and, with no preliminaries, join antlers and try to drive each -other back. These early fights are brief and on a more or less friendly -basis. A sharp prong may cause a bull to pull away and be unwilling to -resume sparring. But later, when a bull has acquired cows, up to a dozen -or two, he herds them constantly, and fights all challengers.</p> -<p>The single reddish calf is generally born in May. His strength and -speed develop rapidly so that he is soon able to follow the herds in their -hurried travels. By autumn he has acquired a coat similar to that of the -adults.</p> -<p>A close relationship exists between the caribou and the wolf, one that -has prevailed for thousands of years. Although the wolf largely subsists -on caribou over much of the north, natural adjustments have prevailed -so that caribou have prospered in the presence of wolf populations. Wolves -prey extensively on caribou calves in spring. When a wolf takes after a -herd of caribou containing calves, both old and young hold their own for -a time. But soon a calf may begin to fall behind the racing herd, its endurance -not quite up to that of the others. It is overtaken and eliminated. -Natural selection has operated, a culling operation that over eons of -time would seem to have evolutionary significance.</p> -<p>Grizzly bears capture a few very young calves. Encouraged by their -early-season success they continue chasing calves long after the calves -have gained strength and speed enough to readily escape. After a few -failures, I suspect that a grizzly learns that the calf-catching season has -passed and is no longer tempted to gallop ponderously and fruitlessly with -excess power but not sufficient fleetness to capture fleeing calves.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div> -<h3 id="c6">Moose -<br /><i>Alces alces gigas</i></h3> -<p>The northern conifer forest, stretching across the continent, is the -home of the moose. In Alaska he has reached his greatest size. A mature -bull weighs 12 to 15 hundred pounds, and his huge, palmate antlers -have reached a record spread of about 80 inches.</p> -<p>At a distance the moose appears to be black except for his long, light-colored -stockings. The large head is supported on a short neck, a shoulder -hump is prominent, the nose is loose and bulbous. A special feature is -the bell that hangs from the throat. The legs are inordinately long and -the hoofs sharp.</p> -<p>Moose may be discovered anywhere along the park road. They are -frequently to be seen between Savage and Sanctuary rivers, and along -Igloo Creek. In the Igloo Creek area three or four old bulls may generally -be found spending the summer together, their daily movements usually -covering about a half-mile or less. We speak of the moose as a forest animal, -but it is often found the year round in willow brush beyond timber. -It is not uncommon to see moose in the willows on the treeless passes -such as Sable and Polychrome.</p> -<p>The principal food of the moose is browse. In summer the leaves are -stripped from the branches; at other seasons the twigs are eaten. Willows -and dwarf birch are the chief browse species in the park. Aspens and -cottonwoods are relished but are not plentiful enough to be very important. -Alder is generally eaten only sparingly in winter. Farther south -over the moose’s range, firs and hemlock are highly palatable in winter. -The long legs enable the moose to reach high in his browsing. It is not -unusual to find winter browsing sign 12 feet or more from the ground -where the moose have stood on snow to feed. Tall willow brush and aspen -saplings are often broken over in order to get at the twigs out of reach. -The muzzle may be used for this, or the limb may be grasped in the mouth -and pulled down. Many broken willows are evident on the bars along -Igloo Creek.</p> -<p>The long legs and short neck make grazing difficult. In Wyoming I -once saw a cow and calf feeding on mushrooms, a delicacy. Reaching -the ground was not easy—the calf dropped to his knees, and the cow was -for part of the time down on one knee.</p> -<p>In summer moose may be seen in lakes and ponds feeding on submerged -vegetation. Where the water is deep the moose may disappear below the -surface in his feeding.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div> -<div class="img" id="fig8"> -<img src="images/p11.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="556" /> -<p class="pcap">Bull moose in a snowstorm.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig9"> -<img src="images/p11a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="524" /> -<p class="pcap">Yearling moose.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_17">17</div> -<p>Rutting activities begin by the first of September and continue into -October. The antlers of the bulls have reached full size and hardened -by the end of August, at which time the bulls begin to rub off the velvet, -the skin that has covered the growing antlers. Saplings and brush are -thrashed with great vigor, and this activity continues long after the antlers -have been cleaned. Apparently it serves as one of the outlets for the -strong rutting emotions. The bulls soon begin to spar and to determine -who is boss over whom. And they begin to seek the cows. A successful -bull usually has but a single cow, and he follows her closely as she moves -about in her feeding. During the rut he utters at intervals a deep grunt. -The cow, apparently when in an emotional state, utters a drawn-out -wailing call.</p> -<p>The one or two calves are generally born in late May or early June. -They are reddish without spots. The mother must sometimes protect her -calf from prowling grizzlies and this she generally seems fully capable of -doing, judging from incidents in which the bear is chased away by an infuriated -mother. A large male grizzly, however, is apparently not easily -discouraged. By autumn the calves have made a surprising growth and -have a new coat that resembles that of the adults. They remain with the -mother until near the time for a new calf, when she no longer tolerates -their presence.</p> -<p>The moose is a wilderness animal, requiring for his haunts big country. -The picturesque bull, silhouetted on a hill or on a lake shore, adds repose -and serenity to the wilderness.</p> -<h3 id="c7">Dall Sheep -<br /><i>Ovis dalli</i></h3> -<p>The Dall or white sheep is one of the outstanding wildlife features -of the park. The north side of the greater part of the Alaska Range is -excellent sheep habitat. Within the park the most extensive sheep country -extends from the Nenana River to the Muldrow glacier, a distance -of about 70 miles by road.</p> -<p>Most of the sheep spend the winter north of the road. This is favorable -winter range because the snowfall is relatively light and strong winds -keep the exposed ridges free of snow.</p> -<p>Many sheep remain on the winter range all year, but more of them -migrate toward the heads of the rivers in May and June. In making -the migration, the sheep must in places cross 2 or 3 miles of low country. -They are fully aware of their vulnerability to grizzlies and wolves in these -crossings. Before venturing away from a safe take-off ridge, they may -scrutinize the low country for a day or two, until they feel that no danger -lurks along the way. A band of 60 or 70 sheep may move across slowly -in a rather compact group; at other times urgency replaces caution and -they frequently break into a hurried gallop. Having reached the safety -of rough country again, the sheep may gambol about as though the weight -of tension has suddenly been lifted. The return migration is made in -August and September.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div> -<p>The large amber-colored horns of the rams with transverse ridges and -sweeping outward curl have a rugged, graceful beauty. They may spread -widely at the tips or curl rather close to the head. The ewes are less imposing. -Their horns are slender spikes that extend upward in a slight -curve, resembling those of the mountain goat but they lack the shiny -jet black color and are not as sharp. The horns are never shed and continue -to grow throughout the sheep’s life span of 11 to 14 years. The -growth is slight during the later years. Growth takes place during the -summer when food is highly nutritious. In winter only a groove or ridge -encircling the horn is formed. By counting these annual rings the age -of a sheep can be determined.</p> -<p>For detecting danger the sheep depend on their sharp eyes. They appear -to disregard scent which for many animals is the final decisive word -on any situation. But this seems quite logical, because the sheep generally -have a strategic view, and in the varying air currents no dependence can -be placed on getting scent messages. Noises are considered rather unimportant -unless the sheep have already caught a glimpse of movement -nearby.</p> -<p>To approach sheep for photography it is usually best to move slowly -toward them from below with no attempt to hide. They at once become -suspicious if they glimpse someone stalking. However, I have at times -stalked sheep where the opportunity for undetected close observation -was obvious. On one occasion, from a ragged rocky ridge top, I spent -most of an afternoon watching a band of rams some 50 yards away without -being discovered. Some bands are wilder than others and the same -band does not always behave uniformly. A band that has rested and is -ready to move may take your approach as an excuse for a romp.</p> -<p>The food of sheep consists of grasses, herbaceous species and browse, -chiefly willow. Scattered over the range are a number of salt licks which -the sheep seek for minerals.</p> -<p>The most active mating period extends from about the middle of -November to the middle of December. The rams who have been fraternizing -on friendly terms for many months, now and then showing mating -behavior such as gentle joustings, begin to take greater notice of the -ewes. The old rams continue to associate, but now serious battling takes -place. The fighting follows rather uniform conventional rules. The two -matched battlers move apart several yards, then, as though by a signal, they -turn and face each other and at the same time rise up on their hind legs, -then charge full speed at each other, their horns crashing together with -a loud thud. If the joust is even, they may repeat the performance until -the superiority of one of the combatants is evident. But there is some -tolerance among the rams, for two or more may breed with ewes in a -band indiscriminately.</p> -<p>The numbers of sheep on a range under natural conditions may vary -considerably. In the park, a very high population, possibly as high as -<span class="pb" id="Page_19">19</span> -5,000 or more, suffered severe losses during 1929 and again in 1932, due to -extremely deep snow conditions, and an icy crust in the latter year. In -1945 the population was down to about 500. Since 1945 there has been -a steady increase. The numbers in 1959 were up to about 2,000.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig10"> -<img src="images/p12.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="634" /> -<p class="pcap">Dall sheep; rams on the Alaska Range in summer.</p> -</div> -<p>Sheep are subject to wolf predation, especially when the numbers are -so high that part of the population must graze on hills too gentle for -safety. Sheep legs are strong and sturdy but for their effective functioning -steep country is needed. The steep terrain is, so to speak, part of their -legs. In my studies in the park, the losses showed that it was the very old, -the ailing, and the lambs in their first winter that were most vulnerable -to predation. The lynx (when rabbit numbers have crashed and these -animals have become scarce), wolverine, and grizzly may capture an -occasional sheep but their effect is unimportant. The golden eagle may -capture an occasional young lamb, but all my observations and food-habit -studies indicate that any eagle predation that takes place is insignificant. -If the park is large enough to support the sheep and their predators -(natural conditions), we have a situation ideal for the future of the sheep.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div> -<p>Mountain sheep have a high esthetic appeal. In part this may be due -to their setting, for we associate them with their beautiful haunts, the -precipitous cliffs and ledges intermingled with green slopes spangled with -flowers. This is idyllic country in which to hike and climb. Here we encounter -the golden eagle who shares the ridge tops with the sheep; the -wheatear, who comes all the way from Asia to nest; the gray-crowned rosy -finches; the flashing black and white snowbirds nesting in rock crevices; -and the surfbird that has left the ocean beaches to nest in these remote -mountains. And up high, the saxifrages, delicate yellow poppies, forget-me-nots -and spring beauties add color to it all.</p> -<h3 id="c8">Mountain Goat -<br /><i>Oreamnos kennedyi</i></h3> -<p>On May 27, 1955, a goat was discovered on Igloo Mountain on the -slope directly above the cabin I was occupying. It remained on the mountain -for 3 weeks before wandering away. It has not been seen since. This -is the only verified record for the park. But two road men reported seeing -a goat cross the road at Mile 3, on August 8, 1950. I believe this to be -a good record because both men are reliable observers. In the fall of 1950 -a goat was shot at Cantwell, not far from the park boundary.</p> -<p>The nearest known goat range is about 60 miles from the park in the -Talkeetna Mountains. The goats that reached the park may have been -sporadic wanderers for it is not unusual for goats to occasionally wander -25 or 30 miles from their known ranges. On the other hand, it is possible -that the goats are expanding their range toward the park. In 1959, -I was told that a band of a dozen goats had been reported at the head of -Jack River where they had not been reported before. Jack River lies between -the goat range and the park.</p> -<p>Identification is not difficult. The goat’s horns are short, slightly curved -spikes, similar to the horns of the female sheep, but shiny black and -smooth rather than grayish and rugose. The goat’s chin whiskers are -identifying, as is the shoulder hump, and the knee length pantaloons of -long hair. Also the goat’s face is noticeably longer than that of sheep. The -goat sexes are similar.</p> -<p>It is not unlikely that goats will continue to be occasionally seen in -the park. Any lone “sheep” might turn out to be a goat.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div> -<div class="img" id="fig11"> -<img src="images/p13.jpg" alt="" width="497" height="383" /> -<p class="pcap">Alaska wolf. -<br /><i>From a color sketch by William J. Berry.</i></p> -</div> -<h3 id="c9">Wolf -<br /><i>Canis lupus pambasileus</i></h3> -<p>Wolves vary considerably in size and color. The average male weighs -about 100 pounds and the female somewhat less, about 85 pounds. Their -color may be almost white, black, gray, or brown. Most wolves in interior -Alaska are either black or brownish like a coyote. The facial markings -show some variation and there may occasionally be noticeable patterns -over the rest of the body. A few wolves have a blackish saddle; one -that I knew had a black robber-mask across the eyes. Individual disposition -and behavior also varies. A handsome male had an extra touch of -spirit in his gallop; a male parent had a dour expression and seemed, to -my imagination, weighted with care. Wolves raised in captivity from -puppyhood are extremely friendly.</p> -<p>For a den, the wolf considers an enlarged fox burrow both convenient -and suitable. Dens have been found in a variety of situations. One was -located on a wooded rock bluff, another was beyond timber near the top -of a bluff bordering a river, and one was on a wooded island between old -river channels. The four to six young, probably the average size of litter, -are born the early part of May. The mother remains at home with the -pups and the male provides the victuals.</p> -<p>At one den that I observed closely there were two extra males and an -extra female with the pair. These wolves all fraternized in the most friendly -manner. Before departing for the night hunt, the five would sometimes -assemble in a close group, wag tails and frisk about, and sitting on -haunches sing in chorus. Later in the season this group of five adults was -joined by two additional males.</p> -<p>The following year the same pair returned to the den. They were accompanied -by one of the extra males that had been at the den the previous -<span class="pb" id="Page_22">22</span> -year. The extra female and one of the bachelors set up their own -housekeeping farther down the river. But when their pups were large -enough to travel, they all came up the river and joined the original pair. -Young and old combined added up to 15 wolves. This wolf pack was -composed of two pairs, an extra adult, and 10 pups. Some of the extra -wolves of the previous year were not seen—they may have been trapped -or poisoned beyond the park boundaries during the winter months.</p> -<p>The wolf’s food varies with the seasons and the prey species available. -When voles and lemmings are plentiful, the wolves may spend hours in -the grass and sedge areas pouncing on them. During the summer months -the ground squirrel has at times been one of the more important food -items. Occasionally an unfortunate marmot is surprised and in years -when rabbits are plentiful, the snowshoe rabbit becomes a food source. -I have found remains of several porcupines eaten by wolves, the spine-covered -hide neatly inverted.</p> -<p>But the wolf also, and primarily, feeds on the ungulates—the mountain -sheep, caribou, and moose. Under natural conditions the relationship -between the wolf and these prey species is old and tried. There is the -aphorism, “nothing in nature offends nature.” In the hunting of these -animals the wolf appears to be an evolutionary force in that there is a -tendency for the weaker individuals to succumb.</p> -<p>In spring the wolf hunts the caribou calves, which early develop surprising -speed, so that when a wolf chases a group of caribou, the calves -race along with the adults. But after a time a weak calf, one not up to the -others in endurance, may begin to drop behind, and it is this weak individual -that is overtaken, an example of the elimination of the weak, the -survival of the fittest. In the winter hunting, the old and weak animals -are the most susceptible. It is a struggle, a testing for all, but through the -ages, the sheep, moose, and caribou have survived and come down to us -adapted to their particular way of life, with the wolf as one of the environmental -factors.</p> -<p>At McKinley we have an opportunity to preserve a northern flora and -fauna. But the future of the wolf is precarious because the home range -of the park wolves extends beyond park boundaries into territory where -the wolf has no protection, where there is a bounty on his head. The -silencing of the longdrawn call of the wolf would be a tragic loss to the -human spirit.</p> -<h3 id="c10">Coyote -<br /><i>Canis latrans incolatus</i></h3> -<p>So far as known, the coyote has always been rare out in the park. Along -the Nenana River, however, I frequently have heard his song. Here he -seems to find conditions more favorable for his way of life. Perhaps it is -the presence of the snowshoe rabbit in this low brushy country that attracts -him.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div> -<div class="img" id="fig12"> -<img src="images/p14.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="549" /> -<p class="pcap">Coyote.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig13"> -<img src="images/p14a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="546" /> -<p class="pcap">Red fox.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_24">24</div> -<p>The coyote weights about 25 pounds on the average. His color is brownish -with black-tipped hairs intermingled. Color variation in coyotes is so -slight it is not noticeable in the field; he does not have the black, whitish -and various color patterns that are present in the wolf. The muzzle is long -and pointed, ears well developed, eyes sharp.</p> -<p>As a field biologist I have had an opportunity to observe coyotes in -many regions. In Yellowstone I made a 2-year study of its relationships -with other animals because it had been feared by some that he would -destroy the antelope, bighorn, and deer, if not controlled. The study -showed that the coyote there lived chiefly on meadow mice and pocket -gophers in summer, and carrion in winter, and that he had no harmful -effect on the large ungulates.</p> -<p>On the San Carlos Indian Reservation in Arizona the coyote was blamed -for cattle losses. Here a study showed that the basic cause of losses was -over-use of the range and that where grazing was good all losses were insignificant. -Cattlemen are finding this true and are beginning to appreciate -the usefulness of the coyote as a curbing influence on rodent depredations. -In addition to a meat diet, which includes great quantities of grasshoppers -in season, the coyote feeds extensively on fruit. On Isle Royale, in Lake -Superior, I found it feeding on sarsaparilla berries; in Jackson Hole, -Wyoming, on silverberry and quantities of haw; in Arizona, on manzanita -and juniper berries, the latter being the winter staff of life.</p> -<p>The coyote is best known for his song, which in all its variations, symbolizes -the spirit of wildness and remote country. J. Frank Dobie in his -<i>The Voice of the Coyote</i> expresses the sentiment of many when he writes: -“I confess to a sympathy for the coyote that has grown until it lives in the -deepest part of my nature.”</p> -<h3 id="c11">Red Fox -<br /><i>Vulpes fulva alascensis</i></h3> -<p>The fabled red fox is abundant, widely distributed over the park and -frequently seen. Silver, cross, and red color phases, along with some intermediate -variants, are well represented, and two or three of these types -frequently show up in a single litter. The prominent white tip on the tail -distinguishes the fox from the coyote and wolf.</p> -<p>Hundreds of dens are scattered over the countryside, many more than -are used in any one season. They are located indiscriminately in spruce -woods and out on the open tundra miles from the nearest tree. Each pair -has a selection of old dens to choose from, but often they occupy favorite -sites year after year. During a season, a family sometimes moves from their -<span class="pb" id="Page_25">25</span> -first choice to a den nearby. The connecting burrows of a den usually -have 5 or 6 entrances and one I examined had 19.</p> -<p>The young are born the early part of May. By June the blackish, blue-eyed, -chubby pups may be seen walking about clumsily. At this age they -are nursed in the open. One mother that I often watched almost always -nursed her five pups from a standing position. Only twice did I see her -lying on her side to nurse. As the pups grow they become slimmer and the -eyes turn brown and the coat color changes so that the different color -types can be identified. Although nursing seems to cease toward the end -of June, the cubs remain at the den into September.</p> -<p>While the male travels far to hunt, the vixen remains at home to watch -over the pups. Most of the time she is curled up at the den or perhaps a -hundred yards away on a prominence. When she wishes to nurse the pups -or give them food, she puts her head in the mouth of a burrow and calls -softly “mmmmm,” “mmmmm.” If they do not come forth, she may go -to another entrance and call. But usually they respond at once. A sharp, -guttural “klung” has the opposite meaning; when the pups hear this -warning they scurry into a burrow. This command is often given after -the pups have nursed and the mother wants to go off a short distance to -lie down.</p> -<p>The female exhibits extreme friendliness toward her mate. When he -returns to the den after an absence she greets him with tail-wagging, -face-licking and much wriggling of her body. He is less demonstrative -and acts tired, which he probably is after several hours of hunting. She -picks up his offerings—usually mice or ground squirrels—eats her fill -or, if not hungry, carries the booty to the burrows and calls to the young. -He moves off to one side to rest. She sometimes watches for his return -from various points. One evening a vixen impatiently moved from one -lookout to another for over 2 hours before the male arrived and received -her warm welcome.</p> -<p>Mice and lemmings are the staple all-year food, but in summer the -ground squirrel may make up about half the diet. When snowshoe hares -and ptarmigan are plentiful, they become prominent in the diet. Carrion -is especially attractive in winter, and the fox attends carcasses and curls -up on the snow to wait until the wolves and wolverine have eaten. He -robs wolf and wolverine caches, and he sometimes has his own caches -robbed.</p> -<p>In the latter part of July the foxes go berrying, for they are fond of -fruit. Blueberries and crowberries are everywhere available for the picking. -The berries are also eaten in winter sometimes, it is said, quite extensively -when mice are scarce.</p> -<p>Foxes appear to be well able to take care of themselves. They can outrun -the grizzly, wolf, and wolverine. When the golden eagle swoops at -him he stands on watch with his bushy tail erect and straight as a ramrod. -The eagle dares not strike.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div> -<h3 id="c12">Lynx -<br /><i>Lynx canadensis</i></h3> -<p>The lynx manner is one of independence, confidence and complacency. -He walks through the woods with dignity, looking neither right nor left. -Of course, he is not as oblivious as he appears to be. He may even stop -to watch you, but only briefly, and then he continues sedately on his way.</p> -<p>His long legs are thicker than seem necessary to support the lean body, -but they are no doubt valuable for long jumps and pouncing. The large, -widespreading feet serve him well as snowshoes, and strong, curved claws -enable him to scramble readily up a tree. The eyes are startlingly big and -yellow and the throat ruff gives to the face a squarish look. Long, glistening -black tassels adorn the ears. The stub tail, about 4 inches long and -tipped with black, serves to register emotions. The winter fur is soft and -grayish, with few markings except for the facial pattern; the summer coat -is more tawny.</p> -<p>Nature has bestowed on the lynx a snowshoe fixation so that he spends -his nights and days thinking and dreaming of rabbit dinners. So dependent -has he become on the rabbit for his main course that his numbers -flourish and wane in the wake of rabbit statistics.</p> -<p>During the period between 1954 and 1956, when lynx were abundant -in the park, I made a study of their food habits by analyzing several hundred -lynx scats. In addition to rabbits, the lynx had fed considerably on -ptarmigan and in summer on ground squirrels. This part of the diet -increased as the rabbits decreased. But with the decline of the rabbits, -the supplemental foods did not suffice to maintain the population, and -the lynx became scarce.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig14"> -<img src="images/p16.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="396" /> -<p class="pcap">Lynx.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_27">27</div> -<p>In the winter of 1907-08, Charles Sheldon noted two instances of lynx -preying on sheep. The rabbit population had crashed and the lynx had -turned to other sources for survival. One lynx that made its attack on a -sheep from ambush found the prey rather large, for in the ensuing struggle -he received some severe bruises. He apparently was driven to hunting -animals out of his class. About 2 years after rabbits disappeared in the -Kuskokwim River region a number of years ago, lynx did some preying on -reindeer in winter by leaping on their backs and biting the neck. The lynx -were said to have attacked the reindeer only that one winter. During -periods of food scarcity, lynx have also been observed to prey on each -other.</p> -<p>The young are born in May in a cave, or perhaps more often, under a -windfall. The gestation period is about 60 days.</p> -<p>In early June, 1955, I saw a lynx in the spruce woods near Savage River. -As I stood watching I heard crying sounds up in the woods. The lynx -disappeared in the direction of the crying. I followed and saw the parent -under a windfall as it was departing with a baby in its mouth, the last of -a litter it was moving. Snow and rain had fallen and the mother was -carrying her family, one by one, from under an inadequate windfall to -another about 250 yards away. The new home was under a brushy spruce -that provided a dry shelter in any kind of weather. So well hidden and -secure did the mother feel that she barely opened her sleepy eyes even -when approached within 20 feet.</p> -<p>How empty the woods and willow patches become with the decline of -the rabbits and the departure of the lynx. It is like an empty stage after -the actors have finished their play and departed. Scattered through the -quiet woods are their signs of life and activity, but the action has stopped. -On the tall willows, 6 feet from the ground, is the gnawed white rabbit-line, -where rabbits had sat on the snow and gnawed the bark within -reach. In places the ground is littered with severed twigs, many of them -partially gnawed. And everywhere one encounters tufts of rabbit fur and -hind legs, left on the green moss, signifying rabbit tragedies and lynx -banquets. But the rabbits will return again to dance in the moonlight, and -the lynx will be back in his rich domain walking with stately and regal -step.</p> -<h3 id="c13">Wolverine -<br /><i>Gulo hylaeus</i></h3> -<p>The fabulous wolverine is a powerful and picturesque member of the -weasel tribe weighing up to 35 pounds or more. Because of his stocky -build and long hair, he resembles a small bear. Frequently the large -hoary marmot is mistaken for him—there is considerable similarity. But -<span class="pb" id="Page_28">28</span> -the broad yellowish-tan stripe on the sides of the body is distinctive. A -whitish collar, not always visible, extends across the throat. The tail is -short and bushy; the sharp, well-developed claws are whitish. His range is -circumpolar and extends southward in the mountains to Colorado and -California, but he is now scarce south of Canada.</p> -<p>The wolverine in late years seems to have become more plentiful in -the park; nevertheless, it is always considered something special to see one. -They range from river bottom to ridge top, are found in the woods or -in open country miles beyond timber. Perhaps because of the open view, -he is frequently seen on the low passes, especially on Sable Pass.</p> -<p>In winter the track of the far-wandering wolverine is frequently seen. -In his usual gait he bounces along with back arched. Each jump usually -leaves a set of three imprints; the one in front is made by a hind foot; -the middle imprint is made by a hind foot falling in the track of a front -foot; the rear imprint is made by the other front foot. As in the tracks of -a hopping rabbit, the hind feet tend to be brought up ahead of the front -feet.</p> -<p>The wolverine readily climbs trees. One winter, near a moose carcass, -tracks in the snow showed that a wolf had chased a wolverine up a tree on -two or three occasions. If the two had met in the open the threatening -posture of the wolverine would, no doubt, be sufficient to discourage -attack. When attacked by a dog, a wolverine has been seen to lie on its -back in a defensive attitude, a position that was effective. Powerful ripping -claws and jaws face the attack.</p> -<p>Not much quantitative information has been gathered on his food -habits. I have watched him pouncing on mice and suspect that mice -(voles) and lemmings are the most important items in his diet. In summer -he captures ground squirrels, sometimes by doing some digging. -Once I noted that he had dug out a wasp nest hidden in the ground. The -calves of caribou and moose, when very young, are no doubt potential -victims. But observations indicate that even a caribou can ward off an -attack on the young calves. Such items would, of course, be unimportant -in the wolverine’s total economy. His wide wanderings in winter would -seem to be helpful in finding carrion. In rich wild country, considerable -carrion probably comes his way. I have found the wolverine attending a -frozen moose carcass for a number of days. When a carcass is not frozen, -he carries away what he can to cache for later use.</p> -<p>The gestation period is said to be about 9 months. The breeding apparently -takes place in summer. The fertilized eggs, after brief development, -lie unattached and dormant in the uterus for several months. Some -time in midwinter the eggs become attached to the wall of the uterus and -the more usual development takes place. (The marten and short-tailed -weasel have a similar breeding history.) Females have been found in a -nursing condition in early April. Along Igloo Creek, Mr. and Mrs. Edwin -C. Park watched a mother nurse two young at least two-thirds grown.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_29">29</div> -<div class="img" id="fig15"> -<img src="images/p17.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="370" /> -<p class="pcap">Wolverine.</p> -</div> -<p>According to Peter Krott, in his fascinating book about the wolverine -in Europe, this fierce animal makes a friendly pet. The author, in the -beginning, made a business of acquiring young wolverines for sale to -zoos. Because the animal was rare and intriguing, the demand was great -and the prices remunerative. But Mr. Krott and his wife became fond of -the wolverines and found it ever harder to dispose of them. Soon they -ceased selling them, and, instead, kept them as pets and allowed them to -roam freely over wild country. Studies were made of their habits. Their -wolverines might wander far and stay away for several days, but they -would return at intervals.</p> -<p>The wolverine is at home in the McKinley wilderness. Here we have -the rare opportunity of seeing him in his natural environment.</p> -<h3 id="c14">Marten -<br /><i>Martes americana actuosa</i></h3> -<p>The marten is long and lithe, and its graceful activity is conspicuous. -The usual color is a rich brown, shading to blackish on the feet and tail. -The face is grayish with a short, dark line extending upward from the -inner corner of each eye. A large orange throat and breast patch is very -striking in most individuals. The fur is soft and long, the tail is long and -well-furred, and serves to register various emotions. The marten is alert -to sounds and this is indicated by its well-developed, broad ears.</p> -<p>The body is 16 to 17 inches long, and the tail, including hair at tips, -8 or 9 inches. A large male may weigh up to 2½ pounds. The female is -somewhat smaller than the male.</p> -<p>The marten is found in the forested parts of the park along the northern -and eastern boundary. In winter, I have noted a few tracks in the big -spruce woods south of Wonder Lake. In Wyoming, I have found martens -<span class="pb" id="Page_30">30</span> -in rock slides beyond timber, the -rock crevasses furnishing the desired -protection.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig16"> -<img src="images/p18.jpg" alt="" width="568" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">Marten.</p> -</div> -<p>At one time the marten was -thought to depend on the red squirrel -for his daily fare, but recent -studies indicate that ordinarily relatively -few red squirrels are eaten. A -food-habits study made at Castle -Rocks near the northwest corner of -the park showed that the martens -there were living primarily on meadow -voles and the red-backed mouse. -Blueberries were eaten in winter as -well as in summer. In Wyoming, I -have found martens feeding extensively -on blueberry, rhamnus, haw, -and mountain ashberries by choice -at a time when voles and other foods -were plentiful. Like the fox and -coyote, they have a strong predilection for berries. In slide rock, they -manage to capture an occasional pika.</p> -<p>The marten breeds in July and August, but the young are not born -until 9 months later. The long gestation period for such a small animal -is due to the delayed attachment of the fertilized egg to the uterus. Except -for the period when the female is followed by young, and during the -breeding period, martens travel alone.</p> -<p>In Grand Teton Park, Wyoming, where I had much opportunity to observe -martens, I found that, although they seldom captured a red squirrel, -in their vagabond life over their home area, they did use red squirrel -homes for sleeping. The marten might spend a few days resting in a -squirrel’s spare nest, then move on to another squirrel domicile for a few -days. The squirrels suffered only the inconvenience of an unwanted guest, -and perhaps the temporary loss of a favorite bed.</p> -<h3 id="c15">Mink -<br /><i>Mustela vison ingens</i></h3> -<p>The mink is the amphibious member of the weasel family. He lives -along rivers and lakes and probably forages more in the water than on -land. Fish, frogs, insects, snails, crayfish, rabbits, muskrats, and mice all -appear on his bill of fare. In the country between the mouth of the Yukon -and the Kuskokwim River, the mink is said to subsist largely on Alaska -<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span> -blackfish (<i>Dallia pectoralis</i>). So abundant were the mink in the area that -the Eskimo were called “mink people.” The muddy waters in this watery -region apparently supported enough blackfish for both the mink and -the natives. This fish is said to have been the chief food of the natives. -It is very tenacious of life. Kegs of live fish, packed densely, were kept -for food in the dwellings. A steady slow rotary movement of the mass of -fish brought each fish to the surface at intervals for a gulp of air. When -a frozen blackfish is thawed, it is said to become as lively as ever.</p> -<p>Mink tracks have been noted along the Nenana River, but over most -of the eastern half of the park the mink is rare.</p> -<h3 id="c16">River Otter -<br /><i>Lutra canadensis yukonensis</i></h3> -<p>The otter is rare in the park. It was reported present in Wonder Lake -some years ago and tracks in the snow were reported at Savage River. It -probably occurs in the Nenana River, along the eastern park boundary.</p> -<p>The otter, a member of the weasel family, has become adapted to life -in the water. His body is about 3 feet long, and his long muscular tail is -over a foot long. His cousin, the sea otter, plentiful in the Aleutian Islands, -is much larger and more specialized for an aquatic life.</p> -<p>I have watched a family of otters in Grand Teton Park fishing for an -hour or longer. They kept diving steadily, and occasionally one would -come up with a small fish which he would proceed to eat, beginning at the -head. Larger fish are taken ashore. Trout, chubs, and suckers were available -but numerous droppings showed that the otter were feeding chiefly on -the chubs and suckers. The fish taken were no doubt those most easily -captured. A few crayfish were also eaten. This particular family was -living in a large beaver house also occupied by beavers. They entered -their chamber by land and apparently lived upstairs above the beaver’s -part of the house with its underwater entrance.</p> -<p>In winter the otter frequently travels over the snow from one piece -of water to another. In these travels he slides on his belly down all slopes -and sometimes even on the level. In play, a family may repeatedly climb -a mudbank or a snowbank to course down a slide leading into water.</p> -<h3 id="c17">Short-Tailed Weasel -<br /><i>Mustela erminea arctica</i></h3> -<p>Two species of weasel occur in the park. The larger one with a black-tipped -tail is called the short-tailed weasel, and the smaller one with -an extremely short and all-white tail is the least weasel.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_32">32</div> -<p>Both weasels are brown in summer and white in winter, a protective -coloration no doubt useful in escaping detection. In some southern parts -of their ranges these weasels remain brown all year, and in intermediate -areas part of the population turns white in winter and part of it remains -brown. It is apparent that climate has an effect on coat color, the specific -factor being the presence or absence of snow on the ground.</p> -<p>It has been pointed out that the short-tailed weasel is much larger in -the north than in the southern part of the range. In Wyoming and Colorado, -where the tiny least weasel is absent, the short-tailed weasel approaches -the least weasel in size and probably fills that weasel’s niche in -the environment.</p> -<p>The food of the short-tailed weasel probably consists chiefly of various -species of meadow mice and lemmings. Observations indicate that ground -squirrels and rabbits may occasionally be captured. Shrews no doubt are -also on the menu.</p> -<p>In winter, weasel tracks form an odd pattern. Their jumps are alternately -long and short, and often they make an erratic trail. Frequently -the tracks show that the weasel disappears and travels beneath the surface -for a stretch before reappearing.</p> -<p>Even though weasels are not very palatable because of their well-developed -musk glands, they nevertheless are often preyed upon. It is a case -of coyote or fox capturing any small animal that moves and examining -the victim afterwards. Weasels are often left uneaten.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig17"> -<img src="images/p19.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="416" /> -<p class="pcap">Short-tailed weasel.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_33">33</div> -<h3 id="c18">Least Weasel -<br /><i>Mustela rixosa eskimo</i></h3> -<p>The range of the least weasel is circumpolar. In North America it is -found over most of Alaska and Canada, and southward to Montana, Kansas, -North Carolina. It is widely dispersed but apparently nowhere abundant. -This tiny weasel is only 6 to 6½ inches long with a maximum tail -length of 1½ inches. It is the smallest living member of the carnivores -and weighs no more than a meadow mouse. The tail is pure white, lacking -the black tip present in other weasels.</p> -<p>I have a record of four specimens from the park. One captured in a -mousetrap was 5½ inches long, the tail measuring less than 1 inch. I -found a dead one at an eagle perch on a ridge top, and remains of two -others on gravel bars, apparently discarded after being captured.</p> -<p>A sourdough on the Koyokuk River with whom my brother and I -stayed one night, had a least weasel spending the winter with him. It -had the run of the cabin and was very tame.</p> -<p>Apparently the chief food of the least weasel is mice, some of them -about as large as himself.</p> -<h3 id="c19">Snowshoe Rabbit -<br /><i>Lepus americanus macfarlani</i></h3> -<p>Like the ptarmigan and the northern weasel, the snowshoe rabbit, or -varying hare, each autumn changes from a dominantly brown summer -coat to a white winter ensemble. (In Washington where snow is scarce -in its habitat, the snowshoe rabbit remains brown the year round.) His -coat color blends at all seasons with his background, so all he need do -to be fairly sure of escaping visual detection is to have confidence in his -camouflage and sit motionless. The fur is so long, thick, and warm that -he can sit all day in fifty below zero weather without freezing. His large -hind legs are equipped with snowshoe feet, an obvious advantage in snow -country.</p> -<p>The most favorable rabbit habitat is the brushy country along the east -and north boundaries. Here a few may always be found. Out in the park -they are quite scarce except in those years when the population is at or -near a peak.</p> -<p>In winter, the rabbits feed on bark gnawed from various shrubs and -saplings. Willow, dwarf birch and alder, because of their high palatability -and abundance, are especially important winter foods. In years of rabbit -abundance, I have seen patches of willow and dwarf birch trimmed to -<span class="pb" id="Page_34">34</span> -the snow line. At such times large willow brush may show a white band -2 feet wide where the rabbits have gnawed the bark within reach of the -snow line. As the snow deepens, some foods are buried but the change of -level brings new food supplies within reach. A variety of other shrubs are -also eaten at this season. Spruce bark is relished. Porcupines, and also -red squirrels, feeding in a spruce tree inadvertently add to the rabbit menu -many dropped spruce twigs. In summer, the rabbits turn to a variety of -fresh green foods.</p> -<p>The young of the snowshoe rabbit are furred and active when born -and apparently there is no real nest provided. (In the cottontail branch -of the family the young are born hairless, helpless and in a warm nest.) -The litters may vary from one to six. The gestation period is about 36 days. -The young are weaned (in captivity) when about 4 weeks old. The females -breed again soon after a litter is born. It seems likely that a female -may have as many as three or four litters during a summer. A male is -apparently with a female for only a short time.</p> -<p>A number of animals are subject to cycles of extreme abundance and -scarcity. The pendulum swings from one extreme to the other. A population, -in spite of enemies of all kinds, increases until the numbers become -so large that they threaten the food supply or, because of congestion, are -drastically reduced by diseases. The length of cycle in a species depends -upon annual losses and the rate of increase. Cycles are relatively short -in voles and lemmings which breed at an early age (a few weeks), breed -often, and have large litters. In these small rodents the cycle may cover -a span of about 4 years. In larger species, the cycles are longer.</p> -<p>The snowshoe hare is one of the more obvious examples of a cyclic -species. From acute scarcity the population in about 10 years pyramids -until the country is full of rabbits. The woods are alive with a variety of -activity. Enterprise, lovemaking, and tragedy are at their peak. Not only -have the rabbits multiplied, but their enemies have flourished, and the -lynx, fox, wolverine and birds of prey have all prospered, and certain -enemies such as the lynx, become especially abundant.</p> -<p>During the high rabbit population peak, between 1953 and 1955, a -few dead rabbits began to appear in the summer of 1954. In early August -a group of tourists on a short walk noted three dead rabbits in the hotel -area. But the rabbits were still numerous in the spring of 1955 and I -anticipated the woods alive with young rabbits the following months. -Instead, they decreased. By July, along Igloo Creek, they had become -scarce. The so-called rabbit crash had taken place.</p> -<p>Nature steps into all situations, and one control or another automatically -appears. Food shortage, disease, predation or competition enter -the picture. Adjusting is a continuous process. Many people are talking -and writing about the human population explosion in our midst, fearing -that space for ourselves and nature is disappearing alarmingly. Perhaps -we should consider the snowshoe rabbit.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div> -<div class="img" id="fig18"> -<img src="images/p20.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="661" /> -<p class="pcap">Snowshoe rabbit, or varying hare.</p> -</div> -<h3 id="c20">Collared Pika -<br /><i>Ochotona collaris</i></h3> -<p>The pika, cony, or rock rabbit, as he is variously called, makes his home -in rock slides. His way of life, and his physical attributes, are such, that -he would have difficulty surviving away from the labyrinth of passages -in his slide rock home.</p> -<p>The pika is in the same order (different family) as hares and rabbits. -Like rabbits, they have two pairs of upper incisors; back of the grooved -anterior incisors is a pair of very small incisors. The feet are furred; the -ears are not long but are rounded and prominent. Something has happened -to the external tail for there is none. The tail vertebrae lie under -the body skin. The plump body is about 6 or 7 inches long as the cony -sits on a rock; the color is gray.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_36">36</div> -<div class="img" id="fig19"> -<img src="images/p21.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="595" /> -<p class="pcap">Collared pika (cony, rock rabbit)</p> -</div> -<p>The call is a single nasal “yank,” usually uttered while perched on a -rock where he can look around. He may be difficult to locate, but a movement -as he disappears in a crevice and reappears on the same rock or one -nearby will reveal him. Usually other calls from various parts of the rock -field will indicate the location of other pikas.</p> -<p>The pika is known for his hay making in preparation for the long -winter. During much of the summer he is busy carrying grass, herbs, and -twigs to his many caches located in cavities protected from the weather. -The vegetation is usually added slowly enough to the various caches so -that it all cures properly. Only occasionally is a cache moldy. I have noted -a few caches composed of the broad, heavy coltsfoot leaves that had failed -to dry properly; possibly these slow-drying leaves were harvested in wet -weather. Nearly all plants within range of his rocky habitat are used. -Willow, rose, grass, sedge, horsetail, various saxifrages, fireweed, coltsfoot, -fruiticose and even crustose lichens are some of the many plants that have -been found in the caches. Some books say that the hay is spread over rocks -to dry and then stored. The pika’s technique is superior to such quick -drying, and results in more nutritious and greener hay.</p> -<p>The sheep, moose and caribou often seek mineral licks consisting of -clay which can be readily eaten. Ground squirrels and marmot feed on -pebbles or fine dust in their craving for minerals. On one occasion I -watched a pika gnawing a rock. A niche showed that a considerable -<span class="pb" id="Page_37">37</span> -amount of it had been eaten. I carried the rock away as a sample of rock-eating -but later thought better of it and returned it to the pika. Perhaps -in the future I may be able to check the rock again.</p> -<p>Along the road, the first good place to look for pikas is in the jumble -of rocks above the Savage River bridge, an accumulation that has fallen -away from a rocky point, part of which is still in place. On Polychrome -Pass are several rock fields where many pikas are living. Another pika -place along the road is a mile or two beyond Camp Eilson. A pretty picture -is a pika carrying a bouquet of flowers, neatly arranged, as though -he were going a-courting.</p> -<h3 id="c21">Hoary Marmot -<br /><i>Marmota caligata</i></h3> -<div class="img" id="fig20"> -<img src="images/p21a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="604" /> -<p class="pcap">Hoary marmot mother and young.</p> -</div> -<p>The hoary marmot is an amplified version of the eastern woodchuck. -It is roughly bicolor, being gray over the shoulder region and light brown -over the hips. The black patch across the nose enhances its facial aspect -somewhat, and the jet-black feet add a little contrast to its appearance. -<span class="pb" id="Page_38">38</span> -He has a bushy tail that he jerks about a good deal, especially when he -travels. Occasionally, he is mistaken for a wolverine. His soft color pattern -is an excellent example of camouflage and of this he apparently is -aware as he flattens himself on a rock to escape detection.</p> -<p>His voice is exceptional. One day, some years ago, I walked down Savage -Canyon with two companions. One of them, who stopped to photograph -some flowers, was left far behind. When he finally overtook us he said -that he had heard us whistling and had hurried as best he could. We said -we had not whistled, but he was still sure he had heard us. Then it -dawned on me that he had been hearing the loud piercing, prolonged -warning whistles of the marmots that make their homes in the canyon. -This whistle is one of the familiar sounds in marmot country. The approach -of a fox, grizzly bear or golden eagle is announced by loud whistling -which alerts everyone, including ground squirrels and mountain -sheep, to be on their guard.</p> -<p>One day three of us watched a youngish marmot high on a sheep ridge. -He was apprehensive and for a time whistled at intervals. When one of -my companions whistled in the same key, the marmot answered. But if the -imitation were off key there was no reply. The marmot responded as long -as our patience held. This instance may have been exceptional for I have -had no opportunity as yet to make additional observations.</p> -<p>The marmot has learned to seek a home in a rock fortress as a safeguard -against being excavated by a grizzly. Whenever possible the dens -are dug in rocky areas, or at rock outcrops. One den on a steep slope that -I observed for several years was enlarged and renovated each year. The -small rocks encountered in the digging were carried out in the mouth -and dropped on the edge of the mound. In late summer, mouthfuls of dry -grass are carried in for the winter hibernating nest. One look at the broad, -fat marmot suggests that he could sleep a long time without food. When -he retires, he may plug the entrance with rocks and mud.</p> -<p>The home life of the marmots has not been carefully studied but -they seem to live in colonies, all using a number of dens distributed as -much as 200 yards or more apart. I have seen several adults in a colony -and watched them move from one den to another. In traveling between -some of the dens the marmots are highly vulnerable if surprised by one -of their enemies. The attractive black-eyed young require two or more -years to gain the dimensions and weight of their elders.</p> -<p>Two excellent places to find marmots along the highway are the -jumbled boulders on the east end of the Savage River bridge and in -Polychrome Pass, especially on a gray, lichen-covered rock below the road -and the rocky ridge across the ravine from it. If not active, the marmots -may generally be seen flattened out on a rock, basking in the sunshine.</p> -<p>Some of the marmots in these places and also in remote areas are quite -tame. I walked practically alongside one big marmot as it fed in a patch -of mertensia. It gobbled up dozens of the big leaves and chewed them -down lustily and noisily, scarcely regarding my presence. Accustomed to -<span class="pb" id="Page_39">39</span> -harmless mountain sheep and caribou, they sometimes apparently place -humans in the same category.</p> -<h3 id="c22">Arctic Ground Squirrel -<br /><i>Citellus parryi ablusus</i></h3> -<div class="img" id="fig21"> -<img src="images/p22.jpg" alt="" width="466" height="801" /> -<p class="pcap">Arctic ground squirrel at alert.</p> -</div> -<p>The most neighborly animals in the park are the ground squirrels. -They quickly become tame at cabins and campgrounds and eagerly stuff -their cheek pouches with hotcakes until their gulps become ludicrous -<span class="pb" id="Page_40">40</span> -with excessive efforts to make room for one more mouthful. Leave a -cabin door ajar and the bread supply is soon being appropriated.</p> -<p>Ground squirrels are always standing erect shouting worried warnings -of danger. Much of the time the cries seem to be only an outlet for accumulated -nervousness. But one learns to differentiate these cries from -those delivered in dead earnest. When extreme anxiety is unmistakable, -it pays to become alert. Their cries have often served to call my attention -to passing grizzlies, wolves, foxes, lynx and low-flying eagles. And the -whole wildlife community similarly benefits. The message is relayed in -all directions by ground squirrels in a sort of chain reaction, but emphasis -in delivery gradually decreases until the message is lost. The cheery calls -and sharp warnings of the ground squirrels are for many of us, closely -associated with the general flavor and enchantment of the north country.</p> -<p>The winter months are spent hibernating in a burrow, curled up in a -grass nest. A few squirrels remain active until the middle of October or -even later. In the spring some come forth in April. Where deep snowfields -cover the dens and it seems unlikely that much temperature change -could penetrate to the squirrels, they nevertheless awaken as though -provided with alarm clocks and tunnel to the surface. Their muddy -tracks radiate from each den over the snow as the squirrels seek exposed -forage.</p> -<p>General observations indicate that the female has only one litter each -breeding season. The young do not reach adult size by the first autumn. -Year after year, the ground squirrel population in the park is high. Yet -no indication of cyclic behavior has been observed. Possibly their many -enemies prevent them from becoming superabundant and, therefore, subject -to epidemic disease.</p> -<p>Ground squirrels are an important factor in the park ecology. They -furnish about 90 percent of the golden eagle’s diet, and in some localities -they are the chief food of the gyrfalcon. The wolf at times feeds extensively -on them, and they contribute heavily, sometimes 50 percent, to the fox -diet. The information available indicates that the wolverine often captures -them, and with the disappearance of the rabbits, the lynx deigns -to hunt them for a season. For the grizzly they furnish his most dependable -taste of meat. The bears spend many hours excavating for ground squirrels.</p> -<h3 id="c23">Red Squirrel -<br /><i>Tamiasciurus hudsonicus preblei</i></h3> -<p>The noisy red squirrel, with his churring, chattering, and “sic-sic-ing,” -lends a touch of the familiar to the northern woods. He has followed the -spruces along the rivers to timberline, and I saw one a half-mile beyond -<span class="pb" id="Page_41">41</span> -timber, living perhaps temporarily, among the pikas in tumbled rocks. -They are generally plentiful, but in 1956 I found them extremely scarce. -A catastrophic die-off had apparently occurred in the park, and that year -the squirrels were also reported scarce in other parts of Alaska.</p> -<p>These northern squirrels have a spruce cone economy. Even before -the middle of August they are frantically harvesting spruce cones (chiefly -white spruce in the park). One afternoon a squirrel worked steadily in -a group of spruces for almost 3 hours, cutting cones and giving them a -flip with his mouth or paws. Hundreds were scattered about under the -trees, and still they continued to rain and strike the ground with dull -thuds. Occasionally the squirrel seemed to get his wires crossed and, instead -of dropping a cone, would run all the way down the trunk with it.</p> -<p>Sometimes twigs bearing a cluster of cones are nipped off. In two or -three sizeable caches all the cones were in clusters still attached to twigs. -Perhaps this rather efficient method of handling cones is at times accentuated -by certain individuals.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig22"> -<img src="images/p23.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="637" /> -<p class="pcap">Red squirrel.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_42">42</div> -<p>In September I have seen many caches scattered about on the forest -floor as though piled hurriedly as a temporary expedient. One heap -measured 5 feet long, 3 feet wide and about 7 inches deep. Possibly these -heaps were later stored more carefully in secluded spots with the tips of the -cones pointed downward. After the cones are stored, the squirrels continue -to give them solicitous care. One spring when melting snow exposed a -cache of cones, they were re-cached in various places, but each cone was -first bitten into, and if spoiled was discarded. About the same time another -cache of cones in a burrow was also removed and stored elsewhere.</p> -<p>Another food item that is stored in quantity is the mushroom. Many -are placed on spruce branches where, if they do get wet, they will soon -dry out and remain edible, and I once found great quantities stored in a -cabin.</p> -<p>Aside from the cached foods, the red squirrels feed extensively, at least -through the winter and spring, on the buds of spruce twigs. Often you -may find many twigs on the ground with the tiny buds neatly removed. -In Wyoming, I have found squirrels in summer living for days on the -larvae in cottonwood galls, and I suspect such food may be eaten in Alaska -too, where galls are found.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig23"> -<img src="images/p24.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="647" /> -<p class="pcap">Northern flying squirrel.</p> -</div> -<p>Each squirrel commonly has two or more nests built of grasses, shredded -bark, ptarmigan feathers, and hair of rabbits, moose or whatever is available. -The squirrel piles this material on a branch until it is 2 or 3 feet -high. One squirrel that I watched building a nest pushed himself into -<span class="pb" id="Page_43">43</span> -the middle of the heap. Soon the whole nest shook vigorously at intervals. -Apparently he was forming a chamber.</p> -<p>The chatter of red squirrels, their piles of middens and their busy harvesting -activities, add cheer and life to the northern woods.</p> -<h3 id="c24">Northern Flying Squirrel -<br /><i>Glaucomys sabrinus yukonensis</i></h3> -<p>When the gesticulating red squirrel has finished his daylight bustling -and retires to his nest, the flying squirrel comes forth to take over the -night, but in a gentle and quiet manner. Like the night-flying owl, its -coat is soft and its flight silent.</p> -<p>The furred “wing” membranes on each side of the body are attached to -the full length of the fore and hind legs and are supported and extended -in part by a cartilaginous process growing out from the wrist. Thus when -the legs are extended laterally, the squirrel becomes a glider with the -most delicate and reliable controls. His sailing carries him from the top -of one tree to the base of another where he checks his speed by an upward -swing and alights with a soft thud. Sharp claws and squirrel agility give -him the climbing ability to get quickly up a tree. Where trees are widely -spaced as they are in some stands of large cottonwoods, he may in winter -make a five-point landing in the snow, his broad thickly-furred tail serving -as rudder and gliding surface, and to a less extent as a landing ski. -I have seen tracks showing a touch and a raise before the final landing -with legs drawn under; then follow long jumps over the snow to the -nearest tree. The nest is usually built in a tree cavity.</p> -<p>Perhaps the height of night esthetics is lying in a sleeping bag under -the open sky, the stars and moon lighting up the spaces between the trees, -and watching a family of flying squirrels gliding overhead in their night -play, their shadowy forms silhouetted against the moonlit sky.</p> -<h3 id="c25">Porcupine -<br /><i>Erethizon dorsatum myops</i></h3> -<p>The porcupine has been accused of being slow-witted, but we must -admit that he has not done badly for he is able to lead an unhurried life -in the country. His quill protection has, no doubt, decreased his need -for mental activity, and his eyesight does seem deficient. But his hearing -is quite keen, and judging by his nose activity it appears that his sense -of smell is on the acute side. His mental and physical attributes are all -based on the quill.</p> -<p>The upper surface of the porcupine, except for the vulnerable face, -is covered with several hundred ivory colored quills, touched with black -<span class="pb" id="Page_44">44</span> -or brown, and reaching a length up to at least 2½ inches. They are needle-sharp -and just back from the tip are numerous minute barbs. When the -quill enters the flesh of an enemy, any muscular movement causes the -quill to move forward until it emerges on the opposite side or becomes -lodged against the bone or under the hide.</p> -<p>When the porcupine senses danger he raises the quills on his back and -has his muscular spine-studded tail in readiness to flip upward. He tries -to keep his rear toward the enemy and to push his head into protective -brush. The quills are loosely attached to the skin so pull out readily when -they stick into anything. The underside of the body, in addition to the -face, lacks quills but because of the short legs, the belly region is close -to the ground and not vulnerable unless the porcupine is flipped over -on his back. I knew a sled dog that sometimes killed porcupines by weaving -and maneuvering until he had an opportunity to grasp the vulnerable -nose and thus avoid the quills. Wolves, coyotes and wolverines feed on -porcupines; possibly they use a similar technique in overcoming the quill -armor.</p> -<p>In winter the porcupine feeds extensively on the inner bark and the -needles of conifers. The patches where the bark has been removed are a -common sight in porcupine woods. The spruces, in the last stand of timber -on the east side of the Toklat River along the road, were nearly all -killed by girdling, many of them back in the 1920’s when the porcupine -population was extremely high. This scraggly woods is a favorite nesting -area for pigeon hawks, sparrow hawks, magpies, and shrikes so that porcupine -activity that seemed generally harmful has been highly beneficial to -these species. Many porcupines spend the winter in a willow patch beyond -the spruce and subsist on willow. For shelter in winter a windfall, hollow -tree, or an old fox or wolf den may be used. Several may take residence -under a cabin.</p> -<p>In spring I have watched porcupines climbing clumsily in tall willow -brush feeding on the swollen buds. Swaying on a limb he reaches for a -slender branch, pulls it to him and passes the length of it past his nose -to discover the buds which he nips off. If the branch is obstreperous and -cannot readily be handled in this manner, he severs it with his rodent -incisors and then removes the buds as his paws manipulate the twig past -his jaws. The new shoots of fireweed and other herbs are avidly sought -in early summer. Willow leaves are included in the varied summer diet.</p> -<p>The breeding season is in the fall and the young are born about 7 -months later. The usual single young one weighs about a pound, almost -as much as a new born grizzly. The eyes are open, the short spines are -evident, and protective reactions are soon functioning.</p> -<p>Their voice development is quite obvious when one or more porcupines -resides under a cabin. The night moanings, squeaks of irritability, cluckings, -and caressing sounds are enough to keep even the exhausted hiker -awake.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_45">45</div> -<div class="img" id="fig24"> -<img src="images/p25.jpg" alt="" width="685" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">Porcupine.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_46">46</div> -<div class="img" id="fig25"> -<img src="images/p26.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="431" /> -<p class="pcap">Beaver.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_47">47</div> -<h3 id="c26">Beaver -<br /><i>Castor canadensis</i></h3> -<p>Beavers may be found at Horseshoe Lake, Riley Creek, various ponds -near the Nenana River, and in ponds and creeks along the road in the -Wonder Lake region. They are out chiefly at night, but many families -emerge for pond activity by 2 or 3 o’clock in the afternoon.</p> -<p>Beavers are large rodents, scaling 60 pounds or more. Their weight -does not make them good hikers but it is no handicap in water where -they paddle their way about as though they were skiffs. And when they -sit up to gnaw down an aspen or cottonwood, a favorite pastime, a good -solid fulcrum might be a comfortable advantage. The broad, flat, scaly -tail serves as a prop when sitting erect, as a rudder when swimming, and -for sounding an alarm (by slapping water) when an enemy is discovered.</p> -<p>The front feet are equipped with five strong toes which serve well as -hands for holding twigs as the animal feeds on bark. The claws function -well in all digging operations, and the arms suffice for holding gobs of -mud against the chest as he pushes the load onto the dam or house. Occasionally, -he carries mud in his arms as he walks up the house roof on -hind legs.</p> -<p>The hind feet are large and webbed for swimming. Even the nails -on the toes are flattened in keeping with the swimming needs. The nail -of the second hind claw is double and the nail of the first toe fits down -on a hard pad and is movable like a duck’s bill. These specialized claws -are used for combing the fur and possibly for removing some of the large -beetles that live in the fur. The prominent incisors, used for gnawing, -grow continuously, as they do in all rodents, in order to compensate for -wear. This is an especially fortunate adaptation for the beaver, who does -so much gnawing. Otherwise his teeth would soon be worn to the gums. -If an incisor for any reason is thrown out of line, so it has no surface to -bite against and wear, it will become excessively elongated as it grows in -a curve.</p> -<p>A flourishing beaver colony apparently consists of the parents, the -young of the year, and the previous year’s offspring. It is for this reason -that we often discover three sizes of beavers in a pond. Much of beaver -activity involves cooperative projects where there is latitude for any -amount of individual initiative. The dam or dams must be built, or raised, -or kept in repair. The house, located either out in the pond, or partially -or wholly on the shore, may require additional sticks, and toward autumn -is plastered on the outside with wet mud as a sort of annual renovation. -This “stucco” winterizes the lodge. Occasionally, it is decided that a new -house is needed and that gives young and old plenty to do. Some beavers -along Riley Creek live in bank burrows and build no dams or houses.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_48">48</div> -<div class="img" id="fig26"> -<img src="images/p27.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="667" /> -<p class="pcap">The author inspecting a beaver house at low water.</p> -</div> -<p>The most effective dam that has come to my attention was built at the -outlet of Wonder Lake in 1960; it raised the water level of the lake over -2 feet. For many days the outlet stream was dry. The water held back in -the lake amounted to well over 100 million cubic feet or over 7 billion -pounds of water.</p> -<p>The water depth beside the lodge must be deepened if too shallow, -so that the underwater entrance to the lodge is deep enough to keep -from freezing over, and imprisoning the occupants. Also a certain depth -of water is needed beside the lodge in which to store the brush pile that -is the winter food supply. Another activity practised extensively by some -colonies is the building of canals, some of which may have great length. -The mud from the digging is deposited along the canal forming a raised -border. These waterways are useful for general travel to food areas and for -transporting branches and poles.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_49">49</div> -<p>The favorite foods of the beaver include willow, aspen, cottonwood, -and alder. Willow brush re-sprouts readily and grows rapidly, therefore -maintains itself better than some of the other foods. Also it flourishes -in the wet habitat created by the beaver ponds.</p> -<p>Where beavers create ponds with their dams, they produce a habitat -for fish, ducks, muskrats, shore birds, moose and many other forms of -water and shore life. In Wyoming, I have observed the dead trees, killed -by flooding, used by herons for nesting, and one of the heron nests was -later used by a pair of geese.</p> -<p>The rich, warm coat of the beaver has long been worn by both humans -and beavers, but the beaver wears it best.</p> -<h3 id="c27">Muskrat -<br /><i>Ondatra zibethicus spatulatus</i></h3> -<p>In some parts of Alaska where extensive favorable pond habitat prevails, -muskrats are abundant and their sedge lodges are a part of the -scenery. In the park there are a few muskrats in Horseshoe Lake and other -ponds and creeks near the eastern border, and also in the Wonder Lake -area. These usually live in bank burrows with submerged entrances. It is -not uncommon to find a muskrat living in an occupied beaver house, -apparently utilizing an unoccupied cranny. They ply back and forth -across the pond, just as the beavers do, and submerge with a mouthful -of sedge which they are taking to the young. At Wonder Lake, I have -seen muskrats swimming under the little bridge across the stream inlet, -carrying sedges to young that were kept in a burrow in a nearby bank -of the lake.</p> -<p>Because muskrats are associated with beavers they are sometimes mistaken -for young beavers. The longer scaly tail, that is flattened vertically -rather than horizontally, serves as a certain identification. The muskrat -is also much quicker in its actions, and is smaller than any beaver old -enough to be abroad.</p> -<p>The muskrats’ chief food consists of green vegetation (various waterplants -and sedges) and clams when available; it has even been reported -catching small fish in some regions. Some of the deeper waterplants it -secures by diving, and in the spring I have watched them climb onto the -ice to eat them. A muskrat looks very tiny sitting on the ice beside a big -beaver.</p> -<p>Muskrat have their winged and fourfooted enemies. Mink, living in -the same environment, prey on them, but not indiscriminately. Other -carnivores such as the fox, coyote, and wolf might encounter one on land, -but chiefly by accident.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_50">50</div> -<h3 id="c28">Shrews -<br /><i>Sorex sp. and Microsorex sp.</i></h3> -<p>Shrews may be identified by their long, pointed, mobile nose, extremely -minute eyes, short velvety fur and blackish-tipped teeth. They -are the smallest mammals in the world, some kinds weighing less than 3 -grams. It would require over 100 of these to weigh one pound. Because of -the shrew’s small size and long nose, Alaskans frequently refer to them -as long-nosed mice.</p> -<p>Thousands of shrews (four species) are vigorously active in the park -but are rarely seen. Occasionally, one may be discovered crossing an open -area, like a mechanical toy, or one may flash from cover and as quickly -disappear. They share with the voles and lemmings the shade and darkness -of the hidden runways beneath the moss and grassy cover. Here -they are active predators, darting about in their search for prey. With -nervous activity they examine their microhabitat in search of insects and -other invertebrates. Spiders flee in haste when the presence of a shrew -is sensed. Their hunting technique appears to consist of random movements -until they collide with their victim. They no doubt depend chiefly -upon the sense of smell in recognizing their prey.</p> -<p>Shrews eat often and a great deal. In captivity, a shrew weighing 3.6 -grams ate over three times its weight of food daily. Any kind of meat attracts -shrews, as many Alaskans have learned when discovering their meat -caches invaded by them. The energetic activity of shrews suggests the need -for rapid metabolism and plentiful supply of body fuel.</p> -<p>Although shrews are active throughout the winter, they nevertheless -appear to be delicately attuned to their environment. They seem to be -especially susceptible to chilling, perhaps because of their tiny body and -short fur. Winter temperatures in the north are severe, but ground temperatures -under the snow blanket are rather moderate. Shrews perhaps -require only a warm nest—their intense activity keeping them warm when -foraging.</p> -<p>Shrews are not rated high gastronomically by many mammals. This is -apparently due to the hip glands which have a strong, pungent odor. But -their lack of palatability does not give them much protection. If, for instance, -a fox locates a faint sound in the grass, he pounces and learns -later what he has caught. If the prey is a shrew, it may be left where killed -by the fox, carried a short way and dropped, or during denning time even -brought home to the den before discarded. I have often found shrew -carcasses lying uneaten about fox dens. Birds of prey feed more extensively -on them possibly because of their poorly developed sense of smell, and -sense of taste. Grayling, and also trout, have been found with one or more -shrews in their stomachs. At Moose Creek, several grayling were taken -<span class="pb" id="Page_51">51</span> -which had eaten shrews, one having eaten three of them. This indicates -that the species captured, readily enter the water. (One species, the water -shrew, not found in the park, is specialized for aquatic life).</p> -<div class="img" id="fig27"> -<img src="images/p28.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="635" /> -<p class="pcap">Denali (Mount McKinley) in early winter.</p> -</div> -<p>The shrew population is apparently cyclic for there are years when -they are very abundant, followed by years of extreme scarcity.</p> -<p>Four kinds of shrews are in the park. They differ from one another -in several respects, but may be fairly well identified by tail length alone. -The masked shrew (<i>Sorex cinereus</i>) has a tail averaging about 39 millimeters -long; the tail of the vagrant shrew (<i>Sorex obscurus</i>) averages about -48 mm.; and that of the rare pygmy shrew (<i>Microsorex hoyi eximius</i>), 31 -mm. The average length of tail of the Arctic shrew (<i>Sorex arcticus tundrensis</i>) -is about 36 mm., overlapping slightly in this measurement that of the -masked shrew, but the rich chocolate color of the Arctic shrew will identify -it.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_52">52</div> -<h3 id="c29">Bat -<br /><i>Vespertilioninae</i></h3> -<p>A bat was reported in flight at Wonder Lake in 1959 and again in 1960. -Since no specimen has been examined there is no definite identification, -but judging from the geographical distribution of bats it seems probable -that those seen in the park belong to the genus <i>Myotis</i>. Three or four -species of this genus are known to occur in southeastern Alaska. The -little brown bat (<i>Myotis lucifugus alascensis</i>) has been taken at Illiamna -Lake at the base of the Alaska Peninsula so it seems likely that this is -the bat seen at Wonder Lake.</p> -<h3 id="c30">The Mouse World -<br /><i>Microtinae</i></h3> -<p>Are there any trails in the park? Yes, thousands of miles, but most of -them are under a canopy of grass and sphagnum moss and are only 1 or 2 -inches wide, so of course they are not of much use to you. And even if -we could nibble on Alice’s mushroom and grow, in reverse, small enough -to use them, we would hardly dare, at least a lady wouldn’t, for she would -soon meet a mouse, inasmuch as these trails have been constructed by, and -belong to, mice. And I might add that the fierce little shrews use them -too. Where the trails cross green, mossy carpets and enter tiny exquisite -nooks I imagine one might also meet a few northern fairies.</p> -<p>Seven kinds of mice (voles and lemmings) are known to live in the -park. Some of these are quite outstanding for one thing or another, and -possibly all of them are, if we only knew more about them. However, we -do know that they are all important.</p> -<p class="center gs">* * * * * * * *</p><p id="c31">I am best acquainted with the haymouse, or singing vole (<i>Microtus -miurus oreas</i>) because some of my field observations led me to him. Some -years ago I kept finding many caches of dried vegetation, some caches -large enough to fill a bushel basket. This hay was always kept either off -the ground or under cover. It was placed at the base of willows in the -basket formed by the many stems, or on a surface spruce root, in a rock -niche, or under a log. Pikas are known to make hay, but no such activity -has been reported for mice. Pikas were not involved for they live in the -talus rock, and these caches were mostly far from pika habitat. After considerable -effort, I learned that a yellowish-brown field mouse was the -interesting haymaker. The hay is put -up for winter use. The sign showed -that sometimes a snowshoe hare -found a cache and helped himself.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_53">53</div> -<p>In addition to hay, this mouse also -stores roots in underground cellars -that he excavates, and the roots are -not thrown in helter-skelter, at least -not in most of the caches I examined. -The black, round nutlike tubers of -the horsetail were in one pile, coltsfoot -underground stems in another, -and carrotlike roots of a pedicularis -in still another. An interesting feature -was the structure of some of the tunnels which were built in the form -of a pearl necklace. Tiny passages, just large enough for the body of the -mouse to squeeze through, joined the cavities or, so to speak, the “pearls.” -In addition to all of these accomplishments, these mice do much miniature -warbling, enough so they have been called singing voles.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig28"> -<img src="images/p29.jpg" alt="" width="419" height="279" /> -<p class="pcap">Haymouse (singing vole)</p> -</div> -<p>The tail is short, measuring slightly over 1 inch; the body length averages -about 5 inches. It is found from moist lowland habitats to ridge tops.</p> -<p class="center gs">* * * * * * * *</p><p id="c32">The large, plump, and richly-colored brown lemming (<i>Lemmus trimucronatus -alascensis</i>) is notorious for his overpopulation problem. On some -occasions they migrate in hordes, even into the ocean in some parts of their -circumpolar home. The lemming is cyclic in the park, but usually only -to about the same degree as the other mice. However, in the low part of -the cycle, they may become extremely scarce, more so than do the voles. -The brown lemming does not turn white in winter as does its relative, -the collared lemming (over most of its range). The body is about 5½ -inches long and the tail -is just under 1 inch. The -thumb claw consists of -a three-pronged flat nail. -A large lemming weighs -about one-quarter -pound. They are widely -distributed in both open -tundra and woods where -the habitat is not too dry.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig29"> -<img src="images/p29a.jpg" alt="" width="540" height="263" /> -<p class="pcap">Brown Lemming.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_54">54</div> -<p class="center gs">* * * * * * * *</p><p id="c33">The northern bog lemming (<i>Synaptomys borealis dalli</i>) is usually not -thought of as a true lemming, but it does belong to the lemming tribe. -It has a short tail, less than 1 inch long; the body length is about 4 inches; -the upper incisors have a vertical groove near the outer edge; and the -males have a white spot on each side marking the location of hip glands. -The thumb claw is a broad nail, in this respect resembling the brown -lemming. The distribution of this mouse is spotty. It was taken in the -Wonder Lake area in a wet grass and sedge habitat just inside a spruce -woods.</p> -<p class="center gs">* * * * * * * *</p><p id="c34">The chestnut-cheeked vole (<i>Microtus xanthognathus</i>), the largest -mouse in the park, has a body length of 6 or 7 inches, tail length of about -2 inches, and weighs up to about 6 ounces. These mice live in isolated -colonies but where found may be abundant. Not recorded in the park -since 1907 when it was abundant along the Toklat River.</p> -<p class="center gs">* * * * * * * *</p><p id="c35">The tundra vole (<i>Microtus oeconomus macfarlani</i>) is a large vole widely -distributed, and is especially fond of dense grass or sedge habitats. Its -body length is 5 to 5½ inches, and tail length a little less than 2 inches. -Its brownish-gray color is similar to the common meadow mouse.</p> -<p class="center gs">* * * * * * * *</p><p id="c36">The meadow vole (<i>Microtus pennsylvanicus tananaensis</i>) is common in -interior Alaska, so far as known, but is rare in the park. With more investigation, -it may be found plentiful in places along the north boundary. -This is a common vole over much of Canada and the Rocky Mountain, -central and eastern states. It prefers moist habitats. The body length is -about 5 inches, tail about 2 inches, and the color is dark brown.</p> -<p class="center gs">* * * * * * * *</p><p id="c37">The northern red-backed mouse (<i>Clethrionomys rutilus dawsonii</i>) lives -in both the open tundra and the woods. Generally, it has a reddish -back, but in a dark color phase, the back is blackish. These mice are -fond of berries, their teeth being stained blue during the blueberry season. -They also feed on seeds, stems, and leaves.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_55">55</div> -<div class="img" id="fig30"> -<img src="images/p30.jpg" alt="" width="674" height="419" /> -<p class="pcap">Meadow vole.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig31"> -<img src="images/p30a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="388" /> -<p class="pcap">Red-backed mouse.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig32"> -<img src="images/p30b.jpg" alt="" width="544" height="291" /> -<p class="pcap">Red-backed mouse.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_56">56</div> -<p>The several species of mice vary in abundance from year to year. In -places where some of them have been studied, a well-defined 3 or 4 year -cycle has been noted. The mouse populations have a tremendous influence -on our wildlife economy. Foxes, martens, weasels, owls, hawks and a host -of others feed extensively on this fauna and react to its abundance. When -the lemming increase in the north, the snowy owls (and others) increase, -and when the lemming become scarce, these owls come south in search of -food and we have the snowy owl invasions, especially in north-central and -eastern states. In 1955, when mice were abundant, the hawk owls in the -park reached a high point, but again became scarce when the mouse population -dropped.</p> -<h2 id="c38"><span class="small"><span class="sc">Checklist of The Mammals of Mount McKinley National Park</span></span></h2> -<dl class="undent"><dt><input class="x" name="input1" type="checkbox" /> Arctic Shrew</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input2" type="checkbox" /> Masked Shrew</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input3" type="checkbox" /> Dusky Shrew</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input4" type="checkbox" /> Pygmy Shrew</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input5" type="checkbox" /> Bat (Species unknown)</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input6" type="checkbox" /> Black Bear</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input7" type="checkbox" /> Grizzly Bear</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input8" type="checkbox" /> Marten</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input9" type="checkbox" /> Short-tailed Weasel</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input10" type="checkbox" /> Least Weasel</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input11" type="checkbox" /> Mink</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input12" type="checkbox" /> Wolverine</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input13" type="checkbox" /> River Otter</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input14" type="checkbox" /> Red Fox</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input15" type="checkbox" /> Coyote</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input16" type="checkbox" /> Wolf</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input17" type="checkbox" /> Lynx</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input18" type="checkbox" /> Hoary Marmot</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input19" type="checkbox" /> Arctic Ground Squirrel</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input20" type="checkbox" /> Red Squirrel</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input21" type="checkbox" /> Northern Flying Squirrel</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input22" type="checkbox" /> Beaver</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input23" type="checkbox" /> Bog Lemming</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input24" type="checkbox" /> Brown Lemming</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input25" type="checkbox" /> Northern Red-backed Mouse</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input26" type="checkbox" /> Meadow Vole</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input27" type="checkbox" /> Singing Vole</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input28" type="checkbox" /> Tundra Vole</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input29" type="checkbox" /> Chestnut-cheeked Vole</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input30" type="checkbox" /> Muskrat</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input31" type="checkbox" /> Porcupine</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input32" type="checkbox" /> Collared Pika</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input33" type="checkbox" /> Snowshoe Rabbit</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input34" type="checkbox" /> Moose</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input35" type="checkbox" /> Caribou</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input36" type="checkbox" /> Mountain goat</dt> -<dt><input class="x" name="input37" type="checkbox" /> Dall Sheep</dt></dl> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul> -<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li> -<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li> -<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li> -</ul> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Mammals of Mount McKinley National Park, by -Adolph Murie - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAMMALS OF MOUNT MCKINLEY *** - -***** This file should be named 61433-h.htm or 61433-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/1/4/3/61433/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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